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II.
The EDINBURGH REVIEW, or CRITICAL
JOURNAL, from its commencement in October 1802,
to January 1806. Publifhed Quarterly. Handfomely print¬
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and indiferiminating profnfion of our other Journals.
The Editors were blent upon thefe pretcnfions, till they faw how the
Public was likely to receive them. Their luccefs has been much beyond
their expedtation, and, they believe, beyond any former example. In
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X*. IVH!if on, printer, Edinburgh.]
Rant increafe of the demand, that, to feenre the patronage of the Public,
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in.
EDINBURGH MEDICAL and SURGICAL JOUR¬
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Handfomely printed in 8vo. Price 12s. 6d. boards, or 12s. m
Numbers. Volume Firft.
sp” The objeft of the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Jouk-
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and regidering the important fa<ds connected with Medical Science and
Medical Pra£Hce. ;
After the experience of a year, the Editors have the Satisfaction to find
their labours rewarded by the approbation cf the Public.^ In the de¬
partments allotted to Original Communications, and to Miscellaneous Intel¬
ligence cu Medical Subjects, the refpt£tabi!ity of the aff:dance they have
received, has furpafled even their mod Sanguine expeidations, and
have every reafbn to believe that it will increale with the increaljiig Sa.e
of their Work. In the preSent volume are contained communications
from Profeffors Monro junior, Pacchioni, Rutherford, and Stringham;
Drs Badham, Barclay, Bateman, Bodock, Cartels, Clanny, De Roches,
Drew, Duncan junior, Ingiis, Kellie, Lubbock, M‘Gregor, Marcet, R. 1 ear-
fon. Reeve, RobinSon, Rols, Spens, and Wood; and Mertis Barlow, Cat-
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done, Lucas, M‘Mullin, Robertfon, and Rumfey ; befides articles from
other Correspondents, whoSe names would add to the reputation ot the
Journal, if the Editors were at liberty to divulge them* I hat portion
of their work appropriated to Medical Literature, they have endeavoured
to render intereding and indru&ive, by combining impartial analyfis with
original difquifition The extent of their Continental connexions, ann
the number of valuable publications at home, will at all times Uipply
them with fuch an ample dore of materials, that their principal difficulty
will confirt in Selection. . .
The authors of Britifh publications analyzed, are, Sir J.^ Banks, Bart.
Drs Adams, Bodock, Brown, Cox, Currie, HarriSon, Hebei den, Ho¬
garth, Kinglake, Kirby, and Trotter ; Mtffrs Abernethy, Carlisle, Ed .n.
Home, Whately, and WilkinSon; and of foreign publications, M M.
Barthez, Celliez, Duplefly, Fodere, Gbrcke, Mahon, Maunoir, I>ro f»
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of Several nefpeftable Medkal Societies and Public kirtitutions, both to-
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WORKS PUBLISHED BY ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE Sc CO.
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IV.
The SCOTS MAGAZINE, and EDINBURGH LI¬
TERARY MISCELLANY ; being a General Repofitory
of Literature, Hiftory, and Politics, for 1S05. Vol. LXVII.
Price 18s. in 12 Numbers, or xl. neatly half-bound.
V.
A COMPLETE SET of the SCOTS MAGAZINE,
from its commencement in 1739 to 1805 incluf. 67 voh 37I.
The Scots Magazine, and Edinburgh Literary Mifcellany, is pui»-
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Correfpondence on various fubje&s—Memoirs and Anecdotes of diftin-
guiflicd characters, particularly Scotfmen—Scotifh Antiquities—Accounts
of Improvements and New Tnftitutions—Manners of Nations—Literary
Intelligence—With an account of New Difcoveries in the Arts and Scien¬
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to as an authentic and valuable record of the public, as well as of every
important domcftic occurrence of the day. Each Number is embeliilhed
■with an engraved View of fome remarkable place in Scotland.
VI.
TRAVELS TO DISCOVER THE SOURCE OF
THE NILE, in the years 1768, 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772,
and 1773. JAMES Bruce of Kinnaird, Efq. F. R. S.
The Second Edition, corretled and enlarged. To which is
prefixed a Life of the Author. Handfomely printed in 7 vo¬
lumes 8vo. with a Volume of Copperplates in 410. Price
4I. 16s. bds.—gY A few copies are printed in Royal O&avo,
with full impreffions of the Plates. Price 7I. 7s. boards.
*** This Edition of a juftly celebrated work, is printed from a correct
copy, intended for the prefs at the time of the Author’s death. The
ufe of arl his Original Journals, Correipondcnce, Manufcripts, &c.; the
concurring tdlimonies of later Travellers ; along with various other cir-
cumflances, have .enabled the Editor to render the work more complete
and interefting than Mr Bruce himfelf would have condefcended to make
it.—To the Account of his Life, which occupies a confiderable part of
the Firft Volume, is annexed a felefHon of Letters from a very valuable
Correfpondence, in which the names of the Comte de ButFon, the Hon.
Paines Barrington, Lord Halifax, Mr Wood, Dr Hugh Blair, Mr An¬
drew Lumfden, Sir Robert Strange, Dr Solander, and many others, de-
ferve particular notice.
The Copperplates, which are all engraved by Heath, are upwards
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Portraits of celebrated Abyffinians, and other interefting iubje&s, not
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VI I.
An INQUIRY into the NATURE and ORIGIN of PUB¬
LIC WEALTH, and into the Means and Caufes of its In-
creafe. By the Earl of Lauderdale, i vol. 8vo. 8s. 6d. bds.
VIII.
OBSERVATIONS, by the Eara of Lauderdale, on
the Review of his Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of
Public Wealth, publilhed in the Vlllth Number of the Edin¬
burgh Review. Price 2s.
IX.
THOUGHTS on the ALARMING STATE of the
CIRCULATION, and of the Means of Redrefiing Pecu¬
niary Grievances in Ireland. By the Earl of Lauderdale.
8vo. 3s. 6d. fewed,
X.
HINTS to the MANUFACTURERS of GREAT BRI¬
TAIN on the Confequences of the Irifh Union, and the Syftem
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Ireland. By the Earl of Lauderdale. Price is. 6d.
XL
An ESSAY on NAVAL TACTICS, Sy/tematical and
Hillorical, with explanatory Plates. By John Clerk of El-
din, Efq. Second Edition. One Volume qto. il. i6s.
boards. '
gT In contemplating the beautiful fimplicity and nnqueftioned efficacy
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ftrufred upon principles not kfs congenial than honourable to the character
of the nation for whofe ufe it was intended. This fyftem does not con-
fift in any trick or manoeuvre, by which courage may be rendered unoe-
cefiary, or gallantry decoyed to its deftruchon ; on the contrary, it pro¬
ceeds upon the proud prefumption, that we (hail certainly beat our enemies
if we can only get near enough to grapple with them : and its foie objedt
is to give the valiant an opportunity of fair fighting, to counteraft the
(hifting policy of a wily adverfary, and to infure a fair field for the di(-
play of courage, diicipline, and perfeverance in ftrenuous and dccifivc con-
left.—Edinburgh JZevieiv, No. XII. p. jIZ.
XII.
ELEMENTS of MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY,
being the Subilance of a Courfe of Le&ures on that Science.
By John Robison, L. L. D. Profefi'or of Natural Philofoph)
in the Univerfity of Edinburgh. One very large Volume 8vo.
with 22 Copperplates, il. is. boards.
XIII.
A COLLECTION of MATHEMATICAL TABLES,
for the ufe of the Pradfical Mathematician, Navigator, Sur¬
veyor, Students in Univerfities, and for men of bulinefs. By
Andrew Mackay, LL.D. F. R. S. Ed. &c. In 1 vol. 8vo.
Price 7s. in boards.
XIV.
The COMPLETE NAVIGATOR ; or, an eafy and fa¬
miliar Guide to the Theory and Pra&ice of Navigation, with
all the requifite Tables, See. &c. By Andrew Mackay,
LL.D. F. R. S. Author of the Theory and Practice of find¬
ing the Longitude at Sea or Land, See. In 1 large vol. 8vo.
illuilrated with Engravings, &c. Price 10s. 6d. bound.
The Utility of the Art of Navigation to every Commercial and
Maritime State is obvious; but to none more fo, than to Britain; and,
as the lives and fortunes of many depend upon the accuracy of the Rules
and Tables given in the books publiffied on this fubjett, the greateft care
imaginable ought, therefore, to be taken, in order to have them cor reft.
This is not the cafe, however, with fome of the moft popular books; of
which a few inftances are pointed out in the preface to the prefent work,
and which was one of the principal reafons for embarking in this under¬
taking. The Author has fpared neither labour nor expence to render it de-
ferving of the public attention, and as perfect as poffible.
XV.
TRACTS on the NATURAL HISTORY or ANI¬
MALS and VEGETABLES. Second Edition, greatly en¬
larged. Tranflated from the Original Italian of the Abbe
Spallanzani, Royal Profefibr of Natural Hiftory in the Uni¬
verfity of Pavia, F. R. S. London, &c. &c. By John
Graham Dalyell, Efq. With llluftrations, by theTranfia-
tor. In Two large Vols. 8vc. illuftrated by Eleven Copper¬
plates. Price ijs. boards.
The acknowledged fame of the celebrated Author of thefe Trafts,
and the importance of his numerous difcoveries, are too well eftalfiifhed to
requir®
“WORKS PUBLISHED BY ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO.
3
require any additional confirmation here. His name has jiiOIy been en¬
rolled with that of the mod illudrious European phyfiologifts; and ms
works will ever remain an emblem of genius and refea-ch. All bear in-
difputable evidence of profound invedigation into the phenomena of na¬
ture, and of the mod comprehenfive and enlightened underdanding.
The’ Treatifes on the Natural Hidory of Animals and Vegetables will
rank with the fird of his productions ; for the new, lingular, and intered-
ing matter they contain, will be an equal fource of plealure and admira¬
tion to the philofbphic reader.
XVI.
The EXPERIENCED MILL WRIGHT, or a Treatife
on the Conftru&ion of fome of the moil tifeful Machines, with
the lateft Difcoveries; to which is prefixed, a ihort Account of
the General Principles of Mechanics, and the Mechanical
Powers. By Andrew Gray, Mill-Wright. One Volume
Imperial 410. il. 16s. boards.
XVII.
An INQUIRY into the COLONIAL POLICY of the
EUROPEAN POWERS. By Henry Brougham, jun.
Efq. F. R. S. 2 vol. 8 vo. 18s. boards.
XVIII.
The HISTORY of EGYPT, from the earlieft Accounts
of that Country, till the Expulfion of the French from Alex¬
andria in the year 1801. By James Wilson, D. D. Minif-
ter of Falkirk. With a Map. 3 vol. 8v». il. 43. boards.
XIX.
The HISTORY of SCOTLAND, from the Union of
the Crowns on the Acceffion of James VI. to the throne of
England, to the Union of the Kingdoms in the Reign of
Queen Anne. With a Hiftorical and Critical Differtation on
the fuppofed authenticity of Ofiian’s Poems. Second Edition,
correcled. To which is prefixed, a Difiertation on the Parti¬
cipation of Mary Queen of Scots in the Murder of Darnley.
By Malcolm Laing, Efq. 4 vol. 8vo. il. 165. boards.
XX.
The HISTORIE and LIFE of KING JAMES SEXT,
written towards the latter end of the 16th century. Publilhed
from an orignal MS. By Malcolm Laing, Efq. 8vo. 10s.
boards.
XXL
The HISTORY of the ORKNEY ISLANDS, in which
is comprehended, an Account of their Prefent as well as their
Ancient State ; together with the Advantages they poffei's for
feveral Branches of induftry ; and the Means by which they
may be improved. Illuftrated with an accurate and extenfive
Map of the whole Iflands, and with Plates of fome of the moll
interelling Objefts they contain. By the Reverend George
Barry, D. D. Minitler of Shapinlhay. qto. boards, il.
Us. 6d.
XXII.
The POEMS of OSSIAN, containing the Poetical Works
of James Macpherfon, Efq. in Profe and Rhyme: with Notes
and liluftrations. By Malcolm Lainc, Efq. 2 Vol. 8vo.
il. 1 os., boards,.
XXIII.
REPORT of the COMMITTEE of the HIGHLAND
SOCIETY of SCOTLAND, appointed to inquire into the
Nature and Authenticity of the Poems of Offian. Diawn up,
according to the Dire&ion of the Committee, by Henry Mac-
ken2ie, Efq. their Convener and Chairman. With a copious
Appendix, containing fome of the principal Documents on
which the Report is founded. Illullrated by three curious
engraved Specimens of ancient Gaelic MSS. 8vo. 12s,
boards.
XXIV.
PRIZE ESSAYS and TRANSACTIONS of th»
HIGHLAND SOCIETY of SCOTLAND. 2 vols. 8vo.
16s. boards.
N. B. Volume II. may be had feparately.
XXV.
OBSERVATIONS on the PRESENT STATE of the
HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND ; with a View of the
Caufes and probable Confequences of Emigration. By the
Earl of Selkirk. Second Edition. 8vo. 6s. boards.
XXVI.
The MINSTRELSY of the SCOTISH BORDER :
confilling of Hillorical and Romantic Ballads, collefted in the
Southern Counties of, Scotland with a few of Modern Date,
founded on Local Tradition. With an Introduftion and
Notes by the Editor, Walter Scott, Efq. Advocate. In
3 vol.- 8vo. Price il. iis. 6d. boards.
XXVII.
SIR TR1STREM, a Romance, by Thomas of Ercildoune,
Publilhed from the Auchinleck MS. in the Advocates’ Libra¬
ry. With a preliminary DilTertation and Glollary, by Wal¬
ter Scott, Efq. Advocate. Beautifully printed by Ballan-
tyne. One Volume Royal 8vo. 2I. 2s., boards. (Only 150
Copies printed.)
XXVIII.
The LAY of the LAST MINSTREL, a Poem. By
Walter Scott, Efq. Advocate.. Third Edition. 8vo..
Price 1 os. 6d. boards.
XXIX.
A CHRONICLE of SCOTISH POETRY, from the
Thirteenth Century to the Union of the Crowns : with Notes.
To which is added, a Glofiary, intended to ferve as a Didlion-
ary of the ancient Language of Scotland. By James Sib-
bald. 4 vol. Crown Bvo. il. 4s- Boards.
XXX.
The POETICAL WORKS of Hector Macneill, Efqf.
Elegantly printed by Benfley. In 2 vols. Ornamented with..
Nine deferiptive Plates, and a Portrait of the Author..
XXXI.
FRAGMENTS of SCOTISH HISTORY, containing
the Diary of Robert Birrel, 1532—1608.—An Account of
thfc
WORKS PUBLISHED BY ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO.
the Expedition into Scotland under the Earl of Hertford,
J544.—Patten’s Account of the Expedition into Scotland
under the Duke of Somerfct, i 547. Uluftrated with Three
PUns, reprefenting the Battle of Pinkie. 410. Price ll. 1#.
boards. •
xxxir.
SCOTISH POEMS of the Sixteenth Century ; containing,
Ane Booke of Godly and Spiritual! Songs—The Lamentatione
of Lady Scotland—-The Tellament and Tragedie of umquhile
King Henr Stewart, 1567—Ane Declaratioun of the Lordis
juft Quarrel, icby—Grange’s B.ftlat, *571—The Sege of the
Caftk of Edinburgh, I 5:75 —The Legend of a Bifchop, callit Mr
Patrick Adinifure—‘•1‘he Battell of Balrinnes, in anno 1594.
To which, in iilaftration, are prefixed, 1 Curfory Remark?,
2. Some Incidents in the Life of Regent Murray. 3. Bio¬
graphical Sketches of Sir William Kirkaldy of Grange. 4. A
faithful Narrative of the Battle of Balnnnis, and a Gloffary.
2 vol. 12mo. 12s. boards.
XXXIII.
BIOGRAPHIA SCOTICA ; or, SCOTISH BIO¬
GRAPHICAL DICTIONARY, containing a faort Ac¬
count of the Lives and Writings of the molt Eminent Per-
fons, and Remarkable Cliarafters, Natives of Scotland, from
the earlieft ages to the prefent time. By J. Stark. Embel-
liftred with Portraits. In one vol. i2mo. Price 5s.
XXXIV.
The GAZETTEER of SCOTLAND ; containing a
.particular Defcription of the Counties, Cities, Rivers,
Mountains, See. &c. See. Illuftrated with an elegant Map.
In one Vol. 8vo. Price 10s. 6d. boards.
XXXV,
The SCHOLAR’S VADE-MECUM, or a new DIG
*1IONARY, Latin and Lnglifh. Confifting of fuch words
as are purely clafiical, in which the Englifh is given from the
beft authorities, and the Latin words explained in all their vari¬
ations, according to the tnnft approved Grammarians. For
the life of Schools. The Third Edition, much 1 mproved.
By James Mcir, Teacher of Languages. In One Volume
Crown 8vo. 5s. bound.
Though this book was originally intended for. the Tyro, yet it may
be of confiderable advantage to the more advanced ftudent, who, it is
more than probable, has forgot his grammar rules, as he will here more
leadiiy find a folution of any difficulty, than by turning oyer his grammar,
cipecially as it has no index ; and lie can depend upon the deelenlions oj
nouns and verbs in this, whereas the larger Dictionaries will, for the moll
part, miliead him.
XXXVI.
An ABRIDGEMENT of all the STATUTES now in
Force relative to the Revenue of Excife in Great Britain, me¬
thodically arranged, and alphabetically digefted. The Second
Edition, revifed and brought down to the end of the year
1S03. By James Huie, Colle&or of Excife. 8vo, los.Td.
boards.
XXXVII.
GENERAL VIEW of the AGRICULTURE of tk
COUNTY of PEEBLES. With various Suggeftions as to
the Means, b th of the Local and General Improvement of
Agriculture. By the Reverend Charles Findlater, New-
iands. 8vo. 7s. boards.
XXXVIIL
The GENTLEMAN and FARMER’S POCKET COM¬
PANION and ASSISTANT, confifting of Tables for find¬
ing the Contents of any Piece of Land, by Pacing, or by
Dimenfions taken on the Spot in Ells. By John Ainslie>
Land-Surveyor. 5?. bound.
XXXIX.
SERMONS by William Lawrence Brown, D. D.
Principal of Marbchal College and Univerfity, Profeffor of Di¬
vinity, and Miniiter of Grey-Friar’s Church, Aberdeen, one
of his Majefty’s Chaplains in Ordinary in Scotland, and Mem¬
ber of the Provincial Societies of Arts and Sciences of Utrecht
and Holland. In 1 vol. 8vo. Price 7s. in board?.
XL.
The WORKS of JOSEPH BUTLER, D. D. late Lord
Bifhop of Durham, with a Preface, &c. by Samuel Halifax,
D D. late Lord Biftiop of Gloucefter, 2 vol. 8vo., beautiful¬
ly printed by Ballantyne. Price 18s. boards.
*** The Publifhers of this Edition of the Works of this eminent Divine,-
beg leave to call the attention of the Public to the complete form in which
they are now, for the firft time, prefinted Befides his celebrated TreatiTe
upon the Analogy of Religion, and the Sermons delivered by likn at the
Rolls Chapel, and other places, thefs volumes contain Bilhop Butler’s
Correfpotidencc with Dr Clarke on the Attributes of the Deity, and every
other produddion of that profound writer which he has fandtioned by the
authority of his name. In fhort, the Publifhers have been anxious to
preferve, in an elegant and uniform fhape, every memorial of a name
which muf! at all time* be regarded with admiration by the fcholar, and
with reverence by the Chriftian. Prefixed to the whole is a life of B. B.
by Dr Kippis.
XLI.
A Treat ife entitled, THOUGHTSon PUBLIC TRUSTS.
From which it appears, that the Integrity and Patriotifm of
the Rulers in Ancient Rome, and the rapacity of the Rulers
in Modern France, were inevitable confequences of the re-
fpettive Conftitution$ of thefe Nations. 12 mo. Price as. 6d.
boards.
XLII.
ELEMENTS of INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY,
or ail Analytis of the PQWRS of the HUMAN UNDER¬
STANDING, Tending to afeertain the Principles ot a Ra¬
tional Logic. By R. E. Scott, A. M. Piofcftor of Moral
Philofophy in the Univerfity and King’s College, Aberdeen.
One Volume 8vo. 9s. board?.
XLIII.
PICTURE of EDINBURGH, containing a Hiftory and
Description of the City—an Account of its Antiquities, Poli¬
tical, Civil, and Municipal Eftablifhments—Literary Eftablifh-
ments>
WORKS PUBLISHED BY ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO. $
ments, including a hiftory of the progrefs and
Printing, of Literature, and of the Arts—Religious Litaolna-
ments—Charitable Inftitutions—Public Amufements, includ-
ing a Hiftory of the Theatre, Mafic, and Dancing—I regrets
and prefent ftate of Manners—Markets, Water, and.bud—
Hiftory and Defcription of Leith —Population—Objedts of
Natural Hiftovy in the immediate neighbourhood of Edin-
■bur«h—and a Defcription of the Romantic Scenery and
Remarkable Objefts in the environs of the Scottifh Metropolis.
By J. Stark, llluftrated with a Plan, and upwards ot thirty
Wooden Cuts. Very handfomly printed. Price 6s. boards.
XLIV.
In Two theets—Price One Guinea, neatly mounted on Can¬
vas and Rollers, a beautiful and highly fiinthed MAP of the
City of EDINBURGH, LEITH, and ENV1 RONS, molt
accurately done from a&ual Surveys and Meafurertrents. By
John Ainslie, Geographer. The whole Etched and En¬
graved by himfelf.
* ♦ This Map comprehends the whole of the newly projected Streets
andSquares &r. with the new Entries and Approaches to the Town, by
the different new roads, and extends over the New Extended Royalty at
Bellevue, &c. &c —with the Port of Leith—Newhaven—the nevy Wet
Docks there; and, in Ihort, every place of importance connected with, or
is the immediate vicinity cf the Metropolis. . , .
The grounds belonging to the different proprietors are lhaded with dif¬
ferent colours, fc that they are readily diftinguifhed from each other
And the different feales of meafurement will be found to be conftrutted
with fuch accuracy, that, by the application of them, a portion of an
acre even may be pofitively afeertained.
XLV..
A SHORT STATEMENT of fome IMPORTANT
FACTS, relative to the late Elcftion of a Mathematical Pro-
feftbr in the Univevfity of Edinburgh ; accompanied with O' i-
ginal Papers and Critical Remarks. By Proftftbr Dugald
Stewart. Third edition. 8vo. I rice 2s. 6d. fewed.
XLV I.
POSTSCRIPT to Mr STEWART’s SHORT STATE¬
MENT of FACTS, relative to the Eledion of Profeflbr
Leflie ; with an Appendix, confifting chiefly of Extracts from
the Records of the Univerfity, and from thofe of the City of
Edinburgh. 8vo. Price is.
xLVir.
LETTER to the AUTHOR of the EXAMINATION
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Encyclopedia Britannica
C H I
China. HINA, a country of Afia,fituated on themofteafter-
v—^\ly part of that continent. It is bounded on the
i north by Tartary •, from which it is divided, partly by
Boundaries, a prodigious wall of 1500 miles in length, and partly
extent, Sec. ^ craggy, and inacceflible mountains. On the
eaft, it is bounded by the ocepn ; on the weft, by part
of the Mogul’s empire, and India beyond the Ganges,
from which it is parted by other ridges of high moun¬
tains and Tandy deferts j on the fouth, it is bounded
partly by the kingdoms of Lao, Tonquin, Ava, and
Cochin-China, and partly by the fouthern or Indian
fea, which flows between it and the Philippine iflands.
There are feveral ways of computing its length and
breadth. According to fome of thefe, it is reckoned
1269, 1600, or 1800 miles in length, and as much in
breadth : however, by the beft and lateft accounts,
this vaft country is fomewhat of an oval form, the
breadth being lefs than the length by little more
Divifion in- than a fourth part. It contains 15 provinces, exclu-
to provin- five of that of Lyau-tong, which is fituated without the
ces. great wall, though under the fame dominion. Their
names are, 1. Shenfi, 2. Shanfi, 3. Pecheli, which
are fituated on the north fide, along the wall m, 4. Shan-
tong, 5. Kyan-nang, 6. Che-kyang, 7. Fo kyen,
which are fituated along theeaftern ocean ; 8. Quang-
tong, 9. Quang-fi, 10. Yu-nan, 11. Se-chuen, which
ftretch themfelves towards the fouth and fouth-weft ;
and, 12. Honan, 13. Hu-quand, 14. Quey-chew,
15. Kyang-fi ; which take up the middle part. For
a particular defeription of all thefe, fee their proper
articles.
Chinefe Lhe origin of all nations is involved in obfeurity
pretentions and fable : but that of the Chinefe much more fo than
to antiqui- any other. Every nation is inclined to affume too
Hgh an antiquity to itfelf, but the Chinefe carry theirs
beyond all bounds. Indeed, though no people on
earth are more exadft in keeping records of every me¬
morable tranfa&ion, yet fuch is the genius of the Chi¬
nefe for fuperftition and fable, that the firft part of
their hiftory is defervedly contemned by every ratio-
4 nal perfon. What contributes more to the uncertain-
Why their ty 0f Chinefe hiftory is, that neither we, nor they
fo^uncci-5 themfelves, have any thing but fragments of their an-
tain. cient hiftorical books; for about 213 years before
Chrift, the reigning emperor Si-whang-ti caufed all
the books in the empire to be burned, except thofe
written by lawyers and phyficians. Nay, the more ef-
feflually to deftroy the memory of every thing con-
Vox.. VI. Part I.
C H I
tained in them, he commanded a great number of China,
learned men to be buried alive, left, from their me-'
mories, they fliould commit to writing fomething of
the true memoirs of the empire. The inaccuracy of
the Chinefe annals is complained of even by their
moft refpedled author Confucius himfelf; who alfo
affirms, that before his time many of the oldeft mate¬
rials for writing fuch annals had been deftroyed. 5
According to the Chinefe hiftories, the firft monarch Fabulous
of the whole univerfe (that is, of China), was called hl^ory 0l~
Puon-ku, or Puen-cu. This, according to fome, wasCluna*
the firft man ; but according to Bayer and Menze-
lius, two of the greateft critics in Chinefe litera¬
ture that have hitherto appeared, the word fignifies
the highef} antiquity. Puon-ku was fucceeded by Piene-
hoang, which fignifies the emperor of heaven. They call
him alfo the intelligent heaven, the fupreme king of
the middle heaven, &c. According to fome of their
hiftorians, he was the inventor of letters, and of the cy¬
clic ebaraftets by w-hich they determine the place of the
year, &c. Tiene-hoang w’as fucceeded by Ti-hoang
(the emperor of the earth), who divided the day and
night, appointing 30 days to make one moon, and fix¬
ed the winter folftice to the 1 ith moon. Ti hoang
was fucceeded by Gine-hoang (fovereign of men),
who with his nine brothers fhared the government
among them. They built cities, and furrounded them
wi th wTalls ; made a dirtinddion between the fovereign
and fubjedfts; inftituted marriage, &e.
The reigns of thefe four emperors make up one of
what the Chinefe called hi, “ ages,” or “ periods,” of
which there were nine before Fo-hi, whom their moft
fenfible people acknowledge as the founder of their
empire.
The hiftory of the fecond hi contradidls almoft eve¬
ry thing faid of the firft ; for though we have but juft
now been told that Gine-hoang and his brethren built
cities furrounded with walls; yet, in the fucceeding
age, the people dwelt in caves, or perched upon trees
as it were in nefts. Of the third hi we hear nothing ;
and in the fourth, it feems matters had been ftill worfe,
as we are told that men were then oidy taught to re¬
tire into the hollows of rocks. Of the fifth and fixth
uTe have no accounts. Thefe fix periods, according to
fome writers, contained 90,000 years; according to
others, 1,100,750.
In the feventh and eighth hi, they tell us over again
what they had faid of the firft ; namely, that men be-
A gan
China.
6
Fabulous
hiftory ex¬
plained.
. 7
Reign of
Fo-hi.
CHI [
gari to leave their caves and dwell in houfes, and were
J taught to prepare clothes, &.c. Tchine-fang, the firft
iponarch of the eighth hi, taught his fubjefts to take
oft' the hair from fkins with rollers of wood, and co¬
ver themfelves with the fkirls fo prepared. He taught
them alfo to make a kind of web of their hair, to ferve
as a covering to their heads againft rain. They .obeyed
his orders with joy, and he called his fubje&s/>£><?/>/?
clothed with Jhins. His reign lafted 350 years; that
of one of his fucceflbrs, alfo, named Yeou-tfao-chi,
lafted more than 300 ; and his family continued for
I 2 or 18,000 years. But what is very furpriling, all
thefe thoufands and millions of years had elapfed with¬
out mankind’s having any knowledge of fire. This
w7as not difcovered till towards the clofe of this period,
by one Souigine. After fo ufeful a difcovery, he
taught the people to drefs their vifluals ; whereas be¬
fore they had devoured the fiefti of animals quite raw,
drunk their blood, and fwallou^ed even their hair and
feathers. He is alfo faid to have been the inventor of
fifhing, letters, &c.
In the ninth period we find the invention, or at
leaft the origin of letters, attributed to one Tfang-hie,
who received them from a divine tortoife that carried
them on his ftiell, and delivered them into the hands
of Tfang-hie. During this period alfo, mufic, mo¬
ney, carriages, merchandife, commerce, &c. were in¬
vented. There are various calculations of the length
of thefe hi or periods. Some make the time from
Puan-ku to Confucius, who flouriftied about 479 years
before Chrift, to contain 279,000 years; others,
2,276,000; fome, 2,759.860 years; others, 3,276,000;
and lome no lefs than 96,961,740 years.
Thefe extravagant accounts are by fome thought
to contain obfcure and imperfect hints concerning the
cofmogony and creation of the world, &c. Puon-ku,
the firft emperor, they think, reprefents eternity pre¬
ceding the duration of the wmrld. The fucceeding
ones, Tiene-hoang, Ti-hoang, and Gine-hoang, they
imagine fignify the creation of the heavens and earth,
and the formation of man. The ten hi or ages, nine
of which preceded Fo-hi, mean the ten generations
preceding Noah. This may very poftibly be the cafe;
for about 300 years before Chrift, fome Je^vs travelled
into China, who might have made the Mofaic waitings
known there.
What xve have now related, contains the fubftance
of that part of the Chinele hiftory which is entirely
fabulous. After the nine hi or “ ages” already taken
notice of, the tenth commenced with Fo-hi ; and the
hiftory, though ftill very dark, obfcure, and fabulous,
begins to grow fomewhat more confiftent and intel¬
ligible. Fo-hi was born in the province of Shenfi.
His mother walking upon the bank of a lake in that
province, faw a very large print of a man’s foot in
the fand there ; and, being furrounded by an iris or
rainbow, became impregnated. The child was named
Fo-hi; and, when he grew up, was by his country¬
men elected king, on account of his fuperior merit,
and ftyled Tyent-tje, that is “ the fon of heaven.” He
invented the eight qua, or fymbols, confifting of three
lines each, which, differently combined, formed 64 cha-
rafters that were made ufe of to exprefs every thing.
To give thefe the greater credit, he pretended that
2 ] CHI
he had feen them infcribed on the back of a dragon-
China.
horfe (an animal fhaped like a horfe, with the wings
and fcales of a dragon), which arofe from the bottom
of a lake. Having gained great reputation among his
countrymen by this prodigy, he is faid to have created
mandarins or officers, under the name of dragons.
Hence we may affign a reafon why the emperors of
China always carry a dragon in their banners. He alfo
inftituted marriage, invented mufic, &c. Having efta-
bhthed a prime minifter, he divided the government of
his dominions among four mandarins, and died after a
reign of 115 years. S
After Fo-hi followed a fucceffion of emperors, of^'Tcu^ous
whom nothing remarkable is recorded, except that in !o^ce‘
the reign of 'Fan, the feventh after Fo-hi, the fun did
not fet for ten days, fo that the Chinefe wTere afraid of
a general conflagration. This event the compilers of ^
the Univerfal Hiftory take to be the fame with that men-Hypothefis
tioned in the book of Joftma, when the fun and moon concernii>£
flood ftill for about the fpace of a day. Fo-hi they
will have to be the fame with Noah. They imagine, an ° iU*
that after the deluge this patriarch remained fome time
with his defcendunts ; but on their wicked combina¬
tion to build the tower of Babel, he feparated himfelf
from them with as many as he could perfuade to go
along with him ; and that, ftill travelling eaftward, he
at laft entered the fertile country of China, and laid
the foundation of that vaft empire.—But, leaving thefe
fabulous and conjedlural times, wre Paall proceed to give
fome account of that part of the Chinefe hiftory which
may be more certainly depended on.
As the Chinefe, contrary to the praflice of almoft
all nations, have never fought to conquer other coun¬
tries, but rather to improve and content themfelves
with their own, their hiftory for many ages furniihes
nothing remarkable. The whole of their emperors,
abftrafting from thofe who are faid to have reigned in
the fabulous times, are comprehended in 22 dynafties,
mentioned in the following table.
1. Flya, containing
2. Sbang, or I tig,
3. Chew,
4. TJin,
5. Han,
6. Hew-kan,
7. Xf™,
8. Song,
9. 7ft,
10. Lyang,
TI. Chin,
12. Swi,
13. Twang,
14. Hew /yang,
15. Heiv tang,
16. Jiew-tfn,
17. Hew-han,
18. Hew-chew,
19. Song,
20. Iwen,
21. Ming,
22. Tfng,
Emperors.
17 ■
28
35
4
25
2
*5
8
5
4
4
3
20
2
4
2
2
3
18
9
16
Before Chrift.
2207
I 766
1122
248
206
After Chrift.
2 20
465
220
479
502
557
618
907
92.3
936
947
95i
960
1280
1368
i645
Tins
China.
incurfions
of t;he Tar¬
tars.
Great wall
built.
12
Ivitan Tar
tars fettle
in China.
CHI [3
This table is formed according to the accounts of
the Jefuit Du Halde, and is commonly reckoned to be
the moll authentic } but according to the above-men¬
tioned hypothefis of the compilers of the Univetfal
Hiftory, who make You cotemporary with Jofhua, the
dynatty of Hya did not commence till the year before
Chtift 1357 j and to accommodate the hittory to their
hypothefis, great alterations muft be made in the du¬
ration of the dynafties.
The moll interefting particulars of the Cbinefe hi¬
ftory relate only to the incurfions of the I artars, who
at laft conquered the whole empire, and who ftill con¬
tinue to hold the fovereignty •, though by transfer¬
ring the feat of the empire to Peking, and adopting
the Chinefe language, manners, &.c. Partary wrould
leein rather to have been conquered by China, than
China by Tartary. Thefe incurfions are find to have
beo-un very early } even in the time of the emperor
Shun, fucceffor to Yau above mentioned, in whole
reign the miraculous folftice happened. At this
time, the Tartars were repulled, and obliged to re¬
tire into their own territories. From time to time,
however, they continued to threaten the empire with
invafions, and the northern provinces were often ac¬
tually ravaged by the 1 artars in the neighbourhood.
About the year before Chrift 213, Shi-whang-ti, ha¬
ving fully fubdued all the princes, or kings as they
were called, of the different provinces, became em¬
peror of China with unlimited power. He divided the
whole empire into 36 provinces j and finding the
northern part of his dominions much incommoded by
the invafions of the neighbouring barbarians, he fent
a formidable army againft them, which drove them
far beyond the boundaries of China. To prevent
their return, he built the famous wall already men¬
tioned, which feparates China from Tartary. After
this, being elated with his own exploits, he formed a
defign of making pofterity believe that he himfelf
had been the firft Chinefe emperor that ever fat on
the throne. For this purpofe, he ordered all the hi-
ftarical waitings to he burnt, and caufed many of
the learned to be put to death, as already mentioned.
What effeft the great wall for fome time had in
preventing the invafions of the 1 artars, we are not
told •, but in the tenth century of the Chriftian era,
thofe of Kitan or Lyau got a footing in China. The
Kitan were a people of eaftern Tartary, who dwelt to
the north and north-eaft of the province of Pecheli in
China, particularly in that of Lyau-tong lying without
the great wall. Thefe people having fubdued the
country between Korea and Kafhgar, became much
more troublefome to the Cninele than all the other
Tartars. Their empire commenced about the year
916, in the fourth year of Mo-ti-kyan-ti, fecond em¬
peror of the 14th Chinefe dynafty called Hew-lyang.
In 946, Mingt-fong, fecond emperor of the 15th dy¬
nafty, being dead, Sheking-tang Ills ion-in-law rebelled
againft Mingt-iong, his fon and fucceflor, whom he
deprived of his crown and life. I his he accompliihed
by means of an army of 50,000 men furnilhed by the
Kitan. Fi ti, the fon of Mingt-fong, being unable to
refift the ufurper, fled to the city Ghey-chew *, where
ihutting himfelf up with his family and all his valuable
effe£ls, he fet fire to the palace, and was burnt to
aftres. On his death, Sheking-tang affumed the title
] CHI
of emperor 5 founded the 16th dynafty } and cnanged
his name to that of Kaut-fu. But the Kitan general
refufing to acknowledge him, he was obliged to pur-
chafe a peace by yielding up to the Tartars 16 cities
in the province of Pecheli, beiides a yearly preient of
300,000 pieces of filk.
This fubmiflion ierved only to inflame the avarice
and ambition of the Kitan. In 959, they broke the
treaty when lead expedited, and invaded the empire
afrelh. Tfi-vang, the emperor at that time, oppoied
them with a formidable army ; but through the treach¬
ery of his general Lyew-chi-ywen, the Tartars were
allowed to take him prifoner. On this, T fi-vang was
glad to recover his liberty, by accepting of a fnaall
principality ; while the traitor became emperor of all
China, and, changing his name to Kaut-fu, founded
rhe 17th dynafty. The Tartars, in the mean time,
ravaged all the northern provinces without oppofition,
and then marched into the fouthern. But being here
flopped by fome bodies of Chinefe troops, the gene¬
ral thought proper to retire with his booty into I ar¬
tary. In 962, Kaut-fu dying, was fucceeded by his
fon In-ti. The youth of this prince gave an opportu¬
nity to the eunuchs to raife commotions*, efpecially
as the army was employed at a diftance in repelling
the invafions of the Tartars. This army was com¬
manded by Ko-ghey, who defeated the enemy in feve-
ral battles, and thus reftored peace to the northern
provinces. In the mean time, In-ti was flain by his
eunuchs, and the emprefs placed his brother on the
throne : but Ko-ghey, returning in triumph, was fa-
luted emperor by his viftorious army *, and the em¬
prefs being unable to fupport the rights of her ion,
was obliged to fubmit, while Ko-ghey, afluming the
name of Tay-tfu, founded the 18th dynafty. Nine years
after this, however, the grandees of the empire, fet-
ting afide Kong-ti, the third in fucceflion from Tay-
tfu, on account of his non-age, proclaimed his guar¬
dian, named Cbau-quang-yu, emperor *, who, afluming
the name of Kau-tfu, founded the 19th dynafty, called
Hong or Tfong.
Under this monarch the empire began to recover
itfelf *, but the Kitan ftill continued their incuriions.
The fucceflbrs of Kau-tfu oppofed them with various
fuccefs j but at laft, in 978, the barbarians became fo
ftrong as to lay fiege to a conftderable city. Tay-
tfong, fucceffor to Kau-tfu, detached 300 foldiers,
each carrying a light in his hand, againft them in the
night time, with orders to approach as near as pof-
fible to the Tartar camp. The barbarians, imagining,
by the number of lights, that the whole Chinefe army
was at hand, immediately fled, and, falling into the
ambufeades laid for them by the Chinefe general, were
almoft all cut to pieces.
This check, how*ever, did not long put a flop to
the ravages of the Kitan. In the year 999, they laid
fiege to a city in the province of Peche-li } but Ching-
tfong, fucceffor to Tay-tfong, came upon them with
his army fo fuddenly, that they betook themfelves to
flight. The emperor was advifed to take advantage
of their confternation, and recover the country which
had been yielded to them ; but inftead of purfuing his
vidlory, he bought a peace by confenting to pay an¬
nually 100,000 tael (about 34,000b), and 200,000
pieces of filk. The youth and pacific difpofition of
A 2
China.
^3 .
Kitan dri¬
ven out by
the eaftern
Tartars;
14
Who af-
fume the
name of
J£in> and
invade Chi¬
na.
XS
They take
the empe¬
ror prison¬
er.
16
Imperial
city and
another
emperor
taken.
CHI f
Jin-tfong, fucceffor to Ching-tfong, revived the cou¬
rage of the Kitan-, and, in 1035, war would have
been renewed, had not the emperor condelcended to
as fhameful a treaty as that concluded by his father.
Two years after, the Tartars demanded reftitution of
ten cities in the province of Peche-li, which had been
taken by Ko-ghey founder of the 18th dynafty j upon
which Jin-tfong engaged to pay them an annual tri¬
bute of 200,000 taels of filver, and 300,000 pieces of
filk, in lieu of thefe cities.
From this time the Kitan remained in peaceable pof-
feffion of their Chinefe dominions till the year 1117.
Whey-tfong, at that time emperor, being able nei¬
ther to bear their ravages, nor by himfelf to put a
flop to them, refolved upon a remedy which at laft
proved worfe than the difeafe. This was to call in
the Nu-che, Nyu-che, or Eallern Tartars, to deftroy
the kingdom of the Kitan. From this he was diffua-
ded by the king of Korea, and moft of his own mini-
ilers ; but, difregarding their falutary advice, he join¬
ed his forces to thofe of the Nu-che. The Kitan were
then everywhere defeated; and at lafl reduced to
fuch extremity, that thofe who remained were forced
to leave their country, and fly to the mountains of the
weft.
Thus the empire of the Kitan was totally deftroyed,
but nothing to the advantage of the Chinefe ; for the
Tartar general, elated with his conqueft, gave the
name of Kin to his new dominion, affumed the title of
emperor, and began to think of aggrandizing him¬
felf and enlarging his empire. For this purpofe, he
immediately broke the treaties concluded with the
Chinefe emperor ; and, invading the provinces of Pe-
cheli and Shenfi, made himfelf mafter of the greater
part of them. Whey-tfong, finding himfelf in danger
of lofing his dominions, made feveral advantageous
propofals to the Tartar; who, feeming to comply
with them, invited him to come and fettle matters by
a perfonal conference. The Chinefe monarch com¬
plied : but, on his return, the terms agreed on feemed
intolerable to his minifters -, fo that they told him the
treaty could not fubfift, and that the moft cruel war
was preferable to fuch an ignominious peace. The
Kin monarch, being informed of all that paffed, had
recourfe to arms, and took feveral cities. Whey-
tfong w as weak enough to go in perfon to hold a fe-
cond conference -, but, on his arrival, was immediate¬
ly feized by the Tartar. He w^as kept prii'oner un¬
der a ftrong guard during the remaining part of his
life j and ended his days in 1126, in the defert of
Shamo, having nominated his eldeft ion Kin-tfong to
fucceed him.
Kin-tfong began his reign with putting to death fix
minifters of ftate, who had betrayed his father into
the hands of the Kin Tartars. The barbarians in
the mean time purfued their conquefts without oppo-
lition. They crofted the Whang-ho, or Yellow river,
which a handful of troops might have prevented ; and
marching direflly towards the imperial city, took and
plundered it. Then feizing the emperor and his con-
fort, they carried them away captives : but many of
the principal lords, and feveral of the minifters, prefer¬
ring death to fuch an ignominious bondage, killed them-
felves. The Kin being informed by the emprefs
4 ] c H 1
Meng that (lie had been divorced, they left her be- China,
hind. This proved the means of faving the empire 5
for by her wifdom and prudence ftie got the crown
placed on the head of Kau-tfong, ninth fon of the em¬
peror Whey-tfong by his divorced emprefs.
Kau-tfong fixed his court at Nanking the capital of
Kyang-nan 5 but foon after was obliged to remove it
to Kang-chew in Che-kyang. He made feveral ef¬
forts to recover fome of his provinces from the Kin,
but without effedft. Ili-tlong the Kin monarch, in the
mean time, endeavoured to gain the efteem of his
Chinefe fubjefts by paying a regard to their learning
and learned men, and honouring the memory of Con¬
fucius. Some time after, he advanced to Nanking,
from whence Kau tfong had retired, and took it : but,
receiving advice that Yo-fi, general of the Song, or
fouthern Chinefe, was advancing by long marches to
the relief of that city, they fet fire to the palace, and
retired northward. However, Yo-fi arrived time prCgrefs 0f
enough to fall upon their rear-guard, which fuflfered the Kin
very much*, and from this time the Kin never dared'-hecke{h
to crofs the river Kyang. In a few years afterw-ards
the Chinefe emperor fubmitted to become tributary to
the Kin, and concluded a peace with them upon very
diftionourable terms. This fubmifiion, however, wras
of little avail: for, in 1163, the Tartars broke the
peace, and, invading the fouthern province with a for¬
midable army, took the city of Yang-chew. The
king, having approached the river Kyang, near its
mouth, where it is wideft as wrell as moft rapid, com¬
manded his troops to crofs it, threatening with his
drawn fword to kill thofe who refufed. On receiv¬
ing fuch an unreafonable command, the whole ar¬
my mutinied ; and' the king being killed in the be¬
ginning of the tumult, the army immediately re¬
tired.
From this time to the year 1210, nothing remark-They are
able occurs in the Chinefe hiftory ; but this year, attacked by
Jenghiz khan, chief of the weflern Tartars, Mogu/j
or Mungls, quarrelled with Yong-tfi emperor of the^,1H^an(^
Kin j and at the fame time the king of Hya, difgufted of^I-Iyaf
at being refufed affiftance againft Jenghiz-khan, threat¬
ened him with an invafion on the weft fide. Yong-tfi
prepared for his defence ; but in 12 11, receiving news
that Jenghiz khan was advancing fouthward with his
whole army, he was feized with fear, and made pro¬
pofals of peace, which were rejedfted. In 1212, the Grea^wall
Mogul generals forced the great wall ; or, according torced by
to fome writers, had one of the gates treacheroufly Jen8k'2-
opened to them, to the north of Shanfi j and made in-k!ian*
curfions as far as Peking, the capital of tire Kin em¬
pire. At the fame time the province of Lyau-tong
was almoft totally reduced by feveral Kitan lords who
had joined Jenghiz-khan ; feveral ftrong places were
taken, and an army of 300,000 Kin defeated by the
Moguls. In autumn they laid fiege to the city of
Tay-tong-fu ; where, although the governor Hujaku
fled, yet Jenghiz-khan met with confiderable refift-
ance. Having loft a vaft number of men, and being
himfelf wounded by an arrow, he was obliged to raife
the fiege and retire into Tartary ; after which the Kin
retook feveral cities. The next year, however, Jen¬
ghiz khan re-entered China ; retook the cities which
the Kin had reduced the year before 3 and overthrew
tfieir
Chir
Peking ta¬
ken.
ai
Southern
Chineh de
dared war
againft the
Km.
22
Jenghiz-
khan de-
ftroys the
kingdom of
Hya;
23
And dies.
24
Moguls
quarrel
with the
Song.
CHI [
their armies in two bloody battles, in one of which
' the ground was ftrewed with dead bodies for upwards
of four leagues.
The fame year Yong-tli was (lain by his general
Hujaku : and Sun, a prince of the blood, advanced in
his room. After this the Moguls, attacking the em^
pire with four armies at once, laid wafte the provinces
of Shanfi, Honan, Pecheli, and Shantong. In 1214
Jenghiz-khan fat down before Peking ; but inftead of
a {faulting the city, offered terms of peace, which were
accepted, and the Moguls retired into Tartary. Af¬
ter their departure, the emperor, leaving his fon at
Peking, removed his court to Pyen-lyang near Kay-
fong-fu, the capital of Honan. At this Jenghiz-khan
being offended, immediately fent troops to befiege
Peking. The city held out to the fifth month of the
year 1215, and then fur rendered. At the fame time
the Moguls finiihed the conqueft of Lyau-tong ; and
the Song refufed to pay the ufual tribute to the Kin.
In 1216, Jenghiz-khan returned to purfue his con¬
queft in the weft of Alia, where he ftaid feven years j
during which time his general Muhuli made great
progrefs in China againft the Kin emperor. He was
greatly aftifted by the motions of Ning-tfong emperor
of the Song, or fouthern China ; who, incenied by the
frequent perfidies of the Kin, had declared war againft
them, and would hearken to no terms of peace, though
very advantageous propofals were made. Notwith-
ftanding this, however, in 1220, the Kin, exerting
themfelves, raifed two great armies, one in Shenfi,
and the other in Shan-tong. The former baffled the
attempts of the Song and king of Hya, who had united
againft them ; but the latter, though no fewer than
200,000, were entirely defeated by Muhuli. In 1221,
that officer paffed the Whang-ho, and died after con¬
quering feveral cities.
In 1 224, the Kin emperor died ; and was fucceeded
by his fon Shew,1 who made peace with the king of
Hya ; but next year, that kingdom was entirely de-
ftroyed by Jenghiz-khan. In 1226, Oktay, fon to
Jenghiz-khan, marched into Honan, and befieged Kay-
fong-fu, capital of the Kin empire , but was obliged
to withdraw into Shenfi, where he took feveral cities,
and cut in pieces an army of 30,000 men. In 1227
Jenghiz khan died, after having defired his Tons to de¬
mand a paffage for their army through the dominions
of the Song, without which he faid they could not ea-
fily vanquifh the Kin.
After the death of that great conqueror, the war
was carried on with various fuccefs; but though the
Moguls took above 60 important polls in the province
of Shenfi, they found it impoffible to force Ton-quan,
which it behoved them to do in order to penetrate ef¬
fectually into Honan. In April 1231 they took the
capital of Shenfi, and defeated the Kin army wffiich
came to its relief. Here one of the officers defired
Prince Toley to demand a paffage from the Song
through the country of Han-chong-fu. This propofal
Toley communicated to his brother Otkay, who ap¬
proved of it as being conform ffile to the dying advice
of Jenghiz-khan. Hereupon Toley, having affembled
all his forces, fent a meffenger to the Song generals to
demand a paffage through their territories. This, how¬
ever, they not only refufed, but put the meffenger to
death } which io enraged Toley that he fwore to
5 1 ..c H 1
make them repent of it, and was foon as good as his China,
word. Pie decamped in Auguft 1231 ; and having '
forced the paffes, put to the fword the inhabitants ofEx iofts 0f
W ha-yang and Fong-chew, two cities in the diftri£l Toley.
of Hang-chong-fu. Then having cut down rocks to
fill up deep abyffes, and made roads through places
almoft inacceffible, he came and befieged the city of
Plan-chong-fu itfelf. The miferable inhabitants fled
to the mountains on , his approach, and more than
100,000 of them periffied. After this, Toley divided
his forces, confiding of 30,000 horfe, into two bodies.
One of thefe went weftward to Myen-chew : from
thence, after opening the paffages of the mountains,
they arrived at the river Kyaling, which runs into
the great Kyang. This they croffed on rafts made
of the wood of demoliflied houfes j and then, march¬
ing along its banks, feized many important ports,
At laft, having deftroyed more than Rockies, towns,
or fortrefles, they returned to the army. The fecond
detachment feized an important poll in the mountains,
called Tautong, fix or leven leagues to the eaftward
of Hang-chong-fu. On the other fide Oktay advan¬
ced, in O&ober, towards Pu-chew a city of Shan-ii j
which being taken after a vigorous defence, he pre¬
pared to pafs the Whang-ho. Toley, after iurmount-
ing incredible difficulties, arrived in December on the
borders of Honan, and made a fhow as if he defigned
to attack the capital of the Kin empire. On his firft:
appearance in Plonan through a paffage fo little fuf-
pe&ed, every body was filled with terror and aftonflh-
ment, fo that he proceeded for fome time without
oppofition. At laft the emperor ordered his generals,
Hota, Ilapua, and others, to march againft the enemy.
Toley boldly attacked them ; but was obliged to re¬
tire. which he did in good order. Hota was for pur-
fuing him, faying that the Mogul army did not exceed
30,000 men, and that they feemed not to have eaten
any thing for two or three days. Ilapua, however,
was of opinion that there was no occafion for bein<*
fo hafty, as the Moguls were inclofed between the
rivers Han and Whang-ho, fo that they could not
efcape. This negligence they foon had occafion to re¬
pent of: for Toley, by a ftratagem, made himfelf ma¬
iler of their heavy baggage 5 which accident obliged
them to retire to Tang-chew. From thence they fent
a meffenger to acquaint the emperor that they had
gained the battle, but concealed the lofs of their bag¬
gage. This good news filled the court with joy ; and
the people who had retired into the capital for its de¬
fence, left it again, and went into the country : but,
in a few days after, the vanguard of the Moguls, who
had been fent by the emperor Oktay, appeared in the
field, and carried off a great number of thofe that had
quitted the city. ^
In January 1232, Oktay palling the Whang-ho, Capital of
encamped in the dillrift of Kay-fong-fu, capital of the the Kin
Kin empire, and fent his general Suputay to befiege ^1pe'Je be"
the city. At that time the place was near 30 miles ^
in circumference : but having only 40,000 foldiers to
defend it, as many more from the neighbouring cities,
and 20,000 peafants, were ordered into it j while the
emperor publifhed an affedling declaration, animating
the people to defend it to the laft extremity. Oktay,
having heard with joy of Toley’s entrance into Ho¬
nan, ordered him to fend fuccours to Suputay. On
the
Ch'na.
27 c
Bravery or
the befie-
ged.
28
Peace con
eluded;
29
And bro¬
ken.
CHI [6
the other hand, the Kin generals advanced with
150,000 men to relieve the city •, but being obliged
to divide their forces in order to avoid in part the
great road which Toley had obftru&ed with trees,
they were attacked by that prince at a difadvantage,
and, after a faint reMance, defeated with great (laugh¬
ter, and the lofs of both their generals, one killed and
the other taken. The emperor now- ordered the army
at Tong-quan and other fortified places to march to
the relief of Kay-fong-fu. They affembled accord-
ingly, to the number of 110,000 foot and 15,000
horfe 5 and were followed by vaft numbers of people,
who expedled by their means to be protefred from the
enemy. But many of thefe troops having deferted,
and the reft being enfeebled by the fatigues of their
march, they difperfed on the approach of their pur-
fuers, who killed all they found in the highways. Af¬
ter this the Moguls took Tong-quan and feme other
confiderable pofts ; but were obliged to raife the fteges
of Quey te-fu and Loyang by the bravery of the go¬
vernors. Kyang-fhin, governor of Loyang, had only
5 or 4000 foldiers under him, while his enemies were
30,000 ftrong. He placed his word foldiets on tne
walls, putting himfelf at the head of 400 brave men 5
whom he ordered to go naked", and whom he led to
all dangerous attacks. He invented engines to caft
large ftones, which required but few hands to play
them, and aimed fo true as to hit at 100 paces dil-
tance. When their arrows tailed, he cut thofe (hot
by the enemy into four pieces ; pointed them with
pieces of brafs coin ; and difeharged them from w-ood-
en tubes with as much force as bullets are from a muf-
ket. Thus he har&fied the Moguls for three months
fo grievoufiy, that they were obliged, notwithftanding
their numbers, to abandon the enterprife.
Oktay, at laft, notwithftanding his fuccefies, refol-
ved to return to Tartary 5 and offered the Kin empe¬
ror peace, provided be became tributary, and deli¬
vered up to him 27 families which he named. Thefe
offers were very agreeable to the emperor ; but Supu-
tay, taking no notice of the treaty, pufhed on the
fte'ae of the capital with more vigour than ever. By
the help of the Chinefe (laves in his army, the Mogul
general foon filled the ditch ; but all his efforts feem-
ed only to infpire the befieged with new vigour. The
Moguls at that time made ufe of artillery, but w'ere
unable to make the lead impreffion upon the city walls.
They raifed w-alls round thofe they befieged, which
they fortified with ditches, tow-ers, and battlements.
They proceeded alfo to fap the walls of the city ; but
were very much annoyed by the artillery of the befie¬
ged, efpecially by their bombs, which finking into the
galleries, and burfting under ground, made great ha-
vock among the miners. For 16 days and nights the
attacks continued without intermiflion ; during which
time an incredible number of men periftied on both
fades 5 at length, Suputay, finding that he could not
take the city, withdrew his troops, under pretence of
conferences being on foot. Soon after the plague be¬
gan in Kay-fong-fu and raged with fuch violence,
that, in 50 days, 900,too biers were carried out, be-
fdes a vaft multitude of the poorer fort who could not
afford any.
In a (hort time, two unlucky accidents occafioned
a renewal of the war j which now put an end to the
]
C H I
Gan-yong, a young Mogul lord,
Cl.ina-
empire of the Kin. . „
having affumed the government of fome cities ^
Kyang-nan, and killed the officer.fent to take poffef-
fion of them, declared for the Kin. I he emperor
unwarily took Gan-yong into his fervice, and gave
him the title of prince. Upon this Oktay fent an en¬
voy, attended by 30 other perfons, to inquire into the
affair j but the Kin officers killed them all, without
being punidied by the emperor. Suputay, having in¬
formed his mailer of all thefe proceedings, was or¬
dered to continue the war in Honan. Shew-fu now
commanded his officers to unite their troops for the
defence of the capital but before his orders could be
obeyed, they were attacked and defeated, one after
another, by’the Moguls. This obliged him to raife
foldiers from among the pealants, (or w hofe fubliftence
the people were taxed tV °f rice they pofleffed.
The city began now to be diftreffed lor want of provi-
fions ; and as it was but in a bad pofture of defence,
the emperor marched with an army againft the Mo- 30
guls. His expedition proved unfortunate ; for, fend- Capital
ing part of his army to beftege a city called Why-chew^W™^"
it was totally cut in pieces, and Suputay a fecond time 1
fat down before the capital. 31
On hearing this bad news, the emperor repaffed the And takeI3s
Whang-ho, and retired to Quey-te-fu. Here he had
not been long before the capital was delivered up by
treachery, and Suputay put all the males of the impe¬
rial race" to death j but, by the exprefs command of
Oktay, fpared the inhabitants, who are faid to have
amounted to 1,400,000 families. After this difafter
the unhappy monarch left his troops at Quey-te-fu, ^
and retired to Juning-fu, a city in the fouthern part siege of
of Honan, attended only by 400 perfons. Here the Juning-fu.
diftance of the Moguls made him think of living at
eafe 5 but while he flattered himfelf with thefe vain
hopes, the enemy’s army arrived before the city and
invefted it. The garriforl were terrified at their ap¬
proach ; but were encouraged by the emperor, and his
brave general Hu-fye-hu, to hold out to the laft. As
there were not in the city a fufficient number of men,
the women, dreffed in men’s clothes, were employed
to carry wood, ftones, and other neceffary materials to
the walls. All their efforts, however, were ineffec¬
tual. They were reduced to fuch extremities, that
for three months they fed on human flefii 5 killing the
old and feeble, as well as many piifoners, for food.
This being known to the Moguls, they made a gene¬
ral affault in January 1234. ^ attack continued
from morning till night ; but at laft the affailants were
repulfed. In this a&ion, however, the Kin loft all
their bed officers 5 upon which the emperor refigned
the crown to Cheng-lin a prince of the blood. Next
morning, while the ceremony of inverting the new em¬
peror was per forming, the enemy mounted the fouth
walls, which were defended only by 200 men -, and
the fouth gate being at the fame time abandoned, the
whole army broke in. They were oppofed, however,
by Hu-fye-hu j who, with rooo foldiers, continued to ^
fight with amazing intrepidity. In the mean time Unhappy
Shew-fu, feeing every thing irreparably loft, lodged fate of the
the feal of the empire in a houfe and then caufing emperor,
(heaves of ftraw to be fet round it, ordered it to be (et
on fire as foon as he was dead. After giving this or¬
der he hanged himfelf, and his commands were exe¬
cuted
empire.
35
War be¬
tween the
Song and
the Mo¬
guls.
CHI [
China, cuted by his domeftics. Hu-fye-hu, who ftill con-
~y ’ turned fighting with great bravery, no fooner heard
-rvur'l4.- of the tragical death of the emperor, than he drown-
of the Kin ec* himlelt in the river Ju ; as did alio 500 or his moit
refolute foldiers. The fame day the new emperor,
Cheng-lin, was {lain in a tumult ; and thus an end
was put to the dominion of the Kin Tartars in
China.
The empire of China was now to be (hared between
the Song, or fouthern Chinefe, and the Moguls. It
had been agreed upon, that the province of Honan
fhould be delivered up to the Song as foon as the war
was finifhed. But they, without waiting for the ex¬
piration of the term, or giving Oktay notice of their
proceedings, introduced their troops into Kay-fong-fu,
Lo-yang, and other confiderable cities. On this the
Mogul general refolved to attack them 5 and repaffing
the Whang-ho, cut in pieces part of the garrifon of
Lo-yang, while they were out in fearch of provifions.
The garrifon of Kay-fong-fu likewife abandoned that
place ; and the Song emperor degraded the officers
who had been guilty of thofe irregularities, fending
ambaffadors to Oktay, at the fame time, to defire a
continuance of the peace. What Oktay’s anfwer was
we are not told, but the event ffiowed that he was not
well pleafed ; for, in 1235, he ordered his fecond fon
Prince Kotovan, and his general Chahay, to attack
the Song in Se-chwen, while others marched towards
the borders of Kyang-nan.
In 1236, the Moguls made great progrefs in the
province of Huquang, where they took feveral cities,
and put vaft numbers to the fword. This year they
introduced paper or (ilk money, which had formerly
been ufed by Chang-tfong, fixth emperor of the Kin.
Prince Kotovan forced the paffages into the diftriff of
Hang-chong-fu in the province of Shenfi, which he
entered with an army of 500,000 men. Here a ter¬
rible battle was fought between the vaft army of the
Moguls and the Chinefe troops, wffio had been driven
from the paffiiges they defended. The latter confifted
only of 10,000 horfe and foot, who were almoft en¬
tirely cut off; and the Moguls loft fuch a number of
men, that the blood is faid to have run for two leagues
together. After this vidfory the Moguls entered Se-
chwen, which they almoft entirely reduced, commit¬
ting fuch barbarities, that, in one city, 40,000 people
chofe rather to put an end to their own lives than fub-
mit to fuch cruel conquerors.
In 1237, the Moguls received a confiderable check
before the city of Gantong in Kyang-nan, the fiege of
which they were obliged to raife with lofs. In 1238,
they befieged Lu-chew, another city in the fame pro¬
vince. They furrounded it with a rampart of earth
and a double ditch ; but the Chinefe general ordered
their intrenchments to be filled with immenfe quanti¬
ties of herbs fteeped in oil, and then fet on fire, while
he (hot ftones upon them from a tower feven ftories
high. At the fame time a vigorous fally was made ;
and the Mogul army being thrown into the utmoft;
diforder, were obliged finally to abandon the fiege,
and retire northwards.
In 1239, thefe barbarians were oppofed by a gene¬
ral called Meng-kong, with great fuccefs ; who, this
and the following year, gained great honour by his
exploits. While he lived, the Moguls were never
China.
3<>
Dreadful
engage¬
ment.
37:
7 1 H C I
able to make any confiderable progrefs; but his death,
in 1246, proved of the greateft detriment to the Chi¬
nefe affairs: and foon alter, the Tartars renewed the
war with more vigour and fuccefs than ever. In
1255, they re-entered the province of Se-chwen ; but
ftiil met with vigorous oppofition in this quarter, be-
caufe the Chinefe took care to have Se-chwen furnifh-
ed with good troops and generals. Though they were
always beaten, being greatly inferior in number to
their enemies, yet they generally retook the cities the
Moguls had reduced, as the latter were commonly
obliged to withdraw for want of provifions, and fo¬
rage. In 1259 they undertook the fiege of Ho-chew, Siege of
a ftrong city to the weft of Peking, defended by Vang- Ho-chew>
kyen, a very able officer, who commanded a numerous
garrifon. The fiege continued from the month of Fe¬
bruary till Auguft $ during which time the Moguls
loft an immenfe number of men. On the 10th of Au¬
guft: they made a general affault in the night. They
mounted the walls before the governor had intelli¬
gence ; but were foon attacked by him with the ut¬
moft fury. The Mogul emperor, Meng-ko, himfelf
came to the fcalade ; but his prefence was not fuffi- , s
cient to overcome the valour of Vang-kyen. At the Moguls de¬
fame time the fcaling-ladders of the Moguls were Seated, and
blown down by a ftorm ; upon which a terrible (laugh-t^e’remPe-
ter enfued, and amongft the reft fell the emperor him-ror^e^’’
felf. Upon this difafter the Mogul generals agreed to
raife the fiege, and retired towards Shen-fi.
On the death of Meng-ko, Hupilay, or Kublay
Khan, wffio fucceeded him, laid fiege to Vu-chang-fu,
a city not far diftant from the capital of the Song em¬
pire.
At this the emperor being greatly alarmed, diftri-
buted immenfe funis among his troops j and, having
raifed a formidable army, marched to the relief of Vu-
chang-fu. Unfortunately the command of this army
was committed to the care of Kya-tfe-tau, a man with¬
out either courage or experience in war. Fie was be-
(ides very vain and vindictive in his temper ; often
tiling the beft officers ill, and entirely- overlooking
their merit, which caufed many of them to go over to
the Moguls. The fiege of Vu-chang-fu was commen¬
ced, and had continued a confiderable time, when
Kya-tfe-tau, afraid of its being loft, and at the fame
time not daring to take any effeClual ftep for its relief,
made propofals of peace. A treaty was accordingly
concluded, by which Kya-tfe-tau engaged to pay an
annual tribute of about 50,000k in filver, and as much
in (ilk ; acknowledging likewife the fovereignty of the
Moguls over the Song empire. In confequence of this
treaty, the Moguls retreated after the boundaries of
the twro empires had been fixed, and repaffed the Ky-
ang ; but 170 of them having (laid on the other fide
of the river, were put to death by Kya-tfe-tau.
This wicked minifter totally concealed from the Treachery
emperor his having made fuch a (hameful treaty with of a Chi-
the Moguls 5 and the 170 foldiers maffacred by his nefe m‘ni“
order, gave occafion to a report that the enemy hadfter>
been defeated ; fo that the Song court believed that
they had been compelled to retreat by the fuperior
valour and wifdom of Kya-tfe-tau. This proved the
ruin of the empire 5 for, in 1260, the Mogul emperor
fent Hanking to the Chinefe court to execute the trea¬
ty according to the terms-agreed on with Kya-tfe-tau.
The
Cliina,
4®
Defperate
conflidl.
A1
Chine fe
.emprefs
fubmits.
CHI [
The minilter, dreading the arrival of this envoy, im-
prifoned him near Nanking ; and took all poflible care
that neither Hupilay, nor Li-tfong the Chinefe empe¬
ror, fTiould ever hear any thing of him.
It was impoffible fuch unparalleled conduft could
fail to produce a new war. Hupilay’s courtiers in-
ceffantly prefled him to revenge himfelf on the Song
for their treacherous behaviour 5 and he foon publiih-
ed a manifefto againft them, which was followed by
a renewal of hoftilities in 1268. The Mogul army
amounted to 300,000 men ; but notwithftanding their
numbers, little progrefs was made till the year 1271.
Syan-yang and Fan-ching, cities in the province of
Se-chew, had. been befieged for a long time ineffec¬
tually ; but this year an Igur lord advifed Hupilay to
fend for feveral of thofe engineers out of the weft, who
knew how to caft ftones ®f 150 pounds weight out of
their engines, which made holes of feven or eight feet
wide in the ftrongeft walls. Two of thefe engineers
were accordingly lent for ; and after giving a fpeei-
men of their art before Hupilay, were fent to the ar¬
my in 1272. In the beginning of 1273 they planted
their engines againft the city of Fan-ching, and pre-
fently made a breach in the walls. After a bloody
conflidft the fuburbs were taken ; and foon after the
Moguls made themfelves matters of the walls and gates
of the city. Neverthelefs, a Chinefe officer, with on¬
ly IOO foldiers, refolved to fight from ftreet to ftreet.
This he did for a long time with the greateft obftina-
cy, killing vaft numbers of the Moguls; and both
parties are faid to have been fo much ovetcome with
thirft, that they drank human blood to quench it.
The Chinefe fet fire to the houfes, that the great
beams, falling down, might embarrafs the way of their
purfuers j but at laft being quite wearied out, and fill¬
ed with defpair, they put an end to their own lives.
After the taking of Fan-ching, all the materials which
had ferved at the liege were tranfported to Seyen-
yang. The two engineers potted themfelves againft a
wooden retrenchment raifed on the ramparts. This
they quickly demolifhed ; and the befieged were fo in¬
timidated by the noife and havock made by the ftones
caft trom thefe terrible engines, that they immediately
furrendered.
In 1274, Pe-yen, an officer of great valour, and en¬
dowed with many other good qualities, was promoted
to the command of the Mogul army. His firft ex¬
ploits were the taking of two ftrong cities ; after
which he paffed the great river Ky-ang, defeated the
Song army, and laid fiege to Vu-chang-fu. This city
was foon intimidated into a furrender 5 and Pe-yen, by
reftraining the barbarity of his foldiers, whom he
wmuld not allow to hurt any body, foon gained the
hearts of the Chinefe fo much, that feveral cities fur-
rendered to him on the firit fummons. In the mean
time the treacherous Kya-tfe-tau, who was fent to op-
pofe Pe-yen, was not affiamed to propofe peace on the
terms he had formerly concluded with Hupilay but
thele being rejefted, he was obliged at length to come
to an engagement. In this he was defeated, and Pe-
yen continued his conquefts with great rapidity, fla¬
ying taken the city of Nanking, and fome others, he
marched towards Hang-chew-fu, the capital of the
Song empire. Peace was now again propofed, but
rejetted by the Mogul general j and at laft the em-
China.
42
8 ] CHI
prels was conftrained to put herfelf, with her fon, then
an infant, into the hands of Pe-yen, who immediately*
fent them to Hupilay.
I he fubmiffion of the emprefs did not yet put an
' end to the war. Many of the chief officers fwore to
do their utmoft to refcue her from the hands of her
enemies. In confequence of this refolution they dif-
tributed their money among the foldiers, and foon
got together an army of 40,000 men. This army at¬
tacked the city where the young emperor Kong-
tfong was lodged, but without fuccefs ; after which,
and feveral other vain attempts, they raifed one of
his brothers to the throne, who then took upon him
the name of Twon-tfong. He w’as but nine years of
age when he was raifed to the imperial dignity, and
enjoyed it but a very fhort time. In 1277 he was in
great danger of perifhing, by reafon of the ihip on
board which he then was being caft away. The poor
prince fell into the water, and w7as taken up half dead
with the fright. A great part of his troops perifhed
at that time, and he foon after made offers of fubmif-
iion to Hupilay. Tbefe, however, were not accept¬
ed ; for, in 1278, the unhappy Twon-tfong was obli¬
ged to retire into a little defert ifland on the coaft of
Quang-tong, where he died in the 1 ith year of his
age;
Notwithftanding the progrefs of the Moguls, vaft Diffolution
territories ftill remained to be fubdued before theyof tI?e Sonf
could become mafters of all the Chinefe empire. Onempire’
the death of Twon-tfong, therefore, the mandarins
raifed to the throne his brother, named Te-ping, at
that time but eight years of age. His army confifted
of no fewer than 200,000 men ; but being utterly void
of difcipline, and entirely ignorant of the art of war,
they were defeated by 20,000 Mogul troops. Nor
was the fleet more fuccefsful; for being put in confu-
fion by that of the Moguls, and the emperor in dan¬
ger of falling into their hands, one of the officers ta¬
king him on his {boulders, jumped with him into the
fea, where they were both drowned. Moft of the
mandarins followed this example, as did alfo the em¬
prefs and minifter, all the ladies and maids of honour,
and multitudes of others, infomuch that ioo,oco peo¬
ple are thought to have perifhed on that day. Thus
ended the Chinefe race -of emperors; and the Mogul
dynafty, known by the name of Ywen, commencedt
Though no race of men that ever exifted were Reign3©?
more remarkable for cruelty and barbarity than the Hupilay.
Moguls ; yet it doth not appear that the emperors of
the Ywen dynafty were in any refpeft worfe than
their predeceffors. On the contrary, Hupilay, by the
Chinefe called Shi-tju^ found the May of reconciling
the people to his government, and even of endearing
himfelf to them fo much, that the reign of his family
is to this day ft) led by the Chinefe the wife govern¬
ment. This he accompliftied by keeping as dole as
poffible to their ancient lav s and cuftoms, by his mild
and juft government, and'by his regard for their
learned men. He was indeed affiamed of the igno¬
rance and barbarity of his Mogul fubjetts, when com¬
pared with the Chinefe. T he whole knowledge of the
former was fummed up in their fkill in managing their
arms and horfes, being perfettly deftitute of every art
or fcience, or even of the knowledge of letters. In
1269, he had caufed the Mogul charatters to be con¬
trived
c H 1 [
Oiina. trived. Ini 1280, he caufed fome mathematicians fearch
J for the fource of the river Whang-ho, which at that
time was unknown to the Chinefe themfeives. In four
months time they arrived in the country wdiere it riies,
and made a map of it, which they prefented to his ma-
jefty. The fame year a treatife on aftronomy was pu-
blifhed by his order 5 and, in 1282, he ordered the
learned men to repair from all parts of the empire, to ex¬
amine the date of literature, and take meafures for its
advancement.
At his firft acceflion to the crown he fixed his refi-
dence at Tay-ywen-fu, the capital of Shen-fi; but
thought proper afterwards to remove it to Peking.
Here, being informed that the barks which brought
to court the tribute of the fouthern provinces, or car¬
ried on the trade of the empire, were obliged to come
by fea, and often fuffered fiiipwreck, he caufed that
celebrated canal to be made, which is at prefent one
of the wonders of the Chinefe empire, being 300
leagues in length. By this canal above 9000 imperial
barks tranfport with eafe, and at fmall expence, the
tribute of grain, rice, filk, &c. which is annually paid
to the court. In the third year of his reign Shi-tfu
formed a defign of reducing the iflands of Japan, and
the kingdoms of 1 onrjuin and Cochin-china. Both
thefe enterprifes ended unfortunately, but the firft re¬
markably fo ; for of 100,000 perfons employed in it,
only four or five efcaped with the melancholy news of
the deftruftion of the reft, who all periihed by fhip-
44 wreck. Shi-tfu reigned 15 years, died in the 80th year
Moguisdri-of his age, and was fucceeded by his grandfon. The
ven out. throne continued in the Ywen family to the year 1367,
when Shun-ti, the laft of that dynafty, was driven out
by a Chinefe named Chu. During this period the
Tartars had become enervated by long profperity j
and the Chinefe had been roufed into valour by their
fubje&ion. Shun-ti, the reigning prince,^ w’as quite
45 funk in (loth and debauchery } and the empire, befides,
Exploits of was oppreffed by a wicked minifter named Ama. In
Chu* June 1355, Chu, a Chinefe of mean extra&ion, and
head of a fmall party, fet out from How-chew, paffed
the Kyang, and took Tayping. Pie then affociated
himfelf with fome other malcontents, at the head of
whom he reduced the town of Tu-chew, in Kyang-
nan. Soon after he made himfelf mafter of Nanking,
having defeated the Moguls who came to its relief. In
December 1356, he was able to raife 100,000 men,
at the head of whom he took the city of U-chew, in
the eaft borders of Quang-fi } and here, affembling his
generals, it was refolved neither to commit daughter
nor to plunder. The moft formidable enemy he had
to deal with was Chen-yew-lyang, ftyled “ emperor of
the Han.” This man being grieved at the progrefs
made by Chu, equipped a fleet, and raifed a formi¬
dable army, in order to reduce Nan-chang-fu, a city
of Kyang-fi, which his antagonift had made himfelf
mafter of. The governor, however, found means to
inform Chu of his danger *, upon which that chief
caufed a fleet to be fitted out at Nanking, in which
he embarked 200,000 foldiers. As foon as Chen-yew-
lyang was informed of his enemy’s approach, he raifed
the fiege of Nan-chang-fu, and gave orders for at¬
tacking Chu’s naval force. An engagement enfued
between a part of the fleets, in w’hich Chu proved
viftorious *, and next day, all the fquadrons haying
You VI. Part I.
) 1 CHI
joined in order to come to a general engagement, t Cbmsi-
Chu gained a fecond viftory, and burnt 100 of the
enemy’s veffels. A third and fourth engagement hap¬
pened, in both which Chu gained the viftory; and in
the laft, Chen-yew lyang himfelf was killed, his Ion
taken prifoner, and his generals obliged to iurrender
themfeives, with all their forces and veiTels. 4<>
In January 1364, Chu’s generals propofed to have^.^H0-
him proclaimed emperor-, but this he declined,
at firft contented himfelf with the title of king of
U. In February he made himfelf mafter of Vu-chang-
fu, capital of Hu-quang : where, with his uiual hu¬
manity, he relieved thofe in diftrefs, encouraged the
literati, and would allow his troops neither to plunder
nor deftroy. This wife condutt procured him an
eafy conqueft both of Kyang-fi and Hu-quang. The
Chinefe fubmitted to him in crowds, and profeffed the
greateft veneration and refpeft for his perfon and go¬
vernment.
All this time Shun-ti, with an unaccountable negli¬
gence, never thought of exerting himfelf againft Chu,
but continued to employ his forces againft the rebels
who had taken up arms in various parts of the empire 5
fo that Chu found himfelf in a condition to aflume the 47
title of emperor. This he chofe to do at Nanking on of
the firft day of the year 1368. After this his troops 0
entered the province of Honan, which they preiently
reduced. In the third month, Chu, who had now
taken the title of Hong-vu or Tay-t/u, reduced the
fortrefs of Tong-quan j after which his troops entered
Pecheli from Honan on the one fide, and Shan-tong
on the other. Here his generals defeated and killed
one of Shun-ti’s officers ; after which they took the
city of Tong-chew, and then prepared to attack the
capital, from which they were now but 12 miles diftant.
On their approach the emperor fled with all his family
beyond the great wall, and thus put an end to the dy- 4g
nafty of Ywen. In 1370 he died, and was fucceeded Moguls
by his fon, whom the fucceffor of Hong-vu drove be‘
yond the Kobi or Great Defert, which feparates China ^rt> e
from Tartary. They continued their incurfions, how¬
ever, for many years ", nor did they ceafe their at¬
tempts till 1583, when vaft numbers of them were cut
in pieces by the Chinefe troops. _ 49
The 21 ft dynafty of Chinefe emperors, founded in China a.
1368 by Chu, continued till the year 1644, when they gain con-
were again expelled by the Tartars. The laft Chinefe
emperor was named Whay-tfong, and afcended thetarSi
throne in 1628. He was a great lover of the fciences,
and a favourer of the Chriftians; though much ad-
diifted to the fuperftitions of the Bonzes. He found
himfelf engaged in a war with the Tartars, and a
number of rebels in different provinces. _ That he
might more effe&ually fupprefs the latter, he refolved
to make peace with the former; and for that end fent
one of his generals, named Ywen, into 1 artary, at
the head of an army, with full power to negociate a
peace 5 but that traitor made one upon Inch lhameful
terms, that the emperor refufed to ratify it. Ywen,
in order to oblige his mafter to comply with the terms
made by himfelf, poifoned his beft and moft faithful
general, named Mau-ven-long: and then defired the
Tartars to march dire£Uy to Peking, by a road dif¬
ferent from that which he took with his army. This
they accordingly did, and laid fiege to the capital.
B Yweu
chi . [; i
t Cliina. Ywen was ordered to come to its relief 5 but, on his
v arrival, was put to the torture and ftrangled j of which
the Tartars were no fooner informed, than they raifed
the fiege, and returned to their own country. In 1636,
the rebels above mentioned compofed four great ar¬
mies, commanded by as many generals ; which, how¬
ever, were foon reduced to two, commanded by Li
and Chang. Thefe agreed to divide the empire be¬
tween them $ Chang taking the weftern provinces,
and Li the eaftern ones. The latter feized on part of
Shen-fi, and then of Honan, whofe capital, named
Kay-fong-fti, he laid fiege to, but was repulied with
lofs. He renewed it fix months after, but without
fuccefsj the befieged choofing rather to feed on human
flelh than furrender. The imperial forces coming foon
after to its affiftance, the general made no doubt of be¬
ing able to deftroy the rebels at once, by breaking
down the banks of the Yellow river 5 but unfortunate¬
ly the rebels efcaped to the mountains, while the city
was quite overflowed, and 300,000 of the inhabitants
perifhed.
After this difafter, Li marched into the provinces
of Shen-fi and Honan ; where he put to death all the
mandarins, exacted great fums from the officers in
place, and ffiowed no favour to any but the populace,
tvhom he freed from all taxes : by this means he drew
fo many to his intereft, that he thought himfelf ftrong
enough to aflume the title of emperor. He next ad¬
vanced towards the capital, which, though well gar-
rifoned, was divided into faftions. Li had taken care
to introduce beforehand a number of his men in dif-
50 guile : and by thefe the gates wTere opened to him the
Unhappy third day after his arrival. He entered the city in
emperor triumPh at t}le head of 300,000 men ; whilft the’em-
and his fa- Peror kept himfelf fliut up in his palace, bufied only
mily. with his fuperftitions. It was not long, however, be¬
fore he found himfelf betrayed : and, under the gieat-
eft confternation, made an effort to get out of the pa¬
lace, attended by about 600 of his guards. He was
Hill more furprifed to fee himfelf treacheroufly aban¬
doned by them, and deprived of all hopes of efcaping
the infults of his fubje&s. Upon this, preferring death
to the difgrace of falling alive into their hands, he im¬
mediately retired wuth his emprefs, whom he tenderly
loved, and the princefs her daughter, into a private
part of the garden. His grief was fo great that he was
not able to utter a wmrd 5 but flie foon underftood his
meaning, and, after a fewr filent embraces, hanged her-
felf on a tree in a fiiken firing. Her huffiand ftaid
only to write thefe words on the border of his veft :
“ I have been bafely deferted by my fubjedls j do
what you will with me, but fpare my people.” He
then cut off the young princefs’s head with one ftroke
of his fcymitar, and hanged himfelf on another tree,
in the 17th year of his reign, and 36th of his age.
His prime minifter, queens, and eunuchs, followed his
example j and thus ended the Chmefe monarchy, to
give place to that of the Tartars, which hath con¬
tinued ever fince.
It was fome time before the body of the unfortu¬
nate monarch was found. At laft it was brought be¬
fore the rebel Li, and by him ufed with the utmoft
indignity j after which he caufed two of Whay-tfong’s
fons, and all his minifters, to be beheaded j but his
eldeft fon happily efcaped by flight. The whole empire
o 1 CHI
fubmitted peaceably to the ufurper, except Prince U- China.'
fan-ghey, who commanded the imperial forces in the'—"’v—J
province of Lyau-tong. This brave prince, finding
himfelf unable to cope with the ufurper, invited the
I artars to his affiftance j and T fong-te their king im¬
mediately joined him wuth an army of 80,000 men.
Upon this the ufurper marched diredtly to Peking ; but
not thinking himfelf fafe there, plundered and burnt
the palace, and then fled with the immenle treafure
he had got. What became of him afterwards we are
not told ; but the young T artar monarch w?as imme¬
diately declared emperor of China, his father Tfong-
te having died almoft as foon as he fet his foot on that
empire.
The new emperor, named Shun-chi, or Xun-chi, be¬
gan his reign with rewarding U-fan-ghey, by con¬
ferring upon him the title of king ; and affigned him
the city of Si-gnan-fu, capital of Shen-fi, for his refi-
dence. This, however, did not hinder U-fan-ghey
from repenting of his error in calling in the Tartars, or,
as he himfelf ufed to phrafe it, “ in fending for lions to
drive away dogs.” In 1674, he formed a very ftrong
alliance againft them, and had probably prevailed if
his allies had been faithful; but they treacheroufly
deferted him one after another : which fo affeded him,
that he died foon after. In 1681 Hong-wha, fon to
U-fan-ghey, who continued his efforts againft the
Tartars, was reduced to fuch ftraits that he put an
end to his own life.
During this fpace, there had been fome refiftance
made to the T artars in many of the provinces. Two
princes of Chinefe extradion had at different times
been proclaimed emperors $ but both of them were
overcome and put to death. In 1682, the whole 15 EmpfrTe to.
provinces were fo effedually fubdued, that the em-tally reda.
peror Kang-hi, fucceffor to Shun-chi, determined toced*
vifit his native dominions of Tartary. He was ac¬
companied by an army of 70,000 men, and continued
for fome months taking the diverflon of hunting.
This he continued to do for fome years ; and in his
journeys took Father Verbieft along with him 5 by which
means we have a better defcription of thefe countries
than could poflibly have been otherwife obtained.
This prince was a great encourager of learning and Chriffiani.
of the Chriftian religion; in favour of which laft hetyfirften-
publiffied a decree, dated in 1692. In 1716, how’ever, he couraSed
revived ibme oblolete laws againft the Chriftians ; nor ^ffenited
could the Jefuits with all their art preferve the footing P
they had got in China. The cauies of this alteration
in his refolution are, by the miffionaries, faid to have
been the Handers of the mandarins; but, from the
known charafter of the Jeiuits, it will be readily be¬
lieved, that there was lomething more at bottom.
This emperor died in 1722, and was fucceeded by his
fon Yon-ching ; who not only gave no encouragement
to the miffionaries, but perfecuted all Chriftians of
whatever denomination, not excepting even thofe of
the imperial race. At the beginning of his reign he
baniffied all the Jefuits into the city of Canton, and in
1732 they were banilhed from thence into Ma-kau, a
little ifland inhabited by the Portuguefe, but fubjedt
to China. He died in 1736: but though the Jefuits
entertained great hopes from his fucceffor, we have not
heard that they have yet met with any fuccefs.
I bus we have given an account of the molt memo¬
rable
CHI [
China, table tranfa&ions recorded in the Chinefe hiftory. It
^ 1 now remains only to defcribe the prefent date of the
empire and its inhabitants, according to the belt and
^ lateft accounts.
Climate, The climate as well as the foil of this extenfive em-
foil, and pjre js very different in different parts ; fevere cold be-
produce. jng 0ften fe}j ;n northern provinces, while the in¬
habitants of the fouthern ones are fcarce able to bear
the heat. In general, how’ever, the air is accounted
wholefome, and the inhabitants live to a great age.—
The northern and weftern provinces have many
mountains, which in the latter are cultivated, but
in the north are barren, rocky, and incapable of im¬
provement. On the mountains of Chenfi, Honan, Can¬
ton, and Fokien, are many forefts, abounding with tall,
ftraight trees, of different kinds, fit for building, and
particularly adapted for malts and fhip timber. Thefe
are ufed by the emperor in his private buildings $ and
from thefe forefts enormous trunks are fometimes
tranfported to the diftance of more than 300 leagues.
Other mountains contain quickfilver, iron, tin, copper,
gold, and filver. Formerly thefe laft wrere not allowed
to be opened, left the people fhould thereby be in¬
duced to neglect the natural riches of the foil : and
it is certain, that, in the 15th century, the emperor
caufed a mine of precious ftones to be fhut, which had
been opened by a private perfon. Of late, however,
the Chinefe are lefs fcrupulous, and a great trade in
gold is carried on by them. Many extravagant fables
are told bv the Chinefe of their mountains, particularly
of one in Chenfi which throw’s out flames, and produces
violent tempefts, whenever any one beats a drum or
plays on a mufical inftrument near it. In the province
of Fokien is a mountain, the w’hole of which is an
idol, or ftatue of the god Fo. This natural coloffus,
for it appears not to have been the work of art, is
of fuch an enormous fize, that each of its eyes is fe-
veral miles in circumference, and its nofe extends fome
54 leagues.
Lakes and China has feveral large lakes $ the principal one is
nvers. that named Poyang-hou, in the province of Kiang-fi.
It is formed by the confluence of four large rivers; ex¬
tends near 100 leagues in length ; and, like the fea,
its waters are raifed into tempeftuous waves. The em¬
pire is watered by an immenfe number of rivers of dif¬
ferent fizes, of which two are particularly celebrated,
viz. the 'Tan$-tfe-kiang, or fon of the fea, and Haang-ho,
or the yellow river. The former rifes in the province
of Yun-nan, and pafling through Hou-quang and
Kiang-nan, falls into the eaflern ocean, after a courfe
of 1200 miles, oppofite to the ifland of Tfon-ming,
which is formed by the fand accumulated at its mouth.
This river is of immenfe fize, being half a league broad
at Nanking, which is near too miles from its mouth.
The navigation is dangerous, fo that great numbers
of veffels are loft on it. It runs with a rapid cur¬
rent, forming feveral iflands in its courfe, which are
again carried off and new ones formed in different
places, when the river is fwelled by the torrents from
the mountains. Thefe iflands, while they remain,
are very uftful ; producing great quantities of reeds
ten or twelve feet high, which are ufed in all the
neighbouring countries for fuel. The Hoang-ho, or
Yellow river, has its name from the yellow colour given
it by the clay and fand wafhed down in the time
11 1 CHI
of rain. It rifes in the mountains which border the China,
province of Te-tchuen on the weft, and after a courfe v
of near 600 leagues, difcharges itfelf into the eaftern
fea not far from the mouth of the Kiang. It is very
broad and rapid, but fo fhallow that it is fcarce navi¬
gable. It is very liable to inundations, often overflow¬
ing its banks, and deftroying whole villages. For this
reafon it has been found neceffary to confine it in fe¬
veral places by long and ftrong dykes; which yet do
not entirely anfwer the purpofe. The people of Ho¬
nan, therefore, whole land is exceedingly low, have
furrounded moft of their cities with ftrong ramparts of
earth faced wdth turf, at the diftance of three fur-
longs- . . . 55
The Chinefe have been at great pains to turn their Canals.
lakes and rivers to the advantage of commerce, by pro¬
moting an inland navigation. One of their principal
w’orks for this purpofe, is the celebrated canal reach¬
ing from Canton to Peking, «nd forming a communi¬
cation between the fouthern and northern provinces.
This canal extends through no lefs a fpace than 600
leagues ; but its navigation is interrupted in one place
by a mountain, where paffengers are obliged to travel
10 or 12 leagues over land. A number of other ca¬
nals are met with in this and other provinces; moft of
w’hich have been executed by the induftry of the inha¬
bitants of different cities and towms, in order to pro¬
mote their communication with the various parts of
the empire.^ M. Grofier remarks, that, in thefe works,
the Chinefe have “ furmounted obftacles that perhaps
would have difcouraged any other people : fuch, for
example, is part of a canal which condufts from Chao-
king to Nwg-po.'" Near thefe cities there are two ca¬
nals, the waters of which do not communicate, and
which differ ten or twxlve feet in their level. To
render this place paffable for boats, the Chinefe have
conftrufted a double glacis of large ftones, or rather
tw’o inclined planes, which unite in an acute angle at
their upper extremity, and extend on each fide to the
furface of the water. If the bark is in the lowrer ca¬
nal, they pufli it up the plane of the firft glacis by
means of feveral capftans, until it is raifed to the
angle, when by its own weight it glides down the fe-
cond glacis, and precipitates itfelf into the water of
the higher canal w'ith the velocity of an arrow. It is
aftonilhing that thefe barks, which are generally very
long and heavily loaden, never burft afunder when,
they are balanced on this acute angle ; however, w'e
never hear of any accident of this kind happening in
the paffage. It is true, they take the precaution of
ufing for their keels a kind of wood which is exceed¬
ingly hard, and proper for refilling the violence of
fuch an effort. ^
The following remarkable phenomenon in a Chinefe Remark-
river is related by Father le Couteux, a French mifliona- able river
ry. “ Some leagues above the village Che-pai (faysw 1 Part"
he), the river becomes confiderably fmaller, although
none of its waters flow’ into any other channel; and, h
eight or nine leagues below’, it refumes its former
breadth, W’ithout receiving any additional fupply, ex¬
cepting what it gets from a few fmall rivulets, w’hich
are almoft dry during the greater part of the year.
Oppofite to Che-pai it is fo much diminifhed, that,
excepting one channel, w’hich is not very broad, I have
paired and repaired it feveral times by the help of a com-
£ 2 mon
China.
57 .
Why China
is fubjedl
to famines,
notwith-
ftanding its
fertility.
G H 1 [
mon pole. I was always furprifed to find this river 10
narrow and fiiallow in that place; but I never thought of
inquiring into the caule of it, until the lofs ot a bark
belonging to a Chriftian family afforded me an op¬
portunity. In that place where the river diminilhes
almoft of a fudden, it flows with great impetuofity 5
and where it refumes its former breadth it is equally
rapid. At the fixth moon, when the water was high
and the wind ftrong, the bark I have mentioned ar¬
riving above Che-pai, was driven on a fand bank } for
between thefe two places the river is full of moveable
fands, which are continually fhifting their fituation.
The mafter of the boat dropped his anchor until the
wind Ihould abate, and permit him to continue Hs
voyage } but a violent vortex of moveable fand, which
was caff up from the bottom of the river, laid the
bark on its fide ; a fecpnd vortex fucceeded : then a
third ; and afterwards a fourth, which ihattered the
bark to pieces. When I arrived at the place where this
bark had been loft, the weather was mild and ferene ; I
perceived eddies in the current everywhere around,
which abforbed, and carried to the bottom of the ri¬
ver whatever floated on the furtace and I obferved
at the fame time, that the land w7as thrown violently
up with a vortical motion. Above thele eddies the
water wms rapid, but without any fall ^ and in the
place below, w'here the river refumes its ufual courfe,
no eddies are to be feen, but the fand is thrown up in
the fame violent manner ; and in fome places there
are water-falls and a kind of imall illands Icattered
at fome diftance from one another. 1 hefe illands
which appear above the furface ol the water, are not
folid earth, but confift of branches of trees, roots, and
herbs colkaed together. I was told that thefe boughs
rofe up from the wrater, and that no one knew7 the
place from whence they came. I was informed, that
thefe mafles, which were 40 or 50 feet in extent on
that fide on which we paffed, were immoveable, and
fixed in the bottom of the river •, that it was dange¬
rous to approach them, becaufe the water formed
whirlpools everywhere around them , that, houever,
when the river was very low, the filhermen fometimes
ventured to collect the bufhes that floated on its lur-
face, and w'hich they ufed tor fuel. 1 am of opinion,
that, at the place of the river which is above Che-pai,
the water falls into deep pits, from whence it forces
up the fand with that vortical motion 5 and that it
flows under-giound to the other place, eight or nine
leagues below, where it carries with it all the boughs,
weeds, and roots, which it wafhes dowm in its courfe,
and thus forms thofe illands which appear above its
furface. We know there are fome rivers that lofe
themfelves entirely, or in part, in the bowels of the
earth, and which afterwards arife in lome other place;
but I believe there never was one known to lofe part
of its water below its own channel, and again to re¬
cover it at the diftance of fome leagues.”
It has already been laid, that China is, in geneual,
a fertile country ; and indeed all travellers agree in this
refpeff, and make encomiums on the extent and beauty
of its plains. So careful are the hufbandmen of }kis
empire to lofe none of their ground, that neither in-
clofure, hedge, nor ditch, nay, fcarce a Angle tree,
are ever to be met with. In feveral places the land
yields tw7o crops a-year 3 apd even in the interval be-
2 ] CHI
tween the hatreds the people fovv feveral kinds of
pulfe and fmall grain. The plains of the northern u"
provinces yield wheat 3 thole of the fouthern, rice,
becaufe the country is low and covered with water.
Notwithftanding all this fertility, however, the inha¬
bitants are much more frequently afflifted with famine
than thofe of the European nations, though the coun¬
tries of Europe produce much lefs than China. lor
this two caufes are affigned. 1. The deftru6fion of
the riling crops by drought, hail, inundations, lo-
cufts, &c. in which cafe China cannot like the Eu¬
ropean countries be fupplied by importation. This is
evident by conlidering how it is fituated with regard
to other nations. On the north are the Mogul I ar-
tars, a lazy and indolent race, W'ho fublift principally
on the flelh of their flocks 3 fowing only a little mil¬
let for their own ufe. The province of Leatong,
which lies to the north-eaft, is indeed extremely fer¬
tile, but too far diftant from the capital and centre
of the empire to fupply it with provifions 3 and be-
fides, all carriage is imprafticable but in the winter,
when great quantities of game, and fiih, prelerved in
ice, are fent thither. No corn is brought from Corea
to China; and, though the Japan illands are only
three or four days failing from the Chinefe provinces
of Kiang-nan and Che-kyang, yet no attempt was
ever made to obtain provilions from thence ; whether
it be that the Japanefe have nothing to fpaie, or on
account of the infults offered by thefe iflanders to
foreign merchants. Formofa lies oppofite to the pro¬
vince of Fo-kien ; but lo far is that illand fiom being
able to fupply any thing, that in a time of fcarcity it
requires a fupply from China itfelf. The province of
Canton is alfo bounded by the fea, and has nothing
on the fouth but illands and remote countries. One
year, when rice was exceedingly Icarce there, the em¬
peror fent for F. Parranin, a Jefuit miflionary, and
a Iked him if the city of Macao could not furnilh
Canton with rice until the fupply he had ordered
from other provinces Ihould arrive : but was informed
that Macao had neither rice, corn, fruit, herbs, nor
flocks; and that it generally got from China what
was neceffary for its fubfiftence.—— 1 he only method,
therefore, the Chinefe can take to guard againft fa¬
mines arifing from thefe caufes, is to ereft granaries
and public magazines in every province and moft of
the principal cities of the empire. I his has at all
times been a principal objeft of care to the public mi-
niflers ; but though this mode of relief Hill takes
place in theory, fo many ceremonies are to be gone
through before any fupply can be diawrn fiom thofe
public’ repofitories, that it feldom arrives feafonably
at the places w’here it is wanted ; and thus numbers
of unhappy wretches perilh for want. 2. Another
caufe of the fcarcity of grain in this empire, k the
prodigious confumpt ol it in the compoution of wines,
and a fpirituous liquor called rack, jdut though go.-
vernment is well apprized that this is one of the prin¬
cipal fources of famine throughout the empire, it ne¬
ver employed means fufficient to prevent it. Piocla-
mations indeed have frequently been iffued, prohibi¬
ting the diftillation of rack ; and the appointed offi¬
cers will vifit the ftill-houfes and deftroy the furnaces
if nothing is given them ; but on flipping fome money
into their hands, they flrnt their eyes, and go foimj-
China.
ss
Immenfe
population.
CHI [
China, where elfe to receive another biibe. When the man-
darin himfelf goes about, however, thefe difHllers do
not efcape quite fo eafily, the workmen being whip-
ped and imprifoned, after which they are obliged to
carry a kind of collar called the Cangue ; the mafters
are likewife obliged to change their habitations and
conceal themfelves for a fhort time, after which they ge¬
nerally refume their operations. It is impoffible, how¬
ever, that any method of this kind can prove effec¬
tual in fupprefling thefe manufaftories while the li¬
quors themfelves are allowed to be fold publicly ; and
again!! this there is no law throughout the empire.
Our author, however, juftly obferves, that in cale of
a prohibition of this kind, the grandees would be ob¬
liged to deny themfelves the ufe of thefe luxuries,
w'hich would be too great a facrifice for the good of
the empire.
The population of China is fo great, in compari-
fon with that of the European countries, that the ac¬
counts of it have generally been treated as fabulous by
the weftern nations} but by an accurate inveftigation
of fome Chinefe records concerning the number of
perfons liable to taxation throughout the empire, M.
Grofier has (howled that it cannot be lefs than 200
millions. For this extraordinary population he afligns
the following caufes. 1. The ftrid! obfervance of fi¬
lial duty throughout the empire, and the prerogatives
of fraternity, which make a fon the moft valuable pro¬
perty of a father. 2. The infamy attached to the me¬
mory of thofe who die without children. 3. The uni-
verfal cuftom by w'hich the marriage of children be¬
comes the principal concern of the parents. 4. The
honours bellowed by the Hate on thofe widows who
do not marry a fecond time. 5. Frequent adoptions,
which prevent families from becoming extindl. 6. The
return of wealth to its original (lock by the difin-'
heriting of daughters. 7. The retirement of wives,
which renders them more complaifant to their huf-
bands, faves them from a number of accidents when
big with child, and conftrains them to employ them¬
felves in the care of their children. 8. The mar¬
riage of foldiers. 9. The fixed ftate of taxes ; which
being always laid upon lands, never fall but indireflly
on the trader and mechanic. 10. The fmall number
of faxlors and travellers. J I. To thefe may be added
the great number of people who refide in China only
by intervals ; the profound peace which the empire
enjoys ; the frugal and laborious manner in which the
great live ; the little attention that is paid to the vain
and ridiculous prejudice of marrying below’ one’s rank;
the ancient policy of giving diftinftion to men and not
to families, by attaching nobility only to employ¬
ments and talents, without fuffering it to become he¬
reditary. And, 12. laftly, A decency of public man¬
ners, and a total ignorance of fcandalous intrigues and
gallantry.
Extravagant, however, and almoft incredible as this
account of the population of China may appear to fome,
we have very high and refpedlable authority for be¬
lieving that it is much below the truth. Whether the
caufes of this phenomenon, as above enumerated by
M. Grofier, be the only ones affignable, it is certain
that the immenfe population of this country amounted
$ In 1753. to 333,000,000 at the time when Sir George Staunton*
13 1 chi
vifited it in the capacity of fecretary to the Britifh
plenipotentiary, as appears from the following elli-
mate of the population of each province, made by
Chow-ta-zhin, and taken from his official documents.
China.
Provinces.
Population.
Pe-che-lee,
Kiang-nan, twro provinces,
Kiang-fee,
Tche kiang,
Fo-chen,
Hou-pe I TT
Hou-nan j Hou,'l,anS>
Ho-nan,
Shan-tung,
Shan Tee,
Shen-fee,
Kan-fou,
Se-chuen,
Canton,
Quang-fee,
Yu-nan,
Koei-cheou,
*
f H,
(AS,
38,000,000
32,000,000
19,000,000
21,000,000
15,000,000
000,000
000,000
25,000,000
24,000,000
27,000,000
18,000,000
12,000,000
2 7,000,000
21,000,000
10,000,000
8,000,000
9,000,000
333'000>0°0
59 .
Population
of the dif¬
ferent pro¬
vinces.
7'his prodigious fum total may exceed the belief of
thofe who are only accuftomed to calculate from ana¬
logy, not recollefting that China cannot have its po¬
pulation reduced by thole futi'e caufes, war and de¬
bauchery, the former deltroying mankind by thoufands,
and the latter rendering them unproductive. 6b
The government of China, according to the AbbetTn !IT1'te^
Grofier, is purely patriarchal. The emperor is more aut^or,t>r
unlimited in his authority than any other potentate on' 2^ en*"
earth 5 no fentence of death, pronounced by any of
the tribunals, can be executed without his conient,
and every verdiCl in civil affairs is fubjeCl to be reviled
by him ; nor can any determination be of force until
it has been confirmed by the emperor : and, on the
contrary, whatever fentence he paffes is executed with¬
out delay ; his ediCls are refpeCled throughout the em¬
pire as if they came from a divinity ; he alone has the
difpofal of all offices, nor is. there any fuch thing as
the purchafe of places in China ; merit, real or fiup,
pofed, raifes to an office, and rank is attached to it on¬
ly. Even the fucceffion to the throne is not altoge¬
ther hereditary. The emperor of China has a power
of choofing his own fucceffbr without confulting any
of his nobility ; and can feleCt one not only°from
among his own children, but even from the body of his
people ; and there have been feveral inftances of his
making ufe of this right: and he has even a power cf
altering the fucceffion after it has once been fixed, in
cafe the perfon pitched upon does not behave towards
him with proper refpeft. The emperor can alfo pre¬
vent the princes of the blood from exercifing the title
with which, according to the conffitution of the em¬
pire, they are invefted. They may indeed, notwith-
ftanding this, poffefs their hereditary dignity ; in
which cafe they are allowed a revenue proportioned
to their high birth, as well as a palace, officers, and
CHI [
China, a court •, but they have neither influence nor power,
v Tl' and their authority is lower than that of the raeanelt
61 mandarin.
Mandarins The mandarins are of two clafles, viz. thofe of let-
terS’ anC^ t^ie 'n^er'or ^ort’ fty^ecl mandarins of arms.
The latter by no means enjoy the lame confideration
with the former fort; indeed in China the literati are
highly honoured, and to their influence M. Grofier
luppofes that we may in a great meafure afcribe the
mildnefs and equity of the government j though he
thinks that the balance may incline rather too much
in their favour. Several degrees, anfwering to thofe
of bachelor, licentiate, and doctor, mull be pafled
through before one can attain to the dignity of a man¬
darin of letters; though fometimes, by the favour of
the emperor, it is conferred on thofe who have attain¬
ed only the two firft degrees : but even the perfons
who have gone through all the three, enjoy at firfl:
only the government of a city of the fecond or third
clafs. When feveral vacancies happen in the govern¬
ment of cities, the emperor invites to court a corre-
fponding number of the literati, whofe names are
written down in a lift. The names of the vacant go¬
vernments are then put into a box, raifed fo high that
the candidates are able only to reach it with their
hands j after which they draw in their turns, and each
is appointed governor of the city whofe name he has
drawn.
There are eight orders of thefe mandarins in China.
I. The calao, from whom are chofen the minifters of
flate, the prefidents of the fupretne courts, and all the
fuperior officers among the militia. The chief of this
order prefides alfo in the emperor’s council, and en¬
joys a great ffiare of his confidence. 2. The te-hiofe,
or man of acknowledged ability, is a title bellowed
upon every mandarin of the fecond rank j and from
thefe are felefted the viceroys and prelidents of the
fupreme council in the different provinces. 3. The
ichong-tchueo, or fchool of mandarins, aft as fecretaries
to the emperor. 4. T-tchuen-tao. Thefe keep in re¬
pair the harbours, royal lodging houfes, and barks,
wffiich belong to the emperor, unlefs particularly en¬
gaged in fome other office by his order. 5. The ting-
pi-tao have the infpeftion of the troops. 6. The tun-
tien-hao have the care of the highways. 7. The ho-
tao fuperintend the rivers. 8. The hai-tao infpeft the
fea-coafts.
7'hus the whole adminiftration of the Chinefe em¬
pire is intrufted to the mandarins of letters j and the
homage paid by the common people to every manda¬
rin in office, almoft equals that paid to the emperor
himfelf. This indeed flows from the nature of their
government. In China it is a received opinion that
the emperor is the father of the whole empire j that
the governor of a province is the father of that pro¬
vince j and that the mandarin who is governor of a
city is alfo the father of that city. This idea is pro-
duftive of the highelt refpeft and fubmiffion, which is
not at all leffened by their great number ; for though
the mandarins of letters amount to more than 14,000
the fame refpeft is paid to every one of them.
The mandarins of arms are never indulged with any
fhare in the government of the Hate; however, to at¬
tain to this dignity, it is alfo neceffary to pafs through
the degrees of bachelor, licentiate, and doftor of arms.
14 ] CHI
rl he accomplilhments neceffary for a mandarin of arms China,
are, ftrength of body, with agility and readinefs in per- ^T-—^
forming the various military exercifes, and compre¬
hending the orders requifite for the profeffion of arms j
an examination on thefe fubjefts mull be undergone
before the candidate can attain the wiffied-for ditr-
nity* . . 6z
7 he mandarins of arms have tribunals, the members Tribunal of
of which are felefted fiom among their chiefs ^ and the manda-
among thefe they reckon princes, counts, and dukes }rinso*
for all thefe dignities, or fomething equivalent to them, alIr'‘s,
are met with in China. The principal of thefe tiibu-
nals is held at Peking, and confifts of five claffes,
1. The mandarins of the rear-guard, called heou-fouy
2. Of the left w ing, or tfa-fou. 3. Of the right w ing,
or yeou-feou. 4. Of the advanced main-guard, or te-
hong fou. 5. Of the advanced guard, or tjien-fou. Thefe
five tribunals are fubordinate to one named iong-tching-
fou ; the prefident of which is one of the great lords of
the empire, whofe authority extends over all the mili¬
tary men in the empire. By his high dignity he could
render himfelf formidable even to the emperor \ but to
prevent this inconvenience, he has for his affeffor a
mandarin of letters, who enjoys the title and exercifes
the funftion of fuperintendant of arms. He mull al¬
fo take the advice of two infpeftors w ho are named by
the emperor 5 and wffien thefe four have agreed upon
any meafure, their refolution muft Hill be fubmit-
ted to the revifal of an higher court named />ing-f>out
which is entirely of a civil nature. The chief of thefe
mandarins is a general of courfe, wffiofe powders are
equivalent to thofe of our commanders in chief; and
below him are other mandarins who aft as fubordinate
officers.
Thefe twro claffes of mandarins compofe what is
called the nobility of China : but as we have already
hinted, their office is not hereditary; the emperor
alone continues or confers it. They have the privilege
of remonftrating to the emperor, either as individuals
or in a body, upon any part of his conduft which ap¬
pears contrary to the interefts of the empire. Thefe
remonftrances are feldom ill received, though the fove-
reign complies with them only when he himfelf thinks
proper. The number of literary mandarins in China is
computed at upwards of 14,000 ; and thofe of arms at
18,000 ; the former, however, are confidered as the
principal body in the empire ; and this preference is
thought to damp the military ardour of the nation in
general, and to be one caufe of that weaknefs in war
for which the Chinefe are remarkable. N g
The armies of this empire are proportioned to its Military
vaft extent and population ; being computed in time force,
of peace at more than 700,000. Their pay amounts
to about twopence half-penny and a meafure of rice
per day, though fome of them have double pay, and
the pay of a horfeman is double that of a foot foldier ;
the emperor furnifhes a horfe, and the horfeman re¬
ceives two meafures of fmall beans for his daily fub-
fiftence ; the arrears of the army being punftually paid
up every three months.
The aims of a horfeman are, a helmet, cuirafs, lance,
and fabre; thofe of a foot foldier are a pike and fabre;
fome have fufees, and others bows and arrows. All
thefe are carefully infpefted at every review’; and if
any of them are foupd in the leaft railed, or otherwife
in
CTuna.
64
Ufe of fire¬
arms loft
and revi¬
ved.
CHI [15
in bad condition, the poffeflbr is Inftantly puniflied^ if
a Chinefe, with 30 or 40 blows of a flick j or if a
Tartar, with as many lafltes.
Though the ufe of gun powder is certainly very
ancient in China, it appears to have baen afterwards
totally loft, at leaft fire arms feem to have been al-
moft entirely unknown fome centuries ago. Three or
four cannon were to be feen at that time about the
gates of Nanking ; but not a Angle perfon in China
knew how to make ufe of them ; fo that, in 1621,
when the city of Macao made a prefent of three pie¬
ces of artillery to the emperor, it was found necef-
fary alfo to fend three men to load them. The utility
of thefe weapons was quickly perceived by the ex¬
ecution which the three cannon did againft the Tar¬
tars, at that time advanced as far as the great wall.
When the invaders threatened to return, the manda¬
rins of arms gave it as their opinion, that cannons
were the beft arms they could make ufe of againft
them. They were then taught the art of calling
cannon by F. Adam Schaal and Veroieft, two Jefuit
miflionaries, and their artillery was increafed to the
number of 320 pieces ; at the fame time that they
were inftrufted in the method of fortifying towns,
and conftrufling fortreffes and other buildings accord¬
ing to the rules of modern architeflure.
The beft foidiers in China are procured from the
three northern provinces, the others being feldom cal¬
led forth, but allowed to remain at peace with their
families j indeed there is not often occafion for exert¬
ing their military talents, unlefs it be in the quelling
of an infurre&ion, when a mandarin or governor ufual-
ly accompanies them. They march in a very tumul¬
tuous manner, but want neither (kill nor agility in
performing theis different evolutions. They, in ge¬
neral, handle a fabre well, and {hoot very dexteroufly
with bows and arrows. There are in China more
than 2000 places of arms •, and through the different
provinces there are difperfed about 3000 towers or
cattles, all of them defended by garrifons. Soldiers
continually mount guard there •, and on the firft ap¬
pearance of tumult, the neareft centinel makes a fig-
rial from the top of the tower, by horfting a flag in the
day time, or lighting a torch in the night 5 when the
neighbouring garrifons immediately repair to the place
where their prelence is neceffary.
Account of The principal defence of the empire againft a fo-
the great reign enemy is the great wall which feparates China
from Tartary, extending more than 130® miles in
length, and of fuch thicknefs that fix horfemen may
eafily ride abreaft upon it. It is flanked with towers
two bow-fhots diftant from one another •, and it is faid
that a third of the able-bodied men in the empire
were employed in conftrufling it. The workmen
were ordered under pain of death, to place the ma¬
terials fo clofely, that not the leaft entrance might be
afforded for any inftrument of iron 5 and thus the
work was conftrufted with fuch folidity, that it is {fill
almoft entire, though 2000 years have elapfed fince it
was conftrudled. This extraordinary w7ork is carried
on not only through the low lands and valleys, but
over hills and mountains ; the height of one of which
wras computed by. F. Verbieft at 1236 feet above the
level of the fpot where he flood. According to F.
Martini it begins at the gulf of Lea-tong, and reaches
C H I
China.
«5
wall.
to the mountains near the city of Kin on the Yellow
river ; between which places it meets with no inter¬
ruption except to the north of the city ol Suen in
the province of Pecheli, where it is interrupted by a
ridge of hideous and inacceflible mountains, to which
it is clofely united. It is likewife interrupted by the
river Hoang-ho ; but for others of an inferior fize,
arches have been conftru6ted, through which the wa¬
ter paffes freely. IVIr Bell informs us, that it is car¬
ried acrofs rivers, and over the tops of the higheft hills,
without the leaft interruption, keeping nearly along
that circular range of barren rocks which inclofes the
country j and, alter running about 12CO miles, ends
in impaffable mountains and fandy deferts. i he foun¬
dation confifts of large blocks of ftone laid in mortar j
but all the reft is of brick. The whole is io ftrong
and well built, that it fcarcely needs any repairs ; and,
in the dry climate in which it Hands, may remain in
the fame condition for many ages, When cairied.
over fteep rpcks, where no horfe can pals, it is about
15 or 20 feet high , but when running through a val¬
ley, or crofting a river, it is about 30 feet high, wuh
fquare torvers and embrafures at equal diftances. Ti he
top is flat, and paved with cut ftone } and where it
tifes over a rock or eminence, there is an afeent made
by an eafy ftone flair. “ This wall.(our author adds)
was begun and completely finiftied in the fhort Ipace
of five years ; and it is reported, that the labourers
flood fo clofeTor many miles, that they could hand
the materials from one to another. I his feems the
more probable, as the rugged rocks among which it
is built muft have prevented all ule of carriages j and
neither clay for making bricks, nor any kind ol ce¬
ment, are to be found among them.”
To this account of the moft aftonifhing produ&ion
of human labour and induftry to be met with on the
face of the earth, we may add, that if to its prodigious
length of 1500 miles, we affume as true, the’pr°hable
conjefture that its dimenfions throughout are nearly the
fame as where it was crofled by the Britilh embafly, it
contains materials more than fufficient to ered all the
dwelling houfes in England and Scotland, even admit¬
ting their number td be 1,800,000, and each to con¬
tain 20CO cubic feet of malonry. In this calculation
the huge projeding maffes of ftone called towers, aie
not included, which of themfelves would ered a city
as large as London. To aflift the conceptions of our
readers ftill farther refpeding this Angular and ftupen-
dous fabric, we (hall only obferve, that were its materi¬
als converted into a wall 12 feet high and four feet
thick, it would poffefs fufficient length to furround the
globe at its equatorial circumference.
The whole civil government of China is managed Courts by
by the following courts. 1. The emperor’s grand^hthe
council, compofed of all the minifters ol ftate, PreA* vernIi)ent
dents and affeffors of the fix fovereign courts, and ofjsinana-
three others, to be afterwards mentioned.- This is ged.
never affembled but on affairs of the greateft impor¬
tance ; the emperor’s private council being lubftituted
to it in all cafes of fmaller moment. 2. I he chiei of
the other courts furnifhes mandarins for the differ¬
ent provinces, watches over their condud, keeps a
journal of their tranfadions, and informs the emperor
of them, who rewards or punilhes according to the re¬
port he gets. *
66
This
China.
67.
Partiality
of govern¬
ment to¬
wards the
Ghinefc.
C H I
This fecond tribunal, which may be called a
of civil inquifition, is fubdivided into four others ; the
firft entrufted with the care of felling thole who, on
account of their learning or other good properties, are
capable of filling the offices of government ; the lecond
appointed to take care of the condua of the mandarins;
the third affixing the feals to the different public aas
giving the feals to mandarins, and examining thole ot
the different difpatches •, while the fourth inquires in¬
to the merit of the grandees of the empire, not except¬
ing the princes of the imperial blood themfelves. I he
principal fovereign court to which thcfe four lad aie
fubordinate is called Ln-pou. . .
2 Hou-pou, or the grand treafurer, fupenntends all
the finances of the Hate ; is the guardian and protec¬
tor of the treafures and dominions of the emperor,
keeping an account of his revenues, &c. fupeiintend-
ing the management and coining ot money, the pu
lie magazines, cuftomhoufes *, and, laftly, keeping an
exaft regifter of all the families in the empire. To
a flirt this court, 14 others are appointed throughout the
different provinces of the empire. #
2 Li-t>ou, or the court of ceremonies. “ It is an
undoubted fact (fays M. Grofier), that ceremonies
form, in part, the bafe of the Chinefe government.
This tribunal therefore takes care to fupport them,
and enforce their obfervance ; it infpefts alio the arts
and fciences. It is confulted by the emperor when he
defigns to confer particular honours •, takes care of
the annual facrifices offered up by him, and even re¬
gulates the entertainments which he gives either to
flrangers or to his own fubjefts. It alio receives and
entertains foreign ambaffadors, and preferves tranquil¬
lity among the different religious fefts in the empire.
It is aflifted by four inferior tribunals.
4. Ping-pou, or the tribunal of arms, comprehends
in its jurifdiirticm the whole militia of the empire } in-
fpefting'alfo the fortreffes, magazines, arfenals, and
ftore-houfes of every kind, as well as the manufafto-
ries of arms both offenfive and defenfive j examining
and appointing officers of every rank. It is com-
pofed entirely of mandarins of letters } and the
four tribunals depending upon it confift alio of li-
lerat!.**
The hong-pou is the criminal bench for the whole
empire, and is aflifted by 14 fubordinate tribunals.
6. The cong-pou, or tribunal of public wrorks, fur-
veys and keeps in repair the emperor’s palaces, as well
as thofe of the princes and viceroys, and the buildings
where the tribunals are held, with the temples, tombs
of the fovereigns, and all public monuments.^ It has
befides the fuperintendence of the ftreets, public high-
wavs, bridges, lakes, rivers, and every thing relating
either to internal or foreign navigation. Four^ inferior
tribunals aflift in the difeharge of thefe duties-, the
firft drawing the plans of public works ; the fecond
direfting-the workdhops in the different cities of the
empire the third furveying the caufeways, roads,
bridges, canals, &c. $ and the fourth taking care of
the emperor’s palaces, gardens, and orchards, and re¬
ceiving their produce.
All the tribunals are compofed, one half of Chi¬
nefe, and the other of Tartars } and one of the pre-
fidents of each fuperior tribunal is always a Tartar
born. None of the courts above defciibed, however,
2
China.
63
[ ‘6 1 CH I
kind has abfolute authority even in its own jurifdiftion 5
nor can its decifions be carried into execution without
the concurrence of another tribunal, and fometimes of
fcveral others. The fourth tribunal, for inftance, has
indeed under its jurifdiftion the whole troops of the
empire } but the payment of them is entrufted with
the fecond-, while the fixth has the care of the arms,
tents, chariots, barks, and ftores neceffary for military
operations -, fo that nothing relative to thefe can be
put in execution without the concurrence of all the
three tribunals. # --
To prevent any unlawful combination among the Centers
tribunals, each has its cenfor appointed. This is an
officer whofe duty is merely to watch. over the pro¬
ceedings of the court, without deciding upon any
thing himfelf. He aflifts therefore at all aflemblies,
revifes all their a&s, and without acquainting the court
in the leaft with either his fentiments or intentions,
immediately informs the emperor of what he judges
to be amifs. He likewife gives information of the
behaviour of the mandarins, either in the public ad-
miniftration of affairs, or in their private _ conduft -,
nay, fometimes he wdll not Icruple to reprimand the
emperor for what he fuppofes to be erroneous in his
condmft.
Thefe cenfors are never removed from their places
but in order to be promoted j and thus, holding their
offices for life, they have the greater courage to fpeak
out when they obferve any impropriety or abufe.
Their accufation is fufficient to fet on foot an inquiry,
which generally leads to a proof j in which cafe the
accufed is difeharged from his office, and never held in
any eftimation afterwards. The complaints of the cen¬
fors, however, are referred to the very tribunals againft
whofe members they complain 5 though, being afraid of
an accufation themfelves, they very feldom pafs fen-
tence againft the accufers.
Befides all this, the cenfors alfo form a tribunal of
their own, named tou-tche-yven. Its members have a
right of remonftrating with the emperor, whenever his
own intereft or that of the public renders it neceflary.
They irifpeft all lawyers and military men in public
employments. il In {hart (fays M. Grofier), they
are, morally fpeaking, placed between the prince and
the mandarins ; between the mandarins and the peo¬
ple j between the people and families y betw'een fami¬
lies and individuals y and they generally unite to the
importance of their office incorruptible probity and in¬
vincible courage. The fovereign may, if he proceeds
to rigour, take away their lives y but many of them
have patiently fuffered death, rather than betray the
caufe of truth, or wink at ,abufes. It is not fufficient
therefore to have got rid of one, they muft all be treat¬
ed in the fame manner y the laft that might be fpared
would tread in the fame fteps with no lefs refolution
than thofe who went before him. In the annals ol no
nation do we find an example of fuch a tribunal, yet
it appears to be neceffary in all, without exception.
We muft not, however, imagine, that the privileges of
a cenfor give him a right to forget his duty to his
fovereign, or to communicate to the public thofe re¬
marks which he takes the liberty of making to him .
were he only to give the leaft hint of them to his col¬
leagues, he would be puniffied with death y and he
would {hare the fame fate did he, in any of his repre-
fentations,
China.
i , •
<>9
Two courts
peculiar to
China.
70
Filial piety
the balls
of all their
laws.
Of their
marriages.
72
Divorces,
unJawful
marriages,
&c.
CHI [ 1
fentations, fufFer a Tingle word, inconfiftent with mode¬
ration or refpeft, to efcape him.”
There are dill two other courts in China, both of
them peculiar to the empire, which deferve to be men¬
tioned. The firft is that of princes j and which, in
conformity with its title, is compofed of princes only.
In the regilfers of this tribunal are infcribed the names
of all the children of the imperial family as foon as
they are born : and to thefe are alfo configned the
dignities and titles which the emperor confers upon
them. This is the only tribunal where the princes can
be tried j and here they are abfolved or punifhed ac¬
cording to the pleafure of the judges.
The other tribunal is that of hiftory, called by the
Chinefe han-lin-yvan. It is compofed of the greatelt
geniufes of the empire, and of men of the mold pro¬
found erudition. Thefe are entrulled with the edu¬
cation of the heir apparent to the throne, and the
compilation and arrangement of the general hiidory of
the empire *, which laft part of their office renders
them formidable even to tbe emperor himfelf. From
this body the mandarins of the lirft clafs, and the pre-
lidents of the fupreme clafs, are generally chofen.
The balls of all the civil laws of the Chinefe is fi¬
lial piety. Every mandarin, who is a governor either
of a province or city, muft inftrudd the people aflhm-
bled round him twice a-month, and recommend to
them the obfervance of certain falutary rules, which
are fummed up in a few ffiort fentences, and fuch as
no perfon can ever be fuppofed capable of forget-
ting.
The Chinefc are allowed only to have one wife,
whofe rank and age muft be nearly equal to that of
their hulbands ; but they are allowed to have feveral
concubines, whom they may admit into their houfes
without any formality, after paying the parents a fum
of money, and entering into a written engagement to
ufe their daughters well. Thefe concubines, however,
are all in fubje&ion to the lawful wife 5 their child¬
ren are confidered as hers ; they addrefs her as mother,
and can give this title to her only. A perfon that has
once been married, whether man or woman, may law¬
fully marry again, but it is then no longer neceflary to
ftudy equality of age or condition. A man may choofe
his fecond wife from among his concubines j and, in
ail cafes, this new marriage requires very few forma¬
lities. A widow is abfolute miftrefs of herfelf, and can
neither be compelled by her parents to marry again,
nor to continue in a ftate of widowhood, contrary
to her own inclination. Thofe of moderate rank, how¬
ever, who have no children, do not enjoy the fame
privilege ; as the parents of the former hufband can
difpofe of her in marriage, not only without her con-
fent, but without her knowledge. The law authorizes
the difpofal of them in this manner, in order to indem¬
nify the relations of the deceafed hufband for the mo¬
ney they may have coft him. If the wife is left big
with child, this cannot take place, until fhe is deli¬
vered •, nor can it be done at all if fhe brings forth a
fon. There are likewife two exceptions ; 1. when the
parents of the widow affign her a proper maintenance j
and, 2. it the widow embraces a religious life, and be¬
comes a bonzefle.
Divorces are allowed in China in cafes of adultery,
mutual difiike, incompatibility of tempers, jealoufy,
Vol. VI. Part I.
7 1
C H I
&.c. No hufband, however, can put away or fell his
wife until a divorce is legally obtained ; and if this re¬
gulation be not ftridlly obferved, the buyer and feller
become equally culpable. If a wife, lawfully married,
privately withdraws herfelf from her hufband, he may
immediately commence an aftion at law j by the fen-
tence of which ffie becomes his flave, and he is at li¬
berty to fell her to whom he pleafes. On the other
hand, if a hufband leaves his wife for three years, ftie
is at liberty, after laying her cafe before the mandarins,
to take another hufband ; but if fhe were to anticipate
their confent, ffie would be liable to a fevere punilh-
ment.
Marriage is deemed illegal in China in the follow'-
ing cafes. 1. If the young woman has been betrothed,
to a young man, and prefents have been given and re¬
ceived by the parents of the intended hufband and
wife. 2. If in the room of a beautiful young wo¬
man another be fubftituted of a difagreeable figure ;
or if the daughter of a free man marry his flave ; or
if any one give his flave to a free Woman, pretending
to her parents that he is his fon or relation. In all
thefe cafes the marriage is null and void j and all thofe
who have had any fhare in making up the match are
feverely punifhed.
3. Any mandarin of letters is forbidden to form an
alliance with any family refiding in the province or city
of which he is governor.
4. No Chinefe youth can enter into a ftate of mar¬
riage during the time of mourning for his father or
mother j and if promifes have been made before, they
ceafe immediately on that event taking place. After
the ufual time of mourning is expired, however, the
parents of the intended bride are obliged to write to
thofe of the young man, putting him in mind of his
engagement.
5. Marriage is alfo fufpended when a family expe¬
riences any fevere misfortune, and even if a near rela¬
tion were thrown into prifon •, though this may be fet
afide, provided the unfortunate perfon give his con¬
fent.
6. Two brothers cannot marry two lifters ; nor is
a widower at liberty to marry his fon to the daughter
of a widow whom he choofes for his own wife. A
man is alfo forbidden to mairy any of his own rela¬
tions, however diftant the degree of confanguinity be¬
tween them.
In China every father of a family is refponfible for
the conduft of his children, and even of his domef-
tics ; all thofe faults being imputed to him which it
was his duty to have prevented. Every father has the
power of felling his fon, “ provided (fays the law)
the fon has a right of felling himfelf.” This cuftom,
however, is barely tolerated among the middling and
inferior ranks ; and all are forbidden to fell them to
comedians, or people of infamous charafter or very
mean ftations.
In China a fon remains a minor during the whole
lifetime, and is even liable for the debts contratled by
his father, thofe from gaming only excepted. Adop¬
tion is authorized by law, and the adopted child imme¬
diately enters into all the rights of a lawful fon ; only
the law gives a right to the father of making a few
difpofitions in favour of his real children. The chil¬
dren, however, whether adopted or not, cannot fuc-
C ceed
China.
China.
. 73
Criminal
Code.
CHI [ i
cced to the dignity or titles of their father, though
' they may to his eftate. The emperor alone can con¬
fer honours ; and even then they mult be refigned
when the perfon attains the age of 70; though this
refignation is confidered as an advice rather than a
law. The will of a father cannot be fet afide in China
on account of any informality j nor can any mother in
this empire make a will.
Though the Chinefe laws authorize llavery, yet the
power of the mailer extends only to thofe matters
which concern his own fervice 5 and he would be pu-
nilhed with death for taking advantage of his power to
debauch the wife of his Have.
By the laws of China hufbandmen are exempt from
the payment of taxes after they have begun to till the
earth to the beginning of harveft.
It appears, from recent information refpefting many
interelling particulars relating to China, that the ut-
molt attention feems to have been paid to the different
degrees of enormity attached to thofe adtions of men
which are denominated criminal. The code of laws
is pronounced the reverfe of fanguinary, and it is affirm¬
ed by competent judges, that if the practice in all re-
fpedts coincided with the theory, few nations couldboaft
of a milder or more effedtual adminiftration of jultice.
But while they do not confider the crime of pilfering a
few fmall pieces of money as of equal enormity with the
ihedding of human blood, yet they pay too little at¬
tention to the three different circumltances under which
that adtion may exift ; either as accidental, uninten¬
tional as to the extent of taking away life, or malici-
oufly premeditated. Even foreigners who have the
misfortune to kill a Chinefe, however cafually it/ may
be done, have been puniflied in the very fame manner
as-a traitor or deliberate affaffin. As foreigners in¬
tending to relide in China may be at a lofs to deter¬
mine how, when, and by what various means their
lives may be endangered, the following abftradt of the
criminal code of that country may perhaps be benefi¬
cial to fome of our readers.
1. A man who kills another on the fuppofition of
theft, {hall be firangled, according to the law of homi¬
cide committed in an affray.
2. A man who fires at another with a mulket, and
kills him, {hall be beheaded, as in cafes of wilful mur¬
der. If the fufferer be wounded, but not mortally,
the offender fiiall be fent into exile.
3. A man who puts to death a criminal who had
been apprehended, and made no refiftance, {hall be
ftrangled, according to the law againft homicide com¬
mitted in an affray.
4. A man who falfely accufes an innocent perfon of
theft (in cafes of greateft criminality) is guilty of a
capital offence ; in all other cafes the offenders, whe¬
ther principals or acceffaries, fhall be fent into ex¬
ile.
5. A man who wounds another unintentionally,
lhall be tried according to the law refpedting blows
given in an affray, and the puniffiment rendered more
or lefs fevere, according to the degree of injury fuf-
tained.
6. A man who, intoxicated with liquor, commits
outrages againft the laws, {hall be exiled to a defert
country, there to remain in a ftate of fervitude.
For this abftraft we are indebted to the humane in-
8 ] CHI
terference of the fupercargoes of the Eaft India Com- China.
pany, on account of the difagreeable difputes which
frequently took place with the Chinefe government,
owing to accidents of the moft trivial nature, wffiich
the people fometimes met with from the Britifti in the
port of Canton.
The blood of a traitor is fuppofed to be contamina¬
ted in this country to the 10th generation, although
the law in general is conceived to be fatisfied with im¬
plicating the neareft male relatives in the guilt of the
adtual perpetrator of the crime, but with commutation
of puniftiment from death to exile. It appears to us,
that nothing can be conceived more tyrannical than a
law7 which pretends to inflidl puniffiment on an inno¬
cent perfon, fince no man can be a traitor, merely
from the circumftance of his being the relation of one,
and the abfurdity of fuppofing that a non-exiftence is
capable of committing a crime, muft be obvious to
every man. The fifth law in the forementioned ex¬
tract is peculiarly cruel and unjuft, fince it fubjefts a
man to different degrees of puniffiment, according to
the different effedts which thofe adtions may produce.
It is wdth a degree of national pride that we turn from
this cruel, abfurd fpecimen of Chinefe legiflation, this
ftrange judicial thermometer, if wre may be allowed
the expreffion, to the nice difcriminations which are
made by the law's of our own country refpedting the
{bedding of blood, the gradations of guilt attending
which we have already mentioned, and which are dif-
tinguiffied by the appropriate names of manflavghter,
culpable homicide, and wilful murder.
The denunciations of Mofes, it may be faid, have
fome refemblance to this gothic code ot the Chinele,
efpecially when he declares that the deity would vifit
the iniquities of the fathers upon the children to the
third and fourth generation. It is not our province in
this account of China, to write an apology for Mofes in
this particular inftance, although It muft be granted that
he had a moft obrtinate and refraftory race of beings to
govern, and to preferve a becoming degree of order and
fubordination among them. He might therefore have no¬
thing more in view than political expedience, an opi¬
nion wffiich we are the more encouraged to entertain,
when wTe find the prophet Ezekiel reprobating the
idea of making the innocent fuffer for the guilty, in
the following beautiful paffage. “ What mean ye that
ye ufe this proverb concerning the land of Ifrael, fay¬
ing, the fathers have eaten four grapes, and the chil¬
dren’s teeth are fet on edge ? As I live, faith the Lord,
ye {hall not have occafion any more to ufe this proverb
in Ilrael. Behold all fouls are mine ; as the foul of
the father, fo alfo the foul of the fon, is mine. The
foul that finneth, it {hall die. The fon ffiall not bear
the iniquity of the father, neither ffiall the father bear
the iniquity of the fon : the righteoufnefs of the right¬
eous ihall be upon him, and the wickednefsof the wick¬
ed {hall be upon him.”
In criminal matters every perfon accufed muft be
examined before five or fix tribunals 5 and whofe in¬
quiries are dire&ed not only againft him, but againft
his accufer, and the witneffes that appear in the caufe.
He is, however, obliged to remain in prifon during
the procefs : “ but (fays M. Grofier) the Chinefe
prifons are not horrible dungeon'ylike thofe of fo ma¬
ny other nations) they are fpacious, and have even a
fihlna.
‘74, ,
Method of
inftidting
the bafti-
stado.
7S
The cangue.
CHI [i
degree of convenience. One of tlie mandarins is ob¬
liged to infpeft them frequently ; and this he does
with the greater punftuality, as he muft anfvver for
thofe who are lick. He is obliged to fee them pro¬
perly treated, to fend for phyficians, and to fupply
them with medicines at the emperor’s expence. If
any of them dies, he muft inform the emperor, who
perhaps will order fome of the higher mandarins to ex¬
amine whether the former has difcharged his duty faith¬
fully or not.
The flighteft punilhment in China is the baftinado •,
and the number of blows is to be determined by the
degree of the offender’s guilt. Twenty is the lovveft
number ; and in this cafe the punilhment is confider-
ed as having nothing infamous in it, but being only a
fimple paternal correflion. In this way the emperor
fometimes orders it to be intlidfed on his courtiers}
which does not prevent them from being afterwards
received into favour, and as much refpedted as before.
Every mandarin may inflidl the baftinado when any
one forgets to falute him, or w'hen he fits in judgment
in public. The inftrument of correflion is called pan-
tfee, and is a piece of bamboo a little flatted, broad
at the bottom, and polifiied at the upper extremity,
in order to manage it more eafily with the hand.
WTen the punilhment is to be inflidled, the magif-
trate fits gravely behind a table, having on it a bag
filled with fmall flicks, while a number of petty offi¬
cers Hand around him, each furniffied with thefe pan-
tfees, and waiting only for his fignal to make ufe of
them. The mandarin then takes out one of the little
flicks contained in the bag, and throws it into the hall
of audience. On this the culprit is feized and ftretch-
ed out with his belly towards the ground ; his breeches
are pulled down to his heels, and an athletic domef-
tic applies five fmart blows with his pan-tfee. If the
judge draws another fmall flick from the bag, ano¬
ther officer fucceeds, and bellows five more blow's $
and fo on until the judge makes no more fignals. When
the punilhment is over, the criminal muft throw him-
felf on his knees, incline his body three times to the
earth, and thank the judge for the care he takes of his
education.
For faults of a higher nature, the carrying of a
jLiie cangue)   < o * yo
or wooden wooden collar, called by the Portuguefe the cangue) is
-collar. inflifted. This machine is compofed of two pieces of
wood hollow’ed out in the middle, which, when put
together, leave fufficient room for the neck. Thefe
are laid upon the ffioulders of the criminal, and join¬
ed together in fuch a manner, that he can neither fee
his feet nor put his hands to his mouth ; fo that he is
incapable of eating without the affiftance of another.
This difagreeable burden he is obliged to carry day
and night; its weight is from 50 to 200 pounds, ac¬
cording to the enormity of the crime, to which the
time of carrying it is alfo proportioned. For rob¬
bery, breaking the peace, or difturbing a family, or
being a notorious gambler, it is generally carried three
months. During all this time the criminal is not al¬
lowed to take ihelter in his own houfe, but is ftationed
for a certain fpace of time, either in fome public
fquare, the gate of a city or temple, or perhaps even
of the tribunal where he was condemned. On the
expiration of his term of puniffiment, he is again
brought before the judge, who exhorts him in a friend-
9 ] . CHI
ly manner to amend ; and after giving him 20 found t
blows difcharges him. _ • r
Banifhment is inflifted for crimes of a nature inf^"_Baiiifli-
rior to homicide, and the duration is often for life, if ment, &e.
the criminals be lent into Fartary. Some culprits
are condemned to drag the royal barks for three years,
or to be branded in the cheeks with a hot iron, indi¬
cating the nature of their tranfgreffions. Robbery be¬
tween relations is more feverely puniffied then any o-
ther; and that is accounted the moft atrocious where
younger brothers or nephews appropriate to them-
felves beforehand any part of the fucceffion in which
they have a right to lhare with their elder brothers or
nephews. 77
Information againft a father or mother, grandfather Punilli-
or grandmother, uncle or eldeft brother, even though ^ntof^
the accufation be jufl, is puniftied with 100 blows ofagainftpa-
the pan-tfee and three years banifliment. If the. accufa- reutS) &.C.
tion be falfe, it is puniftied with death. Deficiency in
proper filial refpeft to a father, mother, grandfather, or
grandmother, is punifhed with 100 blowsof the pan-tfee j
abufive language to thefe relations is death by ftianglingj
to ftrike them is puniflied by beheading’, and if any one
prefumes to hurt or maim them, his fleffi is torn from
his bones with red-hot pincers, and he is cut into a tbou-
fand pieces. Abufing an elder brother is puniffied with
loo blows of the pan-tfee j ftriking him, with the pu-
niffiment of exile. _ < 7S
Homicide, even though accidental, is puniffied with Capital pu~
death in China. A rope about fix or feven feet in
length, with a running noofe, is thrown over the cri- 1
minal’s head 5 and a couple of domeftics belonging to
the tribunal pull it ftrongly in different direftions.
They then fuddenly quit it, and in a few moments
give a fecond pull a third is feldom neceffary to fi-
niffi the bufinefs. Beheading is accounted in China
the moft diffionourable of all puniftiments, and is re-
ferved only for defperate affaffins, or thofe who commit
fome crime equally atrocious with murder. To be cut
in a thoufand pieces is a puniffiment inflifled only up¬
on ftate criminals or rebellious fubjefls. It is perform¬
ed by tying the criminal to a pq|l, fealping the Ikin
from the head and pulling it over^ihe eyes. The exe¬
cutioner then tears the flelh from different parts of the
unhappy wretch’s body : and never quits this horrible
employment till mere fatigue obliges him to give over:
the remains of the body are then left to the barbarous
fpc&ators, who finifti what he has begun. Though
this puniffiment, however, has been inflifted by fome
emperors with all the dreadful circumftances juft men¬
tioned, the law orders only the criminal’s belly to be
opened, his body to be cut into feveral pieces, and
then thrown into a ditch or river.
The torture, both ordinary and extraordinary, is
ufed in China. The former is applied to the hands
or feet: for the hands, fmall pieces of wood are ap¬
plied diagonally between the fingers of the criminal j
his fingers are then tied dole with cords, and he is
left for fome time in that painful fituation. I he tor¬
ture for the feet is ftill worfe. An inftrument, con-
fifting of three crofs pieces of wood, is provided, that
in the middle being fixed, the others moveable. The
feet of the criminal are then put into this machine,
which fqueezes them fo clofe that the ankle bones
become flat. The extraordinary torture confifts. in
C 2 making
79
M. Gro
fier’s gene
CHI
China, making fmall gafhes in the body, and then tearing off
* the fkin like thongs, it is never applied but for
fome great crime, fuch as treafon, or where the crimi¬
nal’s guilt has been clearly proved, and it is neceffary
to make him difcover his accomplices.
Notwithftanding thefe dreadful punilhments, M.
Grofier is at great pains to prove that the laws of the
the Unne;e Chinefe, with regard to criminal matters, are extreme-
laws. ly tnild. “ One law (lays he) will no doubt appear
exceedingly fevere and rigorous j it indi61s the punilh-
ment of death on thofe who ufe pearls. Thofe who
read the hiltory of China will be apt to fall into cer¬
tain miflakes refpefling the penal laws of that na¬
tion. Some of its fovereigns have indulged them-
felves in gratifying fanguinary caprices which were
not authorized by the laws, and which have often been
confounded with them 5 but thefe princes are even yet
ranked among the number of tyrants, and their names
are ftill abhorred and detelled throughout the whole
empire. The Chinefe, in their criminal procedure,
have a great advantage over all other nations: it is
almoft impoffible that an innocent man Ihould ever be¬
come a vi&im to a falfe accufation : in fuch cafes the
accufer and witneffes are expofed to too much danger.
The flowneis of the procefs, and the numberlefs re-
vifions it undergoes, are another fafeguard for the ac-
cufed. Ip ihort, no fentence of death is ever carried
into exception until it has been approved and con¬
firmed by the emperor. A fair copy of the whole
procefs is laid before him ; a number of other copies
are alfo made out, both in the Chinefe and Tartar
languages, which the emperor fubmits to the exami¬
nation of a like number of doftors, either Tartars or
Chinefe. When the crime is of great enormity, and
clearly proved, the emperor writes with his own hand
at the bottom of the fentence, “ When you receive
this order, let it be executed without delay.” In
cafes where the crime, though punilhable by death
according to law, is ranked only in the ordinary
clafs, the emperor writes at the bottom of the fen¬
tence, Let the criminal be detained in prifon, and
executed in autumn that being the feafon in
which they are generally executed, and all on the fame
day.
The emperor of China never figns an order for the
execution of a criminal till he has prepared himfelf by
be pardon/ ^bing. Like other monarchs he has the power of
ed. g‘v‘ng pardons ; but in this refpedl: is much more li¬
mited than any other. The only cafes in which the
Chinefe monarch can remit the punifhment inflidled
by law are, 1. To the fon of a widow who has not
married again ; 2. To the heir of an ancient family ;
3. The defeendants of great men or citizens who have
deferved well of their country j and, 4. laftly, The fons
or grandfons of a mandarin, who has become illuftri-
ous, and diftinguifhed himfelf by faithfully difehar-
ging the duties of his office. Neither a child, nor a
man of very advanced age, can be cited before a tri¬
bunal. The fon of a very aged father and mother is
pardoned, if private property or the public peace be
not hurt by giving him a pardon ; and if the fons of
fuch a father and mother be all guilty, or accomplices
in the fame crime, the youngeft is pardoned in order
to comfort his parents.
In China the accufed are always treated with ten-
Cliiri*.
80
Cafes in
which
crimes may
81
20 ] CHI
dernefs and lenity, being accounted innocent until
their guilt be clearly proved ; and even then, liberty v
excepted, they are fcarce allowed to want for any thing.
A jailor is puniffied who behaves rigoroufiy towards
his prifonersj and the judges muff likewife anfwer at
their peril for any additions to the feverity of the law}
depofition being the llighteft puniffiment infli&ed up¬
on them.
Subilitution is fometimes allowed by the laws of
China} fo that the near relation of a guilty per-
fon may put himfelf in the criminal’s place, pro¬
vided, however, that the chaftifement be flight, and
the accufed his ancient friend. The fons, grand-
fons, wife, and brothers of a baniffied Chinefe, are aL
lowed to follow him into exile} and the relations of all
perfons are permitted to vifit them in prifons, and to
give them every affiifance in their power} to do which
good offices they are even encouraged, inftead of being
prevented.
Every city in China is divided into different quar-of the ci-
ters, each of which is fubjefted to the infpedtion of ties and
a certain officer, who is anfwerable for whatever paffes their go-
in the places under his jurifdi&ion. Fathers of fami-vernmeilt*
lies, as we have already obferved, are anfwerable for
the conduct of their children and domeftics. Neigh¬
bours are even obliged to anfwer for one another,
and are bound to give every help and affiflance in cafes
of robbery, fire, or any accident, efpecially in the
night time. All the cities are furnifhed with gates,
which are barricaded on the commencement of night.
Centinels are alfo polled at certain dillances through¬
out the ftreets, wffio Hop all who walk in the night,
and a number of horfemen go round the ramparts for
the fame purpofe } fo that it is almoft impoffible to e-
lude their vigilance by favour of the darknefs. A flridt
watch is alfo kept during the day-time } and all
thofe who give any fufpicion by their looks, accent, or
behaviour, are immediately carried before a mandarin,
and fometimes even detained until the plcafure of the
governor be known.
Private quarrels do not often happen in China, and
it is rare that they are attended with a fatal iflue.
The champions fometimes decide the quarrel with
their fills, but moll frequently refer the cale to a man¬
darin, who very often orders them both a found drub¬
bing. None but military people are permitted to
wear arms in public } and this privilege is extended
even to them only during the time of w'ar, or wffien
they accompany a mandarin, mount guard, or attend
a review. Proftitutes are not allow ed to remain within
the walls of a city, or to keep a houfe of their own
even in the fuburbs. They may, how-ever, lodge in
the houfe of another} but that other is accountable
for every diflurbance which may happen on their ac¬
count. __ g2
In all the Chinefe cities, and even in fome of their Boi.row;ng
ordinary towns, there is an office where money may be of money,
borrowed upon pledges at the common rate of the
country; which, however, is no lefs than 30 per cent.
Every pledge is marked with a number when left at
the office, and mull be produced when demanded}
but it becomes the property of the office if left there
a fingle day longer than the term agreed upon for the
payment of the money. I he whole tranfaclion
remains an inviolable fecret; not even the name
of
C. H I [ 2
China- of the perfcn who leaves the pledge being inquired
C“""v after. < ,
This mode of procuring a fupply of money tor the
exigencies of the moment, has been long known in
Britain, and the people who thus lend rtloney on pledges
under the famftion of government, have a moit exor¬
bitant interefl, as well as in China, but we are forry
to add, that it is by no means condufted with inch
profound fecrecy. I he perfon’s name and iurname
who offers a pledge mult be inferted in the pawn-bro¬
ker’s books, who is thus enabled to make the tranf-
aftion as public as he pleafes. Inftitutions of this na¬
ture are no doubt of confiderable utility to the modeft
poor during a period of embarraffment j but the mon-
itrous evils to which they have given rife are more
than fufficient to counterbalance their advantages. W e
fhould deem an open avowal of poverty and want to
be infinitely preferable to an application to luch a fink
of corruption and extortion, aflured that genuine dif-
trefs will never w'ant a friend among the fons of bene¬
volence or philanthropy.
*3 Great attention is paid by the adminiftration of
Eefe roads!* China to the conveniency of travellers. The roads
are generally very broad, all of them paved in the
fouthern provinces, and fome in the northern ; but
neither horfes nor carriages are allowed to pafs along
thefe. In many places valleys have been filled up, and
rocks and mountains cut through, for the purpole of
making commodious highways, and to prelerve them
as nearly as poflible on a level. I hey are generally
bordered wnth very lofty trees, and in fome places
with walls eight or ten feet high, to prevent travellers
from going into the fields 5 but openings are left in
proper places, which give a paflage into crofs roads
that lead to different villages. Covered feats are
erefted on all the great roads, where travellers may
fhelter themfelves from the inclemency of the weather j
temples and pagods are alfo frequent, into wrhich tra¬
vellers are admitted wdthout fcruple in the day-time,
but often meet with a refufal in the night. In thefe
the mandarins only have a right to reft themfelves as
long as they think proper. There is, however, no
want of inns on the great roads, or even the crofs ones
in China-, but they are ill fupplied with provifions j
and thofe who frequent them are even obliged to car¬
ry beds along wdth them to fleep on, or elle take up
with a plain mat.
Towers are eredted on all the roads of this great
empire, with wTatch-boxes on the top, with flag-ftafts,
for the convenience of fignals in cafe of any alarm.
Thefe towers are fquare, and generally conftrufted of
brick, but feldom exceed twelve feet in height. They
are built, however, in fight of one another, and are
guarded by foldiers, who run with great fpeed from
one to another, carrying letters w'hich concern the
emperor. Intelligence of any remarkable event is alfo
conveyed by fignals ; and thus the court is informed
with furprifing quicknefs of any important matter.
Thofe which are built on any of the roads conducting
to court, are furnifhed with battlements, and have alfo
1 ] CHI
very large bells of call iron. According to law thefe China,
towers fhould be only five lys, about half a French ^
league, diftant from one another. Method of
There is no public poft-office in China, though fe- convey-
veral private ones have been eftablilhed ; but the cou-ance.
riers and officers charged with difpatches for the em¬
pire have only a right to make ufe of them. This in¬
convenience, however, excepted, travellers find con¬
veyance very eafy from one part of China to ano¬
ther. Great numbers of porters are employed in every
city, all of whom are affociated under the conduct of
a chief, 'who regulates all their engagements, fixes the
price of their labour, receives their hire, and is refpon-
fible for every thing they carry. When porters are
wanted, he furniffies as many as may be necefiary, and
gives the fame number of tickets to the traveller j who
returns one to each porter when they have conveyed
their loads to an appointed place. Thefe tickets are
carried back to the chief, who immediately pays them
from the money he received in advance. On all the
great roads in China there are feveral offices of this
kind, wffiich have a fettled correfpondence with others j
the travellers therefore have only to carry to one of
thefe offices a lift of fuch things as they wifh to have
tranfported : this is immediately written down in a
book; and though there fhould be occafion for two,
three, or four hundred porters, they are inftantly fur-
niftied. Every thing is weighed before the eyes of
their chief, and the hire is fivepence per hundred
wreight for one day’s carriage. An exaft regifter of
every thing is kept in the office ; the traveller pays
the money in advance, after which he has no occafion
to give himfelf any farther trouble ; on his arrival at
the city he defigns, his baggage is found at the cor-
refponding office, and every thing is delivered to him
with the moft fcrupulous exa£lnefs.
The cuftomhoufes are here regulated by the gene-cuf(0m_
ral police of the country j and according to M. Gro-houfes.
Tier’s account, thefe cuftomhoufe officers are the moft
civil in the world, They have no concern with any
clafs of people but the merchants, whom they take
care not to diftrefs by any rigorous exafbons -, nei¬
ther, though they have authority to do fo, do they
flop travellers till their baggage is examined, nor do
they ever require the fmalleft fee from them. Duties
are paid either by the piece or the load -, and in the
former cafe credit is given to the merchant’s book
without alking any queftions. A mandarin is appoint¬
ed by the viceroy of each province to infpe6! the cuf¬
tomhoufes of the whole diftritl ; and the mandarins
have alfo the care of the poft-offices.
In former times the only money ufed in China wTas jyj ^
made of fmall fhells, but now both filver and copper t|leernpjrCj
coin are met w-ith. The latter confifts of round
pieces about nine-tenths of an inch (a) in diameter,
with a fmall fquare hole in the middle, inferibed wuth
two Chinefe words on one fide, and two Tartar ones
on the other. The filver pieces are valued only by
their weight. For the convenience of commerce the
metal is therefore call into plates of different fizes:
and
(a) The Chinefe foot is longer by one hundredth part than the French, and the inch is divided into
ten parts.
China.
87
Of the Chi*
nefe com-
paerce.
CHI [ 22 ] CHI
and for want of fmall coin, a Chinefe always carries foot; the larger and more magnificent their houfes, Qnna. ,
about him his feales, weights, and a pair of feiffars to are,^ fo much the more confined and wretched mutt
cut tlie metal. This operation is performed by put- thole of the poor be j and the more their tables are
ting the filver between the feiffars, and then knocking covered with a variety of ditties, the more mutt the
them a gain ft a ftone till the pieces drop off. In gi- number of thofe increafe who are reduced to the ne-
ving of change, however, people have no right to va- cettity of feeding upon plain rice. Men, united by
lue filver by the numerical value of copper, this be* fociety in a large and populous kingdom, can employ
ing entirely regulated by the intrinfic value of the me- their induftry, talents, and economy, to no better
tais. Thus, an ounce of ttlver will fometimes be purpofe than to provide neceflaries for all, and pro¬
worth rooo’copper pieces, and fometimes only 800 ; cure convenience for fome.” 88
and thus the copper money of China may frequently The only commerce confidered by the Chinefe asH'ftory of
be fold for more than it would pafs for in commerce. advantageous to their empire, is that with Ruttia and^’gPJ.
The emperor would lofe much by this recoinage, were Tartary •, by which they are fupplied with thofe lursfia>
he not the foie proprietor of all the copper mines in fo neceffary in the northern provinces.. The dhputes
China. It is, however, exprefsly forbidden to employ concerning the limits of the refpe£hve empires of
copper coin in any manufafture where it might be Ruffia and China feem to have paved the way to this
employed as plain copper, and it is alfo foibidden to commerce. I hefe difputes weie fettled by tieaty on
be fold for the purpofe of melting: but, if the price the 27th of Auguft 1689, under the reign of Ivan
of the metal has not fallen, the infraaion of this law and Peter Alexiowitz. The chief oi the embaffy on
is not very feverely puniftied. On the other hand, if the part of Ruttia was Golovin governor of Siberia j
the value of unwrought copper exceeds that of the and two Jefuits were deputed on the part of the em-
coin a quantity of the latter is iffued out to reftore peror of China •, and the conferences were held in La¬
the equilibrium. tin> with a German in the Ruffian ambaffador’s train,
To keep up a conftant circulation of all the coin who was acquainted with that language. By this trea-
in the empire, the Chinefe government are attentive ty the^Ruffians obtained a regular and permanent trade
to preferve an equilibrium between the proportional with China, which they had long defired •, but in re¬
value of the gold and filver ; that is, to regulate the turn they yielded up a large territory, befides the na-
intrinfic value of each in fuch a manner that the pof- vigation of the river Amour. The firft intercourfe
fefi'or of filver mav not be afraid to exchange it for had taken place in the beginning of the 17th centu-
copper, nor the poffeffor of copper for fiiver. The ry •, at which time a fmall quantity of Chinefe mer-
method ufed for this purpofe is, when ttlver becomes chandife was procured by fome Ruffian merchants
fcarce, to make all the payments for fome time in fil- from the Kalmuck Tartars. The rapid and profitable
ver • but if copper, to make them all for fome time fale of thefe commodities encouraged certain Siberian
in that metal only. w'ayvodes to attempt a dirett and open communication
The commerce of China is under the infpeftion of with China. For this purpofe feveral deputations were
the tribunal of finances •, but on this fubjeft the Chi- fent to the emperor ; and though they failed of obtain-
nefe entertain an opinion quite different from that of ing the grant of a regular commerce, their attempts
the Europeans. Commerce, according to them, is were attended with fome confequences of importance,
only ufeful as far as it cafes the people of their fuper- Thus the Ruffian merchants were tempted to fend
fiuities, and procures them neceffaries. For this rea- traders occasionally to Peking j by which means a
fon they confider even that which is carried on at faint connexion wras preferved with that metropolis.
Canton as prejudicial to the intereft of the empire. This commerce, however, was at laft interrupted by
« They take from us (fay the Chinefe) our filks, teas, the commencement of hoftilities on the river Amour 5
and porcelain : the price of thefe articles is raifed but after the conclufion of the treaty in 1689, was re-
throuo-h all the provinces : fuch a trade therefore can- fumed with uncommon alacrity on the part ot the Ruf-
not be beneficial. The money brought us by Euro- fians : and the advantages thence arifing were found
peans and the high-priced baubles that accompany it, to be fo confiderable, that a defign of enlarging it was
are mere fuperfluities to fuch a ftate as ours. We formed by Peter the Great. Ilhrand Ides, a native of
have no occafion for more bullion than what may be the duchy of Holftein, then in the Ruffian fervice,
neceffarv to anfwer the exigencies of government, and was therefore defpatched to Peking in 1692 ; by whofe
to Supply the relative wants of individuals. It was means the liberty of trade, befoie confined to mdivi-
faid by Kouan-tfe, two thoufand years ago, That the duals, was now7 extended to caravans. In the mean
money introduced does not enrich a kingdom in any time, private merchants continued to tiade as ba.ore,
other way than as it is introduced by commerce. No not only with the Chinefe, but alfo at the head quar-
commerce can be advantageous long, but that which ters of the Mogul Tartars. The camp of theie ro-
confifts in a mutual exchange of things neceffary or ving Taitars, which was generally ftationed near the
ufeful. That trade, whether carried on by barter or contluence ot the Orhon and 1 oula rivers, between the
money, which has for its objeft the importing of ar- fouthern frontiers of Siberia and the Mogul delert,
tides that tend to the gratification of pride, luxury, thus became the feat of an annual fair. Complaints,
or curiofity, always fuppofes the exittence of luxury : however, were !oon made of the diforderly behaviour
but luxury, which is an abundance of fuperfluities of the Ruffians 5 on which the Chine.v monarch
among certain claffcs of people, fuppofes the want of threatened to expel them from his dominions entirely,
neceffaries among a great many others. The more and to allow tbern neither to trade with the Chinefe
Eorfes the rich put to their carriages, the greater will nor Moguls. This produced another embaffy to Pe-
be the number of thofe who are obliged to walk on king in 1719, when matters were again adjufted to
China.
Emperor’s
revenue.
CHI [ *3 ] CHI
the fatisfa&ion of uoth jjames. The reconcihatron
was of no long duration j for the Ruffians having foon
renewed their diforderly behaviour, an order for their
expulfxon was iffued in 1722, and all intercourfe be¬
tween the two nations forbidden. The differences
were once more made up in 1727, and a caravan al¬
lowed to go to Peking once in three years, provided
it confifted of no more than a hundred perfons ; and
that during their ftay their expences ffiould not, as for¬
merly, be defrayed by the emperor of China. The
Ruffians at the fame time obtained permiffion to build
a church within the precimffs of the caravanfary ; and
four priefts were allowed to refide at Peking for
the celebration of divine fervice ; the fame indulgence
being granted to fome Ruffian fcholars, for the pur-
pofe of learning the Chinefe language, and qualifying
themfelves for being interpreters between the two na¬
tions. This intercourfe continued till the year 1755 j
lince which time no more caravans have been fent to
China. It was firft interrupted by a mifunderftanding
betwixt the two courts j and though that difference
was afterwards made up, no caravans have been fent
ever fince. The emprefs of Ruffia, fenfible that the
monopoly of the fur trade {which was entirely confin¬
ed to the Caravans belonging to the crown, and pro¬
hibited to individuals) was prejudicial to commerce,
gave it up in favour of her fubje&s in 1762 ; and the
centre of commerce betwixt the two nations is now at
Kiatka. Here the trade is entirely carried on by bar¬
ter. The Ruffians are prohibited from exporting their
own coin ; finding it more advantageous to take goods
m exchange than to receive bullion at the Chinefe
ftandard. The principal exports from Ruffia are furs
of different kinds; the moft valuable of which are
thofe of fea otters, beavers, wolves, foxes, martins,
fables, and ermines •, the greater part of which are
brought from Siberia and the newly difcovered iflands;
but as they cannot fupply the demand, there is a ne-
ceffity for importing foreign furs to Peterfburg, which
are afterwards fent to Kiatka. Various kinds of cloth
are likewife fent to China, as well as hardware, and
live cattle, fuch as horfes, camels, &c. The exports
from China are, raw and manufa&ured filk, cotton,
porcelain, rhubarb, mulk, &c. The government of
Ruffia likewife referves to itfelf the exclufive privilege
of purchafing rhubarb. It is brought to Kiatka by
fome Bukharian merchants, who have entered into a
contra# to fupply the crown with it in exchange for
furs : the exportation of the belt rhubarb is forbidden
under fevere penalties, but yet is procured in fufficient
quantities, fometimes by clandeftinely mixing it with
inferior roots, and fometimes by fmuggling it dire#ly.
Great part of Europe is fupplied with rhubarb from
Ruffia.
The revenue of the emperor of China amounts to
more than 41 millions fterling ; and might eafily be
increafed, did the fovereign incline to burden his fub-
je#s with new impofitions. When Lord Macartney
vifited this vaft empire in the capacity of his Britan¬
nic majefty’s ambaffador, the revenue of the Chinefe
emperor was not lefs than 66 millions fterling; but it
cannot be fuppofed that a very large (hare of this enor¬
mous fum is adlually expended by the emperor, after
deducing the almoft incalculable number of falaries
which it is deftined to pay, together with a Handing
anwy of i,8oo,oco men. Yet upon the fuppofition
that each individual is taxed equally, this enormous
fum will amount to no more than 4s. a head annually,
while the fame analogy applied to Britain will make
an individual ffiare amount to 3I. There is reafon,
however, to conclude, that the Chinefe, in the above
eftimate of their ftanding army, have been rather hy¬
perbolical, for Lord Macartney, from the information
communicated by Vang-ta-zin, makes the whole of the
expences of government to leave a furplus for the ufe
of the emperor of 14,043,743!. fterling, which we
prefume would be impoffible, were their ftanding ar¬
my as enormous as fome of the Chinefe pretend.
China.
Sum total of the revenue, L. 66,000,000
Civil eftablilhment, L. 1,973,333
Military ditto, 49,982,933
 51,956,266
Surplus for the emperor, L. 14,043,734* * Barroivt
‘Travels^
The annual expences of government are indeed im- P' 4°7-
menfe, but they are regulated in fuch a manner as
never to be augmented but in cafes of the utmoft ne-
ceffity. It even happens very often that adminiftration
makes greater favings every year. When this happens
to be the cafe, the lurplus ferves to increafe the gene¬
ral treafure of the empire, and prevents the neceffity
of new impofitions in time of war, or other public ca¬
lamities. The greater part of the taxes are paid in
kind j thofe, for inftance, who breed filk worms, pay
their taxes in filk, the hufbandmen in grain, the gar¬
deners in fruits, &c. This method, at the fame time
that it is exceedingly convenient for the fubje#, is no
way detrimental to the public intereft. There are
numbers of people everywhere in the fervice of govern¬
ment, who are thus furnifhed with food and clothing;
fo that the commodities colledfed as taxes are almoft
confumed in the provinces where they are levied j
what remains is fold for the behoof of the emperor,
and the money depofited in the imperial treafury.
The taxes paid in money arife principally from the cu-
ftoms and fale of fait (which belongs entirely to the
emperor), from the duties paid by vefl’els entering any
port, and from other impofts on various branches of
manufaftures. Excepting thefe, the trader fcarcely
contributes any thing to the exigencies of the ftate,
and the mechanic nothing at all ; the whole burden of
taxation thus falling upon the hufbandman. This bur¬
den is regulated in proportion to the extent and ferti¬
lity of his lands j and the greateft care has been taken
to manage matters fo, that he may neither be over¬
charged in the impofition nor haraffed in the levying
of the duties. “ The regiftering of lands (fays M.
Groficr), fo often and to no purpofe proje#ed in
France, has been long pra#ifed in this empire, not-
withftanding its prodigious extent.” ^
The levying of taxes in China is as fimple as the na-°ft,je
ture of the thing will admit of. The duties levied1”^111
from towns and villages are carried to cities of the^U*
third clafs ; then they are conduced to thofe of the
fecond j then to thofe of the firft ; and at laft to the
capital. The levying and impofition of taxes is fub-
mitted to the tribunal of finances ; and matters are fo
managed, that bcfides the confumption in each diftri#
f for
v
C H I
[ 24 ]
C H I
China.
91 .
Of lending
money,
and defi
ciencies in
paying im
tereft.
pz
Agricul¬
ture great
ly encou¬
raged.
for difctiarging the ordinary expences of government,
fomething is left by way of referve for anfwering ac¬
cidental demands, and to be ready in cafes of neceffity.
This fum becomes gradually lefs from the capital to
cities of the firft, fecond, and third clafs. A proper
flatement of what is paid in the provinces, of what is
referved in the different cities, or contained in the dif¬
ferent treafuries of the empire, is fubjefted to the exa¬
mination of the grand tribunal of finances. This
revifes the whole, and keeps an exaft account of
what is confumed, and of whatever furplus may be
left.
Lending money upon intereft has been in ufe in
China for about 2000 years. It has often been abo-
liflied, and as often eftablilhed. The intereft, as has
been already hinted, is no lefs than 30 per cent, and
the year is only lunar. A tenth part of this intereft is
paid monthly : and concerning neglefls of payment,
the following laws have been enabled. “ However
much the debt may have accumulated by months or
years, the principal and intereft {hall remain always
the fame. Whoever infringes this law fliall receive 40
blows of a pan-tfee ; or an hundred, if he ufes any ar¬
tifice to add the principal and intereft together.” This
law is explained by the following. “ Whoever fhall
be convifled before a mandarin of not having paid a
month’s intereft, fhall receive ten blows ; twenty for
two months, and thirty for three *, and in this manner
as far as fixty ; that is to fay, to the fixth month.
The debtor is then obliged to pay principal and inte¬
reft *, but thofe wrho obtain payment by ufing violence
and force are condemned to receive 24 blows.
Many Chinefe writers have endeavoured unfuccefs-
fully to fhow7 why government ftiould allow fuch ex¬
orbitant intereft to be taken for money ; but the moft
fatisfaftory and rational account feems to be, that the
great intereft of money prevents the rich from pur-
chafing much land •, as landed eftates would only em-
barrafs and impoverifh them, their produce being fo
much inferior to that of money. The patrimony of a
family in China is feldom divided 5 and it never hap¬
pens there, as in almoft every other country, that
wealth and riches are engrofled by one part of the na¬
tion, while the other polTeffes nothing.
Agriculture is by the Chinefe confidered as the firft;
' and moft honourable of all profeftions •, fo that in this
empire the hufhandman enjoys many and great privi¬
leges, while the merchant and mechanic are much lefs
efteemed. He is confidered as next in dignity to offi¬
cers of ftate, from w'hom indeed they very frequently
originate. The foldier in China cultivates the ground,
and even the priefts are employed in agriculture, when
their convents happen to be endowed with land. From
the principle that the emperor is abfolute proprietor of
the foil, ®ne would imagine that the tenant muft hold
his {hare of it by a very precarious tenure, yet it is
certain that when any man is difpofleffed, his own cul¬
pable conduft is the caufe. The Chinefe are fo habi¬
tuated to confider a piece of land as their owm, while
they continue to be punftual in the payment of their
rent, that a Portuguefe refident in Pilacao who at¬
tempted to raife the rent of his tenants, ran the hazard
of lofing his life. There are no prodigioufly over¬
grown farms in China, no monopolizers of farms, no
iSV’holefale dealers in grain, but every man has it in his
l
China.
93
potver to carry his produce to a free and open market.
Part of the crop is allowed to be ufed in diftillation j
but if the harveft happens to be bad, this operation is
prohibited. In China, the’ tillage of the earth is not Ceremony
only encouraged bylaw, but alfo by the example ofotthec-m-
the emperor, who annually tills the earth w ith his own
hands. The beginning of fpring in China is aliyayseaftj,
reckoned to be in the month of February j but it be- his own
longs to the tribunal of mathematics to determine the hands,
precife day. The tribunal of ceremonies announces it
to the emperor by a memorial; in which every thing
requifite to be done by him is mentioned with the moft:
fcrupulous exadlnefs. The fovereign then names 12
of the moft illuftrious perfons in his court to accompa¬
ny him, and to hold the plough after he has perform¬
ed his part of the ceremony. Among thefe there are
always three princes of the blood, and nine prefidents
of fupreme courts ; and if any of them are too old and
infirm to undergo the fatigue, the fubftitutes muft be
authorized by the emperor. The feftival is preceded
by a facrifice, which the emperor offers up to Chang-ti
(the fupreme God) ; after which he and his attend¬
ants prepare themfelves by three days falling and con¬
tinence. Others are appointed by the emperor, on the
evening before the ceremony, to go and proftrate
themfelves at the fepulchre of his anceftors, and to ac¬
quaint them, that, on the day following, he intends
to celebrate a grand facrifice. This is oftered upon a
fmall mount a few7 furlongs diftant from the city,
w'hich, by the indifpenfable rules of the ceremony,
muft be 50 feet in height. The Chang-ti is invoked
by the emperor, w7ho facrifices under the title of fove¬
reign pontiff, and prays for an abundant harveft in fa¬
vour of his people. He then defeends, accompanied
by the three princes and nine prefidents who are to
put their hands to the plough along with him •, the
field fet apart for this purpofe being at a fmall diftance
from the mount. Forty labourers are feledfted to yoke
the oxen, and to prepare the feeds which the emperor
is to fow ; and wffiich are of five different kinds, viz.
wheat, rice, tw7o kinds of millet, and beans. They
are brought to the fpot in magnificent boxes, carried
by perfons of the mott diftinguiflied rank. The empe¬
ror then lays hold of the plough, and turns up feveral
furrows j the princes of the blood do the fame, and
then the prefidents •, after which the emperor throws
into the furrows the five kinds of feeds already men¬
tioned : laftly, four pieces of cotton-cloth, pioper for
making dreffes, are diftributed to each of the labour¬
ers, who affift in yoking the oxen and preparing the
feeds; and the fame prefents are made to forty other
perfons who have only been fpe&ators of the cere-
mony. _ ^
“ We muft not (fay? M. Grofier) judge of the Chi- o’*h' pea*
nefe peafants from thofe of Europe, efpecially in whatfants.
relates to the lights acquired by education. Free
fchools are very numerous in every province of China,
and even fome of the villages are not deftitute of this
advantage. The fons of the poor are there received
as readily as thofe of the rich ; their duties and their
ftudies are the fame ; the attention of the mafters is
equally divided between them ; and from this obfeuxe
fource talents often fpring, which afterwards make a
confpicuous figure on the grand flage of life. No¬
thing is more common in China than to fee the fon
of
China.
charge of
inurderin;
and expo-
fing their
children.
CHI [
of a peafant governor of that province in which his
father had long toiled in cultivating only a few acres.
The father himfelf, if taken from his plough, and ele¬
vated to a fuperior fphere, might, by reviving the in-
ftruftidn he received in his youth, and especially if he
be endowed with genius, find himfelf fully competent
for his new employment.”
9S( The Chinefe have been greatly reproached with the
Groficr’s^ ;n]luman praaice of murdering their children ; but
theThinefethough our author cannot deny that they are guilty
from the of this pra&ice, he excufes them by faying, that “ the
crime when committed in China is commonly owing
to the fanatic!fm of idolatry j a fanaticifm which pre¬
vails only among the lowell of the people. It is ei¬
ther in obedience to the oracle of a bonze, to deliver
themfelves from the power of magic fpells, or to dif-
charge a vow, that thefe infatuated wretches precipi¬
tate their children into the river : they imagine that,
by doing fo, they make an expiatory facrifice to the
fpirit of the river. All nations of antiquity almoft
have difgraced themfelves by the like horrid praflices ;
but the Chinefe are far from countenancing this barba¬
rity on that account. Befides, thefe criminal facrifices
are never praftifed but in certain cantons of China,
where the people, blinded by idolatry, are the dupes
of prejudice, fanaticifm, and fuperllition.—It often
happens alfo, that the bodies of thofe children which
are feen floating on the water have not been thrown
into it till after their death ; and this is likewife the
cafe with thofe wfliich are found in the flreets, or ly¬
ing near the public roads. The poverty of the parents
fuggefts this difmal refource, becaufe their children are
then buried at the expence of the public. Expofing
of children in public places is a cuftom tolerated in
China ; and government employs as much vigilance
to have them carried away in the morning, as it be¬
llows care on their education. This is certainly giv¬
ing people intimation to expofe their children in the
night-time, and no doubt encourages the praftice 5
but the dictates of humanity are here united to thofe
of found policy. No law in China authorizes mutila¬
tion : there are indeed eunuchs in the empire, but their
number is much lefs than what it is generally fuppofed
to be by Europeans. The greater part of the eunuchs
belonging to the emperor and emprefles have no higher
employment than that of fweeping the courts of jullice.”
Like the capital cities of European kingdoms, Pe¬
king, the metropolis of the Chinefe empire, is furnilh-
ed with a gazette, which circulates into the remotell
provinces, and which is even confidered by admini-
firation as an effential part of the political conllitu-
tion. It is printed daily at Peking, and contains an
account of all thofe obje&s to which the attention of
adminiftration is direfled. In this gazette may be
feen the names of all thofe mandarins who are dripped
of their employments, and the caufes of their difgrace;
it mentions alfo the names of all thofe delinquents who
are punilhed with death •, of the officers appointed to
fill the places of the difgraced mandarins j the cala¬
mities which have afflidled any of the provinces ; the
relief given by government *, and the expences incur¬
red by adminiftration for the fubfiftence of the troops,
fupplying the wants of the people, repairing or ereft-
ing public works •, and, laftly, the remonftrances made
to the fovereign by the fuperior tribunals, either with
Voi.. VI. Part I.
96
Gazette of
Peking.
China..
97
25 1 CHI
regard to his public decifions or private condudl, and
fometimes even with regard to both. Nothing,, how¬
ever, is contained in this gazette that has not imme¬
diately come from the emperor, or been fubmitted to
his infpeftion j and immediate death wTould be tue con-
fequenceof inferting a fallehood in this minifterial paper.
No law or fentence, as has already been faid, is of Sea's of the
any force, until the emperor’s feal has been affixed t0 ^aarins,
it. This is about eight inches fquare, and is made of&c<
fine jafper, a kind of precious ftone much efteemed
in China j of which only the emperor is allowed to
have a feal. Thofe given to princes as marks of ho¬
nour are compofed of gold j the feals of the viceroys
and great mandarins, of filver ; while thofe of inferior
mandarins and magiftrates are made only of lead or
copper. The fize of thofe feals is greater or fmaller
according to the rank their pofleffors. hold in the tri¬
bunals or as mandarins •, and whtfn any of them hap¬
pens to be worn out, intimation muft be lent to the
next fuperior tribunal; on which a new one is fent,
and the old one muft then be delivered up. The com-
miffion of every infpe&or fent into the provinces muft
alfo be confirmed by the emperor’s feal. The duty
of thefe officers is to examine into the condufl of go¬
vernors, magiftiates, and private individuals j and in-
ftances are recorded of emperors themlelves afluming
the office of iiifpedors in fome of the provinces.. Thefe
officers are not only fuperior to all the magiftiates,
but even to the viceroys of the provinces themfeives.
When a fuperior magiftrate behaves ill to an inferior
one, the former inftantly becomes the prifoner of the
infpeflor, and is fufpended from his office until he has
cleared himfelf from every imputation laid to his
charge. The viceroy, however, is allowed to enjoy
his office until the report of the infpe&or has been
tranfmitted to the emperor. . 9®
Thefe viceroys are diftinguiftied by the title of T'fong- Power of
ton, and are always mandarins of the firft clafs, m.-
fing an almoft unlimited power within their diftrias.vu'ceSo
They march abroad wfith all the pomp of royal mag¬
nificence, never quitting their palaces, on the moll
trifling occafion, without a guard of 100 men. A
viceroy is the receiver-general of all the taxes collect¬
ed in the province, tranfmitting them to the capital,
after having referved what he judges neceflary for the
demands of his diftria. All law-fuits muft be brought
before his tribunal; and he has the power of palling
fentence of death, but it cannot be put in execution
without being firft carried to the emperor. Every
three years he fends to court a report of the condudl
of the mandarins fubordinate to him 5 and according
to the contents they are either continued or difgraced.
Thofe of whom he makes an unfavourable report are
punilhed in proportion to their delinquency •, while,
on the other hand, thofe who have the good fortune to
be w'ell reported, are rewarded in a fimilar proportion. ^
The principal mandarins are fometimes broke andDegrada-
difmifled from all their employments, while others are^onot .
only removed fome degrees lower. 1 hofe who have maridari.)s.
been degraded ten fteps run a great rilk. of never be¬
ing employed again. T hele degraded mandarins are
kept in perpetual remembrance of their misfortune, by
being obliged to mention it in every public order they
iffue forth in their inferior ftation ; thus : “ I fuch a
mandarin, degraded one, two, three, &c. fteps, com-
D * mand
China.
CHI L
mand and order,” &c. Over thefe inferior manda¬
rins the infpeftor of the province has a very unlimited
authority, and can, by his own power, deprive them of
their employments for a great offence ; nor does he
confult the court excepting where the immediate pu-
iiifhment of the criminal is not neceffary. Every one
of the mandarins, of whatever rank or denomination,
is obliged, once in three years, to give in writing an
exaft account of the faults he has committed in the
execution of his office. If he is a mandarin belonging
to any of the four firff claffes, this confeffion is exami¬
ned at court; but if it is made by any of the infe¬
rior ones, it muff be laid before the provincial tribunal
of the governor. Government, however, is not fa-
tisfied even with this confeflion ; inquiry is made into
the truth of it, and theconduft of the mandarin is fcru-
tinized with the utmoft feverity, the informations be¬
ing fubjetled to the tribunal of mandarins; where they
are carefully examined, the merits and demerits of
thofe fubje&ed to this political inquifition carefully
balanced, and their names afterwards divided into three
claffes. The firft confifts of thofe for whom rewards
and preferment are intended ; the fecond, for whom
gentle reproof and admonition are thought neceffary ;
and the third, of thofe who are to be fufpended for
fome time, or removed altogether, from their offices.
Of thefe laft fome are allowed to continue ; but they
receive no falary, and are not only deprived of all
their emoluments, but even of their honours. If they
have been guilty of any aftion tending to opprefs the
people, or to occafion a famine or fcarcity among the
lower ranks, their puniffiment is not confined to dif-
miffion from their offices, but they are alfo criminally
impeached. The family burying-place of every Chi-
nefe is accounted facred ; none dares cut down the
trees with which it is overffiadowed until they become
decayed with age ; and even then, not until their con¬
dition has been attefted by a mandarin : but for cer¬
tain crimes againft government or the people, the bu-
rying-place of a mandarin is rafed to the foundation.
No kind of punifhment, however, inffi&ed on a fa¬
ther, is fuppofed in the leaft to affeft the chara&er of
his fon ; and therefore, when the latter is afked by
the emperor concerning his family, he will perhaps
coolly anfwer, My father was difgraced for fuch a
crime, my grandfather was beheaded for fuch ano¬
ther,” without the acknowledgment being in the leaft
detrimental. On the contrary, by great and impor¬
tant fervices, it is poffible for him to wipe out thefe
ftains from the memory of his anceftors.
Though the empire of China is governed by Tartar
princes, the latter feem to bellow much more care
and attention on the Chinefe than their own natural
fubjefls. Should any difpute arife between a Chinefe
and Tartar, the former muft have greatly deviated
from the rules of juftice, if he is not acquitted even
by thofe tribunals which are compofed of half Chinefe
and half Tartars. The flighteft fault committed by a
Tartar mandarin is always feverely punifhed ; but the
puniffiment of the Chinefe is often mitigated if the de¬
linquent be a Chinefe ; and the fame feverity is exer-
cifed towards thofe of the military department. Thofe
faults, however, are puniffied with the greateft feveri¬
ty which hurt the interefts of the people ; for which
reafon they feldom fall a facrifice to that clafs of petty
China.
46 ] CHI
tyrants who in other countries prey upon and devour
them. Every fuperior mandarin is obliged to inform v—^
himfelf of the faults of his inferiors, and expofe them ;
nav, he would be puniftied for them himfelf if he did not. IOO
Very little regard, as we have already had occafion privileges
to obferve, is paid to hereditary right in China. Even of princes,
the princes of the blood enjoy no other privilege by &-c-in
birth but that of wearing a yellow girdle; and thena>
names of their children, with the exadl time of their
birth, are infcribed in a yellow book appropriated to
that purpofe. Collateral princes are diilinguilhed by
an orange girdle, and their children are marked in a
book of a red colour. The furnames of the princes
of the reigning family are determined by the empe¬
ror alone ; the reft not being allowed to affume any
name that too much relembles thofe of the Moguls or
Chinefe. The rank even of the emperor’s Ions dimi-
niffies one degree every generation ; fo that, at the fe-
venth, only the eldeft branch has a title to wear the
yellow girdle, the reft being funk into the rank of
plain citizens. An hereditary fovereignty, however,
paffes from one eldeft fon to another ; and this title
cannot be forfeited, unlefs the poffeffor be guilty of
fome crime. In this cafe the emperor appoints to the
fucceffion either one of his younger brothers or a cou-
fin ; but thefe muft be always chofen from the fame
branch, as the lawful branch cannot be deprived of its
right without the condemnation of all who compole it.
The only hereditary authority of the other princes ex-
ifts among thofe troops called the ‘Tartar bands. There
they enjoy, without oppofition, that rank which they
derive from their birth, but in every thing elfe are on
a level with others. They are fubjedled to a military
examination at ftated periods, and are always promot¬
ed or degraded according to the degree of {kill they
exhibit. The fame trial is undergone by the heir ap¬
parent and his fons ; the only indulgence fhewn them
being, that fchools are appointed lor their particular
ufe. The princes are likewife indulged with a tribu¬
nal appropriated on purpofe for them, and before
which alone they can be tried. An infult offered to a
prince decorated with the yellow girdle is puniftied
with death ; but if he has omitted to put it on, the
aggreffor efcapes with a baftinading. A prince may
be put to death by the emperor’s confent ; but he ef¬
capes every {lighter corporal puniffiment by paying a
fine. Untitled princes have very few privileges fuperior
to thofe of common citizens ; and are generally very
poor, unlefs poffeffed of fome lucrative office. Thus
they are fometimes reduced to the neceffity of accept¬
ing the higheft pay of a common foldier in the Tartar
bands. When they, or any of their children, how¬
ever, enter into the marriage ftate, the emperor ufual-
ly makes them a prefent of 100 ounces of Giver. He
will alfo relieve them on other occafions, affift their
wddows and orphans, &c. but in all this never departs
from the moft exadl rules of economy ; fo that the
mandarins in this refpeft are much better than the re¬
lations of the fovereign himfelf. I0X
With regard to the ancient religion of China, F.p Amiot?s
Amiot informs us, that, after making every poffible account of
refearch, comparing and reafoning upon his obferva-the. ancie"t
tions, he at laft concluded, that “ the Chinefe are a
diftinft people, who have ftill preferved the charadieri-
ftic marks of their firft origin ; a people whofe primi¬
tive
CHI [2
China, tive doftrine will be found, by thofe wlio take the trou-
ble of inveftigating it thoroughly, to agree in its cf-
fential parts with the do&rine of the chofen people,
before Mofes, by the command of God himfelf, had
configned the explanation of it to the facred records j
a people, in a word, whofe traditional knowledge,
when freed from whatever the ignorance or iuperiti-
tion of later ages has added to it, may be traced back
from age to age, and from epocha to epocha, with¬
out interruption, for the fpace of 4000 years, even to
the renewal of the human race by the grandfon of
Noah.” The king, or canonical books of the Chinefe,
everywhere inculcate the belief of a Supreme Being,
the author and preferver of all things. Under him
they mention the names of Tien, or heaven ; Chang-
tien, or Supreme heaven 5 Chang-ti, or Supreme Lord;
and of Hoang-chan ti, Sovereign and Supreme Lord :
“ Names (fays M. Grofier) correfponding to thofe
which wTe ufe when we fpeak of God, the Lord, the
Almighty, the Moft High.”
According to the Chinefe books, the Supreme Be¬
ing is the principle of every thing that exifts, and the
father of all living ; he is eternal, immoveable, and
independent; his powrer knows no bounds; his fight
equally comprehends the paft, prefent, and the future,
penetrating even into the inmoft receffes of the heart.
-Heaven and earth are under his government; all
events, all revolutions, are the confequences ot his will;
he is pure, holy, and impartial ; wickednefs offends
his fight; but he beholds with an eye of complacency
the virtuous actions of men. Severe, yet juft, he pu-
niflies vice in a ftriking manner even on the throne,
and often precipitates from thence the guilty, to place
upon it the man who walks after his own heart, wLom
he hath raifed from obfcurity. Good, merciful, and
full of pity, he relents on the repentance of the wic¬
ked : publiccalamities, and the irregularities of the fea-
fons, are only falutary warnings, which his fatherly good-
nefs gives to men to induce them to reform and amend.
The performance of religious worfhip at the pro¬
per and appointed times, has given occafionto the great
exa&nefs with refpeft to the kalendar, which is re¬
markable throughout the empire of China ; and all
the celebrated emperors have begun their reigns with
a reformation of it. Our hiftorians, however, not
contented with difcovering in the Chinefe religion the
fundamental principles of the ancient patriarchal reli¬
gion, have alfo found in it evident fymptoms of a
knowledge of the Trinity as believed among Chrifti-
ans. “ Among the ancient Chinefe charafters (lays
M. Grofier), which have efcaped the ravages of time,
we find the following A. According to the dictionary
of Knng-hi, this fignifies union ; according to the
Choue-auen (that book fo highly efteemed in China) A
is three united in one ; it derives it from the charac-
tersgW (to enter or penetrate), and ye, one; whence
it concludes, that A means three united, penetrated,
or incorporated into one. According to another book,
accounted a learned and accurate explanation of the
ancient charaClers, 4 A fignifies ftriCl union, harmony,
the chief good of man, of heaven, and of earth ; it
7 ] CHI
is the union of the three tfai (powrers, principles, or C.ui.n. ^
intelligences) ; for, united, they direft, create, and
nouriftr together. The image —■ (three united in one
figure) is not fo obfcure in itlelf; however it is diffi¬
cult to reafon upon it wfithout being deceived ,■ on this
fubjett it is difficult to fpeak.’
“ Father Amiot, fpite of all the obje£iions which
the critics of Europe may make, feems to conjecfure,
that the chara&er A might have been, among the an¬
cient Chinefe, the iymbol of the moft holy Trinity ;
« and the more fo (he adds), as the ancient books
furnifh a number of texts, which gives us reafon to
fuppofe them to have been poffelTed of fome know¬
ledge of this fublime myftery.’ The book See-ki fays,
‘ The emperor formerly offered up a folemn facrifiec
every three years to the Spirit, I rinity and Unity,
Chin-fanye.'' The following celebrated text of Loo-
tfe has long been knowm in Europe. 4 Too is one by
nature : the firft begot the fecond ; two produced the
third ; the three created all things.’
44 F. Amiot quotes another paffage, which appears
to be no lefs lingular. 4 He who is, as it were, vi-
fible, and cannot be feen, is named K.hi ; he who may
be heard, yet fpeaketh not to the ears, is called Hi ,*
he whom, in a manner, we feel, yet cannot touch, is
named Ouei. In vain do we interrogate our fenfes re-
fpe&ing thefe three ; our reafon, which alone can give
us any fatisfatftion, will tell us that they make only
one. Above there is no light ; below there is no dark-
nefs. He is eternal ; there is no name which can be
given him. He refembles nothing that exifts ; he is
an image without figure; a figure without matter :
his light is furrounded by darknefs. If we look up to
him above, we behold no beginning ; if w’e folloiv him,
we difeover no end. From w’hat the Too hath been
at all times, conclude what he is, viz. that he is eter¬
nal : he is the beginning of wfifdom.’ d he commen¬
taries which explain this paffage fpeak in fuch ftrong
and precife terms, that F. Amiot forbears to quote
them, left he might incur the cenfure of too many in¬
credulous readers (a).” _ I02
The facrifices of the Chinefe were firft offered up in sacrifices,
the open fields, or on fome mountain, upon what they
call the Tan, which fignifies a quantity of ftones
thrown together in a round form, or limply a round
heap of earth. A double fence, called Kiao, compo-
fed of turf and branches of trees, was raifed around
this; and, in the fpace left between the tw o fences,
two leffer altars w’ere erefted on the right and left ;
upon which, immediately after the facrifice offered up
to the Tien, they facrificed alfo to the Cheng, or good
fpirits of every rank, and to their virtuous anceftors.
The fovereign alone had a right of faCrificing upon
this Tan; and the cuftom of facrificing to inferior
fpirits, according to the Chinefe commentators, may
be traced even to the days of Fo-hi himfelf. The fame
• writers add, that, in addreffing themfelves to the
Chang-ti, they confidered him as the fovereign lord of
the univerfe, clothed with all that power which was
neceffary to fatisfy them with regard to the different
D 2 obiedls
(a) It is a lingular circumftance that h. Amiot fhould have paffed over in filence fuch unintelligible mum¬
mery, without a fingle animadverfion. Realon humbly confeffes every wrord of it to be abfoLutely incomprehen-.
fible ; and faith itfelf has alraoft as hard a ftruggle in believing it as the never-to-be-fathomed creed of Athanaftus<.
CHI [
China, objefts of their requefts j but that, in offering up their
—  ' prayers to the inferior objedts of worfhip, they only im¬
plored their prote&ion and mediation with the Chang-ti.
While the empire was confined within narrow
bounds, one mountain was fufficient for the facrifices
but in procefs of time it became negeffary to confecrate
four others. Thefe were fituated at the extremities of
the empire, and were fuppofed to correfpond rvith the
four quarters of the world ; and the prince went fuc-
ceflively every year to one of thefe mountains to offer
up facrifices •, taking occafion at the fame time to
fhow himfelf to his people, and to inform himfelf of
their wants. This cuftom fubfifted for a long time ;
but at length it was found convenient to add a fifth
mountain in the centre of the empire ; and ever fince
thefe have been called the five To, or the five moun¬
tains of facrifice. This method of fubjedling the em¬
peror to regular annual journeys could not but be at¬
tended with many inconveniences. It was found necef-
fary on this account to confecrate fome fpot in the
neighbourhood of his palace, which might be fubfti-
tuted for the To upon all occafions when the emperor
could not repair to them. * An edifice was therefore
eredled, which at once reprefented the Kiao, Tan, and
the Hall of ancejlors. This laid was a neceffary part
of the edifice *, becaufe it was incumbent on thofe who
offered up facrifices, firft to repair to this hall, and ac¬
quaint their anceftors with what they were about to
perform ; and thither alfo they returned after facrifi-
cing, to thank the fame anceftors for the protetHon
they had received from the Chang-ti •, after which they
offered up a facrifice of thankfgiving in honour of them,
and performed certain other ceremonies to fhow their
refpeft. The building contained five feparate halls,
appropriated to different purpofes: originally it had
neither paintings nor ornaments of any kind, and a
ftaircafe of nine fteps condu&ed to the principal en¬
trance. Afterwards, however, it was much more rich¬
ly ornamented, each of the five halls being decorated
with columns, over which others were placed that fup-
ported a fecond roof. In fucceeding times it was flap¬
ped of all its ornaments, with a view' to bring back re¬
ligion to its primitive fimplicity. Its four gates were
covered with fine mofs, reprefenting the branches of
which the double fence of the ancient Kiao were form¬
ed. The ridge of the roof was covered wfith the fame,
and the whole was encompaffed by a canal filled with
-tvater at the time of offering up the facrifices. To
this a fecond building wTas added, w'hich they called
the temple of neatnefs, and which was ufed only for pu¬
rifications and ceremonies, the former being entirely
confecrated to the worfhip of the Chang-ti.
At prefent there are only two temples in Peking,
named the Tien-tan and the Ti-tan; in the conftruiftion
of which all the elegance of Chinefe architetfture is
difplayed. Thefe are both dedicated to the Chang-ti,
but under different titles ; in the one he is adored as
the eternal fpirit; in the other, as the creator and pre-
ferver of the world. The ceremonies of the modern
facrifices are greatly multiplied ; and nothing can ex¬
ceed the fplendor and magnificence with which thefe
folemnities are performed. Sometimes before the day
appointed for the grand ceremony, the monarch, the
grandees of the court, and all thofe w'hom their em¬
ployments qualify to affift at the folemnity, prepare
China.
28 ] CHI
themfelves by retirement, falling, and continence ; no _
audience is given by the emperor, and the tribunals v
are entirely fhut; marriages, funerals, rejoicings, and
entertainments of every kind, are then forbidden. At
laft, on the day appointed, the emperor appears, at¬
tended by an innumerable multitude, and his perfon
furrounded by a vaft number of princes, lords, and of¬
ficers, while every part of the temple feems to corre¬
fpond with the magnificence of the fovereign ; all the
vafes and utenfils employed in the lacrifices are of
gold, and cannot be applied to any other purpofe j
even the inftruments of mufic are of enormous mag¬
nitude, and never ufed anywhere elfe. All this gran¬
deur, however, ferves only to difplay in a more emi¬
nent manner the humility and abafement of the mo¬
narch during his devotion j at wdrich time he rolls in
the dull, and fpeaks of himfelf before the Chang-ti in
terms of the molt abjeft fubmiflion and humiliation. IO:J
The purity of the ancient Chinefe religion has,Sedtot'
however, been long contaminated by many idolatrous Tao-ffe.
and fanatical fe«5ls. Among thefe, one named Tao-fse
was founded by a philofopher called Lao-hiun or Lao-tfe,
who was born 603 B. C. He died in an advanced
age, leaving to his difciples a book entitled Tao-te, be¬
ing a colleftion of 5000 fentences. His morality has
a great refemblance to that of Epicurus. It confifts
principally in banilhing all vehement defires and paf-
fions capable of difturbing the peace and tranquillity
of the foul. According to him the care of every wife
man ought to be only to endeavour to live free from
grief and pain, and to glide gently down the ftream
of life devoid of anxiety and care. To arrive at this
happy ftate he advifes his followers to banifti all thoughts
of the paft, and to abftain from every vain and ufelefs
inquiry concerning futurity, as well as all tormenting
thoughts ot ambition, avarice, &.c. It w7as found by
the difciples of this philofopher, however, that ail
their endeavours to obtain a perfeft tranquillity of
mind were vain, as long as the thoughts of death in¬
tervened 5 they therefore declared it pofiible to difeover
a compofition from which drink might be made that
would render mankind immortal. Hence they were
led to the ftudy of chemiftry ; and, like the weftern
alchemifts, wearied themfelves in fearch of the philolo-
pher’s ftone, until at laft they gave themfelves up to
all the extravagancies of magic.
The defire of avoiding death, together with the
credulity natural to unenlightened minds, quickly pro¬
duced a number of converts to the fe£l of Tao-fse.
Magical praclices, the invocation of fpirits, and the
art of foretelling events by divination, quickly diffufed
themfelves over the empire, and the imbecility of the
emperors contributed to propagate the deception.
Temples confecrated to fpirits quickly reared their
heads in every corner of the empire} and two of the
moft celebrated of the fe£l were authorized to main¬
tain public worfhip there after the form which had
been preferibed by their mafter. At the fame time
they diftributed, and fold at a dear rate, images 01 the
imaginary fpirits with wdiich they^had peopled the
heavens and the earth. 1 hefe w7ere, by their com¬
mand, wor(hipped as fo many deities independent of
the Supreme Being 5 and in like manner, feveral of
the ancient emperors were invoked as gods.
Being patronized by the emperors of feveral dy-.
nafties*
China.
CHI [ 29 ]
nafties, this Teft became more and more powerful, fhort,
1 At lad they had the impudence to affix, during the
night-time, to one of the gates of the imperial city,
a book filled with myftic chara&ers and magical figures.
At break of day they informed the emperor of the
fudden appearance of this book, and publicly declared
that it was fallen from heaven. This trick eafily im-
pofed upon the weak prince. He immediately repair¬
ed, with a numerous train, to the fpot where; the fa-
cred volume appeared 5 and having taken it into his
hands in a refpe&ful manner, carried it in triumph to
his palace, where he Ihut it up in a golden box. An¬
other emperor carried his reverence for the fed to (uch
a height of impiety and extravagance, as to order a
celebrated Tao-fse to be publicly worlhipped under the
name of Chang-ti. The fed thus patronized by the
princes, and accommodated to the credulity of the
vulgar, continued to gain ground in fpite of every op-
pofition from the wifer part of the people, and is ftill
very powerful in China. At prefent they offer up
three different vidims, a hog, a fowl, and a fiih, to a
fpirit whom they invoke. Various ceremonies, fuch
as howling, drawing fantaftical figures upon paper, ma¬
king a hideous noife with kettles and drums, are ufed
in their incantations j and though it may readily be
believed that they are for the moll part unfuccefsful,
yet their credit is ftill kept up by thofe cafes in which
they fucceed by accident.
The chief of the Tao-fte is inverted by government
with the dignity of grand mandarin, which is enjoyed
by his fucceffors : he refides in a furaptuous palace in
a town of Kiang-fi •, and the fuperrtitious confidence
of the people attrads an immenfe number thither from
all parts of the empire. Some arrive in order to be
cured of difeafes, others to get an infight into futu¬
rity. The impoftor diftributes to them fmall bits of
paper filled with magical charaders ; and the ignorant
wretches depart well fatisfied, without grudging the
expence of their journey, though ever lo long.
A ftill more pernicious and more widely diffufed fed
Of the wor- js t^at Qf t]ie idol fo, which came originally from In-
fluppers of Ycia-fsg had promifed to the brother of one
of the emperors of China to introduce him to a com¬
munication with fpirits. The credulous prince having
heard of a great fpirit named Fo, who refided in In¬
dia, prevailed on his brother to fend an embaffy thi
ther. On the arrival of the ambaffadors, however,
they could find only two worffiippers of this deity,
both of whom they brought to China. Several images
of Fo were alfo colleded at the fame time *, and thefe,
together with fome canonical books of the Indians,
were placed on a white horfe, and carried in proceffion
to the imperial city.
This fuperrtition was introduced into China about
the 65th year of the Chrirtian aera, and foon made
vaft progrefs. One of its principal dodrines is that
of the metempfychofis, or tranfmigration of fouls, of
which M. Grofier thinks he was the inventor, and that
Pythagoras, who travelled into feveral parts of India,
had borrowed the dodrine from him. The account
given of him by the bonzes is, that finding himfelf,
at the age of 70, oppreffed with infirmities, he called
his difciples together, and told them he was unwilling
to leave the world without communicating the fecret
and hiddea myrteries of his dodiine } .which were, ia
104
CHI
that all things had proceeded from a vacuum
and nothing, and to that they muft return. This doc¬
trine produced a correfponding mode of adion, or ra¬
ther of inadion, in thofe who believed it ; for thus
the great happinefs of man was made to confift in ab-
folute annihilation ; and therefore the nearer he could
bring himfelf to this Hate during life, the happier he
was fuppofed to be.
The common dodrine, however, which admits of a
diftindion between good and evil, finds more profe-
lytes among the vulgar, whole fituation in lile will not
allow them to fpend their time in perpetual idlenefs.
According to this, the righteous will be rewarded and
the wicked punilhed after death. They fay alfo, that
the god Fo came to fave mankind, and to expiate their
fins ; and that he alone can procure them a happy re¬
generation in the life to come. Five precepts are
likewife inculcated on thofe who adopt this dodrine;
1. Not to kill any living creature j 2. Not to take
Cliirtit.
away the goods of another ; 3. Not to pollute them-
feives by uncleannefs ; 4. Not to lie, and, 5. Not to
drink wine. Above all, they recommend to them to
perform ads of mercy, to treat their bonzes well, build,
temples, &c.
The dodrine of metempfychofis has introduced in¬
to China an infinite number of idolsj who are all wor-
Ihipped on the luppofition that the Ipirit of Fo has-
tranfmigrated into the animals they reprefent. Thefe-
idols, however, feem not to be woilhipped with great
fincerity ; but, like the images of faints in the more
fuperftitious countries of Europe, are beaten and.
thrown in the dirt when their votaries happen not to
obtain their defires, which they impute to. the obftinacy;
or weaknefs of the idol. Nay, M. Grofier gives an
account of one man, who having ineffedually paid a
fum of money to the bonzes of a certain idol for the
cure of his daughter, brought a formal accufation
againrt the idol himfelf 5 and in fpite of all that the
bonzes could fay- in its behalf, got its worfhip fupprel-
fed throughout the province. 1
The bonzes of China are reprefented as a molt ava- Bad
ricious and hypocritical race of men, ready to pradife r^der of
every kind of villany, and even to fubjed themfelves1 ie bonzc
to the molt intolerable tortures, in order to obtain mo¬
ney from the compaflion of the public when they can¬
not get it in any other way ; and an edid of one of
the emperors is cited by M. Grofier, by which great
numbers of their religious houfes were fuppreffed. In
order to perpetuate their fed, they purchaie young
children, whom they take care to inftrud in all the.
myfteries and tricks of their profeffion 5 but except¬
ing this, they are in general very ignorant, and few-
of them would be able to give any tolerable account
of the tenets of their own fed. They are not fubjcd
to a regular hierarchy, but acknowledge fuperiors
D"'
ha-
among them whom they call grand bonzes, who have
the firft place in all religious affemblies at which they
happen to be prefent : and great profit is derived from,
certain religious clubs, both of men and women, at
which the bonzes are always called to affirt. Their
wealth is likewife augmented by pilgrimages to certain,
places were there are temples more oriels reverenced,
and where a multitude of abfurd ceremonies are per¬
formed. Thefe bonzes, as may be eafily imagined, are
inveterate enemies to the progrefs of Chriftianity, telU
in&.
China.
io6
Ridiculous
fuperfti-
tiou of the
fong-choui*
107
Jews and
Mahomf*.
tare jn
China.
CHI [3°
ing the moft abfurd ftories concerning the miflionaries •,
as that they pluck, out the eyes of their converts to
conftruft telefcopes with, &c. The literati, however,
and the more fenfible part of the nation, hold them in
the greateft contempt.
We Ihall conclude this detail of the Chinefe reli¬
gion with giving an account of one other fuperllition
which feems peculiar to the nation. It is named
chout, which iignifies wind and water. By this they
mean the lucky or unlucky fituation of a houfe, buiy-
ing-place, &c. If any imprudent perfon has built a
houfe clofe to that of a Chinefe, in fuch a manner
that the angle formed by its roof flanks the wall or
roof of the former houfe, the proprietor ever after
lives in terror of utter ruin and deftrublion from the
malignant influence of that angle. An implacable
hatred inftantly commences betwixt the two families,
and often gives rife to a law-fuit, which fumilhes mat¬
ter of difeuffion for fome of the fuperior tribunals.
If no redrefs can be had at law, however, the Chinefe
is then reduced to the neceflity of erecting, on tire top
of his houfe, an enormous image of a dragon, or fome
other monfter, with its mouth gaping towards the angle,
and, as it were, threatening to fw^allow it up ; after
which the apprehenfions of the proprietor begin to
fubfide, and tranquillity is reftored to the family. _ In
this manner the governor of Kien-lchang lecured him-
felf from the influence of the church of the Jefuits,
which, being built on an eminence, overlooked his pa¬
lace. Not depending, however, entirely on the good
offices of his tutelary dragon, he alfo took the wife
precaution of altering his principal apartments, and
raifing, at the diftance of 200 paces from the church,
a kind of large facade three ftories high. But un¬
luckily the death of his fucceflbr was attributed to
this facade } for the mandarin being attacked with a
diforder in the breaft, which made him fprt up a white
phlegm, this fymptom was thought to be owung to the
walls of the facade, which were very white, and which
were forthwith painted black. The falutary precau¬
tion, however, happened to be taken too late ; for the
•.rovernor died notwithftanding the black colour of the
walls.
“ We ffiould never have done (fays M. Grofier),
were we to relate all the fuperftitious ideas of the Chi¬
nefe, refpefling the lucky and unlucky fituation of
houfes, the quarter which doors ought to front, and the
plan and day proper for conftrufting the ftoves in which
they cook their rice.” But the objefl on which they
employ their greateft care is the choice of the ground
and fituation for a burying-place. Some quacks fol¬
low no other profeffion than that of pointing out hills
and mountains which have an afpeft favourable for
works of that kind. When a Chinefe is perfuaded of
the truth of fuch information, there is no fum which
he would not give to be in poffeffion of the fortunate
fpot. The greater part of the Chinefe are of opinion
that all the happinefs and misfortunes of life depend
upon the fotur chom.
A colonv of Jews was eftabliffied in China about
the year 206 B. C.*, but they are now reduced to a
fmall number of families at Cai-fong, the capital of
the province o4: Honan. The Mahometans have mul¬
tiplied much more than the Jews. It is above 600
years fince they firft entered the empire, where they
] CHI
have formed different eftablifhments. At firft their China,
number was augmented only by marriages ; but for *
fome time paft they have been more particularly at¬
tentive to the extending of their fe£t and propagating
their do&rine. The principal means employed for
this purpofe are, to purchafe a great number of chil¬
dren brought up in idolatry, whom their poor parents
are glad to part with j and thefe they circumcife, and
afterwards inftruft in the principles of their religion.
During the time of a famine which defolated the pro¬
vince of Chang-tong, they purchafed more than 10,000
of thefe children *, for whom, when grown up, they
procured wives, built houfes, and even formed whole
villages of them. They are now become fo numerous,
that in the places where they refide they entirely ex¬
clude every inhabitant who does not believe in their
prophet, and frequent a mofque. Io3
With regard to the manners of the Chinefe, they
bear no refemblance to thefe of any other nation ^ and,
if we may believe their hiftorians, they are the fame
at this day that they were 4000 years ago. The wo¬
men are condemned almoft to perpetual imprifonment
within the precinds of their own houfes, and are ne¬
ver feen even by their intended hulbands before mar¬
riage. He knows nothing of her looks or perfon, but
from the account of fome female relation or confidant,
who in fuch cafes ads the part of match-maker j though
if impofed upon either with regard to her age or fi¬
gure, he can have recourfe to a divorce. The fame
matrons who negociate the marriage, alio determine the
fum which the intended hufband muft pay to the pa¬
rents of the bride : for in China a father does not give
a dowry to his daughter j it is the hufband who gives
a dowry to the wife. When the day appointed for
the marriage is arrived, the bride is placed in a chair
or clole palanquin, the key of which is committed to
the care of a trufty domeftic, who muft deliver it to
none but the hufband. The latter, richly dreffed, waits
at his gate for the arrival of the proceffion. As foon
as it approaches, the key is put into his hands; he
eagerly opens the chair, and for the firft time perceives
his good or bad fortune. If he is contented with his
now fpoufe, the bride defce'nds and enters the houfe,
where the marriage is concluded by feafting and mer¬
riment as in other countries *, but if the bridegroom is
very much difappointed, he fuddenly (huts the chair, and
fends the bride home to her relations. To get rid of
her in this manner, however, cofts a fum equal to what
he originally gave in dowry to obtain her.
The Chinefe women, even of the fiift rank, feldom
quit their apartment, which is fituated in the moft re¬
tired part of the houle, and in which they are leclu-
ded from all fociety but that of their domeftics. The
book of ceremonies requires that there fiiould be two
apartments in every houfe ; the exterior one for the
hufband, the interior for the wife. They muft even be
feparated by a wall or wooden partition, the door of
which is carefully guarded } nor is the hufband at li¬
berty to enter the wife,s apartment, 01 file to quit it,
vmhout fufficient reafon. According to the fame book,
the prattling and loquacity of a woman are reckoned
fufficient grounds for a divorce. If this be iounded
in fa£1:, the women of China are either unexampled for
taciturnity, or elfe multitudes of divorces muft be da:'y
occurrences. A woman, however, cannot be divoiced
on
China.
rop
Concubi¬
nage tole¬
rated.
CHI [3
on any account, if ftie lofes her parents after marriage,
or if (he has worn three years mourning for the lofs of
her hu(band, father, or mother.
A widow of any rank above the common, who has
children, feldom enters a fecond time into the mar¬
riage (late, though thofe of the ordinary rank ge¬
nerally do. The poorer fort are not at liberty to fol¬
low their own inclination, but are (old for the behoof
of the parents of the deceafed. As foon as the bar¬
gain is concluded, a couple of porters bring a chair,
which is guarded by a number of truily people. In
this the widow is (hut up, and thus condu&ed to her
new hulband.
« Matters (fays M. Grofier), for the moft part, are
very defirous of promoting marriage among their (laves,
whatever Mr Paw may fay 5 who, without any founda¬
tion, has ventured boldly to affert the contrary. I hey
have even very ftrong motives to induce them to en¬
courage thefe marriages •, the children produced by them
are (till their (laves ; and befxdes their becoming new'
property to them, the fathers and mothers are thus more
ftrongly attached to their fervice.”
Concubinage is tolerated in China, though not au¬
thorized by any law. This privilege is granted only to
the emperor, the princes of the blood, and mandarins j
and none but the emperor is permitted to ha%'e more
than one! The common people generally avail them-
felves of the toleration granted them in this refpedt,
and will have two or three concubines if they can af¬
ford it. Tney are, however, careful to excufe them-
felves as well as they can to their wives in this refpedl,
pretending only a defire to have many children, and
a number of women to attend their wives. Others,
defirous of having a male child, while perhaps their
lawful wife cannot have any, take a concubine for this
reafon only, and difmifs her as foon as their wilhes
are accomplilhed : they then permit her to marry
whom (he pleafes, and frequently even provide a huf-
band for her themfelves. Thefe concubines are al-
moft all procured from tw'o cities named iLang-tcheou
and Sou-tcheou, where they are educated, and taught
finging, dancing, mufrc, and every accomplifhment
fuitable to women of quality, or which can render
them agreeable and pleafing. The greateft part of them
are purchafed in other places, to be again difpofed of 5
and this is the principal branch of trade carried on by
thefe two cities. Unlawful intrigues are feldom heard
of in China. Whoever feduces the wife of another is pu-
nilhed with death-, and the fame puniihment is generally
infli&ed on the perfon who debauches a young woman.
1I0. From the accounts we have of the education of chil*
of children dren "in China, one might be apt to conclude, that, in-
ttea-d of being the ignorant- fuperftitious race already
•defcribed, they ought to be the moft intelligent people
in the world. The book of ceremonies direfts the edu¬
cation of a child to commence as foon as it is born,
and defcribes exa&ly the qualities which its nurfe
ought to have. She mutt fpeak little, adhere ftri&ly
to truth, have a mild temper, behave with affability
to her equals, and until reipeft to her fuperiors. The
child is taught to ufe the right hand as foon as it can
put its hand to its mouth, and then it is weaned. At
fix years of age, if a male, he is taught the numbers
moft in ufe, and made acquainted with the names of
the principal parts of the world j at feven, he is fepa-
1 ] CHI
rated from his fitters, and no longer allowed to eat China,
with them, nor to fit down in their prefence j at eight, '-“—V”""
he is inftrudled in the rules of good breeding and polite-
nefs j at nine, he ftudies the kalendar j at ten, he is fent
to a public fchool, where he learns to read, write, and
call accounts) from 13 to 15 he is taught mufic, and
every thing that he lings confifts of moral precepts.
It was formerly the cuftom, that all the leffons defign-
ed for the Chinele youth were in verfe ; and it is to
this day lamented, that the fame cuftom is not follow¬
ed, as their education has fince been rendered much
more difficult and laborious.
At the age of 15, the Chinefe boys are taught to
handle the bow and arrow-, and to mount on horleback)
at 20 they receive the firft cap, if they are thought to
deferve it, and are permitted to wear (ilk dreffes orna¬
mented with furs j but before that period they are not
allowed to wear any other thing than cotton.
Another method of initiating children into the
principles of knowledge in this empire is, by felefling
a number of charaflers expreffive of the moft common
obje&s, engraving or painting them feparately on fome
kind of fubifance, and, under the thing reprefented,
putting the name, which points out to them the mean¬
ing of the word.
As the Chinefe have no proper alphabet, they re-
prefent almolt every thing by different charatters.
The labour of their youth, therefore, is intolerable j
being obliged to ftudy many thoufand charadiers, each
of which has a dittinft and appropriate fignilication.
Some idea of their difficulties may be obtained from
what we are told by F. Martini, who affures us, that
he was under the neceflity of learning 60,000 differ-
rent chara&ers before he could read the Chinefe au¬
thors with tolerable eafe.
The book firft put into the hands of the Chinefe
children is an abridgement, which points out what a
child ought to learn, and the manner in which he
fliould be taught. This volume is a colledfion of fhort
fentences, confiding of three or four vetfes each, all
of which rhyme ; and they are obliged to give an ac¬
count in the evening of what they have learned in the
day. After this elementary treatife, they put into their
hands the four books which- contain the doftrines of
Confucius and Mencius. The fenie and meaning of
the work is never explained to them until they have
got by heart all the chara£fers, that is to fay, the words
in the book a method no doubt inconceivably difguft-
ing, and calculated utterly to dettroy the genius of a
boy, if he has any. While they are getting thefe cha-
rafters by heart, indeed, they are likewile employed in
learning to form them with a pencil. For this pur-
pofe they are furniihed with large leaves of paper, on
which are written or printed with red ink very big
characters ) and all they are required to do is to cover
thofe red characters with black ink, and to follow ex-
aClly their fhape and figure which infenfibly accuf-
toms them to form the different ftrokes. After this
they are made to trace other characters, placed under
the paper on which they write. Theie are black, and
much ('mailer than the other. It is a great advantage
to the Chinefe literati to be able to paint characters
well) and on this account they beftow great pains in
forming the hands of young people. This is of the
utmoft confequence to literary ftudents in the exami-
j ' nations
CHI [32
•China, nations which they are obliged to undergo before they
 v ' can be admitted to the firft degree. Du Halde gives
a remarkable inftance, viz. that “ a candidate for de¬
grees having, contrary to order, made ufe of an ab¬
breviation in writing the character ma, which iignifies
a horfe, had the mortification of leeing his compofi-
tion, though in other refpefts excellent, rejeaed merely
on that account ; befides being feverely rallied by the
mandarin, who told him a horfe could not walk unleis
he had all his legs. . i(. n f ,
After the fcholar has made himfelf mailer ot the
charaaers, he is then allowed to compofe : but the
•fubiea of his compofition is pointed out to him only
by one word. Competitions are likewife eftabliihed
■in China, but molt of them are of a private nature.
Twenty or thirty families, who are all of the lame
name, and who confequently have only one hall tor
the names of their ancellors, agree among themlelves
to fend their children twice a month to this hall in_or¬
der to compofe. Each head of a family in turn gives
the fubjea of this literary contell, and adjudges the
prize ; but this colts him a dinner, which he mult caule
to be carried to the hall of competition. A fine of about
tenpence is impofed on the parent of each fcholar who
abfents himfelf from this exercife.
Befides thefe private competitions, every Undent is
obliged to compete at leal! twice a-year under the in-
fpeftion of an inferior mandarin of letters, llyled liw-
■kounn. It frequently happens alio, that the mandarins
of letters order thefe Undents to be brought, before
them, to examine the progrefs they have made in their
ftudies, to excite a fpirit of emulation among them, and
make them give fuch application as may qualify them
■for any employment in the Bate. Even the governors
of cities do not think it below their dignity to take
this care upon themfelves 5 ordering all thofe ftudents
■who refide near them to appear before their tribunal
once a month: the author of the beft compofition is
honoured with a prize, and the governor treats all the
candidates on the day of competition at his own ex¬
pence. In every city, town and village in'China,
there are fchoolmafters who teach fuch fciences as are
known in that country. Parents polleffed of a certain
fortune provide mafter$*for their children, to attend
and inftruft them, to form their minds to virtue, and
to initiate them in the rules of good breeding and the
accuftomed ceremonies, as well as to. make them ac¬
quainted with the laws and hiftory, if their age will
admit. Thefe mafters have for the moft. part at¬
tained to one or two degrees among the literati, and not
unfrequently arrive at the firft employments of the ftate.
The education of the Chinefe women is confined to
giving them a tafte for folitude, and accuftoming
them to modefty and filence ; and, if their parents are
rich, they are likewife inftru61 cd in luch accomplnli-
ments as may render them agreeable to the other fex.
There is little diftin&ion in China between the or¬
dinary drefs of men and w’omen. Rank and dignity
nr are diftinguifhed by certain acceffary ornaments ; and
■Drets. the perfon would be feverely chaftifed who fhould pre¬
fume to affume them without being properly authori¬
zed. The drefs in general confifts of a long veft which
reaches to the ground. One part of this veft, viz.
that on the left fide, folds over the other, and is faften-
ved to the right by four or five fmall gold or filver but-
2
1
China,
C H I
tons, placed at a little diftance from one another. The
fleeves are wide towards the fhoulder, growdng narrow-—v
er as they approach the wrrift, where they terminate in
the form of a horfe fhoe, covering the hands entirely,
and leaving nothing but the ends of the fingers to be
feen. Round their middle they wear a large girdle
of filk, the ends of which hang down to their, knees.
From this girdle is fufpended a flieath, containing a
knife and two of thofe fmall flicks which they ufe as
forks. Below this robe they wear a pair of drawers,
in fummer made of linen, and in winter of fatin lined
wdth fur, fometimes of cotton, and in fome of the
northern provinces of fkins. Fhefe are fometimes co¬
vered with another pair of wdiite taffety. I heir ftiiits
are always very ihort and wide, of different kinds o.
cloth, according to the feafon. Under thefe they wear
a filk net to prevent it from adhering to the fkin. In
warm weather they have their necks always. bare ;
when it is cold, they wear a collar made of filk and
fable, or fox’s fkin, joined to their robe, which in win¬
ter is trimmed with fheepfkin, or quilted with fiik.and
cotton. That of people of quality is entirely lined
with beautiful fable fkins brought from Tartary, or
with the fineft fox’s fkin, trimmed with fable ; and m
the fpring it is lined with ermine. Above their robe
thev wear alfo a kind of furtout with wide fleeves,
but very fhort, which is lined in the fame manner.
The emperor and princes of the blood only have a
right to wear yellow7 j certain mandarins have liberty
to wear fatin of a red ground, but only, upon days of
ceremony in general they are clothed in black, blue,
or violet. The common people are allowed to wear
no other colours but blue or black 5 and their drefs is
always compofed of plain cotton cloth. . II2
Formerly the Cl.'nefe were at great pains to pre-chinefe
ferve their hair j but the Tartars, who fubdued ^em, obliged liy
compelled them to cut off the greater part of it, and to^iarurs
alter the form of their clothes after the I artar md11011* tijeir hair.
This revolution in drefs was not effefted without blood-
fhed, though the conqueror at the fame time adopted
in other refpeas the laws, manners, and cuftoms of the
conquered people. Thus the Chinefe are painted as
if bald, but they are not fo naturally : that imall por¬
tion of hair which they preferve behind, or on the
tops of their heads, is all that is now allowed, them.
This they w7ear very long, and plait like a tail. In
fummer they wear a kind of cap fhaped like an invert¬
ed cone, lined with fatin, and covered with ratan or
cane very prettily wrought. The top terminates in a
point, to which they fix a. tuft of red hair which
fpreads over it, and covers it to the brim. This hair
grows between the legs of a kind of cow, and is ca¬
pable of taking any colour, efpecially a deep red. I his
ornament is much ufed, and any perfon who choofes
may wear it. . r , r
The mandarins and literati wear a cap of the fame
form as the foregoing, only it is lined with red fatin,
and covered on the outfide with white. . A large tut
of the fineft red filk is fixed over it, which is luffered
to hang down or wave with the wind. People ot di-
ftinftion generally ufe the common cap when they
mount on horfeback or during bad weather-, being
better calculated to keep off rain, and (belter thofe
who wear it from the rays of the fun. For winter
they have another cap bordered with fable, ermin^
China.
CHI [33
fox’s fkin, and ornamented with a tuft of filk like the
former. In thefe fur-trimmings they are very curious,
fometimes expending 40 or 50 ounces of filver upon
them.
The Chinefe people of rank never go abroad with-
out boots made of fatin or fome other filk, and fortle-
times of cotton, but always dyed. They have neither
heel nor top, and are made to fit the foot with the
greateft exaftnefs. When they travel on horfeback,
however, they have others made of the (kin of a cow
or horfe made very pliable. Their boot-ftockings are
of filk fluff, quilted and lined with cotton, reaching
above the top of their boot, and ornamented with a
border of velvet or cloth. In fummer they wear a
cooler kind, and in their houfes a fort of flippers made
of filk fluff. The common people are contented with
black flippers made of cotton cloth. The fan is alfo a
necelfary appendage of the Chinefe drefs, and is rec¬
koned equally neceffary with the boots.
The drefs of the women confifts of along robe quite
clofe at top, and long enough to cover even their toes,
with fleeves fo long that they could hang down upon
the ground, did they not take care to tuck them up ;
but their hands are feldom feen. The colour of their
dreffes is entirely arbitrary, but black and violet are
generally chofen by thofe advanced in life. The young
ladies, like thofe of Europe, make ufe of paint to give
a bloom to their complexions j but this, though not
the fame with the kind ufed in Europe, agrees with it
in the effeft of foon wrinkling the fkin. Their gene¬
ral head-drefs confifts in arranging their hair in feveral
curls, among w’hich are interfperied fmall tufts of gold
or filver flowers. According to Du Halde, fome of
them ornament their heads with the image of a fabulous
bird, concerning which many ftories are told. This
is made of copper or filver gilt, its wdngs extended and
lying pretty clofe to the head-drefs, embracing the up¬
per part of their temples, while the long fpreading
tail forms a kind of plume on the top of the head. Its
body is direftly over the head, and the neck and bill
hang down, the former being joined to the body by a
concealed hinge, in order that it may play freely, and
move about on the leaf! motion of the head. The
whole bird adheres to the head by means of the claws,
which are fixed in the hair.
Ladies of quality fometimes wear feveral of thefe
birds made up into a fingle ornament, the workmanflu'p
of which is very expenfive. Young ladies wear alfo a
crown made of pafteboard, the fore part of which rifes
in a point above the forehead, and is covered with
jewels. The reft of the head is decorated with natural
or artificial flowers, among which fmall diamond pins
are interfperfed. The head-drefs of the ordinary clafs
of women, efpecially when they are advanced in years,
confifts only of a piece of very fine filk wrapped round
their heads.
All authors agree, that an abfurd cuftom prevails
tom of pre-throughout China, of confining the feet of female in¬
venting the ^nts jn a njannev that they are never allowed to
grow to near their full fize. The fmallnels or their
feet is accounted fuch a valuable beauty, that the Chi¬
nefe women never think they can pay too dear for it.
As foon therefore as a female infant is born, the nurfe
wraps up its feet in very tight bandages ; and this
torture muft be endured until their feet have ceafed to
Vgl. VI. Part I.
ir3
\bfurd cuf-
feet of fe¬
male in¬
fants from
growing.
] CHI
grow. So prevalent is the force of cuftom. however,
that as the child grotvs up fhe voluntarily fubmits to
new tortures, in order to accomphfh the purpofe more
effedfually. Thus the Chinefe women are deprived al-
moft entirely of the ufe of their feet ; and are fcarcc
able to walk, in the rnoft awkward hobbling manner, for
the fhortefl fpace. The fhoe of a full growrT Chinefe
woman will frequently not exceed fix inches.
The Chinefe ufe white as the colour proper for
mourning} and though a fon cannot wear this while
his father and mother are alive, he can ufe no other
for three years after their death j and ever afterwards
his clothes muft be of one colour. The law has for¬
bidden the ufe of filks and furs to children : and has
even prefcribed the time wTben they are firft to wear a
cap. This is put upon their heads by the mafter of
ceremonies himfelf, who addrefles them in the follow¬
ing manner : “ Confider that you now receive the
drefs of thofe who have attained to maturity, and that
you ceafe to be children*, renounce, therefore, all child-
ifh thoughts and inclinations, affume a grave and fe-
rious deportment, apply with refolution to the ftudy
of virtue and wifdom, and endeavour to merit a long
and happy life.” “This ceremony (fays M. Grofier),
which may appear trifling, is attended with the hap-
pieft effe<3s. The Chinefe give a kind of importance
to every thing which can infpire youth with a tafte for
morality and a love of good order. It might be ufe-
ful to mankind at every fixed epocha of thtir lives ta
remind them of thofe new duties impofed by each fuc-
ceffive change j but, by uniting the folemnity of a pu¬
blic ceremony to this inftrudtion, it will make a deeper
impreflion, and remain much longer imprinted on their
memories.”
China.
”4
Nothing can appear more irkfome to an European Exccffive
than the multitude of ceremonies ufed on all occafions ce^eiT1ron'r
by the Chinele. An invitation to an entertainment isthechi-
p.ot fuppofed to be given with fincerity until it hasnefe.
been renewed three or four times in writing. A caid
is fent on the evening before the entertainment, ano¬
ther on the morning of the appointed day, and a third
when every thing is prepared and the guefts ready to
fit down to the table. The mafter of the houfe al¬
ways introduces his guefts into the hall, where he fa-
lutes them one after another. He then orders wine to
be brought him in a fmall cup made of filver, porce¬
lain, or precious wood, and placed upon a fmall var-
nifhed falver. He lays hold of it with both his hands,
makes a bow to all the furrounding guefts, and advan¬
ces towards the fore part of the hall, which generally
looks into a large court. He there raifes his eyes and
the cup towards heaven *, after which he pours the
wine on the ground. He afterwards pours fome wine
into a filver or porcelain cup, makes a bow to the moll;
confiderable perfon in company, and then goes to place
the cup on the table before him *, for in China every
gueft has a table for himfelf. The perfon for whom
he intends this honour, however, generally faves him
the trouble of placing the cup j calls for wine in his
turn, and offers to place the cup on the mafter’s table,
who endeavours to prevent him, with a thoufand apo¬
logies and compliments according to the rules of Chi¬
nefe politenefs. A fupeiior domeftic condudls the
principal gueft to an elbow-chair covered with rich
flowered filk, where the ftranger again begins hiscom-
E pliments,
i
I
China.
CHI [ 3+ ] CHI
pliments, and begs to be excufed from fitting in fuch
an honourable feat, which neverthelefs he accepts of;
and all the reft of the guefts do the fame, otherwife the
ceremonial would be gone through with each of them.
The entertainment is concluded by fome theatrical re-
prefentations, accompanied with the mufic of the coun¬
try ; which, however, would give but little pleafure
to an European. Befides the guefts, a certain num¬
ber of people are admitted into the court in order to
behold thefe theatrical reprefentations j and even the
women are allowed to view them through a wicket,
contrived fo that they may behold them without being
feen themfelves.
The entertainments of the Chinefe are begun, not
by eating, but by drinking ; and the liquor they drink
muft always be pure wine. The intendant, or jnailre
d^hotel, falling down on one knee, firft invites the
guefts to take a glafs \ on which each of them lays
hold with both hands of that which is placed before
him, raifing it as high as his forehead, then bringing
it lower down than the table, and at laft putting it to
his mouth : they all drink together, and very flowly,
taking three or four draughts. While they are drink¬
ing, the difhes on each of the tables are removed, and
others brought in. Each of the guefts has twenty-
four fet before him in fucceflion ", all of them fat, and
in the form of ragouts. They never ufe knives in their
repafts *, and two fmall pointed flicks, ornamented
with ivory or filver, ferve them inftead of forks. They
never begin to eat, however, until they are invited by
the maitre d'hotel; and the fame ceremony muft be
gone through every time they are going to take a cup
of wine, or begin a new difli. Towards the middle
of the entertainment the foup is brought in, accom¬
panied with fmall loaves or meat pies. Thefe they
take up with their fmall flicks, fteep them in the
foup, and eat them without waiting for any fignal, or
being obliged to keep time with the reft of the guefts.
The entertainment, how’ever, continues in other re-
Ipedls with the utmoft formality until tea is brought
in •, after which they retire from table and amufe
themfelves in another hall, or in the garden, for a ftiort
time, until the deffert be brought in. This, like the
entertainment itfelf, confifts of 24 difties, which are
made up of fweetmeats, fruits differently prepared,
hams and faked ducks which have been baked or dried
in the fun, with fhell and other kinds of fifh. The
fame ceremonies which preceded the repaft are now
renewed, and every one fits down at the fame place
he occupied before. Larger cups are then brought
in, and the mafter invites the guefts to drink more
freely.
Thefe entertainments begin towards evening, and
never end till midnight. A fmall fum of money is
given to the domeftics j when every one of the guefts
goes home in a chair preceded by feveral fervants,
who carry large lanthorns of oiled paper, on which
are inferibed the quality, and fornetimes the name,
of the mafter. Without fuch an attendance they
would be taken up by the guard 5 and the day follow¬
ing they never fail to return a card of thanks to the
officer.
Their method of drinking tea is not like that of
other nations. A fmall quantity of bohea, fufficient
to tinge the water and render it palatable (for they
drink no green), is taken in the morning, and thrown China,
into a veffel adapted to the number in family. This1111
ftands till milk-wahn ; in which ftate it is kept the
whole, day, and a cup drank now and then wutheut
fugar or milk, in order to exhilarate the fpirits when
exhaufted by fatigue: and if a ftranger call by accident,
or a vifitor by appointment, the firft thing prefented,
after the ufual ceremonies of meeting, is a very fmall
pipe filled with tobacco of their own growth, and a cup
of the tea already mentioned, or of lome frefti made
of better quality, together with fweetmeats, &c. Tea
is the daily beverage in China, and is drank by all
ranks of people.
Some change has been made in the ceremonial of
the Chinefe by the Tartar conqueft, and fome new
difhes alfo introduced by the fame means ; and here
M. Grofier obferves, that the Tartars are much better
cooks than the Chinefe. All their difhes are highly
feafoned j and by a variation in the proportions of
their fpiceries, they are able to form a variety of difties
out of the fame materials. None of their viands,
however, are more efteemed than flags finew’s, and the
nefts of a particular fpecies of birds, which have the
property of giving a moft agreeable relifh to what¬
ever is mixed with them. Other diflies are introdu¬
ced at thefe repafts, which would be accounted very
difagreeable with us; fuch as the flefli of wild hories,
the pawrs of a bear, and the feet of feveral wflld
animals. The greater part of thefe provifions are
brought preferved in fait from Siam, Camboya, and
Tartary.. „„
The wines of China have no refemblance to oursChinefe
either in tafte or quality, being procured from rice,wines,
and not from the vine. A particular kind of rice is
employed for making them, and the grain is fteep-
ed for 20 or 30 days in w’ater, into which ingredients
of a different nature are fucceffively thrown : they af¬
terwards boil it ; and as foon as it becomes difl'olved
by the heat, it immediately ferments, and throws
up a vaporous feum not unlike new wine. A very
pure liquor is found under this feum, which is drawn
off and put into veffels well glazed; From the re¬
maining leys an inflammable fpirit is made, little in¬
ferior, and fometimes even fuperior, to the Euro¬
pean. Another kind of wine is ufed by the Chinefe,
or rather Tartars, called lamb uuine. It is vtry ftrong,
and has a difagreeable fmell; and the fame may be
believed of a kind of fpirit diftilled from the flefh
of ffieep ; though this laft is fometimes ufed by the
emperors.
Thefe entertainments exceed the bounds of ordinary
repafts; the Chinefe being naturally fober, and thofe
in eafy circumftances living chiefly on pork; for which
reafon a great number of hogs are bred in the country.
Their flelh is much eafier of digeflion, and more agree¬
able to the tafte, than thofe of Europe. The Chinefe
hams are in high eftimation. The common people
live very poorly ; being fatisfied, in time of fcarcity,
with the flefh of dogs, horfes, cats, and rats, which
laft are fold publicly in the ftreets. It<y
There are feveral public feftivals annually celebrated Public fef.
in China. One is that already mentioned, in which tivals.
the emperor tills the ground with his own hands. This
is alfo celebrated on the fame day throughout the em¬
pire, In the morning the governor of every city comes
forth
China
CHI [ 35 .] C
forth from his palace crowned with flowers, and en- as if it wrere a real ferpent
* ters his chair amidil the noife of different inftruments
which precede it ; a great numben of people attend¬
ing, as is ufual on all fuch occafions. The chair is
furrounded by litters covered with filk carpets, on
which are reprefented either fome illuftrious perfons
who have fupported and encouraged agriculture, or
fome hiftorical painting on the fame fubjeft. The
flreets are hung with carpets, triumphal arches are
erefled at certain diftances, lanthorns everywhere dif-
played, and all the houfes illuminated. During the
ceremony a figure refembling a cow, made of baked
earth, with gilt horns, is carried in proceffion, and of
fuch enormous magnitude that 40 men are fcarce fuf-
ficient to fupport it. A child follows with one foot
naked and the other fhod, who is called the fpirit of
labour and diligence^ and keeps continually beating the
image with a rod to make it advance. Labourers,
with their implements of hufbandry, march behind $
and the proceffion is clofed by a number of comedians
and people in mafks. The governor advances towards
the eaftern gate, and returns in the fame manner. The
cow is then dripped of its ornaments, a prodigious
number of earthen calves taken from its belly and
diftributed among the people j after which the large
figure is broken in pieces and diftributed in the
fame manner. The ceremony is ended by an oration
in praife of agriculture, in which the governor en¬
deavours to excite his hearers tb the pra&ice of that
ufeful art.
Other two feftivals are celebrated in China with ftill
more magnificence than that above defcribed. One
of them is at the commencement of the year j the
other is called the feajl of lanthorns. During the
celebration of the former, all bufinefs, whether pri¬
vate or public, is fufpended, the tribunals are fhut, the
polls Hopped, prefents are given and received, and vi-
fits paid. All the family affemble in the evening, and
partake of a feaft to which no ftranger is admitted j
though they become a little more feciable on the fol¬
lowing day.
The feaft; of lanthorns ought to take place on the
15th day of the firft month, but ufually commences on
the evening of the 1 3th, and does not end till that of
the 16th. At that time every city and village, the
{bores of the fea, and the banks of all the rivers, are
hung with lanthorns of various lhapes and fizes ; fome
of them being feen in the courts and windows of the
pooreft houfes. No expence is fpared on this occafion;
and fome of the rich people will lay out eight or nine
pounds fterling on one lanthorn. Some of thefe are
Very large, compofed of fix wooden frames either
neatly painted or gilt, and filled up with pieces of fine
tranfparent filk, upon which are painted flowers, ani¬
mals, and human figures ; others are blue, and made
of a tranfparent kind of horn. Several lamps, and a
great number of wax candles, are placed in the infide :
to the corners of each are fixed ftreamers of fiik and
fatin of different colours, with a curious piece of car¬
ved work on the top. They are likewife acquainted
with our magic lanthorn, which they fometimes in¬
troduce in this feftival. Eefides this, they have the
art of forming a fnake 60 or 80 feet in length, filled
with lights from one end to the other 5 which they
caufe twift itfelf into different forms, and move about
H 1
During the fame feftival
all the varieties of the Chinefe fire-woxks, fo juftly ad¬
mired, and which, fome time ago at leaft, furpafled
every thing of the kind that could be done in Europe,
are exhibited*
Every public ceremony in China is carefully ren¬
dered as linking as poffible. A viceroy never quits
his palace but with a royal train, drefi'ed in his robes
of ceremony, and carried in a chair elegantly gilt,
which is borne upon the fhoulders of eight domeitics $
two drummers marching before the guards, and beat¬
ing upon copper bafons to give notice of his approach.
Eight other attendants carry llandards of wood var-
nilhed, upon which are infcribed in large characters all
his titles of honour. After thefe come 14 Hags with
the fymbols of his office ; fuch as the dragon, tyger,
phoenix, flying tortoife, &c. Six officers follow, each
bearing a piece of board in drape like a large fhovel,
on which are written in large golden characters the
qualities of the mandarin himfelf: two others car¬
ry, the one a large umbrella of yellow fiik, and the
other the cover in which the umbrella is kept. The
firft guards are preceded by two archers on horfeback ,
the latter are followed by others armed with a kind of
weapons compbfed of hooked blades, fixed perpendicu¬
larly to long poles ornamented with four tufts of filk,
placed at a fmall diftance above one another. Behind
thefe are two other files of foldiers, fome of whom
carry large maces with long handles j others iron
maces in the drape of a fnake ; others are armed with
huge hammers; while thofe behind them carry long
battle-axes in the form of a crefcent : others follow,
who have battle-axes of another kind j and behind
thefe are fome with the hooked weapons already de¬
fcribed.
Behind thefe Come foldiers armed with triple-point¬
ed fpears, arrows, or battle-axes $ having in front twro
men who carry a kind of box containing the viceroy’s
feal. Then come two other drummers to give notice
of his approach. Two officers follow, having on theib
heads felt hats, adorned with plumes of feathers, and
each armed wfith a cane to recomrttpnd regularity and
good order to the furrounding multitude. Twro others
bear maces in the form of gilt dragons. Thefe again
are followed by a number of magiftrates and officers
of juftice : fome of whom carry whips or flat flicks,
while others have chains, hangers, and filk fcarfs.
Two ftandard-bearers and a captain command this
company, which immediately precede the governor.
His chair is furrounded by pages and footmen, and an
officer attends him who carries a large fan in form of
a fcreen : he is followed by feveral guards differently
armed, together wdth enfigns and other officers, who
are alfo followed by a great number of domeftics all
on horfeback, carrying various neceffiaries for the ufe
of the mandarin. If he marches in the night-time,
inftead of flambeaux, as are cuflomary in Europe, large
lanthorns, exceedingly pretty* are carried before him 5
on the tranfparent part of which are Written, in very
confpicuous characters, his quality* titles, and rank,
as mandarin. Thefe are alfo intended to give notice
to the paffengers to flop, and to thofe who are fitting
to rife up with refpeft ; for whoever negleds either
the one or the other is fure to receive a fevere bafti-
nading.
E 2 ^ The
China.
1Z7
Magnifi¬
cence cf
the vice¬
roys.
CHI [ 36 ] CHI
China. The emperor marches with ftill more magnificence,
v~—**. in proportion to his fuperior quality. The trumpets
uied in his proceffion are about three feet long, eight
inches in diameter at the lower extremity, and pretty
much refembling a bell in (hape : their found is pecu¬
liarly adapted to that of the drums. His cavalcade is
clofed by 2000 mandarins of letters, and as many of
arms. Sometimes the great mandarins, as well as the
emperor, travel in barks : their attendance is then
fomewdrat different, but the magnificence almoft the
fame. The honours paid to a viceroy who has governed
a province with equity are exceedingly great on his
departure from it. He has fcarcely left the capital of
the province when he finds on the highway, for the
fpace of two or three leagues, tables ranged at certain
diftances, each of which is furrounded with a long
piece of filk that hangs down to the earth. On thefe
wax candles are placed even in the open day ; perfumes
are burnt upon them j and they are loaded with a pro-
fufion of vidluals and various kinds of fruit, while tea
and wine are prepared for him on others. The peo¬
ple throw themfelves on their knees as he palfes, and
bow their heads even to the earth j fome ihed tears, or
pretend to do fo j fome prefent him with wine and fweet-
meats ; others frequently pull off his boots and give
him new ones. Thefe boots, which he has perhaps
ufed only for a moment, are confidered as a valuable
monument : thofe firft taken off are preferved in a
cage over the gate of the city } the reft are carefully
It3 kept by his friends.
Knavifh Hitherto cur author, M. Grofier, has feemed in-
difpofition clined to give a favourable idea of the Chinefe, and to
uefe^e caufe us look upon them as many degrees fuperior to
ourfelves in the praftice of virtue and morality ; but
when he comes to give an account of their dealings in
trade, he is then obliged to confefs that they are as dif-
honeft and knavilh a race as any that exift. “ The moft
frequented fairs of Europe (fays he) afford but a faint
idea of that immenfe number of buyers and fellers w’ith
which the large cities of China are continually crow'd-
ed. We may almoft fay, that the one half are em¬
ployed in over-reaching the other. It is,, above all,
againft ftrangers that the Chinefe merchants exercife,
■without any fenfe of ihame, their infatiable rapacity.
Of this F. du Halde gives a ftriking example, which
might be fupported by many others : ‘ The captain of
an Englifh veffel bargained with a Chinefe merchant
at Canton for feveral bales of filk, which the latter
was to provide againft a certain time. When they
were ready, the captain went wuth his interpreter to the
houfe of the Chinefe merchant to examine whether
they were found and in good condition. On opening
the firft bale, he found it according to his wifh, but all
the reft were damaged and good for nothing. The cap¬
tain on this fell into a great paftion, and reproached
the merchant in the fevereft terms for his dilhonefty.
The Chinefe, after having heard him for fome time with
great coolnefs, replied, ‘ Blame, Sir, your knave of an
interpreter : he affured me that you would not infpe£l
the bales.
“ The lower clafs of people are, above all, very dex¬
terous in counterfeiting and adulterating every thing
they fell. Sometimes you think you have bought a
capon, and you receive nothing but fkin ; all the reft has
been fcooped out, and the place fo ingenioufly filled,
that the deception cannot be difeovered till the moment Chine*
you begin to eat it. The counterfeit hams of China v ”
have been often mentioned. They are made of a piece
of wood cut in the form of a ham, and coated over
with a certain kind of earth which is covered with hog’s
fkin. The whole is fo curioufly painted and prepared,
that a knife is neceffary to dete<ft the jraud. Mr Of-
beck relates, that having one day obferved a blind man
carrying about for fale fome of thofe trees called by
the Chinefe Fokei, he purchafed one, which to appear¬
ance had fine double red and white flowers; but on
cloler examination, he found that the flow'ers were taken
from another tree, and that one calyx was fo neatly fit¬
ted into the other, with nails made of bamboo, that he
fhould fcarcely have difeovered the deceit had not the
flowers begun to wither. The tree itfelf had buds, but
not one open flower.
“ The robbers in China fignalize themfelves alfo by
the dexterity and ingenuity which they difplay in
their profeflion. They feldom have recourfe to a£ts of
violence, but introduce themfelves into a houfe either
privately or by forming fome conneftion with the fa¬
mily. It is as difficult in China to avoid robbery as it
is to apprehend the criminal in the faft. If we are
defirous of finding among the Chinefe opennefs of tem¬
per, benevolence, friendftiip, and, laftly, virtue, we muft
not feek for it in cities, but in the bofom of the coun¬
try, among that clafs of men who have devoted them¬
felves to labour and agriculture. A Chinefe ruflic
often difeovers moral qualities which would add a
luftre to the charadfter of men of the moft exalted
rank. It appears that rural life naturally infpires fen-
timents of benevolence j by continually receiving the
gifts of nature, the mind is enlarged, and men are
infenfibly accuftomed to diffufe them to thofe around
them.”
The internal commence of China is much greater
than that of all Europe ; but its foreign trade is by
no means equal to that of any of the grand European
powers. Its internal commerce is greatly facilitated
by the vaft number of canals and rivers wdth which
the country is interfered. The Chinefe, howTever,
are not at all fitted for maritime commerce : Few
of their veffels go beyond the ftraits of Sunda j their
longeft voyages to Malacca extended only as far as
Acheen, towards the ftraits of Batavia, and norths
ward to Japan.
Their commerce with the laft mentioned ifland, con-
fidering the article of exchange, which they procure at
Camboya or Siam, produces them cent, per cent. Their
trade with the Manillas brings only about 50 per cent.
Their profit is more confiderable about Batavia ; and
the Dutch fpare no pains to invite them to traffic at
their fettlements. The Chinefe traders go alfo, through
not very frequently, to Acheen, Malacca, Thor, Patan,
and Ligor, belonging to Siam and Cochin-china ; from
whence they bring gold and tin, together with fome
objefls of luxury for the table. A great obftacle to
the foreign commerce of the Chinefe is their indiffe¬
rence about maritime affairs, and the bad conftnuftion
of their veffels. This they themfelves acknowledge j
but fay, that any attempt to remove it would be dero¬
gating from the laws, and fubverting the conftitution TIg
of the empire. Burying-
The burying-places in China are always fituated at places de-
afcribed.
China.
120
Funeral
ceremo¬
nies.
C H 1 . [ 37 ] . C H 1 A
a fmall diftance from a city or town, and generally nefe as the moft important of any* A- fe^ moments
upon fome eminence, having pines or cypreffes ufually after a perfon has expired, he is dreffed out in his rich-
planted around them. The form of the tombs is va- eft attire, and adorned with every badge of his dignity j
rious according to the different provinces, and the after which is he placed in the coffin. The prepara-
fituation of thofe for whom they are intended. The tion of a coffin, in which Jiis body may be incloied at-
coffins of the poor are placed under a ftiade covered ter death, is one of the chief obje&s of attention to a
with thatch, or inclofed in a fmall building of brick Chinefe, during his life, and great expence is often
in the form of a tomb. The tombs of the rich are thrown out upon it ; infomuch that the poor will give
ftianed like a horfe-fhoe, well whitened, and finiftied all they are worth, and the rich expend a thouiand
with great tafte *, but thofe of the mandarins and peo- crowns, nay, a ion will left himielf for a Have in order
pie of quality are much more fumptuous and elegant. to purchafe a coffin for his father. Sometimes the coi-
A vault is firft conftrufted, in which the coffin is ihut fin, when purchafed with all this labour and expence,
up • over this vault is raifed a pyramid of earth well will remain twenty years ufelefs in the family, and is
beat together, about 12 feet in height and io in confidered as the moil valuable piece of furniture in his
diameter, a’layer of lime and fand laid over this poffeflion. . ,
earth makes a kind of plafter, which renders the whole The manner of interment is as follows : hirlt they
very durable and folid various kinds of trees being fprinkle fome lime.in. the bottom of the coffin ; then
planted around it in regular order. Before it is placed they lay the body in it, taking care to place the head
a large and long table of white marble, on the middle on a pillow, and to add a great deal of cotton, that it
of which is fet a cenfer, accompanied with two vafes, may remain more fteady, and be prevented from lha-
and the fanie number of candlefticks of exquifite work- king. In this manner the body remains expoied leven
manfhip. Befides this a great number of figures, re- days ; but the time may be reduced to three., it any
prefenting officers, eunuchs, foldiers, faddled horfes, weighty reafon makes it neceffary j and, during this
camels lions, tortoifes, &c. are ranged round the interval, all the relations and friends, who are purpoie-
tombs in different rows -, which, F. du Halde affures ly invited, come and pay their refpeas to the decea-
us produce a very ftriking efFecft. fed, the neareft relations even remaining in the houfe.
Hvhen a Chinefe dies in a province in which he was The coffin is expofed in the hall of ceremony, which
not born, his chjjdren have a right, nay it is their in- is then hung with white, but fome pieces of black or
difpenfable duty, to tranfport the body to the burying- violet-coloured filk are here and there interiperied,
place of their anceftors. A fon, who fhould be wanting as w-ell as fome other ornaments of mourning. Be-
in this refped, would be difgraced, and his name never fore the coffin is placed a table, on which ftands the
placed in the hall of his anceftors. This is a vaft build- image of the deceafed, or a carved ornament inscrib¬
ing confidered as common to all the branches of the ed with his name ; and thefe are . always accom-
fame family, and to which they all repair at a certain panied with flowers, perfumes, and lighted wax can-
feafon of the year. Sometimes they amount to feven dies. . , , , ton
or eipht thoufand perfons, whofe fortune, dignity, and In the mean time thofe wffio enter the hall are ac-
rank in fociety, are all very different •, but there no di- cuftomed to falute the deceafed as if he were ftill in
ftinclion of rank is known ; age only gives prece- life. They proftrate themfelves before the table, and
dence and the oldeft always takes place of all the reft, knock their foreheads feveral times agatnft the eaith j
though he fhould be the pooreft in the company, after which they place on the table fome perfumes and
The^diftinguithing ornament of this hall is a long wax candles provided for the purpofe. J ^e Sta¬
table fet againft the wall, upon which is generally feen tion which they have made to the deceafed is return-
the imao-e of one of their anceftors, who has filled ed by. the eldeft fon accompanied by his brothers,
fome office of diftin&ion in the empire with honour The latter come forth from behind a curtain, which
to himfelf, or who has been rendered illuftrious by his hangs on one fide of the coffin, creeping along the
talents and abilities. Sometimes it only contains the ground until they reach the fpot where thofe. ftand
names of men, women, and children belonging to the whom they are going to ialute 5 after which, without
family inferibed upon tablets, together with their age, rifing up, they return to the place from whence they
the day of their death, and the dignities they enjoyed came. The women are alfo concealed behind the
at that time. Thefe tablets are ranged in two rows upon fame curtain, from whence they every now7 and then
fteps, and are only about a foot high each. In the fend forth difmal cries. . . .
fpring and fometimes in the autumn, the relations of After a number of ceremonies and invitations, the
the deceafed repair to this hall, where the only privi- funeral proceffion at laft commences. A troop of men.
leae enjoyed by the richeft is that of preparing an en- march in a file, carrying different figures made ot
tertainment, and treating the whole family at their pafteboard, and reprefenting flaves, lions, tigers, hor-
own expence : but they never allow themfelves to tafte fes, &c. Others follow, marching in two files; fome
a bit of any thing until an offering has been firft of which carry ftand.ards, fome flags or cenfers filled
made to their anceftors. This does not, however, ex- with perfumes j while melancholy and plaintive airs
cufe them from vifiting the real tomb of their an- are played by others on different muhcal mftruments.
ceftors once or twnce a year, generally in the month Thefe mufici.ans immediately precede the coflin, which
of April. At this time they pluck the weeds and is covered with a canopy, in form ot a dome, ot violet-
bufties from around the tomb, renew their expreffions coloured fil.k j its four corners are ornamented with
of gri- f, and conclude by placing upon it w’ine and pro- tufts of white filk very neat y emnoi ere » co-
vifions, which ferve to dine their affiftants. vered at the top with net-woi '. re cof in is P
The funeral ceremonies are confidered by the Chi- on the bottom of this machine, and is carried by 64
I men.
r 33 ]
■China.
C H I
men. The eldeft fon, clothed in a frock of canvas,
having his body bent and leaiiing on a ftaff, follows
near the coffin j and behind him his brothers and ne¬
phews, but none of them clothed in canvas. Then
come the relations and friends, all clad in mourning,
and followed by a great number of chairs covered with
white fluff, which contain the wives and female Haves
of the deceafed. Thefe make great Ihovv of forrow
by their doleful cries; but M. Grofier obferves, that,
in fpite of all they can do, the lamentations of the
Chinefe are fo methodical, that an European would be
apt to conclude that they were the effefts of ait ra¬
ther than the natural effufions of a mind agitated and
oppreffed with grief. When they arrive at the bury¬
ing place, the coffin is depofited in a tomb appropria¬
ted for it, not far from which there are tables arran¬
ged in different halls, and on which the affiHants are
entertained with great fplendour. The entertainment
is fometimes followed by frelh marks of homage to the
corpfe ; but thefe are often changed into thanks to the
eldeft fon } who, however, anfwers only by figns. But
if the deceafed was a grandee of the empire, a certain
number of his relations never leave the tomb for a
month or two. There they refide in apartments pur-
pofely provided for them, and every day renew their
marks of grief in company with the children of the de¬
ceafed. The magnificence of thefe funeral ceremo¬
nies is proportioned to the wealth or ^dignity of the
deceafed. That of one of the brothers of the emper¬
or was attended by 16,000 people, each of whom
had a particular office affigned him relating to the
ceremony.
Mourning continues in China for three years ; and
during all this time they are obliged to abftain from
the ufe of ftefti and wine *, nor can they affift at any en¬
tertainment of ceremony, or attend any public affembly.
At firft they are not even permitted to go abroad ;
and when they do fo they are carried in a chair co¬
vered with a white cloth. Sometimes the filial piety
of the Chinefe is carried to fuch a length, that they
preferve the bodies of their deceafed fathers in their
houfes for three or four years 5 and thofe who do fo
impofe alfo upon themfelves a great number of other
duties, ufing no other feat during the day but a ftool
covered with white ferge, and no other bed but a plain
mat made of reeds, which is placed near the coffin.
According to M. Grofier, the only diverfions of the
and fifliinf. Chinefe are thofe of hunting and fiffiing, dancing not
' being pra&ifed, and gaming forbidden by law. Fiffi-
ing is confidered by them rather as an objedl of com¬
merce and induftry than amufement. They catch fiffi
by various methods } ufing nets in their great fiffier-
ies, but lines in the private. In certain provinces alfo
they ufe a certain kind of bird whofe plumage greatly
refembles that of a raven, but with a much longer bill,
very (harp and hooked. This method of filhing is
praflifed in boats, of which great numbers may be
feen on the river about fun-rifing, with the fiffiing-
birds perched on their prows. Thefe birds are taught
to catch fiffi almoft in the fame manner that dogs pur-
fue game. The fiffiermen, after making feveral turns
with their boats, beat the water ftrongly with one of
their oars. This ferves as a fignal to the birds, who in-
ftantly plunge into the water, and diving, Iwallow
as many fmall fifties as they can, repairing immediately
China.
t2l
Mourning
122
Diverfions
C H I
afterwards to the boat, and carrying a large one by tne
middle in their bill. The fmall ones are prevented '
from paffing into the ftomach by a ring placed on pu—
pofe to confine its gullet : and thus the fiffierman by
llroaking its neck with the head downwards, makes
the bird difgorge all thole fmall fiffi it has fwallowed.
When they have done fiffiing, the rings are taken off,
and the birds allowed to feed. When the fiffi happens
to be too large for a fingle bird, the others have faga-
city enough to affift it ; one taking it by the tail, a-
nother by the head, &c. and thus they tranfport it to
their mailer.
Another method of fiffiing, praflifed only in China,
is as follows: They nail a board about two feet in
breadth, which is covered with a white ftiining kind of
varniffi, upon the edges of a long narrow boat, from
one end to the other. This board is placed in fuch a
manner as to flope almoft imperceptibly to the water.
It is ufed only in the night-time, and is always turned
towards the moon, that the leflettion of light from the
luminary may increafe the fplendour of the varnilh.
The fiffi in fp'orting, often miftake this varniffied board
for water ; and endeavouring to throw themfelves in¬
to it, fall into the boat.
The foldiers have a particular method of filhing
with a bow and an arrow the latter of which is fixed
to the bow by a firing, both to prevent it from being
loft, and to enable them to draw out the fiffi which
the arrow has pierced ; others make ufe of tridents
to catch large fiffi which are fometimes found in the
mud.
Befides thefe diverfions, the Chinefe have fome ftrol-
ing players, but no regular theatres j they have like-
wife muficians and fingers, but no operas, or indeed any
public fpe&acle wmrthy of notice. I2;?
The language of the Chinefe is not only very an-Of the CM.
dent, but, in M. Grofier’s opinion, is ftill fpoken asnefe lan-
in the moft early ages, without any variation. His rea-SuaSe*
Tons for this opinion are, 1. We do not perceive in hi-
ftory, nor even in the moft fabulous traditions, a fingle
faft tending to occafion any doubt of the language
fpoken by the ancient Chinefe being different from
that ufed at prefent. 2. China has never changed its
inhabitants; and if revolutions have occafioned any
mixture of new languages, it appears that the ancient
language has always been predominant, and that the
new fettlers have learned and fpoken it, as the Man-
chew Tartars after their conqueft. 3. The moft in¬
telligent and difcerning of the literati agree, that the
firft chapters of the Chou-king were written under the
reign of Yao, 2300 years before Chrift •, and in thefe
feveral fpeeches of the firft emperors are related word
for word ; and it is not probable that the language of
thefe princes wras different from that of the hiftorian.
4. A compliment paid to Yao by one of his fubjedls,
with the anfwer of that prince, are ftill preferved, as
well as two fongs compofed under the fame reign.
5. The moft ancient infcriptions in China are all in
the language fpoken throughout the empire at this
day. 7. The Chinefe have borrowed nothing from
other nations ; and their attachment to their own cu-
ftoms, and to antiquity, muff undoubtedly be very un¬
favourable to any innovation. The language fpoken
by the vulgar, indeed, muff have undergone fome
changes j but thefe may be accounted trivial, affe&ing
only
CHI [3
china, only the pronunciation j which indeed appears to be
—varied in Tome few inftances. It is certain, however,
that the Chinefe players aft theatrical pieces which
wrere written 1000 years ago, and that thele are Hill
underftood throughout the empire.
The language of China has no alphabet 5 all the
words which compofe it conlift of one lyllabH only,
and are very few in number. Thefe always remain
the fame, and continue monofyllables even when two
are joined together, being united in the fame manner
as th* French words bon and are united to form
bon jour. Thefe monofyllables never form but one
found. When written by an European, they begin
with the letters ch, tch, f g, or j, z, b, /, m, /?, g, ng,
/>, f Is, v, ou ; the final letters being a, e, i, 0, 01, ou,
jJt /, gn. The middle of Chinefe words confifts of
Xmwels and confonants producing only one found, and
pronounced always as monofyllables. 1 he whole pri¬
mary wmrds of the language are in number only about
330, though fome diftionaries make them 484. The
fenfe of thefe words, however, is varied by the accents
and changes of the voice in pronouncing them almoft
ad injinitum. f wo principal accents are known in
China ; the ping, that is, even, without elevating or
depreflrng the voice. This is divided into {jing, clear,
and tcho, obfcure ; or rather open and mute. 1 he ac¬
cent tfe is fubdivided into tchang, (harp, km, grave,
and jou, re-entering. The tone is chang when one
raifes the voice at the end of a word, as when the ne¬
gative no is pronounced with great emphafis and force ;
it is kiu when one depreffes the voice with an air of ti¬
midity. When the accent is jou, the voice is drawn
back as it were into the throat j and the afpiration
which takes place on certain words beginning with the
letters c, k, p, t. Hill adds to thefe varieties.
By thefe differences in pronunciation the fignifica-
tion of the words is totally changed : thus the word
tchu pronounced by lengthening the u, and with a
clear tone of voice, fignifies maffer or lord : if it is
pronounced in an uniform tone by lengthening the u,
it fignifies hog : when pronounced lightly and with ra¬
pidity, it fignifies kitchen ; and when articulated with
a firong voice depreffed towards the end, it fignifies a
pillar. -
By the conjunftion and modification of thefe differ¬
ent monofyllables, a Chinefe can exprefs every thing
he has occafion for j and it may b& eafily feen what
variety muff refult from this'art of multiplying wrords.
The Chinefe language therefore has words expreffive
of the fmalleff variation of circumHance, and which
cannot be expreffed in the European languages with¬
out a circumlocution. T hus inffead of the five words,
calf, bull, ox, heifer, cow, every time that a cow has
a calf (he acquires a new name in the language of
this empire j and Hill another w’hen (Ire becomes bar¬
ren. An ox fed for facrifice has a particular name,
which is changed w7hen he goes to the altar. In like
manner, a whole diftionary might be compofed of the
xvords that are employed to exprefs the different parts
of the emperor’s palace, and thofe that are in a man¬
ner confecrated to it j others being employed when the
palaces of princes or mandarins are fpoken of. I hus
the number of their charafters are augmented beyond
all bounds, fq that the greater part of their literati
fpend all their lives in ftudying them.
, ] CHI
In the Chinefe their are four different languages, , cll‘na;
I. The Kou-ouen, or claflical language. Inis is not
fpoken at prefent, though it is generally believed to
have been the language of the early ages. It is fo la¬
conic, and the ideas are fo crowrded, that it is very
difficult to be underftood j however, the literati, who
can read and underftand it, are much delighted with
it. 2. The Ouen-tchang is the language uied in com-
pofitions where a noble and elevated ftyle is requifite.
It is never fpoken, but certain fentences and compli¬
mentary expreilions are fometimes borrowed from it.
It approaches near to the laconic brevity and majeltic
fublimity of the Kou-ouen, and is equally proper for
every kind of fubjeft, excepting only the ambiguities
of metaphyfics, and the formal rugged diction ufed in
treating of the abftraft fciences.
3. The Kouan-ha is the language of the court, ot
people in office, and of the literati. It admits ot fy-
nonymous expreflions to moderate the brevity of mo¬
nofyllables 5 of pronouns and relatives j prepofitions,
adverbs, and particles ; to fupply the want of cafes,
moods, tenfes, and numbers, tvhich have place in other
languages.
4. Hiang-tan is a kind of corrupted language, or
provincial dialeft, fpoken by the lowTer claffes in Chi¬
na j and of which every province, city, and almoft eve¬
ry village, has its own. tefides the fenie of the
words, which is changed in a great variety of places,
they are fo altered by diverfity of pronunciation as to
be almoft unintelligible.
This language is fo abfolutely original, that no tra¬
ces of the moft diftant relation can be peiceived, ei¬
ther in reference to the form of the charafter, the (y-
ftem on which it appears to have been conftrufted, or
its peculiar idiom, to any other known language to be
met with upon the face of the earth. Many attempts
indeed have been made by the learned and ingenious,
to dilcover (ome affinity between it and different lan¬
guages j but we apprehend without (ucceis. Etymo¬
logical comparifons are often fanciful and drained, and
feldom fail to lead to erroneous conclufions. It may
indeed be admitted that it is pofiible to trace a reiem-
blance between the found pf the Chinefe language, and
thofe of other nations, yet no art or ingenuity, no ety¬
mological trick, as Mr Barrow exprefies himfelf, will
ever be able to trace any analogy between.their writ¬
ten charafters, farther than that they are made up of
points and lines, which might conflitute an affinity be¬
tween the Chinefe and any other language on the face
of the earth. It has no alphabetical arrangement, but
confifts purely of a prodigious number of arbitrary
iigns, fettled by convention, and which have no exter¬
nal affinity to the things they are meant to de(cribe.
The ridiculous conjeftures often made on this fubjeft
by etymologifts might be pardoned if they were meant
to be fatirical, like Dean Swdft’s antiquity of the En-
glifh tongue, from w'hich he makes the Hebrew,
Greek, and Latin, to be derivatives.
Such is the nature of the Chinefe language, that it
would be abfurd to expe6t among that people inch high
attainments in every branch of literature as are to be
met with in Europe. In the opinion of fome very
eminent men, their acquaintance with erudition of any
kind was as great 2000 years ago as it is at preient,
while others are perfuaded that they are rather on the
decline.
China.
124
Chine fe
writing.
1*5.
Of their
poetry.
CHI r 4<
decline. They pretend indeed, but without adducing
any fatisfaftory proof of its truth, that the monuments
of literature were deftroyed by the tyrant She-whang-
te, 200 years before the Chriftian era, that fucceeding
generations might confider him as the firfl: civilized
emperor who had fwayed the fceptre over that exten-
five country. The chief works at prefent among them,
which are moft valued, ftudied, and leaft underftood,
are the five claffics colle£ied by their favourite Cong-
foo-tfe, 450 years B. C. and which it feems had the good
fortune to efcape the unlettered fury of She-whang-te.
Thefe claffics are enumerated by Mr Barrow in the
following order.
1. Shoo-king. A colleftion of records and annals of
various princes, commencing more than 2000 years
B. C.
2. Shee-king. Odes, fonnets, and maxims; moft of
tbem fo abundant in metaphor, and fo obfcure, that
much of the fenfe is to be made out by the tranfla-
tor.
3. Te-hing. The perfeft and the broken lines of
Fo-fhee ; the moft ancient relick in China, and per¬
haps the firft attempt at written language : now per-
feflly incomprehenfible.
4. Chung-choo. Spring and autumn. The h’ftory
offome of the kings of Loo; the work principally of >
Cong-foo-tfe.
5. Lee-kee. Ceremonies and moral duties, a compi¬
lation of Cong-foo-tfe.
Without a complete change of the Chinefe language
and a more extenfive and friendly intercourfe with fo¬
reign nations, it is not at all probable that that peo¬
ple will ever rank high for their knowledge of litera¬
ture.
There are five kinds of writing mentioned by the
Chinefe literati ; the moft modern of which is a me¬
thod of tracing out the charadlers with a pencil. This
is difficult, and requires much experience ; at any rate,
it disfigures the charadlers greatly, and is therefore
only ufed in the prefcriptions of phyficians, prefaces to
books, and infcriptions of fancy. The tracing of cha-
rafters with neatnefs and accuracy, however, as we
have already had occafion to obierye, is greatly admi¬
red in China. They are often preferred to the moft
elegant painting ; and fome will give a moft exorbitant
price for a page of an old book, if it happens to be
neatly written. They pay particular attention to well
formed charasfters even in the rnoft common books ;
and if any of the leaves happen to fall off, will replace
them with the greateft attention. To apply them to
any vile purpofe, tread them under foot, &c. would be
reckoned an unpardonable violation of decency and
politenefs; nay, it often happens, that workmen, fuch
as mafons and joiners, dare pot tear a printed leaf of
paper f xed to the wall.
Pundluation w'as not formerly ufed in China, nor are
points as yet employed in works of an elevated ftyle,
or fuch as are to be prefented to the emperor. Poe¬
try is feldom an objedt of attention, though the tafte
for it feems to be pretty general in China. Their ver-
fification has its rules, and is no lefs difficult than that
of other nations. Only the moft: harmonious, energe¬
tic, and pidlurefque words, are to be employed, and
they muft always be ufed in the fame fenfe in which
they were ufed by the ancients. Each verfe can con-
] CHI
tain only a certain number of words ; all of which *Tina. t
muft be ranged according to the rules of quantity, and
terminate in rhyme. The number of verfes in a ftrophe
is not determined ; but they muft be uniiorm, and pre¬
fent the fame diftribution of rhymes. The fmall num¬
ber of poetical expreffions contained in the Chinefe
language has rendered it neceffary to extend the poeti¬
cal licenfe to a great length in this refpedl. I he Chi¬
nefe poets are allowed to employ a blank verfe in eve¬
ry four. They are acquainted with moft kinds of poe¬
try in ufe among us. They have ftanzas, odes, ele¬
gies, idyls, eclogues, epigrams, fatires, and even bouts
rimes. The common people have alfo ballads and
fongs peculiar to themfelves. Some of the moft diftin-
guiffied of the literati have even thought it of impor¬
tance enough to turn the moft celebrated maxims of
morality, wdth the rules of civility, into verfe. 1 heir
poetry is feldom difgraced by any kind of obfeenity ;
and indeed any fuch thing would be feverely puniftied
by government. That fevere attention with ■which
every thing tending to corrupt the morals is watched
in China, prohibits not only poems of this kind, but
likewife romances of all forts. The police, however,
permits fuch novels as have an ufeful tendency, and in
which nothing is introduced prejudicial to found mora¬
lity. Every author who writes againft government is
puniftied with death, as well as all thofe who have
had any hand in the printing or diftribution of his
works. . _ 12S
The arts of making paper and printing have been chinefe pa-
long known among the Chinefe. That kind of paper per.
now in ufe wras firft manufactured about 105 years be¬
fore the Chriftian era. Before that period they ufed
cloth, and various kinds of lilk fluff, inftead of paper ;
and to this day they ftill preferve a cuftom of writing
the praifes of the dead upon large pieces of filk, which
are fufpended on one fide of the coffin, and carried in
funeral proceffions; and of ornamenting their apart¬
ments with maxims and moral fentences written in the
fame manner. In ages ftill more early, they w;rote
with a kind of ftyle upon pieces of bamboo, or even
upon plates of metal. The firft paper v7as invented
by a mandarin. He took the bark of trees, hemp, and
old pieces of filk-ftuff, boiling them together until they
were reduced to a kind of pafte, of which he formed
his paper ; which by degrees was brought to perfec¬
tion, and the art of whitening and giving it a luftre
found out. A great number of different iubftances
are now ufed in this empire for making paper ; fuch
as the bamboo reed, the cotton fhrub, the bark of the
plant called kou-chu, and of the mulberry tree ; hemp,
the ft raw of wheat and rice, parchment, the cods of
the filk-worm, and feveral other fubftances unknown
in Europe. In this manufacture the bark of trees and
ftirubs is ufed, and the woody fubftance of the bamboo
and cotton tree, after it has been macerated and redu¬
ced to a thin pafte. Moft of the Chinefe paper, how¬
ever, is attended with the difadvantage of being very
fufceptible of moifture, readily attraas the duft, and
worms infenfibly get into it : to prevent which incon¬
veniences, it is neceffary to beat the books often, and
expofe them to the fun. That made of cotton is the
prettieft, and moft ufed of any. All of them, how¬
ever, are much fofter and fmoother than ours ; which
is abfolutely neceffary for their method of writing with
CHI [ 4i ] CHI
China, a pencil, in order that it may run with freedom, which
-v ' it could not do upon ours. It is formed into fheets
of an enormous fize *, fo that it would be no difficult
matter to procure from the manufadlories of this em-
pire ffieets of paper 30 or 40 feet long.
Ink.' The Chinefe ink. came originally from Corea ; and
it was not until the year 900, that they hit upon the
method of making it to perfe&ion. The beft is made
in Hoei-tcheou in the province of Kiang-nan j but its
compofition is a fecret, which the workmen conceal
not only from ftrangers, but from their fellow-citizens.
When a Chinefe has occafion to write, he places up¬
on his table a piece of polilhed marble, having a ca¬
vity at one of its extremities to contain a little wa¬
ter. In this he dips the end of his cake of ink, and
rubs it upon the fmooth part of the marble ; and as
he preffes more or lefs ftrongly, the liquor acquires
a deeper or lighter tinge of black. When he has
done writing, the ftone is carefully waffied 5 for it
would be diffionoured by allowing the leaft fpot to
remain. The pencils ufed in writing are commonly
made of the fur of a rabbit, and confequently very
128 foft.
Their me- The Chinefe method of printing is exceedingly dif-
thod of ferent from ours ; and indeed it would be in a manner
punting, impoflibie to have moveable types for fuch a number
of characters as their language requires. The whole
work which they intend to print is therefore engraved
upon blocks of wood ; and their method of proceed¬
ing is as follows. They firft employ an excellent wri¬
ter, who tranfcribes the wffiole upon very thin paper.
The engraver glues each of the leaves of the manu-
fcript upon a piece of plank made of any hard wood :
he then traces over with a graver the ftrokes of the
writing, carves out the characters in relief, and cuts
down the intermediate part of the wood. Thus each
page of a book requires a feparate plank ; and the ex-
ceffive multiplication of thefe is no doubt a very great
inconvenience, one chamber being fcarce fufficient to
preferve thofe employed for a Angle book. The ad¬
vantages are, that the work is thus free from typogra¬
phical errors, and the author has no occafion to cor¬
rect the proofs. Thus alfo the bookfellers in China
have a decided advantage over thofe of Europe, as
they are able by this method of printing to throw off
copies according to their fale, without running the rifk
of being ruined by too large an edition. In this
method the beauty of the work depends entirely up¬
on the (kill of the writer previoufly employed. The
engravers are exceedingly dexterous, and imitate eve¬
ry ftroke fo exaftly, that it is fometimes difficult to
diftinguilh a printed work from one that is only writ¬
ten.
The method of printing in China is not by a prefs
as in Europe, as neither their wooden planks nor their
foft paper could fuftain fo much preffure. They firfl:
place the plank level, and then fix it in that pofition.
The printer is provided with two bruffies, and with the
hardeft daubs the plank with ink ; and one daubing is
iufficient for four or five leaves. After a leaf has been
sdjufted upon the plank, the workman takes the fecond
bruffi, which is fofter than the former, and of an ob¬
long figure, and draws it gently over the paper, pref-
fing it down a little, that it may receive the ink. The
degree of preffure is to be regulated by the quantity
Vol. VI. Part I,
of ink upon the plank : and in this manner one man China,
is able to throw off almoft 10,000 copies a-day. The
ink ufed for printing is different from that formerly
defcribed, and which is ufed in writing. The leaves
on account of the thinnefs of the paper, are printed
only upon one fide ; on which account each leaf of a
book is double, fo that the fold Hands uppermoft, and
the opening is towards the back, where it is Hitched.
Hence the Chinefe books are not cut on the edges, but
on the back. They are generally bound in gray palle-
board, which is very neat 5 and thofe who wilh to have
them more elegantly done, get the paffeboard covered
with fatin, flowered taffety, and fometimes with gold
and filver brocade. Their books are neither gilt nor
coloured on the edges like ours.
It has been fo juHly and fo frequently obferved,
that the liberty of the prefs muff ever prove fatal to
the exiHence of tyranny and fuperflition, that it is a
circumflance peculiarly lingular to behold the liberty
of the prefs flouiilhing under a defpotic government ;
yet this is actually the cafe in China, although its go¬
vernment may be faid to be founded on error, and fup-
ported by oppreffion. It was the liberty of the prefs
which accomplilhed the overthrow of facerdotal tyran¬
ny in many European countries, by enlightening the
minds of thofe who were entlaved. When the art of
printing firH found its way into England, an intelli¬
gent perfon obferved to the abbot of WeffminHer, “ If
you don’t take care to deflroy that machine, it will
very foon deflroy your trade.” It w^as fortunate, how¬
ever, for fucceeding generations, that neither the ab¬
bot nor his fandlified cotemporaries had the penetration
to difcover the truth of this prediction, elfe the ages of
darknefs and fuperflition wuuld probably have been
protra&ed to the prefent day. ln
The art of manufacturing filk, according to the beft Vatt'quan-
authorities, was communicated by the Chinefe to the tity of filk
Perfians, and from them to the Greeks. The art has P10c‘ucec*'
been known in this empire from the remoteft antiqui¬
ty ; and the breeding of filk-worms and making of filk
was one of the employments even of the empreffes in
very early ages.
The molt beautiful filk in the whole empire is that
of Tche kiang, which is wrought by the manufactories
of Nanking. From thefe are brought all the fluffs
ufed by the emperor, and fuch as he diftributes in pre-
fents to his nobility. A great number of excellent
workmen are alfo drawm to the manufactories of Can¬
ton by rhe commerce with Europe and other parts of
Afia. Here are manufactured ribbons, ftockings, and
buttons. A pair of filk ftockings here colt little more
than 6s. fterling.
The quantity of filk produced in China feems to be
almoft inexhauftible ; the internal confumption alone
being incredibly great, befides that which is exported
in the commerce with Europe and the reft of Afia.
In this empire all who poffefs a moderate fortune wTe?.r
filk clothes; none but the knver clafs of people wear¬
ing cotton fluffs, which are commonly dyed blue. The
principal fluffs manufactured by them are plain and
llowered gauzes, of which they make fummer-dreffes ;
damalk of all colours; ftriped and black fatins; naped,
flowered, ftriped, clouded, and pinked taffeties; crapes,
brocades, plufli, different kinds of velvet, and a mul¬
titude of other fluffs unknown in Europe. They make
F - particular
China.
130
Porcelain.
Glais of
little efti
mation.
13a
JVIedkine
CHI t
particular ufe of two kinds 5 one named touan-tfe, a
kind of fatin much ftronger, but which has lefs luftie,
than that of Europe $ the other a kind of taffety, of
which they make drawers and linings. It js woven
exceedingly clofe, and is yet fo pliable that it may be
rumpled and rubbed between the hands without any
creafe j and even when walked like cotton-cloth, it
lofes very little of its luftre. They manufa&ure alfo
a kind of gold brocades, but of fuch a flight nature,
that they cannot be worn in clothes : they are fabrica¬
ted by wrapping fine flips of gilt paper round the
threads of filk.
Porcelain is another great branch of Chinefe manu¬
facture, and employs a vafl: number of workmen. The
fineft is made in a village called King-teaching in the
province of Kiang-Ji. Manufactories have alfo been
erefted in the provinces of Fo-kien and Canton, but
their produce is not efteemed : and one which the em¬
peror caufed to be ereCted at Peking, in order to be
under his own infpeftion, mifearried entirely.
The Chinefe divide their porcelain into feveral claf-
fes, according to its different degrees of finenefs and
beauty. The whole of the firfi: is referved for the ufe
of the emperor, fo that none of it ever comes into the
hands of other perfons, unlefs it happen to be cracked
or otberwife damaged in fuch a manner as to be un¬
worthy of being prefented to the fovereigri. Among
that fent to the emperor, however, there is fome por¬
celain of an inferior quality, which he difpofes of in
prefents. There is fome doubt, therefore, whether any
of the fineft Chinefe porcelain was ever feen in Europe.
Some value, however, is now put upon the European
porcelain by the Chinefe themfelves. .
The ufe of glafs is very ancient in China, though
it does not appear that great value was ever put upon
this kind of ware, the art of manufatturing k having
been frequently loft and revived again in this empire.
T hey greatly admire the workmanftnp of the E.uro-
pean cryftal, but prefer their own porcelain, which
ftands hot liquors, and is much lefs liable to be broken.
The little eftimation in which this lubftance was held,
is even mentioned by their own writers in fpeaking of
the falfe pearls, mirrors, and other toys which were
made in former ages. The remembrance of a very
large glafs veffel, however, which was made in 627, is
ftill preferved ; and of which it was faid that a mule
could as eafily enter it as a gnat could enter a pitcher.
In order to tranfport this monftrous veffel from the
place where it was manufaflured to the emperor’s pa¬
lace, it was neceffary to inclofe it in a net, the four
corners of which were fixed to four carriages. I he
fame indifference with regard to glafs is ftill entertain¬
ed by the prefent emperors •, however, a glafs-houfe is
tftablifhed at Peking, where a number of vafes and
other works are made \ and thefe are fo much the more
difficult in the execution, as none of them are blown.
This manufa&ory, as well as many others, is confider-
ed only as an appendage of the court, deftined for the
purpofes of pomp and magnificence.
It feems evident that medicine muft have been one
of the earlieft ftudies to which mankind turned their
attention, at leaft when they had attained to fome de¬
gree of civilization. It is the common lot of humanity
to be born to trouble as the fparks fly upward, and there¬
fore an affiduous application to the ftudy of thofe difeafes
42 1 CHI
- to which man is fubjett, either with a view to effeft a
radical cure, or even to mitigate the virulence of their
fymptoms, muft have fecured to fuch chara£fers the
efteem and admiration of the world. Even favages
have difeovered refpea for fuch of their own nation as
could remove obftru&lons, heal bruifes, or adminifter
relief to the miferable in any fhape whatever. The
Chinefe in this refpea are perfeaiy unique, and feem
to differ from every nation under heaven in their no¬
tions of medicine. They have no public feminaries
where the healing art may be taught, becaufe they
do not confider the knowledge of any branch of
medicine as in the fmalleft degree neceffary. The
very beft performances of this nature to be met with
in China, are little more than mere, enumerations
of the names and fuppofed qualities of different plants,
 a fufficient flock of knowledge for conftituting a
Chinefe phyfician. In a country where the people are
fo credulous, and the medical art at fuch a low ebb, it
would be a Angular circumftance to find no quacks.
In every city, therefore, of this vaft empire, multi¬
tudes are to be met with continually vending noftrumsr
as pretended fpecifics for fome oifeafe or other, and
the eafy credulity of the people affords them a comfort¬
able fubfiftence.
Were the Chinefe perpetual ftrangers to every fpe-
cies of difeafe, it wrould enable us to account for their
unnatural apathy or indifference about the ftudy of
phyfic ; but it will remain an inexplicable paradox,
when we are affured upon undoubted authority, that
they are fubjeft to a multiplicity of diftempers. The
fmallpox, ophthalmia, contagious fevers, fometimes
the venereal, or Canton ulcer, as it is denominated by
themfelves, are a few of the maladies incident to the
Chinefe, which might conftitute a powerful ftimulus,-
one would imagine, to the ftudy of phyfic, with unre¬
mitting afliduity, which it is certain they do not, as
appears from the fubfequent affertion of Dr Gregory.
“ In the greateft, molt ancient, and moft civilized
empire on the face of the earth, an empire that was
great, populous/ and highly civilized zcoo years ago,
when this country ivas as favage as New Zealand is at
prefent, no fuch good medical aid can be obtained a-
mong the people of it, as a Imart boy of 16, who had
been but 1 2 months apprentice to a good and well em¬
ployed Edinburgh furgeon, might reafonaby be expec¬
ted to afford.” ' This gives us.a melancholy piaurc of
the ftate of medicine in China, which, however, is
confirmed by the united teftimony of Sir George
Staunton and Mr Barrow. , . , ^ ^
The people of China are faid to be in the poffeihon
of a method for afeertaining whether a man has been
murdered, or committed an aft of fuicide, of the pro¬
bability of which our readers will be able to judge
from the following procefs. The body to be examin¬
ed is w a fired with vinegar. A large fire is kindled m
a pit dug for the purpofe, fix leet long, three wide,
and the fame in depth. The fire receives new accef-
fion of fuel till the pit acquires the temperature of a
heated oven, when the whole of the remaining fuel is
taken out, and a large quantity of wine is poured into
the pit. The body is then placed at full length on
ofier twigs over the mouth of it, and covered, with a
cloth for two hours, that the fleam of the wine may
aft upon the body in all direftions. The Chmele, it
China.
C H I
[ 43 1
C H I
China.
133
Of their
ruutic.
, 134 •
Mufieal in
Srumcnts.
is fold, affert that if the blows given the body were fo
violent as to occalion death, this procefs makes the
marks of them clearly appear, let the ftate of the bo¬
dy, when fubje£ted to this teft, be ever fo cadave¬
rous.
With regard to the mufic of the Chinefe, we have
the fame ftories related as of the Greeks and Egyp¬
tians, viz. that in former ages the muficians could
make brute animals leap at the found of their inftru-
ments. Our author, M. Grofier, indeed, does not
quote any Chinele author who aflerts that the ancient
mufic could make trees dance, or ftones arrange them-
felves into a city ; but he quotes them, afferting, “ that
the muficians could call down fuperior fpirits 01 every
age from the ethereal regions $ raife up the manes of
departed beings ; infpire men with a love of virtue ;
and lead them to the practice of their duty.” Effefts
of this fupernatural kind are attributed to the facred
mufic by the infpired writers ; as in the cafe of Saul,
out of whom an evil fpirit departed at the found of
David’s harp } and of Elifha, who was infpired with
the fpirit of prophecy at the found of a mufical in-
ftrument. It is probable, therefore, that the relations
both of the Greeks and Chinefe are founded upon
faffs of this kind ; and we cannot from thence infer,
that the mufic of early ages was at all fuperior to
that which followed. According to thofe who have
employed much time in thefe refearches, the ancient
Chinefe were acquainted with the divifion of the oc¬
tave into twelve femitones; and that before the time
of Pythagoras, or even Mercury himfelf: that the
lyre of Pythagoras, his invention of the diatonic tetra-
chords, and the formation of his grand fyftem, were
merely borrowed from the ancient Chinefe. In fhort,
it is maintained, that the Greeks, even Pythagoras
himfelf, did nothing but •apply to firings that theory
..which the Chinefe had before formed, and applied to
pipes.
At prefent the Chinefe are not acquainted with the
ufe of our mufical notes $ they have not that diverfity
of figns which diftinguifii the different tones, and the
gradual elevation or deprefiion of the voice, nor any
thing to point out the various modifications of found
to produce harmony. They have only a few charac¬
ters to mark the principal notes ', and all the airs they
learn are repeated merely by rote. J he emperor
Kang-hi was therefore greatly aftonilhed at the facility
with which an European could catch and remember
an air the firft time he heard it. In 1679 he font for
Fathers Grimaldi and Pereira, to play lome tunes on
the harpfichord, of which they had before made him a
prefent. He was greatly entertained with their mufic,
but altogether aftoniflied when he found that F. Perei¬
ra could take down a Chinefe air while the muficians
were playing it, and then repeat the whole without
omitting a fingle note. Having made feveral trials of
this kind in order to fatisfy himielf, he beftowed the
higheft encomiums upon the European mufic, and the
means furnilhed by it to facilitate and lefien the la¬
bour of the memory. “ I muft confefs (fays he>) that
the European mufic is incomparable, and that the like
of this F. Pereira is not to be found in my whole king¬
dom.”
The Chinefe have always diftinguifhed eight differ¬
ent founds 5 and they believe that nature, in order to
China.
produce thefe, formed eight different kinds of fono-
rous bodies. The order in which they diftribute thele
founds, and the inftruments they have contrived to pro-
duce them, are, 1. The found of {kin produced by
drums *, 2. That of ftone produced by the king; 3. The
found of metal by bells j 4" f hat of baked earth by
the buien; 5. Of filk by the kin and che; 6. Oi
wood by the yu and tchou; 7. Of the bamboo by the
koan, and different flutes •, 8. That of a gourd by the
cheng.
The drums were originally compofed of a box made
of baked earth, and covered at the extremities with
the {kin of fome animal; but on account of the brit-
tlenefs of baked earth, wood Was foon fubfiituted in
its ftead. Greater part of thefe inftruments are fliaped
like our barrels, but fome are cylindric.
The inftruments formed of the fonorous ftones are
called king, diftinguilhed into tfe-king and pien-king.
The tfe-king confifts only of one ftone, and therefore
produces only one note. 1 he pien-king confifts of 16
ftones fufpended together, and thus forming an in-
ftrument capable of producing all the tones admitted
into the mufic of the ancient Chinele. ff hey are cut
into the form of a carpenter’s fquare ; their tone is
flattened by diminiftiing their thicknefs, and is made
{harper by abridging their length.
Although in the eftimation of the Chinefe, univerfal
nature has been forced to contribute towards the perfec¬
tion of their mufic, by furniftiing them with the {kins of
different animak, metals, ftones, baked earths, and the
fibrous parts of plants, Mr Barrow could dilcover no in-
ftrument among them of a mufical nature, the tones of
which would have been even tolerable to a delicate
European ear j and only one perfon in the courfe of
his inveftigations and refearenes could with any pro¬
priety be faid to fing from tendernefs and feeling. T et
without the fmalleft authority for fuch a bold affer-
tion, a certain Jefuit has maintained, that the mufical
fyftem of the Chinefe was borrowed from them by the
Greeks and Egyptians before the time of Orpheus ?
He who can believe this extravagant affertion, after
comparing the mufic of thefe countries together at any
given period, will find it an eafy matter to give ciedit
to any thing whatever, 135
The bells in China have always been made of aBellsofim,
mixture of tin and copper. I hey are of different lize.
fhapes, and thole of the ancients were not round but
flatted, and in the lower part refembling a crefcent.
An inftrument, correfponding to the king, already
mentioned, is compofed of 16 bells of different fizes.
Some of their bells ufed on public oCcafions are of
enormous magnitudes. One at Peking is delcribed as
13'-feet in diameter, 12^ in height, and 42 in cir¬
cumference ", the weight being upwards of i 20,000
pounds. It is ufed for announcing the hours or w'atches
of the night j and its found, which is prodigioully
loud and lirong, has a moft awful efledl in the night¬
time, by reverberating round the wralls and the echo
of the furrounding country. 1 here are feveral others
likewife of vaft fize in the fame city *, one of which
deferves greatly to be admired on account of the beau¬
tiful chara&ers with which it is covered ; and which
are as neat and perfeft as if traced out by the hand of
the fineft writer, or formed by means of a ftamp
upon wax. F. le Comte tells us, that in all the cities
F 2 of
CHI [ 44 ]
China, of China there are bells for marking the hours and to be univerfally
   watches of the night. They generally divide the
night into five watches, beginning at feven or eight
in the evening* On the commencement of the firft they
give one Itroke, which is repeated a moment after-, and
thus they continue for two hours till the beginning
of the fecond : they then give two ftrokes, which
are repeated at equal intervals till the beginning of the
third watch $ and thus they proceed to the fourth and
fifth, always increafing the number of the ftrokes.
For the fame purpofe alfo they ufe enormous drums,
which they beat in a fimilar manner. F. Magaillans
mentions one at Peking upwards of 40 feet in circum¬
ference.
The inftniment called huien, which is made of baked
earth, is highly efteemed by the Chinefe on account
of its antiquity. It is diftinguiftied into two kinds,
the great and fmall ; the former being of the fize of
a goofe’s egg j the latter of that of a hen’s. It has
fix holes for the notes, and a feventh for the mouth.
The kin and tche have been known from the re-
moteft antiquity. The kin has feven firings made of
filk, and is diftinguilhed into three kinds, differing
only in fize. The body is formed of a kind of wood
varnilhed black, and its whole length about five feet
five niches. The tche is about nine feet in length, has
25 firings, and is divided into 25 kinds. F. Amiot
affures us, that we have no inftrument in Europe which
deferves to be preferred to it.
The inftruments which emit the found of wood are
the tchou, the yu, and the tchoung-ton. The firft is
fhaped like a bufnel, and is beat on the infide with a
hammer j the fecond, which reprefents a tyger fquat-
ting, is made to found by fcraping its back gently
with a rod -, the third is a collection of twelve pieces
of boards tied together, which are ufed for beating
time, by holding them in the right hand, and knock¬
ing them gently againft the palm of the left.
Many inftruments are conftrufted of the bamboo.
Thefe confirt of pipes joined together, or feparate, and
pierced with more or fewer holes. The principal of
all thefe wind inftruments is the cheng, which emits the
found of a gourd. This is formed by cutting off the
neck of a gourd, and referving only the lower part.
To this a cover is fitted, having as many holes as are
equal to the number of founds required. In each of
thefe holes a pipe made of bamboo is fixed, and fhorter
or longer according to the tone intended. The mouth
•of the inftrument is formed of another pipe ftraped
like the neck of a goofe $ which is fixed to the gourd
on one fide, and ferves to convey the air to all the pipes
it contains. The ancient cheng varied in the number
7_5 of their pipes; thole ufed at prefent have only 13.
Chinefe The painting of the Chinefe is undoubtedly inferior
painting. t0 that of the Europeans, though we are not by any
means to judge of the abilities of the painters of this
empire by the performances which are brought to
Europe. M. Grofier remarks, that the wTorks of the
eminent Chinefe painters are never brought to Can¬
ton, becaufe they cannot find purchafers among the
European merchants. The latter delight only in ob-
fcene pictures, which are not permitted by government,
nor indeed will any artift of character execute them,
though they prevail upon fome of the inferior daubers
to gratify them in this refpeCt. It feems? however,
c h 1
agreed, that the Chinefe have no China,
notion of correCtnefs or perfpeCtive, and little know- —y——*
ledge of the proportions of the human body, though
it cannot be denied that they excel in painting flowers
and animals. In thefe they pride themfelves in a
fcrupuloully exaft imitation of nature, infomuch that
it is no uncommon thing to hear a painter alk his
pupil how many fcales there are between the head and
tail of a carp.
Painting w'as formerly much efteemed in China, but
has now fallen into difrepute on account of its politi¬
cal inutility. The cabinets and galleries of the em¬
peror, how-ever, are filled with European paintings,
and the celebrated artifts Caftiglioni and Attiret were
both employed ; but their offer of erefting a fchool of
painting w-as rejeCled, left they (hould by this means
revive the tafte for that art which it had been formerly
thought prudent to fupprefs.
Painting in frefco vTas known in China long before
the Chriftian era ; and, like the Grecians, the Chinefe
boaft much of their celebrated painters of antiquity.
Thus we are told of a door painted by Fan-hien, which
was fo perfeCt an imitation, that the people who enter¬
ed the temple where it was, attempted to go out by it,
unlefs prevented by thofe who had feen it before.
The prefent emperor has in his park an European vil¬
lage painted in frefco, which produces the moft agree¬
able deception. The remaining part of the wall re¬
prefents a landfcape and little hills, which are fo hap.
pily blended with the diftant mountains, that nothing,
can be conceived more agreeable. This was the pro¬
duction of Chinefe painters, and executed from defigns
fketched out for them.
After this account of the ftate of painting in China,
chiefly on the authority of M. Grofier, we beg leave
to remark upon the authority of more recent, and feem-
ingly more competent as w-ell as more inquifive ob-
fervers, that painting in China is at a low ebb, which
made a certain artift once exclaim, “ Thefe Chinefe
are fit for nothing but weighing filver, and eating
rice.” They can copy with tolerable exadnefs what
is laid before them, but fo deficient are they in refpeCl
to a judicious alternation of light and fhade ; and
therefore without difcovering a fingle fymptom of tafte,
beauties, and defeCls are alike flavithly imitated. Their
fuppofed excellence in drawing flowers, birds, and in-
feCls to the life, is moft remarkable in the city of Can¬
ton; from which Mr Barrow conjectures that they ac¬
quire their eminence by copying the produdions of
Europe, occafionally fent over to be transferred to the
porcelain defigned for exportation. 137-
Engraving in three, four, or five colours, is very Engra-
ancient among the Chinele, and w-as known in this em-^11'*-
pire long before its dilcovery in Europe.
Sculpture is very little known in this empire ; nor is Sculpture,
there a fingle ftatue in any of the fquares or public
edifices of Peking, not even in the emperor’s palace.
The only real ftatues to be met with in the empire are
thofe which, for the fake of ceremonious diftindion,
are ufed to ornament the avenues leading to the tombs
of princes and men of great rank ; or thole that are
placed near the emperor’s coffin, and that of his fons
and daughters in the interior part of the vault, where
their remains are depofited. 139
The Chinefe architedure is entirely different from Architec-
thatture*
China.
14©
Bridges.
CHI
that of the Greeks or Romans 5
certain proportions of its own, and a beauty peculiar
to itfelf. The habitations of the emperor are real pa¬
laces, and announce in' a ftriking manner the majeily
and grandeur of the mafter who inhabits them. All
the miffionaries who had accefs to the inlide or the
emperor’s palace at Peking, agreed, that if each of its
parts, taken feparately, does not afford fo much delight
to the eye as fome pieces of the grand architecture of
Europe,’ the whole prefents a fight fuperior to any
thing they had ever feen before. In the Chinefe ar-
chiteCture, when a pillar is two feet in diameter at the
bafe, its height mutt be 14 feet; and by meafures
of this kind the height of every building is deter¬
mined.
Almoft all the houfes and buildings in China are
conftruCted of wood. One reafon of this may be.the
dread of earthquakes; but, befides this, fuch buildings
are rendered eligible by the heat and dampnefs of the
fouthern provinces, and the exceffive cold in the nor¬
thern, which would render ftone-houfes almott unin¬
habitable. Even at Peking, where the rains are but
of thort duration, it is found neceffary to cover the
fmall marble ftaircafes belonging to the imperial pa¬
lace with pieces of felt ; the humidity of the air
moiftens and Teaks into every thing. During winter
the cold is fo exceedingly fevere, that no window can
be opened to the north; and water continues conftantly
frozen to the depth of a foot and a half for more than
three months. For the fame reafons a variety of
Rories are not ufed in the Chinefe buildings ; as nei¬
ther a fecond nor third ftory would be habitable dur¬
ing the great heats of fummer or the rigorous cold
of winter. Though Peking is fituated in the northern
part of the empire, the heat there, during the dog-
days, is fo intolerably fcorching, that the police obliges
tradefmen and Ihopkeepers to deep in the open air in
the piazzas of their houfes, left they Ihould be ftifled
by retiring into their inner apartments. The habita¬
tions of people of rank, or of thofe in eafy circum-
ftances, generally confift of five large courts, inclofed
with buildings on every fide. The method of building
with feveral {lories was, however, followed for feveral
centuries, when the court refided in the fouthern pro¬
vinces ; and the tafte for this kind of building was car¬
ried to fuch a height, that immenfe edifices were
ereCled from 150 to 200 feet in height, and the pa¬
vilions or towers at the extremities rofe upwards of
300 feet. This kind of building, however, at length
became difgufting ; though either to preferve the re-
membrarice of it, or for the fake of variety, there are
Rill fome buildings to be feen feveral Rories high in
the palaces belonging to the emperor.
A multiplicity of bridges are rendered neceffary in
China by the vaR number of canals and rivers which
interfecl the empire. Anciently, however, the Chinefe
bridges were much more ingenious as well as magnifi¬
cent than they are at prefent. Some of them were fo
contrived that they could be eredled in one day to
fupply the place of others which might happen to be
broken down, or for other purpofes. At that time
they had bridges which derived their name from their
figure; as refembling the rainbow; draw-bridges, bridges
to move with pulleys) compafs-bridges, &c. with many
China,
China-
Root.
141
[« 1 CHI
but neverthelefs lias others entirely unknown at prefent. The building of
bridges indeed was once a luxurious folly of the em¬
perors ; fo that they were multiplied from whim or ca- „
price, without any neceflity, and without ufe. Still,
how’ever, many of them are extremely beautiful and
magnificent. The arches of fome are very lofty and
acute, with eafy flairs on each fide, the Reps of which
are not quite three inches in thicknefs, for the greater
facility of afeending and defcending : others have no
arches, but are compofed of large Rones, fometimes
18 feet in length, placed tranfverfely upon piles like
planks. Some of thefe bridges are conftrudted of
Rone, marble, or brick; others of wood ; and fome
are formed of a certain number of barks joined toge¬
ther by very flrong iron chains. Ihefe are known
by the name of floating bridges, and feveral of them
are to be feen on the large rivers Kiang and Hoang-ho.
For feveral centuries the Chinefe have made no pro- Ship-build"
grefs in (hip-building. Their veffels have neither mi- mg.
zen, bowfprit, nor top-maff. They have only a main
and fore-matt, to which is fometimes added a fmall top¬
gallant-matt. The main matt is placed almoft in the
fame part of the deck as ours; but the fore-matt ftands
much farther forward. The latter is to the former in
the proportion of twTo to three ; and the main-matt is
generally two-thirds of the length of the veffel. They
ufe mats for fails, ftrengthening them with whole
bamboos equal in length to the breadth of the fail, and
extended acrofs it at the diftance of a foot from one
another. Two pieces of wood are fixed to the top and
bottom of the fail ; the upper ferves as a fail yard ; and
the low'er, which is about five or fix inches in thick¬
nefs, keeps the fail ftretched when it is neceffary to
hoift or lower it. This kind of fail may be folded or
unfolded like a fcreen. For caulking their veflels they
do not ufe pitch, but a particular kind of gum mixed
wuth lime, w7hich forms a compofition of fuch excel¬
lent quality that one or two wells in the hold are fuf-
ficient to keep the veffel dry. They have not yet
adopted the ufe of pumps, and therefore draw up the
water with buckets. Their anchors are made of the
hard wood called iron-wood, which they fay is much
fuperior to the metal, becaufe the latter fometimes
bend, but the former never do.
The Chinefe pretend to have been the firft inventors
of the mariner’s compafs, but feem to have little in¬
clination to improve fuch an important inftrument;
however, they are well acquainted with the art of ma¬
noeuvring a veffel, and make excellent coafting pilots,
though they are bad failors in an open fea.
CaiNA-Root, in the Materia Medico, the root of a
fpecies of Smilax, brought both from the Eatt and
Weft Indies; and thence diftinguiftied into oriental
and occidental. Both forts are longilh, full of joints,
of a pale-reddifli colour, with no fmell, and very little
tatte. The oriental, which is the moll elleemed, is
confiderably harder, and paler-coloured than the other.
Such Ihould be chofen as is freftr, clofe, heavy, and
upon being chewed appears full of a fat undluous
juice. It is generally fuppofed to promote infenfible
perfpiration and the urinary difcharge, and by its
unfluous quality to obtund acrimonious juices. China-
root was firft brought into Europe in the year 1535*
and ufed as a fpecific againft venereal and cutaneous
diforders.
cni [ 46 ] chi
China- diforders. With this view it was made ufe of for
Ware fome t;me . but lias long fince given place tot more
Chione. Powerful medicines
■ CiuNA-Vvare. See Porcelain.
CHINCA, a fea-port town of Peru in South Ame¬
rica, fituated in an extenfive valley of the fame name,
in W. Long. 76. o. S. Lat. 13. o.
CHINCOUGH, a convuliive kind of cough to
which children are generally fubjeft. See Medicine
Index.
CHINESE, in general denotes any thing belonging
to China or its inhabitants.
Chinese Swanfian. See Abacus.
CHINKAPIN. See Fagus, Botany Index.
CHINNOR, a mulical inftrument among the He¬
brews, confiding of 32 chords. Kircher has given a
figure of it, which is copied on Plate CXLV.
CHINON, an ancient town of Tourain in France,
remarkable for the death of Henry II. king of Eng¬
land, and for the birth of the famous Rabelais. It is
feated on the river Vienne, in a fertile and pleafant
country, in E Long. o. 18. N. Lat. 47. 2.
CHIO, or Chios, an Afiatic ifiand lying near the
coafl of Natolia, oppofite to the peninfula of Ionia.
It was known to the ancients by the name of Ethalia,
Macris, Pithyufa, &c. as well as that of Chios. Ac¬
cording to Herodotus, the iiland of Chios was peopled
originally from Ionia. It was at firft governed by
kings : but afterwards the government ^ffumed a re¬
publican form, which by the dire£lion of Ifocrates
was modelled after that of Athens. They were,
however, foon enfiaved by tyrants, and afterwards
conquered by Cyrus king of Perfia. They joined the
other Grecians in the Ionian revolt; but were Ihame-
fully abandoned by the Samians, Lelbians, and others
of their allies •, fo that they were again reduced under
the yoke of the Perfians, who treated them with the
utmoft feverity. They continued fubjeft to them till
the battle of Mycale, when they were reftored to
their ancient liberty : this they enjoyed till the down-
fal of the Perfian empire, when they became fubjeft
to the Macedonian princes. In the time of the em¬
peror Vefpafian the ifland was reduced to the form of
a Roman province ; but the inhabitants were allowed
to live according to.their own laws under the fuperin-
tendence pf a praetor. It is now fubjeft to the Turks,
and is called Scio. See that article.
CHIOCOCCA. See Botany Index.
CHIONANTHUS, the Snow-drop or Fringe-
tree. See Botany Index.
CHIONE, in fabulous hiftory, was daughter of
Daedalion, of whom Apollo and Mercury became ena¬
moured. To enjoy her company, Mercury lulled her
to fleep with his caduceus j and Apollo^ in the night,
under the form of an old woman, obtained the fame
favours as Mercury. From this embrace Chione be¬
came mother of Philammon and Autolycus j the form¬
er of whom, as being fon of Apollo, became an ex¬
cellent mufician ; and the latter w-as equally notori¬
ous for his robberies, of which his father Mercury
was the patron. Chione grew fo proud of her com¬
merce with the gods, that fire even preferred her beau¬
ty to that of Juno ; for which impiety (lie was killed
by the goddefs and changed into a hawk.—Another
of the fame name was daughter of Boreas and Ori-
thyia, who had Eumolpus by Neptune. She threw Chics
her fon into the fea ; but he was preierved by his fa- II .
ther.
CHIOS. See Chio and Scio.
CHIOURLIC, an ancient town of Turkey in Eu¬
rope, and in Romania, with a fee of a Greek bilhop.
It is feated on a river of the lame name, in E. Long.
7. 47. N. Lat. 41. 18.
CHIOZZO, an ancient and handfome town of Italy,
in the territory of Venice, and in a fmall ifiand, near
the Lagunes, with a podefta, a bifhop’s fee, and a
harbour defended by a fort. E. Long. 12. 23. N.
Lat. 45. 17.
CHIPPENHAM, a town of Wiltfhire, feated on the
river Avon. It is a good thoroughfare town •, has a
handfome {tone bridge over the river, confifting of 16
arches ; and fends two members to parliament. There
is here a manufadture of the belt fuperfine woollen cloth
in England. W. Long. 2. 12. N. Lat. 51. 25.
CHIPPING, a phrafe ufed by the potters and
china-men to exprefs that common accident both of
our own {tone and earthen ware, and the porcelain of
China, the flying off of fmall pieces, or breaking at
the edges. Our earthen w ares ard particularly fubjedr.
to this, and are always fpoiled by it before any other
flaw appears in them. Our ftone w'ares efcape it bet¬
ter than thefe; but not fo well as the porcelain of
China, which is lefs fubjedt to it than any other ma-
nufadlure in the world. The method by which the
Chinefe defend their ware from this accident, is this ;
They carefully burn fome fmall bamboo canes to a fort
of charcoal, which is very light, and very black ; this
they reduce to a fine powder, and then mix it into a
thin pafte, with fome of the varnifti which they ufe
for their ware : they next take the veffels when dried,
and not yet baked, to the wheel j and turning them
foftly round, they, with a pencil dipt in this paile,
cover the whole circumference with a thin coat of it :
after this, the veffel is again dried ; and the border
made with this pafte appears of a pale grayifli colour
when it is thoroughly dry. They work on it after¬
wards in the common way, covering both this edge
and the reft of the veffel with the common varnifti.
When the wdiole is baked on, the colour given by the
afties difappears, and the edges are as white as any
other part \ only when the baking has not been fufti-
cient, or the edges have not been covered with the fe-
cond varnifliing, wre fometimes find a dufky edge, as
in fome of the ordinary thick tea-cups. It may be
a great advantage to our Englifli manufaftures to at¬
tempt fomething of this kind. The willow is known
to make a very light and black charcoal : but the el¬
der, though a thing feldom ufed, greatly exceeds it.
The young green ihoots of this flirub, which are al-
moft all pith, make the lighted and the blacked of all
charcoal 5 this readily mixes with any liquid, and might
be eafily ufed in the fame way that the Chinefe ufe
the charcoal of the bamboo cane, which is a light
hollow vegetable, more relembling the elder (hoots
than any other Englifli plant. It is no wonder that
the fixed fait and oil contained in this charcoal ihould
be able to penetrate the yet raw edges of the ware,
and to give them in the fubfequent baking a fomewbat
different degree of vitrification from the other parts
of the veffel; which, though, if given to the whole,
it
C H I [
Chirograph it might take off from the true femivitrified flate
11 that ware, yet at the edges is not to be regarded, and
Chiron. on|v ferves to defend them from common accidents,
' v and keep them entire. The Chinefe ufe two cautions
in this application : the firft in the preparation; the
fecond in the laying it on. They prepare the bam¬
boo canes for burning into charcoal, by peeling off the
rind. This might eafily be done with our elder ihoots,
which are fo fucculent, that the bark (trips off with a
touch. The Chinefe fay, that if this is not done with
their bamboo, the edges touched with the palte will
burft in the baking : this does not feem indeed very
probable •, but the charcoal will certainly be lighter
made from the peeled (ticks, and this is a known ad¬
vantage. The other caution is, never to touch the
veffel with hands that have any greafy or fatty fub-
ftance about them •, for if this is done, they always
find the veffel crack in that place.
CHIROGRAPH, was anciently a deed which, re¬
quiring a counterpart, was engroffed twice on the
fame piece of parchment, counterwife ; leaving a fpace
between, wherein was written Chirograph 5 through
the middle whereof the parchment was cut, fome-
times ftraight, fometimes indentedly 5 and a moiety
given to each of the parties. This was afterwards
called dividenda, and charter div jce 5 and was the fame
with what we now call charter-party. See Chjrter-
Party. The firft ufe of thefe chirographs, with us,
was in the time of Henry III.
Chirograph was alfo anciently ufed for a fine:
and. the manner of engroffing the fines, and cutting
the parchment in two pieces, is dill retained in the
office called the chirographer's office.
CHIROGRAPHER of Fines, an officer in the
common pleas, who engroffes Fines acknowledged in
that court into a peipetual record (after they have
been examined, and paffed by other officers), and
writes and delivers the indentures thereof to the par¬
ty. He makes two indentures; one for the buyer,
the other for the feller; and a third indented piece,
containing the effedt of the fine, and called the foot of
the fne •, and delivers it to the cujfos brevium.—The.
fame officer alfo, or his deputy, proclaims all fines in
court every term, and indorfes the proclamations on
the backfide of the foot; keeping, withal, the writ of
covenant, and the note of the fine.
CHIROMANCY, a fpecies of divination drawn
from the lines and lineaments of a perfon’s hand, by
which means, it is pretended, the difpofitions may be
difeovered. See Divination, N° 9.
CHIRON, a famous perfonage of antiquity ; dyled
by Plutarch, in his dialogue on mufic, “ The wife Cen¬
taur.'1' Sir Ifaac Nervton places his birth in the firft
age after Deucalion’s deluge, commonly called the
Golden Age ; and adds, that he formed the conftella-
tions for the ufe of the Argonauts, when he was 83
years old ; for he was a pradlical aftronomer, as well
as his daughter Plippo : he may, therefore, be faid to
h^ve flourifhed in the earlieft ages of Greece, as he
preceded the conqueft of the Golden Fleece, and the
Trojan war. Pie is generally called the fon of Saturn
and Phillyra ; and is faid to have been born in 1 hef-
falv among the Centaurs, who were the firft Greeks
that had acquired the art of breaking and riding hor-
fes : whence the poets, painters, and fculptors, have
Chiron.
47 3 c H 1
of reprefented them as a compound of man and horfe ;
and perhaps it was at firft imagined by the Greeks, —wr”"0
as well as the Americans, when they firft faw cavalry,
that the horfe and the rider conftituted the fame ani¬
mal.
Chiron vras reprefented by the ancients as one oiBurneys
the firft inventors of medicine, botany, and chirur- °f
gery ; a word which fome etymologifts have derived Muf‘c‘
from his name. He inhabited a grotto or cave in the
foot of Mount Pelion, which, from his wifdom and
great knowledge of all kinds, became the moft famous
and frequented fchool throughout Greece. Almoft
all the heroes of his time were fond of receiving his
inftruttions; and Xenophon, who enumerates them,
names the following illuftrious perfonages among his
difciples: Cephalus, iEfculapius, Melanion,Neftor, Am-
phiaraus, Peleus, Telamon, Meleager, Thefeus, Hip-
politus, Palamedes, Ulyffes, Mneftheus, Diomedes, Ca-
ftor and Pollux, Machaon and Podalirius, Antilochus,
/Eneas, and Achilles, From this catalogue it appears,
that Chiron frequently inftru&cd both fathers and
fons ; and Xenophon has given a ftiort eulogium on
each, which may be read in his works, and which re¬
dounds to the honour of the preceptor. The Greek
hiftorian, however, has omitted naming feveral of his
fcholars, fuch as Bacchus, Phoenix, Cocytus, Aryftaeus,
Jafon, and his fon Medeus, Ajax, and Protefilaus.
Of thefe we (hall only take notice of fuch as intereft
Chiron more particularly. It is pretended that the
Grecian Bacchus was the favourite fcholar of the Cen¬
taur ; and that he learned of this mafter the revels,
orgies, bacchanalia, and other ceremonies of his wmr-
(hip. According to Plutarch, it was likewife at the
fchool of Chiron that Hercules ftudied mufic, medi¬
cine, and juftice ; though Diodorus Siculus tells us, that
Linus was the mufic-mafter of this hero. But among
all the heroes who have been difciples of this Centaur,
no one refledted fo much honour upon him as Achilles,
whofe renown he in fome meafure (hared ; and to
whofe education he in a particular manner attended,
being his grandfather by the mother’s fide. Apollo-
dorus tells us, that the ftudy of mufic employed a con-
fiderable part of the time which he beftowed upon his
young pupil, as an incitement to virtuous aftions, and
a bridle to the impetuofity of his temper. One of
the beft remains of antique painting now exifting, is
a pidlure upon this fubjedl, dug out of the ruins of
Herculaneum, in which Chiron is teaching the young
Achilles to play on the lyre. The death of this phi-
lofophic mufician was occafioned, at an extreme old
age, by an accidental wound in the knee with a poi-
foned arrow', (hot by his fcholar Hercules at another.
He was placed after his death by Mufceus among the
conftellations, through refpedt for jhis virtues, and in
gratitude for the great fervices which he had render¬
ed the people of Greece. Sir Ifaac Newton fays *, * Clroneh
in proof of the conftellations being formed by Chiron p. 151
and Mufaeus for the ufe and honour of the Argonauts,
that nothing later than the expedition wms delineated
on the fphere : according to the fame author, Chiron
lived till after the Argonautic expedition, in which he
had two grandfons. The ancients have not failed to
attribute to him feveral writings 5 among which, ac¬
cording to Suidas, art precepts, in verfe, com*
pofed for the ufe of Achilles j and a medicinal
trea-
tife
CHI [ 4§ j CHI
Chironia tife on the difeafes incident to horfes and other qua¬
il drupeds, \ the lexicographer even pretends,
011 that it is from this work the Centaur derived his name.
Fabricius gives a lift of the works attributed to Chi-
• ron, and difcufles the claims which have been made for
others to the fame writings : and in vol. xiii. he gives
him a diftinguiftred place in his catalogue of ancient
phyficians.
CHIRONIA. See Botany Index.
CHIRONOMY, in antiquity, the art of reprefent-
ing any paft tranfaflion by the geftures of the body,
more efpecially by the motions of the hands : this
made a part of liberal education ; it had the approba¬
tion of Socrates, and was ranked by Plato among the
political virtues.
CHIROTONY, among ecclefiaftical writers, de¬
notes the impofition of hands ufed in conferring prieft-
ly orders. However, it is proper to remark, that
chirotony originally was a method of elefting magif-
trates, by holding up the hands.
CHIRURGEON, or Surgeon. See Surgeon.
CHIRURGERY. See Surgery.
CHISLEY land, in Agriculture, a foil of a middle
nature between fandy and clayey land, with a large ad¬
mixture of pebbles.
CHISON, Kjson, or Kisson, (Judges iv. and v.)
a river of Galilee •, faid to rife in Mount Tabor, to run
by the town of Naim, and to fall into the Mediterra¬
nean between Mount Carmel and Ptolemais, (i Kings
xviii. 40.)
CHISSEL, or Chisel, an inftrument much ufed in
fculpture, mafonry, joinery, carpentry, &c.
There are chiffels of different kinds 5 though their
chief difference lies in their different fize and ftrength,
as being all made of fteel well fharpened and tempered :
but they have different names, according to the differ¬
ent ufes to which they are applied. The chiffels ufed
in carpentry and joinery are, 1. The former 5 which
js ufed firft of all before the parting chiffel, and juft
after the work is fcribed. 2. The paring-chiffel;
which has a fine fmooth edge, and is ufed to pare off
or fmooth the irregularities which the former makes.
This is not ftruck with a mallet as the former is, but
is preffed with the flioulder of the workman. 3. Skew-
former : this is ufed for cleanfing acute angles with the
point or corner of its narrow edge. 4. The mortife-
chiffel } which is narrow, but very thick and ftrong,
to endure hard blows, and it is cut to a very broad
bafil. Its ufe is to cut deep fquare holes in the wood
for mortifes. 5. The gouge, which is a chiflel with
a round edge \ one fide wTereof ferves to prepare the
way for an augre, and the other to cut fuch wood as
is to be rounded, hollowed, &c. 6. Socket chiffels,
which are chiefly ufed by carpenters, &c. have their
fhank made with a hollow focket at top ; to receive a
ftrong wooden fprig, fitted into it with a flioulder.
Thefe chiffels are diftinguifhed, according to the
breadth of the blade, into half-inch chiffels, three
quarters of an inch chiffels, &c. 7. Ripping chiffels j
which is a focket-chiffel of an inch broad, having a
blunt edge, with no bafil to it. Its ufe is to rip or tear
two pieces of wood afunder, by forcing in the blunt
edge between them.
CHITON, in Zoology, a genus of the order of ver-
cnes teftacese. The name chiton is from yjruv, lorica,
1
a coat of mail. The fliell is plated, and confifts ofma- Chittirn
ny parts lying upon each other tranfverfely : the inha- . II
bitant is a fpecies of the Doris. See Conchology . ' r*'
Index.
CHITTIM, in Ancient Geography, according to
Le Clerc, Calmet, and others, was the fame with Ma¬
cedonia, peopled by Kittim the fon of Javan and grand-
fon of Noah.
CHITTRICK’s MEDICINE FOR THE STONE. This
medicine was fome years ago kept as a fecret, and had
great reputation as a lithontriptic, which indeed it
feems in many cafes to deferve. It was difeovered by
Dr Blackrie to be no other than foap-lye j and the
following receipt for ufing it was procured by General
Dunbar: “ Take one tea-fpoonful of the ftrongeft
foap-lye, mixed in two table-fpoonfuls of fweet milk,
an hour before breakfaft and at going to bed. Be¬
fore you take the medicine, take a fup of pure milk,
and immediately after'jou havefwallowed the medicine
take another. If you find this agrees with you for
twro or three days, you may add half as much more to
the dofe.” r
CHIVALRY, (from cheval, “a horfe);” an ab-Definition,
ftraft term, ufed to exprefs the peculiar privileges, ob¬
ligations, and turn of mind, with all the other diftin-
guifliing charafteriftics of that order of men who flou-
riflied in Europe in the dark ages, during the vigour
of the feudal fyftems of government, under the name of
Knights or Knights Errant. a
To afeertain the period at which the order fprung Difficulty
up, and the circumftances to which its origin was ow-of tracing
ing, is no eafy talk. In the hiftory of fociety, fuch ^
a multiplicity of collateral fadls appear interwoven0 c va
together, and caufes and effects run into each other
by a gradation fo imperceptible, that it is exceedingly
difficult, even for the niceft eye, to difeern caufes
from their immediate effedls, or to diftinguifh to
which among a number of collateral circumftances the
origin of any particular event is to be referred. The
age to which we muft look for the origin of chivalry
was Angularly rude and illiterate. Even the principal
events of that period, emigrations, wars, and the efta-
blifhment of fyftems of laws and forms of government,
have been but imperfeftly, and in many inftances un¬
faithfully, recorded. But the tranfaflions which took
place in the ordinary courfe of civil and domeftic life,
and which, though lefs linking, muft have always pre¬
pared the way for the more remarkable events, have
been generally thought unworthy of tranfmiffion to
pofterity, and have very feldom found a hiftorian.
Add to thefe difficulties which oppofe our refearches
on this fubjedl, that the nations of Europe were in
that age a mixed multitude, confifting of the aborigi¬
nal inhabitants, who, though either fubdued by the
Roman arms, or at leaft compelled to retire to the
woods and mountains, ftill obftinately retained their pri¬
mitive manners and cuftoms ; Roman colonies, and
fuch of the original inhabitantsof the countries in which
thefe were eftablifhed, as had yielded not only to the
arms of the Romans, but alfo to the influence of their
laws, arts, and manners j and the barbarians, who pro¬
ceeding from the northern regions of Afia and Europe,
the wilds of Scythia and Germany, diffolved the fabric
of the Roman empire, and made themfelves lords of
Europe. Amid this confufion of nations, inftitutions,
Di ft in 61 ion.
*>f rnnks an
effential
part of the
mechaniftn
of fociety.
CHI [49
Chivalry, and cuftdms, it becomes alrnofl. impoflible to trace any
—v~~~' regular feries of caufes and effe&s.
Yet as the hiftory of that period is not entirely un¬
known to us, and the obfcure and imperfedf records
in which it is preferved, while they commemorate the
more remarkable events, throw a faint light on the
cuftoms, manners, and ordinary tranfadlions of the
age j we can at lead colled fome circumftances, which
if they did not of themfelves give rife to the inftitu-
tion of chivalry, muft certainly have co-operated with
others to that end. We may even be allowed, if we
proceed with due diffidence and caution, to deduce,
from a confideration of the effiedt, fome inferences con¬
cerning the caufe ; from thofe particulars of its hiftory
which are known to us, ive may venture to carry ima¬
gination backwards, under a proper reftraint, to thofe
which are hid under the darknefs of a rude and illite-
„ rate age.
Diftindion of ranks appears to be effentially necef-
fary to the exiftence of civil order. Even in the fim-
pleft and rudeft focial eftabliihments, we find not
merely the natural diftindions of weak and ftrong,
young and old, parent and child, hufhand and wife ;
thefe are always accompanied with others which owe
their inftitution to the invention of man, and the con-
fent, either tacit or formal, of the fociety among
whom they prevail. In peace and in war, fuch dif¬
tindions are equally neceffary ; they conftitute an ef¬
fential and important part of the mechanifm of fociety.
One of the earlieft artificial diftindions introduced
among mankind, is that which feparates the bold and
Ikiiful warrior from thofe whofe feeblenefs of body and
mind renders them unable to excel in dexterity, ftra-
tagem, or valour. Among rude nations, who are but
imperfedly acquainted with the advantages of focial
order, this diftindion is more remarkably eminent
than in any other ftate of fociety. The ferocity of the
human charader in fuch a period produces almoft con¬
tinual hoftilities among neighbouiing tribes ; the ele¬
ments of nature, and the brute inhabitants of the foreft,
are not yet reduced to be fubfervient to the will of
man •, and thefe, with other concomitant circuinftances,
render the warrior, who is equally diftinguiftred by cun¬
ning and valour, more ufeful and refpedable than any
other charader.
On the fame principles, as the boundaries of fociety
are enlarged, and its form becomes more complex, the
claffes into which it is already diftinguifiied are again
fubdivided. The invention of arts, and the acquifi-
tion of property, are the chief caufes of thefe new dif¬
tindions which now arife among the orders of fociety ;
and they extend their influence equally through the
whole fyftem. Difference of armour, and different
modes of military difcipline, produce diftindion of
orders among thofe who pradife the arts of war 5 wffiile
other circumftances, originating from the lame general
caufes, occafion fimilar changes to take place amidft the
fcenes of peace.
None of the new diftindions which are introduced
among men, with refped to the difcipline and con-
dud of war, in confequence of the acquifition of pro¬
perty and the invention of arts, is more remarkable
than that occafioned by the ufe of horfes in military
expeditions, and the training of them to the evolu¬
tions of the military art. Fire-arms, it is true, give
Vol. VI. Part I.
4
The early
pre-emi¬
nence of
the milita¬
ry charac¬
ter.
Subordi¬
nate dif-
tindlions
of rank in¬
troduced
into fo¬
ciety.
6
The dif-
tindtion in¬
troduced
into the
■military
order by
the ufe of
cavalry.
] c H 1
to thofe who are acquainted with them a greater lu- Chivaliy.
periority over thofe to wffiom their ufe is unknown, ^
than what the horfeman poffeffes over him who fights
on foot. But the ufe of fire-arms is of fuch impor¬
tance in war, and the expence attending it fo inconfi-
derable, that wherever thefe have been introduced,
they have feldom been confined to one particular order
in an army 5 and, therefore, they produce indeed a re¬
markable, though tranfient, diftindion among different
nations ; but eftabbffi no permanent diftindions in the
armies in any one nation. But to maintain a horfe,
to equip him with coftly furniture, to manage him
with dexterity and vigour, are circumftances which
have invariably produced a Handing and confpicuous
diftindion among the military order, wherever bodies
of cavalry have been formed. The Roman equites,
who, though they became at length a body of ufurers
and farmers-general, w'ere originally the only body of
cavalry employed by the ftate, occupied a refpedable
rank between the fenators and the plebeians ; and the
elegance and humanity of their manners were fuitable
to their rank. In ancient Greece, and in the cele¬
brated monarchies of Alia, the lame diftindion pre¬
vailed at a fimilar period. ^
Since the circumftances and principles on w hich Military
this diftindion depends are not fuch as muft be con- diftii;<Tons
fined in their influence to one particular nation, or one^™c°^t- c
region of the globe, we may hope to trace their ef~Qcrmans.
feds among the favage warriors of Scythia and Ger¬
many, as well as among the Greeks or Romans.
From the valuable treatife of Tacitus de moribus Ger-
mariorum, we learn that, among the German wurriors
a diftindion lomewffiat of this nature did adually fub-
fift ; not fo much indeed a diftindion between the
warrior who fought on horfeback and thofe who fought
on foot, as between thofe whom vigour of body and
energy of mind enabled to brave all the dangers of
war, and fuch as, from the imbecility of youth, the in¬
firmities of age, or the natural inferiority of their men¬
tal and bodily powers, were unequal to fcenes of bard-
flrip and deeds of valour. The youth w^as not permit¬
ted to take arms and join his warlike countrymen in
their military expeditions whenever he himfelf thought
proper ; there was a certain age before which he could
not be invefted wuth armour. When he had attained
that period, if not found deficient in ftrength, adivity,
or courage, he was formally honoured with the ftiield
and the lance, called to the duties, and admitted to all
the privileges of a warrior. $
Another fad worthy of notice, refpeding the man-Ttefpedla-
ners of the barbarians of Germany before they efta-tdlt>r of H1*
blilhed themfelves in the cultivated provinces of thewome”ia“
Roman empire, is, that their women, contrary to what Germans,
we find among many other rude nations, were treated
with a high degree of refped. They did not gene¬
rally vie with the men in deeds of valour, but they
animated them by their exhortations to diitinguillr
themfelves in the field ; and virgins efpecially were ccn-
fidered with a facred veneration, as endowed with pro¬
phetic powrets, capable of forefeeing events hid in the
womb of futurity, and even of influencing the will of the
deities. Hence, though domeftic duties were their pe¬
culiar province, yet they w'ere not harflrly treated nor
confined to a ftate of flavery. There appears indeed
a ftriking analogy between the condition of the women
G . among
Changes in
the man¬
ners of the
barbarians
after they
fettled in
the Roman
empire,
which gave
rife to chi¬
valry.
CHI [5°
Chivalry, among the rude foldiers of Sparta and the rank which
they occupied among the warlike cantons or Germany.
Perhaps, indeed, the Geman were (till more honourable
than the Spartan women ^ as they were taught to wield
the magic weapons of fuperftition, which in Greece
were appropriated to the priefts.
It appears, therefore, that, in the forefts of Germany
at lead, if not the more northern regions of Afia
and Europe, the conquerors of the Roman empire, be¬
fore they penetrated into its provinces, treated their
women with a degree of refpeft unknown to moft of
the nations of antiquity ; that the charaftei 01 the war¬
rior was likewife highly honourable, being underftood
to unite all thofe qualities which were in the higheft
eftimation ; and that it was only at a particular age,
and with certain forms, that the youth were admitted
to bear arms. ,
When thofe nations Tallied from their deierts and
forefts, overran the Roman empire, and eftabhlhed
themfelves in its provinces, the changes which took
place on their circumftances were remarkable > and by
a natural influence, it could not but produce an equally
remarkable change on their habits, cuftoms, and man¬
ners. The great outlines might ftill remain : but
they could not now fail to be filled up in a different
manner. Here, however, the records of hiftory are
peculiarly imperfeft. .We have no Csefar or Tacitus
to fupply fa£b or direft our reafonings ; the Gothic
nations had not yet learned to read and write ; and
the Romans were fo depreffed under the fenfe of their
own miferies, as to be negligent of the changes^ which
happened around them. Rut as foon as the light, of
hiitory begins again to dawn, we find that the leading
featdVes of the barbarian character were not effaced, but
only modified in a particular manner, in confequence
of their mixing among a more polifhed people, becom¬
ing acquainted with the luxuries of life, and acquiiing
extenfive power and property.
Thofe who fought on horfeback now began to be
diftinguiihed with peculiar honours. The manners of
the warrior too were become more cultivated, and his
fpirit more humane. Leilure and opulence,, with the
influence of a poliflied people, even though in a ftate
of flavery, taught thofe barbarians to afpire after more
refined pleafures and more fplendid amufements than
thofe with which they had been before fatisfied. The
influence of Chriftianity, too, which, though grofsly
corrupted, was ftill favourable to the focial happmefs
of mankind, concurred to polilh their manners and ex¬
alt their character. Hence, in the end of the tenth
and in the beginning of the eleventh century, we fee
knight-errantry, with that romantic gallantry, piety,
and humanity, by which it was principally diftinguifti-
ed, make its appearance. At the court of every
prince, count, or baron, joufts and tournaments be¬
came the favourite amufements. At thofe entertain¬
ments, {kill in arms, devotion to the fair, and generous
courtefy, were all at once cultivated. About this
period began the crufades-, and thefe, to which alone
feme have referred the origin of chivalry, though they
could not give rife to what was already in exiftence,
yet moulded the form and directed the fpirit of the
inftitution in fuch a manner, as to raife it by a rapid
progrefs from infancy, as it were, to full vigour and
maturity. Its charafter, as it appeared when fully
] CHI
formed, is well defcribed by an eloquent biHorian in CliivalT’.
the following manner : ^
u Between the age of Charlemagne and that of tne Gibbon,
crufades, a revolution had taken place among the Sp8"'0^'-
niards, the Normans, and the French, which was gra¬
dually extended to the reft of Europe. . The lervice
of the infantry was degraded to the plebeians j the ca¬
valry formed the ftrength of the armies, and the ho¬
nourable name of miles, or foldier, was confined to the
gentlemen who ferved on horfeback, and were invert¬
ed with the charafter of knighthood. The dukes and
counts, who had ufurped the rights of fovereignty, di¬
vided the provinces among their faithful barons : the
barons diftributed among their vaffals the fiefs or bene¬
fices of their jurifdiaion ; and theie military tenants,
the peers of each other and of their lord, compofed
the noble or equeftrian order, which difdained to con¬
ceive the peafant or burgher as of the lame fpecies
with themfelves. The dignity of their birth was pre-
ferved by pure and equal alliances ; their fons alone
who could produce four quarters or lines of anceftry,
without fpot or reproach, might legally pretend to the
honour of knighthood ; but a valiant plebeian was
fometimes enriched, and ennobled by the fword, and
became the father of a new race. A Tingle knight
could impart, according to his judgment, the character
which he received ; and the warlike Ibvereigns of Eu¬
rope derived more glory from this perfonal diftinftion
than from the luftre of their diadem. This ceremony
was in its origin fimple and profane , the candidate,
after fome previous trial, was inverted with his fword
and fpurs *, and his cheek or Ihoulder were touched
with a flight blow, as an emblem of the lalt affront
which it was lawful for him to endure. But .fuper¬
ftition mingled in every public and private aftion Oi
life : In the holy wars, it fandified the p.rofefiion of
arms ; and the order of chivalry was aflimilated in its
rights and privileges to the facred orders of priefthood.
The bath and white garment of the novice were an
indecent copy of the regeneration of baptifm : his
fword, which he offered on the altar, was bleffed by
the minifters of religion ; his folemn reception was
preceded by faffs and vigils j and he was created a
knight in the name of God, of St George, and of St
Michael the archangel. He fwore to accomplifti the
duties of his profeflion •, and education, example, and
the public opinion, were the inviolable guardians of his
oath. As the champion of God and the ladies, he de¬
voted himfelf to fpeak the truth ; to maintain the
right ; to protea the diftreffed 5 to praaife courtefy, a
virtue lefs familiar to the ancients ; to purfue the infi¬
dels ; to defpife the allurements of eafe and fafety 5
and to vindicate in every perilous adventure the ho¬
nour of his charaaer. 'The abufe. of the fame (pint
provoked the illiterate knight to difdain the arts ol in-
duftry and peace } to efteem himfelf the foie judge and
avenger of his own injuries •, and proudly to neglea
the laws of civil fociety and military difcipline. Yet
the benefits of this inftitution, to refine the temper, of
barbarians, and to infufe fome principles of faith, juf-
tice, and humanity, were ftrongly felt, and have been
often obferved. The afperity of national prejudice
was foftened ; and the community of religion and arms
fpread a fimilar colour and generous emulation over
the face of Chriftendom. Abroad, in enterprise and
pilgrimage^
CHI [ S’
Chivalry, pilsfrltnage j at home, in martial exercife, the vvarri-
v ors^of every country were perpetually affociated ; and
impartial tafte mull prefer a Gothic tournament to the
Olympic games of claflic antiquity. Inltead of the
naked fpe&acles which corrupted the manners of the
Greeks, and banilhed from the ftadium the virgins
and matrons, the pompous decoration of the lifts was
crowned with the pretence of chafte and high-born
beauty, from whofe hands the conqueror received the
prize of his dexterity and courage. The Ikill and
ftrength that were exerted in wreftling and boxing,
bear a diftant and doubtful relation to the merit of a
foldier ; but the tournaments, as they were invented in
France, and eagerly adopted both in the eaft and weft,
prefented a lively image of the bufinefs of the field.
The Angle combats, the general ikirmifti, the defence
of a pals or caftle, were rehearfed as in aftual fervice ;
and the conteft, both in real and mimic war, was de¬
cided by the fuperior management of the horfe and
lance. The lance was the proper and peculiar weapon
of the knight: his horfe was of a large and heavy
breed but this charger, till he was roufed by the ap¬
proaching danger, was ufually led by an attendant,
and he quietly lode a pad or palfrey of a more eafy
pace. His helmet and fword, his greaves and buck¬
ler, it would be fuperfiuous to defcribe •, but I may re¬
mark, that at the period of the crufades, the armour
was lefs ponderous than in later times $ and that, in-
ftead of a maffy cuirafs, his breaft was defended by a
bauberk or coat of mail. When their long lances
were fixed in the reft, the warriors furioufty fpurred
their horfes againft the foe •, and the light cavalry of
the Turks and Arabs could feldom ftand againft the
direct and impetuous weight of their charge. Each
knight was attended to the field by his faithful fquire,
a youth of equal birth and fimilar hopes j he was fol¬
lowed by his archers and men at arms ; and four, or
five, or fix foldiers, w'ere computed as the furniture of
a complete /ance. In the expeditions to the neigh¬
bouring kingdoms or the Holy Land, the duties of
the feudal tenure no longer fubfifted ; the voluntary
fervice of the knights and their followers was either
prompted by zeal or attachment, or purchafed with re¬
wards and promifes •, and the numbers of each fqua-
dron were meafured by the power, the wealth, and
the fame of each independent chieftan. They were
diftinguilhed by his banner, his armorial coat, and his
cry of war : and the moft ancient families of Europe
muft feek in thefe atchievements the origin and proof
of their nobility.” >
The refpe&able author of the Letters on Chivalry
and Romance, traces, with great ingenuity and erudi¬
tion, a ftrong refemblance between the manners of the
I0 age of chivalry and thofe of the old heroic ages deli-
The refem-neated by Homer.
blance be- There is, fays he, a remarkable correfpondence be¬
tween he- manners of the old heroic times, as painted
Goth’c^ ky their great romancer Homer, and thofe which are
manners, reprefented to us in the modern books of knight-er¬
rantry. A faff of which no good account can be gi¬
ven, but by another not lefs certain ; that the political
ftate of Greece, in the earlieft periods of its ftory,
was fimilar in many refpe&s to that of Europe, as
broken by the feudal fyftem into an infinite number of
petty independent governments.
] CHI
Some obviouscircumftancesof agreement between tne Clnvalry.^
heroic and Gothic manners may be worth putting down.
1. The military enthufiafm of the barons is but of
a piece with the fanaticifm of the heroes. Hence the
fame particularity of defcription in the accounts ot
battles, wounds, deaths, in the Greek poet as in the
Gothic romancers. Hence that minute curiofity in
the difplay of their dreffes, arms, accoutrements. The
minds of all men being occupied with warlike images
and ideas, were much gratified by thofe details, which
appear cold and unaffe&ing to modern readers.
We hear much of knights-errant encountering gi¬
ants and quelling favages in books ot chivalry. I hefc
giants were oppreffive feudal lords $ and every lord
was to be met with, like the giant, in his ftrong-hold
or caftle. Their dependents of a lower form, who
imitated the violence of their fuperiors, and had not
their caftles but lurking places, were the favages of
romance. The greater lord was called a giant for his
power the lefs, a favage for his brutality.
2. Another terror of the Gothic ages was monfters,
dragons, and ferpents. Their ftories were received in
thofe days for feveral reafons : 1. From the vulgar be¬
lief of enchantments : 2. From their being reported
on the faith of eaftern tradition, by adventurers from
the Holy Land : 3. In ftill later times from the ftrange
things told and believed on the difeovery of the new
world.
In all thefe refpe&s, Greek antiquity refembles the
Gothic. For what are Homer’s Lseftrigons and Cy¬
clops, but bands of lawlefs favages, with each of them
a giant of enormous fize at their head ? And what are
the Grecian Bacchus, Hercules, and Thefeus, but
knights-errant, the exaft counterparts of Sir Launce-
lot and Amadis de Gaul ?
3. The oppreflions which it was the glory of the
knights to avenge, wTere frequently carried on, as we
are told, by the charms and enchantments of %vomen.
Thefe charms, we may fuppofe, are often metapho¬
rical j as exprefling only the blandilhments of the lex.
Sometimes they are taken to be real, the ignorance
of thofe ages acquiefcing in fuch conceits. And are
not thefe ftories matched by thofe of Calypfo and
Circe, the enchantreffes of the Greek poet
4. Robbery and piracy were honourable in both ;
fo far wTere they from refle&ing any discredit on the
ancient or modern redrefers of wrongs.^ What ac¬
count can be given of this, but that, in the feudal
times, and in the early days of Greece, when govern¬
ment was weak, and unable to redrefs the injuries of
petty fovereigns, it would be glorious for private ad¬
venturers to undertake this work 5 and, if they could
accompliftr it in no other way, to pay them in kind by
downright plunder and rapine ?
5. Baftardy was in credit with both. They were
extremely watchful over the chaftity of their own wo¬
men •, but fuch as they could feize upon in the ene¬
my’s quarter, were lawful prize. Or if, at any time,
they tranfgrefled in this fort at home, the fault was
covered by an ingenious fidlion. d he offspring was
reputed divine. Their greateft heroes were the fruit
of goddefles approached by mortals} juft as we hear
of the doughtieft knights being born of fairies.
6. With the greateft fiercenefs and favagenefs of
chara&er, the utmoft generofity, hofpitality, and cour-
G 2 »efy,
CHI . . C 52
Chivalry, tefy, were imputed to the heroic ages. Achilles was
rj-' v""1 at once the molt relentlefs, vindifHve, implacable, and
the friendlieft of men. We have the very fame repre-
fentation in the Gothic romances. As in thofe lawlefs
times, dangers and diflreffes of all kinds abounded,
there would be the fame demand for compaffion, gen-
tlenefs, and generous attachments to the unfortunate,
thofe efpecially of their own clan, as of refentment,
rage, and animofity againft their enemies.
7. Again, the martial games celebrated in ancient
Greece, on great and folemn occafions, had the fame
origin and the fame purpofe as the tournaments of
the Gothic warriors.
8. Laflly, the pailions for adventures fo natural in
their fituation, would be as naturally attended with
the love of praife and glory. Hence the fame encou¬
ragement, in the old Greek and Gothic times, to pa-
negyrills and poets. In the affairs of religion and gal¬
lantry, indeed, the refemblance between the hero
and the knight is not fo linking. But the religious
charafler of the knight was an accident of the times,
and no proper effeft of his civil condition. And that
his devotion for the fair fex fhouid lo far furpafs that
of the hero, is a confirmation of the fylfem here ad¬
vanced. For the confideration had of the females in
the feudal conftitution, will of itielf account for this
deference. It made them capable of fucceeding to
fiefs, as well as the men. And does not one inllantly
percieve what relpeft and dependence this privilege
would draw upon them ?
It was of great confequenee who fhouid obtain
the favour of a rich heirefs. And though, in the llriff
feudal times, fire was fuppofed to be in the powder and
at the difpofd of her fuperior lord, yet this rigid flate
of things did not lad long. Hence we find fome di-
llreffed damfel was the fpring and mover of every
knight’s adventure. She was to be refcued by his
arms, or won by the fame and admiration of his
prowefs. The plain meaning of all which was this :
That as, in thefe turbulent times, a protector was ne-
ceffary to the weaknefs of the fex, fo the courteous and
valorous knight was to approve himfelf fully qualified
for that purpofe.
It may be obferved, that the two poems of Homer
were intended to expofe the mifchiefs and inconve¬
niences arifing from the political flate of Old Greece :
the Iliad, the diffenfions that naturally fpring up a-
mong independent chiefs; and the Ody/Jey, the info-
lence of their greater fubjeffs, more efpecially when
unreffrained by the prefence of their fovereign. And
can any thing more exaflly refemble tire condition of
the feudal times, when, on occafion of any great en-
terprife, as that of the crufades, the defigns of the
confederate Chriflian Hates were perpetually fruflrat-
ed, or interrupted at leaf!, by the diffenfions of their
leaders •, and their affairs at home, as perpetually di-
flreffed and difordered by the rebellious ufurpations of
their greater vaffals ? Jerufalem was to the European
what Troy had been to the Grecian princes. See the
article Knight.
Chivalry, in Law, is ufed for a tenure of lands
by knight’s fervice, whereby the knight was bound
to perform fervice in war unto the king,, or the mefne
lord of whom he held by that tenure. And chivalry
was either general or fpccial: gensrali when it was
] CHI
only in the feoffment that the tenant held per femiti- Clnvany.
um militare, without any fpecification of ferjeantry, ef- v
cuage, &c. 5 fpecial, when it was declared particular¬
ly by what kind of knight fervice the land was held.
For the better underflanding of this tenure it hath
been obferved, that there is no law but is holden me¬
diately or immediately of the crown by fome fervice j
and therefore all freeholds that are to us and our heirs,
are called feuda, or feoda, “ fees; as proceeding from
the king for fome Imall yearly rent, and the perform¬
ance of fuch fervices as were originally laid upon the
land at the donation thereof. For as the king gave
to the great nobles, his immediate tenants, large ppfi¬
fe ffio ns for ever, to hold of him for this or that fervice
or rent 5 fo they in time parcelled out to fuch others
as they liked the fame lands for rents and fervices as
they thought good : and thefe fervices were by Little¬
ton divided into two kinds, chivalry and focage; the
firft whereof was martial and military, the other rufti-
cal. Chivalry, therefore, was a tenure of fervice,
whereby the tenant was obliged to perform fome noble
or military office unto bis lord : and it was of two
kinds ; either regal, that is, held only of the king ; or
common, where held of a common perfon. I nat which
might be held only of the king was called fervitium,
or fergentia ; and was again divided into grand and pe¬
tit ferjeantry. The grand ferjeantry was where one
held lands of the king by fervice, which he ought to
do in his own perfon : as, to bear the king’s banner or
fpear, to lead his holt, to find mm at arms to fight,
&c. Petit ferjeantry was when a man held lands of
the king, to yield him annually fome imali thing to¬
wards his w’ars, as a fword, dagger, bow, &x. Chi¬
valry that might be holden of a common perfon was
termed fcutagium, “ eicuage that is, iervice oi the
flrield ; which was either uncertain or certain.
Efcuage uncertain, was likewile two-fold : firft,
where the tenant wms bound to follow his lord, going
in perfon to the king’s wrars, either Irmielt, or lend¬
ing a fufficient man in his place, there to be maintain¬
ed at his expence, fo long as was agreed upon between
the lord and his firft tenant at the granting of the fee *
and the days of fuch fervice feem to have been rated
by the quantity of land fo holden ; as, if it extended to
a whole knight’s fee, then the tenant was to follow
his lord 40 days ; and if but to half a knight’s fee,
then 20 days j if a fourth part, then 10 days, &c.
The other kind of this efcuage was called cajlle-ward,
where the tenant w'as obliged, by himfeli or fome
other, to defend a callle as often as it Ihould come to
his turn. And thefe were called efcuage uncertain ;
becaufe it w’as uncertain howr often a man Ihould be
called to follow his lord to the wars, or to defend a
caftle, and what his charge would be therein.
Efcuage certain, was where the tenure was fet at a
certain fum of money to be paid in lieu of fuch Itr-
vice •, as that a man (hould pay yearly for every knight’s
fee 20s. for half a knight’s fee 10s. or fome like rate }
and this fervice, becaufe it is drawn to a ceitain rent,
groweth to be of a mixed nature, not merely focage,
and yet focage in effea, being now neither perfonal
fervice nor uncertain. The tenure called chivalry bad
other conditions annexed to it : but there is a great
alteration made in thefe things by the flat. 12. Car. II.
c 24. whereby tenures by knight’s fervice of the king*
T or
'
1
C H I
[ S3 1
C H I
Chivalry, or any other peifon in capite, &c. and the fruits and
-v-—■1 confequences thereof, are taken away and. difcharged ;
and all tenures are to be conllrued and adjudged to be
free and common focage, &c.
Court of Chivalry, a court formerly held before
the lord high conftable and earl marlhal of England
jointly, and having both civil and criminal junfdic-
tion : but fince the attainder of Stafford duke of Buck¬
ingham under Henry VIII. and the confequent extm-
guilhment of the office of lord high conftable, it hath
ufually, with refpeft to civil matters, been heard be¬
fore the earl marfhal only. I his court, by ftat. 13.
Rich. II. c. 2. hath cognizance of contra&s and other
^ matters touching deeds of arms and war, as well out
of the realm as in it. And from its fentences lies an
immediate appeal to the king in perfon. 1 his court
was in great reputation in the times of pure chivalry *,
and afterwards during the Englifh connexions with
the continent, by the territories which their princes
held in France : but it is now grown almoft entirely
out of ufe, on account of the feeblenefs of its jurisdic¬
tion, and want of power to enforce its judgements ; as
it can neither fine nor imprifon, not being a court of
record.
1. The civil jurifdidtion of this court of chivalry
is principally in two points ; the redrefting injuries of
honour, and correfting encroachments in matters of
coat-armour, precedency, and other diftimflions of fa¬
milies. As a court of honour, it is to give fatis^ac-
tion to all fuch as are aggrieved in that point ; a
point of a nature fo nice and delicate, that its wrongs
and injuries efcape the notice of the common law,
and yet are fit to be redrefled fomewhere. Such, for
inftance, as calling a man coward, or giving him the
lie ; for which, as they are produftive of no imme¬
diate damage to his perfon or property, no adfion will
lie in the courts at Weftminfter ; and yet they are
fuch injuries as will prompt every man of fpirit to
demand fome honourable amends ; which, by the an¬
cient law of the land, was given in the court of chi¬
valry. But modern relolutions have determined, that
how much foever a jurifdi&ion may be expedient, yet
no aftion for words will at prelent lie therein. And
it hath always been moft clearly holden, that as this
court cannot meddle with any thing determinable by
common law, it therefore can give no pecuniary fatif-
fa£tion or damages ; inafmuch as the quantity and
determination thereof is ever of common law cog¬
nizance. And therefore this court of chivalry can at
moft order reparation in point of honour ; as to compel
the defendant tnendacium jibi ipji unponere, or to take
the lie that he has given upon himfelf, or to make
fuch other fubmiftion as the laws of honour may re¬
quire. As to the other point of its civil jurifdiction,
the redrefting of ufurpations and encroachments in mat¬
ters of heraldry and coat armour ; it is the bufinefs of
this court, according to Sir Matthew Hale, to adjuft
the right and armorial enfigns, bearings, crefts, fup-
porters, pennons, &c.; and alfo rights of places or
precedence, where the king’s patent or a6t of parlia¬
ment, which cannot be overruled by this court, have
not already determmed it. The proceedings of this
court are by petition in a fummary way ; and the trial
not by a jury of 12 men, but by witneffes, or by comr
bat. But as it cannot imprifon, not being a court of
record ; and as, by the refolutions of the fuperior
courts, it is now confined to io narrow and reltr.ained
a jurifdidlion, it has fallen into contempt. I he mar-
fhalling of coat-armour, which was formerly the pride
and ftudy of all the beft families in the kingdom, is
now greatlv difregarded } and has fallen into the hanas
of certain officers and attendants upon this court, cal¬
led heralds, who confider it only as a matter of lucre,
and not of juftice ; whereby fuch falfity and confufion
have crept into their records (which ought to be the
Handing evidence of families, defcents, and coat-av-
mour), that though formerly fome credit has been paid
to their teftimony, now even their common feal will
not be received as evidence in any court of juflice in
the kingdom. But their original vifitation books, com¬
piled when progreffes were folemnly and regularly
made into every part of the kingdom, to inquire into
the Hate of families, and to regifter fuch marriages
and defcents as were verified to them upon oath, are,
allowed to be good evidence of pedigrees.
2. As a criminal court, when held before the lord
high conftable of England jointly with the earl mar-
ftial, it had jurifdiftion over pleas of life and member,
arifing in matters of arms and deeds of war, as well
out of the realm as within it. But the criminal as
well as civil part of its authority is fallen into entire
difufe, there having been no permanent high conftable
of England (but only pro hac vice, at coronations and
the like), fince the attainder and execution of Stafford
duke of Buckingham, in the 13th year oi Henry VIII. j
the authority and charge, both in war and peace, be¬
ing deemed too ample for a fubjeff ; fo ample, that
when the chief juftice Fineux was afked by King Hen¬
ry VIII. how far they extended ? he declined an-
fwering, and faid, the decifion of that queftion be¬
longed to the lawr of arms, and not to the law of Eng^
land.
CHIVES, in Botany, are {lender thread-like fub-
ftances, generally placed within the bloffom, and fur-
rounding the Pointals. They are formed of the
w'oody iubftance of the plant.
CHIUM m armor, in the natural hiftory of the an¬
cients, the name of a black marble, called alfo the la¬
pis opjidianus. It is very hard, and of a fine black ;
and, befide the many ufes which the ancients put it to,
is well known among our goldfmiths by the name of
the touchjlone; moft of them being furniflred with
nothing better for this purpofe than a piece of this :
though the bafaltes, which might be had plentifully
enough, is gieatly preferable for thofe ufes j any black
marble, however, that is tolerably hard, will do. There
is a very fine and elegantly fmooth marble, of a com-
paft texture, and fine gloffy black, but Ihowing no
glittering particles when frelli broken, as moft of the
black marbles do. It is extremely hard, and cuts with
difficulty, but is capable of the higheft polilh of any
marble. The ancients had it from Ethiopia and the
ifland of Chios j w e have it from Italy*
Chium Vinum, Chian Wine, or wine of the growth
of the ifland of Chios, now Scio, is commended by
Hiofcorides as affording good nourifhment, fit to drink,
lefs difpofed to intoxicate, endued with the virtue c£
reftraining defluxions, and a proper ingredient in oph¬
thalmic
Chivalry
C II O [ 54 ] C H O
tlialmic medicines. Hence Scribonius Largus dire&s
the dry ingredients in collyria for the eyes to be made
up with Chian wine.
CHIUN, or Chevan, in Hebrew antiquity. We
meet with this word in the prophet Amos, cited in the
Adis of the Apoftles. St Luke reads the paflage
thus : “ Ye took up the tabernacle of Moloch, and the
ftar of your god Remphan, figures which ye made to
worfhip them.” The import of the Hebrew is as fol¬
lows : “Ye have borne the tabernacle of your kings,
and the pedeftal {t\\c chiun) of your images, the liar of
your gods, which ye made to yourfelves.” The Sep-
tuagint in all probability read Repham or Revan, in-
flead of China or Chevan, and took the pedeilal for a
god*
Some fay that the Septuagint, who made their tranf-
lation in Egypt, changed the word Chiun into that of
Remphan, becaufe they had the fame fignification. M.
Bafnage, in his book entitled JewiJh Antiquities, after
having difcourfed a good deal upon Chion or Remphan,
concludes that Moloch was the fun, and Chion, Chiun,
or Remphan, the moon.
CHLAMYS, in antiquity, a military habit worn
by the ancients over the tunica. It belonged to the
patricians, and was the fame in the time of w-ar that
the toga was in the time of peace. This fort of gown
was called piBa, from the rich embroidery with figures
in Phrygian work j and purpurea, becaufe the ground¬
work was purple. The chlahaydes of the emperors
were all purple, adorned with a golden and embroid¬
ered border.
CHLOEIA, in antiquity, a feftival celebrated at
Athens in honour of Ceres, to whom, under the name
XAatj, i. e. grafs, they facrificed a ram.
CHLORA. See Botany Index.
CHLOROSIS, in Medicine, a difeafe, commonly
called the green-Jicknefs, incident to young girls. See
Medicine Index.
CHOCOLATE, in commerce, a kind of pafte or
cake prepared of certain ingredients, the bafis of which
is cacao. See Cacao.
The Indians, in their firft making of chocolate, ufed
to roaft the cacao in earthen pots ; and having after¬
wards cleared it of the hulks, and bruifed it between
two Hones, they made it into cakes with their hands.
The Spaniards improved this method. When the cacao
is properly roafted and well cleaned, they pound it in
a mortar, to reduce it into a coarfe mafs, which they
afterwards grind on a Hone till it be of the utmolt fine-
nefs : the pafte being fufficiently ground, is put quite
hot into tin moulds, in which it congeals in a very
little time. The form of thefe moulds is arbitrary 5
the cylindrical ones, holding two or three pounds, are
the mcft proper, becaufe the bigger the cakes are, the
longer they will keep. Obferve, that thefe cakes are
very liable to take any good or bad fcent, and there¬
fore they muft be carefully wrapt up in paper, and
kept in a dry place. Complaints are made, that the
Spaniards mix with the cacao nuts too great a quanti¬
ty of cloves and cinnamon, befides other drugs with¬
out number, as mulk, ambergris, &c. The grocers
of Paris ufe few or none of thefe ingredients : they
only choofe the bell nuts, which are called caracca,
from the place from whence they are brought j and
with thefe they mix a very fmall quantity of cinnamon, Chocolate
the frefheft vanilla, and the fineft fugar, but very fel- ^ ^
dom any cloves. In England the chocolate is made *
of the fimple cacao, excepting that fometimes fugar
and fometimes vanilla is added.
Chocolate ready made, and cacao pafte, are prohi¬
bited to be imported from any part beyond the feas.
If made and fold in Great Britain, it pays inland duty
is. 6d. per lb. avoirdupoife : it muft be inclofed in pa¬
pers containing one pound each, and produced at the
excife office to be ftamped. Upon three days no¬
tice given to the officer of excife, private families may
make chocolate for their own ufe, provided no lefs
than half an hundred weight of nuts be made at one
time.
The chocolate made in Portugal and Spain is not
near fo wHl prepared as the Engliffi, depending per¬
haps on the machine employed there, viz. the double
cylinder, which feems very well calculated for exadl
triture. If perfedlly prepared, no oil appears on the
folution. London chocolate gives up no oil like the
foreign ; and it alfo may in fome meafure depend on
the thicknefs of the preparation. The folution requires
more care than is commonly imagined. It is proper
to break it down, and diflblve it thoroughly in cold
W'ater by milling it with the chocolate Hick. If heat
is applied, it fliould be done flowly ; for, if fuddenly,
the heat will not only coagulate it, but feparate the
oil; and therefore much boiling after it is dilTolved is
hurtful. Chocolate is commonly required by people of
weak ftomachs; but often rejefled for want of proper
preparation. When properly prepared, it is eafily dif-
folved ; and an excellent food wffiere a liquid nutrient
vegetable one is required, and is lefs flatulent than any
of the farinacea.
Mr Henley, an ingenious ele&rician, has lately dif-
covered that chocolate, frefh from the mill, as it cools
in the tin pans into which it is received, becomes
ftrongly eleftrical \ and that it retains this property
for fome time after it has been turned out of the pans,
but foon lofes it by handling. The power may be once
or twuce renewed by melting it again in an iron ladle,
and pouring it into the tin-pans as at firft *, but when
it becomes dry and powdery, the power is not capable
of being revived by fimple melting : but if a fmall
quantity of olive-oil be added, and well mixed with
the chocolate in the ladle, its ele&ricity will be com¬
pletely reftored by cooling it in the tin-pan as before.
From this experiment he conjeflures, that there is a
great affinity between carbonic acid and the eleftric
fluid, if indeed they be not the fame thing.
Chocol/itP. Nut Iree. See Cacao.
CHOENIX, %oml, an ancient dry meafure, con¬
taining the 48th part of a ihedimnus, or fix bufhels.
CHOERILUS, a tragic poet of Athens about the
64th Olympiad. He wrote 150 tragedies, of which
13 had obtained the prize.—An hiftorian of Samos.—
Two other poets, one of whom wras very intimate with
Herodotus. He wrote a poem on the vidlory which
the Athenians had obtained over Xerxes } and on ac¬
count of the excellence of the compofition he received
a piece of gold for each verfe from the Athenians.
The other was one of Alexander’s flatterers and
friends. ^
CHOERINiE,
I
C H O r J* ] C H O
Clioerinse CHQT^RIN^, in antiquity, a kind of fea-fhells,
H. with which the ancient Greeks ufed to give their fuf-
, n' i fra^re. or vote.
CHOIR, that part of the church or cathedral where
chorilters fing divine fervice it is feparated from the
chancel where the communion is celebrated, and alfo
from the nave of the church where the people are
placed : the patron is faid to be obliged to repair the
choir of the church. It was in the time of Conltan-
tine that the choir was feparated from the nave. In
the 12th century they began to enclofe it with walls j
but the ancient balluftrades have been fince reftored,
out of a view to the beauty of architeflure.
Choir, in nunneries, is a large hall adjoining to
the body of the church, feparated by a grate, where
the nuns fing the office.
CHOISI, Francis Timoleon de, dean of the ca¬
thedral of Bayeux, and one of the forty of the French
academy, was born at Paris in 16^4. In the early
part of his life he was much diftinguilhed by his frivo¬
lous manners, and particularly by appearing even at
court in a female drefs. In 1685, he was fent with
the chevalier de Chaumont to the king of Siam, and
was ordained pried in the Indies by the apoftolical vi¬
car. He wrote a great number of works, in a polite,
florid, and eafy flyle j the principal of which are, 1.
Four Dialogues on the Immortality of the Soul, &c.
2. Account of a Voyage to Siam. 3. An Ecclefiafti-
cal Hillory, in 11 vols. 4to. 4. Life of David, with
an Interpretation of the Pfalms. 5'. Life of Solomon,
&c. He died at Paris in 1724.
CHOLEDOCHUS, in Anatomy, a term applied
to a canal, or du6I, called alfo duBus communis; form¬
ed of the union of the porus biliarius and du£!us cylli-
cus. The word comes from choler ; and ^iy,ouut}
I receive, or contain.
The choledochus ducftus paffing obliquely to the
lower end of the duodenum, ferves to convey the bile
from the liver to the intellines. See Anatomy In¬
dex.
CHOLER. See Bile.
CHOLERA morbus, a fudden eruption or over¬
flowing of the bile or bilious matters both upwards and
downwards. See Medicine Index.
CHOMER, or Omer. See Corus.
CHONDRILLA. See Botany Index.
CHONDROPTERYGII, in Ichthyology, a term
formerly applied to the order of fiffies now called am¬
phibia nantes by Linnaeus. See Amphibia.
CHOP church, or Church-chopper, a name,
or rather a nick-name, given to parfons who make a
praflice of exchanging benefices. See Permutation.
Chop-church occurs in an ancient ftatut- as a lawful
trade or occupation ; and fome of the judges fay it
was a good addition. Brook holds, that it was no oc¬
cupation, but a thing permiffible by law.
CHOPIN, or Chopine, a liquid meafure ufed both
in Scotland and France, and equal to half their pint.
See Pint and Measure.
Chopine, Rene, a famous civilian born at Bailleul
in Anjou in 1537. He was advocate in the parlia¬
ment of Paris, where he pleaded for a long time with
great reputation. He at lafi: fhut himfelf up in his
clofet, and compofed many works, which have been
colle&ed together, and printed in 6 vols. folio. He Choral
died at Paris in i6c6. .l' .
CHORAL, fignifies any perfon that, by virtue of ‘^rf! ^
any of the orders of the clergy, was in ancient times
admitted to fit and ferve God in the choir.
Dugdale, in his hillory of St Paul’s church, fays,
that there w?ere with the chorus formerly fix vicars
choral belonging to that church.
CHORASSAN, or Khorassan, a province of
Perfia, adjoining to Ufbec Fartary. This w:as the
ancient Baflria, and the birth-place of Kouli Khan.
CHORAX, or Charax. See Characene.
CHORAZIM, or Chorazin, (Luke, Matthew),
a town of Galilee, whole wretched incredulity Chriil
deplores; now defolate, at two miles diflance from
Capernaum.
CHORD, or Cord, piimarily denotes a (lender
rope or cordage *. The word is formed of the Latin, * See Ccr-
chorda, and that from the Greek, a gut, where-
of firings may be made.
Chord, in Geometry, a right line drawn from one
part of an arch of a circle to another. Hence,
Chord of an Arch, is a right line joining the ex¬
tremes of that arch.
Chord, in Mafic, the union of two or more founds
uttered at the fame time, and forming together an en¬
tire harmony.
The natural harmony produced by the refonance of
a founding body, is compofed of three different founds,
without reckoning their odlaves; which form among
themfelves the moll agreeable and perfefl chord that
can poffibly be heard: for which realon they are called,
on account of their excellence, perfeci chords. Hence,
in order to render that harmony complete, it is ne-
ceffary that each chord fhould at leaf! confill of three
founds. The trio is likewife found by muficians to
include the perfedlion of harmony j w'hether becaufe
in this all the chords, and each in its full perfedlion,
are ufed ; or, becaufe upon fuch occafions as render
it improper to ufe them all, and each in its integri¬
ty, arts have been fuccefsfully pradlifed to deceive
the ear, and to give it contrary perfuafion, by de¬
luding it with the principal founds of each chord, in
fuch a manner as to render it forgetful of the other
founds neceffary to their completion. Yet the odlave
of the principal found produces new relations, and
new confonances, by the completion of the intervals :
they commonly add this odlave, to have the affem-
blage of all the confonances in one and the fame
chordi (See Consonance). Moreover, the addition
of the diflonance (See Discord), producing a fourth
found fuperadded to the perfedt chord, it becomes in-
difpenfably neceffary, if wre would render the chord
full, that wTe fhould include a fourth part to exprefs
this diffonance. Thus, the feries of chords can nei¬
ther be complete nor connedled but by means of four
parts.
Chords are divided into perfedl and imperfedl. The
perfeci chord is that wffiich w'e have lately defcribed j
which is compofed of the fundamental found below,
of its third, its fifth, and its octave : they are likewife
fubdivided into major and minor, according as the
thirds which enter :nto their compofition are flat or
fharp : (See Interval). Some authors likewife give
the
C H O
[ 56 1
C H O
Chords.
■f
tli« name of perfect to all chords, even to diffonances,
whofe fundamental founds are below. Imperfedt chords
are thole in which the fixth, inftead of the fifth, pre¬
vails, and in general all thofe whofe loweft are not
their fundamental founds. Thefe denominations, which
had been given before the fundamental bals was known,
are now moft unhappily applied : thofe of chords ai-
re& and reverfed are much more fuitable in the fame
lenfe.
Chords are once more divided into confonances and
diffonances. The chords denominated confotmnces, are
the perfect chord, and its derivatives : every other
chord is a dijfonance.
A table of both, according to the fyftein of M. Ra¬
meau, may be feen in Rouffeau’s Mufical DRlionary,
vol. i. p. 27.
After the table to which our readers have been re¬
mitted, Rouffeau adds the following obfervations, which
are at the fame time fo juft and fo important, that we
fhould be very forry if they efcape the reader’s atten¬
tion.
At the words harmony, fundamentcd hafs, compofi-
' tion, &c. he promifes to treat concerning the man¬
ner of ufing all the chords to form regular har¬
mony ; and only adds, in this place, the fubiequent re¬
flexions.
1. It is a capital error to imagine, that the methods
of inverting the fame chord are in all cafes equally
eligible for the harmony and for the expreflion.
There is not one of thefe different arrangements but
had its proper charafter. Every one feels the con-
trafl: between the foftnefs of the falle fifth, and the
grating found of the tritone, though the one of thele
intervals is produced by a method of inverting the
other. With the feventh diminifhed, and the fecond
redundant, the cafe is the fame with the interval of tne
fecond in general ufe, and the feventh. Vt ho does
not feel how much more vocal and fonorous the fifth
appears when compared with the fourth ? T. he chord
of the great fixth, and that of the leffer fixth minor,
are two forms of the fame fundamental chord', but
how much lefs is the one harmonious than the other ?
On the contrary, the chord of the Icffer fixth major is
much more pleafing and cheerful than that of the
falfe fifth. And only to mention the moft fimple of
all chords, refleX on the majefty of the perfeX choid,
the fweetnels of that which is called the chord of the
fixth, and the infipidity of that which is compofed of
a fixth and a fourth } all of them, however, compo¬
fed of the fame founds. In general, the redundant
intervals, the fharps on the higher part, are proper by
their feverity to exprefs violent emotions of mind,
fuch as anger and the rougher paflions. On the con¬
trary, flats in the higher parts, and diminifhed inter¬
vals, form a plaintive harmony, which melts the heart.
There are a multitude of fimilar obfervatiens, of
which when a mufician knows how to avail himfelf,
fie may command at will the affeXions of thofe who
hear him.
2. The choice of fimple intervals is fcarcely of lefs
ipiportance than that of the chords, with regaid to
the ftations in which they ought to be placed. It is,
for inftance, in the lower parts that the fifth and oc¬
tave fhould be ufed in preference 5 in the upper parts,
the third and fixth are more proper. If you tianfpofe
2
this order, the harmony will be ruined, even though Chords
the fame chords are preferved.
3. In a word, the chords are rendered ftill more
harmonious by being approximated and only divided
by the fmalleft praXicable intervals, which are more
fuitable to the capacity of the ear than fuch as are re¬
mote. This is what wre call contracting the harmony $
an art w'hich few' compofers have fkill and abilities
enough to put in praXice. The limits in the natural
compafs of voices, afford an additional reaion for lei-
fening the dillance of the intervals, which compofe
the harmony of the chorus, as much as poflible. We
may affirm, that a chorus is improperly compofed,
when the diftance between the chords increafes j when
thofe wrho perform the different parts are obliged to
fciffam when the voices rife above their natural ex¬
tent, and are fo remotely diftant one from the other
that the perception of harmonical relations between
them is loft.
We fay likewife, that an inftrument is in concord
when the intervals between its fixed founds are what
they ought to he w7e fay in this fenfe, that the chords
of an inftrument are true or falfe, that it preferves or
does not preferve its chords. TLhe lame form of fpeak-
ing is ufed for two voices which fing together, or for
two founds which are heard at the fame time, whether
in unifon or in parts.
Chords, or Cords, of Mujical InJ}rumentsy aie
firings, by the vibration of which the fenfation of
found is excited, and by the divifions of which the
feveral degrees of tone are determined.
CHORDEE, in Medicine and Surgery, a fymptom
attending a gonorrhoea, confifting in a violent pain
under the frenum, and along the duX of the urethia,
during the ereXion of the penis, wdiich is incurvated
downwards. Thefe ereXions are frequent and invo¬
luntary.
CHOREA Sancti Viti. See Virus's Dance.
CHOREPISCOPUS, an officer in the ancient
church, about whofe funXion the learned are ex¬
tremely divided. The word comes from x^y a re-
gion or little country, and a bijlop or ovtr-
feer.
The chorepifeopi w7ere fuffragan or local bifhops,
holding a middle rank between bifhops and preihy-
ters, and delegated to exercife epifcopal jurifdiXion
within certain diftriXs, when the boundaries of parti¬
cular churches, over which feparate bifhops prefided,
were confiderably enlarged. It is not certain when
this office was firft introduced : fome trace it to the
clofe of the firft century : others tell us, that chore¬
pifeopi were not known in the eaft tib the beginning
of the fourth century ; and in the weft about the year
439. Theyceafed both in the eaft and weft m the
tenth century. .
Chorepiscopus is alfo the name of a dignity ft ill
fubfifting in fome cathedrals, particularly in Ger¬
many *, fignifying the fame with chon epifeopus, or
“ biffiop of the choir.” The word, in this ienfe, does
not come from place, but x6^' cfoiry ^C* !
the church of Cologne, &c. the firft chanter is called
chorepifcopus.
CHOREUS, Xo^es, a foot in the ancient poetry,
more commonly called trochxus. See I rochee.
CHORIAMB US, in ancient poetry, a foot con¬
fifting
C H Q [
filling of four fyllables, whereof the firft anti laft are
long, and the two middle ones are fhort; or, which
is the fame thing, it is made up of a trochaeus and
iambus: fuch is the word nob Hit as.
CHORION, in Anatomy, the exterior membrane
which inverts the foetus in the uterus. See Foetus.
CHOROBATA, or Chorobates, a kind of wa¬
ter level among the ancients, of the figure of the let¬
ter T, according to Vitruvius’s defcription.
CHOROGRAPHY, the art of making a map of
any cbuntry or province.
Chorography differs from geography, as the de¬
fcription of a particular country differs from that of
the whole earth j and from topography, as the de¬
fcription of a country is different from that of a town
or diftrift. See the articles Geography, Topogra¬
phy, and Map.
CHOROIDES, or Choroeides in Anatomy, a
term applied to feveral parts of the body, bearing
fome refemblance to the chorion. The word is form¬
ed from %o£io9, chorion, and hkenefs.
Choroides is particularly ufed for the inner mem-
■brane which immediately inverts the brain ; fo called
as being intermingled with a great number of blood-
veffels, like the chorion : but more ufually denominated
the pia mater, or tneninx tenuis.
Plexus or Lacis Choroides, is a knot of veins and
arteries in the anterior ventricle of the brain, woven
out of the branches of the carotid.
Choroides is alfo applied to the inner and porte-
rior tunic of the eye, immediately under the fcleroti-
ca. It is foft, thin, and black $ and its inner or con¬
cave furface is very fmooth and polifhed. It has its
name from its being interfperfed with veffels.
CHORUS, in dramatic poetry, one or more per-
fons prefent on the ftage during the reprefentation,
and fuppofed to be by-ftanders without any (hare in
the aftion.
Tragedy in its origin was no more than a fingle
chorus, who trod the ftage alone, and without any
a£tors, finging dithyrambics or hymns in honour of
Bacchus. Thefpis, to relieve the chorus, added an
after, who rehearfed the adventures of fome of their
heroes j and ALfchylus, finding a lingle perfon too dry
an entertainment, added a fecond, at the fame time
reducing the finging of the chorus, to make more
room for the recitation. But when once tragedy be¬
gan to be formed, the recitative, which at firft was in¬
tended only as an acceffory part to give the chorus a
breathing time, became a principal part of the trage¬
dy. At length, however, the chorus became inferted
and incorporated into the aftion : fometimes it was
to fpeak •, and then their chief, whom they called co¬
ryphaeus, fpoke in behalf of the reft : the finging was
performed by the whole company •, fo that when the
coryphaeus ftruck into a fong, the chorus immediately
joined him.
The chorus fometimes alfo joined the aftors in the
courfe of the reprefentation, with their plaints and la¬
mentations on account of any unhappy accidents that
beftl them : but the proper funftion, and that for which
it feemed chiefly retained, was to fhowr the intervals of
the afts : while the aftors wrere behind the feenes, the
chorus engaged the fpeftators j their fongs ufually
turned on what was exhibited, and were not to cou-
Vol. VI. Part I.
57. 1 . C H O
tain any thing but what was fuited to the fubjeft, and
had a natural conneftion with it ; fo that the chorus
concurred with the aftors for advancing the aftion. u
In the modern tragedies the chorus is laid afide, and
the fiddles fupply its place. M. Dacier looks on this
retrenchment as of ill confequence, and thinks it robs
tragedy of a great part of its luftre ; he therefore judges
it neceffary to re-eftablifh it, not only on account of the
regularity of the piece, but alfo to correft, by prudent
and virtuous refleftions, any extravagancies that might
fall from the mouths of the aftors when under any vio¬
lent paflion.
M. Dacier obferved alfo, that there was a chorus,
or grex, in the ancient comedy : but this is fuppreffed
in the new comedy, becaufe it was uled to reprove
vices by attacking particular perfons •, as the chorus
of the tragedy was laid afide to give the greater
probability to thofe kinds qf intrigue which require
fecrecy. ,
Chorus, in Mujic, is when, at certain periods of a
fong, the whole company are to join the finger in re¬
peating certain couplets or verfes.
CHOSE (Fr.), “ a thing ufed in the common
law with divers epithets ; as chofe local, chofe tranjitory,
and chofe in aBion. Chofe local is fuch a thing as is an¬
nexed to a place, as a mill and the like; chofe tranfi-
tory is that thing which is moveable, and may be taken
away, or caried from place to place j and chofe in ac¬
tion is a thing incorporeal, and only a right, as an ob¬
ligation for debt, annuity, &c. And generally all
caufes of fuit for any debt, duty, or wrong, are to be
accounted chofes in aftion : and it feems, chofe in ac¬
tion may be alfo called chofe in fufpenfe ; becaufe it hath
no real exiftence or being,, nor can properly be faid to
be in our poffeflion.
CHOSROES I. the Great, king of Perfia after
his father Cabades, A. D. 532. He made peace with
the Romans ; but broke it the third year, and forced
Juftinian to a difadvantageous peace. Afterw-ards, he
was fo fwelled with his viftories, as to bid the empe¬
ror’s ambaffador follow him for audience to Caelarea:
but Tiberius fent an army under Juftinian, who made
himfelf mafter of the country, and put Chofroes to
death in 586.
Chosroes II. His fubjefts put his father Hormif-
das in prifon, and the fon upon the throne of Perfia.
He ufed his father tenderly at firft •, but afterwards
caufed him to be put to death. This, together with
his killing fome of the nobility, obliged him to fly : he
gave his horfe the bridle, which carried him into a
town of the Romans, where Mauricins the emperor
received him kindly, and lent an army under Narfes
which fet him again upon the throne. He took Jeru-
falem j after this he made himfelf mafter of Libya and
Egypt, and carried Carthage. Heraclius fued for
peace •, which was offered him on condition. That he
and his fuhjeEls fhould deny Jefus Chrijl: Hereupon
Heraclius attacked him with fuccefs, and put him to
flight. His own fon purfued him, and he was ftarved
in prifon in 627.
CHOUGH, in Ornithology, the trivial name of a
fpecies of CorvUs.
CHOUS, in the eaftern military orders, the title
of the meffengers of the divan of Janifaries. There
are feveral degrees of honour in this poll. When a
H perfon
Chorus
II
Chous.
%
C H R
[ 58 ]
G H R
Chrifm.
©hftwder- perfon is firll advanced to it, be is called a kuchuk, or
beer little chons ; after this be is advanced to be the alloy
chons, that is, the meffenger of ceremonies j and from
1 this, having paffed through the office ot petelma, or
procurator of the effects of the body, he is advanced
to be the has chons.
CHOWDER BEER, a provincial phrafe of Devon-
fhire, denoting a cheap and eafily prepared drink,
highly commended for preventing the fcurvy in long
voyages, or for the cure of it where it may have been
contra fled. It is prepared in the following manner :
Take twelve gallons of water, in which put three
pounds and a half of black fpruce : boil it for three
hours, and having taken out the fir or fpruce, mix
with the liquor feven pounds of melafles, and juft boil
it up ; ftrain it through a fieve, and when milk-warm
put to it about four fpoonfuls of veil to wTork it. In
two or three days ftop the bung of the caik ; and in
five or fix days, when fine, bottle it for drinking. Two
gallons of melaffes are fufficient for a hogfhead of li¬
quor •, but if melaffes cannot be procured, treacle or
coarfe fugar will anfwer the purpofe.
CHREMNITZ, the principal of the nine towns in
Upper Hungary, fituated about 68 miles north-eaft of
Prefburg, and fubjefl to the houfe of Auftria. E. Long.
19. N. Lat. 48. 45.
CHRENECR UD A., a term occurring m writers
of the middle ages, and exprefting a cuftom of thofe
times; but its fignification is doubtful. It is men¬
tioned in Lege Sa/ica, tit. 61. which fays, he who kills
a man, and hath not wherewithal to fatisty the law or
pay the fine, makes oath that he hath delivered up every
thing he was poffeffed of; the truth of which muft be
confirmed by the oaths of 12 other perfons. Then he
invites his next relations by the father’s fide to pay
off the remainder of the fine, having firft made over
to them all his effefts by the following ceremony. He
goes into his houfe, and taking in his hand a fmall
quantity of duft from each of the four corners, he re¬
turns to the door, and with his face inwards throws
the duft with his left hand over his Ihoulders upon his
nearell of kin. Which done, he (trips to his (hirt j
and coming out with a pole in his hand, jumps over
the hedge. His relations, whether one or feveral, are
upon this obliged to pay off the compofition fgr the
murder. And if thefe (or any one of them) are not
able to pay iterum fuper ilium chrenecrvda, quipaupenor
ejl,jaBat, et ille totam legem componat. Whence it ap¬
pears, that chrenecruda jaclare, is the fame with throw¬
ing the duft gathered from the four corners of the
houfe. Goldaftus and Spelman tranflate it viridem
herbam, “ green grafs,” from the German gruen kraut,
or from the Dutch groen, “ green,” and^raz'^“ grafs.”
Wendelinus is of a contrary opinion, who thinks that
by this word denotaripurificationis approbationem, from
chrein, “ pure, chafte, clean and kcuren, “ to prove ;”
fo that it muft refer to the oaths of the twelve jurors.
Ee this as it will, King Childebert reformed this law
by a decree, chap. 15. both becaufe it favoured of
Pagan ceremonies, and becaufe feveral perfons were
thereby obliged to make over all their effe£ls : De
chrenecruda lex quam pagan or urn tempore obfet vabant,
deinceps nunquam valeat, quia per ipjam cecidet multo-
rum potejlas.
CHRISM (from lanoint), oil confecrated by
the bifhep, and nfed in the Romifti and Greek churches,
in the adminiftration of baptiim, confirmation, ordina¬
tion, and extreme un&ion, which is prepared on holy
Thurfday with much ceremony. In Spain it W'as an¬
ciently the cuftom for the biftiop to take one third of
a fol for the chrifm diftributed to each church, on ac¬
count of the balfam that entered its compofition.
Du Cange oblerves, that there are two kinds of
chrifm j the one prepared of oil and balfam, ufed in
baptifm, confirmation, and ordination j the other of
oil alone, confecrated by the bifhop, ufed anciently for
the catechumens, and ftill in extreme unflion. The
Maronites, before their reconciliation with Rome, be-
fides oil and balfam, ufed mulk, faffron, cinnamon,
rofes, white frankincenfe, and feveral other drugs men¬
tioned by Rynaldus^ in 1541, with the dofes of each.
The Jefuit Dandini, who went to Mount Libanus in
quality of the pope’s nuncio, ordained, in a fynod held
there in 1596, that chrifm for the future Ihould be
made only of two ingredients, oil and ballam ; the
one reprefenting the human nature of Jefus Chrift,
the other his divine nature. The adlion of impofing
the chrifm is called chrifmation : this the generality of
the Romifh divines hold to be the next matter of the
facrament of confirmation.
The chrifmation in baptifm is performed by the
pried j that in confirmation by the biftiop : that in or¬
dination, &.c. is more ufually ftyled unBion.
Chrism Pence, Chrismatis Denarii, or Chrism ales
Denarii, a tribute anciently paid to the biftiop by the
parifli clergy, for their chrifm, confecrated at Eafter
for the enfuing year : this was afterwards condemned
as fimoniacal.
CHR1SOM, a white garment put upon a child by the
prieft immediately after baptifm, accompanied with this
devout prayer ; “ Take this white vefture as a token
of the innocency which, by God’s grace in this holy
facrament of baptifm, is given unto thee, and for a fign
whereby thou art admoniftied, fo long as thou lived, to
give thyfelf to innocence of living, that after this tran-
fitory life thou mayeft be partaker of life everlafting.
Amen.”
From this circumftance the white garment got the
name of chrifom, which, after being worn a few days,
was delivered to the prieft as a (acred depefit, to be
produced in future as an evidence againft the ptrfon,
fliould he be fo impious as to renounce his baptifmal en¬
gagements. This ceremony continued in ufe for a
confiderable time after the reformation in th\church of
England, which required the mother of the child when
churched, to offer the chrifom, and other cuftomary
oblations. On pronouncing the above mentioned pray¬
er, the prieft anointed the head of the infant, faying,
“ 'Almighty God, the father of our Lord Jefus Chrift,
who hath regenerated thee by water and the Holy
Ghoft, and hath given unto thee the remiflicn of all
thy fins, vouchfafe to anoint thee with the unflion of
his Holy Spirit, and bring thee to the inheritance of
everlafting life. Amen.”
CHRIST, an appellation fynonymous with MeJJiah,
ufually added to Jefus : and, together therewith., de¬
nominating the Saviour of the w'orld. See Christia¬
nity and Messiah,
The word fignifies anointed, from inungo,
« j anoint.” Sometimes the word Chnjt is ufed fin-
Chnua
11
Chrift.
C H R [59
gly, by way of antonornafis, to denote a perfon fent from
God, as an anointed prophet, king, or prieft.
Order of Christ, a military order, founded by Dio-
nyfius I. king of Portugal, to animate his nobles againft
the Moors. The arms of this order are gules, patri¬
archal crofs charged with another crofs argent : they
had their refidence at firft at Caftromarin : afterwaids
they removed to the city of 1 homar, as being nearer
to the Moors of Andalufia and Eftremadura.
Christ is alfo the name of a military older in Li¬
vonia, inllituted in 1205 by Albert bifliop of R.iga.
The end of this inftitution was to defend the new
Chriftians who were converted every day in Livonia,
but were perfecuted by the heathens. T. hey wore on
their cloaks a fword with a crofs over it, whence they
were alfo denominated brothers of the fword.
CnRisT-Burgh, a town of Poland, near the lake
Draufen, and about three Polifh miles fiom Marien-
burgh.
CitRisT-Church, a borough town of Hampfture, 30
miles fouth-weft of Winchefter, near the fea-coaft. YV.
Long. 2. N. Lat. 50. 40. It fends two members to
parliament.
CtiRisr-Tfjorn. See Rhamnus, Botany Index.
CHRISTIAN. See Christianity and Chri¬
stians.
MoJI Christian King, one of the titles of the king
of France.
The French antiquaries trace the origin of this ap¬
pellation up to Gregory the Great, who, writing a
letter to Charles M/irtel, occafionally gave him that
title, which his fucceffors have fince retained.
Christian Religion, that inflituted by Jefus ChrifL
S CHRISTIANITY, the religion of Chriflians.
The word is analogically derived, as other abftra&s
from their concretes, from the adje&ive Chrijlian.
This again is derived from the name Chriftus,
from the woid I anoint. Chriil is called the a-
minted, from a cuitom which extenfively prevailed in
antiquity, and was originally laid to be of divine in¬
ftitution, of anointing perfons in the facerdotal or re¬
gal character, as a public fignal of their confecration
to their important offices, and as a teftimony that
heaven itfelf was the guarantee of that relation which
then commenced between the perfons thus confecrated
and their fubordinates.
The difciples of Jefus, after the death of their teach¬
er, had for fome time been called Naxarenes, from Na-
were tmt 2-areth in Galilee where he dwelt j which afterwaids
diltinguifli-became the defignation of a particulur feft. They,
ed. who adopted the principles and profefled the religion
which he taught, were firft diftinguilhed by the name
of Chriftians at Antioch. That profeffion, and thofe
doftrines, we now proceed to delineate with as much
perfpicuity as the limits of our plan will admit, yet
with the concifenefs which a work lo multiform and
extenfive requires
1
Origin of
the word.
2
By what
name the
apuftles
were firft
Delineation When a
of Cbriftia- nature and
city.
Chriftian is interrogated concerning the
foundation of his faith and practice, his
ultimate reference, his laft appeal, is to the facts, the
do6!rines, and the injunftions, contained in the books
of the Old and New Teftament. From thefe, there¬
fore, and from thefe alone, muft every fair account,
or the materials of which it is compofed, be extracted
C H R
or reduced. Other formularies, or confeffions of faith Chriftiu-
may, according to the Chriftian, deferve mote or e.s ,
attention, as they are more or lefs immediately con¬
tained or implied in the fcriptures. But whatever is
not a&ually expreffed in, or reduced, by lair and nc-
ceffary confequence from, thele writings, muft be re¬
garded as merely human 5 and can have no other title
to our affent and obfervation than what they derive
from their conformity with the fcriptures, with the
dictates and feelings of a reformed and cultivated
mind, or with thofe meafures which are found expe¬
dient and ufeful in human life. But as thofe books,
from whence the Chriftian inveftigates his principles of
belief and rules of conduct, have been varioufiy inter¬
preted by different profeffors and commentators, thefe
diverlities have given birth to a multiplicity of c.iiie-
rent feds. It cannot, therefore, be expefted, that
any one who undertakes to give an account of Clui-
ftianity, ffiould comprehend all the writings and opi¬
nions which have been propagated and exhibited by
hiftorical, fyftematical, or polemical authors.^ 1 befe,
if at all contained in fuch a work as this, fliould be
ranged under their proper articles, whether fcientifical,
controverfial, or biographical. It is our prelent bu-
finefs, if poffible, to confine ourlelves to a detail of iuc.i
fafts and doftrines as, in the ftrift and primitive fenfe
of the word, are catholic, or, in other expreffions, to
fuch as uniformly have been, and ftill are, recognized
and admitted by the whole body of Chriftians. 4
We have already faid that thefe, or at leaf! the Account of
greateft number of ffiem, appeal to the fcriptures of Cbrhham-
the Old and New Teftament as the ultimate ttandard, ^ducible>
the only infallible rule of faith and manners. If you
alk them, by what authority thefe books claim an ab-
folute right to determine the confciences and under-
ftandings of men rvith regard to what they ffiould be¬
lieve and what they ffiould do ? They will anfwer you,
that all feripture, whether for doarine, correaion, or
reproof, was given by immediate infpiration from
God. ’ 5
If again you interrogate them how thofe books, -phe nature
which they call Scripture, are authenticated ? they re- ofitsevi-
ply, that the evidences by which the Old and New deuces.
Teftament aie proved to be the Word of God, are
either external or internal. The external may again
be divided into direa or collateral. The direa evi¬
dences are fuch as arile from the nature, confillency,
and probability, of the faas ; and from the fimplicity,
uniformity, competency, and fidelity, of the tehimonies
by which they are fupported. The collateral events
are either the fame occurrences fupported by Hea¬
then teftimonies, or others which concur wdth and
corroborate the hiftory of Chriftianity. Its internal
evidence anfes either from its exaa conformity with
the charaaer of God, from its aptitude to the frame
and circumftances of man, or from thofe fupernatural
conviaions and affiftances which are impreffed on.the
mind by the immediate operation of the divine Spirit.
Thele can only be mentioned in a curlory manner in
a detail fo concife as the prefent. . . 6
Such faas as are related in the hiftory of his reli- jjow chri-
gion, the Chriftian afferts to be not only confiftent ft.anity is
each with itfelf, but likewife one with another. Hence ‘uPP°«ed
it is, that, by a feries of antecedents and conlequen- ^
ces, they corroborate each other, and form a chain
Hz which
C H R
[ 60 ]
C H R
if.hriflia- which cannot be broken but by an abfolute fubver-
mty- fion of all hiftorical authenticity. Nor is this all: for,
'“-■■"■■V—according to him, the fafts on which Chriftianity is
founded, not only conflitute a feries of themfelves,
/ but are likewife in feveral periods the beft refources
for fupplying the chafms in the hiftory of our nature,
and preferving the tenor of its annals entire. The
\ fadls themfelves are either natural or fupernatural.
By natural fadls we mean fuch occurrences as happen
or may happen from the various operations of mecha¬
nical powers, or from the interpofition of natural
agents without higher affiftants. Such are all the com¬
mon occurrences of hiftory, whether natural, biogra¬
phical, or civil. By fupernatural fafts, we mean fuch
as could not have been produced without the interpo-
lition of Deity, or at leaft of powers fuperior to the
laws of mechanifm or the agency of embodied fpirits.
Among thefe may be reckoned the immediate change
of water into wine, the inftantaneous cure of difeafes
without the intervention of medicine, the refufcitation
of the dead, and others of the fame kind. In this or¬
der of occurrences may likewife be numbered the ex¬
ertions and exhibitions of prophetic power, where the
perfons by whom thefe extraordinary talents were dif-
played could neither by penetration nor conjecture un¬
ravel the mazes of futurity, and trace the events of
which they fpoke from their primary caufes to their
remote completions. So that they muft have been the
paflive organs of fome fuperior Being, to whom the
whole concatenation of caufes and effedts which ope¬
rate from the origin to the confummation of nature,
wTas obvious at a glance of thought.
7 It has already been hinted, that the fadls which wTe
have called natural, not only agree with the analogy
ancfhowat’human events, and corroborate each other, but in
conducive a great many emergencies nobly illuftrate the hiftory
to the elu- 0f nature in general. For this a Chriftian might offer
cidation of one Qf which philofophy will not perhaps be
able to produce any tolerable folution, without having
recourfe to the fadls upon which Chriftianity is found¬
ed. For if mankind were originally defcended from
one pair alone, how fhould it have happened that long
before the date of authentic hiftory every nation had
its own diftindl language ? Or, if it be fuppofed, as
ibme late philofophers have maintained, that man is
an indigenous animal in every country ; or, that he
was originally produced in, and created for, each par¬
ticular foil and climate wTich he inhabits; ftill it may
be demanded, w'hence the prodigious multiplicity, the
immenfe diverfity of languages ? Is the language of
every nation intuitive, or were they dictated by exi¬
gences, and eftablifhed by convention ? If the laft of
thefe fuppofitions be true, what an immenfe period of
time muft have pafled ! How many revolutions of ma¬
terial and intellectual nature muft have happened !
What acceflions of knowledge, refinement, civiliza¬
tion, muft human intercourfe have gained before the
formation and eftablifhment even of the mofl Ample,
imperfeCI, and barbarous language ! Why is a period
fo vaft obliterated fo entirely as to efcape the retrofpeCt
of hiftory, or tradition, and even of fable itfelf ? Why
was the acquifition and improvement of other arts fo
infinitely diftant from that of language, that the era of
the latter is entirely loft, whilft we can trace the for-
ChrifiJa-
nity.
•hiftory.
mer from their origin through the various gradations
of their progrefs.
Thefe difficulties, inextricable by all the lights of
hiftory or philofophy, this more than Cimmerian dark- This obfcu-
nefs, is immediately diffipated by the Mofaic account nty inex-
of the confufion of tongues \ wifely intended to fepa- plicable
rate the tribes of men one from another, to repleniffi but by tbe
the furface of the globe, and to give its multiplied in- ac>
habitants thofe opportunities of improvement which
might be derived from experiment and induftry, va-
rioufly exerted, according to the different fituations in
which they were placed, and the different employ¬
ments which thefe fituations diftated. Thus the time
of nature’s exiftence is limited to a period within the
ken of human intelleft. Thus whatever has happen¬
ed might have happened during the prefent mode of
things $ whereas, if w’e deduce the origin and diverfity
of language from a period fo remotely diftant as to be
abfolutely loft, and entirely detached from all the
known occurrences and viciffitudes of time, we mufl:
admit the prefent forms and arrangements of things
to have fubfifted perhaps for a much longer duration
than any mechanical philofopher will allow to be pof-
fible. Other inttances equally pregnant with convic¬
tion might be multiplied ; but precluded by the limits
of our plan, we proceed to a Angle obiervation upon
the fafts which have been termed JupernaturaL ^
Of thofe changes which happen in fenfible objefls, Miracles,
fenfation alone can be judge. Reafon has nothing to how con¬
do in the matter. She may draw conclufions from docive^to
the teftimonies of fenfe, but can never refute them.
If, therefore, our fenfes inform us that fnow is white, chriftiani-
in vain would the moft learned and fubtile philofopher ty.
endeavour to convince us, that it was of a contrary
colour. He might confound, but never could per-
fuade us. Such changes, therefore, as appear to hap¬
pen in fenfible obje£ts, muft either be real or fallaci¬
ous. If real, the miracle is admitted j if fallacious,
there muft be a caufe of deception equally unaccount¬
able from the powers of nature, and therefore equally
miraculous. If the veracity or competency of the
witneffes be queftioned, the Chriftian anfwers, that
they muft: be competent, becaufe the fafts which they
relate are not beyond their capacity to determine.
They muft likewife be faithful, becaufe they had no
fecular motives' for maintaining, but many for iuppref-
fing or difguifing, what they teftified. Now the Chri¬
ftian appeals to the whole feries of hiftory and expe¬
rience, whether fuch a man is or can be found, as will
offer a voluntary, folemn, and deliberate faciifice of Io
truth at the (brine of caprice. But fuch fafts as after Prophecy
a long continuace of time have been found exaftly evident by
agreeable to prediftions formerly emitted, muft fu-Its own na-
perfede the fidelity of teftimony, and infallibly prove p'^aeiurf
that the event was known to the Being by whom ititsvehi-
was foretold. In vain has it been urged, that prophe-cles.
cies are ambiguous and equivocal, tor though they
may prefigure fubordinate events, yet if the grand oc¬
currences to which they ultimately relate, can alone
fufil them in their various circumftances, and in their
utmoft extent, it is plain, that the Being by whom
they w^ere revealed muft have been aftually prefcient
of thofe events, and muft have had them in view when
the prediftions were uttered. For this fee a learned
and
C H' R t 6
Chriftia- and ingenious Differtation on the Credibility of Gof-
nity- pel-biftory, by Dr M‘Knight; where the evidences
   urged by the Chriftian in defence of his tenets, which
appear detached and fcattered through innumerable
volumes, are affembled and arranged in fuch a manner
as to derive ftrength and luftre from the method in
which they are difpofed, without diminhhing the force
of each in particular. See alfo the works of Dr Hurd :
confult likewife thofe of Newton, Sherlock, Chandler,
&c. For the evidences of thofe preternatural fadls
which have been termed miracles, the reader may pe-
rufe a Ihort but elegant and conclufive defence of thefe
aflonifhing phenomena, in anfwer to Mr Hume, by the
Rev. George Campbell, D. D.
11 It muft be obvious to every refledling mind, that
Common* whether we attempt to form the idea of any religion
to all reli- «priori, or contemplate thofe which have been already
gions. exhibited, certain fadls, principles, or data, muft be pre-
eftaMifhed, from whence will refult a particular frame
of mind and courfe of a&ion fuitable to the chara&er
and dignity of that being by whom the religion is en¬
joined, and adapted to the nature and fituation of thofe
agents who are commanded to obferve it. Hence
Cbrijlianity may be divided into credenda or doftiines,
and agenda or precepts.
.12 As the great foundation of his religion, therefore,
the Chr5ftian t>elieves exiftence and government
£ ‘ of one eternal and infinite Effence, which for ever re¬
tains in itfelf the caufe of its own exifterce, and inhe¬
rently poflefles all thofe perfections wnich are com¬
patible with its nature ; fuch are, its almighty powder,
omnifcient wifdom, infinite juftice, boundlefs good-
nefs, and univerfal pretence. In this indivifible ef-
fence the Chriftian recognifes three diftinCt fubfift-
ences, yet diftinguiftied in fuch a manner as not to be
incompatible with eflential unity or fimplicity of be¬
ing. Nor is their effential union incompatible with
their perfonal diftinClion. Each of them poffeffes the
fame nature and properties to the fame extent. As,
therefore, they are constituents of one God, if we may
ufe the expreffion, there is none of them fubordinate,
none fupreme. The only way by which the Chriftian
can difcriminate them is, by their various relations,
properties, and offices. Thus the Father is faid eter¬
nally to beget the Son, the Son to be eternally begot¬
ten of the Father, and the Holy Ghoft eternally to pro¬
ceed from both.
This infinite Being, though abfolutely independent
and for ever fufficient for his own beatitude, was gra-
cioufly pleafed to create an univerfe replete with in¬
ferior intelligences, who might for ever contemplate
and enjoy his glory, participate his happinefs, and imi¬
tate his perfections. But as freedom of will is effen¬
tial to the nature of moral agents, that they may co¬
operate with God in their own improvement and hap-
\ pinefs, fo their natures and powers are neceffarily li¬
mited, and by that conftitution rendered peccable.
This degeneracy firft took place in a rank of intelli¬
gence fuperior to man. But guilt is never ftationary.
Impatient of itfelf, and curled with its own feelings, it
proceeds from bad to wrorfe, whilft the poignancy of
its torments increafes with the number of its perpe¬
trations. Such was the fituation of Satan and his
apoftate angels. They attempted to transfer their tur¬
pitude and xnifery to man j and were, alas! but too
i ] • C H R
fuccefsful. Hence the heterogeneous and irreconcile- <~hriftia-
able principles which operate in his nature. Hence ,ry'
that inexplicable medley of wifdom and folly, of rec¬
titude and error, of benevolence and malignity, of
fincerity and fraud, exhibited through his whole con¬
duct. Hence the darknefs of his underftanding, the
depravity of his will, the pollution of his heart, the ir¬
regularity of his affeClions, and the abfolute fubverfion
of his whole internal economy. Thefe feeds of per¬
dition foon ripened into overt aCts of guilt and horror.
All the hoftilities of nature were confronted, and the
whole fublunary creation became a theatre of diforder
and mifchief.
Here the Chriftian once more appeals to faCl and
experience. If thefe things are lo; il njan is the
veffel of guilt and the victim of mifery j he demands
how this conftitution of things can be accounted for ?
how can it be fuppofed, that a being fo wicked and
unhappy fhould be the production of an infinitely per¬
fect Creator ? He therefore infifts, that human nature
muft have been difarranged and contaminated by fome
violent fhock j and that, of confequence, without the
light diffufed over the face of things by Chriftianity,
all nature muft remain an infcrutable and inexplicable
myftery.
To redrefs thefe evils, to re-eftablifti the empire of
virtue and happinefs, to reftore the nature of man
to its primitive reCtitude, to latisfy the remonftran-
ces of infinite juftice, to purify every original or con¬
tracted ftain, to expiate the guilt and deftroy the
power of vice, the eternal Son of God, the fecond
Perfon of the facred Trinity, the Logos or Divine
Word, the Redeemer or Saviour of the world, the
Immanuel or God with us, from whom Chriftianity
takes its name, and to whom it owes its o-rigin, de-
fcended from the bofom of his Father ; affumed the
human nature $ became the reprefentative of man j
endured a fevere probation in that charafter j exhibi¬
ted a pattern of perfeft righteoufnefs ; and at laft ra¬
tified bis doftrine, and fully accompliihed all the ends
of his miflion, by a cruel, unmerited, and ignominious
death. Before he left this world, he delivered the
doCtrine of human falvation, and the rules of human
conduCI, to his apoftles, whom he empowered to in-
ftruCI the world in all that concerns their eternal fe¬
licity, and wdiom he invefted with miraculous gifts to
afcertain the reality of what they taught. To them
he likewife promifed another comforter, even the Di¬
vine Spirit, who fhould relume the darknefs, confole
the woes, and purify the ftains, of human nature. Ha¬
ving remained for a part of three days under the power
of death, he rofe again from the grave, difcovered him-
felf to his difciples, converfed with them for fome time,
then afcended to heaven j from whence the Chriftian
expeCIs him, according to his promife, to appear as
the Sovereign Judge of the living and the dead, from
wdiofe awards there is no appeal, and by whole fen-
tence the deftiny of the /pious and the wicked fhall be
eternally fixed.
Soon after his departure to the right hand of his
Father, where, in his human nature, he fits fupreme
of all created beings, and invefted with the abfolute
adminiftration of heaven and earth, the Spirit of grace
and confolation defcended on his apoftles with vifible
fignatures of divine power and prefence. Nor were
i his
Cliviftu-
13
The exter¬
nal means
of Chriftia-
nity, what,
and how
promotive
of their
end.
*4
Chnftian
morality.
C' H R [ 62 ] G H R
his falutary operations confined to them, but extend¬
ed to all the rational world, who did not by obftinate
guilt repel his influences, and provoke him to with¬
draw them. Thefe, indeed, were lefs confpicuous
than at the glorious era when they were vifibly exhi¬
bited in the perfons of the apoitles. But though his
energy is lefs obfervable, it is by no means lefs effectual
to all the purpofes of grace and mercy.
The Chriftian is convinced, that there is and (hall
continue to be a fociety upon earth, who worfhip God
as revealed in Jefus Chrift 5 who believe his doctrines j
who obferve his precepts} and who fhall be faved by
his death, and by the ufe of thefe external means of fal-
vation which he hath appointed.
Thefe are few and fimple. The facraments of bap-
tifm and the eucharift, the interpretation and appli¬
cation of fcripture, the habitual exercife of public
and private devotion, are obvioufly calculated to dif-
fufe and promote the interefts of truth and virtue, by
fuperinducing the falutary habits of faith, love, and re¬
pentance.
The Chriflian is firmly perfuaded, that at the con-
fummation of things, when the purpofes of providence
in the various revolutions of progreffive nature are
accomplifhed, the whole human race fhall once more
diTue from their graves j feme to immortal felicity,
from the actual perception and enjoyment of their
Creator’s prefence j others to everlafling fhame and
mifery.
It is worthy of obfervation, that all who profefs to
believe the Chriftian fyftem, do not fubferibe to the
truth of everlafting mifery. They conceive it impof-
fible that a good and merciful being could create in¬
numerable intelligences with a view to make them
eternally wretched, elfe they apprehend that exiftence
would be a curfe and not a blefling $ and that although
man, by being created free, becomes amenable to God
for his condudl, yet they contend that this God muft
have feen from eternity what ufe man would make of
his free agency, and have devifed the moft effeftual
means for counteracting the evils refulting from moral
depravity, and refolved to bring final and eternal
good out of all the evil which now does, or which in
future may exift. Finally, they deny that any epithet
applied to thf miferies of a future ftate denotes dura¬
tion without end, and they aflert that all the judg¬
ments inflifted on nations and individuals here upon
earth, are manifeftly the chaftifements of a father for
the recovery of delinquents, in w'hich light they alfo
confider the punifhments to be infliCled in the world
to come. It is our province to give a candid ftatement
of both fides of a queftion, leaving it to our readers to
form a judgment for themfelves.
The two grand principles of aCtion, according to
the Chiiftian, are, The love of God, which is the fove-
reign paffion in every perfeCt mind ; and the love of
man, w'hich regulates our aCtions according to the v -
rious relations in which we ftand, whether to commu¬
nities or individuals. This facred conneftion can ne¬
ver be totally extinguifhed by any temporarv injury.
It ought to fubfitt in feme degree even amongft ene¬
mies. It requires that we ftiould pardon the offences
of others, as we expeCl pardon for our own ; and that
we fhould no farther refill evil than is neceffary for the
prefer ration of perfonal rights and focial happinefs.
x
It diClates every relative and reciprocal duty between Chriftia-
parents and children, mailers and fervants, governors
and fubjeCls, friends and friends, men and men. Nor ^
does it merely enjoin the obfervation of equity, but
likewife infpircs the moft fublime and extenftve charity,
a boundlefs and dilinterefted effufion of tendernels for
the whole fpecies, which feels their dillrefs and ope¬
rates for their relief and improvement. Thefe celeltial
difpofitions, and the different duties which are their
natural exertions, are the various gradations by w'hich
the Chriftian hopes to attain the perfeCtion of his na¬
ture and the moft exquifite happinefs of wdiich it is
fufceptible. 15
Such are the fpeculative, and fuch the praftical This fyl-
principles of Chriftianity. From the former, its vo-aliert*
taries contend, that the origin, economy, and revolu-
tions of intelligent nature alone can be rationally ex-fUpenol
plained. From tbe latter they affert, that the na- the excel-
ture of man, whether coniidered in its individual orlence°Gts
focial capacity, can alone be conducted to its higbeft
perfection and happinefs. With the determined A- dence 0f its
theifts they fcarcely deign to expoftulate. For, ac-reality, to
cording to them, philofophers who can deduce the afl others,
origin and conftitution of things from cafual rencoun- N
ters or mechanical neceflity, are capable of deducing
any conclufion from any premifes. Nor can a more
glaring inftance of abfurdity be produced, than the
idea of a contingent or felf-originaU d univerle. When
Deifts and other feCtarians upbraid them with myfte*
rious or incompatible principles, they without hefita-
tion remit fuch cavillers to the creed of natural re¬
ligion. They demand why any reafoner ftiould re-
fufe to believe three diftinCt fubftances in one indivi-
fible effence, who admits that a being may be omni-
prefent without extenfion •, or that he can imprefs
motion upon other things, whilft he himfelf is necef-
farily immoveable. They afk the fage, why it fhould
be thought more extraordinary, that the Son of God
fhould be fent to this world, that he fhould unite the
human nature to his own, that he fhould fuffer and die
for the relief of his degenerate creatures, than that an
exiftence whofe felicity is eternal, inherent, and in- -
finite, fhould have any motive for creating beings ex- .
terior to himfelf ? Is it not, fays the Chriftian, equal¬
ly worthy of the divine interpofition to reftore order
and happinefs where they are loft, as to communicate
them where they never have been ? Is not infinite
goodnefs equally confpicuous in relieving mifery as in
diffufing happinefs > Is not the exiftence of what we
call evil in the world, under the tuition of an infinite¬
ly perfect Being, as infcrutable as the means exhibited
by Chriftianity for its abolition ? Vicarious punifh-
ment, imputed guilt and righteoufnefs, merit or de¬
merit transferred, are certainly not lefs reconcileable
to human reafon, a priori, than the exiftence of vice
and punilhment in the productions of infinite wifdom,
power, and goodnefs: particularly when it is con-
fidered, that the virtues exerted and difplayed by a
perfeCt Being in a ftate of humiliation and fuffering,
mult be meritorious, and may therefore be rewarded
by the reftored felicity of inferior creatures in propor¬
tion to their glory and excellence ; and that fuch me¬
rit may apply the bleftings which it has deferved, in
whatever manner, in whatever degree, and towhom-
foever it pleafes., without being under any neceffity to
violate
Chrlflia-
nity.
16
Miracti-
lous as pof-
libie, ar.d
perhaps as
necefl'ary,
as natural
events.
.x7
Chriftiani-
ty not only
explains
the pheno¬
mena, but
consoles
the miie-
ries, of hu¬
man na¬
ture.
G K R [
violate the freedom of moral agents, in recalling them
to the paths of virtue and happinefs by a mechanical
and irrefiftible force.
It will be granted to philofophy by the Chriflian,
that as no theory of mechanical nature can be formed
without prefuppofing facred and eftablilhed laws from
which fhe ought rarely if ever to deviate, fo in fadl
Ihe tenacioully purfues thefe general inftitutions, and
from their conllant obfervance refult the order and
regularity of things. But he cannot admit, that the
important ends of moral and intelle&ual improvement
may be uniformly obtained by the fame means. He
affirms, that if the hand of God fhould either remain
always entirely invifible, or at leaf! only perceptible
in the operation of fecond caufes, intelligent beings
wmuld be apt in the courfe of time to refolve the inter-
politions of Deity into the general laws of mechanifm $
to forget his connexion with nature, and confequently
their dependence upon him. Hence, according to the
dilates of common fenfe, and to the unanimous voice
of every religion in every age or clime, for the pur-
pofes of wnfdom and benevolence, God may not only
controul, but has actually controuled, the common
courfe and general operations of nature. So that, as in
the material world the law of caufe and effeSlxs general¬
ly and fcrupuloufly obferved for the purpoles of natu¬
ral fubliftence and accommodation ; thus fufpenfes
and changes of that univerfal law are equally neceffary
for the advancement of moral and intellectual perfec¬
tion.
But the difciple of Jefus not only contends, that no
fyftem of religion has ever yet been exhibited fo con¬
fident with itfelf, fo congruous to philofophy and the
common fenfe of mankind, as Chriftianity j he like-
wife avers that it is infinitely more produftive of real
and fenfible confolation than any other religious or
philofophical tenets, which have ever entered into the
foul, or been applied to the heart of man. For what
is death to that mind which confiders eternity as the
career of its exifterice ? What are the frowns of for¬
tune to him who claims an eternal world as his inhe¬
ritance ? What is the lofs of friends to that heart
which feels, with more than natural conviction, that
it (hall quickly rejoin them in a more tender, intimate,
and permanent intercourfe than any of which the pre-
fent life is fufceptible ? What are the fluctuations and
viciflitudes of external things to a mind which ftrongly
and uniformly anticipates a ftate of endlefs and immu¬
table felicity ? What are mortifications, difappoint-
xnents, and infults, to a fpirit which is confcious of be¬
ing the original offspring and adopted child of God \
which knows that its omnipotent Father will, in pro¬
per time, effeCtually "affert the dignity and privileges
of its nature ? In a word, as earth is but a fpeck of
creation, as time is not an inftant in proportion to
eternity, fucb are the hopes and profpeCts of the Cbri-
ftian in eomparifon of every fublunary misfortune or
difficulty. It is therefore, in his judgment, the eternal
wonder of angels, and indelible opprobrium of man,
that a religion fo worthy of God, fo iuitable to the
frame and circumflances of our nature, fo confonant
to all the dictates of reafon, fo friendly to the dignity
and improvement of intelligent beings, pregnant with
genuine comfiart and delight, fhould be rejected and
defpifed. Were there a poffibiiity of fufpenfe or hefi-
63 ] c h R
tation between this and any other religion extant, he Chriftta-
could freely truft the determination of a queftion fo
important to the candid decifion of real virtue and im-
partial philofophy.
It muft be allowed that the utmoft extent of human
inveftigation and refearch into the doftrine of a future
life, reached no farther than fplendid conjeCture before
the promulgation of Chriftianity, at which period life
and immortality were clearly brought to light. It is
therefore a Angular circumflance that the deift fhould
not perceive the wonderful fuperiority of the Chriftian
over every other fyftem, if it had nothing elfe to boaffc
of but this fingle doCIrine, fo pregnant wfith unalloyed
felicity. If Chriftianity be falfe, the believer of it
has nothing to lofe, fince it inculcates a mode of con-
duft which muft ever be amiable in the eye of infinite
goodnefs ; but if it be true, he has every thing to gain:
while upon this hypothefis the deift has every thing
to lo'e and nothing to gain. This is a momentous
confideration, and that man muft be truly infatuated
who can treat fuch an idea wfith contempt. lg
Mr Gibbon, in his Hiftory of the Decline and Fall Mr Gib-
of the Roman Empire, mentions five fecondary caufes bon at-
to which he thinks the propagation of Chriftianity, temPts to
and all the remarkable circumftances which attended [^ve’that
it, may with good reafon be aferibed. He feems to oation°of'
infinuate, that Divine Providence did not aft in a fin-Chriftiani-
gular or extraordinary manner in diffeminating the ^was ow“
religion of Jefus through the world ; and that, if every
other argument which has been adduced to prove the the opera-
facred authority of this religion can be parried or re- tion of
futed, nothing can be deduced from this fource to pre- wh<ch no
vent it from (baring the fame fate with other fyftems
of fuperftition. The caufes of its propagation were in diued in *
his opinion founded on the principles of human nature proof of its
and the circumftances of focietv. If we aferibe not authenti**
the propagation of Mahometiim, or of the doftrines Clty°
of Zerduft, to an extraordinary interpofition of Divine
Providence, operating by an unperceived influence on
the difpofitions of the human heart, and controuling
and confounding the ordinary laws of nature ; nei¬
ther can we, upon any reafonable grounds, refer the
promulgation of Chriftianity to fuch an interpofition.
The fecondary caufes to which he aferibes thefe ef- The cau-
fefts are, 1. The inflexible and intolerant zeal of the fes.
Chrirtians •, derived from the Jewitfi religion, but pu¬
rified from the narrow and unfocial fpirit which, in-
ftead of inviting, deterred the Gentiles from embracing
the law of Mofes. 2. The doftrine of a future life im¬
proved by every additional circumftance which could
give weight and efficacy to that important truth.
3. The miraculous powers aferibed to the primitive
church. 4. The pure and auftere morals of the Chri-
ftians. 5. The union and difeipline of the Chriftian
republic, which gradually formed an independent and
increafing ftate in the heart of the Roman empire.
Before we enter on the examination of Mr Gibbon’s
caufes in the order in which they are here enumerated,
we beg leave to remark, that we cannot perceive the
propriety of denominating fome of thefe fecondary
caufes, fince the miraculous powers aferibed to the pri¬
mitive church, if they were real, muft have conftituted
a primary caufe, and if fallacious, could have been no
caufe at all, if not of its complete fubverfion. As lit¬
tle can we conceive how fuch an elegant and learned
author
C H R [ 64 ] C H R
Cariftia- alitlior could imagine a zeal llri&ly and properly in-
■ ' flexible and intolerant, as qualified to produce any
other effefl that the deftruftion of the fyftem which
they are allowed to have been anxious to promote.
But our fentiments of thefe caufes afligned by Mr
Gibbon will be more fully developed as we proceed in
20 our candid and impartial examination of them.
Caufe I. jn pointing out the connexion between the firjl of
thefe caufes and the effe&s which he reprefents as ari-
fing from it, this learned and ingenious waiter obferves,
that the religion of the Jews does not feem to have
been intended to be propagated among the Heathens,
and that the converfion of profelytes was rather acci¬
dental than confident with the purport and the general
fpirit of the inditutions of Judaifm. The Jews were,
of confequence, dubious to preferve themfelves a pe¬
culiar people. Their zeal for their own religion was
intolerant, narrow, and unfocial.
In Chridianity, when it made its appearance in the
world, all the better part of the predominant fpirit of
Judaifm w^as retained-, but whatever might haye^ a
tendency to confine its induence within narrow limits
was laid fide. Chriltians were to maintain the doc¬
trines and adhere to the inditutions of their religion
with facred fidelity. They were not to violate their
allegiance to Jefus by entertaining or profeffing any
reverence for Jupiter or any other of the Heathen
deities ; it was not even neceffary for them to comply
with the pofitive and ceremonial inditutions of the
]awr of Mofes.—although thefe were acknowledged to
have been of divine origin. The zeal, therefore, wdiich
their religion inculcated, was indexible. It w7as even
intolerant : for they were not to content themfelves
with profeffing Chridianity and conforming to its
laws -, they were to labour with unremitting affiduity,
and to expofe themfelves to every difficulty and every
danger, in converting others to the fame faith.
But the fame circumdances which rendered it thus
intolerant, communicated to it a more liberal and a
lefs unfocial fpirit than that of Judaifm. The religion
of the Jews was intended only for the few tribes 5 Chri-
ftianity was to become a catholic religion ; its advan¬
tages wTere to be offered to all mankind.
All the different lefts which arofe among the pri¬
mitive Chridians uniformly maintained the fame zeal
for the propagation of their own religion, and the fame
abhorrence for every other. The orthodox, the
Ebionites, the Gnodics, w7ere all equally animated
with the fame exclufive zeal, and the fame abhorrence
of idolatry, which had didinguidred the Jews from
41 other nations.
Obferva- Such is the general purport of what Mr Gibbon ad-
fwer man* vances concerning the induence of the fird of thole fe-
condary caufes in the propagation of Chridianity. It
would be uncandid to deny, that his datement of fafts
appears to be, in this infiance, almofi fair, and his de-
duftions tolerably logical. The fird Chridians were
1 remarkable for their detedation of idolatry, and for
the generous difintereded zeal wfith which they labour¬
ed to convert others to the fame faith. The fird of
thefe principles, no doubt, contributed to maintain the
dignity and the purity of Chridianity -, and the fecond
to differmnate it through the world. But the fa£fs
which he relates are fcavce confident throughout. He
feems to re prefen t the zeal of the fiat Chridians as fio
hot and intolerant, that they could have no forial inter- Cftriftta-
courfe with thole who dill adhered to the wordrip ofi mty-
Heathen deities. In this cafe, how could they propa- *
gate their religion ? Nay, we may even alk, How
could they live ? If they could not mingle with the
Heathens in the tranfaftions either of peace or war 5 nor
witnefs the marriage or the funeral of the dearcd
friend, if a Heathen ; nor praftife the elegant arts of
mulic, painting, eloquence, or poetry ; nor venture to
ufe freely in converfation the language of Greece or of
Rome —it is not eafy to lee what opportunities they
could have of diffeminating their religious fentiments.
If, in fuch circumdances, and obferving rigidly fuch
a tenor of conduft, they wrere yet able to propagate
their religion with fuch amazing fuccefs as they are
faid to have done $ they mud furely either have prac-
tifed feme wondrous arts unknown to us, or have
been affided by the fupernatural operation of divine
power.
But all the hidorical records of that period, whether
facred or profane, concur to prove, that the primitive
Chridians in general did not retire with fuch religious
horror from all intercourfe w ith the Heathens. They
refufed not to ferve in the armies of the Roman em¬
pire : they appealed to Heathen magidrates, and fub-
mitted refpeftfully to their decifion j the hufband was
often a Heathen, and the wife a Chridian j or, again,
the hulband a Chridian, and the wife a Heathen.
Thefe are fafts fo univerfally known and believed,
that we need not quote authorities in proof of them.
This refpeftable writer appears therefore not to
have dated the fafts which he produces under this head
with fufficient ingenuoufnefs -, and he has taken care to
exaggerate and improve thofe which he thinks ufeful
to his purpofe wuth all the dazzling, delufive colours
of eloquence. But had the zeal of the fird Chridians
been fo intolerant as he reprefents it, it mud have
been highly unfavourable to the propagation of their
religion : all their widres to make converts would, in
that cafe, have been counterafted by their unwfilling-
nefs to mix, in the ordinary intercourfe of life, with
thofe who,were to be converted. Their zeal, and the
liberal fpirit of their religion, w7ere indeed fecondary
caufes which contributed to its propagation : but their
zeal was by no means lo ridiculoudy intolerant as this
writer would have us believe ; if it had, it mud have
produced effefts direftly oppofite to thofe which he
aferibes to it. 22
In illudrating the induence of the fecond of thefe fe-Caufe IL
eondary caufes to which he aferibes the propagation of
Chridianity, Mr Gibbon difplays no lefs ingenuity than
in tracing the nature and the effefts of the fird. The
doftrine of a future life, improved by every additional
circumdance which can give weight and efficacy to that
imoortant truth, makes a confpicuous figure in the
Chridian fydem j and it is a doftiine highly flattering
to the natural hopes and wiflies of the human heart.
Though the Heathen philofophers w'ere not unac¬
quainted w itli this doftrine ; yet to them the fpiritu-
ality of the human foul, its capacity of exidence in a
feparate date from the body, its immortality, and its
profpt ft of lading happinefs in a future life, rather
appeared things pofiible and dtArable, than truths
fuhy dablifhed upon folid grounds. Thele doftrines.
Mi Gibbon would perfuade us, had no infiuence on
the
C H R [6
Chriftia- the moral rentxments and general conduft of the Hea-
nity. thens. Even the philofophers, who amufed themfelves
dlfplaying their eloquence and ingenuity on thofe
fplendid themes, did not allow them to influence the
tenor of their lives. The great body of the people,
who were occupied in purfuits very different from the
fpeculations of philofophy, and were unacquainted with
the queftions difcuffed in the fchools, were i'carce ever
at pains to refleft whether they confided of a material
and a fpiritual part, or whether their exiltence was to
be prolonged beyond the term of the prefent life j and
they could not regulate their lives by principles which
they did not know.
In the popular fuperflition of the Greeks and Ro¬
mans, the dodlrine of a future date was not omitted.
Mankind were not only flattered with the hopes of
continuing to exid beyond the term of the prefent
life ; but different conditions of exidence were promi-
fed or threatened, in which retributions for their con-
dutt in human life were to be enjoyed or differed.
Some were exalted to heaven, and affociated with the
gods; others were rewarded with lefs illudrious ho¬
nours, and a more moderate date of happinefs, in
Elyfium ; and thofe, again, who by their conduct in
life had not merited rewards, but punilhments, were
configned to Tartarus. Such wrere the ideas of a fu¬
ture date w'hich made a part of the popular fuperdi-
tion of the Greeks and Romans. But they produced
only a very faint impreflion on the minds of thofe
among whom they prevailed. They were not truths
fupported by evidence j they w^ere not even plaufible $
they were a tilfue of abfurdities. They had not there¬
fore a more powerful influence on the morals, than
the more refined fpeculations of the philofophers.
Even the Jew's, whofe religion and legiflature were
communicated from heaven, were in general, till wdth-
in a very fhort time before the propagation of the go-
fpel, as imperfeflly acquainted with the doflrine of
a future date as the Greeks and Romans. This doc¬
trine made no part of the law of Mofes. It is but
darkly and doubtfully infinuated through the other
parts of the Old Tedament. Thofe among the Jew's
who treated the facred Scriptures with the highefl re¬
verence, always denied that fuch a doftrine could be
deduced from any thing which thefe taught 5 and
maintained that death is the final diffolution of man.
The rude tribes who inhabited ancient Gaul, and
fome other nations not more civilized than they, en¬
tertained ideas of a future life, much clearer than
thofe of the Greeks, the Romans, or the Jews.
Chridianity, however, explained and inculcated the
truth of this doctrine in all its fplendour and all its
dignity. It exhibited an alluring, yet not abfurd, view
of the happinefs of a future life. It conferred new hor¬
rors on the place of punilhment, and added new feve-
rity to the tortures to be infli&ed, in another world.
The authority on which it taught thefe doftrines, and
difplayed thefe views, was fuch as to filence inquiry and
doubt, and to command implicit belief. What added
to the influence of the do&rine of a future date of ex¬
idence, thus explained and inculcated, was, that the
fird Chridians confidently prophefied and fincerely be¬
lieved that the end of the world, the confummation of
all things, was fad approaching, and that the genera¬
tion then prefent fhould live to witnefs that awful
Vol. VI. Part I.
5 ] . c H R
event. Another circumdance which contributed to Chriilia-
render the fame doftrine fo favourable to the propaga-, ni^f
tion of Chridianity wTas, that the firfl Chridians dealt
damnation without remorfe, and almod without making
any exceptions, on all w'ho died in the belief of the
abfurdities of Heathen fuperdition. Thus taught and
improved with thefe additional and heightening cir-
cumdances, this do&rine, partly by prefenting allur¬
ing profpedls and exciting pleafing hopes, partly by
working upon the fears of the human heart with re-
prefentations of terror, operated in the mod powerful
manner in extending the influence of the Chridian
faith. 23
Here, too, fads are rather exaggerated, and the9bferva'
inferences fcarce fairly deduced. It mud be confefled,^^ m an<
that the fpeculations of the Heathen philofophers did
not fully and undeniably edablifh the dodrine of the im¬
mortality of the human foul; nor can we prefume to
affert, in contradidion to Mr Gibbon, that their argu¬
ments could imprefs fuch a convidion of this truth as
might influence in a very drong degree the moral fen-
timents and condud. They mud, how'ever, have pro¬
duced fome influence on thefe. Some of the mod il¬
ludrious among the Heathen philofophers appear to
have been fo drongly impreffed with the belief of the
foul’s immortality, and of a future date of retribution,
that their general condud was condantly and in a high
degree influenced by that belief. Plato and Socrates
are eminent and well-known inflances. And if, in
fuch inflances as thefe, the belief of thefe truths pro¬
duced fuch confpicuous effieds ; it might be fairly in¬
ferred, though we had no farther evidence, that thofe
charaders w’ere far from being Angular in this refped.
It is a truth acknowledged as unqueflionable in the hi-
ftory of arts and fciences, that wherever any one per-
fon has cultivated thefe with extraordinary fuccefs,
fome among his contemporaries will always be found
to have rivalled his excellence, and a number of them
to have been engaged in the fame purfuits. On this
occafion wTe may venture, without hefitation, to reafon
upon the fame principles. When the belief of the im¬
mortality of the human foul produced fuch illudrious
patterns of virtue as a Plato and a Socrates; it mud:
certainly have influenced the moral fentiments and con¬
dud of many others, although in an inferior degree.
We fpeculate, we doubt, concerning the truth of ma¬
ny dodrines of Chriflianity ; many who profefs that
they believe them, make this profeflion only becaufe
they have never confidered ferioufly whether they be
true or falfe. But, notwithflanding this, thefe truths
dill exert a powerful influence on the fentiments and
manners of fociety in general. Thus, alfo, it appears
that the dodrines of ancient philofophy concerning a
future life, and even the notions concerning Olympus,
Elyfium, and Tartarus, which made a part of the po¬
pular fuperflition, did produce a certain influence on
the fentiments and manners of the Heathens in gene¬
ral. That influence w'as often indeed inconfiderable,
and not alw'ays happy ; but dill it was fomewhat
greater than Mr Gihhon feems willing to allow’. Chri¬
dians have been fometimes at pains to exaggerate the
abfurdities of Pagan fuperflition, in order that the ad¬
vantages of Chridianity might acquire new value from
being contraded with it. Here we find one who is ra¬
ther difpofed to be the enemy of Chridianity, difplay-
I ’ ing,
r—
C H R [66
ChrifHa- In^, and even exaggerating, thofe abfurdities for a very
nity- different purpofe. But the truth may be fafely admit-
v ^r' * ted •, it is only when exaggerated that it can ferve any
purpofe inimical to the facred authority of our holy re-
ligion. Mr Gibbon certainly reprefents the religious
doflrine of the ancient Gauls, in refpeft to the immor¬
tality of the human foul and a future Hate, in too fa¬
vourable a light. It is only becaufe the whole fyftem
of fuperftition which prevailed among thofe barbarians
is fo imperfectly known, that it has been imagined to
confift of more fublime doCtrines than thofe of the po¬
pular fuperftition of the Greeks and Romans. The
evidence which Mr Gibbon adduces in proof of what
he afferts concerning thefe opinions of the ancient
Gauls, is partial, and far from fatisfaCtory. They did
indeed affert and believe the foul to be immortal ; but
this doCtrine was blended among a number of abfurdi-
ties much groller than thofe which characterize the
popular religion of the Greeks and Romans. 1 he lat¬
ter was the fuperftition of a civilized people, among
whom reafon was unfolded and improved by cultiva¬
tion, and whofe manners were polifhed and liberal; the
former was that of barbarians, among whom realon was,
as it were, in its infancy, and who were ftrangers to
the improvements of civilization. When hafty obfer-
vers found that thofe barbarians were not abtolutely
flrangers to the idea of immortality, they were moved
to undue admiration ; their furpriie at finding what
they had not expefted, confounded their underftanding,
and led them to mifconceive and mifreprefent. What
we ought to afcribe to the favage ferocity of the cha-
xa&er of thofe rude tribes, has been attributed by mif-
take to the influence of their belief of a future ffate.
In the law of Mofes, it muff be allowed, that this
doftrine is not particularly explained nor earneftly in¬
culcated. The author of the Divine Legation of
Mofes, &c. has founded upon this faCt an ingenious
theory, which we (hall elfewhere have occafion to
examine. The reafons why this doCtrine was not
more fully explained to the Jews, w’e cannot pretend
to aflign, at leaf! in this place ; yet we cannot help
thinking, that it was more generally known among
the Jews than Mr Gibbon and the author of the Di¬
vine Legation are willing to allow. I hough it be
not ftrongly inculcated in their code of /atw, yet there
is fome reafon to think that it was known and general-
, ly prevalent among them long before the Babylonifh
captivity; even in different paffages in the writings of
Mofes, it is mentioned or alluded to in an unequivocal
manner. In the hiitory of the patriarchs, it appears
that this doftrir.e was known to them; it appears to
have had a ftrong influence on the mind of Mofes
himfelf. Was David, wras Solomon, a ftranger to this
doftrine ? We cannot here defcend to very minute
particulars ; but furely all the efforts of ingenuity muff
be infufficient to torture the facred Scriptures of the
Old Teftament, fo as to prove that they contain no¬
thing concerning the doflrine of a future date any
where but in the writings of the later prophets, and
that even in thefe it is only darkly infinuated. Were
the Jews, in the earlier part of their hiftory, fo totally
fecluded from all intercourfe with other nations, that a
doftrine of fo much importance, more or lefs known
to all around, could not be communicated to them ?
The Pharifees did admit traditions, and fet upon them
] C H R
an undue value; yet they appear to have been confi-
dered as the molt orthodox of the different fefts which
prevailed among the Jews: the Sadducees were rather
regarded as innovators.
But though we are of opinion, that this ingenious
writer allows to the doftrine of the Greek and Roman
philofophers, concerning the immortality of the human
foul, as well as to the notions concerning a future ftate,
which made a part of the popular fuperftitions of thofe
nations, lefs influence on the moral lentiments and con-
duft of mankind than what they really exerted ; though
we cannot agree with him in allowing the ideas of the
immortality of the loul and of a future ftate, which
were entertained by the Gauls and fome other rude
nations, to have been much fuperior in their nature, or
much happier in their influence, than thofe of the
Greeks and Romans; and though, in confequence of
reading the Old Teftament, we are difpofed to think
that the Jews knew fomewhat more concerning the im¬
mortality of the human foul, and concerning the fu¬
ture ftate in which human beings are deftined to exift,
than Mr Gibbon reprefents them to have knowm : yet
ftill we are very fenfible, and very w-ell pleafed to ad¬
mit, that “ life and immortality were brought to light
through the gofpel.”
The doftrine of a future life, as it was preached by
the firft Chriftians, was eftablilhed on a more folid ba¬
lls than that on which it had been before maintained ;
was freed from every ablurdity ; and was, in Ihort, fo
much improved, that its influence, which, as it was
explained by Heathen poets and philofophers, muft be
confeffed to have been in many inftances doubtful, now
became favourable only to the interefts of piety and
virtue, and to them in a very high degree. It un¬
doubtedly contributed to the fuccefsful propagation of
Chriftianity ; for it was calculated to attraft and pleafe
both the fpeculating philofopher and the fimple unen¬
lightened votary of the vulgar fuperftition. The views
which it exhibited were diltinft ; and all was plaufible
and rational, and demonftrated by the fulleft evidence.
But the happinefs which it promifed was of a lefs fen-
fual nature than the enjoyments which the Heathens
expefted on Olympus or in Elyfium ; and would there¬
fore appear lefs alluring to thofe who were not very
capable of refined ideas, or preferred the gratifications
of the fenfes in the pvefent life to every other fpecies of
good. If the firft Chriftians rejoiced in the hope of
beholding all the votaries of Pagan idolatry afflifted
with the torments of hell in a future ftate, and toafted
of thefe hopes wuth inhuman exultation, they would in
all probability rather irritate than alarm thofe w'hom
they fought to convert from that fuperftition : the
Heathens would be moved to regard with indignant
fcorn the preacher who pretended that thole whom
they venerated as gods, heroes, and wile men, were
condemned to a ftate of unfpeakable and lafting tor¬
ment. Would not every feeling of the heart revolt
againft the idea, that a parent, a child, a hufband, a
wile, a friend, a lovei, or a miftrefs, but lately loft,
and ftill lamented, was configned to eternal torments
for aftions and opinions which they had deemed highly
agreeable to fuperior powers ?
We may conclude, then, wflth refpeft to the in¬
fluence of this fecondary caufe in promoting the pro¬
pagation of Chriftianity, that the circumftances of the
r ® Heathen,
Cfiriftia.
nity.
C H R
[ 67 ]
C II R
Cliriftia-
nity.
24
Caufe III.
*5
Ofeferva-
tions in re¬
ply.
Heathen world were lefs favourable to that influence
than Mr Gibbon pretends 5 that the means by which
he reprefents the primitive Chriftians, as improving its
efficacy, were fome of them not employed, and others
rather likely to weaken than to flrengthen it; and that
therefore more is attributed to the operation of this
caufe than it could poffibly produce.
The third caufe, the miraculous powers of the pri¬
mitive church, is with good reafon reprefented as ha¬
ving conduced very often to the convidfion of infidels.
Mr Gibbon’s reafonings under this head are, That nu¬
merous miraculous works of the moll extraordinary
kind were ollentatioufly performed by the firil Chri¬
ftians: that, however, from the difficulty of fixing the
period at which miraculous powers ceafed to be com¬
municated to the Chriilian church, and from fome
other circumftances, there is reafon to fufpedl them to
have been merely the pretences of impofture; but this
(to ufe a phrafe of his own) is only darkly infrnuated:
and, laftly, that the Heathens having been happily
prepared to receive them as real by the many wonders
nearly of a fimilar nature to which they were accuf-
tomed in their former fuperftition, the miracles which
the firft Chriftians employed to give a fandlion to their
dodtrines, contributed in the moil effedlual manner to
the propagation of Chriftianity.
In reply to what is here advanced, it may be fug-
gefted, that the miracles recorded in the New Tefta-
ment, as having been performed by the firft Chriftians
when engaged in propagating their religion, as well
as a number of others recorded by the Fathers, are
eftablilhed as true, upon the moft indubitable evidence
which human teftimony can afford for any fadl. Mr
Hume, who was too fond of employing his ingenuity
in undermining truths generally received, has endea¬
voured to prove, that no human teftimony, however
ftrong and unexceptionable, can afford fufficient evi¬
dence of the reality of a miracle. But his reafonings
on this head, which once excited doubt and wonder,
have been fince completely refuted ; and mankind ftill
continue to acknowledge, that though w’e are all lia¬
ble to miftakes and capable of deceit, yet human tef¬
timony may afford the moft convincing evidence of
the moft extraordinary and even fupernatural fa6ls.
The reader will not expe£l us to enter, in this place,
into a particular examination of the miracles of our
Saviour and his apoftles, and the primitive church.
An inquiry into thefe will be a capital objeft in ano¬
ther p.^rt of this work (Theology.) We may here
confider it as an undeniable and a generally acknow¬
ledged fa£l, that a certain part of thofe miracles were
real. Such as were real undoubtedly contributed, in
a very eminent manner, to the propagation of Chri¬
ftianity ; but they are not to be ranked among the na¬
tural and fecondary caufes.
It is difficult to diftinguiffi at what period miracu¬
lous gifts ceafed to be conferred on the members of the
primitive church ; yet wm may diftinguifti, if we take
pains to inquire with minute attention, at what period
the evidence ceafes to be fatisfa£lory. We can alfo, by
confidering the circumftances of the church through
the feveral ftages of its hiftory, form fome judgment
concerning the period during which the gifts of pro-
phefying, and fpeaking with tongues, and working mi-
Clmltia-
nity.
racles, were mofl neceffary to Chriftians to enable them
to affert the truth and dignity of their religion. ,
The Heathens were no ftrangers to pretended mi- T ~
racles and prophecies, and other leeming interpofitions
of fuperior beings, difturbing the ordinary courfe ot
nature and of human affairs: but the miracles to which
they were familiarized had been fo often detedled to
be tricks of impofture or pretences of mad enthufiafm,
that, inftead of being prepared to witnefs or to receive
accounts of new miracles with eafy credulity, they muft
have been in general difpofed to view them with jea-
loufy and fufpicion, Befides, the miracles to which
they had been accuftomed, and thofe performed by the
apoftles and the firft preachers of Chriftianity, were
direftly contradi&ory; and therefore the one could re¬
ceive no affiftance from the other.
Yet w e muft acknowledge, notvvithftanding what we.
have above advanced, that as difagreements with re-
fpeft to the principles and inftitutions of their reli¬
gion very early arofe among Chriftians ; fo they like-
wfife fought to extend its influence, at a very early pe¬
riod, by the ufe of pious frauds. Pious frauds, too,
appear to have fometimes ferved the immediate pur-
pofes for which they were employed, though eventu¬
ally they have been highly injurious to the cauie of
Chriftianity.
We conclude, then, that Chriftianity veas indebted
to the influence of miracles in a confiderable degree
for its propagation : but that the real miracles of our
Saviour and his apoftles, &c. were not among the fe¬
condary caufes of its fuccels : that the Heathens w ho
were to be converted were not very happily prepared
for receiving the miracles of the gofpel with blind cre¬
dulity : that, as it is poffible to diicern between fuffi¬
cient and infufficient evidence, fo it is not more diffi- *
cult to diftinguith between true and falfe miracles: and,
laftly, that falfe miracles were foon employed by Chri¬
ftians as engines to fupport and propagate their reli¬
gion, and perhaps not unfuccefsfully ; but were, upon
the whole, more injurious than ferviceable to the caufe
wffiich they were called in to maintain. 26
The fourth of this feries of fecondary caufes, which Caufe W.
this author thinks to have been adequate to the propa¬
gation of Chriftianity, is the virtues of the primitive
Chriftians. Thele he is willing to attribute to other
and lefs generous motives, rather than to the pure in¬
fluence of the do&rines and precepts of their religion.
The firft converts to Chriftianity were moft of them
from among the low-eft and moft worthlefs char afters.
The wife, the mighty, and thofe who were diftinguiftr-
ed by fpecious virtues, were in general perfeftly fatif-
fied with their prefent circumftances and future pro-
fpefts. People whole minds were naturally weak, un¬
enlightened, or oppreffed with the fenfe of atrocious
guilt, and who were infamous or outcafts from fociety,
were eager to grafp at the hopes which the gofpel held
out to them.
When, after enlifting under the banner of Chrift,
they began to confider themfelves as ‘‘ born again to
newnefs of life xemorfe and fear, which eafily pre¬
vail over weak minds; felfiffi hopes of regaining their
reputation, and attaining to the honours and happinefs
of thofe manfions which Jefus was laid to have gone to
prepare ; with a defire to raife the honour and extend
I 2 the
Chriftia-
Obferva-
tions in an
fwer.
C H R [ 6£
the influence of the fociety of which they were become
members ; all together operated fo powerfully as to
enable them to difplay both adive and paflive virtue
in a very extraordinary degree. I heir virtues did not
flow from the pureft and nobleft fource *, yet they at-
trafted the notice and moved the admiration of man¬
kind. Of thofe who admired, fome were eager to
imitate j and, in order to that, thought it neceffary
to adopt the fame principles of aftion.
Their virtues, too, were rather of that fpecies which
excite wonder, becaufe uncommon, and not of eflfen-
tial utility in the ordinary -intercourfe of fociety ; than
of thofe which are indifpenfably neceffary to the exi-
flence of focial order, and contribute to the eafe and
convenience of life. Such virtues were well calculated
to engage the imitation of thofe who had failed egre-
gioufly in the prattice of the more focial virtues.
Thus they praftifed extraordinary, but ufelefs. and
unfocial virtues, upon no very generous motives 5
thofe virtues drew upon them the eyes of the world,
and induced numbers to embrace their faith.
We muft, however unwillingly, declare, that this is
plainly an uncandid account of the virtues of the pri¬
mitive Chriftians, and the motives from which they ori¬
ginated. The focial virtues are ftrongly recommended
through the gofpel. No degree of mortification or
felf-denial, or feclufion from the ordinary bufinefs and
amufements of focial life, was required of the early
converts to Chriftianity ; fave what was indifpenfably
neceffary to wean them from the irregukr habits in
which they had before indulged, and which had ren¬
dered them nuifances in fociety, and to form them to
new habits equally neceffary to their happinefs and
their ufefulnefs in life. We allow that they praftifed
virtues wdiich in other circumftances would, however
fplendid, have been unneceflary. But in the difficult
circumftances in which the firft Chriftians were placed,
the virtues which they praflifed were in the high eft
degree focial. The moft prominent feature in their
character was, 44 their continuing to entertain fenti-
ments of generous benevolence, and to difcharge Icru-
puloufly all the focial duties,” towards thofe who ex-
ercifed neither charity nor humanity, and frequently
not even bare integrity and juftice, in their conduct
towards them.
It cannot be faid with truth, that fuch a proportion
of the primitive Chriftians were people whofe charac¬
ters had been infamous and their circumftances defpe-
rate, as that the chara&er of the religion which they
embraced can fuffer from this circumftance. Nor
were they on/y the weak and illiterate whom the
apoftles and their immediate fucceflbrs converted by
their preaching. The criminal, to be fure, rejoiced
to hear that he might obtain abfolution of his crimes ;
the mourner was willing to receive comfort j minds
of refined and generous feelings were deeply affefted
with that goodnefs which had induced the Son of God
to fubmit to the punifliment due to finners : but the
ftmplicity, the rationality, and the beauty of the Chri-
ftian fyftem, likewife prevailed in numerous inftances
over the pride and prejudices of the great and the wife:
in fo many inftances, as are fufficient to vindicate the
Chriftian church from the afperfion by which it has
been reprefented, as being in the firft period of its ex-
iftencc merely a body of criminals and idiots.
] * C H R
The principles, too, from which the virtues of the Chrjftia-
firft Chriftians originated, were not peculiarly mean , n'xy- ,
and felfifh •, nay, they feem to have been uncommonly y
fublime and difinterefted. Remorfe in the guilty mind
is a natural and reafonable fentiment; the defire of
happinefs in every human breaft is equally fo. It is
uncandid to cavil againft the firft Chriftians for being,
like the reft of mankind, influenced by thefe fenti-
ments : And when we behold them overlooking tem¬
porary poffeffions and enjoyments, extending their
views to futurity, and 44 living by faith }” when we
obferve them 44 doing good to thofe who hated them,
blefling thofe who curfed them, and praying for thofe
by whom they were defpitefully ufed can we deny
their virtues to have been of the moft generous and
difinterefted kind ?
We allow, then, that the virtues of the firft Chri¬
ftians muft have contributed to the propagation of their
religion : but it is with pain that we obferve this re-
fpeftable writer ftudioufly labouring to mifreprefent
the principles from which thofe virtues arofe } and not
only the principles from which they arofe, but alfo
their importance in fociety. 2g
The Ji/th caufe was the mode of church government Caufe v.
adopted by the firft Chriftians, by which they were with obfer-
knit together in one fociety; who preferred the church vations.
and its interefts to their country and civil concerns.
We wifh not to deny, that the mutual attachment of
the primitive Chriftians contributed to fpread the in¬
fluence of their religion ; and the order which they
maintained, in conlequence of being animated with this
fpirit of brotherly love, and with fuch ardent zeal for
the glory of God, muft no doubt have produced no
lefs happy effeas among them than order and regula¬
rity produce on every other occafion on which they
are ftriaiy obferved. But whether the form of church-
government, which wras gradually eftablffhed in the
Chriftian church, was adually the happieft that could
poflibly have been adopted ; or whether, by eftablifti-
ing a diftir.a fociety, with feparate interefts, within
the Roman empire, it contributed to the difiolution of
that mighty fabric, we cannot here pretend to inquire.
Thefe are fubjeas of difcufiion, with refpea to which
w?e may with more propriety endeavour to fatisfy our
readers elfewhere. 2p
From the whole of this review of what Mr Gibbon Generai
has fo fpecioufly advanced concerning the influence ofconclufion
thefe five fecondary caufes in the propagation of theconcern-
gofpel, we think ourfelves warranted to conclude,'JJ*
That the zeal of the firft Chriftians was not, as he re-thc five
prefents it, intolerant: That the doadne of the im-cau{eS.
mortality of the human foul wTas fomewhat better un-
derftood in the heathen world, particularly among the
Greeks and Romans and the Jews, than he reprelents
it to have been; and had an influence fomewhat hap¬
pier than wTat he afcribes to it : That the additional
circumftances by which, he tells us, the firft preachers
of Chriftianity improved the effeas of this doadne,
were far from being calculated to allure converts:
That the heathens, therefore, were not quite fo well
prepared for an eager reception of this doanne as he
would perfuade us they were ; and, of confequence,
could not be influenced by it in fo confiderable a de¬
gree in their converfion : That real, unqueftionable mi¬
racles, performed by our Saviour, by his apoftles, and
C H R t 69 ] C H R
Ctriilians. by their fucceflbrs, did contribute fignally to the pro-
"■ v pagation of Chriftianity j but are not to be ranked
among the fecondary caufes: That weaknefs and blind
zeal did at times employ pretended miracles for the
fame purpofe not altogether ineffectually : That though
thefe defpicable and wicked means might be in fome
inftances fuccefsful; yet they were, upon the whole,
much more injurious than beneficial: That the virtues
of the primitive Chriftians arofe from the mofl gene¬
rous and noble motives, and w;ere in their nature and
tendency highly favourable to focial order, and to the
comfort of mankind in the focial date : And, laftly,
That the order and regularity of church-government,
which were gradually eflablifhed among the firft Chri¬
ftians, contributed greatly to maintain the dignity and
fpread the influence of their religion 3 but do not ap¬
pear to have disjoined them from their fellow-fubjeCls,
or to have rendered them inimical to the welfare of
the (late of which they wTere members.
Upon the whole, then, we do not fee that thefe fe¬
condary caufes were equal to the effe&s that have
been afcribed to them 3 and it feems undeniable, that
others of a fuperior kind co-operated with them. We
earneffly recommend to the perufal of the reader a
valuable performance of Lord Hailes’s, in which he
inquires into Mr Gibbon’s aflertions and reafonings,
concerning the influence of thefe five caufes, with the
utmofl accuracy of information, flrength, and clear-
nefs of reafoning, and elegant fimplicity of ftyle, and
without virulence or paftion.
CHRISTIANS, thofe who profefs the religion of
Chrifl: See Christianity and Messiah.—The name
Cbrijlian was firft given at Antioch, in the year 42, to
fuch as believed in Chrift, as we read in the Acts : till
that time they wTere called difciples.
The firft Chriftians diftinguiihed themfelves in the
moft remarkable manner by their conduct and their
virtues. The faithful, wdiom the preaching of St Pe¬
ter had converted, hearkened attentively to the exhor¬
tations of the Apoftles, who failed not carefully to in-
ftruft them, as perfons who were entering upon an
entirely new life.. They went everyday to the temple
with one heart and one mind, and continued in pray¬
ers 3 doing nothing different from the other Jews, be-
caufe it was yet not time to feparate from them. But
they made a ftill greater progrefs in virtue 3 for they
fold all that they poffefled, and diftributed their goods
in proportion to the wants of their brethren. They
ate their meat with gladnefs and Jin glen efs of heart,
praifing God, and having favour with all the people.
St Chryfoftom, examining from what fource the emi¬
nent virtue of the firft Chriftians flowed, aferibes it
principally to their divefling themfelves of their pof-
fe{lions : “ For (fays that father) perfons from whom
“ all that they have is taken away, are not fubjefl to
“ fin : whereas, whoever has large poffeftions, wants
“ not a devil or a tempter to draw him into hell by a
“ thoufand ways.”
The Jews were the firft and the moft inveterate
enemies the Chriftians had. They put them to death
as often as they had it in their power : and when
they revolted againft the Romans in the time of the
emperor Adrian, Barchochebas, the head of that re¬
volt, employed againft the Chriftians the moft rigo-
xous punifhments to compel them to blafpheme and
renounce Jefus Chrift. And we find that, even in the Chriftian**
third century, they endeavoured to get into their '**"> 1 " 4
hands Chriftian women, in order to fcourge and (tone
them in their fynagogues. They curfed the Chriftians
folemnly three times a-day in their fynagogues, and
their rabbins would not fuffer them to converfe with
Chriftians upon any occafion. Nor were they content¬
ed to hate and deteft them 3 but they defpatched emif-
faries all over the world to defame the Chriftians, and
fpread all forts of calumnies againft them. They ac-
cufed them, among other things, of worfhipping the
fun and the head of an afs. They reproached them
with idlenefs, and being an ufelefs race of people.
They charged them with treafon, and endeavouring
to ere£l a new monarchy againft that of the Romans.
They affirmed, that, in celebrating their myfteries,
they ufed to kill a child and eat its flefli. They ac-
cufed them of the moft (hocking incefts, and of in¬
temperance in their feafts of charity. But the lives
and behaviour of the firft Chriftians wTere fufficient to
refute all that was faid againft them, and evidently
demonftrated that thefe accufations were mere calumny
and the effect of inveterate malice.
Pliny the younger, who was governor of Pontus
and Bithynia between the years 103 and 105, gives a
very particular account of the Chriftians in that pro¬
vince, in a letter w’hich he wrote to the emperor Tra¬
jan, of which the following is an extract : “ I take
“ the liberty, Sir, to give you an account of every
“ difficulty which arifes to me. I have never been
prefent at the examination of the Chriftians 3 for
“ which reafon I know not what queftions have been
“ put to them, nor in what manner they have been
“ punifhed. My behaviour towards thofe who have
“ been accufed to me has been this : I have interro-
“ gated them, in order to know w’hether they were-
«l really Chriftians. When they have confeffed it, I
“ have repeated the fame queftion two or three times,
“ threatening them with death if they did not re-
“ nounce this religion. Thofe who have perfifted
“ in their confeffion, have been, by my order, led to
“ punifhment. I have even met with fome Roman
“ citizens guilty of this phrenfy, whom, in regard to
“ their quality, I have fet apart from the reft, in or-
“ der to fend them to Rome. Thefe perfons de-
“ clare, that their whole crime, if they are guilty,
“ confifts in this ; that, on certain days, they affem-
“ ble before funrife, to fing alternately the prnifes
“ of Chrift, as of a God, and to oblige themfelves,
“ by the performance of their religious rites, not to
“ be guilty of theft, or adultery, to obferve inviolably-
“ their word, and to be true to their truft. This
“ depofition has obliged me to endeavour to inform
“ myfelf ftill farther of this matter, by putting to the
“ torture two of their women-fervants, whom they
“ call deaconeffes: but I could learn nothing more
“ from them, than that the fuperftition of thefe peo-
“ pie is as ridiculous as their attachment to it is afto-
“ nifhing.”
There is extant a juftification, or rather panegyric,
of the Chriftians, pronounced by the mouth of a Pa¬
gan prince. It is a letter of the emperor Antoninus,
written in the year 152, in anfvver to the States of
Afia, who had accufed the Chriftians of being the
caufe of fome earthquakes which had happened in
1 that
C H R
[ 7° 1
C II R
Chriftians. that part of the world. The emperor advifes them
' 1 v 1 ‘ to “ take care, left, in torturing and puniftnng thofe
whom they acculed of Atheifm (meaning the Chri¬
ftians), they ftiould render them more obftinate, in-
ftead of prevailing upon them to change their opinion ;
lince tlieir religion taught them to fuffer with plea-
fure for the fake of God.” As to the earthquakes
which had happened, he put them in mind, “ that
they themfelves are always difcouraged, and link un¬
der fuch misfortunes; whereas the Chriftians never
difcovered more cheerfulnefs and confidence in God
than upon fuch occafions.” He tells them, that
“ they pay no regard to religion, and negleft the
worfhip of the Eternal j and, becaufe the Chriftians
honour and adore Him, therefore they are jealous of
them, and perfecute them even to death.” He con¬
cludes : “ Many of the governors of provinces have
formerly wwitten to my father concerning them ; and
his anfvver always was, that they ftiould not be moleft-
ed or difturbed, provided they quietly fubmitted to the
authority of the government. Many perfons have like-
wife confulted me upon this affair, and I have returned
the fame anfwer to them all •, namely, that if any one
accufes a Chriftian merely on account of his religion,
the accufed perfon ftiall be acquitted, and the accuser
himfelf punilhed.” This ordinance, according to Eu-
febius, was publicly fixed up at Ephelus in an aflem-
bly of the ftates.
It is no difficult matter to difcover the caufes of the
many perfecutions to which the Chnftians were ex-
pofed during the three firft centuries. The purity of
the Chriftian morality, direflly oppofite to the cor¬
ruption of the Pagans, was doubtlefs one of the moft
powerful motives of the public averfion. To this may
be added, the many calumnies unjultly fpread about
concerning them by their enemies, particularly the Jews.
And this occafioned fo ftrong a prejudice againft them,
that the Pagans condemned them without inquiring
into their doctrine, or permitting them to defend them¬
felves. Befides, their worftiipping Jefus Chrift, as
God, was contrary to one of the moft ancient laws of
the Roman empire, which exprefsly forbade the ac¬
knowledging of any God which had not been approv¬
ed by the fenate.
But notwithftanding the violent oppofition made to
the eftabhfhment of the Chriftian religion, it gained
ground daily, and very foon made a furprifing pro-
grefs in the Roman empire. In the third century,
there were Chriftians in the camp, in the fenate, in the
palace : in ffiort everywhere, but in the temples and
the theatres : they filled the towns, the country, the
iflands. Men and women of all ages and conditions,
and even thofe of the firft dignities, embraced the faith *,
infomuch that the Pagans complained that the reve¬
nues of their temples w'ere ruined. They wTere in fuch
great numbers in the empire, that (as Tertullian ex-
prvffes it) were they to have retired into another coun¬
try, they would have left the Romans only a frightful
folitude.
The primitive Chriftians wrere not only remarkable
for the praflice of every virtue ; they wrere alfo very
eminently diftinguiftred by the many miraculous gifts
and graces bellowed by God upon them. “ Some
of the Chriftians (fays Irenseus) drive out dev'ds, not
in appearance only, but fo as that they never return j
whence it often happens, that thole who are difpof- Chriftianf.
felled of evil fpirits embrace the faith and are received v '"1"*
into the church. Others know what is to come, fee
vifions, and deliver oracles as prophets. Others heal
the fick by laying their hands on them, and rdlore
them to perfeff health : and we find fome who even
raife the dead.—It is impoffible to reckon up the gifts
and graces which the church has received from God—•
what they have freely received they as freely beftow.
They obtain thefe gifts by prayer alone, and invoca¬
tion of the name of Jefus Chrift, without any mixture
of enchantment or luperfiition.”
We ftiall here lubjoin the remarkable ftory, attefted
by Pagan authors themfelves, concerning the Chrijlian
Legion in the army of the emperor Marcus Aurelius.
That prince having led his forces againft the Quadi,
a people on the other fide of the Danube, was fur-
rounded and hemmed in by the enemy in a difadvan-
tageous place, and where they could find no water.
The Romans were greatly embarraffed, and, being
prefled by the enemy, were obliged to continue un¬
der arms, expofed to the violent heat of the fun, and
almoft dead with thirft ; when, on a fudden, the clouds
gathered, and the rain fell in great abundance. The
foldiers received the water in their bucklers and hel¬
mets, and fatisfied both their own thirft and that of
their horfes. The enemy, prefently after, attacked
them ; and fo great w^as the advantage they had over
them, that the Romans muft have been overthrown,
had not heaven again interpofed by a violent ftorm of
hail, mixed with lightning, which fell on the enemy,
and obliged them to retreat. It was found after¬
wards, that one of the legions, which confifted of
Chriftians, had by their prayers, which they offered
up on their knees before the battle, obtained this fa¬
vour from heaven : and from this event that legion
wTas furnamed The ‘Thundering Legion. See, however,
the criticilm of Mr Moyle on this ftory in his Works,
vol. ii. p. 81.—390. See alfo MoJljeinT’s Church Hi-
Jlory, vol. i. p. 124.
Such w^ere the primitive Chriftians, whofe religion
has by degrees fpread itfelf over all parts of the world,
though not with equal purity in all. And though, by
the providence of God, Mahometans and Idolaters
have been fuffered to poffels themfelves of thofe places
in Greece, Afia, and Africa, where the Chriftian re¬
ligion formerly moft fiourilhed $ yet there are ftill luch
remains of the Chriftian religion among them as to
give them opportunity fufficient to be converted.
For, in the dominions of the Turk in Europe, the
Chriftians make two third parts at leaft of the inha¬
bitants j and in Conftantinople itfelf there are above
twenty Chriftian churches, and above thirty in Thef-
falonica. Philadelphia, now called Ala Jhahir, has no
fewrer than twelve Chriftian churches. I he whole
iftand of Chio is governed by Chriftians ; and fome
iflands of the Archipelago are inhabited by Chrifiiars
only. In Africa, befides the Chriftians living in E-
gvpt, and in the kingdom of Congo and Angola, the
iflands upon the weftern coafts are inhabited by Chri¬
ftians ; and the vaft kingdom of Ahvffinia, fuppofed
to be as big as Germany, France, Spain, and Italy,
put together, is poffeffed by Chriftians. In Afia, moft:
part of the empire of Rnffia. the countries of Circaffia
and Mingrelia, Georgia, and Mount Libanus, are in¬
habited
C H R [ :
.Chr:a^ns habited only by Chriftians. In America, it is notori-
|] ous that the Chriftians are very numerous, and fpread
Chrithna. parts 0f t{iat yjjfl continent.
U v Christians of St John, a i'e£l of Chriftians very nu¬
merous in Balfara and the neighbouring to wns: they
formerly inhabited along the river Jordan, where St
John baptized, and it was from thence they had their
name. They hold an anniverfary feaft of five days ;
during which they all go to the bifhop, who baptizes
them with the baptifm of St John. Their baptifm is
alfo performed in rivers, and that only on Sundays :
they have no notion of the third perfon in the Trinity •,
nor have they any canonical book, but abundance full
of charms, &c. Their bifhoprics defcend by inheri¬
tance, as our e dates do, though they have the ceremo¬
ny of an election.
Christians of St Thomas, a fort of Ghriflians in a
peninfula of India on this fide of the gulf: they in¬
habit chiefly at Cranganor, and the neighbouring
country: thefe admit of no images*, and receive only
the crofs, to which they pay a great veneration : they
affirm, that the fouls of the faints do not fee God till
after the day of judgment: they acknowledge but three
facraments, viz. baptifm, orders, and the eucharift j
they make no ufe of holy oils in the adminiftration of
baptifm ; but, after the ceremony, anoint the infant
with an unction compofed of oil and walnuts, without
any benediction. In the euchariit, they confecrate
with little cakes made of oil and fait, and inftead of
wine make ufe of water in which raifins have been in-
fufed.
CHRISTIANA, a town of Norway, in the pro¬
vince of Aggerhuys, fituated on a bay of the fea. E.
Long. 10. 20. N. Lat. 59. 30.
CHRISTIANOPLE, a port-town of Sw*eden, fi¬
tuated on the Baltic fea, in the territory of Bleckingen,
and province of South Gothland. E. Long. 15. 47.
N. Lat. 570.
CHRISTIANSTADT, a ftrong fortified town of
Srveden ; fituated in the territory of Bleckingen and
province of South Gothland. It was built in 16:4 by
Chriftian IV. k.ng of Denmark, when this province
belonged to the Danes; and finally ceded to the Sw'edes
by the peace of Rofkild in 1658. The town is fmall
but neatly built, and is efteemed the ftrongeft fortrefs
in Sweden. The houfes are all of brick, and moftly
iluccoed white. It (lands in a marftiy plain clofe to
the river Helge-a, which flows into the Baltic at A-
hus, about the diftance of 20 miles, and is navigable
only for fmall craft of feven tons burden. Englifli vef-
fels annually refort to this port for alum, pitch, and
tar. The inhabitants have manufadlures of cloth and
filken (luffs, and carry on a fmall degree of commerce.
E. Long. 14. 40. N. Lat. 56. 30.
CHRISTINA, daughter of Guflavus Adolphus
king of Sweden, was born in 1626 ; and fucceeded to
the crown in 1633, when only feven years of age.
This princefs dilcovered even in her infancy, what (he
afterwards exprefled in her memoirs, an invincible an¬
tipathy for the employments and converfation of wo¬
men ; and (he had the natural awkwardnefs of a man
with refpedl to all the little works which generally fall
to their (hare. She was, on the contrary, fond of vio¬
lent exercifes, and fuch amufements as confift in feats
of firengthand a&ivity. She had alfo both ability and
i ] C H R
tafte for abftra&ed ^peculations; and amufed herfelf Chriftina.
with language and the fciences, particularly that of v'
legiflation and government. She derived her know¬
ledge of ancient hiilory from its fource ; and Polybius
and Thucydides were her favourite authors. As (lie
was the fovereign of a powerful kingdom, it is not
ftrange that almoft all the princes in Europe afpired
to her bed. Among others, were the prince of Den¬
mark, the eledfor Palatine, the eledfor of Branden¬
burg, the king of Spain, the king of the Romans, Don
John of Auftiia, Sigifmund of Rockocci, count and
general of Caffovia ; Staniflaus king of Poland ; John
Caflimir his brother ; and Charles Guflavus duke of
Deux Ponts, of the Bavarian Palatinate family, fon of
her father the great Guflavus’s filler, and confequently
her fir ft coufin. To this nobleman, as well as to all
his competitors, (he conftantly refufed her hand ; but
(he caufed him to be appointed her fucceffbr by the
dates. Political interefts, differences of religion, and
contrariety of manner^, furnifhed Chriftina with pre¬
tences for rejedting all her fuitors ; but her true mo¬
tives were the love of independence, and a ftrong aver-
fion (he had conceived, even in her infancy, from the
marriage yoke. “ Do not force me to marry (faid
(he to the (lutes) ; for if I (liould have a fon, it is not
more probable that he (hould be an Auguftus than a
Nero.”
An accident happened in the beginning of her reign,
which gave her a remarkable opportunity of difplaying
the ftrength and equanimity of her mind. As (he was
at the chapel of the caftle of Stockholm, aflifting at
divine fervice with the principal lords of her court, a
poor wmetch, w-ho was difordered in his mind, came
to the place wfith a defign to affaffinate her. This man,
who was preceptor of the college, and in the full vi¬
gour of his age, chofe, for the execution of his de-
lign, the moment in which the affembly was perform¬
ing what in the Swedifh church is called an aSi of re~
colle&ion ; a filent and feparate adl of devotion, per¬
formed by each individual kneeling and hiding the face
with the hand. Taking this opportunity, he rufhed
through the crowd, and mounted a balluftrade within
which the queen was upon her knees. The Baron
Braki, chief juflice of Sweden, was alarmed, and cried
out ; and the guards croffed their partifans, to prevent
his coming further : but he ftruck them furioufly on
one fide ; leaped over the barrier ; and, being then
clofe to the queen, made a blow at her with a knife
wffiich he had concealed without a (heath in his fleeve.
The queen avoided the blow, and puftied the captain
of her guards, who inftantly threw himfelf upon the
affaflln, and feized him by the hair. All this happen¬
ed in lefs than a moment of time. The man was
known to be mad, and therefore nobody fuppofed he
had any accomplices : they therefore contented them-
felves with locking him up ; and the queen returned
to her devotion without the lead emotion that could be
perceived by the people, who were much more fright¬
ened than herfelf.
One of the great affairs that employed Chriftina
while die was upon the throne, was the peace of
Weftphalia, in which many clalhing interefts w^ere to
be reconciled, and many claims to be afcertained. It
was concluded in the month of Oflober 1648. The
fuccefs of the Swedifh arms rendered Chnftina the ar-
» bitrefs
C H R [72
Chriftina. bitrefs of this treaty ; at leaf!: as to the affairs of Swe-
'■ “v den, to which this peace confirmed the poffeiTion of
many important countries. No public event of im¬
portance took place during the reft of Chriftina’s
reign } for there were neither wars abroad, nor trou¬
bles at home. This quiet might be the effedf of
chance } but it might alfo be the effedl of a good ad-
mirnftration, and the great reputation of the queen ;
and the love her people had for her ought to lead us
to this determination. Her reign was that of learn¬
ing and genius. She drew about her, wherever fhe
was, all the diftinguilhed charadfers of her time : Gro-
tius, Pafcbal, Bochart, Defcartes, Gaffendi, Saumaife,
Naude, Voflius, Heinfius, Meibom, Scudery, Me¬
nage, Lucas, Holftentius, Lambecius, Bayle, Madam
Dacier, Filicaia, and many others. The arts never
fail to immortalize the prince who proteffs them ; and
almoft all thefe illuftrious perfons have celebrated Chri¬
ftina, either in poems, letters, or literary productions
of fome other kind, the greater part of which are now
forgotten. They form, howxver, a general cry of
praife, and a mafs of teftimonials which may be confi-
dered as a folid bafis of reputation. Chriftina, how¬
ever, may be juftly reproached with want of tafte, in
not properly alfigning the rank of all thefe perfons,
vvhofe merits, though acknowledged, were, yet une¬
qual j particularly for not having been fufficiently ien-
iible of the fuperiority of Defcartes, whom (he difguft-
ed, and at laft wholly neglefted. The rapid fortune
which the adventurer Michon, known by the name of
Bourdelot^ acquired by her countenance and liberality,
was alfo a great fcandal to literature. He had no pre-
tenfions to learning •, and though fprightly was yet in¬
decent. He was brought to court by the learned Sau¬
maife j and, for a time, drove literary merit out of it,
making learning the objeft of his ridicule, and exact¬
ing from Chriftina an exorbitant tribute to the weak-
nefs and inconftancy of her fex •, for even Chriftina,
with refpeCt to this man, fhowed herfelf to be weak
and inconftant. At laft (lie was compelled, by the
public indignation, to baniftr this unworthy minion :
and he was no fooner gone, than her regard for him
was at an end. She was afhamed of the favour (lie had
Ihown him } and, in a (hort time, thought of him.with
hatred or contempt. This Bourdelot, during his af-
cendency over the queen, had fupplanted Count Mag¬
nus de la Gardie, fon of the conftable of Sweden, who
was a relation, a favourite, and perhaps the lover of
Chriftina. M. de Mottville, who had feen him ambaf-
fador in France, fays, in his memoirs, that he fpoke
of his queen in terms fo paflionate and refpeftful, that
every one concluded his attachment to her to be more
ardent and tender, than a mere fenfe of duty can
produce. This nobleman fell into difgrace becaufe he
(howed an inclination to govern •, while M. Bourdelot
feemed to aim at nothing more than to amufe j and
concealed, under the unfufpeCted character of a droll,
±he real afcendency which he exercifed over the queen’s
mind.
About this time, an accident happened to Chriflina
which brought her into (fill greater danger fhan that
which has been related already. Having given or¬
ders for fome (hips of war to be built at the port of
Stockholm, (he went to fee them when they were
■finithed $ and as fhe was going on board of them, crois
] G II R
a narrow plank, with Admiral Fleming, his foot flip- ChrftUna.
ping, he fell, and drew the queen with him into the ‘ """
fea, which in that place was near 90 feet deep. An¬
thony Steinberg, the queen’s firft equerry, inftantly
threw himfelf into the water, laid hold of her robe,
and, with fuch afliftance as was given him, got the
queen alhore : during this accident, her recolleftion
was fuch, that the moment her lips were above water,
(he cried out, “ Take care of the admiral.” When
(lie was got out of the water, (he difeovered no emo¬
tion either by her gefture or countenance 5 and (lie
dined the fame day in public, where fire gave a humo¬
rous account of her adventure.
But though at firft (he rvas fond of the power and
fplendor of royalty, yet (he began at length to feel that
it ^mbarraffed her ; and the fame love of indepen¬
dence and liberty which had determined her againft
marriage, at laft made her weary of the crown. As,
after her firft difguft, it grew more and more irkfome
to her, (lie refolved to abdicate ; and, in 1652, com¬
municated her refolution to the fenate. The fenate
zealoufly remonftrated againft it", and was joined by
the people 5 and even by Charles Guftavus himfelf,
who was to fucceed her : (lie yielded to their impor¬
tunities, and continued to facrifice her own pleafure to
the will of the public till the year 1654, and then (lie
carried her defign into execution, it appears by one
of her letters to M. Canut, in whom fhe put great con¬
fidence, that (he had meditated this projeft for more
than eight years •, and that fhe had communicated it
to him five years before it took place.
The ceremony of her abdication was a mournful fo-
lemnity, a mixture of pomp and fadnefs, in which
fcarce any eyes but her own were dry. She conti¬
nued firm and compofed through the whole j and, as
foon as it was over, prepared to remove into a coun¬
try more favourable to fcience than Sweden was.
Concerning the merit of this a&ion, the world has al¬
ways been divided in opinion j it has been condemned
alike both by the ignorant and the learned, the trifter
and the fage. It was admired, however, by the
great Conde : ” How great was the magnanimity of
this princels ffaid he), who could fo eafily give
up that for which the reft of mankind are continually
deftroying each other, and which fo many through¬
out their whole lives purfue without attaining !” It
appears, by the works of St Evremond, that the abdi¬
cation of Chriftina was at that time the univerfal to¬
pic of fpeculation and debate in France. Chriftina,
befides abdicating her crown, abjured her religion :
but this aft was univerfally approved by one party
and cenfured by another ; the Papifts triumphed, and
the Proteftants were offended. No prince, after a
long imprifonment, ever fhowed fo much, joy upon
being reftored to his kingdom, as Chriftina did in
quitting hers. When (he came to a little biook, which
feparates Sw’eden from Denmark, (lie got out of her
carriage ; and leaping on the other fide, cried out in
a tranfport of joy, “ At laft I am free, and out of
Sweden, whither, I hope, I (hall never return.”
She difmiffed her women, and laid by the habit of
her fex : “ I would become a man {faid (he) ; yet I
do not love men becaufe they are men, but becaufe
they are not women.” She made her abjuration at
Bruffels; where fhe faw the great Conde, who, after
his
C H R [ 73 ] c H R
Chriftina. h\s defe&ion, made that city his afylum. “ Coufin
—v——' (faid ihe), who would have thought, ten years ago,
that we fliould have met at this diftance from our
countries ?”
The inconftancy of Chriftina’s temper appeared in
her going continually from place to place : from Bruf-
fels (lie went to Rome $ from Rome to France, and
from France fhe returned to Rome again 5 after this
flie went to SwTeden, where (lie was not very tvell re¬
ceived 5 from Sweden {he went to Hamburgh, w’here
flie continued a year, and then went again to Rome j
from Rome Ihe returned to Hamburgh ; and again
to Sweden, where (he was ftill worfe received than
before ; upon which (lie went back to Hamburgh,
and from Hamburgh again to Rome. She intended
another journey to Sweden ; but it did not take place,
any more than an expedition to England, where
Cromivell did not feem well difpofed to receive her j
and after many wanderings, and many purpofes
of wandering ftill more, (he at laft died at Rome in
1689.
It muft be acknowledged, that her journeys to
Sweden had a motive of neceftity $ for her appoint¬
ments were very ill paid, though the dates often con¬
firmed them after her abdication : but to other places
(lie was Jed merely by a roving difpofition $ and,
what is more to her difcredit, (lie always dirturbed
the quiet of every place (he came into, by exa&ing
greater deference to her rank as queen than (he had
a right to expeft, by her total non-conformity to the
cuftoms of the place, and by continually exciting and
fomenting intrigues of (late. She was indeed always
too bufy, even when (he was upon the throne j for
there was no event in Europe in which (lie was not
ambitious of adling a principal part. During the
troubles in France by the fa&ion called the Fronde,
(he wrote with great eagernefs to all the interefted
parties, officioufiy offering her mediation to recon¬
cile their interefts, and calm their paflions, the fecret
fprings of which it was impoffible (he (hould know'.
This was firft thought a dangerous, and afterwards a
ridiculous behaviour. During her refidence in France
(lie gave univerfal difguft, not only by violating all the
cuftoms of the country, but by praftifing others di-
re£Vly oppofite. She treated the ladies of the court
with the greateft rudenefs and contempt : when they
came to embrace her, (he, being in man’s habit, cried
out, “ What a ftrange eagernefs have thefe wmmen to
kifs me ! is it becaufe I look like a man ?”
But though fine ridiculed the manners of the French
court, (he was very felicitous to enter into its intrigues.
Louis XIV. then very young, was enamoured of Ma-
demoifelle de Mancini, niece to Cardinal Mazarine j
Chriftina flattered their paflion, and offered her fer-
vice. “ I would fain be your confidant (faid (he); if
you love, you muft marry.”
The murder of Monaldechi is, to this hour, an in-
fcrutable myftery. It is, however, of a piece with the
expreftions conftantly ufed by Chriftina in her letters,
with refpedl to thole with whom (lie w’as offended ;
for (lie fcarce ever fignified her difpleafure without
threatening the life of the offender. “ If you fail in
your duty, (faid (lie to her fecretary, whom (he fent to
Stockholm after her abdication), not all the power of
the king of Sweden (hall fave your life, though you
Vol. VI. Part I.
(hould take (belter in his arms.” A mufician having
quitted her fervice for that of the duke of Savoy, (lie
wras (b tranfported with rage as to difgrace herfelf by
thefe words, in a letter written with her own hand :
“ He lives only for me : and if he does not iing for
me, he (hall not fing long for any body.”
Bayle wras alfo threatened for having faid that the
letter which Chriftina wuote, upon the revocation of
the edidl of Nantes, was “ a remain of Proteftantifm;”
but he made his peace by apologies and fubmiftion.
See the article Bavlc.
Upon the whole, (lie appears to have been an un¬
common mixture of faults and great qualities; w’hich,
however it might excite fear and relpedl, was by no
means amiable. She had wit, tafte, parts and learn¬
ing : (he wras indefatigable upon the throne ; great in
private life ; firm in misfortunes ; impatient of contra-
didlion ; and, except in her love of letters, inconftant
in her inclinations. The mod remarkable inftance of
this ficklenefs is, That after (lie had abdicated the
crowm of Sweden, (he intrigued for that of Poland.
She was in every adfion and purfuit, violent and ar¬
dent in the higheft degree; impetuous in her defires,
dreadful in her refentment, and fickle in her con-
dud.
She fays of herfelf, that “ (lie was miftruftful, am¬
bitious, paflionate, haughty, impatient, contemptuous,
fatirical, incredulous, undevout, of an ardent and vio¬
lent temper, and extremely amorous;” a difpofition,
however, to which, if (he may be believed, her pride
and her virtue were always fuperior. In general, her
failings were thofe of her fex, and her virtues the vir¬
tues of ours.
Santa Christina, one of the Marquesas IJlands.
CHRISTMAS day, a feftival of the Chriftian
church; obferved on the 25th of December, in me¬
mory of the nativity or birth of Jefus Chrift. As to
the antiquity of this feftival, the firft footfteps we find
of it are in the fecond century, about the time of the
emperor Commodus. The decretal epiftles indeed
carry it up a little higher ; and fay that Telefphorus,
who lived in the reign of Antoninus Pius, ordered di¬
vine fervice to be celebrated, and an angelical hymn to
be fung, the night before the nativity of our Saviour.
However, that it was kept before the times of Con-
ftantine, we have a melancholy proof: for whilft the
perfecution raged under Dioclefian, who then kept
his court at Nicomedia, that prince, among other afts
of cruelty, finding multitudes of Chriftians affembled
together to celebrate Chrift’s nativity, commanded the
church doors where they were met to be (hut, and fire
to be put to it, which, in a (hort time, reduced them
and the church to afhes.
CHRISTOPHER’S, Sr, one of the Caribbee iflands,
in America, lying to the north-w'eft of Nevis, and
about 60 miles weft of Antigua. It was formerly in¬
habited by the French and Englifh ; but, in 1713, it
w'as ceded entirely to the latter. In 17ft2, it wras
taken by the French, but reftored to Britain at the
peace. It is about 20 miles in breadth, and feven in
length; and has high mountains in the middle, whence
rivulets run down. Between the mountains are dread¬
ful rocks, horrid precipices, and thick wmods; and
in the fouth weft part of the ifland, hot fulphureous
fprings at the foot of them. The air is good ; the foil
K light,
Chriftina
I!
Chrifto-
C H R [ 74 ] C H R
Cbroaflra- light, fandy, and fruitful j but the ifland is fubjedl to
ces’ . hurricanes. The produce is chiefly fugar, cotton, gin-
v' gei-5 indigo, and the tropical fruits. W. Long. 62. 32.
N. Lat. 17. 30.
CHROASTACES, in Natural Hiflory, a genus of
pellucid gems, comprehending all thoie of variable
colours, as viewed in different lights; of which kinds
are the opal and the q/lcria or oculus cati. See Opal
and Asteria.
CHROMATIC, a kind of mufic which proceeds
by feveral femitones in fucceflion. The word is de¬
rived from the Greek which fignifies colour.
For this denomination fevcral caufes are afligned, of
which none appear certain, and all equally unfatisfac-
tory. Inllead, therefore, of fixing upon any, tve {hall
offer a conjeflure of our own j which, however, we
do not impofe upon the reader as more wmrthy of his
attention than any of the former. Xeuua. may perhaps
not only fignify a colour, but that lhade of a colour
by which it melts into another, or what the French
call nuance. If this interpretation be admitted, it will
be highly applicable to femitones; which being the
Imalleft interval allowed in the diatonic fcale, will moft
eafily run one into another. To find the reafons af-
figned by the ancients for this denomination, and their
various divifions of the chromatic fpecies, the reader
may have recourfe to the fame article in Rouffeau’s
Mufical Dictionary. At prefent, that fpecies con-
fifts in giving fuch a procedure to the fundamental bafs,
that the parts in the harmony, or at leaf! fome of them,
may proceed by femitones, as wxll in riling as de-
fcending •, which is moft frequently found in the mi¬
nor mode, from the alterations to which the fixth and
feventh note are fubjeCled, by the nature of the mode
itfelf.
The fucceffive femitones ufed in the chromatic fpe¬
cies are rarely of the fame kind •, but alternatively ma¬
jor and minor, that is to fay, chromatic and diatonic:
for the interval of a minor tone contains a minor or
chromatic femitone, and another which is major or dia¬
tonic ; a meafure which temperament renders common
to all tones ; fo that we cannot proceed by two minor
femitones which are conjunctive in fucceffion, without
entering into the enharmonic fpecies ; but two major Chromatic,
femitones twice follow each other in the chromatic or- 1
der of the fcale.
The moft certain procedure of the fundamental bafs
to generate the chromatic elements in afcent, is alter¬
nately to defcend by thirds, and rife by fourths, whilft:
all the chords carry the third major. It the funda¬
mental bafs proceeds from dominant to dominant by
perfeCl cadences avoided, it produces the chromatic in
defcending. To produce both at once, you interw’eave
the perfeCt and broken cadences, but at the fame time
avoid them.
As at every note in the chromatic fpecies one muft:
change the tone, that fucceflion ought to be regulated
and limited for fear of deviation. For this purpofe, it
will be proper to recoiled, that the fpace moft fuitable
to chromatic movements, is between the extremes of the
dominant and the tonic in afcending, and between the
tonic and the dominant in defcending. In the major
mode, one may alfo chromatically deicend from the do¬
minant upon the fecond note. This tranfition is very
common in Italy ; and, notwithftanding its beauty, be¬
gins to be a little too common amongft us.
The chromatic fpecies is admirably fitted to exprefs
grief and affliction j thefe founds boldly ftruck in af¬
cending tear the foul. Their power is no lefs magi¬
cal in defcending ; it is then that the ear feems to be
pierced with real groans. Attended with its proper
harmony, this fpecies appears proper to exprefs every
thing : but its completion, by concealing the melody,
facrifices a part of its expreffion ; and for this dif-
advantage, arifing from the fulnefs of the harmony,
it can only be compenfated by the nature and ge¬
nius of the movement. We may add, that in propor¬
tion to the energy of this fpecies, the compofer ought
to ufe it with greater caution and parlimony *, like
thofe delicate viands, which, when profulely admini-
ftered, immediately furfeit us with their abundance 5
as much as they delight us when enjoyed with temper¬
ance, fo much do they difguft when devoured wflth pro¬
digality.
Chromatic, Enharmonic. See Enharmonic.
CHROMATICS;
r~PHAT part of optics which explains the feveral
'*■ properties of the colours of light, and of natu-
t ral bodies.
Different Before the time of Sir Ifaac Newton, we find no
hypothefes hypothefis concerning colours of any confequence.
concerning rp}ie opinions of the old philofophers, however, we
colours. br;efly mention, in order to gratify the curiofity
of our readers. The Pythagoreans called colour the
fuperficies of body. Plato faid that it was a flame if-
fuing from them. According to Zeno, it is the firft
configuration of matter j and Ariftotle faid, it was that
which moved bodies actually tranfparent. Des Cartes
afferted, that colour is a modification of light j but he
imagined, that the difference of colour proceeds from
the prevalence of the direft or rotatory motion of the
particles of light. Father Grimaldi, Dechales, and
many others, thought the difference of colour depend¬
ed upon the quick or flow vibrations of a certain elaf-
tic medium filling the whole univerfe. Rohault ima¬
gined that the different colours were made by the
rays of light entering the eye at different angles with
refpedl to the optic axis ; and from the phenomena of
the rainbow, he pretended to calculate the precife
quantity of the angle that conftituted each particular
colour. Laftly, Dr Hooke, the rival of Newton, ima¬
gined that colour is caufed by the fenfation of the ob¬
lique or uneven pulfe of light *, and this being capable
of no more than two varieties, he concluded there could
be no more than two primary colours. 2
In the year 1666, Sir Ifaac Newton began to invef-This fub-
tigate this fubjedl ; and finding the coloured image
the fun, formed by a glafs prifm, to be of an oblong, |ir IfaJ
and Newton.
Colours
appearing
between
two glafs
plates.
C II R O M
and not of a circular form, as, according to the laws
of refraction, it ought to be, he began to conjeCture
that light is not homugeneal; but that it confilts of rays,
fome of which are much more refrangible than others.
See this difcovery fully explained and afcertained un¬
der the article Optics.
This method of accounting for the different colours
of bodies, from their reflecting this or that kind of
rays molt copioufly, is fo eafy and natural, that Sir
Ifaac’s fyftem quickly overcame all objections, and to
this day continues to be almoft univerfally believed.
It is now acknowledged, that the light of the fun,
which to us feems perfectly homogeneal and wfliite, is
compofed of no fewer than feven different colours, viz.
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, and violet
or indigo. A body which appears of a red colour
hath the property of reflecting the red rays more power¬
fully than any of the others *, and fo of the orange,
yellow, green, &c. A body which is of a black co¬
lour, inftead of reflecting, abforbs all or the greateft
part of the rays that fall upon it ; and, on the contra¬
ry, a body which appears white refleCts the greateft
part of the rays indifcriminately, -without feparating
the one from the other.
The foundation of a rational theory of colours be¬
ing thus laid, it next became natural to inquire, by
what peculiar mechanifm in the ftru&ure of each par¬
ticular body it was fitted to refleCl one kind of rays
more than another ? This Sir Ifaac Newton attributes
to the denftty of thefe bodies. Dr Hooke had remark¬
ed, that thin tranfparent fubftances, particularly water
and foap blown into bubbles, exhibited various colours
according to their thinnefs •, though, when they have
a confiderable degree of thicknefs, they appear colour-
lefs *, and Sir Ifaac himfelf had obferved that as he
was comprefling two prifms hard together, in order
to make their fides (which happened to be a little con¬
vex) to touch one another, in the place of contaft they
were both perfectly tranfparent, as if they had been
but one continued piece of glafs. Round the point of
contaCt, where the glaffes were a little feparated from
each other, rings of different colours appeared. To
obferve more nicely the order of the colours produced
in this manner, he took twTo objeCt-glaffes ; one of
them a plano-convex one belonging to a 14 feet re-
fraCting telefcope, and the other a large double con
vex one for a telefcope of about 50 feet j and laying
the former of them upon the latter, with its plain fide
downwards, he prefled them flowly together ; by
which means the colours very foon emerged, and ap¬
peared diftinCi to a confiderable diftance. Next to
the pellucid central fpot, made by the contaCl of the
glaffes, fucceeded blue, white, yellow, and red. The
blue was very little in quantity, nor could he difcern
any violet in it $ but the yellow and red were very co¬
pious, extending about as far as the white, and four
or five times as far as the blue. The next circuit im¬
mediately furrounding thefe, confifted of violet, blue,
green, yellow, and red : all thefe were copious and
vivid, except the green, which was very little in quan¬
tity, and feemed more faint and dilute than the other
colours. Of the other four the violet was the leaft in
extent; and the blue lefs than the yellow or red. The
third circle of colours was purple, blue, green, yellow,
and red. In this the purple feemed more reddifh than
A T 1 c s. 75
the violet in the former circuit, and the green was
more confpicuous 5 being as brifk and copious as any
of the other colours, except the yellow *, but the red
began to be a little faded, inclining much to purple.
The fourth circle confifted of green and red •, and of
thefe the green was very copious and lively, inclining
on the one fide to blue, and on the other to yellow ;
but in this fourth circle there was neither violet, blue,
nor yellow, and the red was very imperfeft and dirty.
All the fucceeding colours grew more and more imper-
fe£t and dilute, till after three or four revolutions they
ended in perfe6t whitenefs. ^
As the colours were thus found to vary according Suppofed
to the different diftances of the glafs plates from each to arife
other-, our author thought that they proceeded fromfrom <len*
the different thicknefs of the plate of air intercepted 1
between the glaffes ; this plate of air being, by the
mere circumftance of thinnefs or thicknefs, dilpofed
to refleft or tranfmit this or that particular colour.
From this he concluded, as already obferved, that the
colours of all natural bodies depended on their den-
fity, or the bignefs of their component particles. He
alfo conftrudfted a table, wherein the thicknefs of a
plate neceffary to refleift any particular colour was *
expreffed in parts of an inch divided into 1,000,000
parts.
Sir Ifaac Newton, purfuing his difcoveries concern-Coloifrs
ing the colours of thin fubftances, found that the fame refledtion.
were alfo produced by plates of a confiderable thick¬
nefs. There is no glafs or fpeculum, he obferves,
how well polifhed foever, but, befides the light which
it refrafts or reflefts regularly, fcatters every w-ay ir¬
regularly a faint light; by means of which the po-
lilhed furface, wdien illuminated in a dark room by a
beam of the fun’s light, may eafily be feen in all po-
fitions of the eye. It was with this fcattered light that
the colours in the following experiments were pro¬
duced.
The fun fhining into his darkened chamber through
a hole in the (butter one inch wide, he let the beam
of light fall perpendicularly upon a glafs fpeculum con¬
cave on one fide and convex on the other, ground to a
fphere of five feet eleven inches radius, and quickfilver-
ed over on the convex fide. Then, holding a quire of
white paper at the centre of the fphere to which the
fpeculums were ground, in fuch a manner as that the
beam 'of light might pafs through a little hole made in
the middle of the paper, to the fpeculum, and thence
be refra&ed back to the fame hole, he obferved on the
paper four or five concentric rings of colours, like rain¬
bows furrounding the hole, very much like thofe which
appeared in the thin plates above-mentioned, but lar¬
ger and fainter. Thefe rings, as they grew larger and
larger, became more dilute, fo that the fifth was
hardly vifible and yet fometimes, when the fun (hone
very clear, there appeared faint traces of a fixth and
feventh. 6
We have already taken notice, that the thin plates Colours by
made ufe of in the former experiments refle&ed fome^fra£hon
kinds of rays in particular parts, and tranfmittedtjon enu_
others in the fame parts. Hence the coloured rings merated.
appeared varioufly difpofed, according as they were
viewed by tranfmitted or reflefted light j that is, ac¬
cording as the plates were held up between the light
and the eye, or not. For the better underftanding of
K 2 which
76
CHROMATICS.
which we fubjoin the following table, wherein on one
fide are mentioned the colours appearing on the plates
by reflefted light, and on the other thole which were
oppofite to them, and which became vifible when the
glaffes were held up between the eye and the window.
We have already obferved, that the centre, when the
glafles were in full contaft, was perfeftly tranfparent.
This fpot, therefore, when viewed by reflefted light,
appeared black, becaufe it tranfmitted all the rays j
and for the fame reafon it appeared white when view¬
ed by tranfmitted light.
Colours by Reflected
Light.
Black
Blue
White
Y ellovv
Red
Violet
Blue
Green
Yellow
Red
Purple
Blue
Green
Yellow "I
Red J
Green
Red
Greenilh-blue
Red
The colours of the rings produced from refle&ion
by the thick plates, followed the order of thofe pro¬
duced by tranfmidion through the thin ones j and by
the analogy of their phenomena with thofe produced
from the thin plates, Sir Ifaac New'ton concluded that
they were produced in a fimilar manner. For he
found, that if the quickfilver was rubbed off from the
back of the fpeculum, the glafs alone would produce
the fame rings, but much more faint than before •, fo
that the phenomenon did not depend upon the quick¬
filver, except in as far as, by increafing the refleflion
at the back of the glafs, it increafed the light of the
coloured rings. He alfo found that a fpeculum of me¬
tal only, produced none of thefe rings j which made
him conclude, that they did not arife from one furface
onlv, but depended on the two furfaces of the plate of
glafs of which the fpeculum was made, and upon the
thicknefs of the glafs between them.
General From thefe experiments and obfervations, it will be
thecry of eafy to underftand the Newtonian theory of colours,
colours by Every fubftance in nature feems to be tranfparent,
Sir Ifaac provided it is made fufficiently thin. Gold, the moft
e,vton. jgjjfg fubftance we know, when reduced into thin
leaves, tranfmits a bluifti-green light through it. If,
therefore, we fuppofe any body, gold for inftance, to
be divided into a vaft number of plates, fo thin as to
be almoft perfe&ly tranfparent, it is evident that all
or greateft part of the rays will pafs through the up¬
per plates, and when they lofe their force will be re-
fledled from the under ones. They will then have
the fame number of plates to pafs through which they
had penetrated before 5 and thus, according to the
Colours by Tranfmitted
Light.
White
Yellowifli-red
Black
Violet
Blue
White
Yellow
Red
Violet
Blue
Green
Yellow
Red
Bluifti-green
Red
Bluifli-green
Red
number of thofe plates through which they are obli¬
ged to pafs, the objedt appears of this or that colour,
juft as the rings of colours appeared different in the
experiment of the two plates, according to their di-
ftance from one another, or the thicknefs of the plate
of air between them. g
This theory is adopted by Edward Huffey Delaval, Mr Dela-
in this Experimental Inquiry into the caufe of the val’s expe-
changes of colours in opaque and coloured bodies. rini^‘1^ia
He endeavours to confirm it by a number of experiT-^
ments on the infufions of flowers of different colours;
but his ftrongeft arguments feem to be thofe derived
from the different tinges given to glafs by metallic
fubftances. Here he obferves, that each metal gives a
tinge according to its fpecific denfity : the more denfe
metals producing the lefs refrangible colours, and the
lighter ones thofe colours which are more eafily refran¬
gible. Gold, which is the denfeft of all metals, im¬
parts a red colour to glafs, whenever it can be divided
into particles fo minute, that it is capable of being
mixed with the materials of which glafs is made. It
feems indifferent by what means it is reduced to this
ftate, nor can it by any means be made to produce
another colour. If it is mixed in large maffes without
being minutely divided, it imparts no colour to the
glafs, but remains in its metallic form. Lead, the me¬
tal whole denfity is next in order to that of gold, af¬
fords a glafs of the colour of the hyacinth ; a gem
whofe diftinguilhing charafteriftic is, that it is red
with an admixture of yellow, the fame colour which
is ufually called orange. Glafs of lead is mentioned by
feveral authors as a compofition proper, without the
addition of any other ingredient, for imitating the hy¬
acinth. Silver, next in denfity to lead, can only be
made to communicate a yellow colour to glafs. If
the metal is calcined with fulphur, it readily commu¬
nicates this colour. Leaf-filver laid upon red-hot glafs,
likewife tinges it yellow. When we meet with au¬
thors who mention a blue or greenifh colour commu¬
nicated by filver, the caufe muft have been, that the
filver ufed in fuch proceffes was mixed with copper.
Mr Delaval affures us, from his own experience, that
filver purified by the teft retains fo much copper, that,
when melted feveral times with nitre and borax, it al¬
ways imparted a green colour at the firft and fecond
melting : though afterwards no fuch colour w as ob¬
tainable from it. The only colour produced by cop¬
per is green. It is indifferent in what manner the
copper is prepared in order to tinge the glafs, provided
it is expofed without any other ingredient to a fuffi-
cient degree of heat. If a quantity of falts are added
in the preparation, they will, by attenuating the mix¬
ture, make the glafs incline to blue, the colour next
in order : but this happens only when the fire is mo¬
derate *, for, in a greater degree of heat, the redun¬
dant falts, even thofe of the moft fixed nature, are ex¬
pelled. It is true, that copper is mentioned by feme
writers as an ingredient in red glafs and enamel: but
the red, which is the colour of the metal not diffolved
or mixed with the glafs, remains only wdiile the com¬
pofition is expofed to fuch a degree of heat as is too
fin all to melt and incorporate it •, for if it be fuffered
to remain in the furnace a few minutes after the cop¬
per is added, the mafs will turn out green inftead of
red. Iron, the metal next in denfity to copper, is apt
77
9
Sir Ifaac’s
theory de¬
fended by
Dr Prieft-
ley
10
His experi.
ments.
il
* Mr Can¬
ton’s expe
riments.
C H R O M
to be calcined, or reduced to a ruddy crocus, fimllar
to that ruft which it contrafts fpontaneoufly in the
air. In this ftate, it requires a confiderable degree of
heat to dilTolve and incorporate it with glals : till that
heat is applied, it retains its ruddy colour : by in-
creafrng the heat, it pafles through the intermediate
colours, till it arrives at its permanent one, which is
blue ; this being effefted in the greateft degree of heat
the glafs will bear, without lofing all colour whatever.
Iron vitrified per fe is converted into a blue glafs. In
fhort, it is indubitable, that iron is the only metal
which will, without any addition, impart to the glafs
a blue colour : for copper will not communicate that
colour without the addition of a confiderable quan¬
tity of falts, or fome other matter that attenuates it;
and the other metals cannot by any means be made to
produce it at all.
Thefe are the principal of Mr Delaval’s arguments
in favour of Sir Ifaac Newton’s theory of colours be¬
ing formed by denfity. Dr Prieftley too hath men¬
tioned fome which deferve attention. “ It was a
difcovery of Sir Ifaac Newton (fays he), that the co¬
lours of bodies depend upon the thicknefs of the fine
plates which compofe their furfaces. He hath fhown,
that a change of the thicknefs of thefe plates occafions
a change in the colour of the body ; rays of a diffe¬
rent colour being thereby difpofed to be tranfmitted
through it •, and confequently rays of a different co¬
lour refledled at the fame place, fo as to reprefent an
image of a different colour to the eye. A variation
in the denfity occafions a variation in the colour 5 but
ftill a medium of any denfity will exhibit all the co¬
lours, according to the thicknefs of it. Thefe obfer-
vations he confirmed by experiments on plates of air,
water, and glafs. He likewife mentions the colours
which arife on polifhed fleel by heating it, as likewife
on bell-metal, and fome other metalline fubftances,
when melted and poured on the ground, where they
may cool in the open air; and he afcribes them to
the fcorite or vitrified parts of the metal, which, he
fays, moft metals, when heated or melted, do continu¬
ally protrude and fend out to their furfaces, covering
them in the form of a thin glaffy fkin. This great
difcovery concerning the colours of bodies depending
on the thicknefs of the fine plates which compofe their
furfaces, of whatever denfity thefe plates may be, I
have been fo happy as to hit upon a method of illu-
flrating and confirming by means of eleftrical explo-
- fions. A number of thefe being received on the fur-
face of any piece of metal, change the colour of it to
a confiderable diftance from the fpot on which they
were difcharged ; fo that the whole circular fpace is
divided into a number of concentric rings, each of
which confifts of all the prifmatic colours, and per¬
haps as vivid as they can be produced in any method
whatever. Upon Ihowing thefe coloured rings to Mr
- Canton, I was agreeably furprifed to find, that he had
likewife produced all the prifmatic colours from all
the metals, but by a different operation. He ex¬
tended fine wires of all the different metals along the
furfaces of pieces of glafs, ivory, wood, &c. •, and
when the wire was exploded, he always found them
tinged with all the colours. They are not difpofed
in fo regular and beautiful a manner as in the rings I
A T I C S-
produced, but they equally demonffrated that none of
the metals thus exploded difcovers the leaft preference
to one colour more than to another. In what manner
thefe colours are formed it may not be eafy to conjec¬
ture. In Mr Canton’s method of producing them,
the metal, or the calcined and vitrified parts of it,
feem to be difperfed in all direftions from the plate
of explofion, in the form of fpheres of a very great
variety of fizes, tinged with all the variety of colours,
and fame of them fmaller than can be diftin<ffly feefi
by any magnifier. In my method of making thefe co¬
lours, they feem to be produced in a manner fimilar to
the produftion of colours on rteel and other metals by
heat *, i. e. the furface is affected without the parts of
it being removed from their places, certain plates
or laminae being formed of a thicknefs proper to exhi¬
bit the refpe&ive colours.
But, however well fupported this doftrine of the Newtonian
formation of colours by denfity may be, we find the theory im-
fame author (Dr Prieffley), whom we have juft now punned by
feen arguing for it in his hiftory of eleftricity, arguing ^rr 1 nc^*
againft it in his hiftory of vifion. “ Theie are (fays
he) no optical experiments with which Sir Ifaac New¬
ton feems to have taken more pains than thofe rela¬
ting to the rings of colours which appear in thin platesj
and in all his obfervations and inveftigations concern¬
ing them, he difcovers the greateft fagacity both as a
philofopher and mathematician; and yet in no obje6t
to which he gave his attention, does he feem to have
overlooked more important circumftances in the ap-
' pearances he obferved, or to have been more mifta-
ken with regard to their caules. The former will be
evident from the obfervations of thofe who fucceeded
him in thefe inquiries, particularly thofe of the Abbe ^
Mazeas. This gentleman, endeavouring to give a Curious
very high poliftr to the flat fide of an objeft-glafs, hap-experi-
pened to be rubbing it againft another piece of fiat ment hy
and fmooth glafs 5 when he was furprifed to find, that
after this fri&ion, they adhered very firmly together,
till at lart he could not move the one above the other.
But he was much more furprifed to obferve the fame
colours between thefe plane glaffes that Newton ob¬
ferved between the convex objeift-glafs of a telefcope
and another that is plane. Thde colours between
the plane glaffes, the Abbe obferves, were in propor¬
tion to their adhefion. The refemblance between
them and the colours produced by Newton, induced
him to give a very particular attention to them j and
his obfervations and experiments are as follows:
“ If the furfaces of the pieces of glafs are tranfpa-
rent, and well polifhed, fuch as are ufed for mirrors,
and the preffure be as equal as poflible on every part
of the two furfaces, a refiftance, he fays, will (oon be
perceived when one of them is made to Hide over the
other ; fometimes towards the middle, and fometimes
towards the edges; but wherever the refiftance is felt,
two or three very fine curve lines will be perceived,
fome of a pale red, and others of a faint green. Con¬
tinuing the friftion, thefe red and green lines increafe
in number at the place of contaft, the colours being
fometimes mixed without any order, and fometimes
difpofed in a regular manner. In the laft cafe, the
coloured lines are generally concentric circles, or el-
lipfes, or rather ovals, more or lefs elongated as the
furfaces
78
C H R O M
furfaces are more or lefs united. Thefe figures will
not fail to appear, if the glaffes are well wiped and
warmed before the fri&ion.
“ When the colours are formed, the glafles adhere
with confiderable force, and would always continue fo
without any change in the colours. In the centre of
all thofe ovals, the longer diameter of which generally
exceeds ten lines, there appears a fmall plate of the
fame figure, exaftly like a plate of gold interpofed
between the glaffes ; and in the centre of it there is
often a dark fpot, which abforbs all the rays of light
except the violet; for this colour appears very vivid
through a prifm.
“ If the glaffes are feparated fuddenly, either by
Aiding them horizontally over one another, or by the
aiffion of fire, as will be explained hereafter, the co¬
lours will appear immediately upon their being put to¬
gether again, without the lealt friftion.
“ Beginning by the Aighteft touch, and increafing
the preffure by infenfible degrees, there firft appears
an oval plate of a faint red, and in the midft of it a
fpot of light green, which enlarges by the preffure,
and becomes a green oval, with a red fpot in the
centre j and this, enlarging in its turn, difcovers a
green fpot in its centre. Thus the red and the green
fucceed one another in turns, affuming different (hades,
and having other colours mixed with them, which will
be diftinguiffied prefently.
“ The greateff difference between thefe colours ex¬
hibited between plane furfaces and thofe formed by
curve ones is, that in the former cafe preffure alone
will not produce them, except in the cafe above men¬
tioned. With whatever force he compreffed them, his
attempts to produce the colours were in vain without
previous friftion. But the reafon of this plainly was,
that with Aiding one of the glaffes over the other,
they could not be brought to approach near enough for
the purpofe.
“ Having made thefe obfervations with plates of
glafs whofe fides were nearly parallel, he got two
prifms with very fmall refradffing angles j and rubbing
them together, when they were fo joined as to form a
parallelepiped, the colours appeared with a furprifing
luftre at the places of contact, owing, he did not
doubt, to the feparation of the rays of light by the
prifm. In this cafe, differently coloured ovals appear¬
ed, but the plate of gold in them was much whiter,
and only appeared yellow about its edges. The plate
having a black fpot in its centre, was bordered by a
deep purple. He could not perceive any violet by his
naked eye, but it might be perceived by the help of
a lens with a weak light. It appeared in a very fmall
quantity at the confines of the purple and the blue,
and feemed to him to be only a mixture of thefe two
colours. It was very vifible in each of the coloured
rings by inclining the glaffes to the light of the moon.
Next to the purple and violet appeared blue, orange,
red tinged with purple, light green, and faint purple.
The other rings appeared to the naked eye to con-
Aff of nothing but faint reds and greens j and they
were fo (haded that it was not eafy to mark their ter¬
minations. That the order of thefe may be compared
with Vewton’s, he gives a view of both in the follow¬
ing table :
Order of the Colours in
Newt. Ohjefl Giafjes.
Black
Blue
White
Yellow
Red
Violet
Blue
Green
Y ello w
Red
Purple
Blue
Green
Yellow
Red
Green
Red
Greeniffi blue
Red
Greeniffi blue
Red
Greeniffi blue
Pale red.
“ When thefe coloured glaffes were fufpended over
the flame of a candle, the colours difappeared fudden¬
ly, though the glaffes dill continued to adhere to one
another when they were parallel to the horizon. When
they were fuffered to cool, the colours returned by de¬
grees to their former places, in the order of the pre¬
ceding table.
“ After this the Abbe took two plates much thicker
than the former, in order to obferve at his leifure the
aftion of fire upon the matter which he fuppofed to
produce the colours j and obferved, that as they grew
warm, the colours retired to the edges of the glaffes,
and there became narrower and narrower till they were
reduced to imperceptible lines. Withdrawing the
flame, they returned to their place. This experiment
he continued till the glaffes wrere bent by the violence
of the heat. It was pleafant, he fays, to obferve thefe
colours glide over the furface of the glafs as they were
purfued by the flame.
“ At the firff our author had no doubt but that
thefe colours were owing to a thin plate of air between
the glaffes, to which Fjewton has aferibed them : but
the remarkable difference in the circumftances attend¬
ing thofe produced by the flat plates, and thofe produced
by the objefl-glaffes of Newton, convinced him that the
air w'as not the caufe of this appearance. The colours
of the flat plates vanilhed at the approach of flame,
but thofe of the objeft-glaffes did not. Pie even heat¬
ed the latter till that which was next the flame was
cracked by the heat, before he could obferve the lead
dilatation of the coloured rings. This difference was
not owung to the plane glafles being lefs compreffed
than the convex ones; for though the former were
compreffed ever fo much by a pair of forceps, it did not
in the leatt hinder the effea of the flame.
“ Afterwards he put both the plane glaffes and the
convex ones into the receiver of an air pump, fufpend-
ing the former by a thread, and keeping the latter com¬
preffed
A T I C S.
Order of the Colours in
the Plane Glaffes.
C Black fpot
^ , T l Whitifh oval
Q'der I. j Yel,ow border
(_Deep purple
{Blue
Orange
Purple
{Greeniffi blue
Yellow' green
Purple red
Order IV.
Order V.
Order VI.
OrderVII
Green
Red
Faint green
Faint red
Weak green
Light red
' Veryfaintgreen
Very faint red.
X
79
14 _
Newtonian
hypothefis
oppofed.
C H R O M
preffed by two firings *, but he obferved no change in
the colours of either of them in the moft perfetl va¬
cuum he could make.
“ Notwithftanding thefe experiments feemed to be
conclufive againfi the hypothefis of thefe colours be¬
ing formed by a plate of air, the Abbe frankly ac¬
knowledges, that the air may adhere fo obrtinate-
ly to the furface of the glafies as not to be fepa-
ratcd from them by the force of the pump 5 which,
indeed, is agreeable to other appearances: but the
following experiments of our author make it fiill more
improbable that Ahe air fliould be the caufe of thefe
colours.
“To try the utmoft effefl of heat upon thefe co¬
loured plates, after warming them gradually, he laid
them upon burning coals $ but though they wTere near¬
ly red, yet udien he rubbed them together by means
of an iron rod, he obferved the fame coloured circles
and ovals as before. When he ceafed to prefs upon them
the colours feemed to vanifh j but when be repeated
the fri£fion, they returned, and continued till the pie¬
ces of glafs began to be red-hot, and their furfaces to
be united by fufion.
“ When the outward furface of one of his plates of
glafs was quickfilvered, none of thefe colours were vi-
fible, though the glailes continued to adhere with the
fame force. This he afcribed to the ftronger impref-
fion made on the eye by the greater quantity of light
reflefted from the quickfilver.
“ Judging from the refemblance between his ex¬
periments and thofe of Sir Ifaac Newton, that the co¬
lours were owing to the thicknefs of fome matter,
whatever that was, interpofed between the glafles,
the Abbe, in order to verify his hypothefis, tried the
experiment on thicker fubftances. He put between
his glafies a little ball of fuet, about a fourth of a line
in diameter, and prefled it betvveen the two furfaces,
warming them at the fame time, in order to difperfe
the fuet ; but though he rubbed them together as be¬
fore, and uled other foft fubftances befides fuet, his
endeavours to produce the colours had no effeft. But,
rubbing them with more violence in a circular man¬
ner, he- was furprifed on looking at a candle through
them, to fee it furrounded with two or three concen¬
tric rings, very broad, and with very lively delicate
colours ; namely, a red inclining to a yellow, and a
green inclining to that of an emerald. At that time
he obferved only thefe two colours 5 but continuing the
friftion, the rings aflumed the colours of blue, yellow,
and violet, efpecially when he looked through the
glaffes on bodies diredlly oppofed to the fun. If, after
having rubbed the glafles, the thicknefs was confide-
rably diminifhed, the colours grew weaker by tranf-
mitted light, but they feemed to be much ftronger by
reflexion, and to gain on one fide what they loft on
the other.
“ Our author was confirmed in his opinion, that
there muft be fome error in Newton’s hypothefis, by
confidering, that, according to his meafures, the co¬
lours of the plates varied with the difference of a
millionth part of an inch ; whereas he was fatisfied
that there muft have been much greater differences
in the diftance between his glafles, when the colours
remained unchanged.
“ If the colour depended upon the thicknefs only, he
A T I C S.
thought that thi matter interpofed between the glafles
ought to have given the fame colour when it was re¬
duced to a thin plate by fimple fufion as well as by fric¬
tion, and that, in lubbing two plates together, warm¬
ing them at different times, and comprefling them wdth
a confiderable force, other colours would have appear¬
ed befides thofe above-mentioned.
“ Thefe circumftances made him fufpefl, that the
different thickneffes of the fubftance interpofed be¬
tvveen the glafi’es ferved only to make them more or
lefs tranfparent; which was an effential condition in
the experiment •, and he imagined that the friftion
diffufed over the furface of the thin fubftance a kind
of matter on which the colours are formed by reflec¬
ted light; for when he held the plates (which gave
the colours when the fuet was between them) over
the flame of a fmall candle, the colours tied wdth
great precipitation, and returned to their place with¬
out his being able to perceive the lead alteration in
the fuet.
“ He was confirmed in his conjectures, by frequent¬
ly obferving, that when the glaffes were feparated, at
the moment the colours difappeared, they were cover¬
ed with the fame gieafy matter, and that it feemed to
be in the very fame ftate as when they were feparated
without warming. Befides, having often repeated
the fame experiment with different kinds of matter, he
found that the degree of heat that difperfed the colours
was not always fufficient to melt it j which difference
was more fenfible in proportion as the matter inter¬
pofed was made thinner.
‘‘ Inftead of the fuet, he fometimes made ufe of
Spanifh wax, refin, common wrax, and the fediment
of urine. He began with Spanifh wax, on account of
its remarkable tianfparency in Mr Hauklbee’s eleClri-
cal experiments j but he had much difficulty in making
it fufficiently thin by friftion, being often obliged to
warm his glaffes, to feize the moment of fufion, which
continued but a ffiort time, and to hazard the burning
of his fingers.
“ The experiment at length fucceeding, the Spa-
niffi w'ax appeared with its opacity and natural colour
when it reflefted the light, but they both difappeared
in the tranlmitted light. He obferved the fame rings
in it as in the fuet •, and indeed he could perceive but
little difference between the colour of fuet, Spaniffi
wax, common wax, or refin ; except that this laft fub¬
ftance did not make the colours fo vivid, on account
of the too great tranfparency of its particles.
“ The fediment of urine had fomething more par¬
ticular in its appearance, as its colours were more
lively. Holding it above the flame, its colour diiap-
peared ; and keeping it in that fituation, there were
formed, upon its furface, ramifications, like thofe of
the hoar-froft, which difappeared as the glaffes grew
cold. There were the fame ramifications both upon
the fuet and the wax, but they were not fo confider¬
able. The glafles which had Spaniffi wax and refin
between them adhered with fo much force, that they
could not be feparated without the help of fire 5 and
when they began to grow warm, they feparated with
a noife like that of a glafs breaking in the fire, though,
the glafles were not broken, and the matter between
them was not melted.
“ Separating the glafies which he firft ufed very
fuddenly,
So
CHROMATICS.
fuddenly, he obrerved upon their furface very thin
vapours, which formed different colours, bpt prefent-
ly vaniihed altogether.
“ To try the effeft of vapour, he breathed upon
one of his plates of glafs, and obferved that the va¬
pours which adhered to the glades fometimes formed,
before they were entirely difperfed, a furprifing va¬
riety of colours. This experiment, he obferves, does
not always fucceed at the firft trial. The glafs mull
be breathed upon feveral times, and care mull be ta¬
ken to wipe it every time with one’s hand, both to
take off the moiilure, and alfo to make upon the glafs
a kind of furrows, which contribute very much to the
variety of colours, by making inequalities in the thick-
rsefles of the vapours. It is neceffary, alfo, that the
glafles on which thefe experiments are made have no
quickfilver upon them.
“ When the particles of water which formed this
vapour were too thick to exhibit thefe colours, he
{truck them feveral times with his pencil, in order to
attenuate them} and then he faw an infinity of fmall
coloured threads which fucceeded one another with
great rapidity.
“ Patting a drop of water between two pieces of
common glafs, he obferved that the compreflion of them
produced no colour ; but if, while they were compref-
i'ed, the water was made to pafs from one place to an¬
other, it left behind it large fpots, red, yellow, green,
purple, &c. and the fpots affumed different colours with
a furprifing rapidity, and prefented to the eye a moll
beautiful variety of fhades.
“ In order to determine with greater certainty whe-
they they were vapours that caufed the colours in his
firll obfervations, he firll breathed upon one of his plates
of glafs, and then rubbed them againll one another,
when the colours appeared in the fame order as before,
but darker, and difperfed in confulion in the places oc¬
cupied by the vapours : but when he made ufe of fire
to dilfipate the watery particles, the colours refumed
their lullre.
“ Newton, having introduced a drop of water be¬
tween his two objeft-glaffes, obferved, that in propor¬
tion as the water infinuated itfelf between the glaffes,
the colours grew7 fainter, and the rings were contract¬
ed 5 and afcribing thefe colours to the thicknefs of the
plate of water, as he afcribed the former to that of the
plate of air, he meafured the diameters of the colour¬
ed rings made by the plate of water, and concluded
that the intervals between the glaffes at the fimilar
rings of thefe two mediums were nearly as three to
four } and thence he inferred, that in all cafes, thefe
intervals would be as the fines of the refra&ions of thefe
mediums.
“ The Abbe Mazeas, in order to affure himfelf
whether, agreeable to this rule, the coloured rings of
his glafles depended upon the thicknefs of the water
only, dipped one of the edges of his coloured glafles
in a veflel of water, having taken care to wipe and
warm them well, before he produced his colours by
fridlion. The water was a confiderable time in ri¬
ling as high as the glafles} and in proportion as it
afcended, he perceived a very thin plate of water, which
feemed to pafs over the matter which he thought
produced the colours, without mixing with it} for
beyond this plate of water, he ftill perceived the co¬
lours in the fame place and order, but deeper and
darker } and holding the giaffes above the flame of a
candle, he faw the colours go and come feveral times
as he moved them nearer to or farther from the flame.
He then moiilened both the glafles more than before ;
and rubbing them as ufual, he always faw the fame
appearance ; and feizing the moment when the co¬
lours had difappeared to feparate the glafles, he al¬
ways found that they were wet. On this account,
he thought that it could not be the water on which
the colour depended, but fome fubftance much more
fenfible to heat. He alfo thought that thefe coloured
rings could not be owing to the compreflion ot the
glafles ; or that, if this circumflance did contribute
any thing to them, it ferved rather to modify than to
generate them. # IS
“ M. du Tour gave particular attention to the pre- M. du
.• i r   ' r A uuz T-Tf* i-pneat.. J'our !
ceding obfervations of the Abbe Mazeas. He repeat- four's ob-
ed the experiments with fome variation of circum-
ftances, particularly comparing them with thofe of
Sir Ifaac Newton. He is fo far from fuppofing a plate
of air to be neceflary to the formation of thefe co¬
loured rings, that he thinks the reafon of theii not ap¬
pearing between the flat plates of glafs is the adhe¬
ring of the air to their furfaces ; and that mere pref-
fure is not fufficient to expel it ; except, as the Abbe
Mazeas obferved, the rings had before been made in
the fame place •, in which cafe, Ample appofition with¬
out fridlion is fufficient 5 the air, probably, not having
had time to apply itfelf fo clofely to the furface of the
glafs. The contaft of fome other fubftances, M. du
Tour obferves, is not fo prejudicial in this experiment
as that of air 5 for he found, that, if he only gave the
plates a flight coating of any kind of greafe, the rings
would appear without fri&ion. Alfo dipping them
(lightly in water, or wiping them with his finger, would
anfwer the fame purpofe. He verified his conjeaures
by means of the air-pump : for, dipping two pieces
of glafs in water, one of which had been wiped, and
the other not, the former appeared to have no bubbles
adhering to it when the air was exhauiled, whereas
the other had. #
“ When one of the glafles is convex, our author
obferves, that the particles of air may more eafily
make their efcape by preflure only ; whereas their re¬
treat is in a manner cut off when they are comprelied
between two flat furfaces. The air-pump, he found,
was not able to detach thefe particles of air from the
furfaces to which thev adhere ; leaving thefe fiat plates
for a confiderable time in an exhaufted receiver, was
not fufficient to prepare them fo well for the experi¬
ment as wiping them. r .v* r- ^
“ Befides the obfervations on the colours of .tllin
plates, it has been feen that Sir Ifaac Newton ima-^o^
eined he could account for the colours exhibited by refieaioili
thick ones in fome cafes in a fimilar manner ; parti¬
cularly in thofe curious experiments in which he ad-
mined a beam of light through a hole m a p.ece of
pafteboard, and obferved the imgs of colouts
back upon it by a concave glafs m.rror of equal thick-
neft in all places. Thefe expenments were refumed,
led the duke to obferve, that when the nearer furface
of the glafs mirror was clouded by breathing upon rt.
St
C H R O M
fo as lightly to tarnilh it, a white diffufed and vivid
light was feen upon the pafteboard, and all the colours
of the rings became much ftronger, and more diftinft.
This appearance he made conftant by moiftening the
furface of the mirror with a little milk and water, and
fuffering it to dry upon it.
“ In all his experiments upon this fubjedt, he found,
that when the rays fell converging on the furface of
the mirror, the rings were hardly vifible j when they
fell parallel upon it, as they muft have done in all the
experiments of Newton, they appeared fufficiently
diftindt •, but when, by means of a convex lens placed
in the hole of the window, they were made to diverge
from the centre of the fphere to which the mirror was
ground, fo that they fell perpendicularly on the furface
of the mirror, the colours were as vivid as he could
make them. In this cafe he could remove the reflec¬
ted image to a great diftance from the hole, without
making the rings difappear j and he could plainly per¬
ceive them to arife from their central fpots, which chan¬
ged their colours feveral times.
“ The effedt of tarnifliing the mirror convinced him,
that thefe coloured rings depended on the firft furface
of the mirror j and that the fecond furface, or that
which refledted them after they had palled the firft,
only ferved to colledt them and throw them upon the
pafteboard in a quantity fufficient to make them vift-
ble ; and he was confirmed in his fuppofition by the
following experiments.
“ He took a plano-convex objedl-glafs, of fix feet
focus, and placed it fix feet from the pafteboard with
its convex fide towards it. By this means the rays
which fell upon that furface, after being refradted there,
were tranfmitted through the thicknefs of the glafs, pa¬
rallel to one another, and fell perpendicularly on the
plane furface that refledled them, and, in their return,
would be colledled upon the pafteboard. In thefe cir-
cumftances the rings appeared very diftindl after he had
tarnilhed the convex furface, which in this pofition
was next to the light.
“ Turning the fame glafs the contrary way, fo that
the plane furface was towards the pafteboard, he could
perceive none of the rings at the diftance of fix feet 5
but they were vifible at the diftance of three feet;
becaule at that diftance the fecond furface refledfed
the rays by its concavity diredtly towards the pafte¬
board.
“ Thefe twro experiments demonftrate the ufe of the
fecond furface of the mirror, and Ihow the manner of
placing it to moft advantage. Thofe that follow Ihow
the ufe of the firft furface with refpedt to thefe rings j
and he was led to make them by the cafual obferva-
tion above mentioned.
“ Newton, he obferves, had remarked, that w'hen he
made ufe of a mirror of the fame focus with the firft
he had ufed, but of twdce the thicknefs, he found the
diameter of the rings much fmaller than before. This
obfervation the duke thought favourable to his own
conclufions •, for if thefe rings depend upon the firft
furface, the nearer it is to the fecond, wThich only re-
fiedts the ray tranfmitted from it, the larger they ought
to appear upon the pafteboard.
“ 1 o afcertain this fadl, he thought of making ufe
of two moveable furfaces ; and to make ufe of a mi¬
crometer to meafure the diftance between them with
V-OL. VI. Part I.
A T I C S.
exadtnefs. For this purpofe he took a metallic mirror
belonging to a refledting telefcope, being part of a
fphere of ten feet radius ; and he fixed it firm upon a
foot in which was a groove that carried a light frame,
to which was faftened a thin piece of talk tarniftied
with milk and water. The frame that fupported the
piece of talk could either be brought into contadl rvith
the mirror, or be removed to the diftance of eight or
nine inches from it, and the micrometer fhowed to the
utmoft exadlnefs the leaft motion of the frame.
“ Having placed this mirror ten feet from the paftc-
board, that is, at the diftance of the radius of its own
fphere, he obferved the rings to appear very diftindl ;
the form of his mirror being very true : but the dia¬
meter of the rings upon the pafteboard varied with the
diftance of the talk from the mirror : fo that they w'ere
very large when the talk wras near the mirror, and very
fmall when it was placed at the diftance of feven or
eight inches.
“ Thefe experiments proved, that the rings were
formed by the firft furface, and refledled by the fe¬
cond $ but it ftill remained to be determined in what
manner they were formed. He imagined that the
fmall pencils of rays that were tranfmitted through
the pores of the glafs, or any other tranfparent fub-
ftance, might fuffer a kind of infledlion, which might
change the cylinder which they formed into a trun¬
cated cone, either by means of their different degrees
of inflexibility, or by the different diftances at which
they pafs by the edges of the fmall hole through which
they are tranfmitted. Purfuing this idea, he thought
of making ufe of fome body, the pores of which were
of a known and determined ftiape. Inftead, therefore,
of the piece of talk, he placed a piece of fine linen in
the above-mentioned frame, ftretching it as even as
poflible, to make the pores formed by the threads more
exaff, and more permeable by the light; and he foon
found, with great pleafure, that his conjedlure was
verified : for inftead of the circular rings which he had
before, they were now manifeftly fquare, though their
angles were a little rounded j and they were colour¬
ed as the others, though the light was not very vi¬
vid, on account of the quantity that was flopped by
the muflin.
“ When, inftead of the muflin, he ftretched acrofs
his frame fine filver wires exaflly parallel, at the di¬
ftance of about three quarters of a line, or a whole
line from one another, without any other wires acrofs
them ; inftead of the rings which he had feen before,
there wras nothing upon the pafteboard but a gleam of
white light divided by many fmall ftreaks, coloured
in a very vivid manner, and in the fame manner as the
rings.”
Thus we have another hypothefis of the formation Another
of colours, namely, by the inflexion of light in its theory of
paffage out from between the folid and impenetrablecolours'
particles of which bodies are compofed. It is, how¬
ever, very difficult, upon the hypothefis either of Sir
Ifaac Newton, or that of the duke de Chaulnes, to
give a reafon why bodies that are not entirely white,
fliould not appear varioufly coloured. For it appears
From Sir Ifaac Newton’s experiments, that plates of
different denfity are capable of exhibiting the fame
colours} and that where a plate is continually varying
in denfity, it wull produce all the colours. Now it is
L evident,
82
C H R O M
evident, tl^at the plates of which we fuppofe all na¬
tural bodies to be compofed, mull be fimilar to one
that is perpetually varying in its thicknefs for fuppo-
fmg the plates of which any fubftance is compofed to
be of any determinate thicknefs, 9 millionth parts of
an inch for inllance ; fuch of the rays as are relieved
from this plate will be red. But if any of them pe¬
netrate to the depth of 11-^- of thefe parts, they will
be reflected of a violet colour, &c. and thus mufl al¬
loy and obfcure the red •, and fo of others. If we
fu ipofe the colours to be produced by inflexion, it
will be equally difficult to account for fome particular
ravs being inflefled and others not ; feeing we ob-
ferve that all of them are capable of being infle&ed
by every fubftance whatever, when they pafs very
near it. In fome cafes, too, colours are produced
when the light is neither refradled nor infle&ed, as far
as we can judge ; and this feems to obfcure the theory
of chromatics more than any thing we have yet men¬
tioned.
As the experiments we are now about to mention
are of the greateft importance, and in direft terms con-
tradidl one of Sir Ifaac Newton’s, we ffiall give a full
account of them, from Prieftley’s Hiftory of Vifion,
jo &c. with his remarks thereon.
One (
Ifaac
ton’s
“o be through feveral contiguous refrafting mediums, as
erroneous.e through water and glafs, and thence goes out again
into air, whether the refrafting furfaces be parallel or
inclined to one another, that light, as often as, by con¬
trary refra&ions, it is fo corre&ed, that it emerges in
lines parallel to thofe in which it was incident, con¬
tinues ever after to be white ; but if the emergent
rays be inclined to the incident, the whitenefs of the
emerging light will, by degrees, in pafling on from
the place of emergence, become tinged at its edges
with colours. This he tried by refrafting light with
prifms of glafs, placed within a prifmatic veffel of wa¬
ter.
>fSir The experiment in queftion is the eighth of New-
New-ton’s fecond book of Optics: “ He (Sir Ifaac New-
exPe* ton 1 found, he fays, that when light goes out of air
“ By theorems, deduced from this experiment, he
infers, that the refraftion of the rays of every fort,
made out of any medium into air, are known by ha¬
ving the refra&ion of the rays of any one fort ; and al-
fo, that the refrafiion out of one medium into another
is found as often as we have the refra£tions out of
them both into any third medium.
“ On the contrary, a Swedifh philofopher (M. Klin-
* S-wed. genftierna) obferves*, that in this experiment, the
Abband. rayS Qf light, after paffing through the water and the
vol. svi. glafs, though they come out parallel to the incident
^ " rays, wTill be coloured ; but that the fmaller the glafs
prifm is, the nearer will the refult of it approach to
Newton’s defcription.
“ This paper of M. Klingenftierna, being communi¬
cated to Mr Dollond by M. Mallet, made him enter¬
tain doubts concerning Newton’s report of the refult of
his experiment, and determined him to have recourfe
to experiments of his own.
“ He therefore cemented together two plates of
parallel glafs, at their edges, fo as to form a prifmatic
vefiel when flopped at the ends or bafes ; and the edge
being turned downwards, he placed in it a glafs prilm
with one of its edges upwards, and filled up the va-
A T I C S.
cancy with clear water •, fo that the refraffion of the
prifm was contrived to be contrary to that of the wa¬
ter, in order that a ray of light, tranfmitted through
both thefe refrafting mediums, might be affeded by the
difference only between the two refraftions. As he
found the water to refraft more or lefs than the glafs
prifm, he diminilhed or increafed the angle between
the glafs plates, till he found the two contrary refrac¬
tions to be equal, which he difcovered by viewing an
object through this double prifm. For when it ap¬
peared neither railed nor depreffed, he was fatisfied that
the refradlions were equal, and that the emergent rays
were parallel to the incident.
“ Now, according to the prevailing opinion, he ob-
ferves, that the objett ftmuld have appeared through
this double prifm in its natural colour 5 for if the dif¬
ference of refrangibility had been in all refpe&s equal,
in the two equal refraftions, they would have redlified ^
each other. But this experiment fully proved the fal-Colours
lacy of the received opinion, by {bowing the divergen-produced
cy of the light by the glafs prifm to be almoft double ^
of that by the water; for the image of the objeft,refle<ai(KV
though not at all refradled, was yet as much infetted
with prifmatic colours as though it had been feen
through a glafs wedge only whofe angle was near 30
degrees.
“ This experiment is the very fame with that of Sir
Ifaac Newton above mentioned, notwithftanding the
refult was fo remarkably different : but Mr Dollond
affures us, that he ufed all poffible precaution and care
in his procefs ; and he kept his apparatus by him, that
he might evince the truth of what he wrote, whenever
he Ihould be properly required to do it.
“ He plainly faw, however, that if the refrafting
angle of the water-veffel could have admitted of a fuf-
ficient iucreafe, the divergency of the coloured rays
would have been greatly diminifhed, or entirely reftifi-
ed ; and that there would have been a very great re-
fra&ion without colour, as he had already produced a
great difcolounng without refraftion ; ! ut the incon-
veniency of fo large an angle as that of the prifmatic
veffel muft have been, to bring the light to an equal
divergency with that of the glafs prifm, whofe angle
was about 6o°, made it neceffary to try fome experi¬
ments of the fame kind with fmaller angles.
“ Accordingly he got a wedge of plate-glafs, the
angle of which was only nine degrees ; and, ufmg it
in the fame circumftances, he increafed the angle of
the water-wedge, in wffiich it was placed, till the diver¬
gency of the light by the water was equal to that by
the glafs ; that is, till the image of the ofcjeft, though
confiderably refraded by the excefs of the refraftion
of the water, appeared neverthelefs quite free ftom any
colours proceeding from the diffeient icirangibility of
the light. . . ., . 1 -r r 20
“ Notw ithftanding it evidently appeared, I may lay Defences of
to almoft all philofophers, that Mr Dollond had made Sir Ifaac.
a real difcovery of fomething not comprehended in
the optical principles of Sir Ifaac Newton, it did not
appear to fo fenfible a man, and fo good a mathema¬
tician, as Mr Murdoch is univerfally acknowledged to
be. Upon this occafion he interpofed in the defence,
as he imagined, of Sir Ifaac Newton ; maintaining,
that Mr Dollond’s pofitions, which he fays, he knovys
not by what mifhap have been deemed paradoxes m
C H R O M
Sir Ifaac’s theory of light, are really the neceffary con-
fequences of it. He alfo endeavours to {how, that
Sir Ifaac might not be mistaken in his account of
the experiment above mentioned. But admitting all
that he advances in this part of his defence, Newton
mud have made ufe of a prifm with a much fmaller re-
fra&ing angle than, from his own account of his expe¬
riments, we have any reafon to believe he ever did make
ufe of.
“ The fa£l probably was, that Sir Ifaac deceived
himfelf in this cafe, by attending to what he imagined
to be the clear confequences of his other experiments j
and though the light he faw was certainly tinged with
colours, and he muft have feen it to be fo, yet he might
imagine that this circumflance arofe from fome imper-
fe&ion in his prifms, or in the difpofition of them,
which he did not think it worth his while to exa¬
mine. It is alfo obfervable, that Sir Ifaac is not fo
particular in his defcription of his prifms, and other
parts of his apparatus, in his account of this experi¬
ment, as he generally is in other cafes, and therefore
probably wrote his account of it from his memory
- only.
r. 804. “ Much has been faid on this experiment ; and it is
thought very extraordinary, that a man of Sir Ifaac’s ac¬
curate attention (hould have overlooked a circumftance,
the effedf of which now appears to be fo confiderable.
But it has happily occurred to Mr Mitchel, that, as Sir
Ifaac Newton obferves, he ufed to put faccharum fa-
turni into his water to increafe its refra£tive powder,
the lead, even in this form, might increafe the difli-
pative refraftion, as it does in the compolition of glafsj
and if fo, that this would account for Newton’s not
finding his diflipative power of water lefs than that
of the glafs prifms, which he otherwife ought to have
done, if he had tried the experiment as he faid he did.
“ Accordingly he included a prifra of glafs in wa¬
ter, as highly impregnated with faccharum faturni
as it would bear, the proportion of faccharum to wa¬
ter being about as 5 to M. When the image, feen
through the water (fo impregnated) and a glafs prifm,
was in its natural place, it ftill was coloured, though
very little : he thought not more than a fourth part
as much as when feen through plain water, and the
prifm in its natural place ; fo that he had no doubt,
but that, if his prifm had had a little lefs of the dif-
perfing power, its errors would have been perfettly
correfted.”
.>ii o^cia- Befides the experiments of Mr Delaval above re-
val’sexpe- latedj and which were made on the colours of tranf-
timents on parent bodies, he has lately publilhed an account of
fome made upon the permanent colours of opaque fub-
ftances ; the difcovery of which muft be of the ut-
moft confequence in the arts of colour-making and dye¬
ing. Thefe arts, he obferves, were in very remote
ages carried to the utmoft height of perfection in the
countries of Phoenicia, Egypt, Paleftine, India, &c.
and that the inhabitants of thefe countries alfo ex¬
celled in the art of imitating gems, and tinging glafs
and enamel of various colours. The colours uled in
very ancient paintings were as various as thofe now in
41
Mr Dela¬
the colours
of opaque
"bodies.
A T I C S. S3
ufe, and greatly fuperior both in beauty and durabi¬
lity. The paints ufed by Apelles were io bright, that
he was obliged to glaze his pictures wdth a daik co¬
loured varniih, left the eye {hould be offended by their
exceftive brightnels j and even thefe were interior to
what had been ufed among the ancient Egyptians.
Pliny complains that the art of painting was greatly
decayed in his time ; and the moderns were not fur-
niftied with any means of retrieving the art, until they
began to avail themfelves of experimental obferva-
tions. ^ 22
The changes of colour in permanently coloured bo- Thefe co-
dies, our author obferves, are produced by the fame ^
laws which take place in tranfparent colourlefs fub-[yonthe
ftances 5 and the experiments by which they can be divifion of
inveftigated conftft chiefly of various methods of uni- the colour-
ting the colouring particles, into larger, or dividing ing parti-
them into fmaller maffes. Sir Ifaac Newton made his
experiments chiefly on tranfparent fubftancesj and in
the few places where he treats of others, acknowledges
his deficiency of experiments. He makes the follow¬
ing remark, howrever, on thofe bodies which refleCi
one kind of light and tranfmit another, viz. that “ If
thefe glaffes or liquors w'ere fo thick and maffy that no
light could get through them, he queftioned whether
they would not, like other opaque bodies, appear of
one and the fame colour in all pofitions of the eye :
though he could not yet affirm it from experience.”
It was the opinion of this great philofopher, that all
coloured matter refle&s the rays of light, fome refleft-
ing the more refrangible, and others the lefs refrangible
rays more copioufly ; and that this is not only a true
reafon of tbefe colours, but likewife the only reafon.
He was likewife of opinion, that opaque bodies reflect
the light from their interior furface by fome power of
the body evenly diffufed over and external to it. With
regard to tranfparent-coloured liquors, he exprefles
himfelf in the following manner: “ A tranfparent
body, which looks of any colour by tranfmitted light,
may alfo look of the fame colour by refletted light j
the light of that colour being refleaed by the farther
furface of that body, or by the air beyond it : and then
the refleaed colour will be diminifhed, and perhaps
ceafe, by making the body very thick, and pitching it
on the back fide to diminiffi the refleaion of its farther
furface, fo that the light refleaed from the tinging par¬
ticles may predominate. In fuch cafes, the colour of
the reflea-d light will be apt to vary from that of the
light tranfmitted.”
To inveftigate the truth of thefe opinions, Mr Dela¬
val entered upon a courfe of experiments with tranf¬
parent coloured liquors and glaffes, as well as with
opaque and femi-tranfparent bodies. From thefe he
difcovered feveral remarkable properties of the colour¬
ing matter ; particularly, that in tranfparent coloured
fubftances it does not refleft any light •, and when, by
intercepting the light which was tranfmitted, it is hin¬
dered from paffing through fuch fubftances, they do not
vary from their former colour to any other, but become
entirely black (a).
This incapacity of the colouring particles of tranf-
L 2 parent
(a) Here our author obferves, that he makes ufe of the word colour only to exprefs thofe calledj
x ' fuch'
.0
34
23
No light
reiledted
by the co.
louring
particles,
24
Apparatus
for making
thefe expe¬
riments.
25
The colour¬
ing matter
only ihows
itfelf by
tranfmittecl
light.
C H R O M
parent bodies to refleft light, being deduced from very
numerous experiments, may therefore be held as a ge¬
neral law. It will appear the more extenfive, if we
confider, that, for the molt part, the tinging particles
of liquors or other tranfparent fubltances are extrafted
from opaque bodies j that the opaque bodies owe their
colours to thofe particles, in like manner as the tranf¬
parent fubftances do ; and that by the lofs of them they
are deprived of their colours.
For making his experiments, Mr Delaval ufed fmall
phials of flint-glafs, whofe form was a parallelepiped, and
their height, exclulive of the neck, about two inches,
the bafe about an inch fquare, and the neck two inches
in length. The bottom and three lides of each of
thefe phials were covered with a black varnilhj the cy¬
lindrical neck, and the anterior fide, except at its
edges, being left uncovered. He was careful to avoid
any crevices in the varnifh, that no light might be ad¬
mitted except through the neck or anterior fide of the
phials.
In thefe experiments it is of importance to have the
phials perfe&ly clean •, and as many of the liquors are
apt to depofit a fediment, they ought to be put into
the phials only at the time the experiments are to be
made. The uncovered fide of the phials Ihould not be
placed oppofite to the window through which the light
is admitted j becaufe in that fituation the light would
be refle&ed from tbe farther fide of the phial and our
author obferves, that fmooth black fubftances refleft
light very powerfully. But as it is a principal objeft
in the experiment, that no light be tranfmitted through
the liquor, this is beft accomplifhed by placing the
uncovered fide of the phial in fuch a fituation that it
may form a right angle with the window.
With thefe precautions, our author viewed a great
number of folutions, both of coloured metallic falts
and of tbe tinging matter of vegetables ; univerfally ob-
ferving, that the colour by reflexion was black, what¬
ever it might be when viewed by tranfmitted light. If
thefe liquors, however, are fpread thin upon any white
ground, they appear of the fame colour as when viewed
by tranfmitted light j but on a black ground they
afford no colour, unlefs the black body be polilhed ; in
which cafe the refleaion of the light through it pro¬
duces the fame effedt as tranfmiflion.
The experiments with tinged glaffes were in many
refpe&s analogous to thofe with tranfparent-coloured
liquors. For thefe he made feveral parcels of colour-
lefs glaffes, principally ufing one compofed of equal parts
of borax and white fand. The glafs was reduced to
powder, and afterwards ground, together with the in¬
gredients by which the colours were imparted. “ This
method (fays he) of incorporating the tinging particles
is greatly preferable to mixing them with the raw ma¬
terials ; and the glaffes thus compofed excel moft others
in hardnefs, being fcarcely inferior in luftre to real
gems.”
The refult of all the experiments made in this man¬
ner was, that when matter is of fuch thinnefs, and the
tino-e fo diluted that light can be tranfmitted through
A t I C S.
it, the glaffes then appear vividly coloured ; but when
they are in larger maffes, and the tinging matter is
more denfely diffufed through them, they appear black;
for thefe, as well as the tranfparent-coloured liquors,
(how their colour only by tranfmiflion. The following
experiments were made with a view to determine the
proportion of tinging matter which produces colour or
blacknefs.
1. Glafs was tinged green by adding to it -^oB1 ofExpeH-
its weight of copper ; and that whether the latter was moots to
uled in its metallic or calcined ftate. determine
2. A blue glafs was made by the addition of zaffre,
a purple one by manganefe, a red glafs by gold, and tinging
yellow glaffes by filver and calcined iron. A yellow matter,
glafs refembling a topaz was likewife made by the ad¬
dition of a fmall quantity of charcoal in powder. The
fame colour was likewife procured by the addition of
wheat-flour, rofin, and feveral other inflammable mat¬
ters. Small pieces of each of thefe glaffes being
ground by a lapidary, refembled gems of their differ¬
ent colours.
3. Having formed pieces of fuch glaffes about two
inches thick, he incloftd them in black cloth on all
fides, except their farther and anterior furfaces. In
this fituation each of them fhowed a vivid colour when
light was tranfmitted through them ; but when the
pofterior furface was likewife covered with the cloth «
to prevent this tranfmiflion, no other colour than black
was exhibited by any of them.
4. When plates of tranfparent-coloured glafs, fome-
what thicker than common window-glafs, were made
ufe of, they always exhibited their colours by tranf¬
mitted light.
5. On intercepting the light tranfmitted through
thefe coloured plates, they as conftantly appeared black
when placed in fuch a dire&ion as to form a right angle
with the window.
From thefe phenomena Mr Delaval deduced the
following obfervations : x. That the colouring particles
do not refleft any light. 2. That a medium, fuch as
Sir Ifaac Newton has deferibed, is diffufed over both
the anterior and farther furfaces of the plates, where¬
by obje&s are equally and regularly reflefted as by a
mirror. Hence, when it is faid that light is refle&ed
by the furface of any fubftance, it Ihould be under-
ftood from this expreflion, that fthe refledlion is effe£l-
ed by the medium diffufed over its furface.
6. When a lighted candle is placed near one of thofe On the re¬
coloured plates, the flame is refledfted by the medium dedhon o£
which is diffufed over the anterior furface. The image
thus reflected entirely refembles the flame in fize and coloured Y
colour ; being fcarcely diminiftied, and not in the leafl glaffes.
tinged by the coloured glafs.
7. If the plate be not fo intenfely coloured, or fo
mafly, as to hinder the tranfmiflion of the light of the
candle, there appears a fecondary image of the flame,
which is reflefted by the medium contiguous to the
farther furface of the glafs ( and as the light thus re-
flefted paffes through the coloured glafs, it is tinged
very vividly.
8. When
fuch a mixture of them as does not compofe whitenefs, or any of the gradations between white and black; fuch
as are called by Sir ifeac Newton, gray, dun, or ruffet brown.
28
Experi¬
ments on
the pure
colouring,
particles.
C H R O M
8. When the glafs ufed in this experiment is of a
green colour, the image of the flame is always of a
bright green ; and when glafles of other colours are
ufed, that of the fecondary flame is always the fame
\vith that of the glafs.
9. The fecondary image is lefs than that refle&ed
from the anterior furface. This diminution is occa-
fioned by the lofs of that part of the light which is
abforbed in pafling through the coloured glafs. For
whenever any medium tranfmits one fort of rays more
copioufly than the reft, it (tops a great part of the dif¬
ferently coloured rays. Much more light alfo is loft in
paffing through coloured than tranfparent fubflances.
In making thefe obfervations, it is proper to choofe
coloured plates of glafs which are not in every part of
an equal thicknefs, that the fecondary image may not
coincide with that refletted from the anterior furface,
and be intercepted by it.
10. When the plates are fo thick, and fo copioufly
coloured, that the light cannot penetrate to their far¬
ther furface, they appear intenfely black in whatever
dire£lion they are viewed, and afford no fecondary
image, but only refleft, from their anterior fuvface,
the flame, or any other obje&s that are oppofed to
them. Thefe objefts are reprefented in their own
proper colours, and are as free from tinge as thofe re-
flefted from quickftlvered glafs, or fpecula made of
white metals.
Hence again it is manifeft, that the colouring par¬
ticles do not poffefs any (hare of refle&ive power ; for
if they had any fhare in this refle£tion, they would
certainly impart fome fhare of colour to the light they
reflefted. Hence alfo it appears, that tranfparent co¬
loured bodies, in a folid date, poffefs no more reflec¬
tive power than thofe in a fluid date.
Our author next confiders the colouring particles
themfelves, pure, and unmixed with other media. In
order to procure maffes made up of fuch particles, fe-
veral tranfparent coloured liquors were reduced to a fo¬
lid confidence by evaporation. By employing a gentle
heat, the colouring matter may thus remain unim¬
paired ; and is capable of having its particles again fe-
parated by water or other liquids, and tinging them as
before.
In this date the colouring particles refleft no light,
and therefore appear uniformly black, whatever fub-
dance they have been extrafted from. In the courfe
of his experiments, Mr Delaval made ufe of the in-
fufions of brazil rt'ood, logwood, fudic, turmeric, red
faunders, alkanet, fap-green, kermes, and all the other
tranfparent coloured liquors he had tried before, a-
mong which were infufions of red and yellow flowers,
without obferving the lead variation in the refult.
Some liquors are apt to become totally opaque by
evaporation ; the reafon of which may be the crydal-
lization of faline matters, or the coalefcence of the
particles into maffes, differing confiderably in denfity
from the mendrua in which they were diifolved. When
this opacity takes place, our author has condantly ob-
ferved, that they became incapable of entering the
pores of wool, filk, or other matters of that kind, or
of adhering to their furface ; and confequently undt
for the purpofes of dyeing. This he fuppofes to arife
from their increafed bulk ; for the attractive force by
which the particles cohere together is weakened in pro-
a t 1 c s.
portion as their bulk increafes 5 fo that the degree of
magnitude of the colouring particles, which is effential
to the opacity of liquors, is inconfident wuth the mi-
nutenefs requifite for dyeing. An indance of this is
given in an infufion of fudic. Having infufed fome of
this wood in fuch a quantity of water, that the latter
was faturated with the colouring particles, he evapo¬
rated the liquor to a folid confidence with an unin¬
terrupted, but very gentle heat. During every part
of the procefs the liquor continued tranfparent, and
the folid extrad yielded by it tranfmitted a yellow co¬
lour when fpread thin, but appeared black when thick¬
er maffes were viewed. Having prepared another pint
of this liquor, he evaporated half the water, and al¬
lowed the remainder to become cold. In this date it
became turbid and opaque j on filtering, a tranfparent
tinCture pafled through, an opaque fecula remaining on
the paper. This fecula did not adhere to the paper,
but was eafily feparable from it : on being dried, it ap¬
peared white with a flight tinge of yellow j but was ne-
verthelefs foluble in w^ater, and by folution gave a liquid
in all refpefts fimilar to the original infufion. “ From
thefe circumdances (fays he) it appears that a given
proportion of water, or a fufficient degree of heat, is
requifite to the folution of the colouring particles of
fudic. And experience evinces, that thofe particles
which are too grofs to pafs through filtering paper, are
incapable of entering the pores, or firmly cohering to
the furface of bodies. Many ingredients, fuch as the
colouring particles of logwood, kermes, and various
other matters, are foluble in water in every proportion j
and therefore their infufions are not fubjeCt to become
opaque or turbid during their evaporation. The folid
extrafts obtained by evaporation refleCt no colour, but
are black.
Our author alfo formed folid mafles by mixing a
fmall quantity of drying oil with pigments which cor.i
fid chiefly of colouring matter *, as Prudian blue, indi¬
go, and fap-green. Thefe paints likewife exhibit their
refpeCtive colours only by tranfmitted light, appear¬
ing entirely black when viewed by reflection. Indan¬
ces of blacknefs arifing from this denfity of the colour,
ing matter, may be obferved in feveral kinds of fruits-,
as black currants, cherries, &c. for the juices of thefe
appear red when fpread thin on a white ground, or o-
therwife viewed by tranfmitted light.
Mr Delaval’s next attempt was to confider the ac¬
tion and properties of the colouring particles of opaque
bodies themfelves, and the means by which thefe co¬
lours are produced. Here our author endeavours to
prove, that thefe colours of opaque bodies appear on
the fame principles as thofe already mentioned, which
feem black when very denfe, but (how their proper
tinge when fpread thin upon a white ground. On this
fubjeCI the following experiments were made :
1. Grafs, and other green leaves of plants, were di-
gefted in reftified fpirit of wine; by which means a-
tranfparent green tinClure was obtained. One of the
vials formerly mentioned being filled with this liquid,
it was obferved to tranfmit a vivid green colour ; but
the other part of the tinClure, which was contiguous
to the uncovered fide of the vial, refieCled no light?,
and therefore appeared black.
2. Having poured fome of the tinfture into a China
cup, the bottom was thereby made to look green, exr-
I aCtly_
-86
G H R O M
a&ly refembllng tlie colour which had been extrafted
from the leaves.
3. After the colour had been totally abftra&ed by
the vinous fpirit, the leaves remained apparently un¬
altered, either as to figure or texture •, but were en¬
tirely white, or had their whitenels (lightly tinged w-ith
brown.
4. Red, purple, and blue flowers, were alfo digefled
in ipirit of wine, all of which yielded their colouring
matter to the fpirit, and became white by being de¬
prived of it. From moft of thefe flowers, however, the
fpirit acquired either no tinge at all, or only a very
faint one but when acidulated, it became red, and
bv the addition of an alkali appeared blue, purple, or
green, according to the quantity of alkali, and the na¬
ture of the infufion. In thefe ftates, all of them, when
viewed by tranfmitted light, or poured upon a white
ground, fhowTed their colours, but univerfally appeared
black by refleftion.
5. Red, purple, and blue flowers, were digefted in
water (lightly acidulated with nitrous acid. Thus,
red infufions were obtained, which, by faturation with
fea-falt, might be preferved for many years.
6. The fame liquors were changed green, blue, or
purple, by the addition of an alkali: but here the cafe
was the fame as before *, all of them yielding vivid co¬
lours by tranfmiflion, but none by refleftion. In mak¬
ing this experiment, care muft be taken to add the al¬
kali very gradually 5 for if too much is put in at once
to the red liquor, the immediate colours between the
red and the green will be wanting. To half an ounce
of the red infufion it is proper to add, at once, only
the fmallefl quantity that can be taken upon the point
of a pen j repeating this addition (lowly, until each of
the colours be produced.
7. The flowers, after having been repeatedly ma¬
cerated in acidulated water, loft their colouring mat¬
ter, and became white.
8. Yellow flowers alfo communicated their colours
to water and to fpirit of wine. The infufions and
tindlures of thefe flowers were fubjedled to the fame
experiments as had been employed in the examination
of the liquors already mentioned ; and appeared yel¬
low by tranfmitted light, but did not refledl any co¬
lour.
9. White paper, linen, &c. may be tinged of any
of thefe colours, by dipping them in the infufions }
and the confideration of the manner in which the co¬
lours are imparted to the linen, affords much infight
into the manner in which natural colours are produ¬
ced. It has already been obferved, that, when the co¬
louring matter of plants is extradled from them, the
folid fibrous parts, thus divefted of their covering, dif-
play their natural whitenefs. White linen, paper,
&c. are formed of fuch fibrous vegetable matter j
which is bleached by diffolving and detaching the he¬
terogeneous colouring particles. When thefe are dyed
or painted with vegetable colours, it is evident that
they do not differ in their manner of aching on the
rays of light from natural vegetable bodies; both
yielding their colours by tranfmitting, through the
tranfparent coloured matter, the light which is re-
flefted from the white ground. This white matter
frequently exifts, without any confiderable mixture, in
plants, while they are in a date of vegetation j as cot-
A T I C S.
ton, white flowers, the pith, wood, feeds, roots, and
other parts of feveral kinds of vegetables. When de¬
cayed trees, &c. have been long expofed to the atmo-
fphere, their coloured juices are fometimes fo perfett-
ly extrafted, that the fibres appear white. This white
matter is not diftindl from the vegetable earth to which ip
plants are reduced by burning. Mr Delaval has ren-How aihe?
dered afhes intenfely white, by carefully calcining
them, and afterwards grinding with a fmall proper-tenfely
tion of nitre, and expofing them to fuch a degree of white,
heat as would caufe the nitre deflagrate with the re¬
maining quantity of phlogifton. Laftly, the afhes were
digefted with muriatic acid, in order to diffolve the fer¬
ruginous matter diffufed through them, and repeated¬
ly wafhing the remainder in water. Mixing afhes thus
purified with borax, and applying a vitrifying heat, an
opaque enamel is obtained, remarkable for its white¬
nefs. 30
Hence it appears, that the earth which forms the White
fubftance of plants is white, and feparable from thatearth°f
fubftance which gives to earth its peculiar colour } that
whenever it is pure and unmixed, or diffufed through ftance in
colourlefs media, it (hows its native whitenefs j and is them that
the only vegetable matter endowed with a refle&ive reflects the
power. It may be difeovered, however, by other
means than that of burning: thus, rofes may be
whitened by expofing them to the vapour of burning
fulphur; an effect which cannot be attributed to the
fulphuric acid, but to the phlogifton contained in that
vapour. This was proved to be the cafe, by expofing
feveral kinds of red and purple flowers to the phlogi-
ftic vapour iffuing from hepar fulphuris ; and by this
every one of them was whitened; their colour being
afterwards reftored by the addition of an acid either
mineral or vegetable. 31
“ Thus (fays Mr Delaval) it appears, that the co-Colouring
louring matter of the flowers is not difeharged or re*
moved, but only diffolved by carbonic acid ; and
thereby divided into particles too minute to exhibit acid,
any colour. In this (late, together with the vege¬
table juice in which they are diffufed, they form a co-
louilefs tranfparent covering, through which the white
matter of the flowers is feen untinged. The colouring
particles of plants confift principally of inflammable
matter, and their folubility in carbonic acid, and union
with it, are analogous to the aftion of other inflam¬
mable bodies upon each other. Thus, aether diffolves
all effential and expreffed oils, animal empyreumatic
oils, and refins. Sulphur, camphor, and almoft all fub-
ftances abounding in phlogifton, are foluble in oils,
ardent fpirits, or other inflammable menftrua. The
manner in which the red colour of vegetable flowers
is reftored, appears to be explicable from known che¬
mical law's. When acids are applied to the whitened
flowers, they unite wflth the phlogifton which the ful¬
phur had communicated, and difengage it from the co¬
louring particles ; which, being thus extricated, re¬
lume their original magnitude and hue. A change of
the fame kind is alfo produced by fixed alkali, which,
like the acids, has a ftrong attratfion for phlogifton,
always changes the whitened flow’ers to a blue, purple,
or green colour.
“ In like manner, the aftion of the rays of light Colours co¬
operates upon coloured bodies. Thus, dyed filk, or^™?6
other fubftances of that kind, when expofed to thethellfn#
fun’s
By
i
C H R O M
fun’s Hglit, are deprived of their colour in every part
on which the rays are allowed to aft ; whilft thofe pre-
ferve their colour which are defended from the light
by the folds of the cloth, or intervention of any opaque
body. The colours thus impaired, may be reftored,
if acids are applied while the injury is recent 5 but they
are afterwards apt to fly off, on account of that volati¬
lity which is conllantly imparted by inflammable mat¬
ter to any other with which it is united.”
Our author now proceeds, at confiderable length, to
prove the identity of the folar light and carbonic acid ;
but as recent experiments have fhown that thefe two
are effentially diffinft, we omit his argumentation up¬
on this head. The error of his theory in this refpeft,
however, does not in the lead afteft the doftrine con¬
cerning colours above laid down :^on the contrary, the
lateft experiments have determined, that carbonic acid
• in its groffeft form, viz. that of common charcoal, mani-
fefts a furprifing power of whitening various fubflan-
ees •, which, according to Mr Delaval’s theory, pro¬
ceeds from the power it has of diffolving the colouring
matter with which they are impregnated. This fol-
vent power, according to our author, is manifeft in
many other inftances befides thofe already mentioned.
Silk is whitened by the carbonated vapours of fulphur ;
and this operation does not appear to differ from the
change effefted on flowers by the fame vapour. The
light of the fun is found to be a neceffary and eflential
agent in bleaching linen, wax, and various other fub-
ftances ; fome part of the colouring matter w’hich im¬
pairs the whitenefs of thefe bodies not yielding to any
other folvent. Red flowers are whitened by the elec¬
tric fpark, of whofe inflammable nature we cannot en¬
tertain the lead doubt $ for the fpark itfelf is a bright
dame, and yields the fame fmell which all other carbon¬
ated matters impart. The eleftric fpark, in like man¬
ner, changes the blue infufion of turnfole to red (b).
The effefts which it produces on the turnfole, and on
red dowers, do not differ from each other, except in
degree only. For when vegetable matter is diffolved,
it is changed from blue to red •, and, when farther dif¬
folved, it is divided into particles too minute to exhi-
bit any colour.
Howtodi- Solutions effefted by rn^ans of phlogidon frequently
flinguifh are wrongly attributed to the operation of fuppofed acid
tions°niade men^:rua» as federal kinds of fubftances are capable of
by car- being diffolved indifcriminately both by acids and phlo-
bone from gifton. For the purpofe of diflinguifhing, thei'efore,
thofe made in any cafe between the aftion of the acid folvents and
by acids. inflammable menftrua, it is proper to exa¬
mine the nature of the matter by w’hich either of thefe
principles are furnifhed. It appears from various che¬
mical proceffes, that alkalies are rendered mild, and
capable of cryftallization, in proportion as they are
united to carbone. The carbonated alkaline lixi¬
vium, when faturated, is perfeftly mild ; and by a
flight evaporation is reduced to a concrete cryffalline
mafs, wTich does not deliquefce or imbibe the leaft
moifture from the air, and no longer retains any alka¬
line property. M. Beaume, by an elegant and ingeni-
A T I C S.
ous experiment, has proved the prefence of carbone
in mild alkalies, and has fhown that their power of
cryftallizing depends on their union wdth that prin¬
ciple. He heated in a filver veffel a lixivium of mild
alkali, which imparted to the filver a covering or coat¬
ing of inflammable matter, by w’hich its furface was
tarnilhed and became black. The lixivium was feve-
ral times poured out of the filver veffel, and after the
furface of the metal had been freed from the tarnilh,
the lixivium uTas replaced in it, and again heated, by
which the tarnifh was renewed 5 and this was repeated
till the lixivium no longer communicated any flain to
the filver. The caufticity of the lixivium was increaf-
ed in proportion as it imparted its carbone to the
filver ) and at the end of the procefs the alkali became
perfeftly cauftic and incapable of cryftallizing.
From the preceding experiments (fays he) it ap¬
pears, that the colouring particles of flowers and leaves
are foluble in acid, alkaline, and carbonated menflrua.
The other parts of vegetables confift of materials fimi-
lar to thofe which are contained in their flowers and
leaves, and undergo the fame changes from the fame
caufes. Having extrafted from logwood its colouring
particles by repeatedly boiling it in water, the wood
was thus deprived of its yellow colour, and affumed a
brown hue fimilar to that of oak-wood. Some pieces
of it thus deprived of its colour were then macerated
in nitric acid ; and after they had undergone the aftion.
of that acid, they were walked in a fufficient quantity
of water. The wrood was thus reduced to white-
nefs.” 34
Here our author obferves, that though moft authors Logwood
who treat of colouring fubftances deferibe logwood asatfor(bonly
of a red colour, he was never able to procure any a.
other colour from it than yellow. It imparts yellow wjtj1 wa_
and orange colours to diftilled wrater. Other waters ter<
extraft a red tinge from it by means of the alkali
which they contain. Thefe obfervations are alfo ap¬
plicable to the other dyeing woods, kermes, and va¬
rious other articles of the materia tinftoria. By a fi¬
milar treatment, fuftic wood alfo loft its colouring mat¬
ter, and became white.
The refults of all the experiments above related are,
that the colouring matter of plants does not exhibit
any colour by refleftion, but by tranfmiflion only; that
their folid earthy fubftance is a white matter ; and
that it is the only part of vegetables which is endowed
with a refleftive power ; that the colours of vegetables
are produced by the light reflefted from this white
matter, and tranfmitted from thence through the co¬
loured coat or covering which is formed on its (iirface
by the colouring particles ; that whenever the colour¬
ing matter is either difeharged or divided by folution
into particles too minute to exhibit any colour, the
folid earthy fubftance is expofed to view, and difplays
that whitenefs which is its diftinguifhing charafteri-
ftic.
Mr Delaval next proceeds to examine the coloured c0l0aring
parts of animal fubftances, and finds the m exaftly fi-matter of
milar, with regard to the manner in which the colour animal fub*
js ftances.
I
(b) This effeft of the eleftric fpark is now known to be produced, not by its carbonated nature, but by the
generation of an acid.
88
CHROMATICS.
is produced, to the vegetable bodies already treated of.
The tinftures and infufions of cochineal and of kermes
yield their colours when light is tranfmitted through
them, but (how none by refleftion. On diluting frefli
ox-gall with water, and examining it in the phials al¬
ready mentioned, that part of it which was in the
neck of the phial, and viewed by tranimitted light,
was yellow ; but the anterior furface was black and
reflefted no colour. Flelh derives its colour entirely
from the blood, and when deprived of it, the fibres and
veflels are perfeffly white 5 as are likewife the mem¬
branes, finews, and bones, when freed from their aque¬
ous and volatile parts; in which cafe they are a mere
earth, unalterable by fire, and capable of imparting an
, 36 opaque whitenefs to glafs.
Of the co- On examining blood diluted with water in one of
lour of tjie phiais formerly defcribed, it tranfmitted a red co-
b‘00d’ lour, and the anterior furface was almoft, but not en¬
tirely, black for it received a flight hue of brown
from fome coagulated particles that were fufpended in
the liquor. In order to procure blood fufficiently di¬
luted, and at the fame time equably and.perfeaiy dif-
folved, he mixed as much cruor with fpirit of fal am¬
moniac as imparted a bright colour to it. T he liquor
being then viewed in the phial, that part which was
contained in the neck, and tranfmitted the light, ap¬
peared of a fine red ; but the anterior part reflefting
no light, was intenfely black. Hence it appears, that
the florid red colour of the flelh arifes from the light
which is refle&ed from the white fibrous fubftance,
and tranfmitted back through the red tranfparent co¬
vering wThich the blood forms on every part of it.
Blood, when recently drawn, does not aflume the
appearance common to tranfparent coloured liquors, j
for thefe, when too mafly to tranfmit light from their
farther furfaces, always appear black 5 but blood, when
recently drawn, always fhows a fine red colour, in
whatever way it be viewed. This is occafioned by a
white matter diffufed through the blood and which
is eafily feparated from the cruor, by dividing it after
coagulation into a number of thin pieces, and wafliing
in a fufficient quantity 01 pure water. Thus the water
acquires a red colour, and ought to be changed daily.
In a few days it will acquire no more tinge •, and the
remaining mafles of the cruor are no longer red, but
white.
Of the (hells In like manner, the red colour of the {hells of loo-
oflobfters. fters, after boiling, is no more than a mere fuperficial
covering fpread over the white calcareous earth of
which the Ihells are compofed, and may be eafily re¬
moved from the furface by feraping or filing. Before
the application of heat, this fuperficial covering is
much denfer, infomuch that, in fome parts of the {hell,
it appears quite black, being too thick to admit the
paffage of the light to the (hell and back again ; but
where this tranfparent blue colour of the unboiled lob-
fler is thinner, it conftantly appears liice a blue film.
In like manner, the colours ot the eggs of certain
birds are entirely fuperficial, and may be feraped oil,
leaving the white calcareous earth expofed to view.
Of feathers. The cafe is the fame with feathers, which owe their
colours entirely to a very thin layer of fome tranipa-
rent matter upon a white ground. Our author afeer-
tained this by feraping off the fuperficial colours from
certain feathers which were ftrong enough to bear the
operation j and thus feparated the coloured layers from
the white ground on which they had been naturally
fpread. The lateral fibres of the feathers cannot indeed
have their furfaces feparated in this manner ; but their
texture, when viewed by a microfcope, feems to indi¬
cate, that the colours are produced upon them by no
other means than thole already related. In the exa¬
mination of fome animal fubjefls, where the colouring
matter could not be feparated by chemical means, our
author had recourfe to mechanical divifion j but this
can only be employed when the principal part of the
white fubftance is unmixed with the coloured coat or
covering which is fpread upon its furface. All of
them, however, by whatever means their colours could
be feparated, ftiowed that they were produced in the
fame manner, namely, by the tranfmiflion of light
from a w'hite ground through a tranfparent coloured
medium. ^
The coloured fubftances of the mineral kingdom are of the c.
very numerous, and belong principally to two claffes, lours of mi-
viz. earths and metals. The former, when pure, areneraHub-
all perfeflly white, and their colours arife from car- an
bonic or metallic mixtures. Calcareous earths, when
indurated, conftitute marble, and may be tinged with
various colours by means of metallic folutions : all
which are fimilar in their nature to the dyes put upon
filk, cotton, or linen, and invariably proceed from the
fame caufe, viz. the tranfmiflion of light through a
very thin and tranfparent coloured medium. Flints
are formed from filiceous earths, and owe their colour
to carbone. When fufficiently heated, they are ren¬
dered white by the lofs of the inflammable matter
which produced their colour. When impregnated
wdth metals, they form agates, cornelians, jafper, and
coloured cryftals. The coloured gems alfo receive their
different hues from metals •, and all of them may be
imitated by glafies tinged with fuch carbonic or me¬
tallic matters as enter into the compofition of the ori¬
ginal fubftances. 4Q
Thus our author concludes, that the coloured earths, of metals,
gems, Sue. exhibit their various tints in the fame
manner with other fubftances; viz. by the tranfmiflion
of light reflefled from a white ground. Our author,
however, proceeds farther *, and afferts, that even the
colours of metals themfelves are produced in the fame
manner.
“ Gold (fays he) exhibits a white light, which is
tinged with yellow. I have ufed this expreflion, be¬
cause it appears from experiment that gold reflefts a
white light, and that its yellow colour is a tinge fuper-
added to its whitenefs. The experiment is thus fet
forth by Sir Ifaac Newton. Gold in this light (that
is, a beam of white light) appears of the lame yellow
colour as in day light, but by intercepting at the lens
a due quantity of the yellow-making rays, it will ap¬
pear white like filver, as I have tried 5 which {hows,
that its yellownefs arifes from the excefs of the inter¬
cepted rays, tinging that whitenefs with their colour
when they are let pafs.
“ I have already {flown, by numerous experiments,
in what manner coloured tinges are produced and it
uniformly appears, from all thefe experiments, that
colours do not arife from refle&ion, but from tranf¬
miflion only. A folution of filver is pellucid and co-
lourlefs. A folutioa of gold tranfmits yellow, but re¬
flects
CHROMATICS.
89
fta&s no colour. This metal alfo, when united with
glafs, yields no colour by reHe&ion, but by tranfmif-
iion only. All thefe circumftances feem to indicate,
that the yellow colour of gold arifes from a yellow
tranlparent matter, which is a conftituent part of that
metal ; that it is equally mixed with the white parti¬
cles of the gold, and tranfmits the light which is re-
flefted by them, in like manner as when filver is gilt,
or foils are made by covering white metals with tranf-
parent colours. But thefe faftitious coverings are
only fuperficial ; whereas the yellow matter of gold is
diffufed throughout the wThole fubftance of the metal,
and appears to envelope and cover each of the white
particles. In whatfoever manner the yellow matter
of gold is united to its white fubftance, it exifts in a
rare ftate *, for it bears only the fame proportion to
the white particles of the gold as that of the yellow¬
making rays which were intercepted bear to all the
other rays comprifed in the white light of the fun.
“ Sir Ifaac Newton has ftiown, that when fpaces or
interftices of bodies are repleniftred with media of dif¬
ferent denfities, the bodies are opaque j that thofe fu-
perficies of tranfparent bodies refledl the greateft quan¬
tity of light which intercede media that differ moft in
their refractive denfities 5 and that the reflections of
very thin tranfparent fubftances are confiderably
ftronger than thofe made by the fame fubftances of a
greater thicknefs. Hence the minute portions of air,
or of the rarer medium which occupies fpaces void of
other matter, refleCt a vivid white light whenever
their furfaces are contiguous to media whofe denfities
differ confiderably from their owm ; fo that every fmall
mafs of air, or of the rarer medium, which fills the
pores or interftices of denfe bodies, is a minute white
fubftance. This is manifeft in the whitenefs of froth,
and of all pellucid colourlefs bodies ; fuch as glafe,
cryftal, or falts, reduced to powder, or otherwife flaw¬
ed : for in all thefe inftances a white light is refleCled
from the air or rarer medium which intercede the par¬
ticles of the denfer fubftances whofe interftices they oc¬
cupy.”
From thefe principles our author takes occafion to
explain the reafon why the particles of metals, which
yield no colour by incident light when fufpended in
their folvents, are difpofed to exhibit colours when
ieparated from them. Hence alfo wTe fee why opaque
white fubftances are rendered pellucid by being re¬
duced to uniform maffes, whofe component parts are
every where nearly of the fame denfity; for as all
pellucid fubflances are rendered opaque and white by
the admixture of pellucid colourlefs media of con¬
fiderably different denfities, they are again deprived
of their opacity by extricating thefe media which
kept their particles at a diftance from each other:
thus froth or fnow, when refolved into water, lofe
their wflritenefs, and affume their former pellucid ap¬
pearance. In like manner, by proper fluxes, the
opaque white earths are reduced to pellucid colour¬
lefs glaffes *, becaufe all refleftions are made at the fur-
faces of bodies differing in denfity from the ambient
medium, and in the confines of equally denfe media
there is no refledlion.
As the oxides of metals are enabled to refleft their
colours by the intervention of the particles of air j fo,
when mixed with oil in the making of paints, they al-
Vol. VI. Part I.
ways affume a darker colour, becaufe the excefs of the
denfity of oil over that of air forms a fenfible difference
when comparatively confidered with refpefl to the fpe-
cific gravity of the rarer metals. From this caule
perceptibly lefs light is reflected from the moleculae of
oil than from thofe of air, and confequently the mafs
appears darker. The cafe, however, is different with
fuch paints as are formed of the denfer metals; as ver¬
milion, minium, &c. for though oil differs very con¬
fiderably from air in its fpecific denfity, yet it alfo
differs very much in this refpe£t from the denfer me¬
tallic powders j and the moleculm of oil whicji divide
their particles a£l upon the light fo ftrongly, that the
refledfion occafioned by them cannot be diftinguiftitd
from thofe which are caufed by rarer media. Hence
though we mix vermilion or minium with oil, the co¬
lour is not fenfibly altered.
This part of our author’s theory, however, feems Objections
liable to objeftion : for though it be true, that the ox-t0 h‘s tbeo-
ides of fome metals are denfer than others, yet that is, ^
comparatively fpeaking, but in a very fmall proper-iourSi
tion $ nor is even the difference of denfity between oil
and the oxides of the heavier metals at all comparable
to that between the denfity of air and oil. Thus,
though the oxide of iron may be 10 or 11 times more
denfe than oilj yet, as the latter is between 500 or 600
times denfer than air, the fmall difference between the
oil and metallic oxide ought to be imperceptible. In
this refpedl, indeed, there are confiderable dift'erences
with regard to the oils employed, which cannot be fup-
pofed to arife from the mere circumftance of denfity.
Thus the colour of vermilion, when mixed with tur¬
pentine varnifh, is much brigher than with linfeed-oil;
and yet the difference between the denfities of linfeed-
oil and turpentine-varnifh is very trifling. The mere
a£!ion of heat likewife has a furprifing effect in this
cafe. Thus the red oxide of iron, called fcarlet oker,
by being only heated a certain degree, appears of a very
dark purple, refuming its red colour when cold j and
this variation may be induced as often as we pleafe by
only heating it over the fire in a fhovel. In like man¬
ner, by gradually heating red-lead, it may be made to
affume a moft beautiful crimfon colour ; which grow-
ing gradually darker, becomes at laft almoft quite
black. On cooling, if the heat has not been raifed too
high, it gradually returns through the fame ftiades of
colour, until at laft it fixes in its original hue. Thefe
immenfe differences in colour cannot by any means be
attributed either to the expulfion of air, or to an al¬
teration in denfity. The fire indeed does certainly ex¬
pand thefe oxides as well as other bodies ; but as the
medium interfperfed between their particles is thus al¬
fo expanded, the colour ought at leaft to remain the
fame, if not to become lighter, on account of the fu-
perior expanfion of air to that of metal by the fame
degree of heat. It would feem, therefore, that the ac¬
tion of the element of fire itfelf has a confiderable fhare
in the produdlion of colours} and indeed its fhare in
the operations of nature is fo great, that we might well
think it ftrange if it fhould be entirely excluded from
this. 43
With regard to femipellucid fubftances, which ap-Of the co¬
pear of one colour by incident, and another by tranf-*ourso^
mitted light, our author likewife endeavours to lhow^p^nces
that no reflection is made by the coloured matter, but 
M only
9°
CHROMATICS.
only by the white or colourlefs particles. They con-
fift of pellucid media, throughout which white or co¬
lourlefs opaque particles are difperfed. The latter are
difpofed at fuch diftances from each other, that feme
of the incident rays of light are capable of palling
through the intervals which intercede them, and thus
are tranfmitted through the femipellucid mafs. Some
forts of rays penetrate through fuch maffes, while
others which differ from them in their refrangibility
are refle&ed by the white or colourlefs particles ; and
from thence are tranfmitted through the pellucid part
of the medium which intervenes between the reflefting
particles and the anterior lurface of the mafs. On the
fame principle our author explains the blue colour of
the Iky, the green colour of the fea, and other natural
^ phenomena : and from his numerous experiments on ,
How co- this fubjedf at lalt concludes, “ that the power by which
lours are the feveral rays of light are tranfmitted through diffe-
> frown by rent media is inherent in the particles themfelves, and
lighttherefore is not confined to the furfaces of fuch media.
For if the tranfmiflive force was exerted at the furface
only, the thinner plates of coloured fubftances wmuld
tifl: upon the rays as powerfully as thicker maffes.
But it appears from experiment, that in proportion as
the rays pafs through different thicknelfes of coloured
media, they exhibit colours differing not only in de¬
gree, but frequently in fpecies alfo.
“ The fun’s light, by which bodies are illuminated,
confifts of all the rays of which a white light is com¬
pounded. Thefe rays, in their entire and undivided
Hate, are incident upon the opaque particles of femi¬
pellucid fubftances, and upon the colouring particles
of tranfparent-coloured fubftances, whenever thefe me¬
dia are expofed to the light. When the rays ac¬
cede to the opaque particles of femipellucid fubftan¬
ces, fome forts of them are reflefted back from the
'interior furface of thofe particles : the other forts of
ravs, which are not refledfed back, are diverted from
the direftion which is oppofite to the anterior furface
of the opaque particles, and pafling through the in¬
tervals between the particles, are tranfmitted through
the mafs.
“ When the rays are incident upon the particles of
tranfparent coloured bodies, none of them are reflefted
back ; becaufe the colouring particles are not endowed
with any refleftive pow’er*, but fome of the rays are ei¬
ther flopped at the anterior furface of the particles, or
are diverted into fuch direclions as render them incapa¬
ble of pafting towards the further fide of the mafs j and
confequently fuch rays cannot be tranfmitted. The
rays w^hich are not thus intercepted or difperfed, are
tranfmitted in the fame manner as thofe which pafs
through femipellucid media. Thus it is evident, that
the colourecf'rays which are tranfmitted through femi¬
pellucid fubftances are infleEted by the opaque particles ;
and thofe which are tranfmitted through tranfparent-
coloured fubftances are infleffed by the colouring par¬
ticles. From the preceding obfervations likewife it ap¬
pears, that the particles of coloured media infle£f the
feveral forts of rays according to the feveral fizes and
denfities of the particles ; alfo in proportion to the in¬
flammability of the media which owe their colour to
them ; and it is manifeft that the tranfmifiion of co¬
loured rays depends upon their inflexion. All thefe ob-
fervations are co»fonnable to Sir iiaac Newton’s doc-
44
trine, that the rays of light are reflefled, refra&ed, and
infiedfed, by one and the fame principle adling vari-
oufly in various circumftances.”
The moft remarkable part of Mr Delaval’s dodlrine
is that concerning the metals 5 for the better under-
ftanding of which we fhall premife a ftrort abftradt of
his general doftrine concerning white bodies, and the
manner in which light is reflefted by them. “ All the of the
earths (he obferves), which in their natural ftate are of manner in
a pure white, conftitute tranfparent colouilefs media
when vitrified with proper fluxes, or when diflblved ,rcm w^tc
in colourlefs menftrua •, and the faline maffes obtain- bodies,
able from their folutions are tranfparent and colourlefs,
while they retain the water which is effential to their
cryftallization, and are rot flawed or reduced to pow¬
der but after their pores and interftices are opened
in fuch a manner as to admit the air, they become
then white and opaque by the entrance of that rare
medium. The earthy particles which form the folid
parts of bodies generally exceed the other in denfity j
confequently thefe particles, when contiguous to the
rare media already mentioned, muft refled! the rays of
light with a force proportionate to their denfity. The
refledlive power of bodies does not depend merely up¬
on their excefs of denfity, but upon their difference of
denfity with lefpedl to the furrounding media. Tranf¬
parent colourlefs particles, whofe denfity is greatly in¬
ferior to that of the media they come between, alfo
powerfully refled! all forts of rays, and thereby become
white. Of this kind are the air or other rare fluids
which occupy the interftices of liquors j and in general
of all denfer media into whofe interftices fuch rare par¬
ticles are admitted.
“ Hence we may conclude, that white opaque bo¬
dies are conftituted by the union or contiguity of two
or more tranfparent colourlefs media differing confi-
derably from each other in their refledlive powers. Of
thefe fubftances we have examples in froth, emulfions,
or other imperfed! combinations of pellucid liquors,,
milk, fnow, calcined or pulverized falls, glafs or cry-
ftal reduced to powder, white earths, paper, linen, and
even thofe metals which are called white by mineralo-
gifts and chemifts : for the metals juft mentioned do
not appear w’hite unlefs their furlaces be rough j as in
that cafe only there are interftices bn their furfaces fuf-
ficient to admit the air, and thus make a refledfion of a
white and vivid light.
“ But the polilhed furfaces of metallic mirrors re¬
fled! the incident rays equably and regularly, accord¬
ing to their feveral angles of incidence •, fo that the
refledled rays do not interfere with each other, but
remain feparate and unmixed, and therefore diflind!-
ly exhibit their feveral colours. Hence it is evident,
that white furfaces cannot ad! upon the light as mir¬
rors •, becaufe all the rays which are refledled from
them are blended in a promifeuous and diforderly
manner. _ 43
“ The above-mentioned phenomena give much in-Of the
fight into the nature and caufe of opacity : as they caule
clearly fhow, that even the rareft tranfparent colour-
lefs fubftances, when their furfaces are adjacent to me¬
dia differing greatly from them in refradlive power,
mav thereby acquire a perfed! opacity, and may affume
a refplendency and hue fo fimilar to that of white me~
tals, that the rarer pellucid fubftances cannot by the
fight
CHROMATICS.
be d’ftingiuftied from the denfe opaque metals.
And this fimilarity to the furfaces of metals occurs
in the rare pellucid fubftances, not only when, from
the roughnefs of their furfaces, they referable unpo-
liflied metals in whitenefs, but alfo when, from their
fmoothnefs, they referable the polifhed furfaces of me¬
tals.
“ Metals feem to confift entirely of tranfparent mat¬
ter, and to derive their apparent opacity and luftre
folely from the copious retledlion of light from their
furfaces. The analogy between the metals and tranf¬
parent media, as far as refpefts their optical properties,
will appear from the following confiderations.”
“ i. All metals diflblved in their proper menftrua
are tranfparent. 2. By the union of two or more tranf¬
parent media, fubftances are conftituted which are fimi-
lar to metals in their opacity and luftre, as plumbago
and marcafites. 3. The tranfparent fubftances of me¬
tals, as well as thofe of minerals, by their union with
carbone, acquire their ftrong refte&ive powers from
which their luftre and opacity arife. 4. The furfaces
of pellucid media, fuch as glafs or water, affume a me¬
tallic appearance, when by their fmoothnefs, differ¬
ence of denfity with refpeft to the contiguous media,
or any other caufe, they are difpofed copioufty to re-
fleft the light.
“ From all thefe confiderations it is evident, that
opaque fubftances are conftituted by the union or con¬
tiguity of tranfparent colourlefs media, differing from
one another in theirrefieftive powers-, and that, when
the common furface, which comes between fuch media,
is plane, equal, and fmooth, it refle&s the incident
rays equally and regularly as a mirror -, but when the
furface is rough and unequal, or divided into minute
particles, it refle&s the incident rays irregularly and
promifcuoufly in different directions, and confequently
appears white.”
Theory of From all thefe experiments we can only conclude,
■colours ftill that the theory of colours feems not yet to be deter-
tmcertam. mined with certainty ; and very formidable, perhaps
unanfw-erable, objections might be brought againft;
every hypothefis on this fubjeCt that hath been invent¬
ed. The difcoveries of Sir Ifaac Newton, how7ever,
are fufficient to juftify the following
as red and ellow, or yellow and blue, the intermediate
colour, as orange or green, may be produced.
7. The colours of bodies arife from their difpofitions
to refleCt one fort of rays, and to abforb the other }
thoie that refleCt the lealt refrangible rays appearing
red-, and thofe that refleCt the molt refrangible, violet.
8. Such bodies as refleCt two or more forts of rays
appear of various colours.
9. The whitenefs of bodies arifes from their difpofi-
tion to refleCt all the rays of light promifcuouflv*
10. The blacknefs of bodies proceeds from their in¬
capacity to refleCt any of the rays of light (c).
Entertaining Experiments, founded on the pre¬
ceding Principles.
I. Out of a fngle colourlefs ray of light to produce feven
other rays, which Jhall painty on a white body, the
feven primary colours of nature.
Procure from an optician a large glafs prifm DEF,
wjell polilhed, two of whofe fides mult contain an angle
of about fixty-four degrees. Make a room quite dark,
and in the window Ihutter AB, cut a round hole, about
one-third of an inch in diameter, at C, through which
a ray of light LI paffing, falls on the piifm DEF;
by that it is refraCted out of the direction IT, in which
it would have proceeded into another GH ; and, fall¬
ing on the paper MNSX, will there form an oblong
fpeCtrum PQ^whofe ends will be femicircular, and its
fides ftraight -, and if the diitance of the prifm from the
paper be about eighteen feet, it will be ten inches
long, and two inches wide. This fpeCtrum will exhi¬
bit all the primary colours j the rays between P and V,
which are the moft refraCted, will paint a deep violet j
thofe between V and I, indigo $ thofe between I and B,
blue } thofe between B and G, green ; thofe between
G and Y, yellow : thofe between Y and O, orange -x
and thofe between O and R, being the leaf! refraCted,
an intenfe red. The colours between thefe fpaces w ill
not be everywhere equally intenie, but will incline to
the neighbouring colour : thus the part of the orange
next to R will incline to a red, that next to Y to a
yellow ; and fo of the reft.
9 s
Plate
CXLV.
Fig. 1.
APHORISMS.
1. All the colouis in nature proceed from the rays
of light.
2. There are feven primary colours -, which are red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.
3. Every ray of light may be feparated into the feven
primary colours.
4- The rays of light in paffing through the fame me-
•dium have different degrees of refrangibility.
5. The difference in the colours of light arifes from
its different refrangibility : that which is the leaf! re¬
frangible producing red j and that which is the moft
frangible, violet.
6. By compounding any two of the primary colours,
II. From two or more of the primary colours, to compofe
others that f>all, in appearance, rejemble thofe of the
former.
By mixing the two homogeneous colours red and
yellow', an orange wffll be produced, fitnilar in appear¬
ance to that in the feries of primary colours ; but the
light of the one being homogeneous, and that of the
other heterogeneous, if the former be viewed through a
prifm it will remain unaltered, but the other will be
refolved into its component colours, red and yellow.
In like manner, other contiguous homogeneous colours
may compound new- colours; as by mixing yellow and
green, a colour between them is formed ’, and if blue
be added, there will appear a green, that is the middle
M 2 colour
(c) From hence it arifes, that black bodies, when expofed to the fun, become fooner heated than al!
others.
92
C H R O M
colour of thofe three. For the yellow and blue, if
they are equal in quantity, will draw the intermediate
green equally toward them, and keep it, as it were, in
equilibrio, that it verge not more to the one than to
the other. To this compound green there may be
added fome red and violet 5 and yet the green will not
immediately ceafe, but grow lefs vivid ; till by adding
more red and violet it will become more diluted ; and
at lafl, by the prevalence of the added colours, it will
be overcome, and turned into fdme anomalous colour.
If the fun’s white, compofed of all kinds of rays, be
added to any homogeneous colour, that colour will not
vanifh, nor change its fpecies, but be diluted ; and by
adding more white, it will become continually more
diluted. Laftly, if red and violet be mixed, there will
be generated, according to their various proportions,
various purples, fuch as are not like, in appearance,
to the colour of any homogeneous light •, and of thefe
purples, mixed with blue and yellow, other new colours
may be compofed.
III. Out of three of the primary colours, red, yellow,
and blue, to produce all the other prifmatic colours,
and all that are intermediate to them.
Fig. 2. Provide three panes of glafs of about five inches
fquare 5 and divide each of them, by parallel lines, in¬
to five equal parts. Take three fheets of very thin
paper; which you muft paint, lightly, one blue, an¬
other yellow, and the third red (d). Then pafte on
one of the glaffes five pieces of the red paper, one of
which muft cover the whole glafs, the fecond only the
four lower divifions, the third the three lower, the
fourth the two loweft, and the fifth the laft divifion
only. On the other glaffes five pieces of the blue and
yellow papers muft be palled in like manner. You muft
alfo have a box of about fix inches long, and the fame
depth and width as the glaffes ", it muft be black on
the infide : let one end he quite open, and in the
oppofite end there muft be a hole large enough to fee
the glaffes completely. It muft alfo open at the top,
that the glaffes may be placed in it conveniently.
When you have put any one of thefe glaffes in the
box, and the open end is turned toward the fun, you
will fee five diftinft lhades of the colour it contains.
If you place the blue and yellow glaffes together, in a
fimilar diretftion, you will fee five lhades of green dif-
tin&ly formed. When the blue and red glaffes are
A T I C S.
placed, a bright violet will be produced : and by the
red and yellow, the feveral lhades of orange.
If, inftead of placing thefe glaffes in a fimilar poll-Fig. 3.
tion, you place the fide AB of the yellow glafs againft
the fide BD of the blue, you will fee all the various
greens that are produced by nature (e) j if the blue
and red glaffes be placed in that manner, you will have
all the poffible varieties of purples, violets, &c. ; and,
laftly, if the red and orange glaffes be fo placed, there -
will be all the intermediate colours, as the marygold,
aurora, &c.
IV. By means of the three primary colours, red, yellow,
and blue, together with light andJhade, to produce all
the gradations of the prifmatic colours.
On feven fquare panes of glafs, pafte papers that
are painted with the feven prifmatic colours, in the fame
manner as in the laft experiment. The colours for the
orange, green, indigo, and violet, may be made by
mixing the other three. Then with biftre (f), well
diluted, fhade a fheet of very thin paper, by laying k
light on both its fides. With pieces of this paper cover
four-fifths of a glafs, of the fame fize with the others,
by laying one piece on the four loweft divifions, an¬
other on the three loweft, a third on the two loweft,
and the fourth on the loweft divifion only, and leaving
the top divifion quite uncovered. When one of the
coloured glaffes is placed in the box, together with the
glafs of lhades, fo that the fide AB of the one be ap¬
plied to the fide BC of the other, as in fig. 3. the fe¬
veral gradations of colours will appear (haded in the
fame manner as a drapery judicioufly painted with that
colour.
It is on this principle that certain French artifts
have proceeded in their endeavours to imitate, by de-
figns printed in colours, paintings in oil: which they
do by four plates of the fame fize, on each of which is
engraved the fame defign. One of thefe contains all
the lhades that are to be reprefented, and which are
painted either black or with a dark gray. One of the
three other plates is coloured with blue, another with
red, and the third with yellow •, each of them being
engraved in thofe parts only which are to reprefent
that colour (g) •, and the engraving is either ftronger
or weaker, in proportion to the tone of colour that is
to be reprefented (h).
Thefe four plates are then paffed alternately under
the
(d) Water-colours muft be ufed for this purpofe : the blue may be that of Pruflia, and very bright j the red,
carmine } and the yellow, gamboge, mixed with a little faffron. Thefe colours muft be laid very light and even,
on both fides of the paper.
(e) In the firft pofition of the glaffes, the quantity of blue and yellow being equal, the fame fort of green was
conftantly vifible : but by thus inverting the glaffes, the quantity of the colours being conftantly unequal, a
very pleafing variety of tints is produced.
(f) The biftre here ufed muft be made of foot, not that in ftone.
(g) When a red drapery is required, it is engraved on the plate aftigned to that colour ", and fo of yellow
and blue : but if one of the other colours be w^anting, fuppofe violet, it muft be engraved on thofe that print the
red blue : and fo of the reft. The plates of this kind have been hitherto engraved in the manner of mezzotintoj
but thefe, unlefs they are Ikilfully managed, are foon effaced. Engravings in the manner of the crayon will
perhaps anfwer better. ' . ...
- (h) The orincipal difficulty in this fort of engraving arifes from a want of a fkilful management, in giving
each plate that pregife degree of engraving which will produce the tone of colour required, If a bright greea
93
t
Fig. 4.
C H R O M
tlie prefs. and tlie mixture of -tfeir colours produces
a print that bears no fmall refemblance to a painting.
It muft be confeffed, however, that what has been hi¬
therto done of this kind falls far fliort of that degree
of perfection of which this art appears fufceptible. If
they who engrave the belt in the manner of the crayon,
were to apply themfelves to this art, there is reafon to
expeCt they would produce far more fimlhed pieces
than we have hitherto feen.
V. To make figures appear of different colours fuccef-
fvely.
Make a hole in the window-fliutter of a dark room,
through which a broad beam of light may pals, that is
to be refraCted by the large.glafs prifm ABC, which
may be made of pieces of mirrors cemented, together,
and filled with water. Provide another prifm DEF,
made of three pieces of wood, through the middle of
this there muit pafs an axis on wThich it is to icvolve.
This prifm muft be covered with white paper j and
each of its fides cut through in feveral places, fo as to
reprefent different figures j and thofe of each fide (hould
likewife be different. The infide of this prifm is to be
hollow, and made quite black, that it may not. refleft
any of the light that paffes through the fides into it.
When this prifm is placed near to that of glafs, as in
the figure, with one of its fides EF perpendicular to
the ray of light, the figures on that fide will appear
perfeCUy white : but when it comes into the pofition
g h, the figures will appear yellow and red j and when
it is in the pofition k /, they will appear blue and vio¬
let. As the prifm is turned round its axis, the other
fides will have a fimilar appearance. If, inftead of a
prifm, a four or five fided figure be here ufed, the ap¬
pearances will be ftill further diverfified.
This phenomenon arifes from the different refrangi-
bility of the rays of light. For when the fide Eh is
in the pofition g b, it is more ftrongly illuminated by
the leaft refrangible rays j and wherever they are pre¬
dominant, the objeCI will appear red or yellow. But
when it is on the pofition k l, the more refrangible
rays being then predominant, it will appear tinged
with blue and violet.
VI. The folar magic lantern.
Procure a box, of about a foot high, and eighteen
inches wide, or fuch other fimilar dimenfions as you
(hall think fit, and about three inches deep. Two of
the oppofite fides of this box muft be quite open *, and
in each of the other fides let there be a groove, wide
enough to pafs a ftiff paper or pafteboard.. This box
muft be faftened againft a window on which the fun s
rays fall direCt. The reft of the window fhould be
clofed up, that no light may enter. Provide feveral
(heets of ftiff paper, which muft be blacked on one
fide. On thefe papers cut out fuch figures as you
Ihall think proper j and placing them alternately in
the grooves of the box, with their blacked fides to¬
wards you, look at them through a large and. clear
glafs prifm : and if the light be ftrong, they will ap-
A T I C S.
pear to be painted with the moft lively colours in na¬
ture. If you cut on one of thefe papers the xorm or
the rainbow, about three quarters of an inch wide, you
will have a lively reprefentation of that in the atmo-
This experiment may be farther diyerfified, by
palling very thin papers, lightly painted with different
colours, over fome of the parts that are cut . out:
which will appear to change their colours when viewed
through the prifm, and to Hand out from the paper,
at different diftances, according to the different de¬
grees of refrangiblity of the colours with which they
are painted. For greater convenience, the prilm may
be placed in a Hand on a table, at the height of your
eye, and made to turn round on an axis, that vyhen
you have got an agreeable profpedt, you may fix it in
that pofition.
VII. Theprifmatic camera ohfcura.
Make two holes F, /, in the fliutter of a dark Fig. 5.
chamber, near to each ether j and againft each hole
place a prifm ABC, and a he, in a perpendicular di¬
rection, that their fpe&rums NM may be call, on the
paper in a horizontal line, and coincide with each
other j the red and violet of the one being in the
fame part with thofe of the other. The paper Ihould
be placed at luch a diftance from the pnlms that the
fpeftrum may be fufficiently dilated. Provide feveral
papers nearly of the fame dimenfions with the fpettrumj
crofs thefe papers, and draw lines parallel to the divi-
fions of the colours. In thefe divifions cut out fuch
figures as you ftiall find will have an agreeable effett, ,
as flowers, trees, animals, &c. When you have placed
one of thefe papers in its proper pofition, hang a black
cloth or paper behind it, that none of the rays that pals
through may be refleaed and confufe the phenomena.
The figures cut on the paper will then appear ftrongly
illuminated with all the original, colours of nature.
If, while one of the prifms remains at reft,.the other
be revolved on its axis, the continual alteration of the
colours will afford a pleafing variety *, which may be
further increafed by turning the prifm round in differ¬
ent direaions. r
When the prifms are fo placed that the two ipec-
trums become coincident in an inverted order of their
colours, the red end of one falling on the violet end. of
the other •, if they be then viewed through a third
prifm DH, held parallel to their length, they will no
longer appear coincident, but in the form of two dr-
ftinft fpedftrums, p t and n m (fig. 6.), crofling one an-
other in the middle, like the letter X : the red of one
fpeftrum and the violet of the other, which were co¬
incident at NM, being parted from each other by a
greater refraftion of the violet to p and //*, than that
of the red to n and t. .
This experiment may be further diverfified by add¬
ing two other prifms, that (hall form a fpetfrum. in tne
fame line, and contiguous to the other ; by which not
only the variety of figures, but the viciflitude of colours,
will be confiderably augmented.
is to be reprefented, there (hould be an equal quantity of engraving on the red and yellow plates : but if an olive
green, the yellow plate fhould be engraved much deeper than the red*
94
Fig. 7.
C H R O M
VIII. The diatonic fcale of colours.
The illuftrious Newton, in the courfe of his invefti-
gations of the properties of light, difcovered that the
length of the fpaces which the feven primary colours
poffefs in the fpeflrum, exactly correfponds to thofe
of chords that found the feven notes in the diatonic
fcale of mullc : As is evident by the following experi¬
ment.
On a paper in a dark chamber, let a ray of light be
largely refra&ed into the fpeftrum AFTMGP, and
mark the precife boundaries of the feveral colours, as
<7, b, c, &c. Draw lines from thofe points perpendi¬
cular to the oppofite fide, and you will find that the
fpaces M r/F, by which the red is bounded; r g ef
by which the orange is bounded ; q p e dy by which
the yellow is bounded, &c. will be in exadt proportion
to the divifions of a mufical chord for the notes of an
odlave ; that is, as the intervals of thefe numbers 1,
tri T> f> To? 4*
IX. Colorific mufic.
Father Caftel, a Frenchman, in a curious book he
has publifiaed on chromatics, fuppofes the note ut to
anfwer to blue in the prifmatic colours; the note re to
yellow, and mi to red. The other tones he refers to
the intermediate colours ; from whence he conftrudls
the following gamut of colorific mufic :
Ut
Ut fiiarp
Re
Re fharp
Mi
Fa
Fa {harp
Sol
Sol {harp
La
La Iharp
Si
Ut
Blue
Sea green
Bright green
Olive green
Yellow
Aurora
Orange
Red
Crimfon
Violet
Blue violet
Sky blue
Blue.
This gamut, according to this plan, is to be conti¬
nued in the fame manner for the following odtave ;
except that the colours are to be more vivid.
He fuppofes that thefe colours, by ftriking the eye
in the fame fucceffion as the founds (to which he
makes them analogous) do the ear, and in the fame
order of time, they will produce correfpondent fen-
fations of pleafure in the mind. It is on thefe general
principles, which F. Cailel has elucidated in his trea-
tife, that he has endeavoured, though with little fuccefs,
to efiablilh his ocular harpfichord.
The conftruftion of this indrument, as here ex¬
plained, will (how that the effcdls produced by colours
by no means anfwer thofe of founds, and that the
principal relation there is between them confifts in
the duration of the time that they refpeflively affcft
th ■ fenfes.
B tween two circles of pafteboard, of ten inches
diameter, AB and CD, inclofe a hollow pafteboard
A T I c S.
cylinder E, 18 inches long. Divide this cylinder
into fpaces half an inch wide, by a fpiral line that
runs round it from the top to the bottom, and divide
its furface into fix equal parts by parallel lines drawn
between its two extremities: as is expreffed in the
figure.
Let the circle AB, at top, be open, and let that at
bottom, CD, be clofed, and fupported by an axis or
fcrew, of half an inch diameter, which muft turn free¬
ly in a nut placed at the bottom of a box w’e ftrall
prefently defcribe. To the axis juft mentioned adjuft
a wooden wheel G, of two inches and a half in dia¬
meter, and that has 12 or 15 teeth, which take the
endlefs fcrew H. Let this cylinder be inclofed in a
box ILMN (fig. 9.) whole bafe is fquare, and at
whofe bottom there is a nut, in which the axis F
turns. Obferve that the endlefs fcrew H Ihould come
out of the box, that it may receive the handle O, by
which the cylinder is to be turned.
This box being clofed all round, place over it a tin
covering A, which will be perforated in different
parts ; from this cover there muft hang three or four
lights, fo placed that they may ftrongly illumine the
infide of the cylinder. In one fide of this box (which
flrould be covered with pafteboard) cut eight aper¬
tures a, b, ct d, e, f g, h, of half an inch wide, and Fig.
-f of an inch high ; they muft be direftly over each
other, and the diftance between them muft be exaflly
two inches. It is by thefe openings, which here
correfpond to the mufical notes, that the various co¬
lours analogous to them are to appear ; and which
being placed on the pafteboard cylinder, as we have
Ihown, are refle&ed by means of the lights placed
within it.
It is eafy to conceive, that when the handle O is
turned, the cylinder in confequence rifing half an
inch, if it be turned five times round, it will fuccef-
fively ftioxv, at the openings made in the fide of the
box, all thofe that are in the cylinder itfelf, and which
are ranged according to the diredtion of the inclined
lines drawn on it. It is therefore according to the
duration of the notes which are to be expreffed, that
the apertures on the cylinder are to be cut. Obferve,
that the fpace between two of the parallel lines drawn
vertically on the cylinder, is equal to one meafure of
time ; therefore, for every turn of the cylinder, there
are fix meafures, and thirty mealures ior the air that
is to be played by this inftrument.
The feveral apertures being made in the fide of the
cylinder, in conformity to the notes of the tune that
is to be expreffed, they are to be covered with double
pieces of vety thin paper, painted on both' fides with
the colours that are to reprefent the mufical notes.
This expetiment might be executed in a different
manner, and with much greater extent ; but as the
entertainment would not equal the trouble and ex-
penct, we have thought it fufficient to give the above
piece, by which the reader will be enabled to judge
bow far the analogy fuppofed by F. Caftel really
exifts.
\
CHRONIC,
IPlate CXL\
C H R [
chronic, CHRONIC, or chronical, among phyficians, an
Chronicle appellation given to difeafes that continue a long time j
in contradiftintlion to thofe that foon terminate, and are
called acute,
CHRONICLE, in matters of literature, a fpecies
or kind of hiltory difpofed according to the order of
time, and agreeing in molt refpedts with annals. See
Annals.
Parian Chronicle. Sze/iRUNDEUANMarbles. Since
that article - as printed, in w'hich an abttradt was given
of Mr Robertfon’s doubts and obfervations refpe&ing
the authenticity of the Parian Chronicle, one or two
publications have fince appeared in anfvver, but none
of them calculated to remove the obje6tiom, or mate¬
rially to affect the arguments that had been ifated with
fo much learning and ingenuity againft it. The fol¬
lowing ftri£tures, however, with which the Monthly
Reviewers have concluded their critique of Mr Ro¬
bertfon’s performance, feem to merit confideration.
Monthly On Objeftion I. 'That the characters have no certain
Review. or unequivocal marks of antiquity, the Reviews remark,
Jan. 17S9. that this feems rather to be an anfwer to a defender of
the infcription, than an obje£fion. If a zealous parti-
zan of the marble Ihould appeal to its chara&ers and
orthography, as decifive proofs of its being genuine, it
would be proper enough to anfwer, that thele circum-
ftances afford no certain criterion of authenticity. But
in this word certain fculks an unlucky ambiguity. If
it means demonftrative, it mull be allowed that no in¬
fcription can be proved to be certainly genuine from
thefe appearances •, but if it means no more than high¬
ly probable, many infcriptions polfefs fufRcient inter¬
nal evidence to give their claims this degree of cer¬
tainty. The true queilion is, H. s not the Parian
Chronicle every mark of antiquity that can he expell¬
ed in a monument claiming the age of 2000 years ?
The letters V and X are, by Mr R’s own confelfion,
fuch as occur in genuine infcriptions : and to fay in an¬
fwer, that an impoilor might copy the forms of thefe
letters from other infcriptions, is already to fuppofe
the infcription forged, before it is rendered probable
by argument. The learned author of the Differtation
feems to betray fome doubt of his own conelufion:
for he adds, p. 56. M that the antiquity of an infcrip¬
tion can never be proved by the mere form of the let¬
ters. becaufe the molt ancient characters are as eafily
counterfeited as the modern.” But this objection is
equally applicable to all other ancient infcriptions ;
and is not to the purpofe, if the prefent infcription has
any peculiar marks of impolture in its characters and
orthography- “ The characters do not referable the Si-
gean, \he Nemean, or the Delian infcriptions.” .Mr R.
anfwers this objection himfelf, by adding, “ which are
fuppofed to be of a more ancient date.” The oppofite
reafon to this will be a fufficient anfwer to the other
objection, “ that they do not referable the Farnefian
pillars or the Alexandrian MS.” If “ they differ
in many refpeCts from the Marmor Sandvicenfe,” they
may be prefumed to agree in many. “ They feem to
referable, more than any other, the alphabet taken by
Montfau^on from the marmor Cyzicenum.” Thus it
appears that the Parian Chronicle molt nearly refem-
bles the two infcriptions, to whole age it molt nearly
approaches.
When Mr R. adds, that the letters “ are
fuch
95 1 c H R
an ordinary {lone-cutter would probably make, if He
were employed to engrave a Greek infcription, accord¬
ing to the alphabet now in ule,” he muft be under-
ftood cum grano falis. The engraver of a fac-fimile
generally omits fome nice and minute touches in ta¬
king his copy •, but, even with this abatement, we dare
appeal to any adept in Greek calligraphy, whether the
fpecimen facing p. 56. will juftify our author’s obfer-
vation ? “ The fmall letters (O, 0, fi,) intermixed
among the larger, have an air of affeClation and arti¬
fice.” Then has the greater part of ancient infcrip¬
tions an air of affe&ation and artifice. For the O is
perpetually engraved in this diminutive fize 5 and ft
being of a kindred found, and © of a kindred lhape,
how can we wonder that all three fhould be reprefent-
ed of the fame magnitude > In the infcription which
immediately follows the marble in Dr Chandler’s edi¬
tion, N° xxiv. thefe very three letters are never fo
large as the reft, and often much Imaller j of which
there are inftances in the three firft lines. See alio
two medals in the fecond part of Dorville’s Sicula,
Tab. xvi. Numb. 7. 9.
“ From the archaifms, fuch as ry eyKv/SsAwsj.
ip nxg&t, &c. &c. no conclufion can be drawn in fa¬
vour of the authenticity of the infcription.” Yet fure-
ly every thing common to it with other infcriptions,
confeffedly genuine, “creates a reafonable prefump-
tion in its favour. “ But what reafon could there be
for thefe archaifms in the Parian Chronicle ? We do
not ufually find them in Greek writers of the lame
age, or even of a more early date.” The reafon is,
according to our opinion, that fuch archaifms were
then in ufe : this we know from other infcriptions, in
which fuch archailms (or, as our author afterwards
calls them, barbariffin- ) are frequent. Nothing can
be inferred from the Greek writers, unlefs we had
their autographs. The prefent fyftem of orthography in
our printed Greek books is out of the queftion. A-
gain, “ The infcription fometimes adopts and fome-
times negledfts tbefe archaifms, as in lines 4, 12 27,
52, 63, 67.” This inconfiftency either is no valid
obje&ion, or if it be valid, will demolifh net only al-
moft every other infcription, but almoft every writing
whatfoever. For example, in • the infcription juft
quoted, N° xxiv. we'find raN fixtrtAecc, 1. 20. and aretM,
TriUTrni, 24. A little farther. N° xxvi. 1. 31. we have
May ivrixs, 57. 73. 81. tK Mxyvna-ia?, and 106. ic8.
sKT Mayvna-iag. The Corcyrean inlcription (Montfau-
$on. Di r. Irak p. 420 ) promilcuoully ufes sK^ers/^was*-
and irdxvu^opxi. In Englifh, who is furprifed to find
has and hath, a hand and an hand, a vfeful and an ufe~
fid, in the wTorks of the lame author ? We could pro¬
duce inftances of this inaccuracy from the fame page,
nay from the fame fentence.
“ The authenticity of thofe infcriptions, in which
thefe archaifms appear, muft be tftablifhed, before
they can be produced in oppofition to the prelent ar¬
gument.” This is, we cannot help thinking, rather
too fevere a reftrkftion. If no infcription may be
quoted before it be proved genuine, the learned author
of the Differtation need not be afraid of being con¬
futed \ for nobody will engage with him on fuch con¬
ditions. Perhaps the reverfe of the rule will be thought
more equitable •, that every infcription be allow'ed to
be genuine, till its authenticity be rendered doubtful
1 bv
Chronicle.
as
C H R
[ 56 ] C H R
Chronicle.
by probable arguments. We will conclude this head
with two fhort obfervations. In Selden’s copy, 1. 26.
was written IIOHEIN, which the latter editions have al¬
tered to nOIHSIN, but without reafon, the other be¬
ing the more ancient way of writing, common in MSS.
and fometimes found on infcriptions. (See G. Koen’s
Notes on Gregorius de DialeBis, p. 30.) In 1. 83. the
marble has for which Palmer wiflied to
fubftitute K<*AAi«v. Dr Taylor refutes him from the
Marmor Sandvicenfe, obferving at the fame time, that
this orthography occurs in no other place whatever
except in thefe two monuments. Is it likely that two
engravers fhould by chance coincide in the fame mif-
take, or that the forger of the Parian Chronicle (if it
be forged) fliould have feen the Marmor Sandvicenfe,
and taken notice of this peculiarity with the intention
of afterward employing it in the fabrication of an itn-
poflure ?
The reviewers next proceed to confideV, but more
briefly, the other objeftions.
II. It is not probable that the Chronicle was engraved
for private ufe.— x. Becaufe it was fuch an expence, as
few learned Greeks were able to afford. If only a few
were able to afford it, fome one of thofe few might be
willing to incur it. But let Mr R. confider how like¬
ly it is that a modern, and probably a needy Greek,
Ihould be more able to afford it fti the laft century, than
a learned Greek 2000 years ago \ A manufcript is
more readily circulated. Do men never prefer cumbrous
ipler.dor to cheapnefs and convenience ? And if this
compofition, inftead of being engraved on marble, had
.been committed to parchment, would it have had a
better chance of coming down to the prefent age ?
Such a flying flieet would foon be loft •, or, if a copy
had, by miracle, been preferved to us, the objections
to its being genuine would be more plaufible than any
that have been urged againft the infcription. What
Mr R. fays about the errors to which an infcription is
liable, &c. will only prove that chronological infcrip¬
tions ought not to be engraved ; but not that they ne¬
ver were. We allow that the common method of wri¬
ting in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus was not on
stones. But it wras common enough to occur to the
mind of any perfon who wiftxed to leave behind him a
memorial at once of his learning and magnificence.
III. This objedion, that the marble does not appear
to be engraved by public authority, we (hall readily ad¬
mit, though Bentley (Diff. on Phalaris, p. 251.) leans
to the contrary opinion. In explaining this objection,
the learned differtator obferves, that though the ex-
preflion, ifs. Yln^ui, would lead us to fuppofe that
the infcription related to Paros, not a Angle circum-
ftance in the hiftory of that ifland is mentioned. But
this expreflion only (hows that the author was an in¬
habitant of Paros, and intended to give his readers a
clue, or parapegma, by the aid of which they might
adjuft the general chronology of Greece to the dates
of their own hiftory. “ It is as abfurd as would be a
marble in Jamaica containing the revolutions of Eng¬
land.” We fee no abfutdity in fuppofing a book to
be written in Jamaica containing the revolutions of
England. The natives of Paros were not uninterefted
in events relating to the general hiftory of Greece,
particularly of Athens ; and bow can we tell whether
the author were an inquilinus, or a native of the ifland 5
l
whether he thought it a place beneath his care ; or Chronicle,
whether he had devoted a feparate infcription to the -v-—*
chronology of Paros ?
IV. . It has been frequently obferved, that the earlier
periods of the Grecian hijiory are involved in darknefs and
confufion. Granted. It follows then, that “ an author
who fliould attempt to fettle the dates of the earlier pe¬
riods would frequently contradift preceding, and be con¬
tradicted by iubfequent, writers 5 that he would natu¬
rally fall into miftakes •, and at beft could only hope to
adopt the moft probable fyftem. But the difficulty of
the talk, or the impoflibility of fuccefs, are not fufficient
to prove that no man has been raftr or mad enough to
make the attempt.” On the contrary, we know that
many have made it. What a number of difcordant
opinions has Mr R. himfelf given us from the ancients
concerning the age of Homer ? This confideration will
in part obviate another objection, that the Parian
Chronicle does not agree with any ancient author.
Eor if the ancients contradict one another, how could
it follow more than one of them l and why might not
the author, without any imputation of ignorance or
raflmefs, fometimes depart from them all ? If indeed
he difagrees with them when they are unanimous, it
might furniftr matter for fufpicion ; though even this
would be far from a decifive argument, unlefs the an¬
cients were fo extremely unlike the moderns, as never
to be fond of Angular and paradoxical pofitions.
V. This Chronicle is not once mentioned by any writer
of antiquity, flow many of thofe infcriptions, which
are preferved to the prefent day, are mentioned by
claflical authors ? Verrius Flaccus compofed a Roman
kalendar, which, as a monument of his learning and
induftry, was engraved on marble, and fixed in the mcft
public part of Prenefte. Fragments of this very ka¬
lendar were lately dug up at Prenefte, and have been
publiihed by a learned Italian. Now if the paffage
of Suetonius, which informs us of this eircumftancc,
had been loft, would the filence of the Latin writers
prove that the fragments were not genuine remains of
antiquity ? It may be faid that the cafes are not pa¬
rallel ; for not a Angle author mentions the Parian
Chronicle, whereas Suetonius does mention Verrius’s
Roman kalendar. To this we anfwer, It is dangerous
to deny the authenticity of any monument on the
{lender probability of its being cafually mentioned by
a Angle author. We fhall alio obferve, that this faCl
of the Hemicyclium of Verrius will anfwer fome part of
the Differtator’s fecond objection : “ The Parian Chro¬
nicle is not an infcription that might have been con¬
cealed in a private library.” Why not ? it is of no
extraordinary bulk; and might formerly have been
concealed in a private library, or in a private room,
with as much eafe as many infcriptions are now con¬
cealed in very narrow fpaces. But unlefs this monu¬
ment were placed in fome confpicuous part of the
ifland, and obtruded itfeif on the notice of every tra¬
veller. the wonder will in great meafure ceafe why it is
never quoted by the ancients. Of the nine authors
named in p. 109, had any one ever vifited Paros ? If
Paufanias had travelled thither, and publiflied his de-
fcription of the place, we might perhaps expefl: to
find fome mention of this marble in fo curious and in-
quifitive a writer. But though the infcription exifted,
and were famous at Paros, there feems no neceffity for
any
C H R
[ 97 1
Clironicle. any of the authors whofe works are ftill extant to have
^ Jcnown or recorded it. If there be, let this learned
■antagonift point out the place where this mention
ought to have been made. If any perfons were bound
by a ftronger obligation than others to fpeak ot the
Parian infcription, they muft be the profeffed chrono-
logers j but alas ! we have not the entire works of fo
much as a fingle ancient chronologer : it is therefore
impoflible to determine whether this Chronicle Were
quoted by any ancient. And fuppofing it had been
feen by fome ancient, whofe writings ftill remain, why
fhould he make particular mention of it ? Many au¬
thors, as we know from their remains, very freely co*
pied their predeceflbrs without naming them* Others,
finding only a colleftion of bare events in the infcrip¬
tion, without hiftorical proofs or reafons, might entire¬
ly negleft it, as deferving no credit. Mr R. feems to
lay much ftrefs on the precife, exaft, and particular
fpecification of the events, p. 109. But he ought to
refieft, that this abrupt and pofitive method of fpeak-
ing is not only ufual, but necelfary, in fuch fhort fy-
ftems of chronology as the marble contains, where
events only, and their dates, are fet down, unaccompa¬
nied by any examination of evidences for and againft,
without ftating any computation of probabilities, or
dedu&ion of reafons. When therefore a chronological
writer had undertaken to reduce the general hiftory of
Greece into a regular and confiftent fyftem, admitting
that he was acquainted with this infcription, what
grounds have we to believe that he would fay any
thing about it ? Either his fyftem coincided with the
Chronicle or not: if it coincided, he would very pro¬
bably difdain to prop his own opinions with the un-
fupported affertions of another man, who, as far as he
knew, was not better informed than himfelf. On the
other hand, if he differed from the authority of the
marble, he might think it a fuperftuous exertion of
complaifance, to refute, by formal demonftration, a
writer who had chofen to give no reafons for his own
opinion. We {hall pafs hence to
Objeftion VII. With refpeft to the parachronifms
that Mr R. produces, we {hall without hefitation grant,
that the author of the infcription may have committed
fome miftakes in his chronology, as perhaps concern¬
ing Phidon, whom he feems to have confounded with
another of the fame name, &c. But thefe miftakes
will not conclude againft the antiquity of the infcrip¬
tion, unlefs we at the fame time rejeft many of the
principal Greek and Roman writers, who have been
convidted of fimilar errors. We return therefore to
Objedlion VI. Some of the faBs feem to have been
tahen from authors of a later date. We have endea¬
voured impartially to examine and compare the paflages
quoted in proof of this objection ; but we are obliged
to confefs,that we do not perceive the fainteft traces of
theft or imitation. One example only deferves to be
excepted j to which we {hall therefore pay particular
attention.
“ The names of fix, and, if the lacunae are proper¬
ly fupplied, the names of twelve cities, appear to have
been engraved on the marble, exaftly, as we find them
in ^Elian’s Various Hiftory. But there is not any
imaginable reafon for this particular arrangement. It
does not correfpond with the time of their foundation,
with their fituation in Ionia, with their relative impor-
Vol. VI. Part I.
C H R
tance, or with the order in which they are placed by Carar.;..e..
other eminent hiftorians.”
The chance of fix names, fays Mr R. being placed
by two authors in the fame order, is as 1 to 720 j ot
12, . as 1 to 479,001,600. “ It is therefore utterly
improbable that thefe names would have been placed
in this order on the marble, if the author of the in¬
fcription had not tranfcribed them from the hiftorian.”
On this argument we {hall obferve, ift, 1 hat the
very contrary conclufion might poffibly be juft, that
the hiftorian tranfcribed from the infciiption. Yet we
{hall grant that in the prefent cafe this is improbable,
efpecially if the author of the Various Hiftory be the
fame Ailian, who, according to Philoftratus, \ it. So-
phift. II. 31. never quitted Italy in his life. But an
intermediate writer might have copied the marble, and
./Elian might have been indebted to him. 2dly, V'e
fee no reafon to allow, that the lacuna are properly
fupplied. Suppofe we ftiould affert, that the names
flood originally thus: Miletus, Ephefus, Erythrae,
Clazomene, Lebedos, Chios, Phociea, Colophon, Myus,
Priene, Samos, Teos. In this arrangement, only four
names would be together in the fame order with
iElian'; and from thele Miletus muft be excepted, be-
caufe there is an obvious reafon for mentioning that
city firft. Three only will then remain j and furely
that is too flight a refemblance to be conftrued into an
imitation. For Paufanias and Paterculus, quoted by
our author, p. 154, have both enumerated the fame
twelve cities, and both agree in placing the five laft in
the fame order ; nay, the fix laft, if Voftius’s conjeaure
that TEUM ought to be inferted in Paterculus after
Myum TEM. be as true as it is plaufible. But who
imagines that Paufanias had either opportunity or in¬
clination to copy Paterculus ? Allowing that the
names were engraved on the marble exaaiy in the or¬
der that /Elian has chofen, is there no way of folving
the phenomenon but by {uppofing that one borrowed
from the other ? Seven authors at leaft (M: R. le-ems
to fay more, p. I54> 155") colonization of
the fame cities: how many authors now loft may wTe
reafonably conjefture to have done the fame ? If there¬
fore the compofer of the Chronicle and /Elian light¬
ed on the fame authors, the former would probably
preferve the fame arrangement that he found, becaufe
in tranfcribing a lift of names, he could have no temp¬
tation to deviate 5 and the latter would certainly ad¬
here faithfully to his original, becaufe he is a notori¬
ous and fervile plagiarift. Mr R. indeed thinks,
p. 1 ^8, that if a fucceeding writer had borrowed the
words of the infcription, he would not have fuppreffed
the name of the author. This opinion muft fall to the
ground, if it be Ihown that /Elian was accuftomed to
fupprefs the names of the authors to whom he was
obliged. /Elian has given a lift of fourteen celebra¬
ted gluttons ; and, elfewhere, another of twenty-eight
drunkards (from which, by the way, it appears, that
people were apt to eat and drink rather too freely in
ancient as well as modern times) ; and both thefe lifts
contain exa6tly the fame names in the fame ord- r
with Atheneus. Now it is oblervable, that fou »
teen names may be tranfpofed 87,178,291,200 dif¬
ferent ways, and that twenty-eight names admit < f
304,888.344,611,713,860,501,504,000 000 different
tranipofitions, See. &c. /Elian therelore tranfcribed
N them
C H R [ 98 ] C H R
Chronicle, them from Atheneiis: yet JEUan never mentions
V ' Atheneiis in his Various Hiitory. So that whether
jElian copied from the marble, or only drew from a
common fource, he might, and very probably would,
conceal his authority.
VIII. The hijlory of the difcovery of the Marbles is
obfcure and unfatisfadiory.
In p. 169, it is faid to be “ related with fufpicious
circumftances, and without any of thofe clear and une¬
quivocal evidences which always difcriminate truth
from falfehood.” The queftion is then finally decided.
If the infcription has not any of thofe evidences which
truth always poiTeffes, and which falfehood always
■wants, it is moft certainly forged. The learned dif-
fertator feems for a moment to have forgotten the mo-
deft character of a doubter, and to perfonate the dog-
matift. But waving this, w-e Ihall add, that, as far
as we can fee, no appearance of fraud is difcoverable
in any part of the tranfaftion. The hiftory of many
infcriptions is related in a manner equally unfatisfaflo-
ry ; and if it could be clearly proved that the marble
was dug up at Paros, what could be eafier for a critic,
who is determined at any rate to objetft, than to fay,
that it was buried there in order to be afterward dug
up ? If the perfon who brought this treafure to light
had been charged on the fpot with forging it, or con¬
curring in the forgery, and had then refufed to pro¬
duce the external evidences of its authenticity, we
ftiould have a right to queftion, or perhaps to deny,
that it was genuine. But no fuch obje&ion having
been made or hinted, at the original time of its difco¬
very, it is unreafonable to require fuch teftimony as it
is now impoffible to obtain. “ There is nothing faid
of it in Sir T. Roe’s negociations.” What is the in¬
ference ? That Sir Thomas knew nothing of it, or be¬
lieved it to be fpurious, or forged it, or was privy to
the forgery ? Surely nothing of this kind can be pre¬
tended. But let our author account for the circum-
ftance if he can. To us it feems of no confequence on
either fide. “ Pierefc made no effort to recover this
' precious relic ; and from this compofure he feems to
have entertained fome fecret fufpicions of its authenti¬
city.” Pierefc would have had no chance of recover¬
ing it after it was in the poffeflion of Lord Arundel’s
agents. He was either a real or a pretended patron of
letters ; and it became him to affeft to be pleafed that
the infcription had come into England, and was illu-
ftrated by his learned friend Selden. John F. Grono-
vius had, with great labour and expence, collated An¬
na Comnena’s Alexiades, and intended to publifti them.
While he was waiting for fome other collations, they
were intercepted, and the work wras publilhed by ano¬
ther. As foon as Gronovius heard this unpleafant
news, he anfwered, that learned men were engaged in
a common caufe •, that if one prevented another in any
publication, he ought rather to be thanked for light¬
ening the burden, than blamed for interfering. But
who would conclude from this anfwer, that Gronovius
thought the Alexiades fpurious, or not worthy of any
regard ?
Mr R. calculates, that the venders of the marble re¬
ceived 2CO pieces. But here again we are left in the
dark, unlefs we knew the precile value of thefe pieces.
Perhaps they might be equal to an hundred of our
pounds, perhaps only to fifty. Befides, as they at firft
bargained with Samfon, Pierefc’s fuppofed Jew agent, Chronicle,
for fifty pieces only, they could not have forged the '—v" '■“*
infcription with the clear profpeft of receiving more $
neither does it appear that they were paid by Samfon.
It is fully as reafonable to fuppofe fraud on the one
fide as on the other j and if Samfon, after having the
marble in his poffeflion, refufed or delayed to pay the
fum ftipulated, he might, in confequence of fuch refu-
fal or delay, be thrown into prifon, and might, in re¬
venge, damage the marble before the owners could re¬
cover it. We own this account of ours to be a ro¬
mance j but it is lawful to combat romance with ro¬
mance.
IX. The world has been frequently impofed upon by
fpurious books and infcriptions ; and therefore we Jhould
be extremely cautious with regard to what ive receive
under the venerable name of antiquity.
Much truth is obferyable in this remark. But the
danger lies in applying fuch general apophthegms to
particular cafes. In the firft place, it muft be obferv-
ed, that no forged books will exadlly fuit Mr R.’s
purpofe, but fuch as pretend to be the author’s own
hand-writing ; nor any infcriptions, but fu.ch as are
ftill extant on the original materials, or fuch as were
known to be extant at the time of their pretended dif¬
covery. Let the argument be bounded by thefe li¬
mits, and the number of forgeries will be very much
reduced. We are not in poffeflion of Cyriacus Anco-
nitanus’s book ; but if we were governed by authority,
we Ihould think that the teftimony of Reinefius in his
favour greatly overbalances all that Auguftinus has faid
to his prejudice. The opinion of Reinefius is of the
more weight, becaufe he fufpefts Urfinus of publifhing
counterfeit monuments. We like wife find the moft
eminent critics of the prefent age quoting Cyriacus
without fufpicion (Vid. Ruhnken. in Timtei Lex. Plat.
р. 10. apud Koen, ad Gregor, p. 140.). The doflrine
advanced in the citation from Hardouin is exactly
conformable to that writer’s ufual paradoxes. He
wanted to deftroy the credit of all the Greek and La¬
tin writers. But infcriptions hung like a millftone
about the neck of his project. He therefore refolved
to make fure work, and to deny the genuinenefs of as
many as he faw convenient : to effeft which purpofe,
he intrenches himfelf in a general accufation. If the
author of the differtation had quoted a few more pa¬
ragraphs from Hardouin, in which he endeavours, af¬
ter his manner, to fliow the forgery of fome infcrip¬
tions, he would at once have adminiftered the poifon
and the antidote. But to the reveries of that learned
madman, refpedting Greek fuppofititious compofitions
of this nature, we Ihall content ourfelves wdth oppofing
the fentiments of a modern critic, whole judgment on,
the fubjetft of fpurious infcriptions will not be difput-
ed. Maffei, in the introduflion to the third book,
с. 1. p. i;i. of his admirable, though unfinilhed, wmrk,
de Arte Critic a Lapidaria, ufes thefe words : Infcriptio-
nutn Greece loquentium commentitias, f cum Catinis corn-
par emus, deprehendi paucas; neque enim ullum omnino
ejl, in tanta debacchantium fa/fariorum libidine, monu-,
menti genus, in quod ti fibi minus hcere putavennt.
Argumento ejl, paucifimas ufque in hanc diem ab erudi-
tis viris, et in hoc litcrarum genere plurimutn verfatis
rejeclas ej]e, faljique damnatas.
Books of Chronicles, a canonical writing of the
G H R O N
Chronicles, Old Teftament. It Is uncertain which were written
Chrono- cl}je Books of Kings, or The Chronicles, fmce they
. . cadi refer to the other. However it be, the latter is
often more full and comprehenfive than the former.
Whence the Greek interpreters call thefe two books
nct^uXtemuinx, Supplements, Additions, or things omit¬
ted, becaufe they contain fome circumftances which are
omitted in the other hillorical books. The Jews make
but one book of the Chronicles, under the title of Di-
bre-Haiamim, i. e. "Journals or Annals. Ezra is ge¬
neral believed to be the author of thefe books. It is
certain they were written after the end of the Babylo-
niih captivity and the firft year of the reign of Cyrus,
of whom mention is made in the laft chapter of the fe-
cond book.
The Chronicles, or Paraleipomena, are an abridge¬
ment of all the (acred hiftory, from the beginning of
O L O G Y. g
the Jewith nation to their firft return from the captl- Chrono.
vity, taken out of thofe books of the Bible which we J[r.arn’
(till have, and out of other annals which the author j0Vy
had then by him. The delign of the writer was to —
give the Jews a feries of their hiftory. The firft book
relates to the rife and propagation of the people of
Ifrael from Adam, and gives a punftual and exadt ac¬
count of the reign of David. The fecond book fets
down the progrefs and end of the kingdom of Judah,
to the very year of their return from the Babylonilh
captivity.
CHRONOGRAM, a fpecies of falfe wit, conlift-
ing in this, that a certain date or epocha is expreffed
by numeral letters of one or more verfes ; fuch is that
which makes the motto of a medal (truck by Guftavu?
Adolphus in 1632 :
ChrlltVs DVX 5 ergo trIVMphVs.j
C H R O N
O L O G Y,
rpREATS of time, the method of meafuring its
•*- parts, and adapting thefe, when diftinguilhed by
proper marks and characters, to paft tranfadtions, for
1 the illuftration of hiftory. This fcience therefore con-
How divi- fifts 0f tw0 part;s. The firft treats of the proper mea-
furement of time, and the adjuftment of its feveral di-
vifions $ the fecond, of fixing the dates of the various
events recorded in hiftory, and ranging them accord¬
ing to the feveral divifions of time, in the order in
which they happened.
Chronology, comparatively fpeaking, is but of mo¬
dern date. The ancient poets appear to have been en¬
tirely unacquainted with it ; and Homer, the moft ce¬
lebrated of them all, mentions nothing like a formal
kalendar in any part of his writings. In the moft early
periods, the only meafurement of time was by the fea-
fons, the revolutions of the fun and moon j and many
ages muft have elapfed before the mode of computation
by dating events came into general ufe. Several cen¬
turies intervened between the era of the Olympic games
Inaccurate and the firft hiftorians ; and fever al more between thefe
and the firft authors of chronology. When time firft
time at firft began to be reckoned, we find its meafures very inde*
made ufe terminate. The fucceffion of Juno’s priefteffes at Ar-
ot. gos ferved Hellanicus for the regulation of his narra¬
tive $ while Ephorus reckoned his matters by genera¬
tions. Even in the hiftories of Herodotus and Thucy¬
dides, we find no regular dates for the events record¬
ed : nor was there any attempt to eftablifti a fixed era,
until the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, who attemp¬
ted it by comparing and corredling the dates of the O-
lympiads, the kings of Sparta, and the fucceftion of
the priefteffes of juno at Argos. Eratofthenes and A*
pollodorus digefted the events recorded by them, ac¬
cording to the fucceflion of the Olympiads and of the
Spartan kings.
The uncertainty of the meafures of time in the moft
early periods renders the hiftories of thofe times equal¬
ly uncertain ; and even after the invention of dates
and eras, we find the ancient hiftorians very inatten¬
tive to them, and inaccurate in their computations.
Frequently their eras and years were reckoned dif-
2
Chronolo¬
gy un¬
known to
the an¬
cients.
ferently without their being fenfible of it, or at leaft
without giving the reader any information concerning
it; a circumftance which has rendered the fragments
of their works now remaining of very little ufe to po-
fterity. 1 he Chaldean and Egyptian writers are ge¬
nerally acknowledged to be fabulous 5 and Strabo ac¬
quaints us, that Diodorus Siculus, and the other early 4
hiftorians of Greece, were ill informed and credulous. Ancient hi-
Hence the difagreement among the ancient hiftorians,ftnr,ans no£
and the extreme confufion and contradiftion we meet cre"
with on comparing their works. Hellanicus and Acu-
filaus difagreed about their genealogies j the latter re¬
jected the traditions of Hefiod. Timseus accufed E-
phorus of falfehood, and the reft of the world accufed
Timaeus, The moft fabulous legends were impofed
on the world by Herodotus ; and even Thucydides and
Diodorus, generally accounted able hiftorians, have
been conviaed of error. The chronology of the La¬
tins is ftill more uncertain, The records of the Ro¬
mans were deltroyed by the Gauls *, and Fabius Pic-
tor, the moft ancient of their hiftorians, was obliged
to borrow the greateft part of his information from the
Greeks. In other European nations the chronology
is ftill more imperfe£t and of a later date ; and even
in modern times, a confiderable degree of confufion
and inaccuracy has arifen from want of attention in the
hiftorians to afeertain the dates and epochs with preci-
fion. 5
From thefe obfervations it is obvious how necelfary Utility of
a proper fyftem of chronology muft be for the right chronology,
underftanding of hiftory, and likewife how very difti-M,of chr0"
cult it muft be to eftablifti fuch a fyftem. In this, &c^Ser*J
however, feveral learned men have excelled, particu-
larly Julius Africanus, Eufebius of Csefftrea, George
Cyncelle, John of Antioch, Dennis, Petau, Cluviar,
Calvifius, Uftier, Simfon, Marfliam, Blair, and Play¬
fair. It is founded, t. On aftronomical obfervations,
particularly of the eclipfes of the fun and moon, com¬
bined with the calculations of the eras and years of dif¬
ferent nations. 2. The teftimonies of credible authors.
3. Thofe epochs in hiftory which are fo well attefted
and determined, that they have never been contro.
N 2 verted-
IOO
6
Of the di-
vifion of
time into
days.
Civil, folar,
&c. days
defined.
C H R O N
verted. 4. Ancient medals, coins, monuments, and
infcriptions. None of thefe, however, can be fuffi-
ciently intelligible without an explanation of the firft
part, which, we have already obferved, confiders the
divifions of time, and of which therefore we fhall treat
in the firll: place.
The moft obvious divifion of time is derived from the
apparent revolutions of the celeftial bodies, particular¬
ly of the fun, which by the viciflitudes of day and
night becomes evident to the moft barbarous and ig¬
norant nations. In ftridt propriety of fpeech, the word
day fignifies only that portion of time during wdiich
the fun diffufes light on any part of the earth $ but in
the moft comprehenftble fenfe, it includes the night
alfo, and is called by chronologers a civi/ day $ by
aftronomers a natural, and fometimes an artificial
day.
By a civil day is meant the interval betwixt the
fun’s departure from any given point in the heavens
and next return to the fame, with as much more as
anfwers to its diurnal motion eaftward, which is at the
rate of 59 minutes and 8 feconds of a degree, or 3 mi¬
nutes and 57 feconds of time. It is alfo called % folar
day, and is longer than a fdereal one, infomuch that,
if the former be divided into 24 equal parts or hours,
the latter will confift only of 23 hours 56 minutes.
The apparent inequality of the fun’s motion, likewife,
arifing from the obliquity of the ecliptic, produces an¬
other inequality in the length of the days: and hence
the difference betwixt real and apparent time, fo that
the apparent motion of the fun cannot always be a true
meafure of duration. Thofe inequalities, however,
are capable of being reduced to a general ftandard,
which furnifhes an exaft meafure throughout the year;
whence arifes the difference between mean and appa¬
rent time, as is explained under the article Astro¬
nomy.
There have been very confiderable differences among
computing nat>ons regard to the beginning and ending of
the begin- their days. The beginning of the day tvas counted
ning of the from funrife by the Babylonians, Syrians, Perfians,
day* and Indians. The civil day of the Jews was begun
from funrife, and their facred one from funfet; the
latter mode of computation being followed by the A-
thenians, Arabs, ancient Gauls and other European
nations. According to fome, the Egyptians began
tWbir day at funfet, while others are of opinion that
they computed from noon or from funrife : and Pliny
informs us that they computed their civil day from one
midnight to another. It is probable, however, that
they had different modes of computation in different
provinces or cities. The Aufonians, the moft ancient
inhabitants of Italy, computed the day from mid¬
night ; and the aftronomers of Cathay and Oighur in
the Eaft Indies reckoned in the fame manner. This
mode of computation was adopted by Hipparchus,
Copernicus, and other aftronomers, and is now in com¬
mon ufe among ourfelves. The afronomical day, how¬
ever, as it is called, on account of its being ufed in
aftronomical calculations, commences at noon, and
ends at the fame time the following day. The Maho-
inethod of metans reckon from one twilight to another. In Ita-
tionmta' c^v‘l ^ay commences at fome indeterminate
Italy. point after funfet; whence the time of noon varies with
the feafon of the year. At the fummer folftice, the
Different
ways of
9
Strange
O L O G Y.
clock ftrikes 16 at noon, and 19 at the time of the
winter folftice. Thus alfo the length of each day dif¬
fers by feveral minutes from that immediately preced¬
ing or following it. This variation requires a confi¬
derable difficulty in adjufting their time by clocks. It
is accomplifhed, however, by a hidden movement
which correfts the difference when it amounts to a
quarter of an hour; and this it does fometimes at the
end of eight days, fometimes at the end of 15, and
fometimes at the end of 40. Information of all this is
given by a printed kalendar, which announces, that
from the 16th of February, for inftance to the 24th,
it will be noon at a quarter part 18 5 from the 24th of
February to the 6th of March, it will be noon at 18
o’clock precifely 5 from the firft of June to the 13th of
July, the hour of noon will be at 16 o’clock ; on the
13th of July it will be at half an hour after 16; and
fo on throughout the different months of the year.
This abfurd method of meafuring the day continues,
notwithftanding feveral attempts to fapprefs it, through¬
out the whole of Italy, a few provinces only ex¬
cepted. _ IO
The fubdivifions of the day have not been lefs vari-Various
ous than the computations of the day itfelf. The moft fubd'vifions
obvious divifion, and which could at no time, nor inoftheday*
no age, be miftaken, was that of morning and evening.
In procefs of time the two intermediate points of noon
and midnight were determined 5 and this divifion in¬
to quarters was in ufe long before the invention of
hours.
From this fubdivifion probably arofe the method
ufed by the Jew's and Romans of dividing the day and
night into four vigils or watches. The firft began at
funrifing, or fix in the morning j the fecond at nine j
the third at twelve and the fourth at three in the af¬
ternoon. In like manner the night was divided into
four parts *, the firft beginning at fix in the evening,
the fecond at nine, the third at twelve, and the fourth
at three in the morning. The firft of thefe divifions
was called by the Jews the third hour of the day ; the
fecond the fxth; the third the ninth; and the fourth
the twelfth, and fometimes the eleventh. Another di¬
vifion in ufe, not only among the nations above men¬
tioned, but the Greeks alfo, was that which reckoned
the firft quarter from funfet to midnight j the fecond
from midnight to funrife ; the third, or morning watch,
from morning to noon j and the fourth from noon to
funfet. Ix
It is uncertain at what time the more minute fub-Invention
divifion of the day into hours firft commenced. It°f hours
does not appear from the writings of Mofes that heuncerta*n*
was acquainted with it, as he mentions only the morn¬
ing, mid-day, evening, and funfet. Hence we may
conclude, that the Egyptians at that time knew no¬
thing of it, as Mofes was well {killed in their learning.
According to Herodotus, the Greeks received the
knowledge of the twelve hours of the day from the
Babylonians. It is probable, however, that the divi¬
fion w7as a&ually known and in ufe before the name
hour was applied to it; as Cenforinus informs us that
the term was not made ufe of in Rome for 300 years
after its foundation ; nor was it known at the time
the twelve tables were conftrufted.
The eaftern nations divide the day and night in a
very fingular manner j the origin of which is not eafily
difcovered.
IOI
CHRONOLOGY.
flifcovered. The Chinefe have five watches in the night,
which are announced by a certain number of ftrokes
on a bell or drum. They begin by giving one ftroke,
which is anfwered by another j and this is repeated at
the diftance of a minute or two, until the iecond watch
begin, which is announced by two ftrokes j and fo on
throughout the reft of the watches. By the ancient
Tartars, Indians, and Perfians, the day was divided
into eight parts, each of which contained feven hours
Method of and a half. The Indians on the coaft of Malabar di-
computa- vide the day into fix parts, called tiajika; each of
tion on the pix part's js fubdivided into 60 others, called ve-
MaLabar saigas ; the venaiga into 60 birpes ; the birpe into 10
a a ' henikans ; the kenikan into four matures; the mat-
tire into eight kaunimas or caignodes; which divi-
fions, according to our mode of computation, ftand as
follow:
Najika,
24 min.
Venaiga,
24 fee.
Birpe,
4 fee.
Kenikan,
-2- fee.
Mattire, Caignode.
To fee. -$~q fee.
The day of the Chinefe is begun at midnight, and
ends with the midnight following. It is divided into
twelve hours, each diftinguiftred by a particular name
and figure. They alfo divide the natural day into
100 parts, and each of thefe into IOO minutes’, fo
that the whole contains 10,000 minutes. In the north¬
ern parts of Europe, where only two feafons are
reckoned in the year, the divifions of the day and night
are confiderably larger than with us. In Iceland the
24 hours are divided into eight parts; the firft of
which commences at three in the morning •, the fe-
cond at five 5 the third at half an hour after eight } the
fourth at eleven j the fifth at three in the atternoon ;
the fixth at fix in the evening •, the feventh at eight,
and the laft at midnight. In the eaftern part of Tur-
keftan, the day is divided into twelve equal parts, each
of which is diftinguiftred by the name of fome animal.
Thefe are fubdivided into eight £eb ; fo that the whole
13 24 hours contain 96 keh.
Divifions The modern divifions of the hour in ufe among us
of the hour are jn^0 minutes, feconds, thirds, fourths, &c. each
nutes^Scc being a fixtieth part of the former fubdivifion. By
the Chaldaeans, Jews, and Arabians, the hour is di¬
vided into 1080 fcruples} fo that one hour contains
60 minutes, and one minute, 18 fcruples. I he an¬
cient Perfians and Arabs were likewife acquainted
with this divifion ; but the Jews are fo fond of it, that
they pretend to have received it in a fupernatural man¬
ner. “ liTachar (fay they) afeended into heaven, and
brought from thence 1080 parts for the benefit of the
14 nation.”
Methods of The divifion of the day being afeertained, it foon
“^became an objeft to indicate in a public manner the
expiration of any particular hour or divifion } as with¬
out fome general knowledge of this kind, it would be
in a great meafure impoffible to carry on bufinefs.
The methods of announcing this have been likewife
very different. Among the Egyptians it was cufto-
mary for the priefts to proclaim the hours like watch¬
men among us. The fame method was followed at
Rome } nor was theie any other method of knowing
the hours until the year 293 B. C. when Papirius
Curfor firft fet up a fun-dial in the Capitol. A fimi-
lar method is praflifed among the Turks, whofe priefts
proclaim from the top of their ruofques, the cock-
crowing, day-break, mid-day, three o’clock in the af¬
ternoon, and twilight, being their appointed times of
worfhip. 15
As this mode of proclkiming the hour could not but Invention
be very inconvenient, as well as imperfect, the introduc-
tion of an inftrument which every one could have in
his poffeflion, and which might anfwer the fame pur-p0fet
pofe, muft have been confidered as a valuable acquifi-
tion. One of the firft of thefe was the clepfydra or
water-clock *. Various kinds of thefc were in ufe eP
among the Egyptians at a very early period. The in--^ ra'
vention of the inftrument is attributed to Thoth or
Mercury, and it was afterwards improved by Ctefibius
of Alexandria. It was a common meafure of time
among the Greeks, Indians, and Chaldaeans, as well as
the Egyptians, but was not introduced into Rome till
the time of Scipio Nafica. The Chinefe aftronomers
have long made ufe of it $ and by its means divided
the zodiac into twelve parts j but it is a very inac¬
curate meafure of time, varying, not only according to
the quantity of water in the veffel, but according to
the ftate of the atmofphere.
The clepfydra was fucceeded by the gnomon or
fun-dial.—This at firft was no more than . a ftile
erefled perpendicularly to the horizon j and it was a
long time before the principles of it came to be tho¬
roughly underftood. The invention is with great
probability attributed to the Babylonians, from whom
the Jews received it before the time of Ahaz, when
we know that a fun-dial was already eredled at Jeru-
falem. The Chinefe and Egyptians alfo were ac¬
quainted with the ufe of the dial at a very early pe¬
riod, and it was confiderably improved by Anaximan¬
der or Anaximenes ; one of wdiom is for that reafon
looked upon to be the inventor. Various kinds of
dials, however, were invented and made ufe of in dif¬
ferent nations long before their introduction at Rome.
The firft erefted in that city, as has been already men¬
tioned, was that by Papirius Curfor $ and 30 years
after, Valerius Meffala brought one from Sicily,
w7hich was ufed in Rome for no lefs than 99 years»
though conftrudled for a Sicilian latitude, and con-
fequently incapable of fhowing the hours exadfly in
any other place 5 but at laft another w’as conftrudled
by L. Philippus, capable of meafuring time with great¬
er accuracy.
It was long after the invention of dials before man¬
kind began to form any idea of clocks 5 nor is it wTell
known at w7hat period they w’ere firft invented. A
clock was fent by Pope Paul I. to Pepin king ot
France, which at that time wTas fuppofed to be the
only one in the world. A very curious one was alfo
fent to Charles the Great from the caliph Haroun Al-
rafehid, which the hiftorians of the time fpeak of wfith
furprife and admiration : but the greateft improvement
w!as that of Mr Huygens, who added the pendulum to
it. Still, however, the inftruments for dividing time
w?ere found to be inaccurate for nice purpofes. T. he
expanfion of the materials by heat, and their contrac¬
tion by cold, would caufe a very perceptible alteration
in the going of an inftrument in the lame place at dif¬
ferent times of the year, and much more if carried
from one climate to another. ^ arious methods have
been contrived to correft this *, wdiich indeed can be
done very effe&ually at land by a certain conftru&ion
l ' of
jo2 C H R 0 M
of the pendulum ; but at fea, where a pendulum can¬
not be ufed, the inaccuracy is of confequence much
greater : nor was it thought poflible to correft the er¬
rors ariiing from thefe caufes in any tolerable degree,
until the late invention of Mr Harrifon’s time-piece,
which may be confidered as making perhaps as near an
approach to perfedtion as poflible.
Having thus given an account of the more minute
divifions of time, with the methods of meafuring
them, we mult now proceed to the larger j which more
properly belong to chronology, and which mult be
kept on record, as no inftrument can be made to
Of weeks, point them out. Of thefe the divifion into weeks of
ieven days is one of the molt ancient, and probably
took place from the creation of the world. Some,
indeed, are of opinion, that the week war invented
fome time after for the more convenient notation of
time *, but whatever may be in this, we are certain
that it is of the higheft antiquity, and even the moll
rude and barbarous nations have made ufe of it. It is
lingular indeed that the Greeks, notwithftanding their
learning, Ihould have been ignorant of this divifion $
and M. Goguet informs us, that they were almoft the
only nation wrho were fo. By them the month of 30
days was divided into three times 10, and the days of
it named accordingly. Thus the 15th day of the
month was called the fecond fifth, or fifth of the fe-
cond tenth ; the 24th was called the third fourth, or
the fourth day of the third tenth. This method was
in ufe in the days of Hefiod, and it was not until fe-
veral ages had elapfed* that the ufe of weeks was re¬
ceived into Greece from the Egyptians. The inha¬
bitants of Cathay, in the northern part of China, were
likewife unacquainted with the w’eek of feven days,
but divided the year into fix parts of 60 days each.
They had alfo a cycle of 15 days, which they ufed
as a week. The week was likewife unknown to the
ancient Perfians and to the Mexicans the former
having a different name for every day of the month,
and the latter making ufe of a cycle of 13 days. By
almoft all other nations the week of feven days was
^ adopted.
Of holi- It is remarkable, that one day in the week has al-
days. ways been accounted as facred by every nation. Thus
Saturday was confecrated to pious purpofes among
the Jews, Friday by the Turks, Tuefday by the Afri¬
cans of Guinea, and Sunday by the Chriftians.
Hence alfo the origin of Feria or holidays, frequent¬
ly made ufe of in Syftems of Chronology j and which
arofe from the following circumftance. In the church
of Rome the old ecclefiaftical year began with Eafter
week ; all the days of which were called Ferice or Fe-
riati, that is, holy, or facred days ; and in procefs of
time the days of other weeks came to be diftinguifti-
ed by the fame appellation, for the two following rea-
fons, I. Becaufe every day ought to be holy in the
eftimation of a Chriftian. 2. Becaufe all days are holy
to ecclefiaftics, whofe time ought to be entirely de¬
voted to religious worfhip.—The term week is fome-
times ufed to fignify feven years, not only in the pro¬
phetical writings, but likewife by profane authors :
thus Varro, in his book infcribed Hebdomades, informs
us, that he had then entered the 12th week of his
l8 years.
Of months. The next divifion of time fuperior to weeks, is that
1
O L O G Y.
of months. This appears to have been, if not coeval
with the creation, at leaft in ufe before the flood. As
this divifion is naturally pointed out by the revolution
of the moon, the months of all nations were origi¬
nally lunar; until after fome confiderable advances
had been made in fcience, the revolutions of that lu¬
minary were compared with the fun, and thus the li¬
mits of the month fixed with greater accuracy. The
divifion of the year into iz^months, as being found¬
ed on the number of full revolutions of the moon in
that time, has alfo been very general; though Sir John
Chardin informs us, that the Perfians divided the year
into 24 months j and the Mexicans into 18 months of
20 days each. The months generally contained 30
days, or 29 and 30 days alternately ; though this rule
was far from being without exception. The months
of the Latins confifted of 16, 18, 22, or 36 days j
and Romulus gave his people a year of 10 months
and 304 days. The Kamtfchatkadales divide the year
into 10 months j reckoning the time proper for la¬
bour to be nine months, and the winter feafon, when
they are obliged to remain inactive, only as one
month.
It has been a very ancient cuftom to give names to
the different months of the year, though this appears
to have been more modern than the departure of the
Ifraelites out of Egypt, as they would otherwife un¬
doubtedly have carried it with them $ but for a con¬
fiderable time after their fettlement in Canaan, they
diftinguilhed the months only by the names of firft,
fecond, &c. After their return from the Babylo-
nifti captivity, they adopted the names given to the
months by the Chaldgeans. Other nations adopted
various names, and arranged the months themfelves ac¬
cording to their fancy. From this laft circumftance
arifes the variety in the dates of the months •, for as
the year was been reckoned from different figns in the
ecliptic, neither the number nor the quantity of months
have been the fame, and their fituation has likewife
been altered by the intercalations neceffary to be
made.
Thefe intercalations became neceffary on account
of the excefs of the folar above the lunar year j and
the months compofed of intercalary days are likewife
called embolifmal. Thefe embolifmal months are either
natural or civil. By the former the folar and lunar
years are adjufted to one another; and the latter arifes
from the defeft of the civil year itfelf. The ador of
the Jews, which always confifts of 30 days, is an ex¬
ample of the natural embolifmal month.
The Romans had a method of dividing their months
into kalends, nones, and ides. The firft was derived
from an old word calo, “ to callbecaufe, at every new
moon, one of the lower clafs of priefts affembled the
people, and called over, or announced, as many days as
intervened betwixt that and the nones, in order to no¬
tify the difference of time and the return of feftivals.
The 2d, 3d, 4»-h, 5th, 6th, and yth of March, May,
July, and Oftober, were the nones of thefe months;
but in the other months were the 2d, 3d, 4^, and 5th
days only. Thus the 5th of January w'as its nones j
the 4th was pridie nonarum ; the 3d, tertio non arum,
&c. The ides contained eight days in every month,
and were nine days diftant from the nones. Thus the
15th day of the four months already mentioned was
.
Aftronomi-
cal and ci-
•vil months.
20
Of years.
C H R O N
the ides of them 5 but in the others the 13th was ac¬
counted as fuch •, the 12th was pridie iduum, and the
t lth Ifftio idvum. The ides were fucceeded by the ka¬
lends j the 14th of January, for inftance, being the
19th kalend of February; the 15th was the 18th ka-
lend ; and fo on till the 3id of January, which was
pridie kalendarum ; and February ift was the kalends.
Among the European nations the month is either
aftronomical or civil. The former is meafured by
the motion of the heavenly bodies; the civil confifts of
a certain number of days fpecified by the laws, or by
the civil inttitutions of any nation or fociety. The
aftronomical months, being for the moft part regulated
by the motions of the fun and moon, are thus divided
into folar and lunar, of which the former is fometimes
alfo called civil. The aftronomical folar month is the
time which the fun takes up in pafting through a fign
of the ecliptic. The lunar month is periodical, fyno-
dical, fidereal, and civil. The fynodical lunar month
is the time that palfes between any conjumftion of the
moon with the fun and the conjun&ion following. It
includes the motion of the fun eaftward during that
time ; fo that a mean lunation confifts of apd. I2h.
44' 2" 8921. The fidereal lunar month is the time
of the mean revolution of the moon with regard to the
fixed ftars. As the equinoflial points go backwards
about 4' in the fpace of a lunar month, the moon muft,
in confequence of this retroceflion, arrive at the equi¬
nox fooner than at any fixed ftar, and confequently the
mean fidereal revolution muft be longer than the mean
periodical one. The latter confifts of 2yd. yh. 43'
4" 6840. The civil lunar month is computed from
the moon, to anfwer the ordinary purpofes of life;
and as it would have been inconvenient, in the com¬
putation of lunar months, to have reckoned odd parts
of days, they have been compofed of 30 days, or of
29 and 30 alternately, as the nearert round numbers.
When the month is reckoned from the firft appearance
of the moon after her conjun£!ion, it is called the month
of illumination. The Arabs, Turks, and other nations,
who ufe the era of the Hegira, follow this method
of computation. As twelve lunar months, however,
are 11 days lefs than a folar year, Julius Csefar ordain¬
ed that the month fhould be reckoned from the courfe
of the fun, and not of the moon ; and that they (hculd
confift of 30 and 31 days alternately, February only
excepted, which was to confift of 28 commonly, and of
29 in leap-years.
The higheft natural divifion of time is into years.
At firft, however, it is probable that the courfe of the
fun through the ecliptic would not be obferved, but
that all nations would meaiure their time by the revo¬
lutions of the moon. We are certain, at leaft, that the
Egyptian year confifted originally of a fingle lunation ;
though at length it included two or three months, and
was determined by the ftated returns of the feafons,-
As the eaftern nations, however, particularly the E-
gyptians, Chaldeans, and Indians, applied themfelves
in very early periods to aftronomy, they found, by
comparing the motions of the fun and moon together,
that one revolution of the former included nearly 12 of
the latter. Hence a year of 12 lunations was formed,
in every one of which were reckoned 30 days; and
hence alfo the divifion of the ecliptic into 360 degrees.
The lunifolar year, ccnfifting of 36c days, was in ufe
O L O G Y. soj
long before any regular intercalations were made j
and hiftorians inform us, that the year of all ancient
nations was lunifolar. Herodotus relates, that the
Egyptians firft divided the year into 12 parts by the
affiftance of the ftars, and that every part confifted of
30 days. The Thebans corre£!ed this year by add¬
ing five intercalary days to it. The old Chaldean year
was alfo reformed by the Medes and Perfians : and
fome of the Chinefe miflionaries have informed us,
that the lunifolar year was alfo correfled in China ;
and that the lolar year was afcertained in that country
to very confiderable exa£lnefs. The Latin year, before
Numa’s correblion of it, confifted of 360 days, of
which 304 where divided into ten months; to which
were added two private months not mentioned in the
kalendar. 2I*
The imperfe&ion of this method of comparing time Explana-
is now very evident. The lunifolar year was aboutt,on,of ?
5^ days fhorter than the true folar year, and as much
longer than the lunar. Hence the months could not
long correfpond with the feafons; and even in fo fhort
a time as 34 years, the winter months would have
changed places with thofe of fummer. From this ra¬
pid variation, Mr Playfair takes notice, that a palfage
in Herodotus, by which the learned have been exceed¬
ingly puzzled, may receive a fatisfaflory folution, viz.
that “ in the time of the ancient Egyptian kings, the
fun had twice arifen in the place where it had former¬
ly fet, and twice fet where it had arifen.By this •
he fuppofes it is meant, “ that the beginning of the
year had twice gone through all the figns of the eclip¬
tic ; and that the fun had rifen and fet twice in every
day and month in the year.” This, which fome have
taken for a proof of moft extravagant antiquity, he.
further obferves, might have happened in 138 years
only; as in that period there -would be a difference of
nearly two years between the folar and lunar year.
Such evident imperfedlions could not but produce a
reformation everywhere ; and accordingly we find that
there was no nation which did not adopt the me¬
thod of adding a few intercalary days at certain inter¬
vals. We are ignorant, however, of the perfon who
was the firft inventor of this method. The Theban
piiefts attributed the invention to Mercury or Thoth ;
and it is certain that they were acquainted with the
year of 365 days at a very early period. The length
of the folar year was reprefented by the celebrated
golden circle of Ofymandyas- of 365 cubits circumfe¬
rence ; and on every cubit of which was infcribed a
day of the year, together with the heliacal rifings and
fettings of the ftars. That monarch is fuppofed to
have reigned in the nth or 12th century before the
Chriftian era.
The Egyptain folar year being almoft fix hours Great
ftiorter than the true one, this inaccuracy, in procefs £SyPtian'
of time, produced another revolution; fome circum-
fiances attending which ferve to fix the date of the dif- cycle,
covery of the length of the year, and which, from the
above defcription of the golden circle, we may fuppofe
to have been made during the reign of Ofymandyas.
The inundation of the Nile was annually announced
by the heliacal rifing of Sirius, to which the reformers
of the kalendar adjufted the beginning of the year, fup-
pofing that it would remain immoveable. In a num¬
ber of years, however, it appeared that their fuppofi-
tion->
104
23
Of the
it commen
ced.
Uncertain¬
ty of the
time when
the true
folar year
was difco-
vered.
C H R O N
tions of this were ill founded. By reafon of the ine¬
quality above mentioned, the heliacal rifing of Sirius
gradually advanced nearly at the rate of one day in
four years *, fo that in 146 r years it completed a revo¬
lution, by arifing on every fucceeding day of the year,
and returning to the point originally fixed for the be¬
ginning of the year. This period, equal to 1460
julian years, was termed the great Egyptian year, or
canicular cycle. From the accounts we have of the
time when time that the canicular cycle was renewed, the time .of
its original commencement may be gathered with to¬
lerable certainty. This happened, according to Cen-
forinus, in the 138th year of the Chriftian era. Rec¬
koning backward therefore from this time for 1460
years, we come to the year B. C. 1322, when the fun
was in Cancer, about 14 or 15 days after the fummer
folftice, which happened on July 5th. The Egyptians
ufed no intercalation till the time of Auguftus, when
the corre&ed Julian year was received at Alexandria
by his order *, but even this order was obeyed only by
the Greeks and Romans who refided in that city ; the
fuperftitious natives refufing to make any addition to
the length of a year which had been fo long eftablilh-
ed among them.
We are not informed at what precife period the
true year was obferved to confift of nearly fix hours
more than the 365 days. Though the priefts of The¬
bes claim the merit of the difcovery, Herodotus makes
no mention of it j neither did Thales, who introduced
the year of 365 days into Greece, ever ufe any inter¬
calation. Plato and Eudoxus are faid to have obtain¬
ed it as a fecret from the Egyptians about 80 years
after Herodotus, and to have carried it into Greece;
which fhorved, that the knowledge of this form of the
year was at that time recent, and only known to a few
learned men.
The year of the ancient Jews was lunifolar; and
we are informed by tradition, that Abraham preferved
in his family, and tranfmitted to pofterity, the Chal¬
dean form of the year, confiding of 360 days *, which _
remained the fame without any corredlion until the
date of the Era of Nabonafiar. The folar year was
adopted among them after their return from the Ba-
bylonidi captivity 5 but when fubje&ed to the fuccef-
fors of Alexander in Syria, they were obliged to admit
the lunar year into their kalendar. In order to adjud
this year to the courfe of the fun, they added at cer¬
tain periods a month to Adar, formerly mentioned,
and called it Ve Adar. They compofed alfo a cycle
of 19 years, in feven of which they inferted the inter¬
calary month. This correftion was intended to regu¬
late the months in fuch a manner, as to bring the 15th
of Nifan to the equinoffial point; and likewife the
courfes of the feafons and feads in fuch a manner, that
the corn might be ripe at the paffover as the law re¬
quired.
We diall not take up the reader’s time with any
further account of the years made ufe of by different
nations, all of which are refolved at lad into the luni¬
folar ; it will be fufficient to mention the improve-
tionofThe merits in the kalendar made by the two great reformers
kalendar of it, Julius Caefar, and Pope Gregory XIII. The
inditution of the Roman year by Romulus has been
already taken notice of, but as this was evidently very
imperfeft, Numa, on his advancement to the throne,
25
Years of
the Jews,
fete.
Reforma-
by Julius
Csefa. and
Pope Gre-
gory-
O L O G Y.
undertook to reform it. With a defign to make 'a
complete lunar year of it, he added 50 days to the
304 of Romulus } and from every one of his months,
which confided of 31 and 30 days, he borrowed one
day. Of thefe additional days he compofed two
months •, calling the one January, and the other Fe¬
bruary. Various other corrections and adjudmtnts
were made •, but when Julius Caefar obtained the fove-
reignty of Rome, he found that the months had con-
fiderably rsceded from the feafons to which Numa had
adjuded them. To bring them forward to their places,
he formed a year of 15 months, or 445 days-, which,
on account of its length, and the defign with which it
was formed, has been called tht year of confufion. It
terminated ©n the fird of January 45 B. C. and
from this period the civil year and months were re¬
gulated by the courfe of the fun. The year of Nu¬
ma being ten days (horter than the folar year, two
days were added by Julius to every one of the months
of January, Augud, and December and one to April,
June, September, and November. He ordained like¬
wife, that an intercalary day drould be added every
fourth year to the month of February, by reckoning
the 24th day, or fixth of the kalends of March, twice
over. Hence this year was dyled bifextile, and alfo
leap year, from its leaping a day more than a common
year.
The Julian year has been ufed by modern chronolo-
gers, as being a meafure of time extremely fimple and
fudiciently accurate. It is dill, however, fomewhat
imperfeft, for as the true folar year confids of 365d.
5h. 48'45-J", it appears that in 131 years after the
Julian correftion, the fun mud have arrived one day
too foon at the equinoftial point. During Caefar’s
reign the vernal equinox had been obferved by Sofige-
nes on the 25th of March j but by the time of the
Nicene council it had gone backrvard to the 2id.
The caufe of the error was not then known 5 but in
1582, when the equinox happened on the nth of
March, it was thought proper to give the kalendar its
lad corre£tion. Pope Gregory XIII. having invited
to Rome a confiderable number of mathematicians and
adronomers, employed ten years in the examination of
their feveral formulae, and at lad gave the preference to
that of Alofia and Antoninus Lelius, who were bro¬
thers. Ten days were now cut off in the month of
October, and the 4th of that month was reckoned the
15th. To prevent the feafons from receding in time
to come, he ordained that one day diould be added
every fourth or biffextile year as before ; and that the
1600th year of the Chridian era, and every fourth
century thereafter, diould be a biffextile or leap year.
One day therefore is to be intercalated in the years
2000, 2400, 2800, &c. but in the other centuries, as
1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, &c. it is to be fuppreffed,
and thefe are to be reckoned as common years. Even
this corre&ion, however, is not abfolutely exa£t j but
the error mud be very inconfiderable, and fcarce a-
mounting to a day and a half in 5000 years. 2g
The commencement of the year has been deter-Commence-
mined by the date of fome memorable event or occur-ment ot d*6
rence, fuch as the creation of the world, the univerfaPLar‘
deluge, a conjundlion of planets, the incarnation of
our Saviour, &c. and of courfe has been referred to
different points in the ecliptic. The Chaldean and
the
C H R O N
t])e Egyptian years were dated from the autumnal
equinox. The ecclefiaftical year of the Jews began in
the fpring ; but, in civil affairs, they retained the epoch
of the Egyptian year. The ancient Chinefe reckoned
from the new moonnearefl: to the middle of Aquarius j
but, according to fome recent accounts, the beginning
of their year was transferred (B. C. 1740.) to the new
moon nearefl to the winter folftice. This likewife is
the date of the Japanefe year. Diemfchid, or Gem-
fchid, king of Perfia, obferved, on the day of his pu¬
blic entry into Perfepolis, that the fun entered into
Aries. In commemoration of this fortunate event and
coincidence, he ordained the beginning of the year to
be removed from the autumnal to the vernal equinox.
This epoch was denominated Neurux, viz. new-day j
and is flill celebrated with great pomp and feflivity.
(See Epochs.) The ancient Swedifh year commen¬
ced at the winter folftice, or rather at the time of the
fun’s appearance in the horizon, after an abfence of
about 40 days. The feaft of this epoch was folemnized
on the 20th day after the folftice. Some of the Gre¬
cian ftates computed from the vernal, fome from the
autumnal equinox, and others from the fummer tropic.
The year of Romulus commenced in March, and that
ofNumain January. The Turks and Arabs date the
year from the 16th of July: and the American In¬
dians reckon from the firft appearance of the new
moon of the vernal equinox. The church of Rome
has fixed new year’s day on the Sunday that corre-
fponds with the full moon of the fame feafon. The
Venetians, Florentines, and Pifans in Italy, and the
inhabitants of Treves in Germany, begin the year at
the vernal equinox. The ancient clergy reckoned
from the 25th of March 5 and this method was ob-
ferved in Britain, until the introdu&ion of the new
ftyle (A. D. 1752)5 after which our year commenced
on the ift day of January.
Of Cycles. Befides thefe natural divifions of time arifing imme¬
diately from the revolutions of the heavenly bodies,
there are others formed from fome of the lefs obvious
confequences of thefe revolutions, which are called cy-
y clesy from the Greek kvkMs a circle. The moft re¬
markable of thefe are the following.
1. The cycle of the fun is a revolution of 28 years, in
which time the days of the months return again to the
fame days of the week 5 the fun’s place to the fame
figns and degrees of the ecliptic on the fame months
and days, fo as not to differ one degree in 100
years 5 and the leap-years begin the fame courfe over
^ again with refpeft to the days of the week on which
Golden the days of the months fall. The cycle of the moon,
■number. commonly called the golden number, is a revolution
of 19 years 5 in which time, the conjun&ions, oppo-
fttions, and other afpe&s of the moon, are within an
hour and a half of being the fame as they were on the
fame days of the months 19 years before. The tn-
diRion is a revolution of 15 years, ufed only by the
Romans for indicating the times of certain payments
made by the fubje£ls to the republic > It was eftablifh-
28
To find the
year of any
cycle.
ed by Conftantine, A. D. 312.
The year of our Saviour’s birth, according to the
vulgar era, was the 9th year of the folar cycle, the
firft year of the lunar cycle j and the 31 2th year after
his birth was the firft year of the Roman indiflion.
Therefore, to find the year of the folar cycle, add 9 to
Vol. VI. Part I,
o L o G Y. i°i
any given year of Chrift, and divide the fum by 2b, the
quotient is the number of cycles elapfed fince his birth,
and the remainder is the cycle for the given year : If
nothing remains, the cycle is 28. Io find the Ju^'aL
cycle, add one to the given year of Chrift, and oivide
the fum by 19 j the quotient is the number of cycles
elapfed in the interval, and the remainder is the cycle
for the given year : If nothing remains the cycle is 19.
Laftly, fubtraft 312 from the given year of Chrift,
and divide the remainder by 15 5 and what remains af¬
ter this divifion is the indiaion for the given year : If
nothing remains, the indiaion is 15. 29
Although the above deficiency in the lunar circle of Variation
an hour and an half every 19 years be but fmall, yet in
time it becomes fo fenfible as to make a whole natural ^ers>
day in 310 years. So that, although the cycle be of
ufe, when the golden numbers are rightly placed againft
the days of the month in the kalendar, as in the Com-
mon Prayer Books, for finding the days of the mean,
conjunaions or oppofitions of the fun and moon, and
confequently the time of Eafter 5 it will only ferve for
310 years, old ftyle. For as the new and full moons
anticipate a day in that time, the golden numbers ought
to be placed one day earlier in the kalendar for the next
310 years to come. I hefe numbers were rightly placed
againft the days of new moon in the kalendar, by the
council of Nice, A. D. 325 5 but the anticipation,
which has been negleaed ever fince, is now grown al-
moft into five days: And therefore all the golden
numbers ought now to be placed five days higher in
the kalendar for the old ftyle, than they were at the
time of the faid council 5 or fix days lower for the
new ftyle, becaufe at prefent it differs 11 days from the
In the firft of the following tables, the golden numbers Tq fi3®d th(s
under the months ftand againft the days of new moon in g0]^en
the left-hand column, for the new ftyle 5 adapted chiefly number,
to the fecond year after leap-year, as being the neareft
mean for all the four 5 and will ferve till the year 1900.
Therefore, to find the day of new moon in any month
of a given year till that time, look for the golden num¬
ber of that year under the defired month, and againfl:
it you have the day of new moon in the left-hand co¬
lumn. Thus, fuppofe it were required to find the day
of new moon in September 17895 the golden number
for that year is 4, which I look for under September,
and right againft it, in the left-hand column, you will
find 19, which is the day of new moon in that month.
N. B.. If all the golden numbers, except 17 and 6,
were fet one day lower in the table, it would ierve from
the beginning of the year 1900 till the end of the year
2199. The table at the end of this fettion (hows the
golden number for 4000 years after the birth of Chrift,
by looking for the even hundreds of any given year at
the left hand, and for the reft to make up that year at
the head of the table 5 and where^ the columns meet,
you have the golden number ( which is the fame both
in old and new ftyle) for the given year. Thus, fup¬
pofe the golden number was wanted for the year 1789}
look for 1700 at the left hand of the table, and for 89
at the top of it : then guiding your eye downward
from 89 to overagainft 1700, you will find 4, which
is the golden number for that year.
But becaufe the lunar cycle of 19 years fometimes
includes five leap-years, and at other times only four,
O this
ic6
toionyfian
period, or
cycle of
Eafler.
Domiaical
letter.
CHRONOLOGY.
this table will fometimes vary a day from the truth in
leap-years after February. And it is impoflible to have
one more correa, unlefs we extend it to four times 19
or 76 years ; in which there are 19 leap-years without
a remainder. Buteventhen to have it of perpetual ufe,
it muft be adapted to the old ftyle ; becaufe, in every
centennial year not divifible by 4, the regular courfe of
leap-years is interrupted in the new 5 as was the cafe
in the year 1800. .
2. The cycle ofEafler, alfo called the Dionyfmtiperiod,
is a revolution of 532 years, found by multiplying the
folar cycle 28 by the lunar cycle 19. If the new moons
did not anticipate upon this cycle, Ealter-day would
always be the Sunday next after the firft full moon
which follows the 21ft of March. But, on account of
the above anticipation, to which no proper regard was
had before the late alteration of the ftyle, the ecclefia.
ftic Eafter has feVeral times been a week different from
the true Eafter within this laft century : which incon¬
venience is now remedied by making the table, which
ufed to find Eafter for ever, in the Common Prayer
Book, of no longer ufe than the lunar difference from
the new ftyle will admit of. , .
The earlieft Eafter poflible is the 2?d of March, the
late ft the 25th of April. Within thefe limits are 35
days, and the number belonging to each of them is call¬
ed the number of direction ; becaufe thereby the time of
Eafter is found for any given year.
The firft feven letters of the alphabet are commonly
placed in the annual almanacks, to ftiow on what days
of the week the days of the months fall throughout
the vear. And becaufe one of thofe feven letters muft;
neceffarily ftand againft Sunday, it is printed in a ca¬
pital form, and called the dominical letter; the other
fix being inferted in fmall char afters, to denote the
other fix days of the week. Now, fince a common Julian
year contains 365 days, if this number be divided by 7
(the number of days in a week) there will remain one
dav. If there had been no remainder, it is plain the
year would conftantly begin on the fame day of the
week : but fince one remains, it is plain that the year
muft begin and end on the fame day nf the week ; find
therefore the next year will begin on the day following.
Hence, when January begins on Sunday, A is the do¬
minical or Sunday letter for that year : Then, becaufe
the next year begins on Monday, the Sunday will fa 1
on the feventh day, to which is annexed the feventh let¬
ter G, which therefore will be the dominical letter tot
all that year : and as the third year will begin on Tuei-
day, the Sunday will fall on the fixth day } therefore r
will be the Sunday letter for that year. Whence it is
evident, that the Sunday letters will go annually in a
retrograde order thus, G, F, E, D, C, B, A. And,
in the courfe of feven years, if they were all common
ones, the fame days of the week and dominical letters
would returti to the fame days of the months. But
hecaufe there are 366 days in a leap-year, if this num¬
ber be divided by 7> there will remain two days over
and above the 52 weeks of which the year confifts.
And therefore, if the leap-year begins on Sunday, it
will end on Monday ; and the next year will begin on
Tuefday, the firft Sunday whereof muft fall on the fixth
of January, to which is annexed the letter F, and not
G, as in common years. By this means, the leap-year
returning every fourth year, the order of the dominical
letters is interrupted •, and the feries cannot return to
its firft ftate till after four times feven, or 28 years} and
then the fame days of the months return in order to the
fame days of the week as before.
TABLE I.
CHRONOLOG Y*
107
TABLE II.
Table fhowim the Golden Number, {which is the fame both in the Old and
'J New Stile), from the Chrijlian Era, to A. D. 4000.
Years lefs than a hundred.
Hundreds
of
Years.
o
100
1900
2000
300
40c
200 2100
2200
2300
38°°
3900
4000
&c,
500
600
700
800
900
2400
2500
2600
2700
2800
IOOO
IIOO
1200
1300
14OO
I5OO
1600
17CO
1800
29OO
3000
3IO°
3200
3300
34°o
3500
3600
3700
19
38
57
76
95
1
6
11
16
2
7
12
17
3
8
13
18
4
9
14
19
5
10
15
3940
969798
59
78:79
7
12
17
3
8
13
18
4
9
M
19
5
10
15
1
6
11
16
4
23
42
61
80 81
99
11
12
16 17
2
7
12
45
27
4647
6465 66
838485
10 11
2930
48
67
86
4950
6869
8788
910
16
2
7
12
16:17
1415
33i34
52i53
7It72i73
90 91 92
i5
1213
1718 19
31 4 5
8| 9 10
I3JI4
is 19
5
xo
15
141516
xj 2
6| 7
I 111213
iSli? 18
8
I3,
i8|i9
4
9iI°i,i
14I15 16
19 1
5
10
Julian pe¬
riod.
To find the
year of the
Julian pe¬
riod.
From the multiplication of the folar cycle of 28
years into the lunar cycle of 19 years, and the Roman
indiaion of 15 years, arifes the great Julian period,
conhfting of 7980 years, which had its beginning 764
years before Strauchius’s fuppofed year of the creation
(for no later could all the three cycles begin together),
and it is not yet completed : And therefore it includes
all other cycles, periods, and eras. There is but one
year in the whole period that has the fame numbers for
the three cycles of which it is made up : And there¬
fore, if hiftorians had remarked in their writings the
cycles of each year, there had been no difpute about
the time of any aftion recorded by them.
The Dionyfian or vulgar era of Chrift’s birth was
about the end of the year t>f the Julian period 4713
and confequently the firft year of his age according to
that account, was the 4714th year of the laid period.
Therefore, if to the current year of Chrift we add
4713, the fum will be the year of the Julian period,
bo the year 1789 will be found to be the 65024 year
of that period. Or, to find [the year of the Julian pe¬
riod anfwering to any given year before the firit year
of Chrift, fubtraft the number of that given year from
4714, and the remainder will be the year of the Julian
period. Thus, the year 585 before the firft year of
Chrift; (which was the 584th before his birth) was the
4129th year of the faid period. Laftly, to find the
cycles of the fun, moon, and indiftion for any given
year of this period, divide the given year by 28, 19,
and 15 j the three remainders will be the cycles fought,
and the quotients the number of cycles run fince the
beginning of the period. So in the above 4714^ year
of the Julian period, the cycle of the fun was 10, the
cycle of the moon -2, and the cycle of indnflion 4 >
the folar cycle having run through 168 courfes, the
lunar 248, and the indi£lion .35
The vulgar era of Chrift’s birth was never fettled till Year of
the year <27, when Dionyfius Exiguus, a Roman ab-Chrift’s
bot, fixed it to the end of the 4713th year of the Julian
period, which was four years too late j for our Saviour
was born before the death of Herod, who fought to
kill him as foon as he heard of his birth. And accord¬
ing to the teftimony of Jofephus {B. xvii. ch. 8.), there
was an eclipfe of the moon in the time of Herod s lalt
illnefs; which eclipfe appears by our aftronomical tables
to have been in the year of the Julian period 47IO>
March 13. at 3 hours paft mid-night, at Jerufalem.
Now, as our Saviour muft have been born fome months
before Herod’s death, fince in the interval he was car¬
ried into Egypt, the lateft time in which we can fix ^
the true era of his birth is about the end of the 4709th
year of the Julian period. ^
io3 C H R O N
3^ As there are certain fixed points in the heavens from
Eras or E- aftronomers begin their computations, fo there
pochs' are certain points of time from which hiftorians begin
to reckon } and thefe points or roots of time are called
eras or epochs. The mod remarkable eras are, thofe
of the Creation, the Greek Olympiads, the building
of Rome, the era of Nabonaffar, the death of Alex¬
ander, the birth of Chrift, the Arabian Hegira, and
the Perfian Jefdegird: All which, together with fe-
veral others of lefs note, have their beginnings fixed
by chronologers to the years of the Julian period, to
the age of the world at thofe times, and to the years
before and after the year of Chritt’s birth.
37
Hiftoric Having thus treated as fully as our limits will ad-
chronology. mit) 0f various divifions of time, we muft now con-
fider the fecond part of chronology, viz. that which
more immediately relates to hiftory, and which has
already been obferved to have the four following foun¬
dations : i. Aftronomical obfervations, particularly of
eclipfes. 2. The teftimonies of credible authors. 3. E-
pochs in hiftory univerfally allowTed to be true. 4.. An¬
cient medals, coins, monuments, and imcriptions. W e
(hall confider thefe four principal parts in the order
38 they here ftand.
of eclipfes jt js wjth great reafon that the eclipfes of the fun
andmoon and moon, and the afpefts of the other planets, have
been called public and celeftial charafters of the times,
as their calculations afford chronologers infallible proofs
of the precife epochs in which a great number of the
moft fignal events in hiftory have occurred. So that
in chronological matters we cannot make any grea’-
progrefs, if we are ignorant of the ufe of aftronomic
tables, and the calculation of ecliples. The ancients
regarded the latter as prognoftics of the fall of em¬
pires, of the lofs of battles, of the death of monarchs,
&.c. And it is to this fuperftition, to this wretched
ignorance, that we happily owe the vaft labour that
hiftorians have taken to record fo great a number of
them. The moft able chronologers have colle&ed
them wdth ftill greater labour. Calvifius, for example,
founds his chronology on 144 cclipfes of the fun, and
of the moon, that he fays he had calculated. The
grand conjunftion of the two fuperior planets, Saturn
and Jupiter, which, according to Kepler, occurs once
in 800 years in the fame point of the zodiac, and wdiich
has happened only eight times fince the creation (the
laft time in the month of December 1603), may alfo
furnifti chronology with inconteftable proofs. The
fame may be faid of the tranfit of Venus over the fun,
which has been obferved in our days, and all the other
uncommon pofitions of the planets. Rut among
thefe celeftial and natural charafters of times, there
are alfo fome that are named civil or artificial, and
which, neverthelefs, depend on aftronomic calcula¬
tion.
Such are the folar and lunar cycles \ the Roman
indiftion ; the feaft of Eafter *, the biffextile year; the
Jubilees *, the fabbatic Jyears 5 the combats and Olym¬
pic games of the Greeks, and Hegira of the Maho¬
metans, &c. And to thefe may be added the periods,
eras, epochs, and years of different nations, ancient
and modern. We (hall only remark on this occafion,
that the period or era of the Jews commences with
O L O G Y.
the creation of the world •, that of the ancient Romans
with the foundation of the city of Rome j that of the
Greeks at the eftablifttment of the Olympic games j
that of Nabonaffar, with the advancement of the
firft king of Babylon to the throne; the Yezde-
gerdic years, with the laft king of the Perfians of
that name ; the Hegira of the Turks, with the flight
of Mahomet froip Mecca to Medina, &c. The year
of the birth of Chrift was the 4713th year of the
Julian period, according to the common method of
reckoning. Aftronomical chronology teaches us to
calculate the precife year of the Julian period in which
each of thefe epochs happened. _ _ 39
II. The teftimony of authors is the fecond principal Of the tef-
part of hiftoric chronology. Though no man what-timony of
ever has a right to pretend to infallibility, or to be re-aut l0rs‘
garded as a facred oracle, it would, however, be mak¬
ing a very unjuft judgment of mankind, to treat them
all as dupes or impoftors ; and it would be an injury
offered to public integrity, were we to doubt the vera¬
city of authors univerfally efteemed, and of fafts that <
are in themfelves highly worthy of belief. It would be
even a kind of infatuation to doubt that there have
been fuch cities as Athens, Sparta, Rome, Carthage,
&c. or that Xerxes reigned in Perfia, and Auguftus
in Rome : whether Hannibal ever was in Italy ; or
that the emperor Conftantine built Conftantinople, &c.
The unanimous teftimony of the moft refpe6table hi¬
ftorians will not admit any doubt of thefe matters.
When an hiftorian is allowed to be completely able to
judge of an event, and to have no intent of deceiving -
by his relation, his teftimony is unexceptionable. But to
avoid the danger of adopting error for truth, and to be
fatisfied of a faft that appears doubtful in hiftory, we
may make ufe of the four following rules, as they are
founded in reafon.
1. We ought to pay a particular regard to the tef¬
timonies of thofe who wrote at the fame time the
events happened, and who have not been contradnfled
by any cotemporary author of known authority. Who
can doubt, for example, of the truth of the faas, re¬
lated by Admiral Anfon, in the hiftory of his voyage
round the world ? The admiral faw all the fafts there
mentioned with his own eyes, and publiftied his book
when two hundred companions of his voyage were ftill
living in London, and could have contradidled him im¬
mediately, if he had given any falfe or exaggerated
relations.
2. After the cotemporary authors, we (hould give
more credit to thofe who lived near the time the events
happened than thofe who lived at a .diftance.
3. Thofe doubtful hiftories, which are related by
authors that are but little known, can have no weight,
if they are at variance with reafon, or eftablifhed tra¬
dition.
4. We muft diftruft the truth of a hiftory that is re¬
lated by modern authors, when they do not agree
among themfelves in feveral circumftances, nor with
ancient hiftorians, who are to be regarded as original
fources. We ftiould efpecially doubt the truth of
thofe brilliant portraits, that are drawn at pleafure
by fuch as never knew the perfons they are intended
for, and even made feveral centuries after their de-
ceafe. _
4o
Epochs.
4T
Medals,
file.
C H R O N
The moft pure and moft fruitful fource of ancient
hiftory is doubtlefs to be found in the Holy Bible. Let
us here for a moment ceafe to regard it as divine, and
let us prefume to confider it as a common hiftory.
Now, when we regard the writers of the books of the
Old Teftament, and confider them fometimes. as au¬
thors, fometimes as ocular witneffes, and fometimes as
refpeftable hiftorians : whether we refleft on the fim-
plicity of the narration, and the air of truth that is
there conftantly vifible ; or, when we confider the care
that the people, the governments, and the learned
men of all ages, have taken to preferve the true text
of the Bible} or that we have regard to the happy
conformity of the chronology of the holy feriptures
with that of profane hiftory : or, if we obferve the ad¬
mirable harmony that is between thefe books and the
moft refpettable hiftorians, as Jofephus and others :
and laftly, when we conlider that the books of the ho¬
ly feripture furnilh us alone w’ith an accurate hiftory of
the world from the creation, through the line of patri¬
archs, judges, kings, and princes of the Hebrews;
and that we may, by its aid, form an almoft entire fe-
ries of events down to the birth of Chrift, or the time
of Auguftus, w'hich comprehends a fpace of about 4000
years, fome fmall interruptions excepted, and which
are eafily fupplied by profane hiftory j wdien all thefe
reflections are juftly made, we mult conftantly allow
that the feriptures form a book which merits the firft
rank among all the fources of ancient hiftory. It has
been obje£ted, that this book contains contradictions ;
but the moft able interpreters have reconciled thefe
feeming contradictions. It has been faid, that the
chronology of the Hebrew text and the Vulgate do
not agree with the chronology of the verfion of the
Septuagint; but the foundeft critics have ftiown that
they may be made to agree. It has been obferved,
moreover, that the Scriptures abound with miracles
and prodigies ; but they are miracles that have really
happened : and what ancient hiftory is there that is not
filled with miracles, and other marvellous events ? And
do we for that rejeCt their authority ? Cannot the true
God be fuppofed to have performed thofe miracles
which Pagan hiftorians have attributed to their falfe
divinities ? Muft we pay no regard to the writings of
Livy, becaufe his hiftory contains many fabulous rela¬
tions ?
III. The epochs form the third principal part of chro¬
nology. Thefe are thofe fixed points in hiftory that have
never been contefted, and of which there can, in faCt,
be no doubt. Chronologers fix on the events that are
to ferve as epochs, in a manner quite arbitrary ; but
this is of little confequence, provided the dates of thefe
epochs agree, and that there is no contradiction in the
fads themfelves. When we come to treat exprefsly
on hiftory, we (hall mention, in our progrefs, all the
principal epochs.
IV. Medals, monuments, and inferiptions, form the
fourth and laft principal part of chronology. It is fcarce
more than 150 years fince clofe application has been
made to the ftudy of thefe *, and we owe to the celebrat¬
ed Spanheim the greateft obligations, for the progrefs
that is made in this method : his excellent work, De
preejlantia et ufu numifmatum antiquorum, has ftiown the
great advantages of it} and it is evident that thefe
O L O G Y.
monuments are the moft authentic witneffes that can be
produced. It is by the aid of medals that M. Vaillajit
has compofed his judicious hiftory of the kings of Sy¬
ria, from the time of Alexander the Great to that of
Pompey : they have been, moreover, of the greateft
fervice in elucidating all ancient hiftory, efpecially
that of the Romans •, and even fometimes that of the
middle age. Their ufe is more fully fpoken of in the
article Medals. What we here fay of medals, is to
be underftood equally, in its full force, of ancient in¬
feriptions, and of all other authentic monuments that
have come down to us.
livery reader, endowed with a juft difeernment,
will readily allow that thefe four parts of chronology
afford clear lights, and are excellent guides, to con-
duft us through the thick darknefs of antiquity. T hat
impartiality, however, which direCfs us to give a
faithful relation of that which is true and falfe, of the
certainty and uncertainty ol all the fciences, obliges
us here freely to confefs, that thefe guides are not in¬
fallible, nor the proofs that they afford mathematical
demonftrations. In fa61, with regard to hiftory in
general, and ancient hiftory in particular,^ fomething
muft be always left to conje£lure and hiftoric faith. It
would be an offence againft common probity, were
we to fuffer ourfelves to pafs over in filence thofe
objeftions which authors of the greateft reputation
have made againft the certainty of chronology. We
{hall extract them from their own works; and w^e
hope that there is no magiftrate, theologian, or pub¬
lic profeffor in Europe, who would be mean enough
to accufe us of a crime, for not unworthily difguifing.
the truth.
1. The prodigious difference there is between the
Septuagint Bible and the Vulgate, in point of chrono-
logy, occafions an embarraffment, which is the more
difficult to avoid, as we cannot pofitively fay on w'hich
fide the error lies. The Greek Bible counts, for ex¬
ample, from the creation of the world to the birth of
Abraham, 1500 years more than the Hebrew and La¬
tin BibleSj &.c. z. How difficult is it to afeertain the
years of the fudges of the Jewifh nation, in the Bible ?
What darknefs is fpread over the fucceflion of the-
kings of Judah and Ifrael ? The calculation of time is
there fo inaccurate, that the Scripture never marks if
they are current or complete years. For we cannot
fuppofe that a patriarch, judge, or king, lived ex-
affly 60, 90, 100, or 969 years, without any odd
months or days. 3. The different names that the
Aflyrians, Egyptians, Perfians, and Greeks, have gi¬
ven to the fame prince, have contributed not a little
to embarrafs all ancient chronology. Three or four
princes have borne the name of Affuerus, though they
had alfo other names. If we did not know that Na-
bucodonofor, Nabucodrofor, and Nabucolaffar, were
the fame name, or the name of the fame man, we
ftiould fcarcely believe it. Sargon is Sennacherib}
Ozias is Azarias ; Sedecias is Mathanias j Joachas is
alfo called Sellum ; Afaraddon, which is pronounced
indifferently Efarhaddon and Afarhaddon, is called
Afenaphar by the Cuthaeans; and by an oddity of
which we do not know the origin, Sardanapalus is cal¬
led by the Greeks Tenos Concoleros. 4. There re¬
main to us but few monuments of the firft monarchs of
I09
t
if o
CHRONOLOGY.
the world. Numberlefs books have been loll, and
thofe which have come down to us are mutilated or al¬
tered by tranfcribers. The Greeks began to write ve¬
ry late. Herodotus, their firft hiftorian, was of a cre¬
dulous difpofition, and believed all the fables that
were related by the Egyptian prielfs. The Greeks
were in general vain, partial, and held no nation in
elieern but their own. The Romans were Hill more
infatuated with notions of their own merit and gran¬
deur : their hiftorians were altogether as unjull as was
their fenate, toward other nations that were frequently
far more refpeflable. 5. The eras, the years, the pe¬
riods, and epochs, were not the fame in each nation $
and they, moreover, began at different feafons of the
year. All this has thrown fo much obfcurity over
chronology, that it appears to be beyond all human
capacity totally to difperfe it.
Chriftianity itfelf had fubfilfed near 1200 years, be¬
fore they knew precifely how many years had paffed
fince the birth of our Saviour. They faw clearly that
the vulgar era was defedlive, but it was a long time
before they could comprehend that it required four
whole years to make up the true period. Abbe De¬
nis the Little, who in. the year 532 was the firft among
the Chriftians to form the era of that grand epoch,
and to count the years from that time, in order to
make their chronology altogether Chriftian, erred in
his calculation, and led all Europe into his error.
They count 132 contrary opinions of different authors
concerning the year in which the Mefliah appeared on
the earth. M. Vallemont names 64 of them, and all
celebrated vrriters. Among all thefe authors, how¬
ever, there is none that reckon more than 7000, nor
lefs than 3700 years. But even this difference is enor¬
mous. The moft moderate fix the birth of Chrift in
the 4000th year of the world. The reafons, however,
on which they found their opinion, appear to be fuffi-
ciently arbitrary.
Be thefe matters, however, as they may, the wif-
dom of Providence has fo difpofed all things, that there
remain fufficient lights to enable us nearly to connedl:
the feries of events : for in the firft 3000 years of the
world, where profane hiftory is defedlive, wre have the
chronology of the Bible to diredl us ; and after that
period, w’here we find more obfcurity in the chronolo¬
gy of the Holy Scriptures, we have, on the other
hand, greater lights from profane authors. It is at
this period that begins the time which Varro calls hi-
Jloric: as, fince the time of the Olympiads, the truth
of fach events as have happened fhines clear in hiftory.
Chronology, therefore, draw’s its principal lights from
hiftory *, and, in return, ferves it as a guide. Refer¬
ring the reader, therefore, to the article History,
and the Chart thereto annexed, we {hall conclude the
prefent article with
A Chronological Table of Remarlable Events,
Difcoveries, and Inventions, from the Creation to
the year 1804.
BeF. Chrift.
4008 The creation of the world and Adam and Eve.
4007 The birth of Cain, the firft who was born of a
woman.
30? 7 Enoch, for his piety, is tranfiated to heaven.
2352 The old world is deftroyed by a deluge which Before
continued 377 days. ,
2247 The tower of Babel is built about this time by
Noah’s pofterity, upon which God miraculouf-
ly confounds their language, and thus difperfes
them into different nations.
2207 About this time, Noah is, with great probabi¬
lity, fuppofed to have parted from his rebel¬
lious offspring, and to have led a colony of
fome of the more traflable into the eaft, and
there either he or one of his fucceflors to
have founded the ancient Chinefe monarchy.
2234 The celeftial obfervations are begun at Babylon,
the city which firft gave birth to learning and
the fciences.
2188 Mifraim, the fon of Ham, founds the kingdom
of Egypt, which lafted 1663 years, down to
the conqueft of Cambyfes, {0525 before Chrift.
2059 Ninus, the fon of Belus, founds the kingdom of
Affyria, which lafted above 1000 years, and
out of its ruins were formed the Affyrians of
Babylon, thofe of Nineveh, and the kingdom
of the Medes.
1985 The covenant of God made with Abram, when
he leaves Haran to go into Canaan, which be¬
gins the 430 years of fojourning.
1961 The cities of Sodom and Gomorra are deftroyed
for their wickednefs by fire from heaven.
1856 The kingdom of Argos, in Greece, begins under
Inachus. %
1822 Memnon, the Egyptian, invents the letters.
1713 Prometheus firft ftruck fire from flints.
1635 Jofeph dies in Egypt.
1574 Aaron born in Egypt; 1490, appointed by God
firft high-prieft of the Ifraelites.
1571 Mofes, brother to Aaron, born in Egypt, and
adopted by Pharaoh’s daughter, who educates
him in all the learning of the Egyptians.
1356 Cecrops brings a colony of Saites from Egypt
into Attica, and begins the kingdom of Athens
in Greece.
1555 Mofes performs a number of miracles in Egypt,
and departs from that kingdom, together with
600,000 Ifraelites, befides children, which
completed the 430 years of fojourning. They
miraculoufiy pafs through the Red Sea, and
come to the defert of Sinai, iwhere Mofes re¬
ceives from God, and delivers to the people,
the Ten Commandments, and the other laws,
and fets up the tabernacle, and in it the ark of
the covenant.
1546 Scamander comes from Crete into Phrygia, and
begins the kingdom of Troy.
1515 The Ifraelites, after fojourning in the Wilder-
nefs forty years, are led under Jofliua into the
land of Canaan, where they fix themfelves,
after having fubdued the natives j and the pe¬
riod of the fabbatical year commences.
1503 The deluge of Deucalion.
1496 The council of Amphidlyons eftabliflred at Ther¬
mopylae.
J493 Cadmus carried the Phenician letters into Greece,
and built the citadel of Thebes.
1400 Sparta built by Lacedemon.
1485
C H R O N
Before 1485 The firft fliip that appeared in Greece ivas
Chrift. brought from Egypt by Danaus, who arrived
at Rhodes, and brought with him his fifty
daughters.
1480 Troy built by Dardanus.
1452 The Pentateuch, or five firft books of Mofes,
are written in the land of Moab, where he died
the year following, aged no.
1406 Iron is found in Greece, from the accidental
burning of the woods.
1344 The kingdom of Mycenae bigins.
1326 The Ilthmian games inftituted at Corinth.
1325 The Egyptian canicular year began July 20th.
1 307 The Olympic games inflituted by Pelops.
1300 The Lupercalia inftituted.
1294 The firft colony came from Italy to Sicily.
1 264 The fecond colony came from Italy into Sicily.
1252 The city of Tyre built.
1243 A colony of Arcadians conduced by Evander
into Italy.
1233 Carthage founded by the Tyrians.
1225 The Argonautic expedition.
1204 The rape of Helen by Paris, which gave rife to
the Trojan war, ending with the deftnuffion of
the city in 1184.
1176 Salamis in Cyprus built by Teucer.
1152 Afcanius builds Alba Longa.
1130 The kingdom of Sicyon ended.
1124 Thebes built by the Boeotians.
1115 The mariner’s compafs known in China.
1104 The expedition of the Heraclidte into Pelopon-
nefus ; the migration of the Dorians thither j
and the end of the kingdom of Mycenae.
1102 The kingdom of Sparta commenced.
1070 The kingdom of Athens ended.
1051 David befieged and took Jerufalem.
1044 Migration of the Ionian colonies.
1008 The Temple is folemnly dedicated by Solomon.
996 Solomon prepared a fleet on the Red Sea to
fend to Ophir.
986 Samos and Utica in Africa built.
979 The kingdom of Ifrael divided.
974 Jerufalem taken and plundered by Shifhak king
^ of Egypt.
911 The prophet Elijah flourilhed.
894 Money firft made of gold and filver at Argos.
884 Olympic games reftored by Iphitus and Ly-
curgus.
873 The art of fculpture in marble found out.
869 Scales and meafures invented by Phidon,
864 The city of Carthage, in Africa, enlarged by
Queen Dido.
821 Nineveh taken by Arbaces.
814 The kingdom of Macedon begins.
801 The city of Capua in Campania built.
799 The kingdom of Lydia began.
786 The {hips called Triremes invented by the Co¬
rinthians.
779 The race of kings in Corinth ended.
776 The era of the Olympiads began.
760 The Ephori eftablifhed at Sparta.
758 Syracufe built by Archias of Corinth.
754 The government of Athens changed.
753 •^ra the building of Rome in Italy by Romu¬
lus, firft king ofthe Romans.
LOGY. n
The era of Nabonaflar commenced on the 26th Before
of February 5 the firft day of Thoth. , Chrift.
The government of Corinth changed into a re- vr*"“
public.
The firft war between the Meffenians and Spar¬
tans.
Mycenae reduced by the Spartans.
A colony of the Meflenians fettled at Rhegium
in Italy.
Samaria taken, after three years fiege, and the
kingdom of Ifrael finiftred by Salmanazer king
of Aflyria, who carries the ten tribes into cap¬
tivity.
The firft eclipfe of the moon on record,
Gela in Sicily built.
Corcyra, now Corfu, founded by the Corin¬
thians.
Ecbatan in Media built by Deioces.
The fecond Meflenian war under Arjftomenes.
Byzantium (now Conftantinople) built by a co¬
lony of Athenians.
The city of Alba deftroyed.
Cyrene in Africa founded.
Cyaxares befieges Nineveh, but is obliged to
raife the fiege by an incurfion of the Scythi¬
ans, who remained mafters of Alia for 28
years.
Draco publifhed his inhuman laws at Athens.
Pharaoh Necho attempted to make a canal from
the Nile to the Red Sea, but was not able to
accompliftt it.
By order of the fame monarch, fome Phenicians
failed from the Red Sea round Africa, and re¬
turned by the Mediterranean.
The firft captivity of the Jews by Nebuchad¬
nezzar. Nineveh deftroyed by Cyaxares.
Thales, of Miletus, travels into Egypt, confults
the priefts of Memphis, acquires the knowledge
of geometry, aftronomy, and philofophy j re¬
turns to Greece, calculates eclipfes, gives ge¬
neral notions of the univerfe, and maintains
that an only Supreme Intelligence regulates all
its motions.
Maps, globes, and the figns of the zodiac, in¬
vented by Anaximander, the fcholar of Thales.
Jehoiakin, king of Judah, is carried away captive,
by Nebuchadnezzar, to Babylon.
Solon made Archon at Athens.
The Pythian games inftituted in Greece, and
tragedy firft a£!ed.
The firft irruption of the Gauls into Italy.
The city of Jerufalem taken after a fiege of 18
months.
The laft captivity of the Jews by Nebuchad¬
nezzar.
The Ifthmian games reftored.
Money firft coined at Rome.
Tyre taken by Nebuchadnezzar after a fiege of
13 years.
The firft cenfus at Rome, when the number of
citizens was found to be 84,000.
The firft comedy at Athens a61ed upon a move-
able fcaffold.
Cyrus the firft king of Perfia.
The kingom of Babylon finilhed j that city be-
I ing
o
747
746
743
742
724
720
7I3
7°3
702
685
670
666
648
634
624
610
607
606
600
59®
594
591
c88
586
582
581
580
571
566
562
559
53®
I 12
Before
Chrift.
CHRONOLOGY.
508
5°7
498
497
493
ing taken by Cyrus, who, in 536, gives an edi£t
for the return of the Jews.
^34 The foundation of the temple laid by the Jews.
526 Learning is greatly encouraged at Athens, and a
public library firft founded.
520 The fecond edift to rebuild Jerufalem.
5 15 The fecond temple at Jerufalem is finilhed under
Darius.
5x0 Hippias baniftied from Athens.
509 Tarquin, the feventh and laft king of the Ro¬
mans, is expelled, and Rome is governed by two
confuls, and other republican magiftrates, till
the battle of Pharfalia, being a fpace of 461
years.
The firft alliance between the Romans and Car¬
thaginians.
2^,! The fecond cenfus at Rome, 130,000 citizens.
504 Sardis taken and burnt by the Athenians, which
gave occafion to the Perfian invafion of Greece.
The firft di&ator appointed at Rome.
The Saturnalia inftituted at Rome.
The number of citizens 150,700.
Tribunes created at Rome ; or, in 488.
490 The battle of Marathon, September 28.
486 ./Efchylus, the Greek poet, firft gains the prize
of tragedy.
483 Queftors created at Rome.
4&1 Xerxes, king of Perfia, begins his expedition a-
gainft Greece.
480 The defence of Thermopylae by Leonidas, and
the fea-fight at Salamis.
476 The number of Roman citizens reduced to
103,000.
469 The third Meffenian war.
466 The number of Roman citizens increafed to
124,214.
458 Ezra is fent from Babylon to Jerufalem, with the
captive Jervs and the veffels of gold and filver,
&c. being feventy weeks of years, or 490 years,
* before the crucifixion of our Saviour.
The Ludi Seculares firft celebrated at Rome.
The Romans fend to Athens for Solon’s laws.
The Decemvirs created at Rome, and the laws of
the twelve tables compiled and ratified.
The Decemvirs baniftied.
445 Military tribunes, with confular power, created
at Rome.
443 Cenfors created at Rome.
441 The battering ram invented by Artemones.
432 The Metonic cycle began July 15th.
431 The Peloponnefian war began, and lafted 27
years.
430 The hiftory of the Old Teftament finiftxes about
this time.
A plague over all the known world.
Malachi the laft of the prophets.
405 The Athenians entirely defeated by Lyfander,
which occafions the lofs of the city, and ruin of
the Athenian powder.
The retreat of the 10,000 Greeks under Xeno¬
phon. The 30 tyrants expelled from Athens,
and democratic government reftored.
400 Socrates, the founder of moral philofophy among
the Greeks, believes the immortality of the foul,
a ftate of rewards and puniftunents j for which
45 6
454
451
449
399
363
401
and other fublime doftrines, he is put to death
by the Athenians, who foon after repent, and
ert& to his memory a ftatue of brafs.
The feaft of Le&ifternium inftituted. Catapultse
invented by Dionyfms.
394 The Corinthian war begun.
390 Rome burnt by the Gauls.
387 The peace of Antalcidas between the Greeks and
Perfians.
The number of Roman citizens amounted to
152,583.
3 84 Dionyfius begins the Pumc war.
379 The Boeotian war commences.
377 A general confpiracy of the Greek ftates againft
the Lacedemonians.
373 A great earthquake in Peloponnefus.
371 The Lacedemonians defeated by Epaminondas at
Leuftra.
Praetors eftabliftred in Rome. The Licinian law
pafled.
Epaminondas killed at the battle of Man tinea.
359 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved to be 23*
49' 10".
358 The Social war began.
357 Dionyfius expelled from Syracuie.
A tranfit of the moon over Mars obferved.
256 The Sacred war begun in Greece.
Birth of Alexander the Great.
345 Dionyfius II. expelled from Syracufe.
Commencement of the Syracufan era.
338 Philip of Macedon gains the battle of Chse-
ronaea, and thus attains to the fovereignty of
Greece.
335 Thebes taken and rafed by Alexander the
Great.
334 The Perfians defeated at Granicus, May 22.
333 They are again defeated at Iffus in Cilicia, Oc¬
tober. ,
332 Alexander takes Tyre, and marches to Jerufalem.
331 Alexandria built.
Darius entirely defeated at Arbela.
330 Alexander takes Babylon, and the principal ci¬
ties of the Perfian empire.
The Calippic period commences.
328 Alexander paffes Mount Caucafus, and marches
into India.
327 He defeats Porus, an Indian prince, and founds
feveral cities.
326 The famous fedition of Corcyra.
324 His family exterminated, and his dominions part¬
ed by his officers.
323 Alexander the Great dies at Babylon.
315 Rhodes almoft deftroyed by an inundation.
211 The Appian way, aquedufts, &.c. conftru&ed at
Rome. . .
308 The cities of Greece recovered their liberties for
a fliort time.
307 Antioch, Seleucia, Laodicea, and other cities,
founded by Seleucus.
201 Antigonus defeated and killed at Ipius.
299 The firft barbers came from Sicily to Rome.
294 The number of effe&ive men in Rome amounts
to 270,000. . .
293 The firft fun-dial ere&ed at Rome by Papmus
C"rf°r- 855
Before
Chrift.
CHRONOLOGY.
Before 285 Bionyfius of Alexandria began bis aftronomical
Chrift. era on Monday June 26. being the firft who
jmi- v--T.r,Li* found the e*a£l 1'olar year to confift of 365
days 5 hours and 49 minutes.
The watch-tower of Pharos at Alexandria built.
Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, employs
72 interpreters to tranflate the Old Teftament
into the Greek language, which is called the
Septuagint.
284 The foundations of the Achaean republic laid.
283 The college and library founded at Alexan¬
dria.
282 The Tarentrne war begins.
280 Pyrrhus invades Italy.
279 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens
278,222.
269 The firit coining of filver at Rome.
265 The number of Roman citizens augmented to
292,224.
264 The firft Punic war begins, and continues 23
years. The chronology of the Arundelian
marbles compofed.
262 A tranfit of Mercury over the bull’s horn ; the
planet being in 230 of 8 , and the fun in 290
30' <Y>.
260 Provincial queftors eftablifhed at Rome.
The Romans firft concern themfelves in naval af¬
fairs, and defeat the Carthaginians at fea.
255 Regulus, the Roman conful, defeated and taken
prifoner by the Carthaginians under Xantip-
pus.
252 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens
297,897.
247 Another cenfus. The number of citizens 251,212.
246 The records of China deftroyed.
241 Conclufion of the firft Punic war.
240 Comedies firft afted at Rome.
237 Hamilcar, the Carthaginian, caufes his fon Han¬
nibal, at nine years old, to fwear eternal enmi¬
ty to the Romans.
236 The Tartars expelled from China.
235 Rome at peace with other nations. The temple
of Janus fhut.
231 Corfica and Sardinia fubdued by the Romans.
The firft divorce at Rome.
230 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Era-
tofthenes to be 230 $lf 20r.
224 The ColofTus at Rhodes overturned by an earth¬
quake.
219 The art of furgery introduced at Rome.
2 18 Commencement of the fecond Punic war.
Hannibal pafTes the Alps, and invades Italy.
a 16 The Romans defeated at Cannae, May 21ft.
214 Syracufe befieped by Marcellus.
209 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens
227.107.
208 Afdrubal invades Italy j but is defeated and kill¬
ed.
206 Gold firft coined at Rome.
202 Hannibal defeated by Scipio at Zama.
201 Conclufion of the fecond Punic war.
194 Sparta and Hither Spain fubdued by the Ro¬
mans.
292 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens
243i 704-
Vol. VI, Part I.
191 Antiochus defeated by the Romans at Thermo¬
pylae.
190 The firft Roman army enters Afia, and from the
fpoils of Antiochus brings the Afiatic luxury
firft to Rome.
188 The Spartans obliged to renounce the inftitu-
tions of Lycurgus.
179 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens
273.244.
173 The Jewifh high-pricfthood fold by Antiochus
Epiphanes.
170 Paper invented in China.
The temple of Jerufalem plundered by Antiochus.
169 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens
212.805.
168 Macedon reduced to the form of a Roman pro¬
vince.
The firft library erected at Rome.
165 The temple of Jerufalem purified by Judas Mac¬
cabeus.
164 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens
3 2 7,032.
162 Hipparchus began his aftronomical obfervations
at Rhodes.
161 Phftofophers and rhetoricians banifhed from
Rome.
150 The third Punic war commenced.
146 Corinth deftroyed.
Carthage, the rival to Rome, is rafed to the
ground by the Romans.
A remarkable comet appeared in Greece.
143 Hipparchus began his new' cycle of the moon,
confifting of 111,035 days.
141 The Numantine war commenced.
135 The hiftory of the Apocrypha ends.
133 Numantia deftroyed by Scipio.
124 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens
39°’736-.
105 The Cimbri apd Teutones defeated the Romans.
102 The Teutones and Ambrones defeated by Ma¬
rius.
88 Rome befieged by the chiefs of the Marian fac¬
tion.
82 Sylla created perpetual di&ator at Rome.
69 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens
450,000.
66 Catiline’s confpiracy.
55 Julius Caefar makes his firft expedition into Bri¬
tain.
Craffus defeated and killed bv the Parthians.
51 Gaul reduced to a Roman province.
50 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens
320,000.
48 The battle of Pharfalia, between Ctefar and Pom-
pey, in which the latter is defeated.
The Alexandrian library, confifting of 400,000
valuable books, burnt by accident.
45 The war of Africa, in which Cato kills himfelf.
The folar year introduced by Caefar.
44 Caefar, the greateft of the Roman conquerors, af¬
ter having fought 50 pitched battles, and flam
1.192 000 men, is killed in the fenate-houfe by
confpirators.
42 The republicans defeated at Philippi, >
31 The battle of A&ium fought, in which Mark
P Antony
ll3
Before
Chritt.
CHRONOLOGY.
114
Before Antony and Cleopatra are totally defeated by
Chrift. O&avius, nephew to Julius Casfar.
1 » ' 30 Alexandria, in Egypt, is taken by O&avius, upon
which Antony and Cleopatra put thetnfelves to
death, and Egypt is reduced to a Roman pro¬
vince.
29 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens
4,101,017.
27 Oftavius, by a decree of the fenate, obtains the
title of Auguftus Csefar, and an abfolute exemp¬
tion from the laws, and is properly the firft Ro¬
man emperor.
The pantheon at Rome built.
19 Rome at the height of its glory.
The temple of Jerufalem rebuilt by Herod.
Agrippa conftrufted the magnificent aquedu&s at
Rome.
8 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens
4»233»°66.
5 The temple of Janus is (hut by Auguftus, as an
emblem of univerfal peace j and
JESUS CHRIST is born, on Monday, Decem¬
ber 25.
After i The Vulgar Chriftian era commenced from Jan-
Chrift. uary j. the Saviour of the world being then five
years of age.
8 Jefus Chrift difputes with the doftors in the tem¬
ple.
14 A cenfus at Rome, 4,37o,ooo citizens.
16 Mathematicians and magicians expelled from
Rome.
17 Twelve cities in Alia deftroyed by an earth¬
quake.
27 Pilate made governor of Judea.
29 Jefus baptized in Jordan by John.
33 He is crucified at Jerufalem.
35 St Paul converted.
39 St Matthew writes his gofpel.
Pontius Pilate kills himfelf.
A conjunction of Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars.
40 The name of Chriftians firft given at Antioch to
the followers of Chrift.
43 Claudius Caefat’s expedition into Britain.
44 St Mark writes his gofpel.
50 Eondon is founded by the Romans: 3^®’
rounded by ditto with a wall, foxne parts of which
are ftill obfervable.
51 Caraftacus, the Britilh king, is carried in chains
to Rome.
52 The council of the Apoftles at Jerufalem.
35 St Luke writes his Gofpel.
156 Rotterdam built.
39 The emperor Nero puts his mother and brothers to
death.
  perfecutes the Druids in Britain.
60 Chriftianity introduced into Britain.
61 Boadicea, the Britilh queen, defeats the Romans ;
but is conquered foon after by Suetonius, go¬
vernor of Britain.
62 St Paul is fent in bonds to Rome—writes his epif-
tles between 51 and 66.
63 The Aas of the Apoftles written.
A great earthquake in Afia.
64 Rome fet on fire, and burned for fix days j upon
which began (under Nero) the firft perfecution After"
againft the Chriftians.
65 Many prodigies feen about Jerufalem. ^
66 St Peter and St Paul put to death.
70 While the fadtious Jews are deftroying one another
with mutual fury, Titus the Roman general
takes Jerufalem, which is rafed to the ground,
and the plough made to pafs over it.
73 The philofophers banilhed from Rome by Vefpa-
fian.
79 The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum deftroyed
by an eruption of Vefuvius.
80 The Capitol and Pantheon at Rome deftroyed by
fire.
83 The philofophers expelled Rome by Domitian.
85 Julius Agricola, governor of South-Britain, to
protedl the civilized Britons from the incurfions
of the Caledonians, builds a line of forts between
the rivers Forth and Clyde *, defeats the Caledo¬
nians under Galgacus on the Grampian hills y
and firft fails round Britain, which he difeovers
to be an illand.
86 The Capitoline games inftituted by Dofnitian.
88 The fecular games celebrated at Rome.
93 The empire of the Huns in Tartary deftroyed by
the Chinefe.
The Evangelift John banilhed to Patmos.
94 The fecond perfecution of the Chriftians, under
Domitian.
96 St John the Evangelift wrote his Revelation—his
Gofpel in 97.
103 Dacia reduced to a Roman province.
105 A great earthquake in Afia and Greece.
107 The third perfecution of the Chriftians, under
Trajan.
114 Armenia reduced to a Roman province.
A great earthquake in China.
115 Affyria fubdued by Trajan.
An infUrreftion of the Jews, who murder 200,000
Greeks and Romans.
A violent earthquake at Antioch.
1 20 Nicomedia and other cities fwallowed up by an
earthquake.
121 The Caledonians reconquer from the Romans all
the fouthern parts of Scotland ; upon which the
emperor Adrian builds a wall between New-
caftle and Caflille ; but this alfo proving in-
effe&unl, Pollius Urbicus, the Roman general,
about the year 134* repairs Agricola's forts,
which he joins by a wall four yards thick.
130 Jerufalem rebuilt by Adrian.
I 32 The fecond Jewilh war commenced.
135 The fecond Jewilh war ends, when they were all
banilhed Judea. _ ,
l 39 Juftin writes his firft apology for the Chriftians.
J4X A number of berefies appear about this time.
146 The worfhip of Serapis introduced at Rome.
!32 The emperor Antoninus Pius Hops the perfecu¬
tion againft the Chriftians.
An inundation of the Tiber, and an earthquake
at Rhodes.
163 The fourth perfecution of the Chriftians, under
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.
»66 The Romans fent ambaffadors to China.
16S
CHRONOLOGY.
After 168 A plague over the known world,
thrift- 188 The Capitol at Rome deftroyed by lightning.
igi A great part of Rome dettroyed by fire,
203 The fifth perfecution of the Chriftians, under Se-
verus.
20 f An earthquake in Wales.
209 Severus’s wall in Britain built.
318 Two comets appeared at Rome. The courfe of
the moft remarkable from eaft to weft.
223 About this time the Roman empire begins to de¬
cline. The Barbarians begin their irruptions,
and the Goths have annual tribute not to moleft
the empire.
225 Mathematicians allowed to teach publicly at
Rome.
*36 The fixth perfecution of the Chriftians, under
Maximin.
241 The Franks firft mentioned in hiftory,
250 The feventh perfecution, under Decius.
252 A dreadful peftilence broke out in Ethiopia, and
fpread over the w'orld.
The eighth perfecution, under Gallus.
253 Europe ravaged by the Scythians and Goths.
258 The ninth perfecution, under Valerian.
260 Valerian is taken prifoner by Sapor, king of Per-
fia, and flayed alive.
The Scythians ravaged the Roman empire.
The temple of Diana at Ephefus burnt.
a6i A great plague throughout the Roman empire.
262 Earthquakes in Europe, Afia, and Africa, and
three days of darknefs.
273 The Romans took Palmyra.
274 Silk firft brought from India j the manufa&ory
of it introduced into Europe by fome monks,
551 ; firft worn by the clergy in England,
^ ?534-
276 Wines firft made in Britain,
277 The Franks fettled in Gaul,
284 The Dioclefian era commenced Auguft 29th, or
September 17th.
287 Caraufius proclaimed emperor of Britain.
289 A great comet vifible in Mefopotamia for 29
days,
291 Two emperors and two Cagfars march to defend
the four quarters of the empire.
297 Alexandria deftroyed by Dioclefian.
303 The tenth perfecution, under Dioclefian,
306 Conftantine the Great begins his reign,
308 Cardinals firft began.
312 Peftilence all over the Eaft.
Cycle of induftion began.
313 The tenth perfecution ends by an edift of Con¬
ftantine, who favours the Chriftians, and gives
full liberty to their religion.
314 Three bifhops, or fathers, are fent from Britain
to aflift at the council of Arles.
315 Crucifixion abolilhed.
321 Obfcrvation of Sunday enjoined.
323 The firft general council at Nice, when 318 fathers
attended, againft Arius, the founder of Arian-
ifm, where was compofed the famous Nicene
Creed, which we attribute to them.
328 Conftantine removes the feat of empire from
Rome to Byzantium, which is thereafter called
Conftantinople.
*!5
330 A dreadful perfecution of the Chriftlans in Per- After
fia, which lafts 40 years. Chrift.
333 Conftantine orders all the heathen temples to be ""
deftroyed.
334 Three hundred thoufand Sarmatians revolted from
their mafters.
34X The gofpel propagated in Ethiopia by Frumen-
lius.
344 Neocasfarea ruined by an earthquake,
3 51 The heathens firft called Pagans.
358 A hundred and fifty cities in Afia and Greece
overturned by an earthquake.
360 The firft monaftery founded near Poi&iers in
France, by Martin.
363 The Roman emperor Julian, furnamed the Apof-
tate, endeavours in vain to rebuild the temple
of Jerufalem.
364 The Roman empire is divided into the Eaftern
(Conftantinople the capital) and Weftern (of
which Rome continued to be the capital), each
being now under the government of different
emperors.
373 The Bible tranfiated into the Gothic language.
376 The Goths fettled in Thrace.
379 The cycle of Theophilus commenced.
390 A fiery column feen in the air for 30 days.
400 Bells invented by Bifliop Paulinus of Campania.
401 Europe overrun by the Goths, under Alaric.
404 Another irruption of the Goths.
The kingdom of Caledonia, or Scotland, revives
under Fergus.
406 Third irruption of the Goths.
The Vandals, Alans, and Suevi, fpread into France
and Spain, by a conceffion of Honorius, emper¬
or of the Weft.
408 The Chriftian religion propagated in Perfia.
409 Rome taken and plundered by the Goths, Au¬
guft 24.
412 The Vandals begin their kingdom in Spain.
413 The kingdom of Burgundy begun in Alface.
415 The kingdom of Thouloufe founded by the Vifi-
goths.
417 The Alans extirpated by the Goths.
4x9 Many cities in Paleftine deftroyed by an earth¬
quake.
420 The kingdom of France begins upon the Lower
Rhine, under Pharamond.
421 The Salique law promulgated.
426 The Romans, reduced to extremities at home,
withdraw their troops from Britain, and never
return : advifing the Britons to arm in their
own defence, and truft to their own valour.
432 The gofpel preached in Ireland by St Patrick.
444 All Europe ravaged by the Huns.
446 I he Britons, now left to themfelves, are greatly
haraffed by the Scots and Pi£lst upon which
they once more make their complaint to the
Romans (which they entitle, The Groans of the
Britons), but receive no afliftance from that
quarter.
447 Attila (furnamed the Scourge of God) with his
Huns ravage the Roman empire.
449 Vortigern, king of the Britons, invites the
Saxons into Britain, againft the Scots and
Pifts.
P 2
452
n6 C H R O N
After 4^2 The city of Venice founded.
. The Saxons having repulfed the Scots and Pi£ts,
invite over more of their countrymen, arid be¬
gin to eftablifh themfelves in Kent, under
Hengift.
476 The weftern empire is finifhed, 523 years after
the battle of Pharfalia ", upon the ruins of
which feveral new ftates ai-ife in Italy and other
parts, confiding of Goths, Vandals, Huns, and
other barbarians, under whom literature is ex-
tinguilhed, and the works of the learned are
dedroyed.
480 A great earthquake at Condantinople, which
laded 40 days.
493 Italy reduced by Theodoric king of the Goths.
496 Clovis, king of France, baptized, and Chridianity
begins in that kingdom.
506 The Jew’s talmud publidied.
508 Prince Arthur begins to reign over the Bri¬
tons.
510 Paris made the capital of the French dominions.
515 Condantinople befieged by Vitalianus, whofe
fleet is burnt by a fpeculum of brafs made by
Ptoclus.
516 The computing of time by the Chridian era is in¬
troduced by Didnyfius the monk.
517 Five years drought and famine in Paledine.
519 A bearded comet appears.
529 The codex of Judinian, the eadern emperor, is
publifhed.
534 The kingdom of the Vandals in Africa comes to
an end, after having continued 105 years.
536^ The manufacture of filk introduced at Condanti¬
nople by two Indian monks.
540 Antioch dedroyed by the Perfians.
541 Bafilius the lad conful eleCted at Rome.
532 Antioch rebuilt.
542 An earthquake all over the world.
550 An earthquake in Paledine and Syria.
The kingdom of Poland founded.
551 An earthquake in Greecej attended with a great
commotion in the fea.
553 The empire of the Goths in Italy dedroyed by
Narfes.
A great earthquake at Condantinople.
557 Another violent earthquake at Condantinople,
Rome, &c.
A terrible plague all over Europe, Afia, and A-
frica, w’hich continues near 50 years.
568 The Lombards founded a kingdom in Italy.
569 The Turks fird mentioned in hidory.
The exarchate of Ravenna begins.
575 The fird monarchy founded in Bavaria.
580 Antioch dedroyed. by an earthquake.
581 Latin ceafed to be fpoken about this time in
Italy.
584 The origin of fiefs in France.
588 The city of Paris dedroyed by fire.
589 Rome overfiowed by the Tiber.
593 The Gafcons edablidi themfelves in the country
called by their name.
596 John of Condantinople affumes the title of uni-
verfal bifhop.
597 Augudine the monk comes into England with
forty monks.
O L O G Y.
599 A dreadful pedilence in Africa.
604 St Paul’s church in London founded.
60 ^ The ufe of bells introduced into churches.
606 Here begins the power of the popes, by the con-
cedions of Phocas, emperor of the Ead.
622 Mahomet, the falfe prophet, dies from Mecca to
Medina in Arabia, in’the 44th year of his age,
and 10th of his minidry, when he laid the
foundation of the Saracen empire, and from
w’hom the Mahometan princes to this day claim
their defcent. His followers compute their
time from this era, which in Arabic is called
hegira, i. e. “ the Flight.”
628 An academy founded at Canterbury.
632 The era of Jefdegird commenced June 16th.
637 Jerufalem is taken by the Saracens, or followers
of Mahomet.
641 Alexandria in Egypt is taken by ditto, and the
grand library there burnt by order of Omar,
their caliph or prince.
643 The temple of Jerufalem converted into a Maho¬
metan mofque.
653 The Saracens now extend their conqueds on every
fide, and retaliate the barbarities of the Goths
and Vandals upon their poderity.
They take Rhodes, and dedroy the famous Co-
loflus.
England invaded by the Danes.
660 Organs fird ufed in churches.
663 Glafs invented by a bifhop, and brought into En-
land by a Benedi£tine monk.
669 Sicily invaded, and Syracufe dedroyed by the
Saracens.
685 The Britons, after a brave druggie of near 150
years, are totally expelled by the Saxons, and
drove into Wales and Cornwall.
698 The Saracens take Carthage, and expel the Ro¬
mans from Africa.
700 Cracow built, and fird prince of Poland elec¬
ted.
704 The fird province given to the Pope.
713 The Saracens conquer Spain.
714 France governed by Charles Martel.
718 The kingdom of the Adurias in Spain founded
by Pelagio.
719 Chridianity promulgated in Germany.
726 The controverfy about images begins, and oc-
cafions many iniurredlions in the eadern eim-
pire.
727 Tax of Peter’s pence begun by Ina king of
Weffex.
732 Charles Martel defeats the Saracens near Tours.
735 Inditution of the odice of Pope’s nuncio.
746 Three years pedilence in Europe and Afia.
748 The computing of years from the birth of Chrift
began to be ufed in hidory.
749 The race of Abbas become caliphs of the Sara¬
cens, and encourage learning.
The empire of the Saracens divided into three.
752 The exarchate of Ravenna abolilhed by Adolphus
king of the Lombards.
755 Commencement of the Pope’s temporal domi¬
nion.
762 The city of Bagdad upon the Tigris is made the
capital for the caliphs of the houfe of Abbas.
762
After
Chnft.
C H R O N
After 762 Burials, xvhich formerly ufed to be in highways,
Chnft. permitted in towns.
yp2 An academy founded in Paris.
794 The Huns extirpated by Charlemagne.
797 Seventeen days of unufual darknefs.
800 Charlemagne, king of France, begins the em¬
pire of Germany, afterwards called the Weft-
ern empire j gives the prefent names to the
winds and months •, endeavours to reftore learn¬
ing in Europe, but mankind are not yet difpo-
fed for it, being folely engroffed in military
enterprifes.
801 A great earthquake in France, Germany, and
Italy.
807 Jan. 31. Jupiter eclipfed by the moon. March
17. A large fpot feen on the fun for eight
days.
808 The firft defcent of the Normans on France.
825 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Beni-
mula to be 230 5 5'.
826 Harold, king of Denmark, dethroned by his fub-
je£ls for being a Chriftian.
The kingdoms of Navarre and Arragon founded.
832 Painters banilhed out of the eaftern empire.
830 The Flemings trade to Scotland for fifli.
840 The Scots and Picfts have a decifive battle, in
whicti the former prevail, and both kingdoms
are united by Kenneth, which begins the fe-
cond period of the Scottifh hiilory.
842 Germany feparated from the empire of the
Franks.
856 An earthquake over the greateft part of the
known world.
861 Ruric the firfl; prince of Ruflia began to reign.
864 The Danes begin their ravages in England.
867 Chriftianity propagated in Bulgaria.
868 Egypt becomes independent on the caliphs of
Bagdad.
872 Bells and clocks firft ufed in Conftantinople.
873 France diftrefled by locufts and peftilence.
874 Iceland peopled by the Norwegians.
Scotland invaded by the Danes.
875 A bearded comet appears in France.
878 Alfred the Great, after fubduing the Danifh in¬
vaders (againft whom he fought 56 battles by
fea and land), compofes his body of laws ; di¬
vides England into counties, hundreds^ ty-
things ; in 890 ere61s county-courts, having
founded the univerfity of Oxford in 886.
880 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Alba-
tegni to be 230 35'.
889 The Hungarians fettled near the Danube.
891 The firft land tax in England.
895 The monaftery of Cluny founded.
905 A very remarkable comet appeared in China.
Rome taken by the Normans.
911 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Thebit
to be 23° 33' 30".
912 The Normans eftablifh themfelves in Normandy.
913 TT6 Danes become mafters of England.
9*5 The univerfity of Cambridge founded.
923 Fiefs eftabliftied in France.
925 Sigefroi elefted firft marquis of Brandenburg.
928 I he marquifate of Mifnia eftablHhed.
O L O G Y.
937 The Saracen empire is divided by ufurpation in¬
to feven kingdoms.
941 Arithmetic brought into Europe.
961 Candia recovered from the Saracens.
967 Antioch recovered from the Saracens.
969 The race of Abbas extinguilhed in Egypt.
975 Pope Boniface VII. is depofed and banilhed for
his crimes.
977 Greece, Macedon, and Thrace, ravaged by the
Bulgarians for ten years.
The Bohemians fubdued by Otho.
979 Coronation oath firft ufed in England.
Juries firft inftituted in ditto.
985 The Danes under Sueno invade England and
Scotland.
987 The Carlovingian race in France ended.
991 The figures in arithmetic are brought into Eu¬
rope by the Saracens from Arabia j letters of
the alphabet were hitherto ufed.
993 A great eruption of Mount Vefuvius.
995 England invaded by the Danes and Norwegians.
996 Otho III. makes the empire of Germany elective.
999 Boleftaus, the firft king of Poland.
The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by About
Waft and Abu Flamed to be 230 35//.
IOOO Paper made of cotton rags was in ufe } that of
linen rags in 1170 j the manufadlory introdu¬
ced into England at Deptford, 1588.
1002 The emperor Henry affumed the title of king of
the Romans.
1005 All the old churches are rebuilt about this time
in a new manner of architedlure.
1006 A plague in Europe for three years.
1007 A great eruption of Vefuvius.
The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Alba-
trunius to be 230
1014 Sueno the Dane becomes mafter of England.
Sept. 28. Aimoft all Flanders laid under wrater
by a liorm.
1015 Children forbidden by law to be fold by their
parents in England.
1017 Rain of the colour of blood for three days in
Aquitain. r
102 2 A new’ fpecies of mufic invented by Aretin.
1035 Togrul-Beg, or Tangrolipix, the Turkiih fultan,
eftablilhes himfelf in Korafan.
The kingdoms of Caftile and Arragon began.
1040 The Danes, after feveral engagements with va¬
rious fuccefs, are about this time driven out of
Scotland, and never again return in a hoftile
manner.
Smyrna deftroyed by an earthquake.
1041 The Saxon line reftored under Edw’ardthe Con-
feflbr.
1043 The Turks become formidable and take poflef-
fion of Perfia.
The Ruflians come from Scythia, and land in
Thrace.
1054 Leo IX. the firft pope that kept up an army,
1055 The Turks take Bagdad, and overturn the em¬
pire of the Saracens.
1057 Malcolm III. king of Scotland, kills the tyrant
Macbeth at Dunfinnan, and marries the prin-
cefs Margaret, After to Edgar Atheling.
1061
nB
After
Chrift.
C H R O N
1061 Surnames appointed to be taken in Scotland by
a parliament held in Forfar.
Io6y The Turks take Jerufalem from the Saracens.
1066 The conqueft of England by William (furnamed
the Baftard) duke of Normandy, in the battle
of Haftings, where Harold is {lain.
1070 The feudal law introduced into England.
IQ75 Henry IV. emperor of Germany, and the pope,
quarrel about the nomination of the German
bifhops. Henry, in penance, walks barefooted
to the pope towards the end of January.
1076 Juftices of the peace firft appointed in England.
An earthquake in England.
Alia Minor, having been two years under the
power of Soliman, is from this time called
Turkey.
1080 Doomfday-book began to be compiled by order
of William, from a furvey of all the eftates in
England, and finifhed in 1086.
The tower of London built by ditto, to curb
his Engllfh fubjefts j numbers of whom fly to
Scotland, where they introduce the Saxon or
Englilh language, are prote£l:ed by Malcolm,
and have lands given them.
.2086 The order of Carthufians eftabliflied by Bruno.
1090 The dynafty of Bathineens or Aflaflins, begins
in Irak, and continues for 117 years.
1091 The Saracens in Spain, being hard prefled by
the Spaniards, call to their afliftance Jofeph
king of Morocco *, by which the Moors get
pofleflion of all the Saracen dominions in Spain.
2096 The firft crufade to the Holy Land is begun un¬
der feveral Chriftian princes, to drive the infi¬
dels from Jerufalem.
1098 The order of St Benedift inftituted.
l°99 Jerufalem taken by the crufaders; Godfrey eleft-
ed king of it ; and the order of knights of St
John inftituted.
XI10 Edgar Atheling, the laft of the Saxon princes,
dies in England, where he had been permitted
to relide as a fubjeft.
Learning revived at Cambridge.
Writing on paper made of cotton common about
this time.
xi 18 The order of the Knights Templars inftituted,
to defend the Sepulchre at Jerufalem, and to
protect Chriftian ftrangers.
1119 Bohemia ere&ed into a kingdom.
1132 The kingdom of Portugal began.
1137 The pandeft of Juftinian found in the ruins of
Amalphi.
1141 The fafHons of the Guelphs and Gibellines pre¬
vailed about this time,
1143 The Koran tranflated into Latin.
1144 The Peripatetic phifolcphy introduced into Ger¬
many.
1151 The canon law colle&ed by Gratian, a monk of
Bologna.
Ilf4 Chriftianity introduced into Finland.
II r6 The city of Moscow in Ruffia founded.
1156 1 he order of the Carmelites inflituted.
1163 London bridge, confifting of 19 fmall arches,
firft built of ftone.
1164 The Teutonic order of religious knights begins
in Germany.
1
0 L O G Y.
1171 The dynafty of the Fatemites ended in Egypt; After
the fovereigns of this country henceforth cal- thrift,
led Sultans.   * ~
1172 Henry II. king of England, (and firft of the
Plantagenets), takes poffeffion of Ireland ;
which from that period has been governed by
an Engliftr viceroy, or lord-lieutenant.
1176 England is divided by Henry into fix circuits,
and juftice is difpenfed by itinerant judges.
1179 The univerfity of Padua founded.
1180 Glafs windows began to be ufed in private houfes
in England.
1181 The laws of England are digefted about this
time by Glanville.
1182 Pope Alexander III. compelled the kings of
England and France to hold the ftirrups of his
faddle when he mounted his horfe.
1183 Seven thoufand Albigenfes maffacred by the in¬
habitants of Berry.
1186 A conjunftion of all the planets at funrife Sep¬
tember 16. The Sun in 30® 1!g ; Jupiter in
2° 3; — ? Venus in 30 49'; Saturn in 8° 6';
Mercury in 40 ro'; Mars, 90 8'; tail of the
Dragon, 180 23' :Cr.
1187 Jerufalem taken by Saladin.
1192 The battle of Afcalon, in Judea, in which Ri¬
chard, king of England, defeats Saladin’s ar¬
my, confiftingof 300,000 combatants.
1194 Then et tnon Droit, firft ufed as a motto by Ri¬
chard, on a victory over the French.
1195 Denmark and Norway laid wafte by a dreadful
tempeft.
1198 Inftitution of the order of the Holy Trinity.
1200 Chimnies were not known in England.
Surnames now began to be ufed ; firft among
the nobility.
Univerfity of Salamanca in Spain founded.
1204 Conftantinople taken by the French and Ve¬
netians.
The Inquifition eftabliflied.
The empire of Trebizond eftabliftied.
1208 London incorporated, and obtained their firft
charter for ele&ing their lord mayor and
other magiftrates from King John.
The order of Fratres Mitiores eftabliftied.
The pope excommunicates King John.
1209 The works of Ariftotle imported from Conftan¬
tinople into Europe.
The filk manufa&ure imported from Greece in¬
to Venice.
1210 The works of Ariftotle condemned to be burnt
at Paris.
The emperor Otho excommunicated by the
pope.
Violent perfecution of the Albigenfes.
J215 Magna Charta is figned by King John and the
barons of England.
Court of common pleas eftablifhed.
Orders of the Dominicans and Knights Hofpi-
tallers founded.
The do&rine of tranfubftantiation introdu¬
ced.
I2I<5 King Alexander and the whole kingdom of
Scotland excommunicated by the pope’s le¬
gate,
X 22C
C H R o N
After 1220
Chrift.
1222
1223
12 26
1227
1228
I23O
I231
*233
1238
1239
1241
1245
1250
1251
*253
1256
1258
1260
1263
1264
1268
1269
1272
1273
1274
1279
1282
Aftronomy and geography brought into Europe
by the Moors.
A great earthquake in Germany.
A comet of extraordinary magnitude appeared
in Denmark.
A league formed againft the Albigenfes by the
French king and many prelates and lords.
The Tartars under Jenghiz-Khan emerge from
the northern parts of Afia* overrun all the
Saracen empire, and carry death and defola-
tion wherever they match.
The univerfity of Thouloufe founded.
The kingdom of Denmark diftrefled by peftt-
lence.
The kingdoms of Leon and Caftile united.
Pruflia fubdued by the Teutonic knights.
Univerfity of Naples founded.
The Almageft of Ptolemy tranflated into Latin.
The Inquifition, begun in 12©4, is now trufted
to the Dominicans.
The houfes of London, and other cities in Eng¬
land, France, and Germany, ftill thatched with
ftraw.
The univerfity of Vienna founded.
A writing of this year’s date on paper made of
rags ftill extant.
The Hanfeatic league formed.
Tin mines difcovered in Germany.
Aclear red ftar, like Mars, appears in Capricorn.
Painting revived in Florence by Cimabue.
Wales fubdued, and Magna Charta confirmed.
The famous aftronomical tables are compofed
by Alonfo king ot Caftile.
The order of the Auguftines eftablifhed.
The Tartars take Bagdad, which finifhes the
empire of the Saracens.
The fe£l of Flagellantes appeared in Italy.
Acho king of Norway invades Scotland with
160 fail, and lands 20,000 men at the mouth
of the Clyde ; but they are cut to pieces by
Alexander III. who recovers the weftern ifles.
The commons of England firft fummoned to par¬
liament about this time.
The Tartars invade China.
The Hamburgh company incorporated in Eng¬
land.
The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Cozah
Nafirodni to be 230 30'.
Weftminfter abbey rebuilt and confecrated in the
prefence of Henry III.
The academy of Florence founded.
The empire of the prefent Auftrian family be¬
gins in Germany.
The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Cheou-
king in China to be 230 33' 39".
The firft commercial treaty betwixt England
and Flanders.
King Edward renounced his right to Normandy.
The mortmain a£t paflfed in England.
Lewellyn, prince of Whies, defeated and killed
by Edward I. who unites that principality to
England.
A great peftilence in Denmark.
8000 French murdered at the Sicilian vefpers.
Academy de la Crufca founded.
o l o G Y.
1184 Edward II. bom at Caernarvon, is the firft
prince of Wales.
1285 Alexander III. king of Scotland, dies, and that
kingdom is difputed by twelve candidates,
who fubmit their claims to the arbitration of
Edward king of England *, which lays the
foundation of a long and defolating war be¬
tween both nations.
1290 The univerfity of Lifbon founded.
1291 Ptolemais taken by the Turks. End of the
crufades.
1293 There is a regular fucceffion of Englifh parlia¬
ments from this year, being the 22d of Ed¬
ward I.
1294 Parliament eftablifhed in Paris.
1298 The prefent Turkilh empire begins in Bithynia
under Ottoman.
Silver-hafted knives, fpoons, and cups, a great
luxury.
Tallow-candles fo great a luxury, that fplinters
of wood were ufed for lights.
Wine fold by apothecaries as a cordial.
The Scots defeated by the Engliftr at Falkirk.
X299 An earthquake in Germany.
Spectacles invented by a monk of Pifa.
The year of jubilee inftituted by Boniface VIII.
1302 The mariner’s compafs invented, or improved,
by Giovia of Naples.
The univerfity of Avignon founded.
1307 The beginning of the Swifs cantons.
Coal firft ufed in England.
1308 The popes removed to Avignon in France for
70 years.
1310 Lincoln’s Inn fociety eftablifhed.
The knights of St John take poffeflion of the
ifie of Rhodes.
1314 The battle of Bannockburn, between Edward II.
and Robert Bruce, which eftablifhes the latter
on the throne of Scotland.
The cardinals fet fire to the conclave and feparate.
A vacancy in the papal chair for two years.
Germany affhfted with famine and peftilence.
The univerfity of Dublin founded.
Gold firft coined in Chriftendom ; 1344 ditto in
England.
An earthquake in England.
1323 A great eruption of Mount Attna.
1325 The firft treaty of commerce betwixt England
and Venice.
1330 Gunpowder invented by a monk of Cologne.
1332 The pope accufed of herefy.
1336 Two Brabant weavers fettle at York, which, fays
Edward III. may prove of great benefit to us
and our fubjeCls.
The firft comet whofe courfe is deferibed with
an aftronomical exaClnefs.
Europe infefted by locufts.
1340 Heralds college inftituted in England.
Copper money firft ufed in Scotland and Iieland.
1344 The firft creation to titles by patents ufed by
Edward III.
1345 Edward III. had four pieces of cannon, which
gained him the battle of Creffy.
1347 The battle of Durham, in which David, king oi
f Scots, is taken prifoner*
>349
132°
>337
;30 C H R O N
After 1349 The order of tlie Garter inftmited in England
Chnft. by Edward III. altered in 1557, and confiils
of 26 knights.
I3<;2 The Turks firft enter Europe.
1353 Afia and Africa defolated by locufts.
1354 The money in Scotland till now the fame as in
England.
1356 The battle of Poi&iers, in which King John of
France and his fon are taken prifoners by Ed¬
ward the Black Prince.
1357 Coals firft brought to London.
1358 Arms of England and France firft quartered by
Edward III.
Univerfity of Cologne founded.
Tamerlane began to reign in Perfia.
1362 The law pleadings in England changed from
French to Englilh in favour of Edward III.
to his people. - _
The military order of Janizaries eftablifhed a-
mong the Turks.
2365 The univerfities of Vienna and Geneva founded.
J369 John Wickliffe an Engliftiman begins to call in
queftion the do&rines of the church of Rome
about this time, whofe followers are called
Lollards.
1370 The office of grand vizir eftabliffied.
1 377 Inundation of the fea in Flanders.
1378 Greenland difcovered by a Venetian.
1381 Bills of exchange firft ufed in England.
13S4 The firft a<ft of navigation in England ; no goods
to be exported or imported by Engliftimen in
foreign bottoms.
1386 A company of linen weavers from the Nether¬
lands eftabliftied in London.
Windfor caftle built by Edward III.
1387 The firft Lord High Admiral of England infti-
tuted.
1388 The battle of Otterburn between Hotfpur and
the earl of Douglas.
Bombs invented at Venloo.
1391 Cards invented in France for the king’s amufe-
ment.
1399 Weftminfter abbey rebuilt and enlarged—Weft-
minfter hall ditto.
Order of the Bath inftituted at the Coronation
of Henry IV. renewed in 1725, confifting of
84 knights.
1402 Tamerlane defeats and takes prifoner Bajazet
the Turkifti fultan.
1405 The Canary iflands difcovered by Bathencourt
a Norman.
1410 Guildhall, London, built.
Painting in oil colours invented at Bruges by
John Van eyck.
1411 The univerfity of St Andrew’s in Scotland
founded
1412 Algebra brought from Arabia into Europe.
1415 The battle of Agincouit gained over the French
by Henry V. of England.
3420 The ifland of Madeira dilcovered by the Portu-
guefe.
1421 The revenue of England amounted to 55,754!.
1428 The fiege of Orleans, the firft blow to the Eng-
lifn power in France.
£43* A gieat earthquake at Lilbon.
o l o G Y.
1432 Great inundations in Germany. After
1427 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Ulug ,
Beg to be 230 30' 17".
1440 Printing invented by L. Kofter at Haerlem in
Holland ; brought into England by W. Cax-
ton, a mercer of London, I471,
1446 The Vatican library founded at Rome.
The fea breaks in at Dort in Holland and drowns
100,000 people.
1453 Conftantinople taken by the Turks, which ends
the eaftern empire, 1 123 years from its dedi¬
cation by Conftantine the Great, and 2206
years from the foundation of Rome.
14^4 The univerfity of Glafgow in Scotland founded.
1457 Glafs firft manufactured in England.
1460 Engraving and etching on copper invented.
The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Pur-
bachius and Regiomontanus to be 230 29'.
1473 The ftudy of the Greek language introduced in¬
to France.
1477 The univerfity of Aberdeen in Scotland founded.
1479 Union of the kingdoms of Arragon and Caftile.
1482 The coaft of Guinea difcovered by the Portu-
guefe.
A court of inquifition ere&ed in Seville.
1485 Richard III. king of England, and laft of the
Plantagenets, is defeated and killed at the bat¬
tle of Bofworth, by Henry (Tudor) VII.
which put an end to the civil wars between
the houfes of York and Lancafter, after a con-
teft of 30 years, and the lofs of 100,000 men.
1487 Henry eftablifhes fifty yeomen of the guards,
the firft Handing army.
1489 Maps ahd fea charts firft brought to England
by Barth. Columbus.
1490 William Groceyn introduces the ftudy of the
Greek language into England.
The Moors, hitherto a formidable enemy to the
native Spaniards, are entirely fubdued by Fer¬
dinand, and become fubjeds to that prince on
certain conditions, which are ill obferved by
the Spaniards, whofe clergy ufe the inquifition
in all its tortures; and in 1609, near one mil¬
lion of the Moors were driven from Spain to
the oppofite coaft of Africa, from whence they
originally came.
1492 America firft difcovered by Columbus, a Ge-
noefe, in the fervice of Spain.
The Moors expelled from Granada, which they
had poffeffed upwards of 800 years.
149^ The venereal difeafe introduced into Europe.
1496 The Jews and Moors baniffied out of Portugal.
1497 The Portuguefe fiift fail to the Ealt Indies by
the Cape of Good Hope.
South America difcovered by Americus Vefpu-
fius, from whom unjuftly it has its name.
1499 North Ameiica difcovered, for Henry VII. by
Cabot, a Venetian.
1500 Maximilian divides the empire of Germany in¬
to fix circles, and adds four more in 1512.
Brazd difeovered By the Portuguefe. Florida
difcovered by John Cabot, an Englifliman.
Painting in chiaro obicuro difcovered.
A great plague in England.
15.05 Shillings fixft coined in England.
CHRONOLOGY.
After x 507 The ifland of Madagafcar difcovered by the
Chrift. " Portuguefe.
■" » ‘ 1^09 Gardening introduced into England from the
Netherlands, from whence vegetables were im¬
ported hitherto.
1510 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Wer-
nenus to be 230 28' 30".
1513 batt;le Flowden, in which James IV.
king of Scotland is killed, with the flower of
his nobility.
1514 Cannon bullets of (tone fiill in ufe.
1515 The firft Polyglot Bible printed at Alcala.
The kingdom of Navarre annexed to that of
Caftile by Ferdinand.
1516 The kingdom of Algiers feized by Barbaroffa.
1517 Martin Luther began the reformation.
Egypt is conquered by the Turks.
The kingdom of the Mamelukes in Egypt over¬
thrown by the Turks.
1518 Difcovery of New Spain, and the Straits of Ma¬
gellan.
1521 Henry VII. for his writings in favour of pope¬
ry, receives the title of Defender of the Faith
from his Holinefs.
1522 Rhodes taken by the Turks.
The firfl: voyage round the world performed by
a (hip of Magellan’s fquadron.
1526 The inquifition eltabliftied in Portugal.
Lutheranifm eftablilhed in Germany.
15 27 Rome taken and plundered by the Imperial
army.
1^28 Popery aboliflred in Sweden.
1529 The name of Proteftant takes its rife from the re¬
formers protefting againft the church of Rome,
at the diet of Spires in Germany.
I53° Union of the Proteftants at Smallcalde, Decem¬
ber 2 2d.
Secretary of State’s office eftabliftied in England.
1531 A great earthquake at Lilbon.
1532 The Court of Seflion inftituted in Scotland.
1533 Infurreftion of the Anabaptifts in Weftphalia.
1534 The reformation takes place in England, under
Henry VIII.
Barbaroffa feized on the kingdom of Tunis.
1535 The Reformation introduced into Ireland.
The fociety of Jefuits formed.
1539 The firfl: Engliffi edition of the Bible authori-
fed 5 the prefent tranflation finiflred in 1611.
About this time cannon began to be ufed in
fliips.
Six hundred and forty-five religious houfes fup-
preffed in England and Wales.
1540 The variation of the compafs difcovered by Se-
baftian Cabot.
The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Coper¬
nicus to be 2 30 28' 8".
Society of the jefuits ettabliffied, September 27.
$543 Silk {lockings ftrft worn by the French king j
firft worn in England by Queen Eliz. 1561 5
the fteel frame for weaving invented by the
Rev. Mr Lee, of St John’s College, Cam¬
bridge, 1589.
Pins firft ufed in England, before which time
the ladies ufed Ikewers.
Iron cannon and mortars made in England*
Vol. VI. Part I.
121
1544 Good lands let in England at one {hilling per acre. After
1545 The famous council of Trent begins, and conti- ^ru * ,
nues 18 years.
1547 Firft law in England eftabliihing the intereft of
money at 10 percent.
1548 The Reformation gained ground in Poland.
1549 Lords lieutenants of counties inftituted in Eng¬
land.
1550 Horfe guards inftituted in England.
The bank of Venice eftabliflred about this time.
1552 Books of geography and aftronomy deftroyed in
England, as being infe&ed w ith magic.
The book of Common Prayer eilablilhed in Eng¬
land by ad of parliament.
1554 The kingdom of Aftracan conquered by the
Ruffians.
1555 The Ruffian company eftabliffied in England.
1558 Queen Elizabeth begins her reign.
1560 The Reformation in Scotland completed by John
Knox.
1561 Livonia ceded to Poland.
1563 Knives firft made in England.
1565 Revolt of the Low Countries.
Malta attacked by the Turks.
1566 The 39 articles of the church of England efta¬
blilhed.
1568 Queen Mary imprifoned in England.
Liberty of profeffing the reformed religion grant¬
ed to the Low Countries.
1569 Royal Exchange firft built.
1571 The ifland of Cyprus taken by the Turks.
They are defeated at Lepanto.
1572 The great mafiacre of Proteftants at Paris.
A new ftar in Caffiopeia obferved by Cornelius
Gamma. It appeared in November, and dif-
appeared in March.
1576 The profeffion of the Proteftant religion authori-
fed in France. This toleration followed by a
civil war.
1578 The fiift treaty of alliance betwixt England and
the States General, January 7.
1579 The Dutch {hake off the Spaniih yoke, and the
republic of Holland begins.
Englirti Eaft India company incorporated—efta-
blifhed 1600.
  Turkey company incorporated.
1580 Sir Francis Drake returns from his voyage round
the world, being the firft Englifti circumnavi¬
gator.
Parochial regifters firft appointed in England.
The kingdom of Portugal feized by Philip of
Spain.
1581 Copper firft ufed in France.
1582 Pope Gregory introduces the New Style in Italyj
the 5th of Oftober being counted the 15th.
i58S Tobacco firft brought from Virginia into Eng¬
land.
The firft propofal of fettling a colony in Ame¬
rica.
1587 Mary queen of Scots is beheaded by order of
Elizabeth, after 18 years imprifonment.
J588 The Spanifti Armada deftroyed by Drake and
other Englifti admirals..
Henry IV. paffes the edi£t of Nantes, tolerating
the Proteftants.
CL 1588
122
C H R O N
After 1588 Duelling with fmall fwords introduced into
thrift England.
I$$g Coaches firft introduced into England •, hackney-
aft 1693 } increafed to TOGO in 1770.
1390 Band of penfioners inftituted in England.
Telefcopes invented by Janfen, a fpeftacle-maker
in Germany.
1591 Trinity College, Dublin, founded.
1593 A great plague in London.
1594 The Jefuits expelled from France.
The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Byrgius
to be 2 30 30'.
1393 The fame obferved by Tycho-Brahe to be 230
29' 25".
1596 A great earthquake at Japan.
J597 Watches firft brought into England from Ger¬
many.
1598 The edift of Nantes by Henry IV. of France.
1602 Decimal arithmetic? invented at Bruges.
1603 Queen Elizabeth (^the laft ,of the Tudors) dies,
and nominates James VI. of Scotland as her
fucceffor j which unites both kingdoms under
the name of Great Britain.
1603 The Gunpowder-plot difeovered at Weftminfter ;
being a projeft to blow up the king and both
houfes of parliament.
1606 Oaths of allegiance firft adminiftered in Britain.
i6g8 Colonies fent from Britain to Virginia.
1609 The independency of the United States acknow¬
ledged by Spain.
1610 Galileo, of Florence, firft difeovers the fatellites
about the planet Jupiter, by the telefcope, late¬
ly invented in Germany.
Henry IV. is murdered at Paris, by Ravaillac, a
prieft.
Thermometers invented by Drebel, a Dutchman.
1611 Baronets firft created in Britain by James I.
May 22.
An earthquake at Conftantinople $ 200,coo per-
fons died there of the plague.
1612 The north-weft paflage to China attempted in
vain by the Bntifti.
1614 Napier of Marchefton, in Scotland, invents the
logarithms.
Sir Hugh Middleton brings the new river to
London from Ware.
1616 The firft permanent fettlement in Virginia.
1619 W. Harvey, an Engliihman, confirms the doc¬
trine of the circulation of the blood, which
had been firft broached by Servetius, a French
phyfician, in 1553.
1620 The broad filk manufafture from raw filk, in¬
troduced into England.
Barbadoes difeovered by Sir William Courteen.
Navarre united to France.
Copper-money firft introduced in England.
1621 New England planted by the Puritans.
The two parties of Whigs and Tories formed in
Britain.
1622 The Palatinate reduced by the Imperialifts.
1623 The Knights of Nova Scotia inftituted.
1624 Maffacre of the Englifh at Amboyna.
1625 King James dies, and is fucceeded by his fon,
Charles I.
o L o G Y.
1625 The ifland of Barbadoes, the firft Britifti fettle-*
ment in the Weft Indies, is planted.
1631 The tranfit of Mercury over the fun’s dilk, firft
obferved by Gaflendt.
A great eruption of Vefuvius.
1632 The battle of Lutzen, in which Guftavus Adol¬
phus, king of Sweden, and head of the Pro-
teftants in Germany, is killed.
1633 Galileo condemned by the inquifition at Rome.
Louifiana difeovered by the French.
1635 Province of Maryland planted by Lord Balti¬
more.
Regular polls eftablilhed from London to Scot¬
land, Ireland, &c.
1636 A tranfit of Mercury over the fun’s dilk obfer¬
ved by Caflini.
1639 A tranfit of Venus over the fun’s dilk, firft ob¬
ferved by Mr Horrox, November 24. O. S.
3 b. 15' P. M.
1640 King Charles difobliges his Scottifn fubje&s •, on
which their army, under General Lelley,enters
England, and takes Newxaflle, being encou¬
raged by the malecontents in England.
The maffacre in Ireland, when 40,000 Englifh
Proteftants were killed.
The independency of Portugal recovered by John
duke of Braganza.
1642 King Charles impeaches five refractory members,
which begins the civil wars in England.
1643 Excife on beer, ale, &c. firft impofed by parlia¬
ment.
Barometers invented by Torricelli.
1648 A new ftar obferved in the tail of the Whale by
Fabricius.
1649 Charles I. beheaded by Cromwell at Whitehall,
January 30. aged 49.
Pendulums firft applied to clocks by Huygens.
1631 The fe£t called Quakers appeared in England.
1652 The Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hope
eftablithed.
1653 Cromwell affumes the prote&orlhip.
The air-pump is invented by Otto Guericke of
Magdeburg.
1635 The Englilh, under Admiral Penn, take Jamaica
from the Spaniards.
One of Saturn’s fatellites obferved by Huygens.
1658 Cromwell dies, and is fucceeded in the proteftor-
Ihip by his fon Richard.
1660 King Charles II. is reftored by M®nk, com¬
mander of the army, after an exile of twelve
years in France and Holland.
The people of Denmark, being oppreffed by the
nobles,furrendertheir privileges to Frederic IIL
who becomes abiolute.
1661 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Heve-
lius to be 2 30 29' 7".
1662 The Royal Society eftablilhed at London by
Charles II.
1663 Carolina planted: 1728, divided into two fe-
parate governments.
Pruffia declared independent of Poland._
1664 The New Netherlands in North America con¬
quered from the Swedes and Dutch by the
1665 Th«
After
Chrift.
—v *
C H R O N
After 1665 The plague rages in London, and carries off
Chrift. 63 000 perfons.
The magic lantern invented by Kircher.
1666 The great fire of London began Sept. 2. and
continued three days, in which were deilroyed
13,000 houfes and 400 llreets.
Tea firit uled in England.
1667 The peace of Breda, which confirms to the Eh-
glilh the New Netherlands, now known by the
names of Pennfylvania, New York, and New
Jerfey.
1668 - — ditto, Aix-la Chapelle.
St James's Park planted and made a thorough¬
fare for public ufe by Charles II.
16^9 The illand of Candia taken by the Turks.
1670 The Englilh Hudfon’s Bay company incorpo¬
rated.
The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Men-
goli to be 23® 28' 24".
3672 Louis XIV. overruns great part of Holland,
when the Dutch open their fluices, being de¬
termined to drown their country, and retire to
their fettlements in the Eaft Indies.
African company eftablifhed.
The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Richer
to be 230 28' 54".
1677 The micrometer invented by Kircher.
*678 The peace of Nimeguen.
The habeas corpus aft palled.
A ftrange darknefs at noonday, Jan. 12.
1680 A great comet appeared, and from its nearnefs
to our earth alarmed the inhabitants. It con¬
tinued vifible from Nov. 3. to March 9.
William Penn, a Quaker, receives a charter for
planting Pennfylvania.
3683 India Hock fold from 36010 500 per cent.
1685 Charles II. dies, aged 55, and is fucceeded by
his brother James II.
The duke of Monmouth, natural fon to Charles II.
raifes a rebellion, but is defeated at the battle
of Sedgmore, and beheaded.
The edift of Nantes is revoked by Louis XIV.
and the Ppoteftants are greatly diftrefled.
1686 The Newtonian philofophy publilhed.
3687 The palace of Verfailles, near Paris, finifhed by
Louis XIV.
1688 The revolution in Great Britain begins Nov. 5.
King James abdicates, and retires to France,
December 23.
King William and Queen Mary, daughter and
fon-in-law to James, are proclaimed Februa¬
ry
Vifcount Dundee {lands out for James in'Scotland,
but is killed by General Mackay at the battle
ef Killycrankie ; upon which the Highlanders,
wearied with repeated misfortunes, difperfe.
Smyrna deftroyed by an earthquake.
*689 The land-tax pafled in England.
1 he toleration aft pafled in ditto.
William Fuller, w’ho pretended to prove the
prince of Wales fpurious, w7as voted by the
commons to be a notorious cheat, impoftor,
and falfe accufi r.
Several bifhops are deprived for not taking the
oaths to William.
O L 0 G Y. 123
1689 Epifcopacy abolillied in Scotland.
1690 The battle of the Boyne, gained by William f .
againll James, in Ireland.
1691 The war in Ireland finilhed by the furrender of
Limerick to William.
The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Ilam-
llead to be 230 28' 32".
1692 The Engblh and Dutch fleets, commanded by
Admiral Ruflfel, defeat the French fleet off La
Hogue.
The maffacre of Glencoe in Scotland, Jan. 31.
o.s.
Earthquakes in England and Jamaica, Septem¬
ber 8.
Hanover made an eleftorate of the empire.
1693 Bayonets at the end of loaded mufkets firft ufed
by the French againft the confederates in the
battle of Turin.
Bank of England eftablilhed by King William,
The firft public lottery was drawn this year.
1694 Queen Mary dies at the age of 33, and William
reigns alone.
Stamp-duties inftituted in England.
1697 The peace of Ryfwick.
1699 The Scots fettled a colony at the ifthmus of Da¬
rien in America, and called it Caledonia*
1700 Charles XII. of Sweden begins his reign.
1701 King James II. dies at St Germains, in the 68th
year of his age.
Pruffia erefted into a kingdom.
Society for the propagation of the gofpel in fo¬
reign parts eftablilhed.
3702 King William dies, aged 50, and is fucceeded by
Queen Anne, daughter to James II. u’ho, with
the emperor and Hates general, renews the
war againft France and Spain.
The French fent colonies to the Mifliftippi.
1703 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Bian-
cbini to be 230 28' 25".
1704 Gibraltar taken from the Spaniards by Admiral
Rooke.
The battle of Blenheim w’on by the duke of
Marlborough and allies againft the trench.
The Court of Exchequer inftituted in England.
1706 The treaty of union betwixt England and Scot¬
land, figned July 22.
The battle of Ramillies won by Marlborough and
the allies.
1707 The firft Britifh parliament.
The allies defeated at Almanza.
1708 Minorca taken from the Spaniards by General
Stanhope.
The battle of Oiidenarde won by Marlborough
and the allies.
1709 Peter the Great, cZar of Mofcovy, defeats
Charles XII. at Poltow^a, who flies to Turkey.
The battle of Malplaquet won by Marlborough
and the allies.
1710 Queen Anne changes the Whig miniftry for
others more favourable to the intereft of her
brother the late pretender.
The cathedral church of St Paul, London, rebuilt
by Sir Chriftopher Wren in 37 years, at one
million expence, by a duty on coals.
The Englifh South-fea company began.
Qjz 1712 Duke
17* 2
I7I3
1718
1719
e H R O N
Duke of Hamilton and Lord Mohun killed in a
duel in Hyde-park.
The peace of Utrecht, whereby Newfoundland,
Nova Scotia, New Britain, and Hudfon’s Bay
in North America, were yielded to Great Bri¬
tain 5 Gibraltar and Minorca in Europe were
alfo confirmed to the faid crown by this treaty.
*7I4 Q^een Anne dies at the age of 50, and is fuc-
ceeded by George I.
Intereft reduced to five per cent.
1715 Louis XIV. dies, and is fucceeded by his great-
grandfon Louis XV.
The rebellion in Scotland begins in September,
under the earl of Mar, in favour of the Pre¬
tender. The a£lion of Sheriffmuir, and the
furrender of Prefton, both in November, when
the rebels difperfe.
The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Lou-
ville to be 230 28' 24".
1716 The pretender married the princefs Sobiefka,
grand-daughter of John Sobielki, late king of
Poland.
An a£t paffed for feptennial parliaments.
Sardinia erefted into a kingdom, and given to
the duke of Savoy.
The Miffiffippi fcheme at its height in France.
Lomb’s filk-throwing machine, containing
26.586 wheels, erefted at Derby : takes up
one-eighth of a mile ; one water-wheel moves
the reft j. and in twenty-four hours it works
318,504,960 yards of organzine filk-thread.
The South-i’ea fcheme in England begun April 7.
was at its height at the end of June, and quite
funk about September 29.
A great earthquake in China.
An earthquake in Denmark.
King George dies, in the 68th year of his age j
and is fucceeded by his only fon, George II.
Inoculation firft tried on criminals with fuccefs.
Ruflia, formerly a dukedom, is now eftabliftied
as an empire.
The aberration of the fixed ftars difcovered and
accounted for by Dr Bradley.
Kouli Khan ufurps the Perfian throne, conquers
the Mogul empire, and returns with two hun¬
dred and thirty-one millions fterling.
Several public-fpirited gentlemen begin the fet-
tlement of Georgia in North America.
J733 The Jefuits expelled from Paraguay.
1736 Captain Porteous having ordered his foldiers to
fire upon the populace at the execution of a
fmuggler, is himfelf hanged by the mob at
Edinburgh.
A tranfit of Mercury obferved by Caflini.
2737 A dreadful hurricane at the mouth of the Gan¬
ges, Oftober 10.
1738 Weftminfter-bridge, confifting of 15 arches, be¬
gun j finiftied in 1750 at the expence of
389,000!. defrayed by parliament.
The order of St Januarius eftabliftted at Naples.
Letters of marque iflfued out in Britain againft
Spain July 21. and war declared, Oft. 23.
The empire of Indoftan ruined by Kouli Khan.
An intenfe froft in Britain.
The battle of Dettingen won by the Englilh and
allies in favour of the queen of Hungary.
O L O G Y.
1720
1724
1727
i732
1745
1746
1747
1748
1749
1750
1751
1752
1753
*754
*755
1756
*739
*743
1743 A dreadful plague in Sicily. A
1744 War declared againft France.—-Commodore An- *
fon returns from his voyage round the world.
The allies lofe the battle at Fontenoy.
The rebellion breaks out in Scotland, and the
Pretender’s army defeated by the duke of
Cumberland at Culloden, April 16. 1746’
Britifti Linen Company erefted.
Lima deftroyed by an earthquake.
Kouli Khan murdered.
The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, by which a refti-
tution of all places taken during the war wras
to be made on all fides.
The intereft on the Britiftr funds reduced to
three per cent.
Britifti herring-fifhery incorporated.
The colony of Nova Scotia founded.
Earthquake in England.
Frederic prince of Wales, father to his prefent
majefty, died.
Antiquarian Society at London incorporated.
The new ftile introduced into Great Britain j the
3d of September being counted the 14th.
The Britifh Mufeum erefted at Montague-houfe.-
Society of arts, manufaftures, and commerce,
inftituted in London.
A dreadful eruption of Mount ./Etna.
A great earthquake at Conftantinople, Cairo,
&c. Sept. 2.
Quito in Peru deftroyed by an earthquake,.
April 28.
Lifbon deftroyed by an earthquake, Nov. I.
146 Engliftimen are confined in the black hole
at Calcutta in the Eaft Indies by order of the
Nabob, and 123 found dead next morning.
Marine fociety eftabliftied at London.
The king of Pruflia commenced hoftilities in the
month of Auguft in Saxony. Defeats the Au-
ftrians at Lo.
Damien attempted to affaflinate the French king.
The king of Pruffia invades Bohemia. Defeats
the Auftrians at Reichenberg, April 21. and
at Prague, May 6. Repulfed by Count Daun
at Kolin, June 18.
The allies defeated by the French at Haftan-
beck, July 26.
Convention of Clofter-Seven, Sept. 8.
The king of Pruffia defeats the French and Au¬
ftrians at Rofbach, Nov. 5. The Pruffians.de-
feated near Breflaw, Nov. 22. The Auftrians
defeated at Liffa, Dec. 5.
Senegal taken by the Britifti, May 1. Fliey
take Louiffbourg, July 27.
The king of Pruffia defeats the Ruffians at
Zorndorf, Aug. 25. Is defeated by Count
Daun at Hoch kirchen, Oft. 14.
Goree taken by Commodore Keppel, Dec. 29.
Attempt to affaffinate the king of Portugal
Dec. 3.
General Wolfe is killed in the battle of Quebec,
which is gained by the Britifti.
The French defeated by Prince Ferdinand at
Bergen, April. 13.
Guadaloupe taken by the Britifh, May 1.
King of Pruffia defeated by the Ruffians at Cu»
nerfdorf, Aug. 12.
1759 The
*757
1758
*759
\
C H R O N
After 1759 The French fleet defeated by Admiral Hawke,
Chrift. Nov. 20.
Balbec and Tripoli deftroyed by an earthquake,
Dec. 5.
1760 King George II. dies 061. 25. in the 77th year
of his age, and is fucceeded by his prefent ma-
jefty, who, on the 22d September 1761, mar¬
ried the princefs Charlotte of Mecklenburgh
Strelitz.
Blackfriars bridge, confiftingof 9 arches, begun j
finiihed 1770, at the expence of 152,840!. to
be difcharged by a toll.
J761 A tranfit of Venus over the fun, June 6.
Earthquakes in Syria 061. 13.
The king of Pruflia defeats the Auftrians at
Torgau, Nov. 3.
Pondicherry taken by Col. Coote, Jan. 15.
Belleifle furrendered to the Britifli Feb. 4.
1762 War declared againft Spain.
Peter III. emperor of Ruflia, is depofed, impri-
foned, and murdered.
American philofophical fociety eftabliflied in
Philadelphia.
George Auguftus Frederic, prince of Wales, bom
Aug. 12.
Martinico furrendered to the Britilh Feb. 4,
Havannah furrendered to ditto Aug. 12.
Manilla taken by ditto 061. 6.
1763 The definitive treaty of peace between Great
Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal, con¬
cluded at Paris February 10th ; which con¬
firms to Great Britain the extenfive province
of Canada, Eaft and Weft Florida, and part
of Louifiana, in North America j alfo the
iflands of Grenada, St Vincent, Dominicar
and Tobago, in the Weft Indies.
The Jefuits expelled from France.
1764 The parliament granted io,oool. to Mr Har-
rifon for his difcovery of the longitude by his
time-piece.
Famine and peftilence in Italy.
An earthquake at Lifbon.
1765 His majefty’s royal charter pafled for incorpo¬
rating the fociety of artifts.
An aft paiTed annexing the fovereignty of the
ifland of Man to the crown of Great Britain.
1766 April 21 ft, a fpot or macula of the fun, more
than thrice the bignefs of our earth, pafled the
fun’s centre.
The American ftamp-aft repealed March 18.
A great earthquake at Conftantinople.
The Jefuits expelled from Bohemia and Den¬
mark.
1767 The Jefuits expelled from Spain, Venice, and
Genoa, April 2d.
Martinico almoft deftroyed by an earthquake.
The Proteftants tolerated in Poland Nov. 2d.
1768 Academy of painting eftablilhed in London.
The Turks imprifon the Ruffian ambaffador,
and declare war againft that empire.
The Jefuits expelled from Naples, Malta, and
Parma.
2769 Pa°li tied from Corfica June 13. The ifland
then reduced by the French.
O L O G Y- 12s
1770 An earthquake at St Domingo. After
1771 Dr Solander and Mr Banks, in his majefty’s fhip
the Endeavour, Lieut. Cook, return from a • »
voyage round the world, having made feveral
important difcoveries in the South feas.
An emigration of 500,000 Tourgouths from the
coafts of the Cafpian fea to the frontiers of
China.
1772 The king of Sweden changes the conftitution
from ariftocracy to a limited monarchy.
The Pretender marries a princefs of Germany,
grand-daughter of Thomas late earl of Aylef-
bury.
The emperor of Germany, emprefs of Ruffia, and
the king of Pruffia, ftrip the king of Poland
of a great part of his dominions, which they
divide among themfelves, in violation of the
moft folemn treaties.
1773 Captain Phipps is fent to explore the North
Pole h but having made 81 degrees, is in dan¬
ger of being locked up by the ice, and his at¬
tempt to difeover a paffage in that quarter
proves fruitlefs.-
The Engliffi Eaft India Company having, by
conqueft or treaty, acquired the extenfive pro¬
vinces of Bengal, Orixa, and Bahar, contain¬
ing 15 millions of inhabitants, great irregula¬
rities are committed by their fervants abroad j
upon which government interferes, and fends
out judges, &c. for the better adminiftration.
of juftice.
The war between the Ruffians and the Turks
proves difgraceful to the latter, who lofe the
iflands in the Archipelago, and by fea are
everywhere unluccefsful.
The fociety of Jefuits fupprefied by the pope’s
bull, Aug. 25.
1774 Peace is proclaimed between the Ruffians and
the Turks.
The Britiffi parliament having palled an aft lay¬
ing a duty of 3d. per pound upon all teas im¬
ported into America, the colonifts, confidering
this as a grievance, deny the right of the Bri-
tifh parliament to tax them.
The American colonies fend deputies to Phila¬
delphia, who aiTume the title of The Congrefs
of the Thirteen United Provinces, and all the
powers of government.
1775 The American war commences. Aftion at
Bunker’s Hill June 7.
The Spaniards land near Algiers, and are de¬
feated July 8.
1776 The congrefs declare the United States of Ame¬
rica independent of the crown and parliament
of Great Britain.
The Americans receive a dreadful defeat at
Long Ifland Aug. 37.
1777 Philadelphia taken by the Britifh Oft. 3.
General Burgoyne with his army furrenders to
the Americans.
1778 A moft extraordinary eruption of Vefuvius Au-
guft 8.
The fiege of Gibraltar begun by the Spaniards
July 8.
\
£26
CHRONOLOGY,
After ijSo Jan. 14th, 6b. A. M. the thermometer fufpend'
. ed in the open air at Glafgow, itood at 46° be-
low o.
The Spaniih fleet defeated by Admiral Rodney
Jan. 16th.
Charleflown furrendered to the Britifli May 1 2th.
A dreadful infurreftion in London, and riots in
many other places of the kingdom.
A great number of Briufh fhips taken by the
combined fleets of France and Spain.
Lord Cornwallis defeats the Americans at Cam¬
den.
A dreadful hurricane in the Leeward Iflands
Ocl. 9th.
An extraordinary ftorm of wind in England.
War declared againft the Dutch Dec. 20th.
E781 A terrible engagement between the Dutch and
Britifli fleets near the Dogger Bank Au-
guft. 5th.
Lord Cornwallis with his army furrenders to the
united forces of France and America 061.
18th.
1782 Minorca furrendered to the Spaniards February
4th.
The French fleet under De Grafle defeated and
almoft deflroyed by Admiral Rodney April
1 2th.
The Spanifli floating batteries before Gibraltar
entirely deflroyed Sept. 1 2.
*783 Preliminaries of a general peace figned. Ame¬
rica declared independent Jan. 20th.
A dreadful earthquake, attended with many
extraordinary circumftances, in Italy and Si¬
cily.
The fun obfcured by a kind of fog during the
whole fummer.
A volcanic eruption in Iceland furpafling any
thing recorded in hiflory. The lava fpouted
up in three places to the height of two miles
perpendicular, and continued thus for two
months; during which time it covered a trafl
of 3600 fquare miles of ground, in fome places
more than 10O feet deep.
A large meteor appears to the northward of
Shetland, and takes its dire6fion fouthward,
with a velocity little inferior to that ol the
earth in its annual courfe round the fun. Its
track obferved for more than icoo miles.
Algiers bombarded by the Spaniards.
A great tumult at Philadelphia between the in¬
habitants and French foldiery.
An extraordinary aurora borealis feen at Lon¬
don.
Bednore taken by the Englifh.
Magazine at Bencoolen blown up.
Bottles made of the lava of volcanoes.
Byrne, the Irdh giant, eight feet four inches,
dies by intemperance.
Famine in the Carnatic.
Ch .rles Guftavus prince of Sweden dies.
A father kills three of his children with the
thigh-bone of a horfe after hearing a fermon
on the happinefs of thofe who die young.
Sir Fyre Coote defeats Hyder Ally.
Cremnitz in Hungary deftroyed by lightning.
»783
Dartmouth Eaft Indiaman loft.
Definitive treaties between Britain and France,,
Spain and America concluded.
The Eaft India houfe robbed.
Thanks to General Elliot voted by the houfe of
After
Thrift.
commons.
Embargo on fait in Ireland taken off.
A foreft in Poland fuddenly difappears.
Ifland of Formofa deflroyed by an earthquake.
Gold and filver lace prohibited in Denmark.
A confpiracy againft the Grand Signior dif-
covered.
Grofvenor Indiaman loft.
Mangalore furrenders to the Britiftv.
Five meteors or fire-balls feen at different places
in England.
Serious mutinies at Portfmouth, Jerfey, Guern-
fey, Dublin, &c.
A plague breaks out at Conftantinople.
Powder mills at Ewell blown up.
A man in Mofcow has 84 children alive out of
87 by three wives.
Queen Charlotte delivered of a princefs.
1784 General Cornwallis made conftable of the
Tower.
Sluices at Llllo opened by the Dutch.
Great earthquakes in Iceland, Grenoble, &c.
Fort Frederick at Grenada blown up.
Commodore Lindfay vifited by the king and
queen of Naples.
Pennfylvania in extreme diftrefs.
A general thankfgiving for peace with Ame¬
rica, &c.
Allan Ramfay, Efq. fon of the celebrated poet
of the fame name, dies at Dover.
St Auguftine in Florida declared a free port.
A gang of defperate robbers apprehended at
Glafgow.
A volcano difcovered in the moon.
1785 Melancholy fate of two aeionauts.
A fingular calamity at Barbadoes, by the finking
of the furface in different places.
A new comet difcovered.
The queen of France is delivered of a fon.
A remarkable accident happens in the court of
king’s bench.
A dreadful inundation happens at Vienna in Ger¬
many.
1786 The Halfewell Eaft Indiaman ftruck on the
rocks of Purbeck, and about 100 of the crew
perilhed Jan. 6th.
Joiner’s works performed by a blind man in fuch
a mafterly manner as to aftonifti the ableft
judges, at Hermanftadt in Tranfilvania”.
1786 The king of Pruflia makes a handfome provifion
during life for the widow and children of
Colonel Vantrofcke, a deferving officer. April.
The weft tower of Hereford church, 125 feet
high, built in the 12th century, fell down on
the evening of 17th April, but no people
th n in the church-yard received any injury.
M. Blanchard afeends in a balloon 96 miles in
as many minutes. Writes a letter m the air,
dated April 18th to the editors of the Paris
Journal.
i o
C H R O N
After To the number of 6398 boys and girls, clothed,
Chrift. educated, and fupported by voluntary contri-
tions, affemble under the dome of St Paul’s
cathedral.
A fmall praver-book compofed by Queen Eliza¬
beth, and in her own hand-writing, fold in
London for 100 guineas, June 7th.
The prince of Wales orders his whole ftud to be
difpofed of by auction, to enable him to liqui¬
date his debts.
1787 The king of Pmffia eftabliihes a court of ho¬
nour for the purpofe of fuppreffing duelling.
A meeting of notables convened by the king
of France for reforming abufes relating to the
fubjeft of finance, January 10th.
Two {hips failed from Gravefend with black
people on board, for a new fettlement at Sierra
Leone, January 9th.
The king of Poland has an interview with her
imperial majefty at Kiowq March 7th.
Nine fhips failed for Botany Bay from Spithead
with convi&s, 21ft.
A motion in parliament' for repealing the teft
and corporation a&s, 28th.
M. de Calonne is difmiffed from office, April 1 oth.
Mr Haftings impeached at the bar of the houfe
of lords, May 1 oth.
  petitions to be admitted to bail, 22d.
The fum of x6i,oool. voted for the liquidation
of the Prince of Wales’s debts, 24th.
The Hartwell Eaft Indiaman loft off the ifland
of Bona Vifta, 24th.
cTwo fatellites belonging to Georgium Sidus dif-
covered by Dr Herfchel, June 7th.
The Ruffian ambaflador at Conftantinople impri-
foned, Auguft 16th.
The Pruffian troops under the duke of Brunf-
wick take poffeffion of Utrecht, Sept. 17th.
Twenty-three fail of the line put into commiffion,
and feventeen new admirals appointed, Sept.
24th.
The Pruffians gain poffeffion of Amfterdam,
Oftcber, nth.
A moft remarkable aurora borealis appears, I 3th.
Lord George Gordon apprehended, and com¬
mitted to Newrgate, December 7th.
1788 Died at Bryngw'yn in Radnorftiire fix perfons
during the month of January, whofe united
ages made up 644 years.
A new' copper coinage of halfpence begins to
circulate in Britain, July 19th.
William Brodie and George Smith tried for break¬
ing into the general excife office for Scotland,
and fentenced to be executed September ift.
1788 Adreadful hurricane at Martinico laid many pa-
rifhes wafte, and deprived multitudes of their
exiftence, Auguft 14th.
The king of France aboliftied the torture, and
ordained that every accufed perfon fhall have
counfel immediately affigned him, 06!ober
18 th. He ordered alfo, that a majority of one
may acquit the accufed, while three are re¬
quired to condemn.
An iron barge built by John Wilkinfon, Efq.
at Wilby wharf Shrewlbury, w7as launched,
O L O G Y.
drawing only eight inches water, and moving
very eafily on that element, November 7th.
His Britannic majefty is feized wdth a fevere
indifpofition, Oftober l 7th.
A new comet in the conftellation of Urfa Major
difcovered by M. Meffier aftronomer at Paris,
November 26th.
1789 Coins bearing date 1057 wrere found beneath
the foundation of the old markethoufe at Farn-
ham.
Another fateliite difeovered by Dr Herfchel be¬
longing to Saturn.
Earthquake at Comrie, November 3d.
Foundation ftone of that magnificent ftrufture,
the univerfity of Edinburgh, laid by the
Right Honourable Francis Lord Napier, grand
mafter-mafon of Scotland, November 16th.
Phipps (father and Ion) hanged for forgery, Sep¬
tember, 5th.
Revolution of France is begun and gradually
advanced.
General Waflrington makes a fplendid entrance
into the city of Philadelphia, where a fump-
tuous entertainment is provided for him by the
joyful citizens, April 22d.
An excellent and cheap dye invented in Germany,
Dr Withers fentenced to 12 months imprifon-
ment, to pay a fine of 50 1. and to find fecu-
rity for five years, himfelf in 5C0I. and two
others in 25c!. each, for defaming the cha¬
racter of Mrs Fitzherbert, November 21ft.
The fum of 26il. 3s. voted to Brook Wat-
fon, Efq. to defray the expences of a new
invented method of cultivating hemp, De¬
cember 14th.
1790 Exile of the Duke de Orleans.
Bed of juftice inftituted in France.
Calamitous ftate of affairs in that country.
The archbilhop of Touloufe dihniffed from of¬
fice.
A convention figned at the Efcuria! between his
Britannic majefty and the king of Spain,
OCtober 28th.
A memorial of the court of Spain delivered to
Mr Fitzherbert, June 13th.
M. Montmorin’s letter to the national affembly
of France.
Louis XVI. delivers a fpeech to the national
affembly.
A blackbird’s neft with four eggs found De¬
cember 25th, near Numjham in Oxfordffiire.
1791 Serious riots at Paris.
The Tiers Etat conftitute themfelves a national
affembly.
1791 Paris is furrounded by the military at the defire
of the king.
Prifons fet open by the mob, and a great famine
in Paris, whether real or artificial is involved
in obfeurity.
M. Necker is difmiffed from office, and the Ba-
After
Chntl.
ftile demolifhed.
M. La Fayette appointed commander in chief of
the national guard.
M. Necker is recalled with every demonftration
of joy.
A
t28 C H R O N
After A mofl horrid infurre&ion takes place on the
Chriit. of Oftober.
r0ya] family comes from Verfaill.es to Paris.
The abolition of orders decreed by the affembly.
The ifland of Corftca united to France.
The unpopular and oppreflive tax on fait abo-
lifhed.
M. Necker again refigns, about which time a
riot breaks out at Paris, and a ferious muti¬
ny in the harbour of Breft.
Foreign powers combine againft France.
The king of France flies, is apprehended, and re¬
turns.
The city of Paris put under martial law.
The Netherlands revolt from Germany.
Peace is concluded between Auftria and Pruflfiaj
and between Pruffia and Sweden.
The grand vizier is difgraced, and dies.
A peace concluded between Ruflia and Con-
flantinople.
A convention is entered into with Spain relative
to Nootka Sound.
War carried on in India with Tippoo Saib.
The Britifh parliament is diffolved, and the new
parliament is foon after opened by a fpeech
from the throne.
A bill is prefented in the Britifh parliament for
the relief of Proteftant Catholics.
The French conftitution fettled by the affem¬
bly, and prefented to the king, September
3d.
Accepted of by the king, 13th.
4792 Wafhington’s fpeech to both houfes of congrefs,
O&ober 25th.
A treaty between Britain and Pruffia relative to
the marriage of the duke of York with ire-
derica Charlotte.
Guftavus III. of Sweden is affaffinated by An-
karftrom.
General Dillon is inhumanly murdered by his
own foldiers.
M. Rochambeau refigns the command of the
French army in the north, and is fucceeded by
M. Luckner.
Horrible outrages are committed in Paris on the
20th June.
The French arms are vi&orious in the Nether¬
lands.
A petition is prefented to the affembly, praying
for the depofition of Louis XVI.
The palace is abandoned by the royal family of
France, and attacked by the federates, at
which time the Swifs guards are maffacred.
, Louis is depofed, and he and his family impri-
foned.
War proclaimed by the affembly of France
againft the king of Hungary and Bohemia,
April 20th.
The king of the French wrrites a confidential let¬
ter to the king of Great Britain.
A manifefto againft the French revolution by
the emperor of Germany and the king of Prul-
fia.
The French national affembly proceeds to the
trial of the king. He is condemned and txe-
O L O G Y.
cuted, Jan 21. after which M. Chauvelin is After
difmiffed from London.
Dumourier arrefts the commiffioners fent to bring
him to the bar of the convention, and fends
them as prifoners to the Auftrians. He finally
abandons the caufe of France as hopelefs and
defperate. He is fucceeded by General Dam-
pier.
The Briffotine party is denounced by the people
of Paris.
Marat is committed to the Abbey, but foon re¬
leafed, and affaffinated at laft by a female from
Normandy.
An expedition is undertaken againfl: Dunkirk,
which is rendered abortive.
General Cuftine, the queen, the deputies of the
Gironde, Manuel, Houchard, Bailly, Bar-
nave, Rabaut, the duke of Orleans and Ma¬
dame Roland, are condemned and executed.
Earl Moira makes an unfuccefsful defcent on the
coafi: of France.
Toulon furrenders to the Britifh, but is retaken
by the French.
1794 Earl Stanhope moves that the French republic
be acknowledged by Britain.
Mr Adam propofes to amend the criminal law
of Scotland, which gives rife to interefting
debates.
The firft reading of a bill for fufpending the Ha¬
beas Corpus a£l is protefted againft, May 22.
Proteft againfl: the vote of thanks to Lord Hood,
June 17.
The king of Pruflia withdraws from the coali¬
tion.
A bill is brought into parliament for the aboli¬
tion of the flave-trade, and reje&ed by the
lords.
General Fitzpatrick moves for an inquiry into
the reafons of M. la Fayette’s imprifonment.
A motion for peace with France is made by the
duke of Bedford and Mr Fox.
Thanks are voted by both houlesto Lord Howe,
Sir Charles Grey, and Sir John Jervis.
That valuable inftrument the telegraph is in¬
vented by the French.
The bold eloquence of Billaud Varennes, and
Tallien, opens the eyes of France refpe&ing
the ambitious views of that fanguinary monfter
Maximilian Robefpierre, who is condemned
and executed (28th June), wdth about 20 of
his diabolical coadjutors.
General Clairfait is defeated, and Louvain and
Namur are taken by the French.
A treaty is entered into between Sweden and
Denmark, and neutral powers oblige Britain
to indemnify them for their lofles.
1795 La Pique of 38 guns captured by Vice-admiral
Caldwell, Jan. 4.
Admiral Hotham captures two French (hips, Ca-
ira ot 80, and the Cenfeur of 74 guns, Mar.
6.
Warren Haftings acquitted of the ferious charges
prefened againft him by a majority of the
houfe of peers, April 25*
The Boyne of 98 guns is blown up at Spithead,
■
C H R o N O
After
Chrift.
but not fo much damage done to adjacent vef-
fels as there was reafon to dread, all her guns
being loaded, May 4.
Captain Anthony James Pye Molloy difmiffed
from the command of the Caefar of '74 Suns*
for negleft of duty.
Some (hips of war belonging to the French taken
by the fleet under the command of Admiral
Bridport, 23d June.
Leopold brother to the emperor of Germany
died Aug. 10.
La Minerve of 42 guns captured by Captain
Towry June 24.
The beautiful church of St Paul’s, Covent-garden,
totally confumed by fire, Sept. 19.
A (hock of an earthquake felt through moft of
the town of Birmingham, Nov. 23.
1*796 A ftone was thrown at his Britannic majefty’s
carriage on his way from Pall-mall to Buck-
ingham-houfe, which broke a window and
greatly alarmed Lady Harrington, Feb. 1.
A reward of xoool. was offered for the ap-
prehenfion of the criminal, but without ef-
feft.
Admiral Cornwallis is tried on board the Orion,
for a£ling contrary to orders received from the
admiralty, and acquitted, April 17.
Sir Sidney Smith taken by the French at Havre,
April.
L’Unite, a French frigate of 38 guns, taken by
Captain Cole, and La Virginie of 44 by Sir
Edward Pellew, April 13* and 20.
Crofsfield for attempting to affaflinate his maje-
fty, was tried and acquitted, May 20.
Les Trois Couleurs of 10, and La Blonde of 16
guns, captured by Sir Edward Pellew, May 18.;
and La Tribune of 44 guns by Captain Mar¬
tin, fame month.
Two houfes fell down in Clare-market, in the
ruins of which 17 perfons were unfortunately
buried, June 27.
The Amphion frigate of 32 guns blown up at
Plymouth, when about 260 lives were loft,
Sept. 22.
The emprefs Catharine II. of Ruflia died at her
palace of an apopleftic fit, Nov. 17.
1797 Part of a French fleet came to anchor in Bantry
bay, having on board an army of 25,000 men,
under the command of General Hoche ; but
afterwards weighed and flood out to fea, Ja¬
nuary 2.
The fteeple of a church near Norwich fell down
while the bell wras ringing for public worlhip,
Jan. 8.
La Mufette of 2 2, and Deux Amis of 14 guns,
captured by the Bntilh, and fent into Cork,
Jan. 14.
The city of Savannah nearly confumed to allies
by fire.
Sir John Jervis, with a fleet of 15 fail, engages
a Spanilh fleet of 27 fail °f the line, which he
defeats, taking the Salvador del Mundo and
San Jofef of 112 guns each ; the San Nicolas
of 80 and San Yfidro of 74 guns, February
14.
Voi. YI. Part L
LOGY.
The ifland of Trinidad furrenders to the Britilh
forces under the command of Sir Ralph Aber¬
crombie.
Alarming fymptoms of a mutiny appear among
the feamen of the Britilh fleet, May 7.
The nuptial ceremonies are folemnized between
the prince of Wirtemberg Stutgard, and Char¬
lotte Augufta Matilda, eldeft daughter of his
Britannic majefty George III. May 18.
Lord Malmelbury appointed minifter plenipoten¬
tiary from the court of Britain to France for
negociating a treaty of peace, July 1.
About 30 French war veffels of different dimen-
fions taken or deftroyed by the fquadron un¬
der Sir J. B. Warren, between 17th July and
6th of September.
A defperate engagement off Camperdown be¬
tween Admirals Duncan and De YV inter,
when the latter is totally defeated by the for¬
mer, with the lofs of 11 Ihips.
1798 Le Duguay Trouin, a French privateer, captu¬
red by Captain Frazer of his majefty’s Ihip
Shannon, Feb. 3.
A powder-mill belonging to Mr Harvey is blown
up, which demolilhes feveral adjacent build¬
ings, and kills three of the workmen, April
25.
L’Hercule, a French Ihip of 74 guns, captured
by the Mars, April 2 I.
Rebels in the Curragh ot Kildare, Ireland, lay
down their arms, May 29.
Wexford rebels defeated with great lofs and
flaughter, June 10.
Propofals of the Irilh rebels rejected by General
Lake, June 22.
The Princefs Amelia Eaft Indiaman accidental¬
ly burnt on the coaft of Malabar, and 40 of
her crew perilhed, April 5.
An engagement at Caftlebar between General
Lake and a party of French landed in Ire¬
land, Aug. 27.
A dreadful engagement between the Britifh fleet
under the command of Sir Horatio Nelfon,
and the French fleet commanded by Admiral
Bruys, off the mouth of the Nile, when nine fail
of the line belonging to the French were ta¬
ken, three burnt, one funk, and four efcaped,
Aug. 1.
The yellow7-fever which carried off 3000 people
in New York in a few months, happily ceafed
to rage, Nov. 15.
1799 A dreadful Ihock of an earthquake was felt at
Guernfey on the night of the 6th.
A defperate battle fought between the Arch¬
duke Charles and General Jourdan at Stock-
afh, March 25.
La Vigie of 14, and Anacreon privateer of 16
guns taken by his Britannic majefty’s (hip
Champion, Captain Graham commander,
July 2.
Three frigates captured by the Centaur, J. Wood
commander, June 19.
Mantua furrenders to the Auftrians, June 30.
The Britiftr forces deftined to invade Holland,
begin to difembark, 27th Auguft.
R Seven
y
C H R O N O
Seven fliips of war, and 13 Indiamen and tranf-
fports taken in the Nieuve Diep by Admiral
Mitchell, Auguft 27.
Seringapatam furrenders to the Britifh forces,
when Tippoo Sultan is (lain, 4th May.
A Spanilh frigate called Thetis, with a valuable
cargo on board, furrenders to Captain Young
of the Ethalion, i6th Oftober.
Britifh and Ruffian forces obliged to evacuate
Holland, November.
La Furet of 14 guns ftrikes to the Viper cutter,
Lieutenant Pengelly commander, 26th De¬
cember.
1800 Three French privateers and one Span!fh captur¬
ed by the Ariflocrat, Lieutenant Wray, Jan¬
uary.
A French letter of marque with 12 four pounders
and 30 men taken by a Britifh long-boat.
His Britannic majefty’s ffiip Repulfe of 64 guns
loft, and a number of the crew periftred, 9th
March.
A convention between the ambafladors of the
Ottoman Porte and General Defaix, figned at
El Arifch, 24th January, by which the French
troops were permitted to return to their own
country.
His Britannic majey’s ftrip Danae carried into
Breft by the mutineers on board, 27th March.
Genereux of 74 guns captured by the Nor¬
thumberland and Foudroyant, February 18.
A French privateer of 23 guns captured by the
Amethyft, Captain Cook commander, 31ft
March.
His Britannic majefty fhot at in the theatre,
May 16, by a maniac of the name of Had-
field.
The Queen Charlotte of too guns is burnt off
Leghorn, and the gallant crew perifh, 17th
March.
The French fhip of war Guillaume Tell of 86
guns and 1000 men furrenders to the Lion,
Penelope, and Foudroyant, March 30.
Le Cerbere of feven guns and 87 men taken by
a boat’s crew of 20 men, commanded by Lieu¬
tenant Coghlan.
A number of veffels with valuable cargoes cap¬
tured by La Gironde French privateer, Au-
£uft'
Unluccefsful expedition againft Ferrol, Auguft.
The French garrifon of La Valette furrendered
to the allied forces at Malta, 4th September.
His Britannic majefty’s fhip Marlborough, of
74 guns, was completely wrecked off Belleifle,
4th November.
La Venus of 32 guns captured by the Indefati¬
gable and Fifgard, Oflober 24.
A moft dreadful ftorm at London, which un¬
roofed many houfes, blew down others, tore
up numbers of trees by the roots, and by the
effe&s of which fome lives were loft, 9th
November.
1801 An embargo laid on all Ruffian, Danifh, and
Swedifh veffels in the ports of Great Britain,
14th January.
LOGY.
The united parliament of Great Britain and Ire- After
land met for the firft time, January 22. Chnft.
The Invincible of 74 guns ran aground on the “' ~
coaft of Norfolk, and was totally loft, when
about 400 fouls perifhed, March.
A dreadful engagement off Copenhagen, between
the Danifh line, and the Britifh fleet under
Admiral Parker ; in which 943 of the Britifli
wjere killed and wounded, April 2.
Aboukir furrenders to the Britifh under the com¬
mand of Sir Ralph Abercombie, who receiv¬
ed a mortal wound on the 21ft March, of
which that great officer died on the 28th.
The French attacked at Rahmanieh, compelled
to retreat towards Cairo, and purfued by Ge¬
neral Hutchinfon, March 9.
General Hutchinfon takes 550 camels, and 600
French prifoners.
In an engagement between a French and Britifli
fquadron in the bay of Algeziras, the Hani-
bal unfortunately fell into the hands of the
enemy by taking the ground. The Britifh
fquadron rendered ufelefs, two of 84, one of
74 guns, and a large frigate, July 5.
A cefl'ation of arms by fea and land between
Britain and the French republic, refulting from
the figning of preliminaries of peace by Lord
Hawkefbury and M. Otto, October 1.
Alexandria furrenders to General Hutchinfon
on the 2d September.
The Swiftfure captured by Admiral Gantheaume,
who treated the crew wdth the utmoft humani¬
ty and tendernefs.
1802 Jofeph Wall, governor of the ifland of Goree in
1782, was executed for ordering a ferjeant to
receive 800 laflres, of which he died, Jan¬
uary 28.
Mr Moore arrived with the definitive treaty of
peace figned at Amiens on the 27th March,
at four in the afternoon.
The flour mills at Bromley, the property of
Mefffs Metcalf and company, w7ere burnt to
the ground, April 8.
A dreadful fire broke out (May 13) in the town
of Bedford, which deftroyed 72 houfes, and
deprived about 700 perfons of their all.
Intercourfe forbidden at Wilmington, Delaware,
September 5. with Philadelphia and New
York, on account of the yellow fever.
A decifion obliging bookfellers to publifli no
books without the name of the printer at the
beginning and end of them, was ratified, 20th
Oftober.
General Andreoffi, as ambaffador from France,
arrived at Calais 3d of November, where he
was received with difcharges of artillery.
Has an audience of his Britannic majefly,
17th.
Lord Whitworth prefented to Bonaparte his
letters of credence as minifter plenipotentiary
from his Britannic majefty, December 5.
1803 A ferious rebellion fupprefted in China, occa-
fioned by the efforts of Ong Fong, a daring
chief, at the head of 50,000 men.
One
C H R O N
After One of the queens of the Rajah at Tanjore burns
thrift. herfelf on the funeral pile of her deceafed huf-
" band, in fpite of the tears and intreaties of all
her relations.
1804 A&ive meafures taken in Dublin to fecure the
country againft invafion.
A (hip of 1200 tons call alhore.
Admiral Story with ttvo captains declared dif-
graced, perjured, and infamous, degraded
O L O G Y. J3
from their pods, and banilhed the republic, After
not to return on the pain of death, January
16. -v—
A fplendid meteor feen at Perth, February 7.
Duke D’Enghien and other emigrants feized,
fent to France, and executed, March 15.
The French fleet under Admiral Linois engaged
and purfued by a fleet of Fall Indiamen, com¬
manded by Captain Dance.
G H R
Chronome- CHRONOMETER, in general, denotes any in-
ter< ftrument or machine ufed in mealuring time j fuch are
^ ' dials, clocks, watches, &c. See Dial, &c.
The term chronometer, however, is generally ufed
in a more limited fenfe, for a kind of clock fo contri¬
ved as to meafure a fmall portion of time with great
exaefnefs, even to the fixteenth part of a fecond 5 of
fuch a one there is a defeription in Defagulier’s ex¬
perimental philofophy, invented by the late ingenious
Mr George Graham ; which muft be allowed to be
of great ufe for mealuring fmall portions of time in
aftronomical obfervations, the time of the fall of bo¬
dies, the velocity of running waters, &c. But long
fpaces of time cannot be meafured by it with fufficient
exa&nefs, unlefs its pendulum be made to vibrate in a
cycloid j becaufe otherwflfe it is liable to err confider-
ably, as all clocks are which have fhort pendulums that
fwing in large arches of a circle.
There have been feveral machines contrived for
meafuring time, under the name of chronometers, up¬
on principles very different from thofe on which clocks
and watches are conftruffed.
Plate CXXXVII. Vo!. V. fig. 1. reprefents an air-
chronometer, which is conftrudfed in the following man¬
ner : Provide a glafs tube of about an inch in diame¬
ter, and three or four feet long : the diameter of the
infide of this tube muff be precifely equal in every part:
at the bottom muft be a fmall hole, clofely covered with
a valve. In the tube place a pifton, E. fig. 2. which
is made to fit it exactly, and muft be oiled, that it may
move in the tube with the greateft freedom ; in this
pifton there is a cock that {huts quite clofe •, and from
the top of it there goes a cord F, which paffes through
the handle G. The cock of the pifton being clofed, it
is to be let down to the bottom of the tube, and being
then drawn up to the top, the air will then ruflr in by
the valve at the bottom of the tube, and fupport the
pifton. You are then to turn the cock, fo as to make
a very fmall vent; and the air pafling flowly through
that vent, the pifton will gradually defeend and fhow
the hour, either by lines cut in the tube with a dia¬
mond, or marked with paint, or by fmall flips of pa¬
per painted on the glafs. If this chronometer ftiould
go too faft or too flow, it may be eafily regulated by
altering the pofition of the cock in the pifton, as it is
on that the whole depends.
It, inftead of marking the tube, you would have
the time flrown by a dial, it may be eafily effe£led by
placing an axis, to which the hand of the dial is fixed,
direftly over the tube, and winding the firing to
C H R
which the pifton is joined round that axis; for then, Chronome.*
as the pifton defeends, the axis will gradually turn ter-
the hand, and (how the hour : but it muft be oblerved, ~ "v
that as the defeent of the pifton is not conftantly re¬
gular, on account of the decreafe of rcfiftance from the
quantity of the fubjacent air as the pifton defeends, the
axis therefore mult not be a regular cylinder, but coni¬
cal like the fufee of a watch, as in fig. 3. by which
means the motion of the hand of the dial will be con-
ftant and regular.
Fig. 4. reprelents a lamp-chronometer. It confirts
of a chambei lamp A, which is a cylindrical veffel
about three inches high, and one inch diameter, placed
in the ftand B. The infide of this veflel muft be every¬
where exactly of the fame diameter. To the ftand
B is fixed the handle C, which fupports the frame
DEFG, about 12 inches high, and four wide. This
frame is to be covered with oiled paper, and divided
into twelve equal parts by horizontal lines j at the
end of which are wrote the numbers for the hours,
from 1 to 12, and between the horizontal lines are
diagonals that are divided into halves, quarters, &c.
On the handle B, and clofe to the glafs, is fixed the
ftyle or gnomon H. Now, as the diftance of the
ftyle from the flame of the lamp is only half an inch,
if the diftance of the frame from the flyle is only fix
inches, then, while the float that contains the light
defeends by the decreafe of the oil, one inch, the
ftiadow of the flyle on the frame will afeend twelve
inches, that is, its whole length, and fliow by its pro-
greflion the regular increafe of the hours, with their fe¬
veral divifions. It is abfolutely neceffary, however,
that the oil ufed in this lamp be always of the fame
fort and quite pure, and that the wick alfo be con¬
ftantly of the fame fize and fubftance, as it is on thefe
circumftances, and the uniform figure of the veffel,
that the regular progrefs of the ftiadow depends.
Chronometer, among muficians, an inftrument
invented by Louhe, a French mufician, for the pur-
pofe of meafuring time by means of a pendulum. The
form of the inftrument, as deferibed by him, is that of
an Ionic pilafter, and is thus deferibed by Malcolm in
his Treatife of Mufic, p. 407.—“ The chronometer
confifts of a large ruler or board, fix feet or 72 inches
long, to be fet on end ; it is divided into its inches,
and the numbers fet fo as to count upwards; and at
every divifion there is a fmall round hole through
whole centre the line of divifion runs. At the top of
this ruler, about an inch above the divifion 72, and
perpendicular to the ruler, is inferted a fmall piece of
R Z wood,
C H R [ I
Ehronome- wood, in the upper fide of which there is a groove,
t^.r hollowed along from the end that (lands out to that
Chryfalls, which is fixed in the ruler, and near each end of it a
-y—— hole is made : through thefe holes a pendulum cord is
drawn, which runs in the groove : at that end of the
cord which comes through the hole furtheft from the
ruler, the ball is hung : and at the other end there is
a fmall wooden pin, which can be put in any of the
holes of the ruler: when the pin is in the uppermoft hole
at 72, then the pendulum from the top to the centre
of the ball muft be exadlly 72 inches ; and therefore,
whatever hole of the ruler it is put in, the pendulum
will be juft fo many inches as that figure at the hole
denotes. The manner of ufing the machine is this :
The compofer lengthens or (hortens his pendulum, till
one vibration be equal to the defigned length of his
bar, and then the pin (lands at a certain divifion,
which marks the length of the pendulum •, and this
number being fet with the cliff at the beginning of
the fong, is a diredlion for others how to ufe the
chronometer in meafuring the time according to the
compofer’s defign : for with the number is fet the
note, crotchet, or minim, whofe value he would have
the vibration to be ; which in bri(k duple time is bed,
a minim or half bar ; or even a whole bar, when that
is but a minim j and in (low time a crotchet. In
triple time, it would do well to be the third part or
half, or fourth part of a bar $ and in the fimple triples
that are allegro, let it be a whole bar. And if, in
every time that is allegro, the vibration is applied to
a whole or half bar, praftice will teach us to fubdi-
vide it jullly and equally. Obferve, that, to make
this machine of univerfal ufe, fome canonical meafure
of the divifions muft be agreed upon, that the figure
may give a certain direction for the length of the
pendulum.
CHROSTASIMA, in Natural Hijlory, a genus of
pellucid gems, comprehending all thofe which appear
of one fimple and permanent colour in all lights j fuch
are the diamond, carbuncle, ruby, garnet, ametbyft,
fapphire, beryl, emerald, and the topaz. See Dia¬
mond, Carbuncle, &c.
CHRYSA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Myfia,
on the finus Adramyttenus ; extin£t in Pliny’s time : it
had a temple of Apollo Smintheus, (Homer, Strabo).
The country of the fair Chryfeis, who gave firft rife to
the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles.
CHRYSALIS, or Aurelia, in Natural Hi/lory, a
ftate of reft and feeming infenfibility, which butterflies,
moths, and feveral other kinds of infedls, muft pafs
through, before they arrive at their winged or moft
perfect ftate.
In this ftate, no creatures afford fo beautiful a va¬
riety as the butterfly kinds, and they all pafs through
this middle ftate without one exception. The figure
of the aurelia or chryfalis generally approaches to that
of a cone j or at lead the hinder part of it is in this
drape ; and the creature, while in this ftate, feems to
have neither legs nor wings, nor to have any power of
walking. It feems indeed to have hardly fo much as
life. It takes no nouriflrment in this ftate, nor has it any
organs for taking any 5 and indeed its pofterior part is
all that feems animated, this having a power of giving
itfelf fome motions. The external covering of the
chryfalis is cartilaginous, and confiderably large, and is
32 ] C H R
ufually fmooth and gloffy : but fome few of them have Ghryfalis.
a few hairs ; fome are alfo as hairy as the caterpillars
from which they are produced $ and others are rough,
and, as it were, (hagreened all over.
In all thefe there may be diftinguiftied two (ides j
the one of which is the back, the other the belly, of the
animal. On the anterior part of the latter, there may
always be diftinguifhed certain little elevations running
in ridges, and refembling the fillets wound about
mummies: the part whence thefe have their origin, is
efteemed the head of the animal. The other fide, or
back, is fmooth, and of a rounded figure in moft of
the chryfalifes; but fome have ridges on the anterior
part, and fides of this part j and thefe ufually termi¬
nate in a point, and make an angular appearance on
the chryfalis.
From this difference is drawn the firft general dif-
tinftion of thefe bodies. They are by this divided into
two claffes *, the round and the angular kinds. The
firrt are, by the French naturalifts, called feves ; from
the common cuftom of calling the chryfalis of the (ilk-
worm, which is round, by this name.
There is fomething more regular in this diftin£Hon
than might at firft be conceived j for the divifion is
continued from the fly-ftate : the rounded chryfalifes
being almoft all produced by the phalence or moths}
and the angular ones by the papiliosy or day-flies.
There are feveral fubordinate diftindtions of thefe
kinds ; but, in general, they are lefs different from one
another than the caterpillars from whence they are
produced.
The head of thofe of the firft clafs ufually termi¬
nates itfelf by two angular parts, which (land feparate
one from the other, and referable a pair of horns. On
the back, eminences and marks are difcovered, w’hich
imagination may form into eyes, nofe, chin, and other
parts of the human face.
There is a great variety and a great deal of beauty
in the figures and arrangement of the eminences and
fpots on the other parts of the body of the chryfalifes of
different kinds. It is a general obfervation, that thofe
chryfalifes which are terminated by a (ingle horn, af¬
ford day-butterflies of the kind of thofe which have
buttoned antennae, and w'hofe wings, in a ftate of reft,
cover the under part of their body, and which ufe all
their fix legs in walking, thofe of many other kinds
ufing only four of them. Thofe chryfalifes which are
terminated by two angular bodies, and wTich are co¬
vered with a great number of fpines, and have the fi¬
gure of a human face on their back in the greateft
perfedfion, aftord butterflies of the day kind } and of
that clals the charadfeis of which are, their walking
on four legs, and ufing the other two, that is, the an¬
terior part, in the manner of arms or hands. The
chryfalifes which have tw7o angular bodies on their
heads, but (horter than thofe of the preceding, and
whofe back (hows but a faint (ketch of the human face,
and which have fewTer fpines, and thofe lefs (harp,
always turn to that fort of butterfly, the upper wings
of which are divided into fegments, one of which is
fo long as to reprefent a tail, and whofe under wings
are folded over the upper part of the back. A careful
obfervation will eftablifti many more rules of this kind,
which are not fo perfedl, as to be free from all excep¬
tions } yet are of great ufe, as they teach us in gene¬
ral
C H R [ 133 ] C H R
Chryfalis. ral what fort of fly we are to expert from the chryfalis,
of which we know not the caterpillar, and therefore
can only judge from appearances.
Thefe are the principal differences of the angular
chryfalifes •, the round ones alfo have their difterent
marks not lefs regular than thofe.
The greater number of the round chryfalifes have
the hinder part of their body of the figure of a cone j
but the upper end, which ought to be its circular plane
bafe, is ufually bent and rounded into a fort of knee }
this is ufually called the head of the chryfalis •, but
there are alfo fome of this kind, the head of which is
terminated by a nearly plane furface : fome of the
creeping ten-legged caterpillars give chryfalifes of this
kind, which have each of them twro eminences that
feem to bring them towards the angular kind.
Among the angular chryfalifes there are fome whofe
colours feem as worthy our obfervation as the (hapes
of the others. Many of them appear fuperbly clothed
in gold. Thefe elegant fpecies have obtained the
name of chryfalis and aurelia, which are derived from
Greek and Latin words, fignifying gold ; and from
thefe all other bodies of the fame kind have been cal¬
led by the fame names, though lefs, or not at all, en¬
titled to them, As fome kinds are thus gilded all
over, fo others are or oimented with this gay appear¬
ance in a more {’paring manner, having only a few
fpots of it in different places on their back and belly.
Thefe obvious marks, however, are not to be de¬
pended upon as certain characters of diflinCtion ; for
accidents in the formation of the chryfalis may alter
them ; and thofe which naturally would have been
gilded all over, may be fometimes only fo in part j
and either thefe or the others may, by accident, be fo
formed, as to (how nothing of this kind at all, but be
only of a dufky brown. Thofe, however, wdiich have
neither filver nor gold to recommend them to your
eyes, do not want other colours, and thofe beautifully
variegated. Some of them are all over of an elegant
green, as is the chryfalis of the fennel caterpillar j
others of an elegant yellow ; and fome of a bright
greenifh tinge, variegated with fpots of a fliining
black : we have a very beautiful inftance of this lait
kind in the chryfalis of the elegant cabbage-caterpillar.
The general colour of the chryfalis of the common
butterflies, however, is browm.
Some are alfo of a fine deep black ; and of thefe
many are fo fmooth and glofly, that they are equal to
the finefl: Indian japan. The common caterpillar of
the fig-tree gives an inftance of one of thefe moft
beautiful glofly ones j the caterpillar of the vine af¬
fords another of thefe fine black chryfalifes.
The rounded chryfalifes do not afford any thing of
that variety of colouring fo remarkably beautiful in
the angular ones ; they are ufually of a dufky yellow,
in different fhades, and are often varioufly fpotted
with black : but thefe, as well as all other chryfalifes,
before they arrive at their fixed colour, pafs through
feveral other temporary ones ; fome being of a differ¬
ent colour when firft produced from the caterpillar,
from what they are a few days afterw7ards; and fome
varying fo greatly, though only in degree, as not to
be diftinguilhable, even by the moft converfant eye,
from what they were when firft produced. The
green rough caterpillar of the cabbage has a chryfalis Chryfalis#
which is green at firft *, and from that gradually goes
through all the fhades of green to a faint yellow,
which is its lafting colour ; and one of the oak cater¬
pillars yields a chryfalis beautifully fpotted with red at
its firft appearance ; but thefe fpots change to browm
for their fixed colour : the third day from their for¬
mation ufually fixes their lafting colours j and if they
are obferved to turn black in any part after this time,
it is a fign that they are dead or dying.
The feveral fpecies of infe&s, as a fly, fpider, and
an ant, do not differ more evidently from one ano¬
ther in regard to appearance, than do a caterpillar,
its chryfalis, and a butterfly produced from it j yet
it is certain, that thefe are all the produdl of the fame
individual egg j and nothing is more certain, than
that the creature which was for a while a caterpillar,
is, after a certain time, a chryfalis, and then a but¬
terfly. Thefe great changes produced in fo hidden a
manner, feem like the metamorphofes recorded in the
fables of the ancients ; and indeed it is not improbable
that thofe fables firft took their origin from fuch
changes.
The parts being diftinguifhable in the chryfalis, we
eafily find the difference of the fpecies of the fly that
is to proceed from it. The naked eye fhows whether
it be one of thofe that have, or of thofe that have not,
a trunk-, and the afliftance of a microfcope fhows the
antennae fo diftindlly, that we are able to difcern whe¬
ther it belongs to the day or night clafs j and often to
what genus, if not the very fpecies: nay, in the plu-
mofe horned kinds, we may fee, by the antennae,
whether a male or female phalaena, is to be produced
from the chryfalis ; the horns of the female being in
this ftate evidently narrower, and appearing lefs ele¬
vated above the common furface of the body, than
thofe of the male.
All theie parts of the chryfalis, however, though
feen very diflindlly, are laid clofe to one another, and
feem to form only one mafs; each of them is covered
with its own peculiar membrane in this ftate, and all
are furrounded together by a common one j and it is
only through theie that we fee them \ or rather wm
fee on thefe the figures of all the parts moulded within,
and therefore it requires attention to diftinguilh them.
The chryfalis is foft when firft produced, and is wet¬
ted on the front with a vifcous liquor ; its fkin, though
very tender at firft, dries and hardens by degrees j
but this vifcous liquor, which furrounds the wings,
legs, &c. hardens almoft immediately j and in confe-
quence faftens all thofe limbs, &c. into a mafs, which
were before loofe from one another : this liquor, as
it hardens, lofes its tranfparence, and becomes brown 5
fo that it is only while it is yet moift that thefe parts
are to be feen diftindf.
It is evident from the whole, that the chryfalis is
no other than a butterfly, the parts of which are hid
under certain membranes which faften them together;
and when the limbs are arrived at their due ftrength,
they become able to> break through thefe membranes,
and then expand and arrange themfelves in their pro¬
per order.
The firft metamorphofis, therefore, differs nothing
from the fecond, except that the butterfly comes from
the
1
C H R [ I
,Chryfalis. the body of the caterpillar in a weak ftate, with limbs
v ~ unable to perform their offices, whereas it comes from
the chryfalis perftft.
IHJI. *f In- M. Reaumur has given us many curious obferva-
fefts, vol. i. tions on the ftruflure and ufes of the feveral cover-
p. 2. 28.
ings that attend the varieties of the caterpillar-kind in
this Hate.
The creatures in general remain wholly immove¬
able in this ifate, and feem to have no bufinefs in it
but a patient attendance on the time when they are
to become butterflies j and this is a change that can
happen to them, only as their parts, before extremely
foft and weak, are capable of hardening and becoming
firm by degrees, by the tranfpiration of that abundant
humidity which before kept them foft: and this is
proved by an experiment of M. Reaumur, who, inclo-
ling fome chryfalifes in a glafs tube, found, after fome
time, a fmall quantity of water at the bottom of it j
which could have come there no other way, but from
the body of the inclofed animal. This tranfpiration
depends greatly on the temperature of the air ; it is
increafed by heat, and diminiflied by cold ; but it has
alfo its peculiarities in regard to the feveral fpecies
of butterfly to which the chryfalis belongs.
According to thefe obfervations, the time of the
duration of the animal in the chryfalis flate mufl: be,
in different fpecies, very different; and there is in¬
deed this wide difference in' the extremes, that fome
fpecies remain only eight days in this ftate, and others
eight months.
We know that the caterpillar changes its Ikin four
or five times during its living in that ftate ; and that
all thefe fkins are at firft produced with it from the
egg, lying clofcly over one another. It parts with,
or throws off, all thefe one by one, as the butterfly,
which is the real animal, all this time within, grows
more and more perfect in the feveral firft changes.
When it throws off one, it appears in another fkin ex-
a£lly of the fame form 5 but at its final change from
this appearance, that is, when it throws off the laft
fkin, as the creature within is now arrived at fuch a
degree of perfection as to need no farther taking of
nouriftrment, there is no farther need of teeth, or any
of the other parts of a caterpillar. The creature, in
this laft: change, proceeds in the very fame manner as
in all the former, the fkin opening at the back, and
the animal making its way out in this lhape. If a ca¬
terpillar, when about to throw off this laft fkin, be
throwm into fpirits of wine, and left there for a few'
days, the membranes within will harden, and the
creature may be afterwards carefully opened, and the
chryfalis taken out, in which the form of the tender
butterfly may be traced in all its lineaments, and its
eyes, legs, &c. evidently feen. It is not neceffary,
how’ever, to feize upon this exaCl time for proving
the exiftence of the chryfalis or butterfly in the cater¬
pillar : for if one of thefe animals be thrown into fpi-
rit of wine, or into vinegar, fome days before that
time, and left there for the flefh to harden, it may af¬
terwards be differed, and all the lineaments of the
butterfly traced out in it 5 the wings, legs, antenna;, &c.
being as evident here, and as large, as in the chryfalis.
It is very plain from this, that the change of the
caterpillar into chrvfalis is not the work of a moment j
but is carrying on for a long time before, even from
34 ] c H R
the very hatching of the creature from the egg. The
parts of the butterfly, however, are not dilpofed ex-'“
aClly in the fame manner while in the body of the ca¬
terpillar, as when left naked in the form of the chry¬
falis : for the wings are proportionally longer and
narrower, being wmund up into the form of a cord $
and the antennm are rolled up on the head j the trunk
is alfo twifted up and laid upon the head ; but this in
a very different manner from what it is in the perfeft
animal, and very different from that in which it lies
within the chrylalis 5 lo that the firft formation of the
butterfly in the caterpillar, by time arrives at a pro¬
per change of the dilpofition of its parts, in order to
its being a chryfalis. The very eggs, hereafter to be
depofited by the butterfly, are alio to be found, not
only in the chryfalib, but in the caterpillar itfelf, ar¬
ranged in their natural, regular order. They are in¬
deed in this ftate very fmall and tranfparent ; but af¬
ter the change into the chryfalis, they have their pro¬
per colour.
As foon as the feveral parts of the butterfly, there¬
fore, are arrived at a ftate proper for being expoied
to the more open air, they are thrown cut from the
body of the caterpillar furrounded only with their
membranes; and as foon as they are arrived after
this at a proper degree of ftn *gth and folidity, they
labour to break through thele thinner coverings, and
to appear in their proper and natural form. The
time of their duration in this ftate of chryfalis is very
uncertain, fome remaining in it only a few days,
others feveral months, and fome almoft a year in ap¬
pearance. But there is a fallacy in this that many are
not aware of. It is natural to think, that as foon as
the creature has inclofed itfelf in its (hell, be that of
what matter it will, it undergoes its change into the
chryfalis ftate. And this is the cafe wdth the gene¬
rality : yet there are fome W’hich are eight or nine
months in the fliell before they become chryfalifes, fo
that their duration in the real chryfalis ftate is much
ffiorter than it naturally appears to be. M. Reaumur
carefully w'atched the auriculated caterpillar of the
oak in its feveral changes, and particularly from its
chryfalis, which is of this laft kind, into the fly ; and
has given an account of the method of this, as an in-
ftance of the general courfe of nature in thefe opera¬
tions.
The membranes which envelope the creature in
this chrylalis ftate are at firft tough and firm, and im¬
mediately touch the feveral parts of the inclofed ani¬
mal ; but by degrees, as thefe parts harden, they be¬
come covered, force with hairs, and others with feales.
Thefe, as they continue to grow7, by degrees fall off
the feveral particular membranes which cover the
parts on which they are placed, to a greater diftance,
and by degrees loolen them from the limbs. This is
one reafon why thofe membranes dry and become
brittle.
1 he middle of the upper part of the corselet is
ufually marked with a line which runs in a longitudi¬
nal direction 5 and this part is always more elevated
than the reft, even in the conic kinds, which are no
otherwife angular. This line is in fome very bold and
plain j in others, it is fo faint as not to be diftinguilh-
able without glaffes ; but it is always in the midft of that
line that the fhell begins to open. The motion of the
head
Chryfall?.
C H R
[
CJifyfalis. licad of the butterfly backwards firfl: occafions this
*- 1 1 crack : and a few repetitions of the fame motion open
it the whole length of the line.
The clearing itfelf, however, entirely is a work
of more time in this cafe, than is the palling of the
chryfalis out of the body of the caterpillar. In that
cafe there is a crack fufficiently large in the Ikin of the
back, and the whole chryfalis being loofe comes out
at once. But in this cafe, every particular limb, and
part of the body, has its feparate cafe *, and thefe are
almoft inconceivably thin and tender, yet it is necef-
fary that every part be drawn out of them before it
appear naked to the open air. As foon as all this is
effeaed, and the animal is at full liberty, it either con¬
tinues fome time upon the remains of its covering, or
creeps a little way diftant from it, and there refts.
The wings are what we principally admire in this crea¬
ture. Thefe are at this time fo extremely folded up,
and placed in fo narrow a compafs, that the creature
fcems to have none at all: but they by degrees ex¬
pand and unfold themfelves^ and finally, in a quarter
of an hour, or half an hour at the utmoft, they appear
at their full fize, and in all their beauty, d he man¬
ner of this hidden unfolding of the wings is this : the
fmall figure they make when the creature firft comes
out of its membranes, does not prevent the obferving
that they are at that time confiderably thick. This is
owing to its being a large wing folded up in the niceft
manner, and with folds fo arranged as to be by no
means fenfible to the eye, for the wing is never ieen
to unfold ; but, when obferved in the mod accurate
manner, feems to grow under the eye to this extent.
When the creature is firft produced from the (hell, it
is everywhere moift and tender } even its wings have
no ftrength or ftiffnefs till they expand themfelves 5
but they then dry by degrees, and, with the other
parts, become rigid and firm. But if any accident
prevents the wings from expanding at their proper
time, that is, as foon as the creature is out of its ftiell,
they never afterwards are able to extend themfelves j
but the creature continues to wear them in their con-
tradled and wholly ufelefs ftate •, and very often, when
the wings are in part extended before fuch an accident
happens, it flops them in a partial extenfion, and the
creature muft be contented to pafs its whole life with
them in that manner.
M. Reaumur has proved, that heat and cold make
great differences in the time of hatching the butterfly
from its chryialis ftate : and this he particularly tried
with great accuracy and attention, by putting them in
velfels in warm rooms, and in ice-houfes ; and it feem-
ed wholly owing to the haftening or retarding the eva¬
poration of the abundant humidity of the animal in the
chryfalis ftate, that it fooner or later appeared in the
butterfly form. He varnifbed over fome chryfalifes,
in order to try what would be the effe<ft of thus wholly
preventing their tranfpiration j and the confequence
was, that the butterfly came forth from thefe twm
months later than their natural time. T hus w7as the
duration of the animal in this ftate lengthened ; that is,
its exiftence was lengthened : but without any advan¬
tage to the creature, fince it was in the time of its
ftate of inattion, and probably of infenfibility.
Though this was of no confequence, M. Reaumur
deduces a hint from it that feems to be of fome ufe.
35 ] c n R
He obferves, that hen’s eggs, of which xve make fo Chry.dn.
manyufes, and eat in fo many forms, are properly a 1’-‘U’111
fort of chryfalis of the animal j their germ, after they chi-yfogo-
are impregnated by the cock, containing the young num.
animal alive ; and waiting only a due degree of warmth ”" v
to be hatched, and appear in its proper form. Eggs
tranfpire notwithftanding the hardnefs of their (hells 5
and when they have been long kept, there is a road
found near one of their ends, between the (hell and
the internal membrane, which is a mark of their being
dale, and is the effeft of an evaporation of part of
their humidity : and the fame varnifli which had been
ufed to the chryfalis, being tried on eggs, was found to
preferve them for two years, as frefh as if laid but the
fame day, and fuch as the niceft; palate could not di-
ftinguifti Irom thofe that were fo. See Eggs.
It is not yet known how much farther this ufeful
fpeculation might be carried, and whether it might
not be of great ufe even to human life, to invent (ome-
tbing that (hould aft in the manner of this varniih, by-
being rubbed over the body, as the athletic did of old,
and the favages of the Weft Indies do at this time,
without knowing why. But to return to the infefts
which are the fubjefts of this article ; their third ftate,
that in which they are winged, is always very (hort,
and feems deftined for no other aftion but the propa¬
gation of the fpecies. See Entomology Index.
CHR.YSANTHEMUM, corn marigold : A ge¬
nus of the polygamia fuperflua order, belonging to the
fyngenefia clafs of plants. See Botany Index.
CHRYSES, the piieft of Apollo, father of Afty-
nome, called from him Ghryfeis. When Lyrneffus was
taken, and the (poils divided among the conquerors,
Chryfeis fell to the (hare of Agamemnon. Chryfes
upon this went to the Grecian camp to folicit his
daughter’s reftoration $ and when his prayers were
fruitlefs, he implored the aid of Apollo, who vifited
the Greeks with a plague, and obliged them to reftore.
Chryfeis.
CHRYSIPPUS, a Stoic philofopher, born at So¬
los in Cilicia, was difciple to Cleanthus, Zeno’s iuc-
ceflbr. He wrote many books, feveral of which re¬
lated to logic. None of the philofophers fpoke in
ftronger terms of the fatal neceflity of every thing, nor
more pompoufly of the liberty of man, than the Stoics,-
Chryfippus in particular. He was fo confiderable
among them, as to eftablifti it into a proverb, that if it
had not been for Chryfippus, the porch had never been.
Yet the Stoics complained, as Cicero relates, that he
had collefted fo many arguments in favour of the feep-
tical hypothefis, that he could not anfwer them him-
felf; and thus had furnifhed Carneades, their antago-
nift, with weapons againft them. There is an apoph¬
thegm of this philofopher preferved, which does him
honour. Being told that fome perfons fpoke ill of him,
“ It is no matter (faid he), I will live fo that they
(hall not be believed.”
CHRYSIS, or golden-fly. See Entomology
Index.
CHRYSITRIX. See Botany Index.
CPIRYSOBALANUS, cocoa plum. See Bo¬
tany Index.
CHRYSOCOMA, goldy-locks. See Botan-y
Index.
CHRYSOGONUM. See Botany Index.
CHRYSOLARUS,
C H R
[ 136
Chryfolaras CHRYSOLARUS, Emanuel, one of tViofe learn-
ed men in the 14th century who brought the Greek
ir^opia- ];terature ;nto tiie fje was a man Qf • and
1 defeended from an ancient family, faid to have removed
with Conftantine from Rome to Byzantium. He was
fent into Europe by the emperor of the eaft to im¬
plore the affiftance of Chriftian princes. He after¬
wards taught at Florence, Venice, Pavia, and Rome j
and died at Conftantinople, in 1415, aged 47. He
wrote a Greek grammar, and fome other fmall pieces.
CHRYSOLITE, or yellowish-green-topaz;
a precious ftone of a grafs-green colour, found in the
Eaft Indies, Brazil, Bohemia, Saxony, Spain, in Au¬
vergne and Bourbon in France, and in Derbyfhire in
England. Some are likewife found with volcanic la¬
vas, as in the Vivarais, where fome large lumps have
been feen of 20 or 30 pounds weight; but it is re¬
markable, that fome of thefe chryfolites are partly de-
compofed into an argillaceous fubftance. All chry¬
folites, however, are far from being of the fame kind.
The oriental is the fame with the peridot, and differs
only by its green hue from the fapphires, topazes, and
rubies of the fame denomination. This becomes elec¬
tric by being rubbed ; has a prifmatic form of ftx, or
fometimes of five, ftriated faces; and does not lofe its
colour or tranfparency in the fire, which the common
chryfolite often does; becoming either opaque, or
melting entirely in a ftrong heat. The inftant it melts,
it emits a phofphoric light like the bafis of alum and
gypfeous fpar : with borax it produces a thin colour-
lefs glafs. Its fpecific gravity is between 3.600 and
5.700 ; according to Briffon it is 2.7821,01- 2.6923 ;
and that of the Spanifti chryfolite 3.0989.
The fubftance of this precious ftone is lamellated in
the direflion of the axis ot its primitive form ; but the
chryfolite from Saxony is foliated in a perpendicular
dire&ion to the fame axis. The chryfolite of the an¬
cients was the fame gem which is now called topaz, and
the name, of itfelf, indicates that it ought to be fo.—
Pliny fays that the colour of the chryfolite is yellow
like gold.
CHRr$OLirE-Pq/?e, a kind of glafs made in imita¬
tion of natural chryfolite, by mixing two ounces of
prepared cryftal with ten ounces of red-lead, adding 12
grains of crocus martis made with vinegar; and then
baking the whole for 24 hours, or longer, in a well
luted cucurbit.
CHRYSOMELA, a genus of infefts belonging to
the order ofcoleoptera. See Entomology Index.
CHRYrSOPHYLLUM, or bully-tree. See Bo¬
tany Index.
CHRYSOPLENIUM, See Botany Index.
CHRYSGPRASUS, or Chrysoprasius, the 10th
of the precious Hones mentioned in the Revelation, as
forming the foundation of the heavenly Jerufalem.
The chryfoprafius is by mineralogifts reckoned to be a
variety of the chryfolite, and by Cronftcdt called the
yellowijh green and cloudy topaz. He conje&ures that it
may perhaps be the fubftance which ferves as a matrix
to the chryfolite ; as thofe that he had feen were like
the clear-veined quartz, called in Sweden milk cry/lal,
which is the firft degree of cryftallizition.
The chryfoprafus, according to M. Magellan, is of
a green colour, deeper than the chryfolite, but with a
yellowilh tinge inclining to blue like the green leek.
] c H R
M. Achard fays that it is never found cryflallized,
and that it is femi-tranfparent. By others it is rec-
koned among the quartz, and its colour is fuppofed to
be owing to the mixture of cobalt, as it gives a fine
blue glafs when melted with borax, or with fixed al¬
kali. M. Achard, however, found the glafs of a deep
yellow when the fufion was made with borax ; and
that it really contains fome calx of copper inftead of
cobalt. M. Dutens fays, that fome gold has been
found in this kind of ftone ; but this laft belongs in
all probability, fays M. Magellan, to another clafs of
fubftances, viz. the vitreous {pars.
To the latter belongs moft probably the aventurine,
whofe colour is generally a yellow brown red ; though
fometimes it inclines more to the yellow, or greenilh,
than to the red. Thefe ftones are not quite tranfpa-
rent : fome indeed dune with fuch a brilliancy, as to
render them of confiderable value, but they are very
rare. The common aventurine is but an artificial glafs
of various colours, with which powder of gold has
been mixed ; and thefe imitated aventurines fo fre¬
quently excel the native ones in fplendour, that the
efteem of the latter is now much lowered. With re¬
gard to the chryfoprafus, its name from neu.™, fliows
it to be of a greenifh-blue colour, like the leaves of a
leek ; it only differs from the chiyfolite in its bluifti
hue.
CHRY'SOSTOM, St John, a celebrated patri¬
arch of Conftantinople, and one of the moft admired
fathers of the Chriftian church, was born of a noble
family at Antioch, about the year 347. He ftudied
rhetoric under Libavius, and philofophy under Andra-
gathus, after which he fpent fome time in folitude in
the mountains near Antioch; but the aufterities he en¬
dured having impaired his health, he returned to An¬
tioch where he was ordained deacon by Meletius.
Flavian, Meletius’s fucceffor, raifed him to the office
of prefbyter five years after; when he diftinguilhed
himfelf fo greatly by his eloquence, that he obtained
the furname of Golden Mouth. Ne&arius patriarch of
Conftantinople dying in 397, St Chryfoftom, whofe
fame was fpread throughout the whole empire, was
chofen in his room by the unanimous confent of both
the clergy and the people. The emperor Arcadius
confirmed this ele&ion, and caufed him to leave. An¬
tioch privately, where the people were very unwilling
to part with him. He was ordained bifliop on the
2.6th of February 398 ; when he obtained an ord.er
from the emperor againft the Eunomians and Monta-
nifts ; reformed the abufes which fubfifted among!! his
clergy; retrenched a great part of the expences in
which his predeceffors had lived, in order to enable
him to feed the poor and build hofpitals, and preached
with the utmoft zeal againft the pride, luxury, and
avarice of the great. But his pious liberty of Ipeech
procured him many powerful enemies. He differed
with Theophilus of Alexandria, who got him depofed
and baniftied ; but he was foon recalled. After this,
declaiming againft the dedication of a ftatue erefted to
the emprefs, (he baniftied him into Cucufus in Arme¬
nia, a moft barren inhofpitable place ; afterwards,, as
they were removing him from Petyus, the foldiers
treated him fo roughly, that he died by the way, A. L>.
407. The beft edition of his works is that publiftied
at Paris in 1718, by Montfau5on.
‘ CHRYSTAL.
Cliryfo-
ftrom.
CHU [ l37 ] CHU
Chryftat CHRYSTAL. See Crystal.
II CHUB, or chubb, in Ichthyology. See Cyprinus,
Church. iCHTHYOlogy Index.
m 1 The reforts of this fifh are eafily found, for they
are generally holes overlhadowed by trees, and this fiih
will be feen floating in fuch almoft on the furface of
the water in a hot day in great numbers. They are
but a poor filh for the table, and are very full of bones j
but they entertain the angler very much, and are of
the number of thofe that are eafily taken.
CHUBB, Thomas, a noted polemical writer,
born at Eaft Harnham, a village near Salifbury, in
1679. He was put apprentice to a glover at Salif-
bury, and afterwards entered into partnerlhip with a
tallow-chandler. Being a man of ftrong natural parts,
he employed all his leifure in reading •, and though a
flranger to the learned languages, became tolerably
verfed in geography, mathematics, aud other branches
of fcience. His favourite ftudy was divinity ; and he
formed a little fociety for the purpofe of debating up¬
on religious fubje£ts, about the time that the Trini¬
tarian controverfy was fo warmly agitated between
Clarke and Waterland. This fubjeft, therefore, fall¬
ing under the cognizance of Chubb’s theological af-
fembly, he at their requeft drew up and arranged his
fentiments on it, in a kind of differtation \ which was
afterwards publiflied under the title of The Supremacy
of the Father ajferted. See. In this piece Mr Chubb
fhowed great talents in reafoning, and acquired fo
much reputation, that the late Sir Jofeph Jekyll, ma¬
iler of the rolls, took him into his family to enjoy his
converfation : but though he is faid to have been
tempted to remain with him by the offer of a genteel
allowance, he did not continue with him many years $
but chofe to return to his friends at Salifbury. He pub-
lithed afterwards a 4to volume of trafls, which Mr
Pope informs his friend Gay, he “ read through with
admiration of the writer, though not always with ap¬
probation of his doflrine.” He died a Angle man in
the 68th year of his age, and left behind him two vols.
of polthumous trafls, in which he appears to have
had little or no belief in revelation. But however li¬
centious his way of thinking may be deemed, nothing
irregular or immoral has been fairly imputed to him in
his life and aflions,
CHUDLEIGH, Lady Mary, was born in 1656,
and married to Sir George Chudleigh, Baronet, by
whom Ihe had feveral children : her poems and effays
have been much admired for delicacy of ftyle. She
died in 1710 ; and is faid to have written feveral dra¬
matic pieces, which, though not printed, are preferved
in the family.
CHUPMESSAHITES, a feff among the Maho¬
metans, who believe that Jefus Chrift is God, and the
true Meffiah, the Redeemer of the world j but without
rendering him any public or declared worfhip. The
Word in the Turkifh language fignifies Froteftor of the
Chrijlians. Ricaut fays, there are abundance of thefe
Chupmeffahites among the people of falhion in Turkey,
and fome even in the feraglio.
CHURCH, has different fignifications, according to
the different fubjefts to which it is applied.
I. It is underftood of the colleflive body of Chrif-
tians, or all thofe over the face of the whole earth
who profefs to believe in Chrift, and acknowledge him
Vol. VI. Part I.
to be the Saviour of mankind. This is what the an- Church.
cient writers call the catholic or univerfal church. Some-
times the word church is confidered in a more exten-
five fenfe, and divided into feveral branches j as the
church militant, is the affembly of the faithful on the
earth j the church triumphant, that of the faithful al¬
ready in glory ; to which the Papifts add the church
patient; which, according to their doftrines, is that of
the faithful in purgatory.
2. Church is applied to any particular congregation
of Chriftians, who affociate together and concur in the
participation of all the inftitutions of Jefus Chrift, with
their proper pallors and minifters. Thus we read of
the church of Antioch, the church of Alexandia, the
church of Theffalonica, and the like.
3. Church denotes a particular fefl of Chriftians
diftinguilhed by particular doflrines and ceremonies.
In this fenfe, we fpeak of the Romilli church, the
Greek church, the Reformed church, the church of
England, &c.
The Latin or Weftern church, comprehends all the
churches of Italy, France, Spain, Africa, the north,
and all other countries whither the Romans carried
their language. Great Britain, part of the Netherlands,
of Germany, and of the North, have been feparated
from hence ever fince the time of Henry VIII ; and
conftitute wrhat we call the Reformed Church, and what
the Romanifts call the weftern fchifm.
The Greek, or Eaftern church, comprehends the
churches of all the countries anciently fubjeft to the
Greek or eaftern empire, and through which their lan¬
guage was carried ; that is, all the fpace extended from
Greece to Mefopotamia and Perfia, and thence into
Egypt. This church has been divided from the Ro¬
man ever fince the time of the emperor Phocas.
The Gallican church, denotes the church of France,
under the government and diredtion of their refpeflive
bilhops and pallors. This church has always enjoyed
certain franchifes and immunities •, not as grants from
popes, but as derived to her from her firft original,
and which Ihe has taken care never to relinquifh.
Thefe liberties depend upon two maxims •, the firft,
that the pope has no authority or right to command
or order any thing, either in general or in particular,
in which the temporalties and civil rights of the king¬
dom are concerned •, the fecond, that, notwithllanding
the pope’s fupremacy is owned in cafes purely fpiritual,
yet in France his power is limited and regulated by the
decrees and canons of ancient councils received in that
realm. ,
4. The word church is ufed to fignify the body of
ecclefiaftics, or the clergy, in contradiftinflion to the
laity. See Clergy.
5. Church is ufed for the place where a particular
congregation or fociety of Chriftians affemble for the
celebration of divine fervice. In this fenfe churches
are varioufly denominated, according to the rank, de¬
gree, difeipline, &c. as Metropolitan church, Patri¬
archal church, Cathedral church, Parochial church.
Collegiate church, Sec. See Metropolis, Patri¬
arch, &.C.
In ecclefiaftical writers, we meet with grand churchy
for the chief church of a place } particularly in the
Greek liturgy, for the church of St Sophia at Con-
ftantinople, the fee of the patriarch, founded bv Con-
S ftantine,
C H U [ 138 j C H U
Churches, ftantine, and confecrated under Juftinian. It was at
w y——• tjiat tjme |-o magnigcentj t|lat Judinian is faid to have
cried out in the confecration thereof, Lvikyio-x m, ’ZoXopw,
I have outdone thee, Solomon, The dome, which is faid
to have been the firft that was built, is 330 feet diame¬
ter.
The firfl church publicly built by the Chriflians,
fome authors maintain to be that of St Saviour at
Rome founded by Conftantine j others contend, that
feveral churches abroad, called by the name of St Peter
Vivus, were built in honour of that apoftle during his
lifetime.
Church, with regard to archite&ure, Daviler de¬
fines a large oblong edifice, in form of a ihip, with
nave, choir, aides, chapel, belfry, &.c. See each part
under its proper head.
Church, Simple, is that which has only a nave and a
choir.
Church with Aijles, that which has a row of porti¬
coes, in form of vaulted galleries, with chapels in its
circumference.
Church in a Greek crofs, that where the length of
the traverfe part is equal to that of the nave •, fo called
becaufe moft of the Greek churches are built in this
form.
Church in a Latin crofs, that whofe nave is longer
than the crofs part, as in moft of the Gothic churches.
Church in Rotunda, that whofe plan is a perfedt cir¬
cle, in imitation of the Pantheon.
For the form of the ancient Greek churches, when
they had all their parts, it was as follows : firft was a
porch, or portico, called the vaunt-nave, Tr^ovxos •, this
was adorned with columns on the outfide, and on the
inlide furrounded with a wall; in the middle whereof
was a door, through wThich they paffed into a fecond
portico. The firft of thefe porticoes was deftined for
the energumeni, and penitents in the firft ftage of
their repentance j the fecond was much longer, defti¬
ned for penitents of the fecond clafs, and the catechu¬
mens, and hence called vatgflus, ferula, becaufe thofe
placed in it began to be fubject to the difeipline of the
church. Thefe two porticoes took up about one
third of the fpace of the church. From the fecond
portico they pafled into the nave, wees, which took up
near another third of the church. In the middle, or
at one fide of the nave, was the ambo, where the dea¬
cons and priefts read the gofpel and preached. The
nave was deftined for the reception of the people, who
here afiifted at prayers.
Near the entrance of this was the baptiftery or font.
Beyond the nave was the choir, fet with feats,
and round : the firft feat on the right, next the landlu-
ary, being tor the chantor, or choragus.
From the choir they afeended by fteps to the fanc-
tuary, which was entered at three doors. The fanc-
tuary had three aptides in its length •, a great one in
the middle, under which was the altar, crowned with
a baldachin, fupported by four columns. Under each
of the fmall apfides, was a kind of table or cupboard,
in manner of a beaufet.
Though, of the Greek churches now remaining, few
have all the parts above deferibed, moft of them having
been reduced to ruins or converted into mofques.
HiGH-Church was a denomination originally given
to thofe otherwife called Nonjurors, who refufed to ac¬
knowledge the title of William III. to the crown of Churches,
Great Britain, under a notion that James II. though Churchill.
excluded, was ftill their rightful fovereign. This ap- v *
pellation was given them, becaufe they entertained
high notions of the dignity and power of the church,
and the extent of its prerogative and jurifdi&ion. And
thofe, on the contrary, were called low-church men,
who difapproved of the feceflion and obftinacy of the
nonjurors, diftinguiftred themfelves by their moderation
toward diflenters, and were lefs ardent in extending the
1 mits of church authority. The denomination of
high-church men is nowr more generally applied to all
who form pompous and ambitious conceptions of the
authority and jurifdiclion of the church, and who
would raife it to an abfolute independence on all hu¬
man power.
Church-Ale. See Whitsun-AIb.
Church Reeves, the fame with CnuRCH-Wardens.
Church-ScoI, or Churchejfet, a payment or contri¬
bution, by the Latin writers frequently called primitiei
feminum ; being, at firft, a certain meafure of wheat,
paid to the prieft on St Martin’s day, as the firft fruits
of harveft. This was enjoined by the laws of King
Malcolm IV. and Canute, c. 10. But after this,
Church-fcot came to fignify a referve of corn-rent paid
to the fecular priefts, or to the religious ; and fome-
times was taken in fo general a fenfe as to include
poultry, or any other provifion that wras paid in kind
to the religious. See Tithe.
CnuRCH-Wardens (ecciefice guardiani), in the Eng-
lilh ecclefiaftical polity, are the guardians or keepers
of the church, and reprefentatives of the body of the
parilh. They are fometimes appointed by the mini-
fter, fometimes by the parilh, fometimes by both toge¬
ther, as cuftom dire&s. They are taken, in favour of
the church, to be, lor fome purpofes, a kind of corpo¬
ration at the common law \ that k, they are enabled,
by that name, to have a property in goods and chat¬
tels, and to bring actions for them, for the ufe and
profit of the parilh. Yet they may not wafte the
church goods, but may be removed by the parilh, and
then called to account by aftions at common law : but
there is no method of calling them to account but by
firft removing them \ for none can legally do it but
thofe who are put in their place. As to lands, or other
real property, as the church, churchyard, &c. they
have no ibrt of intereft therein j but if any damage is
done thereto, the parfon only or vicar ftiall have the
a&ion. Their office alfo is to repair the church, and
make rates and levies for that purpofe : but thefe are
recoverable only in the ecclefiaftical courts. They
are alfo joined with the overfeers in the care and
maintenance of the poor. 1 hey are to levy a (hilling
forfeiture on all fuch as do not repair to church on
Sundays and holidays ; and are empowered to keep
all perfons orderly while there ; to which end it has
been held that a church warden may juftify the pul¬
ling off a man’s hat, without being guilty of either an
affault or a trefpals. There are alfo a multitude of o-
ther petty parochial powers committed to their charge
by divers affs of parliament.
CHURCHILL, Sir Winston, the father of the
great duke of Marlborough, was defeended from an
ancient and honourable family in Dorfetftiire. He
was born at Wotton Glanville in that county in 1610 j
and
C H U [I
(Siurcliin. and educated at St John’s college at Oxford. He en-
u—y— gaged in the caufe of his unfortunate fovereign Cha. I.
for which he fuffered feverely in his fortune ; and
having married, while young, Elizabeth, the daughter
of Sir John Drake of Alhe in Devonihire, flie was for¬
ced to f'eek a refuge in her father’s houfe, when Mr
Churchill’s misfortunes left him none that he could call
his own *, and there moft of his children were bom.
After the reftoration, he was deified a burgefs to ferve
in parliament for the borough of Weymouth ; and, in
1669, his majefty was pleafed to confer on him the
honour of knighthood. The next year he was made
one of the commiffioners of claims in Ireland ; and
upon his return from thence, was conftituted one of
the clerks comptrollers of the green cloth : but writ¬
ing a kind of political efiay upon the Hiftory of
England, which gave great offence to the parliament,
he was, in 1678, difmififed from his pod. He was,
however, foon reilored to it again *, and lived to fee
his eldetl furviving fon raifed to the peerage, and the
reft of his children in a fair way to promotion. He
died in 1688.
Churchill, John, duke of Marlborough, and
prince of the holy Roman empire, a moft renowned
general and ftatefman, was born at Afhe in Devon¬
ihire in 1650. He was eldeft fon of Sir Winfton
Churchill, who carried him to court while very young,
and where he was particularly favoured by James
duke of York, afterwards King James II. when only
twelve years of age. In 1666, he was made an enfign
of the guards during the firft Dutch war ; and after¬
wards improved himfelf greatly in the military art at
Tangier. In 1672, Mr Churchill attended the duke
of Monmouth, who commanded a body of auxiliaries
in the French fervice, and was foon after made a cap¬
tain in the duke’s own regiment. At the (iege of Ni-
meguen, which happened in that campaign, he diftin-
guiihed himfelf fo much that he was taken notice of
by the celebrated Marfhal Turenne, who bellowed on
him the name of the handfome Englifhnian.—In 1673,
he was at the fiege of Maertricht, where he gained
fuch applaufe, that the king of France made him a
public acknowledgment of his fervice *, and the duke
of Monmouth, who had the direftion of the attack,
told King Charles II. th t he owed his life to Mr
Churchill’s bravery. In i68l,he married Sarah daugh¬
ter and co-heirefs Jwith her 'fifter the countefs of
Tyrconne!) of Richard Jennings Efq. of Sandrich, in
Hertfordfhire. The duke of York recommended him
in a very particular manner to the king; who, in
1682, created him baron of Eyemouth in the county
of Berwick, in Scotland, and made him colonel of the
third troop of guards. A little after Kiny James’s ac-
ceflion, he was created Baron Churchill of Sandrich in
the county of Hertford, and made brigadier-general
of his majefty’s army in the weft; where, when the
duke of Monmouth came to furpriie the king’s army
while the earl of Feverfham and the majority of the
officers were in their beds, he kept the enemy in
play, till the king’s forces had formed tbemfelves, and
thereby faved the whole army. When James (bowed
hti intention of eftablifhing the Catholic religion in
Britain, Lord Churchill, notwithftanding the great ob¬
ligations he owed him, thought it his dutv fo abandon
the royal caufe; but even then did not leave him
39 1 c H U
without acquainting him by letter with the reafon of Chinch:;
his fo doing. Lord Churchill was gracioufly received
by the prince of Orange ; and was by him employed
firft to re-aflemble the troop of guards at London,
and afterwards to reduce feme lately raifed regiments,
and to new-model the army ; for which purpo'e he
was invefted with the rank and title of lieutenant-ge¬
neral. In 1689, he was fworn one of the privy coun¬
cil, and one of the gentlemen of the king’s bed cham¬
ber ; and on the 9th of April following, was raifed
to the dignity of earl of Marlborough in the county of
"W ilts. He affifted at the coronation of their majefties ;
and was foon after made commander in chief of the
Engliih foices fent over to Holland ; and here he fiift
laid the foundation of that fame which was afterwards
fpread over all Europe. In 1690, he was made ge¬
neral of the forces fent to Ireland ; where he made
the ftrong garrifons of Cork and Kinlale prifoners of
war. The year following, King William (hotved the
good opinion he had of his conduft, by fending him
to Flanders to put all things in readinefs, and to draw
the army together before his arrival. In 1692, he
was difmifled from all his employments; and, not
long after, was with fome other peers committed to
the tower on an accufation of high treafon ; which,
however, was afterwards found to be a falle and ma¬
licious report, the authors of which were puniftied.
Marlborough was foon reftored to favour, and in 1698
was appointed governor to the earl of Gloucefter ;
with this extraordinary compliment from King William,
1“ My lord, make him but what you are, and my ne¬
phew will be all I wifti to fee him.” The fame day
he was again fworn one of the privy council ; and in
July following was declared one of the lords juftices of
England, for the adminiilration of the government, in
which great truft he was three times fucceftively in the
king’s abfence. In 1701 he was appointed general of
the fdot, commander in chief of the Englifti forces,
and ambaffador extraordinary and plenipotentiary at
the Hague. Upon the acceffion of Queen Anne to
the throne, he was ele&ed into the order of the gar¬
ter, declared captain-general of all her majefty’s forces,
and fent ambaffador extiaordinary and plenipotentiaiy
to Holland. After feveral conferences about a war,
he put himfelf at the head of the army, where all the
other generals had orders to obey him. His^exploits
in the field have been taken notice of under the ar¬
ticle Britain, N° 344—370: we (hall therefore only
take notice in this place of the rewards and honours
conferred upon him for thefe exploits. After his firft
campaign he was created marquis of Blandford and
duke of Marlborough, with a penfion of 5000I. out
of the poft-cffice, to devolve for ever upon thofe en¬
joying the title of duke of Marlborough. In 1703,
he met Charles III. late emperor, going to Spain, who
prefented him with a fw’ord fet with diamonds. In
1704, having forced the enemy’s lines at Schellenberg,
he received a letter of thanks from the emperor Leo¬
pold, written with his own hand ; an honour feldcm
done to any but fovereign princes. Alter the battle
of Blenheim, he received congratulatory letters from
moft of the potentates in Europe, particularly from the
ftates-general, and from the emperor, who defired
him to accept of the dignity of a prince of the empire,
which with the queen’s leave wras conferred upon him
S 2 by
G H U
Omrchill. by the title of Prince of Mildenheim in the province of
' Suabia. After the campaign was ended, he vifited
the court of Pruffia, where he laid fuch fchemes as
fufpended the difputes with the Dutch about King
William’s eftate j which wife conduct caufed the whole
confederacy to acknowledge that he had done the
greateft fervice poflible to the common caufe. Upon
his return to England, the queen, to perpetuate his
memory, granted the intereft of the crown in the
honour and manor of Woodftock and hundred of
Wotton to him and his heirs for ever. In 1705
he made a tour to Vienna, upon an invitation of the
emperor Jofeph ; who highly careffed him, and made
him a grant of the lordfhip of Mildenheim. After
the campaign of 1708, the fpeaker of the houfe of
commons was fent to Bruflels on purpofe to compli¬
ment him } and on his return to England he wras again
complimented in the houfe of lords by Lord Chancellor
Cowper. All his fervices, however, and all the ho¬
nours conferred upon him, wTere not fufficient to pre-
ferve him from being difgraced. After the change of
the miniflry in 1710, his intereft daily declined j and
in 1712, on the firft day of the new year, he was re¬
moved from all his places. Finding all arts ufed to
render him obnoxious in his native country, he vifited
his principality of Mildenheim, and feveral towns in
Germany j after which he returned to England, and
arrived there on the day of the queen’s death. After
being welcomed by the nobility and foreign minifters,
he attended on King George I. in his public entry
through London, who appointed him captain-general,
colonel of the firft regiment of foot-guards, one of the
commiflioners for the government of Chelfea hofpital,
and mafter general of the ordnance. Some years be¬
fore his death, he retired from public bufinefs. He
died at Windfor-lodge in 1722, aged 73 •, leaving be¬
hind him a very numerous pofterity, allied to the nc«
bleft and greateft families in thefe kingdoms. Upon
his demife all parties united in doing honour or rather
juftice to his merit, and his corpfe wras interred the
9th of Auguft following, with all the folemnity due
to a perfon who had deferved fo highly of his country,
in Weftminfter-abbey. The noble pile near Wood-
itock, which bears the name of Blenheim-houfe, may
be juftly ftyled his monument: but without pretending
to the gift of prophecy, one may venture to foretel,
that his glory will long furvive that ftnnfture j and
that fo long as our hiftories remain, or indeed the
hiftories of Europe, his memory will live and be the
boaft of Britain, which by his labours was raifed to be
the firft of nations, as during the age in which he lived
be was defervedly efteemed the firft of men. If he had
foibles, as thefe are infeparable from human nature,
they were fo hidden by the glare of his virtues as to be
fcarcely perceived, or were wfillingly forgotten. A
certain parafite, who thought to pleafe Lord Boling-
broke by ridiculing the avarice of the duke, was ftopt
fhort by his lordfhip ; who faid, “ He was fo very
great q man, that I forget he had that vice.”
Out of a variety of anecdotes and teftimonies con¬
cerning this illuftrious perfonage, collefled in the new
edition of the Biographic Britannica, the following fe-
le£!ion may ferve to illuftrate more particularly his dif-
pofition and manners.
One of the firft things which he did, when very
[ *4° 1
C H U
young, was to purchafe a box to put his money in } Churchill,
an indication this of the economical, not to fay ava-y—
ricious, temper that accompanied him through life.
Dr Jofeph Warton relates, that, on the evening of an
important battle, the duke was heard to chide his fer-
vant for having been fo extravagant as to light four
candles in his tent when Prince Eugene came to confer
with him. Mr Tyers, on the other hand, men¬
tioned a circumftance, which, if well founded, re¬
dounds to his grace’s generofity ; though in a differ¬
ent refpedt it is much to his difcredit : It is, that
during the rebellion 1715 he fent 10,000!. to the
earl of Mar. We confider the ftory as only a tradi¬
tional report, w'hich has not in itfelf any great degree
of probability $ and therefore we are by no means con¬
vinced of its truth. The late Mr Richardfon junior,
the painter, hath recorded a pleafing inftance of the
duke’s calmnefs of difpofition ; for which, indeed, he
was always remarkable. “ The duke of Marlborough
(fays the writer), riding out once with Commiffary
Marriot, near the commiffary’s houfe in the country,
it began to rain, and the duke called for his cloak;
Marriot having his put on by his fervant immediately.
The duke’s fervant not bringing the cloak, he called
for it again j but the man was ftill puzzling about the
ftraps and buckles. At laft, it raining now very hard,
the duke called again, and alked him, “ what he was
about that he did not bring his cloak ?” ‘ You muft
flay (grumbles the fellow), if it rains cats and dogs,
till I can get at it.’ The duke only turned to Marriot
and faid, “ I would not be of that fellow’s temper.”
The duke of Marlborough (adds Mr Richardfon) did
by nature and conftitution, what Seneca judged by
philofophy ought to be done. §>uid ef quare ego fervi
mei hilarius refponfum, et conturnaciorem vultum,jlagel-
lis et compedibus expiem ?
Dr Swift, in one of his letters to Stella, relates the
following particulars concerning the duke of Marl¬
borough. “ I was early this morning with Secretary
St John, and gave him a memorial to get the queen’s
letter for the firft-fruits, who has promifed to do it in
a very few days. He told me ‘ he had been with the
duke of Marlborough, who was lamenting his former
w’rong fteps in joining with the Whigs, and faid he
was worn out with age, fatigue, and misfortunes.’ I
fw’ear it pitied me j and I really think they will not do
wTell in too much mortifying that man, although in¬
deed it is his own fault. He is covetous as hell, and
ambitious as the prince of it : he would fain have been
general for life, and has broken all endeavours for
peace, to keep his greatnefs and get money. He
told the queen ‘ he was neither covetous nor ambitious.’
She faid, * if (lie could have conveniently turned about,
fhe would have laughed, and could hardly forbear it in
his face.’ He fell in with all the abominable meafures
of the late miniftry, becaufe they gratified him for
their own defigns. Yet he has been a fuccefsful gene¬
ral, and I hope he will continue his command.”
Various characters have been drawn of the duke of
Marlborough ; moft of which we ftiall omit, as either
already fufficiently known, or as not meriting particu¬
lar notice. That which is given of him by Dr Swift,
in his “ Hiftory of the four laft years of the queen,”
has all the malignity and meannefs of a party pam¬
phlet. It is even fo foolilh as to infinuate, that the
duke’?
C H U
[ ,4I ]
C H U
Churchill, duke’s military accompliftiments were problematical,
u ">■— 1 and that he was deftitute of perfonal courage. Mr
Macpherfon’s charafter of his grace is very elaborate¬
ly compofed, and difplays no fmall degree of ability
and penetration $ though it is not, perhaps, entire¬
ly free from prejudice. The hiftorian confiders it
as a faft, that Lord Churchill, at the time of the
revolution, had a defign of placing his unfortunate
mafter King James II. a prifoner in the hands of his
rival the prince of Orange. But this ftory muft be
regarded as wholly unworthy of credit. It is found¬
ed upon fuggeftions and informations fo groundlefs,
and even ridiculous, that it cannot deferve a formal
refutation. On the other hand, Mr Macpherfon has
done juftice to the duke of Marlborough’s profecution
of the war in Flanders, and hath fliown that he con¬
duced it upon the principles of found wifdom and good
policy.
There are two teftimonies to the honour of the
duke’s memory, by two celebrated noble writers, which
cannot be paffed over. One is by Lord Bolingbroke,
in his letters on the Study and Ufe of Hiftory.
Speaking of the confternation raifed among the allies
of the grand confederacy by the death of King Wil¬
liam, and of the joy which that event gave to the
French, his lordlhip obferves, that “ a Ihort time
fhowed how vain the fears of fome and the hopes of
others were. By his death, the duke of Marlborough
was raifed to the head of the army, and indeed of the
confederacy : where he, a new, a private man, a fub-
jeC, acquired, by merit and by management, a more
deciding influence than high birth, confirmed autho¬
rity, and even the crown of Great Britain, had given
to King William. Not only all the parts of that vafl
machine, the grand alliance, were kept more compaC
and entire, but a more rapid and vigorous motion was
given to the whole : and inftead of languifliing out
difaftrous campaigns, we faw every fcene of the war
full of aCion. All thofe wherein he appeared, and
many of thofe wherein he was not then an aCor, but
abettor however of their aCion, were crowned with
the mod triumphant fuccefs. I take, with pleafure,
this opportunity of doing juftice to that great man,
whofe faults I knew, whole virtues I admired •, and
whofe memory, as the greateft general, and as the
greateft minifter, that our country, or perhaps any
other, has produced, I honour.”
The other teftimony to the duke’s accompliftiments
is by the earl of Chefterfield, in his Letters to his Son.
“ Of all the men (fays his lordftiip) that ever I knew
in my life (and I knew him extremely well), the late
duke of Marlborough poflefled the graces in the high-
eft degree, not to fay engrofied them : and indeed he
got the moft by them ; for I will venture (contrary
to the cuftom of profound hiftorians, who always af-
fign deep caufes for great events) to afcribe the better
half of the duke of Marlborough’s greatnefs and riches
to thofe graces. He was eminently illiterate } wrote
bad Englilh, and fpelled it ftill worfe. He had no
Ihare of what is commonly called parts ; that is, he
had no brightnefs, nothing fhining in his genius. He
had, moft undoubtedly, an excellent good plain under-
ftanding, with found judgment. But thefe alone would
probably have raifed him but fomething higher than
they found him, which was page to King James II.’s
queen. There the graces prote£led and promoted Churchill,
him : for while he was an enfign of the guards, the 'v"—“*
duchefs of Cleveland, then favourite miftrefs to King
Charles II. ftruck by thofe very graces, gave him
5000I. j with which he immediately bought an an¬
nuity for his life of 500I. of my grandfather Halifax $
which was the foundation of his fubfequent fortune.
His figure was beautiful j but his manner was irrefifti-
ble by either man or woman. It was by this engaging
graceful manner that he was enabled, during all his
war, to conneft the various and jarring powers of the
grand alliance, and to carry them on to the main ob-
je£t of the war, notwithftanding their private and fe-
parate views, jealoufies, and wrongheadedneffes. What¬
ever court he went to (and he was often obliged to go
himfelf to fome tefty and refractory ones), he as con-
ftantly prevailed, and brought them into his meaiures.
The penfionary Heinfius, a venerable old miniiter,
grown gray in bufinefs, and who had governed the re¬
public of the United Provinces for more than 40 years,
was abfolutely governed by the duke of Marlborough,
as that republic feels to this day. He was always cool j
and nobody ever obferved the leaft variation in his
countenance: he could refufe more gracefully than
other people could grant ; and thofe who went away
from him the moft diflatisfied as to the fubftance of
their bufinefs, were yet perfonally charmed with him,
and in fome degree comforted by his manner. With
all his gentlenefs and gracefulnefs, no man living was-
more confcious of his fituation, nor maintained his dig¬
nity better.”
A perufal of the above paffage will convince us of
the frivolous turn of the earl of Chefterfield’s mind.-
His lordftiip, in his zeal to exalt the duke of Marl¬
borough’s external accompliftiments, either forgets or
depreciates the far greater talents of which he was-
poffefled. There is an obfervation upon the fubjeft irv
the Britifti Biography, with which we entirely concur.
“ That the duke of Marlborough (fays the writer)
was eminently diftinguiftied by the gracefulnefs of his
manners, cannot be queftioned j but the earl of Chef¬
terfield appears to have attributed too much to their
influence, when he aferibes—the better half of the
duke of Marlborough’s greatnefs and riches to thofe
graces. That the uncommon gracefulnefs of his man¬
ners facilitated his advancement, and contributed to
the fuccefs of his negociations, may readily be admit¬
ted ; but furely it muft have been to much higher
qualities that he ow^ed the efteem of King William and
of Prince F.ugene, his reputation throughout all Eu¬
rope, and his many victories and conquefts. It was
not by a polite exterior that he obtained his laurels at
Schellenberg, at Oudenarde, at Ramillies, and at
Blenheim.”
How much the duke of Marlborough has been ce¬
lebrated by our poets, is well known by Addifon’s
“ Campaign and by Philip’s “ Blenheim.” Mr Ad-
difon, in his Rofamond, has properly aflumed another
and voluntary occafion of paying a fine compliment to
his grace’s military exploits, and the glory by which
they would be followed. Upon the duke’s removal
from his places, an ode was inferibed to him by Mr So¬
merville, animated with all the zeal of whiggilh enthu-
fiafm, and containing fome paffages that are truly
poetical. Another ode, not much inferior in fpirit,
1 was
C H U [ I
Churchill, was addreffed to his grace, on occafion of his embark-
v" ■ ' jng for Oltend in the year 1712.
The duke of Marlborough’s Scots title of Baron
Eyemouth, being to heirs male, died with himfelf *, but
his Englifh title going to his daughters and their heirs-
male, went into the Spencer family, who retain their
own furname of Spencer.
Churchill, Charles, a celebrated fatirift, the fon
of Mr Charles Churchill, curate and lefturer of St
John’s, Weftminlter, was educated at Wellminfter
Ichool, and received feme applaufe for his abilities from
his tutors in that famous feminnry. His capacity,
however, was greater than his application, fo that he
acquired the charafter of a boy that could do good if
he would. As the flighteft accounts of perfons fo
noted are agreeable, it may not be amifs to obferve,
that having one day got an exercife to make, and
from idler.efs or inattention having failed to bring it
at the time appointed, his mailer thought proper to
chadife him with fome feverity, and even reproached
his llupidity : what the fear of llripes could not effefl,
the fear of fhame foon produced, and he brought his
exercife the next day, finifhed in fuch a manner, that
he received the public thanks of all the mailers. Still,
however, his progrefs in the learned languages was
but flow •, nor is it to be wondered at, if we confider
how difficult it was for a llrong imagination, fuch as
he was poifelfed of, to conform and walk tamely for¬
ward in the trammels of a fchool education : minds
like his are ever darting alide after new purfuits ; de-
firous of embracing a multiplicity of amuling obje6ls ;
eager to come at an end, without the painful invelli-
gation of the means. In fhort, for want of proper
fkill in thefe languages, he was reje£led from Oxford,
xvhither his father had fent him ; and probably this
might have given occafion to the frequent inveftives
we find in his works againlt that moll refpe£lable uni-
verfity. Upon his return from thence, he again ap¬
plied to his lludies in Wellminfter fchool, where, at 17
years of age, he contrafled an intimacy with a lady,
to whom he was married, and their mutual regard for
each other continued for feveral years. At the ufual
age of going into orders, Mr Churchill was ordained
by the late bilhop ot London, and obtained a fmall
curacy in Wales of 30I. a-year. Thither he carried
his wife j they took a fm ill houfe j and he palled
through the duties of his llation with affiduity and
cheerfulnefs. Happy had it been for him had he
continued there to enjoy the fruits of piety, peace,
and fimplicity of manners. He was beloved and
eftcemed by his parifhioners ; and though his fermons
were rather above the level of his audience, they were
commended and followed. But endeavouring to ad¬
vance his fortune, by keeping a cyder cellar, it in¬
volved him in difficulties which obliged him to leave
WMes and come to London. His father dying foon
after, he Hepped into the church in wThich he had of¬
ficiated ; and in order to improve his income, which
fcarcely produced 100'. a-year, he taught young
ladies to read and write Englifh at a boarding-fehool,
kept by Mrs Dennis, where he behaved with that de-
cencv and decorum which became his profeffion. His
method of bving, however, bearing no prooortion to
his income, he contrail* d Several debts in the city ;
which being unable to a_., a jail, the terror of inui-
42 ] C H U
gent genius, feemed ready to complete his misfortunes \
but from this ftate of wretchednefs he was relieved
by the benevolence of Mr Lloyd, father to the poet
of that name. Meanwhile, Mr Lloyd, the fon, wrote
a poetical epillle called the A:lor, which being read
and approved by the public, gave the author a dillin-
guiffied place among the writers of his age. This
induced Mr Churchill to write the Rofciad. It firft
came out without the author’s name ; but the juilnefs
of the remarks, and the feverity of the fatire, foon
excited public curiofity. Though he never difowned
his having written this piece, and even openly gloried
in it ; yet the public, unwilling to give fo much merit
to one alone, aferibed it to a combination of wits 5
nor were Meffrs Lloyd, Thornton, or Colman, left
unnamed upon this occafion. This mifplaced praife
foon induced Mr Churchill to throw off the mafk, and
the fecond edition appeared with his name at full
length. As the Rofciad was the firll of this poet’s
performances, fo many are of opinion that it is the
heft. In it we find a very clofe and minute difeuffion
of the particular merit of each performer ; their de¬
fers pointed out with candour, and their merits
praifed without adulation. This poem, however,
feems to be one of thofe few works which arc injured
by fucceeding editions 5 wffien he became popular,
his judgment began to grow drunk wdth applaufe ;
and we find, in the later editions, men blamed whofe
merit was inconteftable, and others prailed that were at
that time in no degree of efteem with the judicious.
His next performance was his Apology to the Critical
Reviexvers. This work is not without its peculiar
merit ; and as it was written againft a fet of critics
whom the world was willing enough to blame, the
public read it with their ufual indulgence. In this
performance he (bowed a particular happinefs of
throwing his thoughts, if we may fo exprefs it, into
poetical paragraphs ; fo that the fentence fvvells to the
break or conclufion, as we find in profe.
B it while his writings amufed the town, his aiffions
difgufted it. He now quitted his wife, with whom
he had cohabited many years *, and refigning his gown
and all clerical fun£lions, commenced a complete man
of the toivn, got drunk, frequented (lews ; and, giddy
with falfe praife, thought his talents a fufficient atone¬
ment for all his follies. In fome meafure to palliate
the abfurdities of his conduft, he now undertook a
poem called Night, written upon a general lubjecl in¬
deed, but upon falfe principles 5 namely, that what¬
ever our follies are, we ffiould never attempt to con¬
ceal them. This, and Mr Churchill’s other poems,
being (liown to Dr Johnfon, and his opinion being a(k-
ed, be allowed them but little merit ; which being
told to the author, he refolved to requite this private
opinion with a public one. In his next poem, there¬
fore, of the Ghojl, he has drawn this gentleman under
the charafler of Pompofo ; and thofe who difliked
Mr Johnfon allowed it to have merit. Mr Johnfon’s
only replv to Churchill’s abufe was, “ that he thought
him a (hallow fellow in the beginning, and could lay
nothing worfe of him dill.” The poems of Night
and the Ghoft had not the rapid fale the author ex-
pe6led ; but his Prophecy of Famine foon made ample
amends for the late paroxyfm in his fame. In this
piece, written in the (pint of the famous North Bri¬
ton,
Churchill,
C H XI t >43 ] C H Y
pen againfi; the whole which is neceflfary to the proper effeft, nor the precife
Churching ton, he exerted his virulent
H Scotilh nation, adopting the prejudices of the mob,
Churning and dignifying fcurrility by the aid of a poetic imagi-
^ v' nation. It had a rapid and extenfive fale, as prophe-
fied by Mr Wilkes 5 who faid before its publication
that he was fure it muft take, as it was at once perfo-
nal, poetical, and political. After its appearance, it
was afferted by his admirers, that Mr Churchill was a
better poet than Pope. This exaggerated adulation,
as it had before corrupted his morals, began now to
impair his mind : feveral fucceeding pieces were pub-
lilhed, which, being written without effort, are read
without pleafure. His Gotham, Independence, The
Times, feem merely to have been written by a man
who defired to avail himfelf of the avidity of the pub¬
lic curiofity in his favour, and are rather aimed at the
pockets than the hearts of his readers. Mr Churchill
died in 1764, of a miliary fever, with which he was
feized at Boulogne in France, whither he had gone on
a vifit to Mr Wilkes. After his death his poems were
colleffed and printed together in two volumes 8vo.
CHURCHING of women after child-birth,
took its rife from the Jewilh rite of purification. In
the Greek church it was limited to the 40th day after
delivery ; but in the weftern parts of Europe no cer¬
tain time was obferved. There is an office in the li¬
turgy for this purpofe.
CHURCHYARD, a piece of ground adjoining to
a church, fet apart for the interment or burial of the
dead.—In the church of Rome they are bleffed orcon-
fecrated with great folemnity. If a churchyard, which
has been thus confecrated, fhall afterwards be polluted
by any indecent aftion, or profaned by the burial of an
infidel, a heretic, an excommunicated or unbaptized
perfon, it muft be reconciled; and the ceremony of the
reconciliation is performed with the fame folemnity as
that of the blefling or confecration.
Churchyard, Thomas, a poet who flourifhed in
the reigns of Henry VIII. Edward VI. Queen Mary,
and Queen Elizabeth, was born at Shrewfbury ; and
inherited a fortune, which he foon exhaufted in a fruit-
lefs attendance on the court, by which he only gained
the favour of being retained a domeftic in the family
of Lord Surrey ; when, by his lordlhip’s encourage¬
ment, he commenced poet. Upon his patron’s death,
he betook himtelf to arms ; was in many engagements;
was frequently wounded, and was twice made prifon-
er. He publifhed 12 pieces, -which he afterwards
printed together in one volume, under the title of
Churchyard's Chips ; and alfo the tragedy of Thomas
Moubray duke of Norfolk. He died in 1570.
CHURLE, Ceorle, or Carl, in the Saxon times,
fignified a tenant at will, who held of the thanes or
nobles on condition of rent and fervice. They were
of two forts : one rented the eftate like our farmers ;
the other tilled and manured the demefnes, and wTere
called ploughmen. See Ceorle.
CHURNING, in country affairs, the operation of
making butter by agitating milk in a well known vef-
fel called a churn. For accelerating this operation, a
correfpondent in the Bath Society Papers recommends
a little diftilled vinegar to be poured into the churn ;
and the butter will be produced in an hour afterwards.
He acknowledges, however, that his experiments have
not as yet afcertained the exa£t quantity of the acid
time of its being mixed with the cream. But he ap¬
prehends a table fpoonful or two to a gallon of cream w
will be fufficient ; nor would he recommend it to be
applied till the cream has undergone fome confiderable
agitation. His firft trial was after the churning had
been going forward half a day : whether he obierved
the fame rule afterwards he does not fay ; but all his
trials proved fuccefsful, the butter being uniformly ob¬
tained in about an hour after the mixture. See Agri¬
culture and Chemistry Index.
CHUS, or Chufch, (Bible). It is a tradition of an
ancient Handing, that the Chus of the Scriptures de¬
notes Ethiopia, and Chufchi an Ethiopian : the Septua-
gint and Vulgate conftantly tranflate it fo ; and in
this they are followed by moft interpreters, and by Jo-
fephus and Jerome. And yet what Bochart urges to
the contrary is of no inconfiderable weight, from Eze¬
kiel xxix. 10. in which the two oppofite extremes of
Egypt are defigned ; and therefore Chus, which is op¬
pofite to Syene, muft be Arabia : but this is more
ftrongly pointed out by Xenophon, by wFom Ethiopia
is faid to be the fouth boundary of Cyrus’s empire ;
and Herodotus diftinguifhes between the Ethiopians of
Alia and Africa, conjoining the former with the Ara¬
bians.
CHYLE, in the animal economy, a milky fluid fe-
creted from the aliments by means of digeftion. See
Anatomy and Chemistry Index.
CHYLIFICATION, the formation of the chyle,
or the a£l whereby the food is changed into chyle.
The chyle has by fome authors been thought to have
a great refemblance in its nature and chemical analyfis
to milk. The fubjeH, however, hath as yet been but
little inquired into. See the article Milk.
CHYME, or chymus, in the common fignification
of the word, denotes every kind of humour which is
incraffated by concoflion ; under which notion it com¬
prehends all the humours fit or unfit for preferving
and nourilhing the body, whether good or bad. It
frequently imports the fineft parts of the chyle, when
feparated from the feces, and contained in the la£teal
and thoracic du<51.
CHYMISTRY. See Chemistry.
CHYMOLOGI, an appellation given to fuch natu-
ralifts as have employed their time in inveftigating the
properties of plants from their tafte and fmell.
CHYMOSIS, in Medicine, the a£l of making or
preparing chyme. The word comes from xvp.of, fuc-
cus, of yjii>,fundo, “ I pour out.” Chymolis, accord¬
ing to fome, is the fecond of the concoftions made in
the body ; being a repeated preparation of the moft;
impure and grofs parts of the chyle, which being re-
jedled by the la&eals, is imbibed by the meferaics,
and thence carried to the liver, to be there elaborated,
purified, and fubtilized afreftr. It is of this, accord¬
ing to Rogers, that the animal fpirits are formed.
Chymosis is alfo a diftortion of the eye-lids, arifing
from an inflammation ; alfo an inflammation of the tu¬
nica cornea in the eye.
CHYTL A, in antiquity, a liquor made of wine and
oil, and fometimes ufed in divination.
CHYTRI, among the Athenians, a feftival in ho¬
nour of Bacchus and Mercury, kept on the 13th of the
month Anthefterion.
Chus
II .
Chytri.
CHYTRI UM.
C I B r 144 ] C I G
Chytrium CHYTRIUM, in Ancient Geography, a place in
Jl Ionia, in which formerly flood Clazomene ; the Cla-
placia zomenians, through fear of the Perfians, removing from
1 I, ■ the continent to an adjacent ifland (Paufanias). A-
lexander reduced the ifland, by a mole or caufeway, to
a peninfula.
CHYTRUS, in Ancient Geography, an inland town
of Cyprus, to the north of Citium } famous for its ex¬
cellent honey.
CIANUS sinus, in Ancient Geography, a bay of
Bithynia, named from the town and river Cius.
CIBALiE, or CrBALis, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Pannonia Inferior, on an eminence, near the
lake Hiulka, to the north-weft of Sirmium •, the coun¬
try of the emperor Gratian, where he was brought up
to rope-making : a place rendered famous for the fur-
prifal and defeat of Licinius by Conflantine.
CIBBER, Colley, a celebrated comedian, drama¬
tic writer, and poet laureat to the king, was born at
London in 1671. His father Caius Gabriel Cibber,
wTas a native of Holftein, and a fkilful flatuary, who
executed the baffo relievo on the pedeflal of the mo¬
nument, and the tw’o admired figures of lunatics over
the piers of the gate to Bethlehem Hofpital in Moor-
fields. Colley, who derived his Chriflian name from
the furname of his mother’s family, was intended for
the church, but betook himfelf to the flage, for which
he conceived an early inclination j and he was fome
time before he acquired any degree of notice, or even
a competent falary. His firfl effay in writing, was the
comedy oiLove's laj} Shift, a£led in 1695, which met
with fuccefs ; as did his own performance of the cha-
ra&er of the fop in it. From that time, as he fays
himfelf, “ My mufe and my fpoufe were fo equally
piolific, that the one was feldom the mother of a child,
but in the fame year the other made me the father of
a play. I think we had a dozen of each fort between
us; of both which kinds fome died in their infancy,
and near an equal number of each were alive when we
quitted the theatre.” The Carelefs Hnjband, afted in
1704, met with great applaufe, and is reckoned his
belt play ; but none was of more importance to him
than the Nun-juror, a£led in 1717, and levelled againft
the Jacobites. This laid the foundation of the mifun-
derftanding between him and Mr Pope, raifed him to
be the hero of the Dunciad, and made him poet-laureat
in 1730. He then quitted the ftage, except a few 00
cafional performances ; and died in 1757. Cibber nei¬
ther fucceeded in afling nor in writing tragedy *, and
his odes were not thought to partake of the genius or
fpirit he fhowed in his comedies.
His fon Lheophilus, alfo a comic a<flor after him, was
born during a great {form in 1703 ; and after palling
a life of extravagance, diftreis, and perplexity, pe-
rilhed in another ftorm in 1758, in the paffage be¬
tween Dublin and England. Theophilus married the
filler of Thomas Auguftine Arne, the famous mulical
compofer j who became a celebrated tragic aftrefs,
and wdiofe honour was facrificed to her hulhand’s ex-
tiavagance.
CIBDELOPLACIA, in Natural Hijlory •, a ge¬
nus of fpars debabd by a very large admixture of
earth : they are opaque, formed of thin crults, co¬
vering vegetables and other bodies, by way of incrufta-
tions.
Of this genus we have the following fpecies: I. A Cibdelo-
grayilh-white one, w ith a rough furface. 2. A whi- ^racia
tilh brown one : both thefe are friable. 3. A hard, ciCeiy
pale-brown kind, which is the ofteocolla of the Ihops. < - -u
4. The whitilh-gray kind, with a fmooth furface : this
is the unicornu foflil and ceratites of authors. 5. The
whitilh-brown corralloide kind.
CIBDELOSTRACIA, in NaturalHi/iory, terrene
fpars, dellitute of all brightnefs and tranfparency,
formed into thin plates, and ufually found coating over
the fides of filfures, and other cavities of Hones, with
congeries of them of great extent, and of plain or bo-
troyide furfaces.
Of thele there are ufually reckoned feven kinds:
the firft the hard, brownilh-white cibdeloftracium,
found in Germany : the fecond is the hard, whitilh
cibdeloftracium, with thin crufts, and a fmoother fur¬
face, found alfo in the Harts-foreft in Germany : the
third is the hard, pale-brown cibdeloftracium, with
numerous very thin crufts, found in fubterranean ca¬
verns in many parts of England as well as Germany;
the fourth is the white, light, and friable cibdeloftra¬
cium, found alfo in Germany, but very rarely in any
part of England : the fifth is the light, hard, pale-
brown cibdeloftracium, with a fmooth furface, found
in almoft all parts of the world : the fixth is the whit-
iih, friable, cruftaceous cibdeloftracium, with a rough¬
er furface, frequent in Germany and England ; and
the feventh is the brownifh-white friable cibdeloftra¬
cium, wdth a dufty furface, found in feveral parts of
Ireland as well as Germany.
Cl BOR I A, in antiquity, the large hulks of Egyp¬
tian beans, which are faid to have been fo large as to
ferve for drinking-cups; whence they had their name
ciborium, fignifying a cup, in the Egyptian language.
CIBORIUM, in ecclefiaftical writers, the covering
for the altar. This covering is fupported by four high
columns, and forms a kind of tent for the eucharift, in
the Romilh churches. Some authors call it turris gejla-
toria, and others AyxA >' but the pyxis is properly the
box in which the eucharift is preferved.
CIBUS ferialis, in antiquity, an entertainment
peculiar to a funeral j for which purpofe, beans, parf-
ley, lettuce, bread, eggs, lentils, and falts, were in ufe.
CICADA, the Frog hopper or Flea-Locust, a
genus of infedls belonging to the order of hemiptera.
See Entomology Index.
CICATRICULA, among natural hiftorians, de¬
notes a fmall whitifti fpeck in the yolk of an egg, fup-
pofed to be the firft rudiments of the future chick.
CICATRIX, in Surgery, a little feam or elevation
of callous flefti rifing on the fkin, and remaining there
after the healing of a wound or ulcer. It is commonly
called a fear.
C1CATRIZANTS, in Pharmacy, medicines which
aflift nature to form a cicatrix. Such are Armenian
bole, powder of tutty, &c.
Cicatrizants are otherwiie called efcharotics, epuloticsf
wear natives, agglutmants, &.c.
CICCA, m Botany, a genus of the tetrandria order,
belonging to the monoecia clafs of plants. The male
calyx is tetraphyllous ; there is no corolla : the female
calyx triphyllous ; no corolla j four ftiles ; the capfuie
quadricoccous, or four-berried.
CICELY, in Botany^ the Englifti name of a fpecies
of
Cicer,
-Cicero.
C I C [ 145 ] C I C
of chseropliyllum. See Ch^rophyllum, Botany
Index.
CICER,or Chick-Pea. See Botany Index.
CICERO, Marcus Tullius, the celebrated Ro¬
man orator, was born in the year of Rome 647, about
505 years before Chrilt. His father Marcus Tullius,
who was of the equeftrian order, took great care of his
education, which was direfted particularly with a view
to the bar. Young Tully, at his fiidl appearance in
public, declaimed with fuch vehemence againft Sylla’s
party, that it became expedient for him to retire into
Greece } where he heard the Athenian orators and
philofophers, and greatly improved both in eloquence
and knowledge. Here he met with T. Pomponius, who
had been his fchool fellow j and who, from his love to
Athens, and fpending a great part of his days in it,
obtained the furname of Atticus; and here they revived
and confirmed that noted friendlhip which fubfifted be¬
tween them through life with fo celebrated a conftancy
and affe&ion. From Athens he paffed into Afia •, and
after an excurfion of two years came back again into
Italy.
Cicero was now arrived at Rome 5 and, after one
year more fpent at the bar, obtained, in the next place,
the dignity of queftor. Among the caufes which he
pleaded before his queflorfhip, was that of the famous
comedian Rofcius, whom a lingular merit in his art
had recommended to the familiarity and fiiendlhip of
the greateft men in Rome. The quetlors were the
general receivers or treafurers of the republic, and
were fent annually into the provinces dilfributed to
them, as they always were, by lot. The ifland of
Sicily happened to fall to Cicero’s (hare 5 and that
part of it, for it was confiderable enough to be di¬
vided into two provinces, which wras called Lilybceum.
This office he received, not as a gift, but a trull ; and
be acquitted himfelf fo well in it, that he gained the
love and admiration of all the Sicilians. Before he
left Sicily, he made the tour of the ifland, to fee every
thing that was curious, and efpecially the city of Sy-
racufe j where he difcovered the tomb of Archimedes
to the magiftrates who were ffiowing him the curiofi-
ties of the place, but who, to his furprife, knew nothing
of any fuch tomb.
We have no account of the precife time of Cicero’s
marriage with Terentia ; but it is fuppofed to have
been celebrated immediately after his return from his
travels to Italy, when he was about 30 years old. He
v.ras now difengaged from his queftorlhip in Sicily, by
which firft Hep, in the legal gradation and afcent of
public honours, he gained an immediate right to the
fenate, and an aflual admiffion into it during life *,
and fettled again in Rome, where he employed him¬
felf conftantly in defending the perfons and properties
of its citizens, and was indeed a general patron. Five
years were almoft elapfed fince Cicero’s elettion to the
queftorlhip, which w as the proper interval prefcribed
by law before he could hold the next office of redile ;
to W'hich he was nowr, in his 37th year, defied by the
unanimous fuffrages of all the tribes, and preferably to
all his competitors. After Cicero’s eleflion to the
sedilelhip, but before his entrance upon the office, he
undertook the famed profecution of C. Verres, the late
praetor of Sicily, who was charged with many flagrant
&&.s of injuftice, rapine, and cruelty, during his tri-
Vol. VI. Part I.
ennial government of that ifland. This was one of the Cicero,
moll memorable tranfaflions of his life, foi which he
was greatly and jullly celebrated by antiquity, and for
which he will, in all ages, be admired and elleemed by
the friends or mankind. The refult was, that, by his
diligence and addrefs, he fo confounded Hortenfius,
though the reigning orator at the bar, and ufually
flyled the king of the forum, that he had nothing to fay
for his client. Verres, defpairing of all defence, fub-
mitied immediately, without expefling the fentence,
to a voluntary exile ; where he lived many years, for¬
gotten and delerted by all his friends. He is (aid to
have been relieved in this miferable fituation by the ge-
nerofity of Cicero j yet was profcribed and murdered
after all by Mark Antony, for the fake of thofe fine
llatues and Corinthian veflels of which he had plunder¬
ed the Sicilians.
After the ufual interval of two years from the time
of his being cholen aedile, Cicero offered himfelf a can¬
didate for the praetorfhip *, and, in three different af-
femblies convened for the choice of praetors, two of
which were diffolved without effeft, he was declared
every time the firft praetor by the fuffrages of all the
centuries. He was now in the career of his fortunes,
and in fight, as it were, of the confulfliip, the grand
obje£l of his ambition 5 and therefore, w7hen his prae-
torfhip w7as at an end, he would not accept any foreign
province, the ufual reward of that magiftracy, and
the chief fruit w’hich the generality propofed from it.
He had no particular love for money, nor genius for
arms •, fo that thofe governments had no charms for
him : the glory which he purfued was to (hine in the
eyes of the city as the guardian of its law's, and to
teach the magiftrates how7 to execute, and the citizens
how to obey, them.
Being now in his 43d year, the proper age required
by law, he declared himfelf a candidate for the con-
fulfhip along with fix competitors, L. Sulpicius Gal-
ba, L. Sergius Catilina, C. Antonins, L. Caffius Lon¬
ginus, CL Cornificius, and C. Licinrus Sacerdos. The
tw7o firft were patricians 5 the two next plebeians, yet
noble 5 the two lall the fons of fathers who had firft:
imported the public honours into their families : Ci¬
cero w'as the only new man, as he w7as called, among
them, or one of the equeftrian rank. Thefe were the
competitors j and in this competition the practice of
bribing w7as carried on as openly and as ffiamefully by
Antonius and Catiline as it ufually is at our elections
in Britain. However, as the election approached,
Cicero’s intereft appeared to be fuperior to that of all
the candidates : for the nobles themfelves, though al¬
ways envious and defirous to deprefs him, yet out of
regard to the dangers which threatened the city from
many quarters, and feemed ready to burft out into a
flame, began to think him the only man qualified to
preferve the republic, and break the cabals of the de-
fperate by the vigour and prudence of his adminiftra-
tion. The method of choofing confuls was not by an
open vote, but by a kind of ballot, or little tickets of
wood diftributed to the citizens, with the names of
the feveral candidates infcribed upon each •, but in Ci¬
cero’s cafe the people were not content with this fecret
and filent w7ay ; but before they came to any fcrutiny,
loudly and univerfally proclaimed Cicero the firft con-
lid, fo that, as he himfelf fays, “ he was not chofen
T by
ih
C I C [ 146 ]
G I C
Qicero. by the votes of particuilar citizens, but the common
fuffrage of the city \ nor declared by the voice of the
crier, but of the whole Roman people.”
Cicero had no fooner entered upon his office than
he had occafion to exert himfelf againft P. Servilius
Rullus, one of the new tribunes, who had been alarm¬
ing the fenate with the promulgation of an agrarian
law j the purpofe of which was to create a decemvi-
rate, or ten commiffioners, with abfolute power for
five years over all the revenues of the republic, to dif-
tribute them at pleafure to the citizens, &c. Thefe
laws ufed to be greedily received by the populace,
and were propofed therefore by faffious magiftrates
as oft as they had any point to carry with the multi¬
tude againft the public good \ fo that Cicero’s firft bu-
finefs w’as to quiet the apprehenfions of the city, and
to baffle, if poffible, the intrigues of the tribune. Ac¬
cordingly, in an artful and elegant fpeech from the
roftra, he gave fuch a turn to the inclination of the
people, that they reje&ed this law with as much eager-
nefs as they had ever received one. But the grand
affair of all, which conftituted the glory of his conful-
fhip, and has tranfmitted his name with fuch luftre to
pofterity, was the {kill he (bowed, and the unwearied
pains he took, in fuppreffing that horrid confpiracy
which was formed by Catiline and his accomplices for
the fubverfion of the commonwealth. For this great
fervice he wras honoured with the glorious title of pater
patria:, “ the father of his country,” which he retained
for a long time after.
Cicero’s adminiftration was now at an end ; but he
had no fooner quitted his office, than he began to feel
the weight of that envy which is the certain fruit of
illuftrious merit. He was now, therefore, the com¬
mon mark, not only of all the factious, againft whom
he had declared perpetual v^ar, but of another party
not lefs dangerous, the envious too, whofe united
fpleen never left him from this moment till they had
driven him out of that city which he had fo lately pre-
ferved. Cicero, upon the expiration of his conful-
ftiip, took care to fend a particular account of his
whole adminiftration to Pompey, who was finifhing
the Mithridatic w’ar in Afia, in hopes to prevent any
wrong impreftions there from the calumnies of his
enemies, and to draw from him fome public declara¬
tion in praife of what he had been doing. But Pom¬
pey being informed by Metellus and Ctefar of the ill
humour that was riling againft Cicero in Rome, an-
fvvered him with great coldnefs, and inftead of pay¬
ing him any compliment, took no notice at all of
what had paffed in the affair of Catiline, upon which
Cicero expoftulates with him in a letter which is ftill
extant.
About this time Cicero bought a houfe of M. Craffus
on the Palatine-hill, adjoining to that in which he had
always lived with his father, and which he is now fup-
pofed to have given up to his brother Quintius. The
houfe coft him near 30,000!. and feems to have
been one of the nobleft in Rome. It was built about
30 years before by the famous tribune M. Livius Dru-
fus -y on which occafion we are told, that when the ar-
chitedl promifed to build it for him in fuch a manner
that none of his neighbours fhould overlook him ;
But if you have any (kill (replied Drufus), contrive
It rather fo that all the world may fee what I am
doing.” The purchafe of fo expenfive a houfe raifed Cicera,
fome cenfure on his vanity j and efpecially as it was ' — v—
made with borrowed money. This circumftance he
himfelf does not diffemble, but fays merrily upon it,
that “ he was now plunged fo deeply in debt, as to be
ready for a plot, only that the confpirators would not
truft him.”
The moft remarkable event that happened in this
year, which was the 45th of Cicero’s life, wTas the
pollution of the myfteries of the bona dea by P. Clo-
dius, which, by an unhappy train of confequences,
involved Cicero in a great and unexpefted calamity.
Clodius had an intrigue with Caefar’s wife Pom-
peia, who, according to annual cuftom, w as now ce¬
lebrating in her houfe thofe awful facrifices of the
goddefs, to which no male creature ever was admitted,
and where every thing mafeuline was fo fcrupuloufly
excluded, that even pictures of that fort were covered
during the ceremony. It flattered Clodius’s imagina¬
tion greatly to gain accefs to his miftrefs in the midlt
of her holy miniftry j and with this view he dreffed
himfelf in a woman’s habit, that by the benefit of
his fmooth face, and the introduction of one of the
maids, he might pafs wuthout difeovery j but by fome
miftake between him and his guide, he loft his way
when he came within the houfe, and fell unluckily
among the other female fervants. Here he was detect¬
ed by his voice, and the fervants alarmed the whole
company by their ftirieks, to the great amazement of
the matrons, who threw a veil over their facred myf¬
teries, while Clodius found means to efcape. The
ftory was prefently fpread abroad, and raifed a general
fcandal and horror throughout the city. The whole
defence which Clodius made when, by order of the fe¬
nate, he was brought to a trial, was to prove himfelf
abfent at the time of the faCt, for which purpofe he
produced two men to fwear that he was then at Inter-
amna, about two or three days journey from the city.
But Cicero being called upon to give histeftimony, de-
pofed, that Clodius had been with him that very morn¬
ing at his houfe in Rome. Irritated by this, Clodius
formed a fcheme of revenge. This was to get himlelf
chofen tribune, and in that office to drive Cicero out
of the city, by the publication of a law, which, by
fome ftratagem or other, he hoped to obtrude upon
the people. But as all patricians were incapable of the
tribunate by its original inftitution, fo his firft ftep
was to make himfelf a plebeian, by the pretence of an
adoption into a plebeian houfe, which could not yet
be done without the fuffrage of the people. The firft:
triumvirate was now formed, which was nothing elie in
reality but a traitorous confpiracy of three of the mod
powerful citizens of Rome, to extort from their coun¬
try by violence what they could not obtain by law.
Pompey’s chief motive was to get his afts confirmed
by Ccefar in his confulfhip, which was now coming onj
Csefar, by giving way to Pompey’s glory, to advance
his own 5 and Craffus, to gain that afcer.dence by the
authority of Pompey and Caefar, which he could not
fuftain alone. Cicero might have made what terms he
pleafed with the triumvirate, and been admitted even
a partner of their power, and a fourth in their league j
but he would not enter into any engagements with the
three whofe union he and all the friends of the republic
abhorred. Clodius, in the mean time, had been pufh-
ing
C I C [1
•Cimo. ing on the bufinefs of his adoption, which at laft he ef-
—Y—- fedled, and began ibon after to threaten Cicero with
all the terrors of his tribunate, to which he was now
advanced without any oppofition. Both Cselar and
Poaipey fecretly favoured his fcheme ; not that they
intended to ruin Cicero, but only to keep him under
the lalh ; and if they could not draw him into their
meafures, or make him at leaf! keep quiet, to let Clo-
dius loofe upon him. Ctefar, in particular, wanted
to dillrefs him fo far as to force him to a dependence
on himfelf; for which end, while he was privately en¬
couraging Clodius to purfue him, he was propofing ex¬
pedients to Cicero for his fecurity. But though his
fortunes feemed now to be in a tottering condition,
and his enemies to gain ground daily upon him, yet
he was unwilling to owe the obligation of his fafety to
any man, far lels to Csefar, whofe deligns he always
fufpedled, and whofe fchemes he never approved. This
ftiffnefs in Cicero fo exafperated Ccefar, that he refolved
immediately to aflill Clodius with all his power to op-
prefs him \ while Pompey was all the while giving him
the ftrongeft affurances that there was no danger, and
that he would fooner be killed himfelf than fuffer him
to be hurt.
Clodius, in the mean time, was obliging the people
with feveral new laws, contrived chiefly for their ad¬
vantage j the defign of all which was only to intro¬
duce, with a better grace, the ground-plot of the plan,
the banilhment of Cicero. In (hort, having caufed a
law to be ena&ed, importing, that any who had con¬
demned a Roman citizen, unheard, fliould himfelf be
baniihed, he foon after impeached Cicero upon it. It
was in vain that this great man went up and dowm
the city foliciting his caufe in the habit of a fuppliant,
and attended by many of the firft young noblemen
whom he had taught the rules of eloquence ; thole
powers of {peaking which had fo often been luccefs-
ful in defending the caufe of others, feemed totally to
forfake his own : he was banifhed by the votes of the
people 400 miles from Italy } his houfes were ordered
to be demoliflred, and his goods fet up to fale. It can¬
not be denied, that in this great calamity he did not
behave himfelf with that firmnefs which might reafon-
ably be expefted from one who had borne fo glorious a
part in the republic •, confcious of his integrity, and
fuffering in the caufe of his country ; for his letters are
generally filled with fuch lamentable expreflions of
grief and defpair, that his beft friends, and even his
wife, were forced fometimes to admonilh him to roufe
his courage, and remember his former chara&er. At-
ticus was conftantly putting him in mind of it; and
fent him wrord of a report that was brought to Rome
by one of Caffms’s freed-men, that his afflidlion had
difordered his fenfes. He was now indeed attacked
in his weakeft part; the only place in wdiich he was
•Vulnerable. To have been as great in affliflion as he
was in profperity, wmuld have been a perfeftion not
given to msn ; yet his very weaknefs flowed from a
fource which rendered him the more amiable in all the
other parts of his life •, end the fame tendernefs of dif-
pofition wrhich made him love his friends, his children,
and his country, more paffionately than other men,
made him feel the lofs of them more fenfibly. When
he had been gone a little more than twTo months, a mo¬
tion was made in the fenate by one of the tribunes,
47 1 G 1 G , .
who was his friend, to recal him, and repeal the laws,
of Clodius, to which the whole houfe readily agreed.
Many obltrudtions, as may be eafily imagined, were
given to it by the Clodian fadlion •, but this made the
fenate only more refolute to eflfeft it. 1 hey palled a
vote, therefore, that no other bufinefs (hould be done
till Cicero’s return was carried ; which at lalt it was,
and in fo fplendid and triumphant a manner, that he
had reafon, he fays, to fear, left people ftiould imagine
that he himfelf had contrived his late flight for the lake
of fo glorious a reftoration.
Cicero, now in his 50th year, was reftored to his
former dignity, and loon alter to his former fortunes j
fatisfaftion being made to him for the ruin of bis eftates
and houfes, which laft were built up again by himlelr
with more magnificence than before. But he had do-
meftic grievances about this time which touched him
very nearly, and which, as he fignifies obfeurely to
Atticus, were of too delicate a nature to be exprefied
in a letter : They arofe chiefly from the petulant hu¬
mour of his wife, which began to give him frequent oc-
calions of chagrin, and, by a feries of repeated provo¬
cations, confirmed in him that iettled diiguft which at
laft ended in a divorce.
In the 56th year of his age, he was made procon-
ful of Cilicia, and his adminiftration there gained
him great honour. About this time the expeflation
of a breach between Cselar and Pompey engaged the
general attention. Craflus had been deftroyed with
his army feme years before in the war with the Par-
thians } and Julia the daughter of Caefar, w-hom Pom¬
pey married, and who, while Ihe lived, was the ce¬
ment of their union, was alfo dead in child-bed. Cse-
far had put an end to the Gallic war, and reduced
the whole province to the Roman yoke 5 but though
his commiflion was near expiring, he leemed to have
no thoughts of giving it up and returning to the con¬
dition of a private lubjtft. He pretended that he
could not poflibly be fafe if he parted with his army,
efpecially while Pompey held the province of Spain
prolonged to him for five years. This difpofition to
a breach Cicero foon learned from his friends, as he
was returning from his province of Cilicia. But as he
forefaw the confequences of a war more clearly and
fully than any of them, fo his firft refolution was to
apply all his endeavours and authority to the mediation
of a peace •, though, in the event of a breach, he was
determined wnthin himfelf to follow Pompey. He
clearly forefawq what he declared without Temple to
his friends, that which fide foever got the better, the
war muft neceffarily end in a tyranny. The only dif¬
ference, he faid, was, that if their enemies conquered,
they Ibould be prolcribed } if their friends, they would '
be Haves.
He no fooner arrived at the city, however, than
he fell, as he tells us, into the very flame of civil dif-
cord, and found the war in effefl proclaimed ; for the
fenate had juft voted a decree, that Caefar fhould dif- *Vs
band his army by a certain day, or be declared an
enemy } and Cselar’s hidden march towards Rome
effe&ually confirmed it. In the midft of all this hurry
and confufion, Caefar was extremely felicitous about
Cicero 5 not fo much to gain him, lor that was not to
be expefled, as to prevail with him to Hand neuter,
«e wrote to him i'evera! times to that effeft and
T z employed
I
GIG [ 148 ] GIG
Cicero, employed all their common friends to prefs him with
m—v—J letters on that fubjedt ; all which was done ; but in
vain, for Cicero was impatient to be gone to Pompey.
In the mean time, thefe letters give us a moil i'en-
iible proof of the high efteem and credit in which Ci¬
cero tlourifhed at this time in Rome ; when in a con-
teft for empire, which force alone was to decide, we
fee the chiefs on both fides fo folicitous to gain a man
to their party, who had no peculiar fkill in arms or
talents for war. Purfuing, however, the refult of all
his deliberations, he embarked at length to follow
Pompey, who had been obliged to quit Italy fome
time before, and was then at Dyrrhachium j and ar¬
rived fafely in his camp with his fon, his brother, and
his nephew, committing the fortunes of the whole
family to the iffue of that caufe. After the battle of
Pharfalia, in which Pompey was defeated, Cicero re¬
turned into Italy, and was afterwards received into
great favour by Caefar, who was now declared dicta¬
tor the fecond time, and Mark Antony his mailer of
horfe. We may eafily imagine, what we find indeed
from his letters, that he was not a little difconcerted
at the thoughts of an interview with Caefar, and the
indignity of offering himfelf to a conqueror again!!
whom he had been in arms j for though upon many
accounts he had reafon to expeCl a kind reception
from Ccefar, yet he hardly thought his life, he fays,
worth begging, lince what was given by a mailer
might always be taken aw’ay again at pleafure. But
at their meeting he had no occafion to fay or do any
thing that was below his dignity j for Caefar no fooner
faw him than he alighted, ran to embrace him, and
walked with him alone, converfing very familiarly, for
feveral furlongs.
Cicero was now in his 6ill year, and forced at laft
to part with his wife Terentia, whofe humour and
conduct had been long uneafy to him. She was a
woman of an imperious and turbulent fpirit, and
though he had borne her perverfenefs in the vigour of
health, and tlourifhing Hate of his fortunes ; yet, in a
declining life, fourcd by a continual fucceffion of mor¬
tifications from abroad, the w’ant of eafe and quiet at
home was no longer tolerable to him. But he was
immediately oppreffed by a new and moll cruel af¬
fliction, the death of his beloved daughter Tuilia, who
died in child-bed foon after her divorce from her
third hufband Dolabella. She was about 32 years
old at the time of her death •, and, by the few hints
which are left of her character, appears to have been
an excellent and admirable woman. She was molt
affectionately and pioufly obfervant of her father,
and, to the ufual graces of her fex, having added the
more folid accomplifhments of knowledge and polite
letters, wras qualified to be the companion and delight
of his age ; and w^as jufily efteemed, not only as one
of the bed, but the moft learned, of the Roman ladies.
His affliction for the death of this daughter w^as lo
great, that to ffiun all company as much as he could,
he removed to Atticus’s houfe, where he lived chiefly
in his library, turning over every book he could meet
with on the fubjeCt of moderating grief. But finding
his refidence here too public, and a greater refort to
him than he could bear, he retired to Affuria, one of
his feats near Antium; a little iffand on the Latian
Ihore, at the mouth of a river of the fame name, cover¬
ed with wood and groves cut into fliady walks j a Cicero.
Icene of all others the fitteft to indulge melancholy, and ' » r
w'here he could give a free courfe to his grief. “ Here
(fays he to Atticus) I live without the fpeech of man j
every morning early I hide myfelf in the thickeft of
the wood, and never come out till the evening. Next
to yourfelf, nothing is fo dear to me as this folitude j
and my whole converfation is with my books.” In¬
deed his whole time was employed in little elfe than
reading and writing during Caefar’s adminiftration,
which he could never cheerfully fubmit to ; and it was
within this period that he drew up one of the graveft
of thofe philofophical pieces which are ftill extant in
his works.
Upon the death of Caefar, OCtavius his nephew and
heir coming into Italy, was prefented to Cicero by
Hirtius and Panfa, with the ftrongeft profeflions on
the part of the young man that he would be governed
entirely by his diredtion. Indeed Cicero thought it
neceffaiy to cherifh and encourage Odlavius, if for no¬
thing elfe, yet to keep him at a diftance from Antony ;
but could not yet be perfuaded to enter heartily into
his affairs. He fufpedted his youth and want of expe¬
rience ; and that he had not ftrength enough to deal
with Antony j and, above all, that he had no good dif-
pofition towards the confpirators. He thought it im-
poffible he flrould ever be a friend to them ; and wrax
perluaded rather, that if ever he got the upper hand,
his uncle’s a£ts wmuld be more violently enforced, and
his death more cruelly revenged, than by Antony him¬
felf. And when Cicero did confent at laft to unite
himfelf to Oftavius’s intereits, it was with no other
view but to arm him with a power fufficient to opprefs
Antony j yet fo checked and limited, that he fhould
not be able to opprefs the republic.
In the hurry of all thefe politics, he was ftill profe-
cuting his ftudies with his ufual application \ and, be-
fides fome philofophical pieces, nowT finifhed his book of
offices, or the duties of man, for the ufe of his fon : A
work admired by all fucceeding ages as the molt per¬
fect fyftem of Heathen morality, and the noblelt effort
and fpecirnen of what reafon could do in guiding man
through life with innocence and happinefs. How¬
ever, he paid a conftant attention to public affairs ;
miffed no opportunities, but did every thing that hu¬
man prudence could do for the recovery of the repub¬
lic : for all that vigour with which it was making this
laft effort for itfelf, was entirely owing to his counfels
and authority. This appears from thofe memorable
Philippics which from time to time he publiflred again!!
Antony, as well as from other monuments of antiquity.
But all was in vain \ for though Antony’s army was
entirely defeated at the fiege of Modena, which made
many people imagine that the wrar W'as at an end, and
the liberty of Rome eftabliihed 5 yet the death of the
confuls Panfa and Hiitius in that adtion gave the fatal
blow to all Cicero’s fchemes, and was the immediate
caufe of tire ruin of the republic.
Odtavius having fubdued the fenate to his mind,
marched towards Gaul to meet Antony and Lepi-
dus j who had already paffed the Alps, and brought
their armies into Italy, in order to have a perfonal
interview with him ■, which had been privately con¬
certed for fettling the terms of a triple league, and
dividing the power and provinces of Italy among
themfelves.
C I c
[ *49 1
C I C
Cicero.
* Swin¬
burne's Tra
•vets in Sici¬
ly, vol. li.
p. 5°2'
themfelves. The place appointed for this interview
was a fmall ifland about two miles from Bononia, for¬
med by the river Rhenus which runs near that city.
Here they met, and fpent three days in a clofe con¬
ference to adjuft the plan of their accommodation j
and the laft thing they adjurted was the lilt of a pro-
fcription which they were determr.'d to make of
their enemies. T his, as the writers tell us, occafioned
much difficulty and warm contelfs among them, till
each in his turn confented to tacrifice fome of his belt
friends to the revenge and refentment of his col¬
leagues. Cicero was at his 'I ulculan villa, when he
firlt received the news of the profcription, and of his
being included in it. It was the defign of the trium¬
virate to keep it a fecret, if poffiole, to the moment
of execution, in order to furprife thole whom they
had deftined to deftru&ion, before they were aware of
their danger, or had time to make their efcape. But
fome of Cicero’s friends found means to give him early
notice of it; upon which he fet forward to the fea-iide,^
with a defign to tranfport himfelf out of the icach of
his enemies. There, finding a veffel ready, he prefently
embarked j but the winds being adverfe, and the fea
uneafy to him, after he had failed about two leagues
along the coaft, he was obliged to land, and Ipend the
night on (hore. From whence he was forced, by the
importunity of his fervants, on board again 5 but was
loon afterwaids obliged to land at a country-leat of his
a mile from the Ihore, weary of life, and declaring he
was refolved to die in that country which he had fo
often faved. Here he flept foundly for fome time, till
his fervants once more forced him away in a litter to¬
wards the fhip, having heard that he was purfued by
Antony’s affaffins. They wfere fcarce departed when
the affaflins arrived at his houfe *, and, perceiving him
to be fled, purfued him immediately towards the fea,
and overtook him in a wood that was near the fhore.
Their leader was one Popihus Lenas, a tnbune of the
army, whofe life Cicero had formerly defended and
faved. As foon as the foldiers appeared, the fervants
prepared to defend their mailer’s life at the hazard of
their own ; but Cicero commanded them to fet him
down and make no refiflance. They foon cut off his
head and his hands, returning with them to Rome as
the moll agreeable prefent to their cruel employer.
Antony, who was then at Rome, received them with
extreme joy, rewarding the murderer with a large lum
of money, and ordered the head to be fixed upon the
rollra between the two hands ; a fad fpeflacle to the
city, and what drew tears from every eye, to fee thofe
mangled members which ufed to exeit themfelves lo
glorioufly from that place in defence of the lives, the
fortunes, and the liberties of the Roman people, fo la¬
mentably expofed to the fcorn of fycophants and trai¬
tors. The deaths of the reft, fays an hiftorian of that
aCTe, caufed only a private and particular borrow y but
Cicero’s an univerfal one. It was a triumph ovei the
republic itfelf} and feemed to confirm and eftablifh the
perpetual llavery of Rome.
A modern writer *, howrever, is of opinion, that
“ pofterity has been too much feduced by tne name of
Cicero, and that better citizens were facrificed to the
jealoufy of the triumvirs wdthout exciting fo much in¬
dignation. If we take an impartial furvey of Cicero’s
conduft and principles, avowed in his own epiftolary
correfpondence, and trace him through all the laby- Cl‘cero-
rinths of his contradictory letters, we lhall find more 'r~~
to blame than to admire ; and difcover, that the defire
of advancing his fortunes, and making himfelf a name,
were, from his outfet in life, the only objeCls he had
in view. The good of his country, and the didates
of ftern fteady virtue, were not, as in Brutus and Cato,
the conftant fprings of his adions. The misfortunes
that betel him after his confulflrip, developed his cha-
rader, and thowed him in his true colours j from that
time to his death, pufillanimity, irrefolution, and un¬
worthy repining, tainted his judgment, and perplexed
every ftep* he wilhed to take. He flattered Pompey
and cringed to Ctefar, while in his private letters he
abufed them both alternately. He acknowledges in a
letter to his friend, the time-ferving Atticus, that, al¬
though he was at prefent determined to lupport the
caufe of Rome and liberty, and to bear misfortune like
a philofopher, there was one thing which would gain
him over to the triumvirs, and that was their procu¬
ring for him the vacant augurfhip; fo pitilul was the
bribe to which he would have facrificed his honour,
his opinion, and the commomvealth. By his waver¬
ing imprudent condud, he contributed greatly towards
its" deftrudion. After reproaching the confpirators
for leaving him out of the fecret, and loading them
with the moft flattering compliments on their delivering
Rome from Caffar’s tyranny, he calls Cafca an
to pay his court to the boy Odavius, by whom he was
completely duped. His praifes of this triumvir are in
the higheft ftrain of panegyric. Mark Antony well
knew, that the virulent abufe which Cicero was con-
tinually pouring out againft him, was not an effufiort
of patriotic zeal or virtuous indignation, but meiely
the ebullitions of perfonal hatred. He therefore caufed
Cicero to be killed, as an angry man that has been
ftung, ftamps on a venomous animal that comes within
reach of his foot. * The cloak he threw over the body
of Brutus, and the fpeech he pronounced at the fight
of that hero when dead, differ widely from the treat¬
ment he gave the remains of Cicero ; and fhbw, that he
made a diftindion between a Roman who oppofed him
from political motives, and one whofe enmity arofe
from private pique.
Cicero’s death happened on the 7th of December, in
the 64th year of his age, about ten days from the fettle-
ment of the firft triumvirate ; and with him expired the
ihort empire of eloquence ^mong the Romans. As an
orator he is thus charaderized by Dr Blair. “ In all his
orations his art is confpicuous. He begins commonly
with a regular exordium, and with much addrels pre-
poffeffes the hearers, and ftudies to gain their affedions.
His method is clear, and his arguments are arranged
with exad propriety. In a fuperior clearnefs of me¬
thod, he has an advantage over Demofthenes. Every
thing appears in its proper place. He never tries to
move till he has attempted to convince ; and in moving,
particularly the fofter paflions, he is highly fuccelsfuE
No one ever knew the force of words better than Cice¬
ro. He rolls them along with the greateft beauty and
magnificence} and in the ftrudure of his fentences is
eminently curious and exad. He is always full and
flowing, never abrupt. He amplifies every thing 5 yet
though his manner is generally diffufe, it is often
pily varied and accommodated to the fubjed. M hv.n
G I G
Cicliorium ?.n important public objea roufed his mind, and de-
Cicuta. rnanded indignation and force, he departs confiderably
i from that loofe and declamatory manner to which he
at other times is addidted, and becomes very forcible and
vehement. This great orator, however, is not without
his defeds. In mod of his orations there is too much
art, even carried to a degree of oftentation. He feems
often defirous of obtaining admiration rather than of
operating conviftion. He is fometimes, therefore, fhowy
rather than lolid, and diffufe where he ought to have
been urgent. His fentences are always round and fo-
norous. They cannot be accuied of "monotony, fince
they poffefs variety of cadence j but from too great a
fond nets for magnificence, he is on fome occafions defi¬
cient in ftrength. Though the fervices which he had
performed to his country were very confiderable, yet he
is too much his owm panegyrift. Ancient manners,
which impoled fewer reftraints on the fide of decorum,
may in fome degree excufe, but cannot entirely iuftify.
his vanity.” J
CICHORIUM, succory. See Botany///^#.
CICINHELA, the Sparkler, in Zoology, a genus
of infeds belonging to the order of coleoptera. See
Entomology Index.
CICIbBEO, an Italian term, which in its etymolo¬
gy fignifies a vjhifperer ; a term bellowed in Italy both
on lovers, and thofe who to outward appearance ad
as fuch, waiting on married ladies with as much at¬
tention and refped as if they were their lovers. This
Italian cuftom has been fpoken of very reproachfully
by fome writers : Mr Baretti has taken great pains to
vindicate it. He alcribes it to a fpirit of gallantry, de¬
rived from the ages of chivalry, and much heightened
and refined by the revival of the Platonic philofophy in
Italy, about the thirteenth century ; and by the verfes
of Petrarch in_ compliment to the beautiful Laura, and
his numerous imitators.
C1CLU F, or Cicluch, a ftrong frontier town of
Dalmatia, fituated on the river Narentha, in E. Long.
18. 2 2. N. Lat. 43. 29. It is furrounded wdth w’alls
built in the ancient manner, and was taken by the Ve¬
netians from the Turks in 1604.
CICONES, a people of Thrace near the Hebrus.
Ulvffes at his return from Troy conquered them, and
plundered their chief city Ifmarus. They tore to pieces
Orpheus for his obfcene indulgencies.
CIC U F A, properly fignifies a hollow intercepted
between two knots, of the ftalks or reeds of which
the ancient fhepherds ufed to make their pipes. It is
now, however, generally ufed to fignify the water hem¬
lock, and alfo the common fort •, but Linnceus has de-
fcribed the. latter under the old name of Conium.
See that article.
There are three fpecies of water-hemlock ; the virofa,
the bulbifera, and the maculata. Of thele the firft is
the only one remarkable, and that for the poifonous
quauties of its roots, which have been often knowm to
deilrov children w'ho ate them for parfnips.
Cicuta is alfo ufed, chiefly among the ancients,
for the juice or liquor exprefled from the above plant^
being the common poifon wherewith the ftate crimi¬
nals at Athens were put to death : Though fome have
fuggefied, that the poifonous draught to which the
Athenians doomed their criminals was an infpifiated
1 *5° 1
C I L
juice compounded of the juice of cicuta and fome other
corrofive herbs,
Socrates drank the cicuta Plato, in his dialogue
on the immortality of the foul, obferves, that “ The
executioner advifed Socrates not to talk, for fear of
caufing the cicuta to operate too flowly.” M. Petit
in his Oufervc.'.ones Mifcellanecet remarks, that this
advice was not given by the executioner out of
humanity, but to fave the cicuta; for he was only al¬
lowed fo much poifon per ann. which, if he exceeded,
he was to furnifh at his own expence. This con-
ftrudhon is confirmed by a paflhge in Plutarch : the
executioner who adminiftered the cicuta to Phocion,
not having enough, Phocion gave him money to buy
more ; obferving by the way, “ that it was odd enough,
that at Athens a man muff pay for every thing, even
for his own death.”
CID, Roderigo Dias le, a Caftilian officer, who
was very luccelstul againft the Moots, under Ferdi
nand II. king of Caftile $ but whofe name would hard¬
ly have been remembered, if Corneille had not made
his pafiion for Chimene the fubjeft of an admired tra-
gedy, founded on a fimple but affeding incident. The
Cid is defperately in love with Chimene, daughter
of the count de Gomes \ but he is at variance with
the Count, and being challenged by him, kills him
in a duel. I he confinR between love and honour in
the bread of Chimene, who at length pardons and
marries the Cid, forms the beauty of the piece. He
died in 1098.
C1DARIS, in antiquity, the mitre ufed by the Jew-
ifli high-priefts. The Rabbins fay, that the bonnet
ufed by priefts in general w as made of a piece of linen
cloth 16 yards long, which covered their heads like a
helmet or turban ; and they allow no other difference
between the high-prieft’s bonnet and that of other
priefts, than that the one is flatter, and more in the
form of a turban ; whereas that worn by ordinary
priefts rofe fomething more in a point.
CIGNANI, Carlo, an Italian painter, was born at
Bologna in 1628 ; and was the difciple of Albani. He
was efteemed by Pope Clement XI. who nominated
him prince of the academy of Bologna, and loaded him
wuth favours. Cignani died at Forli in 1719. The
cupola of la Madona del Fuoco at Forli, in which he
reprefented Paradife, is an admirable work. His prin¬
cipal piffuies are at Rome, Bologna, and Forli.
CIGOLI, or Civoli, the painter. See Civoli.
CILIA, the Eye lashes. See Anatomy /Wcx.
CILIATED leaf, among botanical w-riters, one
furrounded with parallel filaments fomewhat like the
hairs of the eye-lids.
CILICIA, an ancient kingdom of Afia, lying be-
tween the 36th and 40th degree of north latitude :
bounded on the eaft by Syria, or rather by Mount
Amanus, which feparates it fiom that kingdom j by
Pamphyha on the w’eft ; by Ifauria, Cappadocia, and
Armenia Minor, on the north ; and by the Mediter¬
ranean fea on the fouth. It is fo furroui ded by fteep
and craggy mountains, chiefly Taurus and Amanus,
that it may be defended by a handful of refolute men
againft a numerous army, there being but three nar¬
row paffes leading into it, commonly called PyU Cf-
licirt, or the gates of Cilicia 5 one on the fide of Cap¬
padocia,
Cid
Cilicia.
C I L [ j C I M
Cilicia, padocxa, called the Pafs of Mount Taurus ; and the
—V~— other two called the Pafs of Mount Slmanus, and the
Pafs of Syria. The whole country was divided by the
ancients into Cilicia Afpera, and Cilicia Campeftris ;
the former called by the Greeks Trachcea or Stony,
from its abounding io with (tones} and to this day the
whole province is called by the Turks, Tas IViieisth,
or the Stony Province.
According to Jofephus, Cilicia was firft peopled by
Tar (hi (h the fon of Javan, and his defcendants, whence
the whole country was named Parfus. 'I he ancient
inhabitants were in procefs of time driven out by a
colony of Phoenicians, who under the conduct of Ci-
lix, firft fettled in the ifland of Cyprus, and from
thence palled into the country which, from the leader,
they called Cilicia. Afterwards feveral other colo¬
nies from different nations fettled in this kingdom,
particularly from Syria and Greece *, whence the Cili-
cians in fame places ufed the Greek tongue, in others
the Syriac •, but the former greatly corrupted by the
Perfian, the predominant language of the country be¬
ing a dialed! of that tongue. We find no mention of
the kings of Cilicia after their fettlement in that coun¬
try, till the time of Cyrus, to whom they voluntarily
fubmitted, continuing fubjedl to the Perfians till the
overthrow of that empire; but governed to the time
of Artaxerxes Mnemon, by kings of their own na¬
tion. After the downfal of the Perfian empire, Cili¬
cia became a province of that of Macedon ; and, on
the death of Alexander, fell to the (hare of Seleucus,
and continued under his defcendants till it was reduced
to a Roman province by Pompey. As a proconfular
province, it was firft governed by Appius Claudius
Pulcher, and after him by Cicero, who reduced feve-
ral ftrong holds on Mount Amanus, in which fame Ci-
licians had fortified themfelves, and held out againft
his predeceffor. It was on this occafion that the di-
vifion, formerly mentioned, into Trachaea and Cam¬
peftris, took place. The latter became a Roman pro¬
vince ; but the former was governed by kings appoint¬
ed by the Romans, till the reign of Vefpafian, when
the family of Tracondementus being extinft, this part
alfo made a province of the empire, and the whole di¬
vided into Cilicia Prima, Cilicia Secunda, and Ifauria
the firft took in all Cilicia Campeftris, the fecond the
coaft of Cilicia Trachsea, and the laft the inland parts
of the fame divifion. It is now a province of Afiatic
Turkey •, and is called Cnramania, having been the
laft province of the Caramanian kingdom which held
out againft the Ottoman race.
That part of Cilicia called by the ancients Cilicia
Gampeflris, was, if we believe Ammianus Marcellinus,
one of the moil fruitful countries of Afia ; but the
weifern part equally barren, though famous, even to
this day, for an excellent breed of horfes, of which
600 are yearly fent to Conftantinople for the fpecial
ufe of the Grand Signior. The air in the inland parts
is reckoned wholefome ; but that on the fea-coaft very
dangerous, efpecially to ftrangers.
The rivers of any note are the Pyramus, which rifes
on the north fide of Mount Taurus, and empties itfelf
into the Mediterranean between Iffus and Magaraffus 3
and the Cydnus, which fprings from the Antitaurus,
paffes through Tarfus, and difembogues itfelf into the
Mediterranean. This laft is famous for the rapidity of
its dream, and the coldnefs of its waters which proved Cilicia
very dangerous to Alexander the Great. . II .
The Cilicians, if we believe the Greek and Roman, Cll^br1,
hiftorians, were a rough unpoliftied race of people, un¬
fair in their dealings, cruel, and liars even to a proverb.
In the Roman times they became greatly addi&ed to
piracy. They firft began, in the time of the Mithri-
datic w7ar, to infeft the neighbouring provinces along
with the Pamphylians ; and, being emboldened wdth
fucoefs, they foon ventured as far as the coafts of
Greece and Italy, where they took a vaft number of
(laves, whom they fold to the Cypriots and the kings
of Egypt and Syria. They were, however, at laft
defeated and entirely fuppreffed by Pompey the Great.
See (Hi/lory of) Rome.
Cilicia Terra, in the natural hiftory of the anci¬
ents, a bituminous fubftance improperly called an earth,
W'hich, by boiling, became tough like bird-lime, and
was ufed inftead of that fubftance to cover the docks
of the vines for preferving them from the worms.
It probably ferved in this office in a fort of double ca¬
pacity, driving away thefe animals by its naufeous
fmell, and entangling them if they chanced to get
among!! it.
C1LICIUM, in Hebrew antiquity, a fort of habit
made of coarfe (luff, formerly in ufe among the Jew's
in times of mourning and diltrefs. It is the fame wdth
what the Septuagint and Hebrew verfions called fack-
cloth.
CIELEY, an ancient and famous town of Germa¬
ny, in the circle of Aufiria, and in Stiria. It
is the capital of a county of the fame name, and is
fituated on the river Saan, in E. Long. 15. 15. N. Lat.
46- 3i-
CILURNUM, (Notitia) 3 a town of Britain:
thought to be Collerton, or Qollerford, in Northum¬
berland 3 but Walwdc, or Scilicefter, according to
Camden.
CIMA, or Sima, in ArchiteBure, the fame wfith
Cymatium, or Ogee.
CIMABUE, Giovani, a renowned painter, born
at Florence in 1240, and the firft who revived the art
of painting in Italy. He painted, according to the
cuftom of thofe times, in frefco and in diftemper 3
colours in oil not being then found out. He excelled
in architefture as well as in painting 3 and was con¬
cerned in the fabric of Sandfa Maria del Fior at Flo¬
rence, during which employment he died at the age
of 60, and left many difciples.
CIMBRI, an ancient Celtic nation, inhabiting the
northern parts of Germany. They are (aid to have
been defcended from the Afiatic Cimmerians, and to
have taken the name of Cimbri when they changed
their old habitations. When they firft became re¬
markable, they inhabited chiefly the peninfula now
called Jutland, and by the ancients Cmibi'ica Cherfo-
nefus. About 113 years before Chrift, they left their
peninfula with their wives and children 3 and joining
the Teutones, a neighbouring nation, took their jour¬
ney fouthward in queft of a better country. 'They
firft fell upon the Boii, a Gauliffi nation fituated near
the Hercynian foreft. Here they were repulfed, and
obliged to move nearer the Roman provinces. The
republic being then alarmed at the approach of fuch
multitudes of barbarians, fent an army againft them
vrnder
\
C I M [ ] C I M
Cunbn. under the conful Papirius Carho. On the approach
of the Roman army, the Cimbri made propofals of
peace. The conful pretended to accept of it; but ha¬
ving thrown them into a difadvantageous fitnation,
treacheroufly attacked their camp. His perfidy was
rewarded as it deferved •, the Cimbri ran to arms, and
not only repulfed the Romans, but, attacking them
in their turn, utterly defeated them, and obliged the
ftiattered remains of their forces to conceal themfelves
in the neighbouring forefts. After this viftory the
Cimbri entered Tranfalpine Gaul, which they quickly
filled with {laughter and defolation. Here they con¬
tinued five or fix years, when another Roman army
under the conful Silanus marched againft them. This
general met with no better fuccefs than Carbo had
done. His army was routed at the firft onfet; in
confequence of which, all Narbonne Gaul was expofed
at once to the ravages of thefe barbarians.
About 105 years before Chrifl, the Cimbri began
to threaten the Roman empire itfelf with deftru&ion.
The Gauls marched from all parts rvith a defign to
join them, and to invade Italy. The Roman army
was commanded by the proconful Caepio, and the con¬
ful Mallius *, but as thefe two commanders could not
agree, they rvere advifed to feparate, and divide their
forces. This advice proved the ruin of the whole
army. The Cimbri immediately fell upon a ftrong
detachment of the confular army commanded by M.
Aurelius Scaurus, w?hich they cut off to a man, and
made Scaurus himfelf prifoner. Mallius being greatly
intimidated by this defeat, defired a reconciliation with
Csepio, but was haughtily refufed. He moved near¬
er the conful, however, with his army, that the enemy
might not be defeated without his having a {hare in
the a£lion. The Cimbri, by this movement, imagin¬
ing the commanders had made up their quarrel, fent
ambalfadors to Mallius with propofals of peace. As
they could not help going through Caepio’s camp, he
ordered them to be brought before him ; but finding
they were empowered to treat only with Mallius, he
could fcarce be reflrained from putting them to death.
His troop®, however, forced him to confer with Mal¬
lius about the propofals fent by the barbarians : but
as Caepio w’ent to the conful’s tent againft his will, fo
he oppofed him in every thing 5 contradifted with
great obftinacy, and infulted him in the grofleft man¬
ner. The deputies on their return acquainted their
countrymen that the mifunderftanding between the Ro¬
man commanders ftill fubfifted ; upon wdiich the Cim¬
bri attacked the camp of Coepio, and the Gauls that
of Mallius. Both u’ere forced, and the Romans ftaugh-
tered without mercy. Eighty thoufand citizens and
allies of Rome, with 40,000 fervants and fullers, pe-
rilhed on that fatal day. In ftiort, of the tw-o Roman
armies only jo men, with the two generals, efcaped to
carry the new’s of fo dreadful a defeat. The conquer¬
ors deftroyed all the fpoil, puifuant to a vow they had
made before the battle. The gold and filver they
threw into the Rhone, drowned the horfes they had
taken, and nut to death all the prifoners.
The Romans were throevn into the utmoft confter-
mtion on the news of fo terrible an overthrow. They
faw themfidves threatened with a deluge of Cimbri
and Gauls, numerou* enough to overrun the whole
country. They did not, however, defpair. A new
army w'as railed with incredible expedition; no citi Cimbri.
zen whatever w7ho was fit to bear arms being exempt-
ed. On this occafion alio, fencing-mafters were firft
introduced into the Roman camp ; by which means the
foldiers were foon rendered in a manner invincible.
Marius, who was at that time in high reputation on
account of his victories in Africa, was chofen com¬
mander, and waited for the Cimbri in Tranfalpine
Gaul: but they had refolved to enter Italy by two
different ways; the Cimbri over the eaftern, and the
Teutones and o<-her allies over the weftern Alps. The
Roman general therefore marched to oppofe the lat¬
ter, and defeated the Ambrones and Teutones with
great {laughter*. The Cimbri, in the mean time,
entered Italy, and ftruck the whole country with ter- iyB„gs
ror. Catullus and Sylla attempted to oppofe them ; leutonet.
but their foldiers were fo intimidated by the fierce
countenances and terrible appearance of thefe barba¬
rians, that nothing could prevent their flying before
them. The city of Rome was now totally defence-
lefs ; and, had the Cimbri only marched brilkly for¬
wards, they had undoubtedly become mailers of it ;
but they waited in expeftation of being joined by their
allies the Ambrones and Teutones, not having heard
of their defeat by Marius, till the fenate had time to
recal him to the defence of his country. By their or¬
der he joined his army to that of Catullus and Sylla ;
and upon that union was declared commander in chief.
The Reman army confifted of 52,300 men. The ca¬
valry of the Cimbri were no more than 15,000, but
their foot feemed innumerable ; for, being drawn up
in a fquare, they are faid to have covered 30 furlongs.
The Cimbri attacked the Romans with the utmoft
fury ; but, being unaccuftoraed to bear the heats of
Italy, they foon began to lofe their ftrength, and were
eafily overcome. But they had put it out of their
power to fly ; for, that they might keep their ranks
the better, they had, like true barbarians, tied them¬
felves together with cords faftened to their belts, fo
that the Romans made a moft terrible havoc of them.
The battle was therefore foon over, and the whole
day employed only in the moft terrible butchery. An
hundred and twenty thoufand were killed on the field
of battle, and 60,000 taken prifoners. The vidlorious
Romans then marched to the enemy’s camp, where
they had a new battle to fight with the women, whom
they found more fierce than even their hufbands had
been. From their carts and wraggons, which formed
a kind of fortification, they difeharged {bowers of
darts and arrows on friends and foes without diftinc-
tion. They firft fuffocated their children in their
arms and then put an end to their own lives. The
greateft part of them hanged themfelves on trees.
One was found hanging at a cart with two of her chil¬
dren at her heels. Many of the men, for want of
trees and flakes, tied firings in running knots about
their necks, and faftened them to the tails of their
horfes, and the horns and feet of their oxen, in order
to ftrangle themfelves that way ; and thus the whole
multitude wras deftroyed.
The country of the Cimbri, which, after this ter¬
rible cataftrophe, was left a mere defert, was again
peopled by the Scythians ; who, being driven by Pom-
pey out of that vaft fpace between the Euxine and the
Cafpian fea, marched towards the north and weft of
Europe,
C I M
[ 153 ]
C I M
Clmex Europe, fubduing all the nations they met with in their
II way. They conquered Ruflia, Saxony, Weflphalia,
Cimolia. ancj 0{;lier countries as far as Finland, Norway, and
-J'“ v ~ 1 Sweden. It is pretended that Wodin their leader tra-
verfed fo many countries, and endeavoured to fubdue
them, only with a view to excite the people againft
the Romans *, and that the fpirit of animofity which
he had excited operated fo powerfully after his death,
that the northern nations combined to attack it, and
never ceafed their incurfions till it was totally fub-
verted.
CIMEX, or Bug, in Zoology, a genus of infers
belonging to the order of hemiptera. See Entomo¬
logy IndiX.
The methods of expelling houfe-bugs are various, as
oil of turpentine, the fmoke of corn-mint, of narrow¬
leaved wild crefs, of herb-robert, of the reddifh agaric,
of muftard, Guinea pepper, peats or turf, &.c. See
alfo Bug and Cimicifuga.
CIMICIFUGA. See Botany Index. 4
The cimicifuga feetida has obtained the name of ci¬
micifuga, or bugbane, both in Siberia and 1 artary,
from its property of driving away thofe infefts •, and
the botanifts of thofe parts of Europe which are infeft-
ed by them, have long defired to naturalife it in their
feveral countries. Gmelin mentions, that in Siberia
the natives alfo ufe it as an evacuant in dropfy ; and
that its effefls are violently emetic and draftic.
CIMMERII, anciently a people near the Palus
Maeotis. They invaded Afia Minor 1284 years be¬
fore Chrift, and feized upon the kingdom of Cyaxa-
res. After they had been matters of the country for
28 years, they were driven back by Alyates king of
Lydia. The name alfo of another nation on the weft-
ern coaft of Italy. The country which they inhabit¬
ed was fuppofed to be fo gloomy, that to exprefs a
great obfeurity the expreflion of Cimmerian darknefs
has proverbially been ufed ; and Homer, according to
Plutarch, drew his images of hell and Pluto from the
gloomy and difmal country w'here they dwelt.
CIMMERIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town at
the mouth of the Palus Maeotis j from which the Bof-
phorus Cimmerius is named ; that ftrait which joins the
Euxine and the Palus Mseotis. Cimmerii was the name
of the people, (Homer) : and here ftood the Promon-
torium Cimmerium, (Ptolemy) *, and hence probably
the modern appellation Grim.
Cimmerium, in Ancient Geography, a place near
Baiae, in Campania, where formerly ttood the cave of
the fibyl. The people were called Cimmerii, who
living in fubterraneous habitations, from w’hicb they if-
fued in the night to commit robberies and other afts
of violence, never faw the light of the fun (Homer).
To give a natural account of this fable, Feftus fays,
there was a valley furrounded with a pretty high ridge,
which precluded the morning and evening fun.
CIMOLIA terra, in Natural Hi/lory, a name by
which the ancients exprefled a very valuable medi¬
cinal earth *, but w?hich later ages have fuppofed to
be no other than our tobacco-pipe clay and fuller’s
earth.
The cimolia terra of the ancients was found in fe¬
veral of the iflands of the Archipelago, particularly
*.' in the ifland of Cimolus, from whence it has its name.
It w'as ufed with great fuccefs in the eryfipelas, in-
Vox.. VI. Part I.
flammations, and the like, being applied by way of
cataplafm to the part. They alfo ufed, as w7e do,
what we call cimoha, or fuller’s earth, for the cleanfing 1
of clothes. This earth of the ancients, though fo long
difregarded, and by many fuppofed to be loft, is yet
very plentiful in Argentiere (the ancient Cimolus),
Sphanto, and many of thofe iflands. It is a matl of
a lax and crumbly texture, and a pure bright white
colour, very foft to the touch. It adheres firmly to
the tongue, and, if thrown into water, raifes a little
hitting and ebullition, and moulders to a fine powder.
It makes a confiderable effervefcence with acids, and
fuffers no change of colour in the fire. Thefe are the
charadters of what the ancients called Amply terra ci¬
molia ; but befides this, they had from the fame place
another earth which they called by the fame general
name, but diftinguilhed by the epithet purple, purpu-
refeens. This they deferibed to be fattiftj, cold to the
touch, of a mixed purple colour, and nearly as hard as
a ftone. And this was evidently the fubftance we call
Jleatites, or the foap-roch, common in Cornwall, and
alfo in the ifland of Argentiere, or Cimolus.
Cimolia Alba, the officinal name of the earth, of
which we now make tobacco-pipes. Its diftinguifhing
charadlers are, that it is a denfe, compafl, heavy earth,
of a dull white colour, and very clofe texture ; it will
not eafily break between the fingers, and flightly ftains
the fkin in handling. It adheres firmly to the tongue;
melts very flowly in the mouth, and is not readily dif-
fufible in water. It is found in many places. That
of the ifle of Wight is much efteemed for its colour.
Great plenty of it is found near Pole in Dorfetfhire,
and near Wedenftmry in Staffordfliire.
Cimolia Nigra, is of a dark lead colour, hard, dry,
and heavy ; of a fmooth compaft texture, and not vif-
cid : it does not colour the hands; crumbles when dry;
adheres to the tongue ; diftufes flowly in water ; and
is not a died upon by acids. It burns perfe&ly white,
and acquires a confiderable hardnefs. The chief pits
for this clay are near Northampton, where it is ufed in
the manufacture of tobacco-pipes.. It is alfo mixed
with the critche clay of Derbyfhire, in the proportion
of one part to three, in the manufacture of the hard
reddifh brown ware.
CIMOLUS, in Ancient Geography, one of the Cy¬
clades, now called Argenticre.
CIMON, an Athenian, fon of Miltiades and He-
gifipyle. He was famous for his debaucheries in his
youth, and the reformation of his morals when arrived
to years of diferetion. He behaved with great cou¬
rage at the battle of Salamis, and rendered himfelf po¬
pular by his munificence and valour. He defeated
the Perfian fleet, took 200 fhips, and totally routed
their land army, the very fame day, A. U. C. 284.
The money that he obtained by his victories was not
applied for his own private ufe, but with it he fortified
and embelliflied the city. He fome time after loft all
his popularity, and was banifhed by the Athenians, who
declared war againft the Lacedaemonians. He was re¬
called from his exile, and at his return he made" a re¬
conciliation between Lacedaemon and his countrymen.
He was afterwards appointed to carry on the wrar a-
gainft Perfia in Egypt and Cyprus, with a fleet of 200
fhips, and on the coaft of Afia he gave battle to the
enemy, and totally mine#1 their fleet, A. U. C. 304.
U He
Cimoiia
Cimon.
C I N C IJ4 ] C I N
Cinaloa He died as he was befieging the town of Citium in
Jl Cyprus. He may be called the lad of the Greeks
l 11K >10na' whofe fpirit and boldnefs defeated the armies of the
barbarians, hie was fuch an inveterate enemy to the
Perfian power, that he formed a plan of totally de-
droying it ; and in his wars he had fo reduced the
Perfians, that they promifed in a treaty not to pafs
the Chelidonian illands with their fleet, or to approach
within a day’s journey of the Grecian feas. See At¬
tica.
CINALOA, a province of Mexico in South A-
merica, abounding in corn, cattle, and cotton ; and
rendered extremely pifturefque by a number of beau¬
tiful cafcades of clear water that fall down from the
mountains. It lies on the eaftern coaft of the fea of
California, and has a town of the fame name, fituated
in N. Lat. 26°.
CINARA, in Botany, the Artichoke. See Cy-
nara, Botany Index.
CINCHONA. See Botany Index.
According to fome, the Peruvians learned the ufe
of the bark of this tree by obferving certain animals
affedted with intermittents inftin&ively led to it 3 while
others fay, that a Peruvian having an ague, was cured
by happening to drink of a pool which, from fome
trees having fallen into it, tailed of cinchona 3 and its
ufe in gangrene is faid to have originated from its cur¬
ing one in an aguilh patient. About the year 1640,
the lady of the Spanilh viceroy, the Comitiffa del Cin-
chon, was cured by the bark, which has therefore been
called Cortex or Pulvis Comitijfce Cinchona, Chinachi-
thi, or Chinchina, Kinakina or Kinhina, ^uinaquina or
Quinquina ; and from the intereft which the cardinal
de Lugo and the Jefuit fathers took in its diftribution,
it has been called Cortex or Pulvis Cardinalis de Lugo,
Jefuiticus, Patrum, <b'c.
On its firft introduftion into Europe, it wras repro¬
bated by many eminent phylicians 3 and at different pe¬
riods long after, it was conlidered a dangerous remedy 3
but its charafter, in procefs of time, became very uni-
verfally eftablifhed. For a number of years, the bark
which is rolled up into Ihort thick quills, with a rough
coat, and a bright cinnamon colour, in the infide,
which broke brittle, and was found, had an aromatic
flavour, a bitterilh aftringent tafte, with a degree of
aromatic warmth, was efteemed the bell 5 though fome
efteemed the large pieces as of equal goodnefs. Dur¬
ing the time of the late war, in the year 1779, the
Huffar frigate took a Spanilh Ihip, loaded principally
with Peruvian bark, which was much larger, thicker,
and of a deeper reddifh colour than the bark in com¬
mon ufe. Soon after it was brought to London, it wTas
tried in St Bartholomew's hofpital, and in other hofpi-
tals about town, and was faid to be more efficacious
than the quill bark. This put praftitioners on exami¬
ning into the hillory of the bark, on trying experi¬
ments wdth it, and on making comparative trials of its
elfefts with thofe of the bark in common ufe on pa¬
tients labouring under intermittent complaints. In
July 1782, Dr William Saunders publilhed an account
of this red bark, in which he fays, that the fmall quill
bark ufed in England is either the bark of young
trees, or of the twigs or branches of the old ones ;
and that the large bark, called the red bark from the
deep colour, is the bark of the trunk of the old trees 3
and he mentions a Mr Arnot, who himfelf gathered Cinchon*.
the bark from the trees in Peru 3 and Monf. Conda- v——y—4
mine, who gives an account of the tree in the Me¬
moirs of the Academy of Sciences at Paris in the
year 1738 ; who both fay, that taking the bark from
an old tree effeddually kills it 3 but that molt of the
young trees which are barked, recover, and continue
healthy 3 and that for thefe reafons the Spaniards now
barked the younger trees for foreign markets, though
they ftill imported into Spain fome of the bark of the
old trees, which they efteemed to be much more effi~
cacious than what was got from the young. From
thefe accounts Dr Saunders concludes, that the large
red bark brought to London in the year 1779 was of
the fame kind as that ufed by Sydenham and Morton,
as it anfwers to the defeription of the bark ufed in
their time, wffiich is given by Dale and other writers
on the materia medica, who were their contemporaries.
Dr Saunders fays, that it is not only flronger and
more re^nous, but likewife more efficacious and certain
in its effedl, than the common bark, and had cured
many agues after the other had failed.
A fpecies of cinchona has alfo been difeovered in
the Weft India ifiands, particularly in Jamaica. It is
accurately deferibed by Dr Wright, under the title
of Cinchona JatJiaicetifis, in a paper publiffied in the
Philofophical Tranfadlions. In Jamaica it is called
thefeafide beech, and grows from 20 to 40 feet high.
The white, furrowed, thick outer bark is not ufed 3
the dark-brown inner bark has the common flavour,
with a mixed kind of a tafte, at firft of horfe-radilh
and ginger, becoming at laft bitter and aftringent. It
feems to give out more extradlive matter than the cin¬
chona officinalis. Some of it was imported from St
Lucia, in confequence of its having been ufed with ad¬
vantage in the army and navy during the laft war 3 and
it has lately been treated of at confiderable length by
Dr Kentilh, under the title of St Lucia bark. The
freffi bark is found to be confiderably emetic and ca¬
thartic, which properties it is faid to lofe on drying.
The pale and the red are chiefly in ufe in Britain. -
The pale is brought to us in pieces of different fizes,
either flat or quilled, and the pow’der is rather of a
lighter colour than that of cinnamon. The red is ge¬
nerally in much larger, thicker, flattifh pieces, but
fometimes alfo in the form of quills, and its pow’der is
reddiffi like that of Armenian bole. As already ob-
ferved, it is much more refinous, and poflefles the fen-
fible qualities of the cinchona in a much higher degree,
than the other forts 3 and the more nearly the other
kinds refemble the red bark, the better they are now
confidered. The red bark is heavy, firm, found, and
dry ; friable between the teeth 3 does not feparate into
fibres 3 and breaks, not fhivery, but fliort, clofe, and
fmooth. It has three layers 3 the outer is thin, rug¬
ged, of a reddifh brown colour, but frequently cover¬
ed with moffy matter 3 the middle is thicker, more
compaft, darker coloured, very refinous, brittle, and
yields firft to the peftle 3 the inmoft is more woody, fi¬
brous, and of a brighter red.
The Peruvian bark yields its virtues both to cold
and boiling water; but the decodlion is thicker, gives
out its tafte more readily, and forms an ink with a
chalybeate more fuddenly than the freffi cold infufion.
This infufion, however, contains at leaft as much ex-
tra&ive
C I N [is
tra&lve matter, but more in a ftate of folutlon j and its
colour, on Handing fometime with the chalybeate, be¬
comes’darker, while that of the decodtion becomes
more faint. When they are of a certain age, the addi¬
tion of a chalybeate renders them green ; and when
this is the cafe, they are found to be in a Hate of fer¬
mentation, and effete. Mild or cauflic alkalies, or
lime, precipitate the extra&ive matter, which in the
cafe of the cauHic alkali is rediffolved by a farther ad¬
dition of the alkali. Lime-water precipitates lefs from
a fredi infufion than from a frefla decodtion ; and in the
precipitate of this laff fome mild earth is perceptible.
The infufion is by age reduced to the fame Hate with
the fr'eHr decodion, and then they depofite nearly an
equal quantity of mild earth and extradlive matter j lo
that lime-water, as well as a chalybeate, may be ufed
as a teff of the relative ffrength, and perilhable nature
of the different preparations, and of different barks.
Accordingly cold infufions are found by experiments
to be lefs perilhable than decodtions; infufions and de-
eodtions of the red bark than thofe of the pale 5 thofe
of the red bark, however, are found by length of time
to feparate more mild earth with the lime-water, and
snore extradtive matter. Lime vvater, as precipitating
the extradtive matter, appears an equally improper and
dilagreeable menffruum.
Water is found to fufpend the refin by means of
much lefs gum than has been fuppofed. Alcohol
extradts a bitternefs, but no affringency, from a re-
fiduum of 20 affufions of cold water ; and water extradts
affringency, but no bitternefs from the refiduum of as
many affufions of alcohol. The refiduum in both is
infipid.
From many ingenious experiments made on the Pe¬
ruvian bark by Dr Irvine, which are now publiflied in
a differtation which gained the prize-medal given by
the Harveian Society of Edinburgh for I7^3>
power of different menffrua, as adting upon Peruvian
bark is afcertained with greater accuracy than had be¬
fore been done 5 and it appears, that with refpedt to
comparative power, the fluids after mentioned act in
the order in which they are placed.
Dulcified fpirit of vitriol.
CauHic ley.
French brandy.
Rheniflt wine.
Soft water.
Vinegar and water.
Dulcified fpirit of nitre.
Mild volatile alkali.
Alcohol.
Mild vegetable alkali.
Lime-water.
The antifeptic powers of vinegar and bark united are
double the fum of thofe taken feparately. The affrin-
gent power of the bark is increafed by fulphuric acid j
the bitter tafle is deflroyed by it.
The officinal preparations of the bark are, I. The
powder : of this, the firff parcel that paffes the fieve
being the moff refinous and brittle layer, is the flrong-
eff. 2. The extradt : the w’atery and fpirituous ex-
tradl conjoined form the moff proper preparations of
this kind. 3. The refin : this cannot perhaps be. ob¬
tained feparate from the gummy part, nor would it be
’ ] C I N
definable. 4. Spirituous tindlure : this is beff made Cinchona,
with proof-fpirit. 5* The decodtion : this preparation,'
though frequently employed, is yet in many refpedts
inferior even to a fimple watery infufion.
The beff form is that of powder, in which the
conftituent parts are in the molt effedlual proportion.
The cold infufion, which can be made in a few mi¬
nutes by agitation, the fpirituous tindture, and the
extradl, are likewife proper in this refpedt. For co¬
vering the tafte, different patients require different ve¬
hicles •> liquorice, aromatics, acids, port-wine, fmall
beer, porter, milk, butter-milk, &c. are frequently em¬
ployed *, and thofe who diflike the tafte of the bark it-
felf, vary in their accounts to which the prefeience is
due ; or it may be given in form of eledtuary with cur¬
rant-jelly, or with brandy or rum.
Pradtitioners have differed much wfith regard to the
mode of operation of the Peruvian bark. Some have
afcribed its virtues entirely to a ftimulant power. But
while the ftrongeft and moft permanent ftimuli have
by no means the fame efte£t with bark in the cure of
difeafes, the bark itfelf (hows hardly any ftimulant
power, either from its adtion on the ftomacb, or on
other fenfible parts to which it is applied. From its
adtion on dead animal fibres, there can be no doubt of
its being a powerful aftringent; and from its good ef-
fedts in certain cafes of diieafe, there is reafon. to pre¬
fume that it is a ftill more powerful tonic. I o this
tonic power fome think that its adtion as an antifeptic
is to be entirely attributed } but that, independently
of this, it has a very powerful effea in refifting the
feptic procefs to which animal fubftances are naturally
fubjeAed, appears beyond all difpute, from its effeas
in refifting putrefaaion, not only in dead animal lo-
lids, but even in animal fluids, when entirely detached
from the living body.
But although it be admitted that the Peruvian bark
aas powerfully as an aftringent, as a tonic, and as an
antifeptic ; yet thefe principles will, by no means ex¬
plain all the effeas derived from it in the cure of .dif¬
eafes. And accordingly, from no artificial combina¬
tion in which thefe powers are combined, or in which
they exift even to a higher degree, can the good con-
fequences refulting from Peruvian bark be obtained.
Many praaitioners, therefore, are difpofed to view it
as a fpecific. If by a fpecific we mean an infallible re¬
medy, it cannot indeed be confidered as intitled to
that appellation } but in as far as it is a very powerful
remedy, of the operation of which no fatisfaaory ex¬
planation has yet been given, it may with great pro¬
priety be denominated a fpecific. But whatever its
mode of operation may be, there can be no doubt that
it is daily employed wdth fuccefs in a great variety of
different difeafes.
It was firft introduced, as has already been faid, for
the cure of intermittent fevers-, and in thefe, w-hen
properly exhibited, it rarely fails of luccefs. Iracti-
tioners, how^ever, have differed with regard to the beft
mode of exhibition fome prefer giving it juft before
the fit, fome during the fit, others immediately after
it. Some, again, order it in the quantity of an ounce,
between the fits } the dofe being the more frequent
and larger according to the frequency of the fits j and
this mode of exhibition, although it may perhaps
fometimes lead to the employment ©f more bark than
U 2 is
C I N [ I
• is neceflfary, we conlider as upon the wliole preferable,
from being beft fuited to moft ftomachs. The requifite
quantity is very diiferent in different cafes; and in
many vernal intermittents it feems even hardly necef-
fary.
It often pukes or purges, and fometimes oppreffes
the rtomach. Thefe, or any other effefts that may
take place, are to be counterafted by remedies parti¬
cularly appropriated to them. Thus, vomiting is of¬
ten leftrained by exhibiting it in wine ; loofenefs by
combining it with opium ; and oppreffion at ftomach,
by the addition of an aromatic. But unlefs for ob¬
viating particular occurrences, it is more fuccefsful
when exhibited in its Ample ftate than with any addi¬
tion j and there feems to be little ground for believing
that its powders are increafed by crude fal ammoniac,
or any other additions which have frequently been
made.
It is now given, from the very commencement of
the difeafe, without previous evacuations, which, with
the delay of the bark, or under dofes of it, by retard¬
ing the cure, often feem to induce abdominal inflam¬
mation, fcirrhus, jaundice, hedlic, dropl'y, &c. fymp-
toms formerly imputed to the premature or intempe¬
rate ufe of the bark, but which are beft; obviated by its
early and large ufe. It is to be continued not only till
the paroxyfms ceafe, but till the natural appetite,
ftrength, and complexion, return. Its ufe is then to
be gradually left off, and repeated at proper intervals
to fecure againft a relapfe $ to which, however unac¬
countable, independently of the recovery of vigour,
there often feems to be a peculiar difpofition ; and
efpecially when the wind blows from the eaft. Al¬
though, however, moft evacuants conjoined with the
Peruvian bark in intermittents are rather prejudicial
than otherwife, yet it is of advantage, previous to its
ufe, to empty the alimentary canal, particularly the
ftomach •, and on this account good effedls are often
obtained from premifing an emetic.
It is a medicine which feems not only fuited to both
formed and latent intermittents, but to that ftate of fi¬
bre on which all rigidly periodical difeafes feem to de¬
pend $ as periodical pain, inflammation, hemorrhagy,
fpafm, cough, lofs of external fenfe, &c.
Bark is now ufed by fome in all continued fevers :
at the fame time attention is paid to keep the bowels
clean, and to promote when necefl'ary the evacuation of
redundant bile ; always, however, fo as to weaken as
little as poffible.
In confluent fmallpox, it promotes languid eruption
and fuppuration, diminifhes the fever through the
whole courfe of it, and prevents or correfts putrefcence
and gangrene.
In gangrenous fore throats it is much ufed, as it is
externally and internally in every fpecies of gangrene.
In contagious dyfentcry, alter due evacuation, it
has been ufed by the mouth, and by injedlion with and
without opium.
In all thofe hemorrhagies called paffive, and which
it is allowed all hemorrhagies are very apt to become,
and likewife in other increafed difcharges, it is much
ufed j and in certain undefined cafes of haemoptyfis,
fome allege that it is remarkably effedtual when joined
with an abforbent.
It is ufed for obviating the difpofition to nervous and
Gineas.
56 ] GIN
convulfive difeafes } and fome have great confidence in Cincinnatuj
it joined with fulphuric acid, in cafes of phthifis,
fcrophula, ill-conditioned ulcers, rickets, leurvy, and
in ftates of convalefcence.
In thefe cafes in general, notwithftanding the ufe
of the acid, it is proper to conjoin it with a milk diet.
In dropfy, not depending on any particular local
affedtion, it is often alternated or conjoined with diu¬
retics, or other evacuants j and by its early exhibition
after the water is once drawn off, or even begins to
be freely difcharged, a freflt accumulation is prevented,
and a radical cure obtained. In obitinate venereal
cafes, particularly thoie which appear under the form
of pains in the bones, the Peruvian bark is often fuc-
cefsfully fubjoined to mercury, or even given in con-
jundtion wflth it.
CINCINNATUS, the Roman dictator, wTas taken
from the plough, to be advanced to the dignity of
conful, in which office he reftored public tranquillity,
and then returned to his rural employments. Being
called forth a fecond time to be didlator, he conquered,
the enemies of Rome, and, refufing all rewards, re¬
tired again to his farm, after he had been didlator only
16 days. The fame circumftance appeared once more
in the Soth year of his age. He died 376 years be¬
fore Chrift.
Order of Cincinnatus, or the Cincinnati, a fociety
which w'as eftabiiihed in America foon after the
peace, and confifts of the generals and officers of the
army and navy of the United States. This inftitu-
tion, called after the name of the Roman didfator
mentioned in the preceding article, was intended to
perpetuate the memory of the revolution, the friend-
fttip of the officers, and the union of the ftates $ and
alfo to raife a fund for the relief of poor widows and
orphans whofe huffiands and fathers had fallen during
the wTar, and for their defcendants. The fociety was
fubdivided into ftate locieties, which were to meet on
the 4th of July, and with other bufineis depute a num¬
ber of their members to convene annually in general
meetings. The members of the inftitution were to be
diftinguiffied by wearing a medal, emblematical of the
defign of the fociety j and the honours and advantages
were to be hereditary in the eldeft male heirs, and, in
default of male iffue, in the collateral male heirs. Ho¬
norary members were to be admitted, but without the
hereditary advantages of the fociety, and provided
their number fhould never exceed the ratio of one to
four of the officers or their defcendants. Though the
apparent defigns of this fociety w7ere harmlefs and
honourable, it did not efcape popular jealoufy. View's
of a deeper nature were imputed to the framers, and
the inftitution was cenfured and oppofed as giving
birth to a military nobility, of a dangerous ariftocratic
pow'er, which might ultimately prove ruinous to the
liberties of the new empire. But the principal ground
of apprehenfion was the fuppofed right of inheritance
connedfed wdth this honour to render it hereditary j
which, however, hath been given up and totally dif-
claimed by the fociety.
CINCTURE, in ArchiteBure, a ring, lift, or orlo,
at the top and bottom of the fhaft of a column, fepa-
rating the fhaft at one end from the bafe, and at the
other from the capital.
CINEAS, a Theffalian, minifter and friend to Pyrr-
rhiis
Cinnabar
C I N
Cineritiom rhus king of Epirus. He was fent to Rome
matter to fue for a peace, which he, however, could
not obtain. He told Pyrrhus that the Roman fenate
was a venerable affembly of kings ; and oblerved, that
to fight with them was to fight againft another Hy¬
dra. He wras of luch a retentive memory, that the day
after his arrival at Rome he could call every fenator
and knight by his name.
CINERITIOUS, an appellation given to different
fubftances, on account of their refembling afhes either
in colour or confiftence } hence it is that the cortical
part of the brain has fometimes got this epitnet.^
CINNA, L. Corn, a Roman who opprefled the
republic with his cruelties. He was banithed by Oc¬
tavius for attempting to make the fugitive llaves free.
He joined himfelf with Marius, and with him at the
head of the flaves he defeated his enemies, and made
himfelf conful even to a fourth time. He maflacred lo
many citizens at Rome, that his name became odious,
and one of his officers aflaflinated him at Ancona, as he
was preparing war againft Sylla.
Cinna, C. Helvius, a poet intimate with Caefar.
He went to attend the obfequies of Caefar, and being
miftaken by the populace for the other Cinna, he was
torn to pieces.—Alfo a grandion of Pompey s. He
confpired againft Auguftus, who pardoned him, and
made him one of his moft intimate friends. He was
conful .4. U. C 758, and made Auguftus his heir..
CINNABAR, in Natural Hi/iory, is either native
or fa&itious.
The native cinnabar is an ore of quickfilver, mode¬
rately compaft, very heavy, and of an elegant ftriated
red colour.
FaBitious cinnabar is a mixture of mercury and ful-
phur fublimed, and thus reduced into a fine red glebe.
The beft is of a high colour, and full of fibres like
needles. See Chemistry Index.
The chief ufe of cinnabar is for painting. Although
the body is compofed of fulphur, which is of a light
colour, and mercury which is white as filver, it is ne-
verthelefs of an exceeding ftrong red colour. . Lumps
of it are of a deep brown red without brilliancy.;
but when the too great intenfity of its colour is di-
minifhed by bruifing and dividing it into fmail parts,
(which is a method generally ufed to leffen the in¬
tenfity of all colours), the red of the cinnabar be¬
comes more and more exalted, flame-coloured,, and ex¬
ceedingly vivid and brilliant : in this ftate it is called
vermilion. m .
Cinnabar is often employed as an internal medicine.
Hoffman greatly recommends it as a fedative and an-
tifpafmodic, and Stahl makes it an ingredient in his
temperant powder. Other intelligent phyficians deny
that cinnabar taken internally has any medicinal qua¬
lity. Their opinion is grounded on the infolubihty of
this fubftance in any menftruum. This queftion con¬
cerning its internal utility cannot be decided without
further refearches and experiments ; but cinnabar is
certainly ufed with fuccefs to procure a mercurial fu¬
migation, when that method of cure is proper in vene¬
real difeafes. For this purpofe it is burnt in an open
fire on red-hot coals, by which the mercury is difenga-
ged and forms vapours, which, being applied to the
body of the difeafed perfon, penetrate through the
Cinque-
Port?.
[ 157 1 C I N
by his pores of the Ikin, and produce effe&s fimilar to thole Cinnamoa
of mercury adminiftered by fridtion.
CINNAMON, the bark of two fpecies of laurus.
The true cinnamon is from the lauius cinnamomum ; ■-
and the bafe cinnamon, which is often fold for the
true, is from the laurus caflia. See Laurus, Bota¬
ny Index.
Cinnamon Water, is made by diftilline the bark
fiift infufed in alcohol, brandy, or whitc-rvine.
Clove- C inn a mon, is the bark of a tree growing in
Brazil, which is often fubftituted for real cloves.
White Cinnamon; called alfo Winter's bark, is the
bark of a tree frequent in the ifles of St Domingo,
Guadaloupe, &c. of a lharp biting tafte like pepper.
Some ufe it inftead of nutmeg ; and in medicine it is
efteeemed a ftoraachic and antifcorbutic. See Ca-
NELLA.
CINNAMUS, a Greek hiftorian, wrote a hiftory
of the eallern empire, during the reigns of John and
Manuel Commenes, from 1118 to 1143. His ftyle is
reckoned the beft of the modern Greek authors. He
died after 1183.
CINNERETH, Cinereth, (Mofes);
or Gennefareth, in Ancient Geography, a lake of the
Lower Galilee, called the Sea of Galilee, (Matthew) ;
of Tiberius, (John). Its name Gennefareth is from a
fmail cognominal diftridf upon it. In breadth 40 ila-
dia, in length 140. The water freftr and fit to drink,
and abounding in fifh.
CINQUEFOIL, in Botany. See Pot en til la.
CINQUE-Ports, five havens that lie on the eaff
part of England, towards France ; thus called by way
of eminence on account of their fuperior importance,
as having been thought by our kings to merit a parti¬
cular regard for their prefervation againft invalion.
Hence they have a particular policy, and are governed
by a keeper with the title of Lord-warden of the
Cinque-ports^
Cambden tells us, that William the Conqueror firfl:
appointed a warden of the Cinque-ports; but King
John firft granted them their privileges, and that up-
on condition they Ihould provide 80 fhips at their
owm charge for 40 days, as often as the king fhould
have occafion in the wars, he being then ftraitened for
a navy to recover Normandy.
The five ports are Haftings, Romney, Hythe,
Dover, and Sandwich.—Thorn tells us, that Ha¬
ftings provided 21 veflels, and in each veffel 21 men.
To this port belong Seaford, Pevenfey, Hedney, Win-
chelfea,Rye,Hamine,WakeIbourn,Creneth, and Fotth-
clipe.—Romney provided five (hips, and in each 24
men. To this belonged Bromhal, Lyde, Ofwarftone,
Dangemares, and Romenhal.—Hythe furnilhed five
fhips, and in each 21 feamen. To this belongs Weft-
meath.—Dover the fame number as Haftings. To
this belongs Folkfton, Feverfham, and Marge. Laft-
ly, Sandwich furniftied the fame with Hythe. To
this belong Fordiwic, Reculver, Serre, and Deal.
The privileges granted to them in confequence of
thefe fervices were very great. Amongft others, they
were each of them to fend two barons to reprefent
them in parliament ; their deputies were to bear the'
canopy over the king’s head at the time of his coro¬
nation, and to dine at the uppermoft table in the
great4
I
C I P [ 158 ] C T P
great hall on his right hand •, to be exempted from fub-
fidies and other aids ; their heirs to be tree from per-
fonal wardfhip, notwithftanding any tenure $ to be
impleaded in their own towns, and not elfewhere ; not
to be liable to tolls, &c.
The Cinque ports give the following titles : Ma¬
ilings, a barony to the ancient family of Huntington :
Romney, to the Marthams : Dover, new barony, to a
branch of the York family, formerly a dukedom (now
extinft) to the Queentberry family : Sandwich, an
earldom to a branch of the Montagues.
CINTRA, a cap and mountain of Portugal, in
the province of Eftremadura, ufually called the Rock
qfLiJbon. It lies on the north fide of the entrance of
the river Fajo •, and there is a town of the fame name
fituated thereon. W. Long. 10. 15 N. Lat. 59. o.
CINUS, or Cynus, a famous civilian of Piltoia in
the 14th century. His commentary on the Code was
finifhed in 1313 he alfo wrote on fome parts of the
digefi. He was no lefs famous for his Italian poems,
and is ranked among thofe who firft gave graces to the
Tufcan lyric poetry.
CINYRA, in the Jewiflr antiquities, a mufical in-
ftrument. This, and the Hebrew cinnor, which is ge¬
nerally tranflated cithera, lyra, or pfalterium, are the
fame. It was made of umod, and w7as played on in the
temple of Jerufalem. Jofephus fays that the cinyra of
the temple had ten firings, and that it was touched
with a bow. In another place he fays that Solomon
made a great number of them with a precious kind of
metal called eleftrum, wherein he contradidls the Scrip¬
tures, which inform us that Solomon’s cintwrs were
made of wood.
CINYRAS, in fabulous hifiory, a king of Cyprus,
fon of Paphus. He married Cenchreis, by whom he
had a daughter called Myrrha. Myrrha fell in love
with her father, and in the abfence of her mother flie
introduced herfelf into his bed by means of her nurfe.
Cinyras had by her a fon called Adonis ; and when he
knew the inceft he had committed, he attempted to
ftab his daughter, who efcaped his purfuit and fled to
Arabia, where, after fire had brought forth, file was
changed into a tree which ftill bears her name. Ciny¬
ras, according to fome, ftabbed himfelf.
CION, or Cyon, in Gardening, a young fhoot,
fprout, or fprig, put forth by a tree. Grafting is per¬
formed by the application of the cion of one plant up¬
on the flock of another. To produce a flock of cions
for grafting, planting, &c. the gardeners fornetimes
cut off the bodies of trees a little above the ground,
and only leave a flump or root Handing : the redun¬
dant fap will not fail next fpring to put forth a great
number of (hoots. In drefling dwarf-trees, a great many
cions are to be cut off.
CIOTAT, a fea-port town of Provence in France ;
famous for Mufcadine wine. It is feated on the bay of
Laquea, between Marfeilles and Toulon j and the
harbour is defended by a ftrong fort. E. Long. 5. '30.
N. Lat. 43. IO.
CIPHER, or Cypher, one of the Arabic charac¬
ters or figures ufed in computation, formed thus, o.
See Arithmetic.
Cipher is alio a kind of enigmatic charafter, com-
pofed of feveral letters interwoven, which are general¬
ly the initial letters of the perfons names for whom
I-
the ciphers are intended. Thefe are frequently ufed Cinher.
on feals, coaches, and other moveables.—-Anciently,-y“-
merchants and tradefmen wrere not allowed to bear
arms: in lieu thereof, they bore their ciphers, or the
initial letters of their names, artfully interwroven about
a crofs, of which we have divers inftances on tombs,
&.c. See Devise.
Cipher, denotes likewife certain fecret charaflers
difguiled and varied, uled in writing letters that con¬
tain fome fecret, not to be underflood but by thofe
between whom the cipher is agreed on.
De la Guilletiere, in his Laceda mon ancient and mo¬
dern, endeavours to make the ancient Spartans the in¬
ventors of the art of writing in cipher. Their fcytala,
according to him, was the firft iketch of this myfterl-
ous art : thefe fcytalse v.'ere two rollers of wood, of
equal length and thicknefs 5 one of them kept by the
ephori, the other by the general of the army fent on
any expedition againft the enemy. "W henfoever thofe
magiftrates would fend any fecret orders to the gene¬
ral, they took a flip of parchment, and rolled it very
juftly about the fcytala which they had referved, and
in this ftate wrote their intentions, which appeared
perfedl and confiftent while the parchment continued
on the roll : when taken off, the writing was maimed,
and without connexion, but was eafily retrieved by
the general, upon his applying it to his fcytala.
Polybius fays, that JEneas Taftitus, 2000 years ago,
colledted together 20 different manners of writing fo
as not to be underrtood by any but thofe in the fe¬
cret ) part whereof were invented by himfelf, and part
ufed before his time.— Trithemius, Cap. Porta, Vige-
nere, and P. Niceron, have written exprefsly on the
fubjeft of ciphers.
As the writing in cipher is become an art, fo is the
reading or unravelling thereof, called deciphering.—The
rules of deciphering are different in different languages.
By obferving the following, you will foon make out
any common cipher written in Engliftr.
1. Obferve the letters or charadlers that moft fre¬
quently occur, and fet them dowm for the fix vowels,
including y, and of thefe the moft frequent will gene¬
rally be e, and the leaft frequent u.
2. The vowels that moft frequently come together
are ea, and on.
3. The confonant moft common at the ends of words
is J, and the next frequent r and t.
4. When two fimiliar charafters come together, they
are moft likely to be the confonants f, l, or s, or the
vowels e or 0.
5. The letter that precedes or follows two fimilar
charadlcrs is either a vow el, or /, m, n, or r.
6. In deciphering, begin with the words that confift
of a Angle letter, which will be either a, 1, 0, or <b\
7. Then take the words of twm letters, one of which
will be a vowel. Of thefe wmrds the moft frequent are,
an, to, be, by, of, on, or, no,fo, as, at, if, in, is, it, he, me,
my, us, we, am.
8. In words of three letters there are moft common¬
ly two confonants. Of thefe words the moft frequent
are, the, and, not, but, yet, for, tho\ how, why, all,you,
fhe, his, her, our, who, may, can, did, was, are, has, had,
let, one, two, fix, ten, &c—Some of thefe, or thofe of
two letters, will be found in every fentence.
9. The moft common words of four letters are, this,
that.
C I P
[ 159 ]
C I P
Cipher, that, then, thus, with, when, from, here, fame, tnof, none,
—-v—-1 they, them, whom, mine,your, felf mujl, will, have, been,
were, four, five, nine, <b’c.
10. The moft ufual words of five letters, are, there,
thefe, thofe, which, where, while, fnce, there,Jhall, might,
could, would, ought, three,feven, eight, &c.
11. Words of two or more lyllables frequently begin
with double confonants, or with a prepofition ; that is,
n vowel joined with one or more confonants. The moft
common double confonants are bl, br, dr,fl, fr, gl, gr,
ph,pl, pr,Jh,Jb,fp,f, th, tr, wh, wr, &c. and the moft
common prepofitions are com, con, de, dis, ex, im, in,
int, mis, per, pre, pro, re,fub,fup, un, &c.
12. The double confonants moft frequent at the end
of long words, are, ch. Id, If, mn, nd, ng, rl, rm, rn, rp,
rt,fm, jig xt, &c. and the moft common terminations
are ed, en, er, es, et, ing, ly,fon,fton, tion, able, ence, ent,
ment,full, lefs, nefs, &c.
On Plate CXL1V. in Vol. V. fig. 7. is given an
example of a cipher wrote in arbitrary chara&ers as is
commonly pra£tifed. It will be eafily deciphered by
obferving the rules : but when the charafters are all
placed clofe together, as in the example fig. 8. and as
they always fliould be, the deciphering is much more
difficult.
To decipher a writing of this fort, you muft firft
look for thofe chara&ers that moft frequently occur,
and fet them down for vowels as before. Then ob-
ferve the fimilar chara&ers that come together *, but
you muft remember that two fuch characters may
here belong to two words. You are next to remember
the combinations of two or three characters that are
moft frequent 5 which will be fome of the words in
the feventh and eighth of the foregoing rules 5 and by
obferving the other rules, you will infallibly difeover,
with time and attention, any cipher wrote on thefe
principles.
When the wwds are wrote all clofe together, if
the key to the cipher were to be changed every word,
according to a regular method agreed on between the
parties, as might be done by either of the methods
mentioned in N° II. below, with very little additional
trouble, the writing would then be extremely difficult
to decipher. The longer any letter written in cipher
is, the more eafy it is to decipher, as then the repe¬
titions of the characters and combinations are the more
frequent.
The following are the contents of the two foregoing
ciphers, in which we have inverted the order of the
words and letters, that they who are defirous of trying
their talent at deciphering, may not, inadvertently, read
the explanation before the cipher.
enil eno ton dna shtnom elohw eerht, suoidifrep
dna leurc o noituac & ecnedurp fo klat Hiw uoy : on,
rotiart, tcelgen & ecnereffidni si ti. yltrohs rettel a em
dues ot snaem emof dnif rehtie, traeh ent morf semoc
ti taht ees em tel &, erom ecaf ym ees ot erad reven ro.
evlewt fo ruoh eht ta thgin siht, ledatic eht 10 etag
eht erofeb elbmeffa lliw sdneirf ruo 11a. ruon eht ot
lautenup eb : deraperp Hew emoc dna, ytrebii ruoy
niager ot, ylevarb eid ro. tbgin eht si siht, su sekam
rehtie taht, etiuq su seodnu ro.
Contrivances for communicating intelligence by Cipher.
I. By means of a pack of cards. The parties muft pre-
vioufly agree in what manner the cards ffiall be firft
placed, and then how they (hall be ffiuffled. Thus fup-
pofe the cards are to be firft placed in the order as here¬
after follows, and then ffiuffled by taking off 3 from the
top, putting the next 2 over them, and the following 3
under them*, and fo alternately. Therefore the par¬
ty wfflo fends the cipher firft writes the contents of it
on a feparate paper, and then copies the firft 32 letters
on the cards, by writing one letter on every card 5 he
then ffluffles them, in the manner deferibed, and writes
the fecond 32 letters: he ffluffles them a fecond time,
and writes the third 32 letters, and fo of the reft. An
example will make this plain. Suppofe the letter to be
as follows.
I am in full march to relieve you ; within\ three days
I [hall be with you. If the ene\my in the mean time
Jhould make an affau\lt, remember what you owe to your
countr\y, to your family, andyourfelf Live with ho\nour,
or die with glory.
Order of the cards before
the 1 ft fhuffle.
Cipher.
* By flnif-
fling the
cards in this
manner,
there will
remain on¬
ly 2 to put
under at
laft.
Ace fpade
Ten diamonds
Eight hearts
King fpades
Nine clubs
Seven diamonds
Nine diamonds
Ace clubs
Knave hearts
Seven fpades
Ten clubs
Ten hearts
Queen fpades
Eight diamonds
Eight clubs
Seven hearts
Queen clubs
Nine fpades
King hearts
Queen diamonds
Eight fpades
Knave clubs
Seven clubs
Ace hearts
Nine hearts
Ace diamonds
Knave fpades
Ten fpades
King diamonds
Queen hearts
King clubs
Knave diamonds
e e a e
m w
e r
f
000
u y h
y f y
e u 0
0 e
e i n w s 0
v f a
e t s
y r e
0 l n
u h
w l
s t
t l
h m
n a
1 S
y
r
0 t
& d
l
r r
b u
m 11
t h
n e u r a
The perfon that receives thefe cards firft places them
in the order agreed on, and tranferibes the firft letter
on every card. He then ffluffles them, according to
order, and tranferibes the fecond letter on each card-
He fhuffles them a fecond time, and tranferibes the
third letters, and fo of the reft.
If the cards -were to be ftmffled the fecond time by
threes and fours, the third time by twos and fours, &.p>
it would make the cipher ftill more difficult to dro¬
ver ;
C I P [ 160 ] C I R
Cipher, ver : though as all ciphers depend on the combination
v 1 " of letters, there are fcarce any that may not be decipher¬
ed with time and pains; as we (hall (how further on.
Thofe ciphers are the bell that are by their nature moft
free from fufpicion of being ciphers ; as for example,
if the letters were there written with fyxnpathetic ink,
the cards might then pafs for a common pack.
II. By a dial. On a piece of fquare pafleboard
ABCD, fig. 3. 4. draw the circle EFGH, and divide
it into 26 equal parts, in each of which muft be written
one of the letters of the alphabet.
On the infide of this there muft be another circle of
pafteboard, ILMN, moveable round the centre O, and
the extremity of this muft be divided into the fame
number of equal parts as the other. On this alfo muft
be written the letters of the alphabet, which, however,
need not be difpofed in the fame order. The perfon
with whom you correfpond muft have a fimilar dial, and
at the beginning of your letter you muft put any two
letters that anfwer to each other when you have fixed
the dial.
Exam. Suppofe you would write as follows: “ If
you will come over to us, you ftiall have a penfion, and
you may ftill make a fham oppofition.” You begin
with the letters Ma, which (how how the dial is fixed:
then for If you, you write un juc, and fo for the reft, as
you will fee at fig. 6.
The fame intention may be anfwered by a ruler, the
upper part of which is fixed, and the lower part made
to Hide ; but in this cafe the upper part muft contain
two alphabets in fucceffion, that fome letter of that part
may conftantly correfpond to one in the lower part.
The divifions Handing dire&ly over each other in a
ftraight line will be much more obvious than in the
circumference of a circle. Or two ftraight pieces of
pafteboard regularly divided, the one containing a An¬
gle, and the other a double alphabet, would anfwer ex-
a£tly the fame purpofe. In this cafe a blank fpace may
be left at each end of the Angle alphabet, and one or
two weights being placed on both the pieces will keep
them fteady.
III. The correfponding/paces. Take two pieces of
pafteboard or ftiff paper, through which you muft cut
long fquares, at different diftances, as you will fee in
the following example. One of thefe pieces you keep
yourfelf, and the other you give to your correfpondent.
When you w7ould fend him any fecret intelligence, you
lay the pafteboard upon a paper of the fame fize, and
in the fpaces cut out, you wrrite what you would have
underftood by him only, and then fill up the interme¬
diate fpaces with fomewhat that makes with thofe wmrds
a different fenfe.
JI ftiall be| much obliged to you, as reading Jalone]
engages my attention |at| prefent, if you will lend me
any one of the jeightj volumes of the Spectator. I
hope you will excufe jthis| freedom, but for a winter’s
jevening] I [don't] know a better entertainment. If I
|fail| to return it foon, never truft me for the time
|to come.|
A paper of this fort may be placed four different
’krys, either by putting the bottom at the top, or by
turrfbg it over j and by thefe means the fuperfluous
■wmrds may be the more eafily adapted to the fenfe of Cipher
the others. l|
This is a very eligible cipher, as it is free from fu- if-irca^a-
fpicion, but it will do only for ftroit meffages j for if
the fpaces be frequent, it will be very difficult to make
the concealed and obvious meanings agree together j
and if the fenfe be not clear, the writing will be liable
to fufpicion.
IV. The mu/cal cipher. The conftru&ion of this
cipher is fimilar to that of N° II. The circle EFGH
(fig. 3.) is to be divided into twenty-fix equal parts,
in each part there muft be written one of the letters
of the alphabet, and on the anterior circle ILMN,
moveable round the centre O, there is to be the fame
number of divifions : the circumference of the inner
circle muft be ruled in the manner of a mufic paper ;
and in each divifion there is to be placed a note, dif¬
fering either in figure or pofition. Laftly, within* the
mufical lines place the three keys, and on the outer
circle, the figures that are commonly ufed to denote
the time.
Then provide yourfelf with a ruled paper, and place
one of the keys, as fuppofe that of ge re fol, againft the
time two-fourths at the beginning of the paper, which
will inform your correfpondent how to fix his circle'.
You then copy the notes that anfwer to the feverallet-
lers of the words you intend to write, in the manner
exprefled at fig. 5.
A cipher of this fort may be made more difficult to
difeover by frequently changing the key, and that will
not in the leaft embarrafs the reader. You may like-
wife add the mark $ or to the note that begins a
W'ord, which will make it more eafy to read, and at
the fame time give the mufic a more natural afpedl.
This cipher is preferable to that of N° II. above, as it
may be inclofed in a letter about common affairs, and
pafs unfufpefted.
CIPPUS, in antiquity, a low column, with an in-
feription, erefted on the high roads, or other places, to
fliow the way to travellers 5 to ferve as a boundary $
to mark the grave of a deceafed perfon, &c.
CIR, St, a village of France, two miles from Ver-
failles, which was remarkable for a nunnery founded
by Louis XIV. The nuns were obliged to take care
of the education of 250 girls, wdro could prove their
families to have been noble from the 4th generation on
the father’s fide. They could not enter before 7, nor
after x 2 years of age ; and they continued till they
were 20 years and 3 months old. The houfe was
formerly a moft magnificent ftrudlure.
CIRCiEA, enchanter’s night-shade. See Bo¬
tany Index.
CIRCASSIA, a large country of Afia, fituated be¬
tween 45 and degrees of north latitude, and be¬
tween 40 and 50 of eaft longitude. It is bounded by
Ruffia on the north j by Aftracan and the Cafpian fea
on the eaft 5 by Georgia and Dagiftan on the fouth j
and by the river Hon, the Palus Mmotis, and the Black
fea, on the Weft. This country has long been cele¬
brated for the extraordinary beauty of its w'omen ; and
here it was that the practice of innoculating for the
fmallpox firft began. Terki, the principal city, is
feated in a very fpacious plain, very fw’ampy, towards
the fea-fide, in 430 23' north latitude : it is about
three werfts in compafs, well fortified with ramparts
C I R [ I
Circaflk. and baftions in the- modern ftyle, well ftored with
' cannon, and has always a confiderable garriibn in it,
under the command of a governor. The Circaffian
rince who refides here, is allowed 500 Ruffians for
is guard, but none of his own fubjects are permit¬
ted to dwell within any part of the fortifications.
Ever fince the redublion of thofe parts to the obedi¬
ence of Ruffia, they have put in all places of ftrength,
not only Ruffian garrifons and governors, but magi-
ftrates, and priefts for the exercife of the Chriftian re¬
ligion ; yet the Circaffian Tartars are governed by
their own princes, lords, and judges ; but thefe admini-
ller juftice in the name of the emperor, and in matters
of importance, not without the prefence of the Ruffian
governors, being all obliged to take the oath of alle¬
giance to his imperial majefty. The apparel of the
men of Circaffia is much the fame with that of the
Nagayans, only their caps are fomething larger; and
th eir cloaks being likewife of coarfe cloth or ffieep
fkins, are fattened only at the neck with a firing, and
as they are not large enough to cover the whole body,
they turn them round according to the wind and wea¬
ther. The men here are much better favoured than
thofe of Nagaya, and the women extremely well flia-
ped, with exceeding fine features, fmooth clear com¬
plexions, and beautiful black eyes, which, with their
black hair hanging in two treffes, one on each fide the
face, give them a moft lovely appearance. They wear
a black coif on their heads, covered with a fine white
cloth tied under the chin. During the fummer they
all wear only a fmock of divers colours, and that open
fb low before, that one may fee below their navels :
this, with their beautiful faces always uncovered (con¬
trary to the cuftom of moft of the other provinces in
thefe parts), their good humour and lively freedom in
converfation, altogether render them very attracting :
notwithftanding which they have the reputation of be¬
ing very chafte, though they feldom want opportunity;
for according to the accounts of a late traveller, it is an
eftablifhed point of good manners among them, that as
foon as any perfon comes in to fpeak to the wife, the
hufband goes out of the houfe, but whether this conti-
nency of theirs proceeds from their own generofity, to
recompenfe their hufbands for the confidence they put
in them, or has its foundation only in fame, he pretends
not to determine. Their language they have in com¬
mon with the other neighbouring Tartars, although
the chief people among them are alfo not ignorant of
the Ruffian. Their religion is Paganifm; for notwith¬
ftanding they ufe circumcifion among them, they have
neither prleft, alcoran, nor mofque, like other Mahome¬
tans. Every body here offers his own facrifice at plea¬
sure ; for which, however, they have certain days, efta-
bliftied rather by cuftom than any pofitive command :
their moft folemn facrifice is offered at the death of
their neareft friends, upon which occafion both men
and women meet in the field to be prefent at the offer¬
ing, which is a he-goat ; and having killed, they flay
it, and ftretch the Ikin wdth the head and horns on,
upon a crofs at the top of a long pole, placed common¬
ly in a quickfet hedge (to keep the cattle from it);
and near the place the facrifice is offered by boiling and
xoafting the flefti, wffiich they afterwards eat. When
the feaft is over, the men rife,, and having paid their
adoration to the Ikin, and muttered over certain
Voi. VI. Part I.
U ] C I R
prayers, the women withdraw, and the men conclude Circaflia^
the ceremony with drinking a great quantity of fpi- Circe*
rits ; and this generally ends in a quarrel before they v
part. The face of the country is pleafantly diverfified
with mountains, valleys, woods, lakes, and rivers; and,
though not much cultivated, is far from being unfruit¬
ful. In fummer the inhabitants quit the towns, and
encamp in the fields like the neighbouring Tartars,
occafionally Ihifting their ftations along with their
flocks and herds. Befides game, in which the coun¬
try greatly abounds, the Circaffians eat beef and mut¬
ton ; but that which they prefer to all others is the
fleflr of a young horfe. Their bread confifts of thin
cakes of barley meal, baked upon the hearth, which
they alw'ays eat new; and their ufual drink is w'ater or
mare’s milk, from the latter of which they diftil a fpi-
rit, as do moft of the Tartar nations. They allot no fix¬
ed hours for the refrelhments of the table or lleep,
which they indulge irregularly, as inclination or con¬
venience diblates. W7hen the men make excurfions in¬
to an enemy’s country, they pafs feveral days and
nights fucceffively without fleeping ; but, at their re¬
turn, devote as much time to repofe as the fpace in
which they had before withheld from that gratification.
When they eat, they fit crofs-legged on the floor, the
Ikin of fame animal ferving them inftead of a carpet.
In removing from one part of the country to another,
the women and children are carried in waggons, which
are a kind of travelling houfes, and drawn by oxen
or camels: they never ufe horfes for draught. Their
breed of the latter, howrever, is reckoned exceeding
good ; and they are accuftomed to fwim almoft any
river on horfeback. The wmmen and children fmoke
tobacco as well as the men ; and this is the moft accept¬
able commodity wffiich a traveller can carry wuth him in¬
to the Tartar countries. There are here no public inns,
which indeed are unneceffaiy ; for fo great is the hofpi-
tality of the people, that they will contend with each
other wffio fhall entertain any ftranger that happens to
come among them.—The principal branch of their
traffic is their own children, efpecially their daughters,
whom they fell for the ufe of the feraglios in Turkey
and Perfia, where they frequently mairy to great ad¬
vantage, and make the fortune of their families. The
merchants who come from Conftantinople to purchafe
thofe girls, are generally Jews, who, as well as the mo¬
thers, are faid to be extremely careful of preferving the
chaftity of the young women, know ing the value that
is fet by the Turks upon the marks of virginity. The
greater part of the Circaffians are Chriflians of the
Greek church ; but there are alfo both Mahometans
and Pagans among them.
CIRCE, in fabulous hiftory, a daughter of Sol and
Perfeis, celebrated for her knowledge of magic and ve¬
nomous herbs. She was After to iEetes king of Colchis,
and to Pafiphae the wife of Minos. She married a Sar-
matian prince of Colchis, whom ffie murdered to obtain
the kingdom. She was expelled by her fubjedts, and
carried by her father upon the coafts of Italy in
an ifland called JEsea. Ulyffes, at his return from the
Trojan w7ar, vifited her coafts, and all his compa¬
nions, who ran headlong into pleafiire and voluptuouf-
nefs, were changed by Circe’s potions into filthy fwine.
Ulyffes, who was fortified againft all enchantments by
an herb called mo/y, which he had received from Mer-
X cury,
c I R [ ,
Circenfian tury, vvent to Circe, and demanded fword in hand the
Circle* reftorat*on °f h,s companions to their former ftate. She
u—y—w complied, and loaded the hero with pleafures and ho¬
nours. In this voluptuous retreat UlyfTes had by
Circe one fon called Telegonus, or two, according to
Hefiod, called Agrius and Latinus. For one whole
year Ulyffes forgot his glory in Circe’s arms. At his
departure the nymph advifed him to defcend to hell
and to confult the manes of Tirefias concerning the
fates that attended him. Circe (bowed herfelf cruel to
Scylla her rival, and to Picus.
CIRCENSIAN games, a general term under which
•was comprehended all combats exhibited in the Roman
circus, in imitation of the Olympic games in Greece.
IVIoft of the feafts of the Romans were accompanied
with Circenfian games ; and the magiftrates, and other
officers of the republic, frequently prefented the people
with them, in order to procure their favour. The
grand games were held five days, commencing on the
13th of September. See Circus.
CIRCLE, in Geometry, a plane figure comprehend¬
ed by a fingle curve line, called its circumference, to
which right lines drawn from a point in the middle,
called the centre, are equal to each other. See Geo¬
metry.
Circles of the Sphere, are fuch as cut the mundane
fphere, and have their periphery either on its move-
able furface, or in another immoveable, conterminous,
and equidiftant furface. See Sphere. Hence arife
two kinds of circles, moveable and immoveable. The
firft, thofe whofe peripheries are in the moveable fur¬
face, and which therefore revolve with its diurnal mo¬
tion j as, the meridians, &c. The latter having their
periphery in the immoveable furface, do not revolve j
as the ecliptic, equator, and its parallels, &c. See
GeOGRAP H Y.
Circles of Altitude, otherwife called almucantars, are
circles parallel to the horizon, having their common
pole in the zenith, and ftill diminilhing as they ap¬
proach the zenith. See Almucantar.
Diurnal Circles, are immoveable circles, fuppofed
to be defcribed by the feven liars, and other points
of the heavens, in their diurnal rotation round the
earth ; or rather, in the rotation of the earth round
its axis. The diurnal circles are all unequal: the equa¬
tor is the biggeft.
Horary Circles, in Dialing, are the lines which
ihow the hours on dials ; though thefe be not drawn
circular, but nearly llraight. See Dialing.
Circles of Latitude, or Secondaries of the Ecliptic,
are great circles parallel to the plane of the ecliptic,
palling through the poles thereof, and through every
Jtar and planet. They are fo called, becaufe they
ferve to meafure the latitude of the liars, which is no¬
thing but an arch of one of, thefe circles intercepted
between the liar and the ecliptic. See Latitude.
Circles <f Longitude, are feveral lefler circles, pa¬
rallel to the ecliptic ; Hill diminilhing, in proportion
as they recede from it. On the arches of thefe circles,
the longitude of the ftars is reckoned.
Circle of perpetual Apparition, one of the lefier cir¬
cles, parallel to the equator, defcribed by any point
of the fphere touching the northern point of the ho¬
rizon, and carried about with the diurnal motion. All
62 ] c 1 R
the ftars included within this circle never fet, but are
ever vifible above the horizon. '
Circle of perpetual Occultation, is another circle at a
like diftance from the equator, and contains all thofe
ftars which never appear in ©ur hemifphere. The ftars
lituated between thefe circles alternately rife and fet at
certain times.
Polar Circles, are immoveable circles, parallel to
the equator, and at a diftance from the poles equal to
the greateft declination of the ecliptic. That next the
northern pole is called the arctic j and that next to
the fouthern one the antarctic.
Fairy-CiRCLE. See pAiRr-Circle.
Druidical Circles, in Eritilh topography, a name
given to certain ancient inclofures formed by rude
ftones circularly arranged, in the manner reprefented
on Plate CXLV. Thefe, it is now generally agreed,
were temples, and many writers think alio, places of
folemn affemblies for councils or eleftions, and feats of
judgment. Mr Borlafe is of this opinion. “ Inftead,
therefore (fays he), of detaining the reader with a
difpute, whether they were places of worftiip or coun¬
cil, it may with great probability be afferted, that they
were ufed for both purpofes ; and having for the moft
part been firft dedicated to religion, naturally became
afterwards the curiae and forae of the fame communi¬
ty.” Ihefe temples, though generally circular, oc-
cafionally differ as wTell in figure as magnitude : with
relation to the firft, the moft fimple were compofed of
one circle : Stonehenge confifted of two circles and
two ovals, refpeftively concentric, whilft that at Bot-
talch near St Juft in Cornwall is formed by four in¬
terfering circles. And the great temple at Avebury in
Wiltfhire, it is faid, defcribed the figure of a feraph
or fiery flying ferpent, reprefented by circles and right
lines. Some befides circles have avenues of ftone pil¬
lars. Moft, if not all of them, have pillars or al¬
tars within their penetralia or centre. In the article
of magnitude and number of ftones, there is the great-
eft variety, fome circles being only twelve feet dia¬
meter and formed only of twelve ftones, whilft others,
fuch as Stonehenge and Avebury, contained, the firft
140, the fecond 652, and occupied many acres of
ground. All thefe different numbers, meafures and
arrangements had their pretended reference ; either to
the aftronomical divifions of the year, or fome myfteries
of the druidical religion. Mr Borlafe, however, fup-
pofes, that thofe very fmall circles, fometimes formed
of a low bank of earth, fometimes of ftones ereft, and
frequently of loofe fmall ftones thrown together in a
circular form, inclofing an area of. about three yards
diameter, without any larger circle round them, were
originally places of burial.
Circle, in Logic, or Logical Circle, is when the
fame terms are proved in orbem by the lame terms ; and
the parts of the fyllogifm alternately by each other,
both diredlly and indirectly.
Circles of the Empire, fuch provinces and principali¬
ties of the German empire as have a right to be prefent
at diets. Maximilian I. divided the empire into fix,
and fome years after into ten circles. This laft divi-
fion was confirmed by Charles V. The circles, as
they Hand in the Imperial Matricola, are as follow ;
Auftria, Burgundy, the Lower Rhine, Bavaria, Up¬
per
Circle.
C I R [ 163 ] C I R
CIrcoricel- per Saxony, Franconia, Swabia, Upper Rhine, Weftpha-
liones. lia, and the Lower Saxony.
CIRCONCELLIONES, a fpecies of fanatics, fo
called becaufe they were continually rambling round
the houfes in the country. They took their rife among
the donatifts, in the reign of the emperor Conftantine.
It is incredible what ravages and cruelties thefe vaga¬
bonds committed in Africa through a long feries of
years. They were illiterate favage peafants, who un-
derltood only the Punic language. Intoxicated with
a barbarous zeal, they renounced agriculture, pro-
felfed continence, and affumed the title of “ Vindica¬
tors of juftice, and prote£Iors of the opprefb” To ac-
complifh their miffion, they enfranchiled Haves, fcour-
ed the roads, forced matters to alight from their cha¬
riots, and run before their flaves ■whom they obliged
to mount in their place j and difcharged debtors, kill¬
ing the creditors if they refufed to cancel the bonds.
But the chief objedls of their cruelty were the Catholics,
and efpecially thofe who had renounced donatifm. At
firft they ufed no fwords, becaufe God had forbidden
the ufe of one to Peter 5 but they were armed with
clubs, which they called the chibs of Ifrael, and which
they handled in fuch a manner as to break a man’s
bones without killing him immediately, fo that he lan-
guiihed a long time and then died. When they took
away a man’s life at once, they looked upon it as a fa¬
vour. They became lefs fcrupulous afterwards, and
made ufe of all forts of arms. Their ihout was Praife
be to God. Thefe words in their mouths were the fig-
nal of (laughter, more terrible than the roaring of a
lion. They had invented an unheard-of punilhment;
which was to cover with lime diluted with vinegar
the eyes of thofe unhappy wretches whom they had
crufhed with blows, and covered with wounds, and
to abandon them in that condition. Never was a
ftronger proof what horrors fuperftition can beget in
minds deftitute of knowdedge and humanity. Thefe
brutes, wrho had made a vow of chaftity, gave them-
felves up to wine and all forts of impurities, running
about with wmmen and young girls as drunk as them-
felves, whom they called /acred virgins, and who of¬
ten carried proofs of their incontinence. Their chiefs
took the name of Chiefs of the Saints. After having
glutted themfelves with blood, they turnd their rage
upon themfelves, and fought death with the fame fury
with which they gave it to others. Some fcrambled
up to the tops of rocks, and caft themfelves down
headlong in multitudes ; others burned themfelves, or
threw themfelves into the fea. Thofe who propofed
to acquire the title of martyrs, publifhed it long be¬
fore, upon which they were feafted and fattened
like oxen for the (laughter *, after thefe preparations
they fet out to be dettroyed. Sometimes they gave
money to thofe whom they met, and threatened to
murder them if they did not make them martyrs.
Theodoret gives an account of a (lout young man,
who meeting with a troop of thefe fanatics, confent-
ed to kill them, provided he might bind them firft j
and having by this means put it out of their power
to defend themfelves, whipped them as long as he
W’as able, and then left them tied in that manner.
Their bilhops pretended to balance them, but in reali¬
ty made ufe of them to intimidate fuch as might be
tempted to forfake their fe6l j they even honoured
them as faints. They were not, however, able 16 go¬
vern thofe furious montters, and more than once
found themfelves under a neceflity of abandoning them,
and even of imploring the attiftance of the fecular
power againft them. The counts Urfacius and Tau-
rinus were employed to quell them j they dettroyed
a great number of them, of whom the donatifts made
as many martyrs. Urfacius, who was a good Ca¬
tholic and a religious man, having loft his life in
an engagement with the barbarians, the donatifts
did not fail to triumph in his death, as an effect of
the vengeance of heaven. Africa was the theatre of
thefe bloody fcenes during a great part of Conftan-
tine’s life.
CIRCUIT, in Law, fignifies a longer courfe of
proceedings than is needful to recover the thing fued
for.
Circuit, alfo fignifies the journey or progrefs
which the judges take twice every year, through the
feveral counties of England and Wales, to hold courts
and adminifter juftice, where recoufe cannot be had
to the king’s courts at Weftminfter ; hence England
is divided into fix circuits, viz. the Home circuit; Nor¬
folk circuit $ Midland circuit; Oxford circuit j Weft-
ern circuit, and Northern circuit. In Wales there
are but two circuits, North and South Wales : two
judges are afligned by the king’s commiflion to every
circuit.
In Scotland, the judges of the fupreme criminal
court, or court of jufticiary, are divided into three
feparate courts, confiding of two judges each; and
the kingdom into as many diftriffs. In certain bo¬
roughs of every diftrift, each of thefe courts by rota¬
tion are obliged to hold two courts in the year, in fpring
and autumn *, which are called circuit-courts.
EleRrical Circuit, denotes the courfe of the eleftric
fluid from the charged furface of an ele&ric body, to
the oppofite furface into which the difcharge is made.
Some of the firft eleftricians apprehended, that the
fame particles of the ele&ric fluid, which were thrown
on one fide of the charged glafs, aftually made the
w'hole circuit of the intervening conduftors, and ar¬
rived at the oppofite fide •, whereas Dr Franklin’s
theory only requires, that the redundancy of eledric
matter on the charged furface ftsould pafs into the bo¬
dies forming that part of the circuit tvhich is con¬
tiguous to it, driving forward that part of the fluid
which they naturally poflefs ; and that the deficiency
of the exhaufttd furface fhould be fupplied by the
neighbouring condu&ors, which form the laft part of
the circuit. On this fuppofition, a vibrating motion
is fucceflively communicated through the whole length
of the circuit. This circuit is always formed of the
beft condu&ors, let the length of it be ever fo great.
Many attempts were made, both in France and Eng¬
land, at an early period in the hiftory of eleftricity,
to afcertain the diftance to which the ele&ric (hock
might be carried, and the velocity of its motion. The
French philofophers, at different times, made it to
pafs through a circuit of 900 toifes, and of 2000
toifcs, or about two Englifh miles and a half j and
they difcharged the Leyden phial through a bafon of
water, the furface of which was about an acre. And
M. Mounier found, that, in pafling through an iron
wire of 950 toifes in length, it did not fpend a quar-
X 2 ter
c I R [ I
Circular, ter of a fecond ; and that its motion was inftantaneous
.irctnation.through a wire of 1319 feet. In 1747, Dr Watfon,
and other Engliih philofophers, after many experiments
of a fimilar kind, conveyed the ele&ric matter through
a circuit of four miles •, and they concluded from this
and another trial, that its velocity is inftantaneous.
CIRCULAR, in a general fenfe, any thing that is
defcribed, or moved in a round, as the circumference
of a circle, or furface of a globe.
Circular Numbers, called alfofphericalones, accord¬
ing to fome, are fuch whofe powers terminate in the
roots themfelves. Thus, for inftance, 5 and 6, all whofe
powers do end in 5 and 6, as the fquare of 5 is 25 ;
the fquare of 6 is 36, &c.
Circular bailing, is the method of failing by the arch
of a great circle. See Navigation.
CIRCULA'I ION, the aft of moving round, orin
a circle j thus we fay, the circulation of the blood,
&c.
Circulation of the Blood, the natural motion of
the blood in a living animal, whereby that fluid is
alternately carried from the heart into all parts of
the body, by the arteries, from whence it is brought
back to the heart again by the veins. See Anatomy
Index.
In a foetus, the apparatus for the circulation of the
blood is fomewhat different from that in adults. The
feptum, which feparates the two auricles of the heart,
is pierced through with an aperture, called the fora¬
men ovale; and the trunk of the pulmonary artery, a
little after it has left the heart, fends out a tube into
the defeending aorta, called the communicating canal.
The foetus being born, the foramen ovale clofes by de¬
grees, and the canal of communication dries up, and
becomes a Ample ligament.
As to the velocity of the circulating blood, and the
time wherein the circulation is completed, feveral
computations have been made. By Dr Keil’s account,
the blood is driven out of the heart into the aorta with
a velocity which would carry it twenty-five feet in a
minute ; but this velocity is continually abated in the
progrefs of the blood, in the numerous feftions or
branches of the arteries ; fo that before it arrives at
the extremities of the body, its motion is greatly di-
miniftied. The fpace of time wherein the whole mafs
of blood ordinarily circulates is varioufly determined.
Borne ftate it thus: Suppofing the heart to make two
thoufand pulfes in an hour, and that at every pulfe
there is expelled an ounce of blood; as the whole mafs
of blood is not ordinarily computed to exceed twenty-
four pounds, it muft be circulated feven or eight times
over in the fpace of an hour.
The curious, in microfcopic obfervations, have found
an eafy method of feeing the circulation of the blood
in the bodies of animals : for thefe inquiries it is ne-
ceffary to choofe fuch animals as are fmall, and ealily
manageable, and w'hich are either wholly or in part
tranfparent. The obfervations made by this means
are preferable to any others we can have recourfe to,
fince, in diffeftions, the animal is in a ftate of pain,
pr dying ; whereas in animals fmall enough to be thus
viewed, all is left in its ufual courfe, and we fee what
nature does in her own undifturbed method. In thefe
creatures allb, after viewing, as long as we pleafe, the
natural ftate and current of the blood, we may, by
64 1 c 1 R
preffure, and feveral other ways, impede its courfe ;
and by putting various mixtures into the creature’s
water, induce a morbid ftate, and finally fee the crea¬
ture die, either by means of this or by any other me¬
thod ; and we may thus accurately obferve all the
changes it undergoes, and fee what occafions the trem-
bling pulfe, &c. of dying people.
The current of the blood in fmall animals, that is,
its pafling on through the veffels, either to or from
the heart, is very eafily feen by the microfcope ; but
its circulation, that is, its running to the extremities
of the parts, and thence returning is more difficult;
becaule the veffels where this Ihould be feen are fo ex¬
tremely minute, as not eafily to come under obferva-
tion. _ The larger arteries are eafily diftinguilhed from
the. veins by the motion of the blood through them,
which in the veins is always fmooth and regular;
but in the arteries by feveral propulfions after the
manner of pulfation. But this difference is not to be
found in the more minute veffels, in all which, as well
aitenes as veins, the motion of the blood is even and.
regular.
The tranfparent membrane, or web between the
toes of a frog’s, hinder foot, is a very proper objeft:
to obferve the circulation of the blood in. The tails
or fins of fifties are alfo very fine objefts; and wdien
the fifti is very fmall, thefe are manageable, and af¬
ford a view of a great number of veins and arteries,
with a very quick and beautiful fucceflion of blood
through them. The tail of a flounder may be very
CQnveniently placed before the double microfcope on
a plate of glafs ; and its body being fupported by
fomething of equal height, the fifti will lie ftill, and
the circulation may be feen very agreeably. In the
minuteft vefiels thus examined, the blood always ap¬
pears pale or colourlefs, but in the large ones it is
manifeftly red. The arteries ufually branch out ex¬
tremely before they join the veins to carry the blood
back to the heart; but this is not always the cafe ;
for Mr Leuwenhoek has obferved, that on each fide
of the little griftles which give a ftiffnefs to the tail
of a flounder, there may been feen a very open
communication of the veins and arteries; the blood
running towards the extremities through arteries, and
returning back again through veins, which were evi¬
dently a continuation of thofe arteries, and of the
fame diameter with them. The whole fifti on the tail
of which this examination was made, was not more
than half an inch in length ; it is eafy to conceive,
therefore, how fmall the tail muft be; and yet in it
there were 68 veffels which carried and returned the
blood; and yet thefe veffels were far from being
the moft minute of all. How inconceivably nume¬
rous then muft the circulations in the whole human
body be ? Mr Leuwenhoek is of opinion, that a
thoufand different circulations are continually carried
on in every part of a man’s body in the breadth of a
finger nail.
The tail of a newt or water-lizard affords alfo a ve-
ry entertaining profpeft of the circulation of the blood
through almoft numberlefs fmall veffels ; but no ob¬
jeft (hows it fo agreeably as one of thefe animals
while fo young as not to be above an inch long ; for
then the whole body is fo very tranfparent, that the
circulation may be feen in every part of it, as well as
Circulation,
C I R [ 165 ] C I R
Circulation In tlie tail $ and, in thefe objects, nothing is more
I! . beautiful than the courfe of the blood into the toes
^irfion1C1" an^ aga’n> where it may be traced all the way
» wdth great eafe. Near the head there are alfo found
three fmall fins which afford a very delightful pro-
fpe£t : thefe are all divided like the leaves of polypo¬
dy ; and in every one of the branches of thefe, the
blood may be very accurately traced, running to the
end through the artery, and there returning back
again by a vein of the fame fize, and laid in the fame
direction ; and as the veffels are very numerous and
large in this part, and the third or fourth magnifier
may be ufed, there are fometimes feen 30 or 40 chan¬
nels of running blood at once j' and this the more as
the globules of blood in the newrt are large, and
fewer in number, in proportion to the quantity of fe-
rum, than in any other animal: and their figure, as they
are protruded through the veffels, changes in a very fur-
prifing manner. The impetus occafioning the circula¬
tion is great enough in fome animals to raife the blood
fix, feven, or eight feet high from the blood-veffel it
fprings out at, which, however, is far exceeded by
that of the fap of a vine in bleeding time, which wfill
fometimes rife 40 feet high.
Circulation of the fap of Plants. See Plants
and Sap.
Circulation of the Spirits, or Nervous Fluid. See
Anatomy Index.
Circulaton, in Chetni/lry, is an operation where¬
by the fame vapour, raifed by fire, falls back, to be
returned and diftilled feveral times.
Circulation of Money. See Commerce and Mo¬
ney.
Subterranean Circulation. See Springs.
CIRCULUS, in Chemiflry, an iron inftrument in
form of a ring, which being heated red hot, and ap¬
plied to the necks of retorts and other glafs veffels till
they grow hot, a few drops of cold water thrown upon
them, or a cold blaft, will make the necks fly regular¬
ly and evenly off.
Another method of doing this is, to tie a thread,
firfl; dipt in oil of turpentine, round the place where
you would have it break ; and then fetting fire to the
thread, and afterwards fprinkling the place with cold
water, the glafs will crack exaddly where the thread
was tied.
CIRCUMAMBIENT, an appellation given to a
thing that furrounds another on all fides $ chiefly ufed
in fpeakingof the air.
CIRCQMCELLIONES. See CtacoNCELLio-
NES.
CIRCUMCISION, the adl of cutting off the pre¬
puce ; a ceremony in the Jewilh and Mahometan reli¬
gions, wherein they cut off the forefkin of their males,
who are to profefs the one or the other law.
Circumci/ion commenced in the time of Abraham 5
and was the feal of a covenant ftipulated between
God and him. It was in the year of the world
2178 that Abraham, by divine appointment, cir-
cumcifed himfelf and all the males of his family;
from which time it became an hereditary pradlice
among his defcendants.
The ceremony, however, was not confined to the
Jews. Herodotus and Philo Judaeus obferve, that it
obtained alfo among the Egyptians and Ethiopians.
Herodotus fays, that the cuftom was very ancient Circumci*
among each people ; fo that there was no determining 1'10n' ,
which of them borrowed it from the other. The lame
hiflorian relates, that the inhabitants of Colchis alfo
ufed circumcifion 5 whence he concludes, that they
were originally Egyptians. He adds, that the Phoeni¬
cians and Syrians were likewife circumcifed } that they
borrowed the practice from the Egyptians. And laft-
ly, that a little before the time when he wrote, circum¬
cifion had palled from Colchis, to the people inhabiting
near Thermodon and Parthenius.
Marlham is of opinion, that the Hebrew's borrowed
circumcifion from the Egyptians \ and that God was-
not the firfl: author thereof, citing Diodorus Siculus
and Herodotus as evidences on his fide. This latter
propofition feems direftly contrary to the teftimony
of Mofes, who affures us, (Gen. xvii.) that Abraham,
though 99 years of age, was not circumcifed till he
had the exprefs command of God for it. But as to
the former pofition of Marlham, it will admit of more
debate. The arguments on both fides may be feen iii
one view in Spencer de Legibus Hebrtorum, l. 2. c. 4.
Be this as it will, it is certain the praftice of cir¬
cumcifion among the Hebrervs differed very confider-
ably from that of the Egyptians. Among the firft it
was a ceremony of religion, and was performed on the
eighth day after the birth of the child. Among the
latter, a point of mere decency and cleanlinefs $ and,
as fome will have it, of phyfical neceffity •, and was not
performed till the 13th year, and then on girls as well
as boys.
Among the-Jew's, the time for performing this rite
Was the eighth day, that is, fix full days, after the
child was born. The law of Mofes ordained nothing
with refpedf to the perfon by whom, the inflrument
with w'hich, or the manner how, the ceremony w’as to
be performed j the inftrument was generally a knife of
ftone. The child is ufually circumcifed at home,
where the father or godfather holds him in his arms,
while the operator takes hold of the prepuce with one
hand, and with the other cuts it off j a third perfon.
holds a porringer, with fand in it, to catch the blood 5
then the operator applies his mouth to the part, and,
having fucked the blood, fpits it into a bowl of wine,
and throw’s a ftyptic powder upon the wound. This
ceremony wras ufually accompanied with great rejoi¬
cings and feafting ; and it was at this time that the
child w'as named in prefence of the company. The
Jews invented feveral fuperftitious cuftoms at this cere¬
mony, fuch as placing three ftools, one for the circum-
cifor, the fecond for the perfon w’ho holds the child,
and the third for Elijah, who, they fay, aflifts invifi-
bly at the ceremony, &c.
The Jews diftinguifhed their profelytes into twa
forts, according as they became circumcifed or not :
thofe who fubmitted to this rite were looked upon
as children of Abraham, and obliged to keep the
laws of Mofes; the uncircumcifed were only bound
to obferve the precepts of Noah, and were called noa-
chidee.
The Turks never circumcife till the feventh or eighth
year, as having no notion of its being neceffary to fal-
vation. The Perfians circumcife their boys at 13, and
their girls from 9 to 15. Thofe of Madagafcar cut
the flefli at three feveral times, and the moft zealous
l of
C I R f 166
Circumci. 0f the relations prefent catches hold of the preputium
^10n and fwallows it.
CircumcHion is praflifed on women by cutting off
the forelkin of the clitoris, which bears a near rel'em-
blance and analogy to the preputium of the male pe¬
nis. We are told that the Egyptian captive-women
were circumcifed ; and alfo the fubje£!s of Prefter
John.
Circumcision is alfo the name of a feaft, celebrat¬
ed on the firlt of January, in commemoration of the
circumcifion of our Saviour.
CIRCUMDUCTION, in Scots Law. When par¬
ties in a fuit are allowed a proof of alledgeances ; af¬
ter the time limited by the judge for taking that proof
is elapfed, either party may apply for circumduftion
of the time of proving j the effect of which is, that no
proof can afterwards be brought, and the caufe mull;
be determined as it flood when circumdudtion wTas ob¬
tained.
CIRCUMFERENCE, in a general fenfe, denotes
the line or lines bounding a plane figure. However,
v it is generally ufed in a more limited fenfe for the
curve line which bounds a circle, and otherwife called
a periphery ; the boundary of a right-lined figure being
expreffed by the term perimeter.
CIRCUMFERENTOR, an inftrument ufed by
furveyors for taking angles.
Plate It confifts of a brafs index and circle, all of a piece.
CXLV. The index is commonly about 14 inches long, and an
inch and a half broad ; the diameter of the circle is
about feven inches. On this circle is made a chart,
whofe meridian line anfwers to the middle of the
breadth of the index, and is divided into 360 degrees.
There is a brafs ring foldered on the circumference of
the circle, on which ferews another ring, with a flat
glafs in it, fo as to form a kind of box for the needle,
fufpended on the pivot in the centre of the circle.
There are alfo two fights to ferew on, and Hide up and
down the index, as alfo a fpangle and forket ferewed
on the back fide of the circle for putting the head of
the ftaff in.
Hid. How to ohferve the Quantity of an Angle by the Cir¬
cumferentor. Let it be required to find the quantity
of the angle EKG ; firft place your inftrument at K,
with the flower-de-luce of the chart towards you; then
direift your fights to E, and obferve what degrees are
cut by the fouth end of the needle, which let be 296 ;
then, turning the inftrument about, dire£t your fights
to G, noting then alfo what degrees are cut by the
fouth end of the needle, which fuppo'e 247. This
done, always fubtraft the leffer from the greater, as
in this example, 247 from 296, the remainder is
49 degrees, which is the true quantity of the angle
EKG.
A circumferentor was made by Mr Jones of Holborn
on an improved conftrudlion. From a very Ample
contrivance, it is rendered fufticient to take angles with
the accuracy of a common theodolite ; and by it angles
of altitude and depreffion may be obferved as readily
Ibid. as horizontal ones. The improvement chiefly confifts
in an arm or index (G), fo applied to the centre of
the comnafs box, and within it, that, at the time of
obferving, by only flipping 3 pin (/>) out, the circle of
degrees alone may move round, and leave the index
C I R
(G) fixed. T1 ns index will remain ftationary, from Circunafiex
its being attached to the focket that ferews on the head ll ,
of the (tails. On the end of this index, next the de-
grees in the box, there is graduated a nonius fcale, by w—^
which the circle of 360 degrees is fubdivided into five
minutes or lefs if defired. To take angles of altitude
or depreffions, the inftrument is turned down on its
ball and focket into a perpendicular pofition, and ad-
jufted to its level by a plumb line (/), that is hung on
a pin at the back of the box, and made to coincide
with a mark made thereon. Then by looking through
the fmall fight holes (j) purpoiely made, the angles
are ftiown on the circle of degrees by the nonius as be¬
fore. The arms (AA) of the inftrument flip off (at
BB), and the whole packs into a cafe but 5^ inches
fquare and 3 deep.
CIRCUMFLEX, in Grammar, an accent, ferving
to note, or diftinguifli, a fyllable of an intermediate
found between acute and grave ; and generally fome-
what long.—The Greeks had three accents, the acute,
the grave, and the circumflex *, formed thus, ', \
In Latin, Englifh, French, &c. the circumflex is
made thus\—The acute raifes the voice, and the
grave falls or lowers it: the circumflex is a kind of
undulation, or wavering of the voice, between the two.
It is feldom ufed among the moderns, unlefs to flrow
the omiflipn of a letter which made the fyllable long
and open ; a thing much more frequent in the French
than among us : thus they write pate for pajle; ttte
for tefe ; fumes for fufmes, &cc. They alfo ufe the
circumflex in the participles *, fome of their authors
writing conneu, peu, others connit, pu, &c. Father
Buffier is at a lofs for the reafon of the circumflex on
this occafion.
The form of the Greek circumflex W’as anciently the
fame with that of ours, viz/ ; being a compofition of
the other two accents a in one.—But thecopiifts, chan¬
ging the form of the chara&ers, and introducing the
running hand, changed alfo the form of the circumflex
accent; and inftead of making a juft angle, rounded it
off, adding a dafh, through too much hafte ; and thus
formed an j, laid horizontally, which produced this fi¬
gure", inftead of this’’.
CIRCUMGYRATION, denotes the whirling mo¬
tion of any body round a centre ; fuch is that of the
planets round the fun.
CIRCUMLOCUTION, an ambages, or tour of
words, ufed either when a proper term is not at hand,
to exprefs a thing naturally and immediately by ; or
when one choofes not to do it, out of refpefl, or for
fome other reafon The word comes from circum-
loquor, “ I fpeak about.”
Circumlocution, in oratory, is the avoiding of
fomething difagrecable or inconvenient to be exprefs-
ed in direiff terms ; by intimating the fenfe thereof in
a kind of paraphrafe, fo conceived as to foften or
break the force thereof.
Thus Cicero, unable to deny that Clodius was flam
by Milo, owns it, with this circumlocution, “ Milo’s
“ Servants being prevented from aflifting their mafter,
“ who was reported to be killed by Clodius; they, in
“ his abfence, and without his privity, or confent, did
what every body would expeft from their own fer-
“ vants on fuch an occafion.”
C
CIRCUMPOLAR
Circumpo¬
lar ftars
I!
Circus.
C I R [I
CIRCUMPOLAR stars, an appellation given to
thofe ftars, which, by reafon of their vicinity to the
pole, move round it without fetting.
CIRCUMPOTATIO, in antiquity, a funeral feaft
provided in honour of the dead. Phis was very fre¬
quent among the ancient Romans, as well as among
the Athenians. Solon at Athens, and tne decemviri
at Rome, endeavoured to reform this cuftom, thinking
it abfurd that mirth and drunkennefs ftiould mingle
with forrow and grief.
CIRCUMSCRIBED, in Geometry, is faid of a fi¬
gure which is drawn round another figure, fo that all
its fides or planes touch the infcribed figure.
CIRCUMSCRIPTION, in Natural Philofophy, the
termination, bounds, or limits, of any natural body.
CIRCUMSTANCE, a particularity, which, though
not effential to any aflion, yet doth fome way affeft
it.
CIRCUMSTANTIAL evidence, in Law, or the
doctrine of prefumption, takes place next to pofitive
proof: circumftances which either neceffarily or ufual-
ly attend fa£ts of a particular nature, that cannot be
demonftratively evinced, are called prefumptions, and
are only to be relied on till the contrary be aflually
proved.
CIRCUMSTANTIBUS, in Law, a term ufed for
fupplying and making up the number of jurors (in cafe
any impanelled appear not, or appearing are challenged
by any party), by adding to them fo many of the per-
fons prefent as will make up the number, in cafe they
are properly qualified.
CIRCUMVALL ATION, or Line of CiRcvurM-
LATION, in the art of war, is a trench bordered with a
parapet, thrown up quite round the befieger’s camp,
by way of fecurity againft any army that may at¬
tempt to relieve the place, as well as to prevent de-
fertion.
CIRCUMVOLUTION, in ArchiteBure, denotes
the torus of the fpiral line of the Ionic order.
CIRCUS, in antiquity, a large building, either
round or oval, ufed for the exhibiting of (hows to the
people. Some derive the word from Circe, to whom
Tertullian attributes the invention. Cafliodorus fays,
Circus comes a circuitu. The Romans, Servius ob-
ferves, at firft had no other circus but that made by
the Tiber on one fide, and a palifade of naked fwords-
on the other. Hence, according to Ifidore, came the
term iudi circenfes, quafi circum enfes. But Scaliger
ridicules that etymology.
The Roman circus was a large oblong edifice, arch¬
ed at one end, encompaiTed with porticoes, and fur-
nifhed with rows of feats, placed afcending over each
other. In the middle was a kind of foot-bank, or emi¬
nence, with obelifks, ftatues, and polls at each end.
This ferved them for the courfes of their and qua-
drigce. There were no lefs than ten circufes at Rome :
the largeft was built by the elder Tarquin, called
Circus Maximus, between the Aventine, and Palatine
mounts. It was fo called, either becaufe of its vaft
circumference, or becaufe the great games w’ere cele¬
brated in it *, or again, becaufe it was conlecrated to
the great gods, viz. to Vertumnus, Neptune, Jupiter,
|uno, Minerva, and the Dii Penates of Rome. Dio-
nylkis Halicarnaffenfis fays that it was three ftadia and
a half in length, and four jugera broad ) and thefe
67 ] C I R
meafures, according to Pliny, allowing to the Roman Circus,
ftadia 625 Roman feet, each of which is 12 inches,
will give for the length, 2187 Roman feet, or fome-
ivhat more than three Englilh furlongs ; and as to the
breadth, allowing for each of the jugera 240 Roman
feet, it will be 960 Roman feet. It was beautified
and enlarged by the Roman emperors, fo as to feat
250,000 fpeftators. The moll magnificent circufes
were thofe of Augullus and Nero. There are ftill
fome remains of the circufes at Rome, at Niimes, and
other places. The Romans were exceflively fond of
the games exhibited in the circus : witnefs that verfe
in Juvenal.
 Atque duas tan turn res anxius opt at,
Panem et cirfenfes  
Lhe Games of the Circus, which fome call Circenjian
Games, were combats celebrated in the circus, in ho¬
nour of Confus the god of councils; and thence alfo
called Confualia. They were alfo called Roman Games,
Ludi Romani, either on account of their antiquity, as
being coeval with the Roman people, or becaufe efta-
bliftied by the Romans j and the games held there, the
great games, /udi magni, becaule celebrated with more
expence and magnificence than others j and becaufe
held in honour of the great god Neptune, who was
their Confus.—Thofe who fay they were inftituted in
honour of the fun, confound the pompa circenjis, or
proceflion of the circus, with the games.
The games of the circus were inllituted by Evan-
der, and re-ellablilhed by Romulus: the pomp, or
proceffion, was only a part of the games, making the
prelude thereof, and confifting of a fimple cavalcade of
chariots. Till the time of the elder Tarquin, they
were held in an illand of the Tiber j and were called
Roman games : after that prince had built the circus,
they took their name therefrom, as being conftantly
held there. There were fix kinds of exercifes in the
circus: the firft was wreftling, and fighting with
fwords, with ftaves, and with pikes 5 the fecond was
racing ; the third, faltatio, leaping ; the fourth, dif-
ci, quoits, arrows, and ceftus j all which were on
foot : the fifth was horfe-courfing the fixth, courfes
of chariots, whether wdth two horfes or with four.
In this laft exercife, the combatants were at firft di¬
vided into tw'o fquadrons or quadrils j then into four j
each bearing the names of the colours they wore ; fac-
tio alba, rujfea, &c. At firft there w'ere only white and
red ; then green and blue were added. Domitian ad¬
ded two more colours, but they did not continue.
It was Oenomaus who firft invented this method of di-
ftinguifhing the quadrils by colours. The green was
for thofe who reprefented the earth j the blue for the
fea, &c.
CIRENCESTER, an ancient town of Gloucefter-
Ihire in England. It was ftrongly fortified wdth walls
and a caftle in the time of the Romans. The ruins
of the walls and ftreet are, or were lately, to be leen
in the adjacent meadow’s, w’here many Roman coins,
chequered pavements, and infcriptions on marble, have
been found. Two of the Roman confular ways crofs
each other at this town. The foffe-way, which comes
from Scotland, paffes through this county and towm
to Totnefs in Devonfhire. The other, called Irmin-
Jlreet, comes from Glouceftcr, and runs along to South¬
ampton.
C I R [ 16S ] CIS
Cirenza amptotl. Not many years ago they dii'covered, by
C- ^ a meadow near the town, an ancient build-
—. ^ ing under ground, 50 feet long, 40 broad, and 4 high,
and fupported by 100 brick pillars, curioufly inlaid
with ftones of various colours, fuppofed to have been
a Roman bath. Cirencelter has now but one church,
in the windows of which are the remains of very va¬
luable painted glafs. The town is governed by two
high conftables, and 14 wards-men, who govern feven
diftindf wards j and it fends two members to parlia¬
ment. It has a free-fehool, a charity-fchool, with fe-
veral alms-houfes ; and is feated on the river Churn,
36 miles north-eaft of Briftol, and 88 well by north of
London. W. Long. o. 2. N. Lat. 51. 42.
CIRENZA, a city of Naples, capital of the BaG-
licate, with an archbilhop’s fee. It was formerly a
conGderable place, but is now of fmall confequence.
It is feated on the river Brandano, at the foot of the
Apennine mountains, in E. Long. 16. 44. N. Lat.
40. 48.
CIRO ferri, an excellent Italian painter and ar-
chiteft, was born at Rome in 1614, and was the dif-
ciple of Peter de Cortona, whofe deGgns he imitat¬
ed with fuch exaftnefs, that it is difficult to diftin-
guilh them. He was efteemed by Pope Alexan¬
der VII. and his three fucceffbrs, and died at Rome
in 1689.
CIRRUS, or Cirrhus, in Botany, a clafper or
tendril ; that Gne fpiral firing or fibre put out from the
footftalks, by which fome plants, as the ivy and vine,
fallen themfelves to walls, pales, or trees, for fupport.
The term is fynonymous to the capreolus, clavicula,
and viticulus of other botanifts } and is ranked by Lin¬
naeus among the fulcra, or parts of plants that ferve
for prote£fion, fupport, and defence.
Tendrils are fometimes placed oppofite to the leaves,
as in the vine } fometimes at the fide of the footfialk
of the leaf, as in the paffion flowery and fometimes, as in
wfinged pea, pifum ochrus, they are emitted from the
leaves themfelves. With refpedt to compofition, they
are either fimple, that is, compofed of one fibre or
chord, as in the vetch ; or compound, that is, con-
fift of two, three, or more, as in the everlafting pea.
Bitter fweet, folanum dulcamara, bignonia, and ivy,
lend forth tendrils which plant themfelves like roots in
the adjacent walls, or the bark of the neighbouring
trees. Clalpers, fays the ingenious Dr Grew, are like
trunk-roots, a mean betwixt a root and a trunk, but a
compound of both, as may be gathered from their cir¬
cumvolutions, in which they mutually afeend and de-
feend. In the mounting of the trunk, continues the
fame author, clafpers ferve for fupport. Thus, in
vines, the branches being very long, fragile, and {len¬
der, would be liable to frequent breaking, uffiefs, by
means of their clafpers, they wTere mutually contained
together; fo that the whole care is divided betwixt the
gardener and nature : the former, with his ligaments
of leather, fecures the main branches ; and nature, with
thofe of her own providing, fecures the lefs. Their
aptitude to this end is feen in their convolutions, a
motion not proper to any other part •, and alfo in their
toughnefs, which is fo much the more remarkable, as
they are flenderer than the branches from which they
proceed. In the trailing of the trunk, tendrils ferve
for ftabilement and {hade : thus, in cucumbers, the Cirri'
trunk and branches being long and fragile, would be II
driven to and fro by the winds, to the great preju-
dice both of themfelves and their tender fruits, were ■
they not, by thefe ligaments, held faft together, and
preferved in aflbeiation and good fellowffiip. The lame
clafpers ferve likewife for fliade, fo that a natural ar¬
bour is formed by the branches of the cucumber, in the
fame manner as an artificial one is made by tangling
together the twigs of trees, for the branches, by the
linking of their clafpers, being couched together, the
tender fruits lie under the umbrage of a bow'er made
of their own leaves. Moft of the pea-blocm flowers
have twining clafpers, that is, which wind to the right
and back again.
CIRRI, in Ichthyology, certain oblong and foft
appendages, not unlike little worms, hanging from
the under jaws or mouths of fome fillies : thefe cirri,
commonly tranllated beards, afford marks to diflin-
guiffi the different fpecies of the fillies on which they
are found.
CIRTA, in Ancient Geography, the metropolis and
royal refidence, not far from the river Ampfaga, in the
inland parts of Numidia Propria. A colony, furnam-
ed Colonia Sittianorum, very rich, wffien in the hands of
Syphax. The colony wras led by one P. Sittius, un¬
der the aufpices of Csefar, and was furnamed Julia.
Now called Conjlantina, in Algiers. E. Long. 7. cu
N. Lat. 35. 30.
CISALPINE, any thing on this fide the Alps.
The Romans divided Gaul and the country now called
Lombardy, into Cifalpine and Tranfalpine. That which
was Cifalpine wdth regard to the Romans, is Tranfal¬
pine with regard to us.
CISLEU, in Hebrew chronology, the ninth month
of their ecclefiaftical, and third of their civil, year, an-
fwering nearly to our November.
CISPADANA gallia, in Ancient Geography; a
diftrift of Italy, to the louth of the Po, occupied by the
Gauls in the time of the kings of Rome, feparated from
Liguria on the weft, as is thought by the Iria, running
from fouth to north into the Po j bounded on the fouth
by the Apennine, and on the eaft by the Adriatic.
The term is formed analogically, there being much
mention in Cicero, Tacitus, Suetonius, and ancient
inferiptions, made of the Iranfpadani; w hich and Cif-
padani are terms ufed with reipe£t to Rome. Ptolemy
calls the Cifpadana peculiarly Gallia Togata, extending
between the Po and Apennine, to the Sapis and Ru¬
bicon.
CISSA, or Cissum, in Ancient Geography, a town
of the Hither Spain, in Lacetania, on the eaft fide of
the Iberus, (thought to be Guijfona) where the Car¬
thaginians were fiift defeated by Scipio. Another
Ctjfa of Thrace, fituated on the river ALgos Potamus,
w hich Scylax feems to call Crejfa, or Crijfa ; fo that
the reading is doubtful.
CISSAMPELOS. See Botany Index. There are
tw'o fpecies of this genus, the pareixa and caapeba, both
natives of the warmeft parts of America. The root
of the fecond, applied externally, is faid to be an an¬
tidote againft the bites of venomous ferpents. The
plant being infufed in water, quickly fills the liquor
with a mucilaginous fubftance, which is as thick as
ielly»
iilbkl
II
dinefca.
C I T [
jelly •, whence the name of freczing-wyth, by which
this genus of plants has been diftinguiihed by the Bra¬
zilians.
CISSOID, in Geometry, a curve of the fecond or¬
der, firft invented by Diodes, whence it is called the
ciffoid of Diodes. See Fluxions.
CISSUS, the wtLD-GRAPK. See Botany Index.
CISTERCIANS, in Church-hiftory, a religious or¬
der founded in the nth century by St Robert, a Be-
nedi&ine. They became fo powerful, that they go¬
verned almoft all Europe, both in fpirituals and tem¬
porals. Cardinal de Vitri defcribing their obfervan-
ces, fays, they neither wore Ikins nor Hurts, nor ever
ate flefh, except in ficknefs j and obtained from fiih,
eggs, milk, and cheefe : they lay upon ftraw-beds, in
tunics and cowls; they rofe at midnight to prayeis ;
they fpent the day in labour, reading, and prayer,
and in all their exercifes obferved a continual filence.
The habit of the Ciftercian monks is a white robe,
in the nature of a caffock, with a black fcapulary
and hood, and is girt with a wooden girdle. The
nuns wear a white tunic, and a black fcapulary and
girdle.
CISTERN, denotes a fubterraneous refervoir of rain¬
water ; or a veffel ferving as a receptacle for rain or
ether water, for the neceffary ufes of a family. There
are likewife lead-cifterns, jar-cifterns, &c.
Authors mention a cittern at Conftantinople, the
vaults of which are fupported by two rows of pillars,
212 in each row, each pillar being two feet in diameter.
They are planted circularly, and in radii tending to
that of the centre.
Anciently there were citterns all over the country in
Paleftine. There were fome likewife in cities and pri¬
vate houfes. As the cities for the moft part were
built on mountains, and the rains fell regularly in Ju¬
dea at two feafons in the year only, in fpring and au¬
tumn, people were obliged to keep water in citterns in
the country for the ufe of their cattle, and in cities for
the conveniency of the inhabitants. There are ftill
citterns of very large dimenfions to be feen in Paleftine,
fome whereof are 150 paces long, and 54 wide.
There is one to be feen at Ramali of 32 paces in
length, and 28 in breadth. Wells and citterns, fprings
and fountains, are generally confounded in fcripture-
language.
CISTUS, the Rock-aose. See Botany Index.
CITADEL, a place fortified with five or fix ba-
ftions, built on a convenient ground near a city, that
it may command it in cafe of a rebellion.
CITADELLA, the capital town in the ifland of
Minorca, in the Mediterranean, with a new harbour.
This, with the whole ifland, were taken by General
Stanhope and the confederate fleet in 1708, and ceded
to Great Britain by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713;
but it was taken by the French, after a brave defence,
in 1756, and reftored by the peace. In 1782, it was
taken by the Spaniards, and confirmed to them at the
fubfequent peace. It is 27 miles weft oi Port-Mahon.
E. Long. 3. 30. N. Lat. 39. 58.
CITADINESC A, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given
by fome writers to the Florentine marble, which is fup-
pofed to reprefent towns, palaces, ruins, rivers, &c.
Thefe delineations are merely accidental, and are com¬
monly much affifted by the imagination, though the
Vot-. VI. Part L
169 1 C I T
natural lines of a Hone may fometimes luckily enough
reprefent the ruins of fome ancient building, or the
courfe of a river. In England there is a kind of fep-v
taria, or ludus Helmontii, which has fometimes pretty
beautiful, though very irregular, delineations of this
kind. The Florentine marble, as we fee it wrought up
in the ornapnents of cabinets, &c. owes a great deal to
the Ikill o£ the workmen, who always pick out the
proper pieces from the mafs, and difpofe them in the
work fo as to reprefent what they pleale.
CITATION, in ecclefiaftical courts, is tke fame
with fummons in civil courts. See Summons.
Citation, is alfo a quotation of fome law authority,
or paffage of a book.
CITHALRON, in Ancient Geography, a mountain
and foreft of Boeotia, celebrated both in fable and fong.
To the weft it ran obliquely, a little above the Sinus
Criflseus, taking its rife contiguous to the mountains
of Megara and Attica ; then levelled into plains, it
terminates at Thebes, famous for the fate of Pentheus
and Aftteon ; the former torn by the Bacchae, the
latter by his dogs j as alfo for the orgia, or revels of
Bacchus.
CITHARA, in antiquity, a mufical inftrument, thd
precife ftru£lure of which is not knowm ; fome think
it refembled the Greek delta A *, and others the ihape
Citation
Citrinus.
of a half-moon. At firft it had only three firings, but
the number was at different times increafed to 8, to 9,
and laftly to 24. It was ufed in entertainments and pri¬
vate houfes, and played upon with a pleSrum or quill,
like the lyre.
CITHAREXYLON, fiddle-wood. See Bo-
tan y Index.
CITIUM, Cetium, or Cittium, in Ancient Geogra¬
phy, a town of Cyprus, fituated in the fouth of the
ifland, famous for the birth of Zeno, author of the fedt
called Stoics ; diftant two hundred ftadia to the weft of
Salamis (Diodorus Siculus). A colony of Phoenicians,
called Chetim : And hence it is that not only Cy¬
prus, but the other iflands and many maritime places,
are called Chetim by the Hebrews; now called
Chiti.
CITIZEN, a native or inhabitant of a city, vetted
with the freedom and liberties of it.
A citizen of Rome w^as dittinguifhed from a ftran-
ger, becaufe he belonged to no certain commonwealth
fubjedt to the Romans. A citizen is either by birth or
eledlion ; and ions may derive the right from thefr fa¬
thers. To make a good Roman citizen, it was necef¬
fary to be an inhabitant of Rome, to be enrolled in one
of the tribes, and to be capable of dignities. Thofe to
whom wrere granted the rights and privileges of Ro¬
man citizens were only honorary citizens. It was not
lawful to fcourge a citizen of Rome.
CITRINUS, in Natural Hijlory, the name of a pe¬
culiar fpecies of fprig cryftal, which is of a beautiful
yellow7. Many of the common cryftals, when in the
neighbourhood of lead mines, are liable to be acci¬
dentally tinged yellow, by an admixture of the par¬
ticles of that metal •, and all thefe, whether finer or
coarfer, have been too frequently confounded together
under the name citrine; but Dr Hill has afcertained
this to be a peculiar fpecies of cryftal different from
all the others in form as well as in colour •, and diftin-
guilhed by the name of ellipomacrojly/um lucidum fla-.
Y vefcenSy
Citron-
tree
C I T [ 17° ] C I T
vefcetts, pyramide brevi. It is never found colourlefs
like the other cryftals, but has great variety of tinges,
from that of the deeper ochres to a pale lemon-colour.
It is very plentiful in the Weft Indies, and is fome-
times found in Bohemia. Our jewellers have learned
from the French and Italians, who are very fond of it,
to call it citrine ; and often cut ftones for rings out of
it, particularly out of the pyramid, which is always finer
than the column 5 and thefe, after they have palled
through two or three hands, are generally miftaken for
topazes.
CITRON-tree See Citrus, Botany Index.
Citron Water, a well known ftrong water or cordial,
which may be thus made : Take of fine thin lemon-
peel, 18 ounces ; of orange-peel, 9 ounces j perfedl
nuTmegs, 4 ounces j the fineft and bell alcohol 2
gallons and a half. Digeft in balneo mariae for
one night: draw off with a flow fire ; then add as
much water as will juft make the matter milky (which
will be about 7 quarts or 2 gallons) 5 and laftly, add 2
pounds of fine fugar. This compofition may be im¬
proved by frelh elder flowers, hung in a cloth in the
head of the ftill, fprinkled with ambergris in powder,
Or its effence.
CiTRON-Wood, the wood of an American tree, call¬
ed by the natives candle-wood, becaufe, being cut
into fplinters, it burns like a candle. The tree is fre¬
quent in the Leeward iflands, and grows to a confi-
derable fize : the leaves are like thofe of the bay-tree,
but of a finer green •, the flower is fweet, and much
like thofe of the orange ; the fruit fucceeding thefe is
black, and of the fize of a pepper-corn. The trunk
is fo like the yellow faunders in colour, that there was
once an opinion that it was the fame tree, and much
of it was imported into Europe, and fold as fuch ; but
they were foon found to be different 5 the faunders be¬
ing of a fweet feent, and but moderately heavy and
refinous ; but the citron-wood confiderably heavy,
very oily, and of a ftrong fmell. It is of no known
ufe in medicine 5 but is ufed in France and Germany
by the turners, being a fine firm-grained wood, and
taking a fine polifh, and with age becoming of a very
beautiful brown.
CITRUS, the Citron-tree. See Botany Index.
This genus includes the citron, the lemon, the lime,
the orange, of which there are different varieties, the
{haddock, and the forbidden fruit.
CITTERN, a mufical inftrument much refembling
the guittar, for which it has been frequently miftaken.
Anciently it was called the cijlrum, and till lately was
held in great contempt both in France and Britain.
The pradlice on it being very eafy, it was formerly
the amufement and recreation of lewd women and
their vifitors, infomuch, that in many of the old Eng-
lifli dramatic "writers, it is made the fymbol of a wo¬
man that lived by proftitution. It was alfo the com¬
mon amufement of waiting cuftomers in barbers {hops,
-as being the moft eafy of all inftruments to play on,
and therefore it was thought that alrffoft every body
could make ufe of it.
CITY, according to Cowel, is a town corporate
which hath a bifhop and cathedral church ; and is call¬
ed civitas, oppidum, and urbs : civitas, in regard it is
governed by juftice and order of magiftracy j oppi¬
dum, becaufe it contains a great number of inhabi¬
tants ; and urbs, becaufe it is in due fonp furrounded City*
with walls.  
Kingdoms have been faid to contain as many cities
as they have feats of archbiftrops and bifhops j but, ac¬
cording to Blount, city is a word that hath obtained
fince the conqueft ; for, in the time of the baxons,
there urere no cities, but all the great towns were
called burghs, and even London was then called Lon-
donburgh, as the capital of Scotland is called Edinburgh.
And long after the conqueft the word city is ufed pro-
mifeuoufly with the burgh, as in the charter of Leice-
fter, w here it is both called civitas and burgus ; which
{hows that thofe writers wrere miftaken who tell us
every city was, or is, a bifhop’s fee. And though the
w ord city fignifies with us luch a town corporate as hath
ufually a bifhop and a cathedral church, yet it is not
always fo.
As to the ancient ftate of cities and villages, whilft
the feudal policy prevailed, they held of fomc great
lord on whom they depended for proteftion, and were
fubjed! to his arbitrary jurifdidlion. The inhabitants
were deprived of the natural and moft unalienable
rights of humanity. They could not difpofe of the
effedls which their own induftry had acquired, either
by a latter will or by any deed executed during their
life. They had no right to appoint guardians for their
children during their minority. They were not per¬
mitted to marry without purchafing the confent of the
lord on whom they depended, if once they had com¬
menced a law-fuit, they durft not terminate it by an
accommodation, becaufe that would have deprived the
lord, on whofe court they pleaded, of the perquifites
due to him on pafling his fentence. Services of vari- Rolertfoni
ous kinds no lefs difgraceful than oppreflive were ex- Charles Ft
afted from them without mercy or moderation. The
fpirit of induftry was checked in fome cities by abfurd
regulations, and in others by unreafonable exaftions j
nor would the narrow and oppreflive maxims of a mili¬
tary ariftocracy have permitted it ever to rife to any
degree of height or vigour.
The freedom of cities was firft eftablifhed in Italy,
owing principally to the introduction of commerce.
As foon as they began to turn their attention towards
this objeCt, and to conceive fome idea of the advan¬
tages they might derive from it, they became impa¬
tient to {hake off the yoke of their infolent lords, and
to eftabliftr among themfelves firch a free and equal
government as would render property fecure and in¬
duftry flouriflung. The German emperors, efpecially
thofe of the Franconian and Suabian lines, as the feat
of their government was far diftant from Italy, poffeffed
a feeble and imperfeCl jurifdiftion in that country,-
Their perpetual quarrels, either with the popes or their
own turbulent vaffals, diverted their attention from the
interior police of Italy, and gave conftant employment
for their arms. Thefe circumftances induced fome of
the Italian cities, towards the beginning of the nth
century, to affume new privileges ; to unite together
more clofely, and to form themfelves into bodies poli¬
tic, under the government of laws eftablilhed by com¬
mon confent. The rights which many cities acquired
by bold or fortunate ufurpations, others purchafed from
the emperors, who deemed themfelves gainers when
they received large fums for immunities which they
were no longer able to withhold ; and fome cities ob¬
tained
C I T [17
talned tliem gratuitoufly from the facility or generoh-
ty of the princes on whom they depended. The great
increafe of wealth which the crufades brought into
Italy, occafioned a new kind of fermentation and ac¬
tivity in the minds ot the people, and excited fuch a
general paffion for liberty and independence, that, be¬
fore the conclulion of the laft crufade, all the conlider-
able cities in that country had either purchafed or had
extorted large immunities from the emperors.
This innovation was not long known in Italy before
it made its w'ay into France. Louis the Grois, in or¬
der to create fome power that might counterbalance
thofe potent valfals who controlled or gave law to the
crown, fir ft adopted the plan of conferring new privi¬
leges on the towns fituated within his own domain.
Thefe privileges were called charters of community, by
which he enfranchifed the inhabitants, abolifhed. all
marks of fervitude, and formed them into corporations
or bodies politic, to be governed by a council and ma-
giftrates of their own nomination. Fhefe magiftrates
had the right of adminiftering juftice within their own
precin&s *, of levying taxes ; of embodying and train¬
ing to arms the militia of the town, which took the
field when required by the fovereign under the com¬
mand of officers appointed by the community. The
great barons imitated the example of their monarch,
and granted like immunities to the towms within their
territories. They had wafted fuch great firms in their
expeditions to the Holy Land, that they were eager to
lay hold on this new expedient for railing money by the
iale of thofe charters of liberty. Though the conftftu-
tion of communities was as repugnant to their maxims
of policy as it was adverfe t® their power, they difre-
garded remote confequences in order to obtain prefent
relief. In lefs than two centuries, fervitude was abo-
liftied in moftof the cities of France, and they became^
free corporations, inftead of dependent villages without
jurifdi&ion or privileges. Much about the fame period
the great cities of Germany began to acquire like im¬
munities, and laid the foundations of their prefent li¬
berty and independence. The pradlice fpread quickly
over Europe, and was adopted in Spain, England, Scot¬
land, and all the other feudal kingdoms.
The Spanilh hiftorians are almoft entirely filent con¬
cerning the origin and progrefs of communities in that
kingdom ; fo that it is impoffible to fix with any degree
of certainty, the time and iganner of their firft intro-
dudlion there. It appears, however, from Mariana,
that in the year 1350 eighteen cities had obtained a
Feat in the Cortes of Caftile. In Arragon, cities feem
early to have acquired extenfive immunities, together
with a (hare in the legiflatuve. In the year 1118, the
citizens of Saragolfa had not only obtained political li¬
berty, but they were declared to be of equal rank with
the nobles of the fecond clafs •, and many other immu¬
nities, unknown to perfons in their rank of life in other
parts of Europe, were conferred upon them. In Eng¬
land, the eftabliffiment of communities or corporations
was pofterior to the conqueft. The pradlice was bor¬
rowed from France, and the privileges granted by the
crown were perfedlly fimilar to thofe above enumerated.
It is not improbable, that fome of the towns in England
were formed into corporations under the Saxon kings}
and that the charters granted by the kings of the Nor¬
man race were not charters of enfranchifement from %
Civet
I ] CIV
ftate of flavery, but a confirmation of privileges which
they had already enjoyed *. The Englifh cities, how¬
ever, were veiy inconfiderable in the 12th century. A
clear proof of this occurs in the hiftory juft referred
to. Fitz-Stephen, a contemporary author, gives a de- * See Lord
feription of the city of London in the reign of Hen- G
ry II. and the terms in which he fpeaks of its trade, j^enr^ ^
its wealth, and the number of its inhabitants, would Vol. ii.
fuggeft no inadequate idea of its ftate at prefent, when p. 317.
it is the greateft and moft opulent city in Europe,
But all ideas of grandeur and magnificence are merely
comparative. It appears from Peter of Blois, arch¬
deacon of London, who fiouriftied in the fame reign,
and who had good opportunity of being informed, that
this city, of which Fitz-Stephen gives fuch a pompous
account, contained no more than 40,000 inhabitants.
The other cities were fmall in proportion, and in no
condition to extort any extenftye privileges. That
the conftitution of the boroughs of Scotland in many
circumftances refemble that of the towns of France
and England, is manifeft from the Leges Burgorum an¬
nexed to the Regiam Majejlatem.
CIVET, a kind of perfume which bears the name
of the animal it is taken from, and to which it is pecu¬
liar. See Viverra.
Good civet is of a clear, yellowiffi, or brownifh co¬
lour j not fluid nor hard, but about the confiftence of
butter or honey, and uniform throughout; of a very
ftrong fmell, quite offenfive w’hen undiluted, but agree¬
able when only a fmall portion of civet is mixed with
a large one of other fubftances. It unites eafily with
oils both exprefled and diftilled, but not at all with wa¬
ter or alcohol \ nor can it be rendered mifcible
with water by- the mediation of fugar. Fhe yoltc of
an egg feems to difpofe it to unite with water j but in
a very little while the civet feparates from the liquor,
and falls to the bottom, though it does not prove of
fuch a refinous tenacity as when treated with fugar and
alcohol. It communicates, however, fome Ihare of
its fmell both to watery and fpirituous liquors : hence
a fmall portion of it is often added in odoriferous tinc¬
tures, and fufpended in the ftill-head during the diftil-
lation of odoriferous waters and fpirits. It is rarely
if ever employed for medicinal purpofes. The Italians
make it an ingredient in perfumed oils, and thus ob¬
tain the whole of its feent j for oils wholly diffolve the
fubftance of it. It is very rare, however, to meet with
civet unadulterated. The fubftances ufually mixed with
it are lard and butter, which agreeing with it in its
general properties, render all criteria for diftinguilhing
the adulteration impoffible. A great trade ot civet is
carried on at Calicut, Baffora, and other parts of the
Indies, and in Africa, where the animal that produces
the perfume is found. Live civet-cats are to be feen
alfo in France and Holland. The French keep them
only as a rarity ; but the Dutch, who keep a great num¬
ber, draw the civet from them for fale. It is moftly
ufed by confe6tioners and perfumers.
CirET-Cat, the Engliffi name of the animal which
produces the civet. See Viverra, Mammalia In¬
dex.
CIVIC crown, was a crown given by the ancient
Romans to any loldier who had faved the life of a ci¬
tizen in an engagement.
The civic crown reckoned more honourable
Y 2 than
Civulad
_ . II
Civil Law.
* Lih. XVI.
tap,
CIV [
than any other crown, though compofed of no better
materials than oak-boughs. Plutarch, in the life of
C. M. Coriolanus, accounts as follows for ufing on
this occafion the branches of this tree before all others:
becaufe, fays he, the oaken wreath being facred to
Jupiter, the great guardian of their city, they thought
it the moft proper ornament for him who had pre-
ferved the life of a citizen. Pliny *, fpeaking of the
honour and privileges conferred on thofe who had
merited this crown, fays, “ They who had once ob¬
tained it, might wear it alwTays.” When they appeared
at the public fpe&acles, the fenate and people rofe to
do them honour, and they took their feats on thefe
occafions among the fenators. They w-ere not only
perfonally excufed from all troublefome offices, but
procured the fame immunity for their father and grand¬
father by the father’s fide.
CIVIDAD-de-las-Palmas, the capital town of
the ifland of Canary, wdth a biihop’s fee, and a good
harbour. The houfes are well built, two dories high,
and flat-roofed. The cathedral is a very handfome
llru&ure j and the inhabitants are gay and rich. The
air is temperate, and free from extremes of heat and
cold. It is defended by a fmall caflle feated on a hill.
W. Long. 14. 35. N. Lat. 28. o.
CiyiDAD-Real, a town of Spain, in New Caftile, and
capital of La Mancha. The inhabitants are noted for
dreffing leather extremely well for gloves. W. Long.
4. 15. N. Lat. 39. 2.
CiriDAD Roderigo, a ftrong and confiderable town
of Spain, in the kingdom of Leon, with a biffiop’s fee.
It is feated in a fertile country, on the river Aquada,
in W. Long. 6. 52. N. Lat. 40. 38.
CiriDAD-di-Fnuliy a fmall but ancient town of Italy,
in Friuli, and in the territory of Venice *, feated on the
river Natifona. E. Long. 13. 25. N. Lat. 46. 15.
CIVIL, in a general fenfe, fomething that regards
the policy, public good, or peace, of the citizens or
fubjefts of the ftate ; in which fenfe we fay, civil go¬
vernment, civil lawq civil right, civil war, &c.
Civil, in a popular fenfe, is applied to a complai-
fant and humane behaviour in the ordinary intercourfe
of life. See Civility.
Civil, in a legal fenfe, is alfo applied to the ordi¬
nary procedure in an aftion, relating to feme pecuniary
matter or interefl 5 in wffiich fenfe it is oppofed to cri¬
minal.
Civil Death, any thing that cuts off a man from
civil fociety ; as a condemnation to the galleys, perpe¬
tual banifhment, condemnation to death, outlawry, and
excommunication.
Civil Law, is properly the peculiar kw of each ftate,
country, or city } but what wTe ufually mean by the
civil law, is a body of laws compofed out of the beft
Roman and Grecian laws, compiled from the laws of
nature and nations ; and, for the moft part, received
and obferved throughout all the Roman dominions for
above 1 200 years. See Law Index.
It wras firft brought over into England by Theobald
a Norman abbot, who was eledled to the fee of Can¬
terbury in 1138; and he appointed a profeffor, viz.
Roger furnamed Vicarius, in the univerfity of Oxford,
to teach it to the people of this country. Never-
thelefs, it gained ground very flowly. King Ste¬
phen iffued a proclamation, prohibiting the ftudy of
172 ] civ
it. And though the clergy were attached to it, the Civil Law
laity rather wiftied to preferve the old conftitution. . . H
However, the zeal and influence of the clergy pre-Clvl1 Wa^
vailed ; and the civil law required great reputation
from the reign of King Stephen to the reign of King
Edward the III. both inclufive. Many tranferipts of Ju-
ftinian’s inftitute are to be found in the writings of our
ancient authors, particularly of Bra&on and Fleta ;
and Judge Blackftone obferves, that the common law
would have been loft and overrun by the civil, had
it not been for the incident of fixing the court of com¬
mon pleas in one certain fpot, and the forming the
profeffion of the municipal law into an aggregate body.
_ It is allowed, that the civil law contains all the prin¬
ciples of natural equity 5 and that nothing can be bet¬
ter calculated to form good fenfe and found judgments
Hence, though in feveral countries it has no other au¬
thority but that of reafon and juftice, it is everywhere
referred to for authority. It is not received at this
day in any nation without feme alterations j and fome-
times the feudal law is mixed with it, or general and
particular cuftoms ; and often ordinances and ftatutes
cut off a great part of it.
In Turkey, the Bafilics are only ufed. In Italy,
the canon law and cuftoms have excluded a good part
of it. In Venice, cuftom hath almoft an abfolute go¬
vernment. In the Milanefe, the feudal law, and par¬
ticular cuftoms, bear fway. In Naples and Sicily, the
conftitutions and laws of the Lombards are faid to
prevail. In Germany and Holland, the civil law is
efteemed to be the municipal law ; but yet many parts
of it are there grown obfolete ; and others are altered,
either by the canon law or a different ufage. In
Friezeland, it is obferved with more ftridtnefs ; but in
the northern parts of Germany, the jus Saxonicum,
Lubecenfe, or Culmenfe, is preferred before it. In
Denmark and Sweden, it hath fcarce any authority at
all. In France, only a part of it is received, and that
part is in fome places as a cuftomary law; and in thofe
provinces neareft to Italy it is received as a municipal
written law. In criminal caufes, the civil law is more
regarded in France ; but the manner of trial is regula¬
ted by ordinances and edidts. In Spain and Portugal,
the civil law is conne&ed with the jus regium and cu¬
ftom. In Scotland, the ftatutes of the federunt, part
of the regise majeftatis, and their cuftoms, controul the
civil law.
In England, it is ufed in the ecclefiaftical courts, in
the high court of admiralty, in the court of chivalry,
in the two univerfities, and in the courts of equity ;
yet in all thefe it is reftrained and diredled by the com¬
mon law-
Civil Society. See Law Index.
Civil State, in the Britilh polity, one of the gene¬
ral divifions of the Laity, comprehending all orders of
men from the higheft nobleman to the meaneft peafant
that are not included under the Military or Mar!-*,
time ftates ; though it may fometimes include indivi¬
duals of thefe as well as of the Clergy ; fince a noble¬
man, a knight, a gentleman, or a peafant, may become
either a divine, a foldier, or a feaman. The divifion
of this ftate is into Nobility and Commonalty. See
thefe articles.
Civil War, a war between people of the fame ftate-j
or the citizens of the fame city.
Civi&
■Civil Year
II
Civility.
CIV [ i73 ] CIV
Civil Tear, is the legal year, or annual account of
time, which every government appoints to be ufed
within its own dominions 5 and is fo called in contra-
diftinflion to the natural year, which is meafured ex-
a£tly by the revolution of the heavenly bodies.
CIVILIAN, in general, denotes fomething belong¬
ing to the civil law ; but more efpecially the do&ors
and profeffors thereof are called civilians.
CIVILITY, a term ufed in common life as fyno-
nymous with compbtifance or good-breeding.
Civility is juftly inculcated by dida&ic writers as a
duty of no flight conflderation. Without civility, or
good-breeding, a court would be the feat of violence
and defolation. There, all the paflions are in fermen¬
tation, becaufe all purfue what but few can obtain }
there, if enemies did not embrace, they would ftab \
there, fmiles are often put on to conceal tears; there,
mutual fervices are profeffed, while mutual injuries are
intended ; and there, the guile of the ferpent fimulates
the gentlenefs of the dove. To wThat a degree muft
good-breeding adorn the beauty of truth, when it can
thus foften the deformity of falfehood ? On this fubjeifb
we have the following elegant obfervations in Knox’s
Effays, N° 95.
“ However juft the complaints of the mifery of
life, yet great occafions for the difplay of beneficence
and liberality do not often occur. But there is an
hourly neceflity for the little kind offices of mutual ci¬
vility. At the fame time that they give pleafure to
others, they add to our own happinefs and improvement.
Habitual a£ls of kindnefs have a powerful effe£t in
foftening the heart. An intercourfe with polifhed and
humane company tends to improve the difpofition, be¬
caufe it requires a conformity of manners. And it is
certain, that a fenfe of decorum, and of a proper ex¬
ternal behaviour, will reftrain thofe whofe natural tem¬
per would otherwife break out in acrimonious and
petulant converfation. Even the affeclation of philan¬
thropy will in time contribute to realife it. d he plea¬
fure refulting from an a£l of kindnefs naturally excites
a wifh to repeat it 5 and indeed the general efteem
which the charafter of benevolence procures, is fuffi-
cient to induce thofe to wifh for it who aft only from
the mean motives of felf-intereft.
“ As we are placed in a world where natural evil
abounds, we ought to render it fupportable to each
other as far as human endeavours can avail. All that
can add a fweet ingredient to the bitter cup muft be
infufed. Amid the multitude of thorns, every flow’er
that will grow muft be cultivated wfith care. But nei¬
ther pomp nor powrer are of themfelves able to alleviate
the load of life. The heart requires to be foothed by
fympathy. A thoufand little attentions from all around
us are neceftary to render our days agreeable. 1 he
appearance of negleft in any of thofe with whom we
are connefted, chills our bofom with chagrin, or kindles
the fire of refentment. Nothing therefore feems fo
likely to enfure happinefs as our mutual endeavours to
promote it. Our fingle endeavours, originating and
terminating in ourfelves, are ufually unfuccefsful. Pro¬
vidence has taken care to fecure that intercourfe which
is neceffary to the exiftence of fociety, by rendering it
the greateft fweetener of human life.
“ By reciprocal attentions we are enabled to become
beneficent without expence. A fmile, an affable ad- Cmta-di-
drefs, a look of approbation, are often capable of giv- Pe||na
ing a greater pleafure than pecuniary benefits can be- civitaTur-
ftow. The mere participation of the ftudies and amufe- chino.
ments of others, at the fame time that it gratifies our- v—-"V
felves, is often an aft of real humanity ; becaufe others
would not enjoy them without companions. A friendly
vifit in a folitary hour, is often a greater aft of kind¬
nefs than a valuable prefent.
“ It is really matter of furprife, that thofe who are
diftinguifhed by rank and opulence fhould ever be un¬
popular in their neighbourhood. They muft know the
value of popularity ; and furely nothing is more eafily
obtained by a fuperior. Their notice confers honour,
and the afpiring heart of man is always delighted with
diftinftion. A gracious look from them diffufes hap¬
pinefs on the low'er ranks. But it ufually happens,
that an overgrown rich man is not the favourite of a
neighbouring country j and it is unfortunate, that
pride or inadvertence often prevent men from afting
the godlike part of making others happy, even wdien
they might do it without inconvenience to themfelves.”
CIVITA-di-Penna, an ancient town of Italy, in
the kingdom of Naples, and in the Farther Abruzzo,
with a bifhop’s fee. It is fituated near the river Sali-
no, 25 miles north-eaft of Aquila- E. Long. 13. 3.
N. Lat. 42. 25.
CiviTA-CaJlellana, a town of Italy, in St Peter’s
patrimony, feated on a river, which, feven miles from
thence, falls into the Tiber. E. Long. 13. 5. N. Lat.
42* I5*
Ci vita Turchwo, a place in Italy, about tw'o miles
north of the town of Corneto in the patrimony of
St Peter.- It is a hill of an oblong form, the fummit
of which is almoft one continued plain. From the
quantity of medals, intaglios, fragments of infcrip-
tions, &c. that are occafionally found here, this is be¬
lieved to be the very fpot where the ancient and
powerful city of Tarquinii once flood. At prefent it
is only one continued field of corn. On the fouth-
eaft fide of it runs the ridge of a hill which unites it
to Corneto. This ridge is at leaft three or four miles
in length, and almoft entirely covered with artificial
hillocks, called by the inhabitants monti rojji. About
twelve of thefe hillocks have at different times been
opened ; and in every one of them have been found
feveral fubterranean apartments cut out of the folid
rock. Thefe apartments are of various forms and di-
menfions j fome confift of a large outer room, and a
fmall one within ; others of a fmall room, at the firft
entrance, and a large one within j others are fup-
ported by a column of the folid rock left in the centre,
with openings on every part. The entrance to them
all is by a door about five feet high, by two and a
half broad. Some of them have no light but from
the door, while others feem to have had a fmall light
from above, through a hole of a pyramidal form.
Many of thefe apartments have an elevated port that
runs all round the wall, being a part of the rock left
for that purpofe. The moveables found in thefe apart¬
ments confift chiefly of Etrufcan vafes of various forms:
in fome indeed have been found fome plain farcophagi
of ftone, with bones in them. The whole of thefe
apartments are ftuccoed, and ornamented in various
manners j.
C L A [i
€ivita- manners : fome indeed are plain ; but others, particu-
Vecchia iariy three, are richly adorned, having a double row
Clackman- Etxufcan infcriptions running round the upper part
nan. of the walls, and under them a kind of frieze of fi¬
gures in painting; fome have an ornament under the fi¬
gures, which feems to fupply the place of an archi¬
trave. The paintings feem to be in frefco ; and in
general refemble thofe which are ufually feen upon
Etrufcan vafes; though fome of them are perhaps
fuperior to any thing as yet feen of the Etrufcan art
in painting. In general they are flight, but well con¬
ceived ; and prove, that the artift was capable of pro¬
ducing things more ftudied and better finilhed ; though,
in fuch a fubterraneous fituation, the delicacy of a fi¬
nilhed work would in a great meafure have been
thrown away. It is probable, however, that among
the immenfe number of thefe apartments that yet re¬
main to be opened, many paintings and infcriptions
may be found fufficient to form a very ufeful and en¬
tertaining work. At prefent this great fcene of anti¬
quities is almoft entirely unknown, even in Rome. Mr
Jenkins, refident at Rome, was the firft Englilhman
who vifited it.
, CiriTA-Vecchia, a fea-port town of Italy in the pa¬
trimony of St Peter, with a good harbour and an
arfenal. Here the Pope’s galleys are Rationed, and it
has lately been made a free port; but the air is very
unwholefome. E. Long. 12. 31. N. Lat. 45. 5.
CIVOLI, ©r Cigoli, Lewis, an Italian painter,
whofe family name was Cardi, was born at the caftle
of Cigoli, in Tufcany, in the year 1559. Plis ecce ho¬
mo, which he performed as a trial of Ikill with Barochio
and Michael Angelo de Caravaggio, was judged better
than thofe executed by them. He excelled in de-
figning, and was employed by the popes and princes of
his time. He died at Rome in 1613.
Cl US, in Ancient Geography, a town and river of
Bithynia, which gave name to the Sinus Cianus. The
town was afterwards called PruJJia, Cius having been
deftroyed by Philip father of Perfeus, and rebuilt by
Prufias king of Bithynia. In the river, Hylas, the fa¬
vourite boy of Hercules, was drowned ; (Apollonius
Rhodius).
CL AC, among countrymen. To clack wool, is to
cut off the (heep’s mark, which makes the weight lefs,
and yields lefs cuftom to the king.
CLACKMANNAN, the name of a fmall fhire in
Scotland, not exceeding eight miles in length and five
in breadth. It is bounded on the fouth by the frith
of Forth ; on the north and weft by Perthlhire ; and
on the eaft by Fife. The country is plain and fertile
towards the frith, producing corn and pafture in abun¬
dance. It likewife yields great quantities of excellent
coal, which is exported to England, France, and Hol¬
land. It is watered by the rivers Forth and Devan,
and joins the fhire of Kinrofs in fending a member al¬
ternately to parliament.
Population of the different Parifhes in this County at
two Periods.
74 ]
C L A
In 1755. In 179c-—1798.
Alloa,
Clackmannan,
In I75S-
5816
In 1790—179S.
4802
2528
Dollar,
Tillicoultry,
Decreafe,
510
909
8 7 49
Clackman¬
nan
II
Clamp.
254
* Statiji.
Hijt.
Clackmannan, a fmall town of Scotland, and ca¬
pital of the county of that name, is fituated on the
northern ftiore of the Forth, in W. Long. 3. 40.
N. Lat. 56. 15. It Hands on a hill, on the top of which
is the caftle, commanding a noble profpefl. It was
long the feat of the chief of the Bruces, who was here¬
ditary fheriff of the county before the jurifdi&ions were
abolifhed. The large fquare tower is called after the
name of Robert Bruce, whofe great fword and cafque
are ftill preferved here. The hill is prettily wooded ;
and, with the tower, forms a pi&urefque objeft. Clack¬
mannan is ftill the feat of the Bruces of Kennet.
CLAGENFURT, a ftrong towm of Germany, and
capital of Carinthia, fituated in E. Long. 13. 56.
N. Lat. 46. 50.
CLAGET, William, an eminent and learned di¬
vine, born in 1646. Fie was preacher to the fociety
of Gray’s Inn, which employment he exercifed until
he died in 1688, being then alfo one of the king’s
chaplains. Archbiftiop Sharp gives him an excellent
charafter; and Bilhop Burnet has ranked him among
thofe worthy men whofe lives, and labours contributed
to refcue the church from the reproaches which the
follies of others had drawn upon it. Dr Claget pu-
blilhed feveral things ; but his principal work is his
“ Difcourfe concerning the Operations of the Holy
Spiritnor muft it be forgotten that he wTas one of
thofe excellent divines who made a noble Hand againft;
the defigns of James II. to introduce popery. Four
volumes of his fermons were publiftied after his death
by his brother Nicholas Claget, archdeacon of Sud¬
bury, father of Nicholas Claget afterwards biftiop of
Exeter.
CLAIM, in Law, a challenge of intereft in any
thing that is in the poffeflion of another.
CLAIR, obfcure. See CiAKo-Obfcuro.
CLAIRAULT, Alexis, of the French acade¬
my of fciences, was one of the moft illuftrious mathe¬
maticians in Europe. He read to the academy in
1726, when he was not 13 years old, “ A Memoir
upon Four new Geometrical Curves of his own inven¬
tion and fupported the charatler he thus laid a
foundation for by various publications from time to
time. He publiftied, Piemens de Geometric, 1741, in
8vo ; Piemens d'Algebre, 1746, in 8vo ; The'orie de la
Figure de la Ferre, 1743, in 8vo ; Fables de la Lune,
1754, in 8vo. He v/as concerned alfo in the ’Journal
des Scavans, which he furniftied with many excellent ex-
tradls. He died in 1765. He was one of the acade¬
micians who were fent into the north to determine the
figure of the earth.
CLAM, in Zoology, a fhell-fifh. See Venus.
CLAMP, a piece of wood joined to another.
Clamp is likewife the term for a pile of unburnt
bricks
Clamp
II
Clans.
Rohertfon's
IHJlory of
•Scotland,
C L A [ !75 1 C L A
bricks built up for burning. Tbefe clamps are built fo natural to tbe human mind. How formidable were Clap
much after the fame manner as arches are built in kilns, nobles at the head of followers, who, counting t^t don>
viz. with a vacuity betwixt each brick’s breadth for the caufe juft and honourable which their chiet approved,    1
fire* to afcend by •, but with this difference, that in- were ever ready to take the field at his command,
ftead of arching, they trufs over, or over-fpan *, that is, and to facrifice their lives in defence of his perlon or
the end of one brick is laid about half way over the of his fame ! Againft fuch men a king contended with
end of another, and fo till both fides meet within half great difadvantage; and that cold fervice, which money
a brick’s length, and then a binding brick at the top purchafes, or authority extorts, was not an equal match
finifties the arch. for their ardour and zeal.
Clamp in a piifi, denotes a piece of timber applied to Some imagine the word clan to be only a corruption
a mail or yard to prevent the wood from burftingj and of the Roman colorna ; but Mr Whittaker afferts it to
alfo a thick plank lying fore and aft under the beams be purely Britilh, and to figmfy * family.
of the firft orlop, or fecond deck, and is the fame that CLAP, in Medicine, the firft ftage of the venereal
the rifing timbers are to the deck. difeafe, more uiually called a Gonorrhoea. _
Clamp Naih, fuch nails as are ufed to faften on CiAP-Nety m birding, a fort ol net contrived for
clamps in the building or repairing of (hips. the taking of larks with the looking-glafs, by the me-
CLAMPETIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of thod called daring or daring. The nets are fpread
the Brutii, one of thofe which revolted from Hanni- over an even piece of ground, and the larks are invi-
bal, (Livy)-, called Lampetia by Polybius. Now ted to the place by other larks faftened down, and by
Amantia, or Mantia, a town of Calabria Ultra, near a looking glafs compofed of five pieces, and fixed in a
the bay of Euphemia. E. Long. 16. 20. N. Lat. 39. frame fo that it is turned round very iwiftly back-
j- wards and forwards, by means of a cord pulled by a
CLAMPING, in joinery, is the fitting a piece of perfon at a confiderable diftance behind a hedge. See
board with the grain to another piece of board crofs Boring. #
the grain. Thus the ends of tables are commonly CLAR, or Claer, in Metallurgy, bone-alhes per-
clamped, to prevent their warping. fedlly calcined, and finely powdered, kept purpofely
CLANDESTINE, any thing done without the for covering the infides of Cop pels.
knowledge of the parties concerned, or without the pro- CLARAMON I-powder, a kind of earth, called
per folemnities. Thus a marriage is faid to be clande- terra de Baira, from the place where it is. found ; it
ftine, when performed w-ithout the publication of bans, is famous at Venice, for its efficacy in flopping hemor*
the confent of parents, &c, rhagies of all kinds, and in curing malignant fevers
CLANS, in hiftory, and particularly in that of Scot- Precept o/CL ARE constat, in Scots Law, the
land. The nations which overran Europe were ori- warrant of a fuperior for entering and infefting the heir
ginally divided into many fmall tribes j and when they of his former vaffal, without the interpoiition of an in-
came to parcel out the lands which they had conquered, queft.
it was natural for every chieftain to beftow a portion, Nuns of St Clare, were founded at Aflifa in Italy,
in the firft place, upon thofe of his own tribe or fa- about the year 1212. Thefe nuns obferved the rule of
mily. Thefe all held their lands of him ; and as the St Francis, and wore habits of the fame colour with thofe
fafety of each individual depended on the general of the Francifcan friars ^ and hence were called Meno~
union, thefe fmall focieties clung together, and were reffes; and their houfe, without Aldgate, the Minories,
diftinguiihed by fome common appellation, either pa- w-here they were fettled when firft brought over into
tronymical or local, long before the introduftion of England, about the year 1293* I hey had only three
furnames or enfigns armorial. But w'hen thefe be- houfes befides this.-
came common, the defcendants and relations of every Clare, a market-towm of Suffolk, 13 miles fouth
chieftain affumed the fame name and arms with himj of Bury. E. Long. o. 35. N. Lat. 52. 15. It gives
other vaffals were proud to imitate their example ; the title of earl to the duke of Newcaftle.
and by degrees they were communicated to all thofe Clare is alfo the capital of a county of the fame
who held of the fame fuperior* Thus clanfhips were name in the province of Connaught, in Ireland, fitua’*
formed ; and in a generation or two, that confangui- ted about 17 miles north-w-eft of Limerick. W. Long,
nity, which was at firft in a great meafure imaginary,. 9. o. N. Lat. 52.40.
was believed to be real. An artificial union was con- CLARENCiEUX, the fecond king at arms, fo
verted into a natural one : men willingly followed a called from the duke oi Clarence, to whom he firft be-
leader, whom they regarded both as the fupeiior of longed-, for Lionel, 3d Ion to Edward III. having by
their lands and the chief of their blood j and ferved his wife the honour of Clare in the county of Tho-
him not only with the fidelity of vaffals, but the affec- mond, was afterwards declared duke of Clarence $
tion of friends. In the other feudal kingdoms, we which dukedom afterwards efcheating to Edward IV.
may obferve fuch unions as we have defcribed, im- he made this earl a king at arms. His office is to
perfeftly formed ; but in Scotland, whether they were marfhal and difpofe of the funerals of all the lower 110-
the produ&ion of chance, or the effeft of policy, or bility, as baronets, knights, efquires, on the fouth fide
ftrengthened by their preferring their genealogies of the Trent; whence he is fometimes calledyirrrqy or
both genuine and fabulous, clanftiips were univerlal. fouth-roy, in contradiftinflion to norroy.
Such a confederacy might be overcome ; it could not CLARENDON, Confitutions of, certain conftitu-
be broken-, and no change of manner or govern- tions made in the reign of Henry II. A. D. 1164, m
ment has been able, in fome parts of the kingdom, to a parliament held at Clarendon, whereby the king
diffolve affbeiations which are founded upon prejudices checked the power of the pope and his clergy, and
I greatly
C L A [ 176 ] c L A
Clarendon greatly narrowed the total exemption they claimed from
. II . iecular iurifdidlion.
^arig.\<.io.^ Clarendon, Earl of. See Hyde.
CLARENNA, Tabulae, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Vindelicia, at the confluence of the Lycus and
Danube. Now Rain, a town of Bavaria, on the fonth
fide of the Danube, at the confluence of the Lech.
E. Long. 11. o. N. Lat. 48. 45.
CLARENZA, the capital of a duchy of the fame
name in the Morea ; it is a fea-port town, fituated on
the Mediterranean. E. Long. 21. 40 N. Lat. 37.40.
CLARET, a name given by the French to luch of
their red wines as are not of a deep or high colour.
See Wine.
CL ARICHORD, or Manichord, a mufical inftru-
ment in form of a fpinet.
It has 49 or 50 flops, and 70 flrings, which bear
on five bridges j the firft whereof is the higheft, the reft
diminifhing in proportion. Some of the firings are
in unifon, their number being greater than that of the
flops. There are feveral little mortoifes for palling
the jacks, armed with brafs-hooks, which flop and raife
the chords inftead of the feather ufed in virginals and
fpinets ; but what diftinguilhes it moft is, that the
chords are covered with pieces of cloth, which render
the found fweeter, and deaden it fo that it cannot be
heard at any confiderable diftance $ whence it comes to
be particularly in ufe among the nuns, who learn to
play, and are unwilling to diflurb the filence of the dor¬
mitory.
CLARIFICATION, the aft of cleaning or fining
any fluid from all heterogeneous matter or feculencies.
The fubftances ufually employed for clarifying li¬
quors, are whites of eggs, blood, and ifinglafs. I he
two firft are ufed for fuch liquors as are clarified whilft
boiling hot ; the laft for thofe which are clarified
in the cold, fuch as wines, &c. The whites of eggs
are beaten up into a froth, and mixed with the liquor,
upon which they unite with and entangle the impure
matters that float in it ; and prefently growing
hard by the heat, carry them up to the furface in
form of a fcum, no longer diflbluble in the liquid.
Blood operates in the fame manner, and is chiefly ufed
in purifying the brine from which fait is made. Great
quantities of ifinglafs are confumed for fining turbid
wines. For this purpofe fome throw an entire piece,
about a quarter of an ounce, into a wine cafk j by de¬
grees the glue diffblves, and forms a fkin upon the fur-
face, which at length fubfiding, carries down with it
the feculent matter which floated in the wine. Others
previoufly diffolve the ifinglafs ; and having boiled it
down to a flimy confiftence, mix it with the liquor,
roll the cafk ftrongly about, and then fuffer it to ftand
to fettle. Neumann queftions the wholefomenefs of
wines thus purified, and affures us that he himfelf,
after drinking only a few ounces of fack thus clarified,
but not fettled quite fine, was i'eized with ficknefs and
vomiting, followed by fuch a vertigo, that he could not
ftand upright for a minute together. The giddinefs
continued with a naufea and want of appetite for feve¬
ral days.
CLARIGATIO, in Roman antiquity, a ceremony
that always preceded a formal declaration of war. It
was performed in this manner: firft four heralds
Crowned with vervain were fent to demand fatisfaftion
X
for the injuries done the Roman ftate. Thefe heralds Clara
taking the gods to witnefs that their demands were ^ 1^
juft, one of them, with a clear voice, demanded re- ,
ftitution within a limited time, commonly 33 days,
which being expired without reftitution made, then
the pater patratus, or prince of the heralds, pro¬
ceeded to the enemies frontiers, and declared war.
CLARII Apollinis Fanum (Strabo, Pliny), a
temple and grove ot Apollo, fituated between Colophon
and Lebedos, in Ionia : called Claras ( Thucydides,
Ovid). The name alfo of a towm and mountain there
(Nicander)} and of a fountajn (Clemens Alexandrinus) j
the waters of which infpired with prophetic fury. Cla~
rius the epithet of Apollo (Strabo).
CLARION, a kind of trumpet, whofe tube is nar¬
rower and its tone acuter and fhriller than that of the
common trumpet. It is faid that the clarion, now ufed
among the Moors and Portuguefe, who borrowed it
from the Moors, ferved anciently for a treble to feve¬
ral trumpets, which founded tenor and bafs.
CL ARISSES, an order of nuns fo called from their
founder St Clara or St Clare. (See St Clare). She
W’as in the town of Aflifa in Italy *, and having re¬
nounced the world to dedicate herfelf to religion, gave
birth to this order in the year 1212; which compre¬
hends not only thofe nuns that follow the rule of St
Francis, according to the ftrift letter, and without
any mitigation, but thofe likewife who follow the fame
rule foftened and mitigated by feveral popes. It is at
prefent one of the moft flourifhing orders of nuns in
Europe. After Ferdinand Cortez had conquered Mexi¬
co for the king of Spain, Ifabella of Portugal, wife
of the emperor Charles V. fent thither fome nuns of
the order of St Clara, who made feveral fettlements
there. Near their monafteries w^ere founded commu¬
nities of Indian young women, to be inftrufted by the
clarifies in religion, and fuch works as were fuitable to
perfons of their fex. Thefe communities are fo con¬
fiderable that they ufually confift of four or five hun¬
dred.
CLARKE, Dr Samuel, a preacher and writer of
confiderable note in the reign of Charles II. was,
during the interregnum, and at the time of the ejec¬
tion, minifter of St Bennet Fink in London. In No¬
vember 1660, he, in the name of the Prefbyterian mi-
nifters, prefented an addrefs of thanks to the king for
his declaration of liberty of confidence. He was one
of the commiflioners of the Savoy, and behaved on
that occafion with great prudence and moderation. He
fometimes attended the church as a hearer and com¬
municant, and was much efteemed by all that knew
him, for his great probity and induftry. The moft va¬
luable of his numerous works are faid to be his Lives of
the Puritan Divines and other perfons of note, 22 of
which are printed in his Martyrologyj the reft are in
his Lives of fundry eminent Perfons in this latter Age,
folio •, and his Marrow of Ecclefiaftical Hiftory, in folio
and quarto. He died in 1680.
Clarke, Samuel, the fon of the former, was fellow
of Pembroke-hall in Cambridge ; but was ejefted from
his fellowfhip for refufing to take the engagements, as
he was alfo afterwards from his reftory of Grendon in
Buckinghamlhire. He applied himfelf early to the
ftudy of the Scriptures, and his Annotations on the
Biole, printed together with the facred text, is highly
commended
C L A
[ 177 1
C L A
Clarke, commended by Dr Owen, Mr Baxter, and Dr Calamy.
    He died in 1701, aged 75.
Clarke, Dr Samuel, a very celebrated Jinghlh
divine, was the fon of Edward Clarke. Efq. alderman
of Norwich, and one of its reprefentatives in parlia¬
ment for feveral years; and born there October 11.
1675. He was inftrufted in claflical learning at the
free-fchool of that town *, and in 1691 removed thence
to Caius college in Cambridge, where his uncommon
abilities foon began to difplay themfelves. Though
the philofophy of Des Cartes was at that time the
eftablilhed philofophy of the univerfity, yet Clarke
eafily maftered the new fyftem of Newton ; and in or¬
der to his firft degree of arts, performed a public ex-
ercife in the fchools upon a queftion taken from it.
He greatly contributed to the eftablilhment of the
Newtonian philofophy by an excellent tranflation of,
and notes upon, Rohault’s “ Phytics,” which he fi-
nilhed before he was 22 years of age. The fyftem of
natural philofophy then generally taught in the uni ver¬
ity was that written by Rohault, founded altogether
upon Cartelian principles, and very ill tranflated into
Latin. Clarke gave a new tranflation, and added to
it fuch notes as might lead ftudents infenfibly and by
degrees to other and truer notions than could be
found there. “ And this certainly (fays Bilhop Hoad-
ly) was a more prudent method of introducing truth
unknown before, than to attempt to throw afide this
treatife entirely, and write a new one inftead of it.
The fuccefs anfwered exceedingly well to his hopes;
and he may juftly be ftyled a great benefa&or to the
univerfity in this attempt. For by this means the true
philofophy has, without any noife, prevailed ; and to
this day his tranflation of Rohault is, generally fpeak-
ing, the ftanding text for le£lures, and his notes the
firft dire£lion to thofe who are willing to receive the
reality and truth of things in the place of invention
and romance.” Whifton relates, that in 1697, while
he was chaplain to Moore biftiop of Norwich, he met
young Clarke, then wholly unknown to him, at a cof-
feehoufe in that city ; where they entered into a con-
verfation about the Cartefian philofophy, particularly
Rohault’s “ Phyfics,” which Clarke’s tutor, as he tells
us, had put him upon tranflating. “ The refult of
this converfation was (fays Whifton), that I was great¬
ly furprifed that fo young a man as Clarke then was
fhould know fo much of thofe fublime difcoveries,
which were then almoft a fecret to all but to a few
particular mathematicians. Nor did I remember (con¬
tinues he) above one or two at the moft, whom I had
then met with, that feemed to know fo much of that
philofophy as Clarke.” This tranflation of Rohault
was firft printed in 1697, 8vo. There have been four
editions of it, in every one of which improvements
have been made ; efpecially in the laft in 1718, which
has the following title : Jacobi Rohaultt Phyjica. La-
tine vertit, recenfuit, et uberioribus jam Annotationibus,
ex illujlriffimi Ifaaci Newtor/i Philofophia maximum par¬
tem haujiis, amphfxavit et ornavit S. Clarke, S. T. P.
Accedunt etiam in hac quanta editione nova? aliquot tabu¬
la: an incifa, et Annotationes multum funt null a. Dr
John Clarke, late dean of Sarum, and our author’s
brother, tranflated this work into Englifti, and publifli-
ed it in 2 vols 8vo.
Afterwards he turned his thoughts to divinity ; and
Vol. VI. Part I.
in order to fit himfelf for the facred fun&ion, he ftudied
the Old Teftament in the original Hebrew, the New
in the original Greek, and the primitive Chriftian
writers. Having taken holy orders, he became chap¬
lain to Moore bifhop of Norwich, who was ever after
his conftant friend and patron. In 1699 he publifhed
two treatifes : one entitled “ Three praftical Efiays on
Baptifm, Confirmation, and Repentance the other,
“ Some Reflections on that part of a book called
Amyntor, or a Defence of Milton’s Life, which re¬
lates to the Writings of the Primitive Fathers, and the
Canon of the New Teftament.” In 1701 he publifhed
“ A Paraphrafe upon the Gofpel of St Matthew
which was followed in 1702 by the “ Paraphrafes up¬
on the Gofpels of St Mark and St Luke,” and foon
after by a third volume “ upon St John.” They were
afterwards printed together in 2 vols 8vo ; and have
fince undergone feveral editions. He intended to have
gone through the remaining books of the New Tefta¬
ment, but fomething accidentally interrupted the exe¬
cution.
Meanwhile Bifliop Moore gave him the rectory of
Drayton near Norwich, and procured for him a parifti
in that city ; and thefe he fCrved himfelf in that fea-
fon when the bifhop refided at Norwich. In 1704
he was appointed to preach Boyle’s leClure ; and the
fubjeft he chofe was, “ The being and attributes of
God.” He fucceeded fo well in this, and gave fuch
high fatisfaftion, that he was appointed to preach the
fame lefture the next year ; when he chofe for his fub-
jeCt “ The evidences of natural and revealed religion.”
Thefe fermons were firft printed in two diftinCl vo¬
lumes ; the former in 1705, the latter in 1706. They
have fince been printed in one volume, under the ge¬
neral title of “ A Difcouife concerning the Being and
Attributes of God, the Obligations of natural Reli¬
gion, and the Truth and Certainty of the Chriftian
Revelation, in anfwer to Hobbes, Spinoza, the Au¬
thor of the Oi'acles of Reafon, and other Deniers of
natural and revealed Religion.” Clarke having endea¬
voured in the firft part of this work to fliow, that the
being of a God may be demonftrated by arguments
a priori, is unluckily involved in the cenfure which Pope
has pafled upon this method of reafoning in the fol-
fowing lines. They are put into the mouth of one
of his dunces, addreffing himfelf to the goddefs Dul-
nefs:
“ Let others creep by timid fteps and flow,
“ On plain experience lay foundations low,
“ By common fenfe to common knowledge bred,
” And loft to nature’s caufe through nature led.
“ All-feeing in thy mifts, we want no guide,
“ Mother of arrogance, and fource of pride !
“We nobly take the high priori road,
“ And reafon downward, till we doubt of God.”
Dunciad, b. 4. 1. 455.
Upon which we have the following note : “ Thofe who,
from the effefts in this vifible world, deduce the eter¬
nal power and godhead of the Firft Caufe, though they
cannot attain to an adequate idea of the Deity, yet
difcover fo much of him as enables them to fee the
end of their creation and the means of their happi-
nefs: whereas they who take this high priori road,
as Hobbes, Spinoza. Des Cartes, and fome better rea-
Z foners,
Clarke.
C L A
Clarke, foners, for one that goes right, ten lofe themfelves in
or ramble after viiions, which deprive them of
all fight of their end, and miflead them in the choice
of wrong means.” Clarke, it is probable, would not
have denied this; and the poet perhaps would have
fpared his better reafoners, and not have joined them
with fuch company, had he recolle&ed our author’s
apology for ufing the argument a priori. “ The argu¬
ment a pojleriori (fays he) is indeed by far the moft
generally ufeful argument, moft eafy to be undetftood,
and in fome degree fuited to all capacities j and there¬
fore it ought always to be infifted upon : But for as
much as atheiftical writers have fometimes oppofed the
being and attributes of God by fuch metaphyfical rea-
fonings, as can no otherwife be obviated than by ar¬
guing a priori; therefore this manner of arguing alfo
is ufeful and neceflary in its proper place.” To this
may be added the anfvver he made to Mr Whifton up¬
on this occafion, as narrated by the latter in his Hi-
ftorical Memoirs. “ When Clarke brought me his
book, I was in my garden againft St Peter’s college in
Cambridge, where I then lived. Now I perceived
that in thefe fermons he had dealt a great deal in ab-
ftraft and metaphyfical reafoning. I therefore alked
him how he ventured into fuch fubtleties which I ne¬
ver durft meddle with ? and fhowing him a nettle, or
fome contemptible weed in my garden, I told him
that weed contained better arguments for the being and
attributes of God than all his metaphyfics. Clarke
confefied it to be fo ; but alleged for himfelf, that fince
fuch philofophers as Hobbes and Spinoza had made ufe
of thofe kind of fubtleties againft, he thought proper to
Ihow that the like way of reafoning might be made better
ufe of on the fide of, religion ; which reafon or excufe
I allowed to be not inconfiderable.” Undoubtedly,
as the prefent editor of the Biographia Britannica ob-
ferves, the grand, the proper, the decifive proof of
the exiftence, perfections, and providence of the Deity,
muft be drawn from his works. On this proof, as be¬
ing equally fatisfadlory to the profoundeft philofopher
and the meaneft peafant, the caufe of religion will
ever ftand fecure. Neverthelefs, if there be fuch a
thing as an argument a priori, why may not fpecula-
tive men be employed in its examination ? Several able
divines and philofophers have thought, and ftill think,
that this argument for the being and attributes of God
will ftand the teft of the fevereft fcrutiny 5 and there¬
fore they cannot be blamed for endeavouring to fet it
in a convincing light to others. As to the merit, in¬
deed, of the whole work under confideration, including
the evidences of natural and revealed religion, it is un¬
doubtedly of the firft order. Difficulties may be raifed
on particular points, and the ableft and moft candid
inquirers may fometimes fee caufe to hefitate with re¬
gard to the validity of the reafoning •, but ftill, in ge¬
neral, the book reflefts honour on the age as well as
the author that produced it, and will defcend, with
diftinguifhed reputation, to a late pofterity. The de¬
fence, in particular, of the facred original and autho¬
rity of Chriftianity is admirably conduced.
In 1706 he publilhed “ A Letter to Mr Dodwell;”
wherein all the arguments in his epiftolary difcourfe
againft the immortality of the foul are particularly an-
fwered, and the judgment of the fathers, to whom
Mr Dodwell had appealed concerning that matter,
C L A
truly reprefented Bifhop Hoadly obferves, that in Clarke,
this letter he anfw^ered Mr Dodwell in fo excellent a v —
manner, both with regard to the philofophical part,
and to the opinions of fome of the primitive writers,
upon whom thefe doClrines were fixed, that it gave
universal fatisfaftion. But this controverfy did not ftop
here ; for the celebrated Collins, coming in as a fe-
cond to Dodwell, went much farther into the philofo-
phy of the difpute, and indeed feemed to produce , all
that could poffibly be faid againft the immateriality of
the foul, as well as the liberty of human aClions. This
enlarged the feene of the difpute, into which our au¬
thor entered, and wrote with fuch a fpirit of clear-
nefs and demonftration, as at once ftiowed him great¬
ly fuperior to his adverfaries in metaphyfical and phy.
fical knowledge, and made every intelligent reader re¬
joice, that fuch an incident had happened to provoke
and extort from him that plenty of ftrong reafoning
and perfpicuity of expreffion, which w7ere indeed very
much wanted upon this intricate and obfeure fubjeft*
“ And I am perfuaded (continues the biftiop), that
as what he has written in this controverfy comprehends
the little that the ancients had faid well, and adds ftill
more evidence than ever clearly appeared before, and
all in words that have a meaning to them, it will re¬
main the ftandard of good fenfe on that fide of the
queftion, on which he fpent fo many of his thoughts,
as upon one of his favourite points.” darkens letter
to Dodwell was foon followed by four defences of it,
in four feveral letters to the author of “ A letter to
the learned Mr Henry Dodwell, containing fome Re¬
marks on a pretended Demonftration of the Immate¬
riality and natural Immortality of the Soul, in Mr
Clarke’s Anfwer to his late Epiftolary Difcourfe, Sec.”
They were afterwards all printed together; and the
“ Anfwer to Toland’s Amyntor” added to them.
In the midft of all thefe labours, he found time to
{how his regard to mathematical and phy fical ftudies,
and exadt knowledge and (kill in them. And his na¬
tural affedlion and capacity for thefe ftudies were not
a little improved by the friendfhip of Sir Ifaac New¬
ton, at whole requeft he tranflated his “ Optics” in¬
to Latin in 1706. With this verfion Sir Ifaac was fo
highly pleafed, that he prefented him with the fum of
500I. or tool, for each child, Clarke having then five
children.
This year alfo, Biftiop Moore, who had long form¬
ed a defign of fixing him mere conlpicuoufly, procur¬
ed for him the redlory of St Bennet’s, Paul’s Wharf,
in London 5 and foon after carried him to court, and
recommended him to the favour of Queen Anne. She
appointed him one of her chaplains in ordinary j ands
in confideration of his great merit, and at the requeft
of the bilhop, prefented him to the redlory of St'
James’s, Weftminfter, when it became vacant in 1709.
Upon his advancement to this ftation, he took the
degree of D. D. when the public exercife which he
performed for it at Cambridge was prodigioufly admi¬
red. The queftions which he maintained were thefe :
I. “ Nullum fidei Chriftianae dogma, in facris Icriptu-
ris traditum, eft reflae rationi diffentaneum :” that
is, “ No article of the Chriftian faith, delivered in the
Holy Scriptures, is difagreeable to right reafon.” 2.
“ Sine a&ionum humanarum lihertate nulla poteft efle
religio :” that is, “ Without the liberty of human ac¬
tions
[ >78 ]
«
Clarke.
C L A- [179.] C L A
tions there can be no religion.” His tbefis was upon
the fir it of thefe queftions, which being thoroughly
fifted by that moft acute difputant Profellor James,
he made an extempore reply, in a continued difcourfe
for near half an hour, with fo little hefitation, that
many of the auditors declared themfelves aftonilhed ;
and owned, that if they had not been within fight of
him, they fnould have fuppofed him to have read every
word of it from a paper. i^fter this, through the
courfe of the fyllogiftical deputation, he guarded fo
well againft the arts which the profeflbr was a com¬
plete mafter of $ replied fo readily to the greateft dif¬
ficulties fuch an obje&or could propofe ; and prefled
him fo clofe and hard with clear and intelligible an-
fwers, that perhaps there never was fuch a conflift
heard in thofe fchools. The profeflbr, who was a man
of humour as welt as learning, faid to him at the end
of the difputation, “ Profefto, me probe exercuifti
that is, “ On my word, you have worked me fuffi-
ciently j” and the members of the univerfity went
away, admiring, as indeed they well might, that a man
even of Clarke’s abilities, after an abfence of fo many
years, and a long courfe of bufinefs of quite ano¬
ther nature, fhould acquit himfelf in fuch a manner, as
if this fort of academical exercife had been his conftant
employment; and with fuch fluency and purity of ex-
preffion, as if he had been accuftomed to no other lan¬
guage in converfation but Latin. The fame year,
1709, he revifed and corre&ed Whifton’s tranflation
of the Apoftolical Conftitutions” into Englifh.
Whifton tells us, that his own ftudies having been
chiefly upon other things, and having rendered him in¬
capable of being alfo a critic in words and languages,
he defired his great friend and great critic Dr Clarke
to revife that tranflation j which he was fo kind as to
agree to.
In 1712, he publifhed a moft; beautiful and pom¬
pous edition of Caefar’s commentaries, adorned with
elegant fculptures. It is entitled, “ C. Julii Caefaris
quae extant, accuratiflime cum libris editis et mff. opti-
xnis collata, recognita, et correfla ; accefl'erunt annota-
tiones Samuelis Clarke, S. T. P. item indices locorum,
rerumque et verborum, utiliflimae.” It was printed in
1712, folio j and afterwards in 1720, Svo. It was de¬
dicated to the great duke of Marlborough, “ at a time,”
fays BHhop Hoadly, “ when his unequalled victories
and fuccefles had raifed his glory to the higheft pitch
abroad, and leflened his intereft and favour at home.”
In the publication of this book, the do&or took par¬
ticular care of the punfluation. In the annotations,
he fele&ed what appeared the bed and moft judicious
in former editors, with fome correftions and emenda¬
tions of his own interfperfed. Mr Addifon has fpoken
of this folio edition of Ccefar’s commentaries in the fol¬
lowing words : “ The new edition, which is given us
mf Caefar’s commentaries, has already been taken notice
of in foreign gazettes, and is a work that does ho¬
nour to the Englifh prefs. It is no wonder that an
edition fhould be very correft, which has pafled through
the hands of one of the moft accurate, learned, and ju¬
dicious writers this age has produced. The beauty of
the paper, of the charafter, and of the feveral cuts
with which this noble work is illuftrated, makes it the
fineft book that I have ever feen ; and is a true inftance
©f the Englifh genius, which, though it does not come
the firfl into any art, generally carries it to greater
heights than any other country in the world.” This
noble work has rifen in value from that time to the pre-
fent. A copy of this edition in large paper, moft
fplendidly bound in morocco, was fold at the Hon.
Mr Beauclerk’s fale for forty«-four pounds ; and it was
faid to be purchafed by the duke of Grafton. “ To
a prince or a nobleman (fays Dr Harwood), it was a
cheap purchafi" j for it was the moft magnificent book
I ever beheld.” The binding coft Mr Beauclerk five
guineas.
The fame year, 1712, he publifhed his celebrated
book entitled, “■ The Scripture Dodftrine of the Tri¬
nity, &.c.” which is divided into three parts. The
firft is, a colleftion and explication of all the texts in
the “ New Teftament,” relating to the doftrine of the
Trinity : in the fecond, the foregoing doftrine is let
forth at large, and explained in particular and diftinft
propofitions j and in the third, the principal paflages
in the liturgy of the church of England, relating to
the do&rine of the Trinity, are confidered. Bifliop
Hoadly applauds our author’s method of proceeding,
in forming his fentiments upon fo important a point :
“ He knew (fays he), and all men agreed, that it was
a matter of mere revelation. He did not therefore re¬
tire into his clofet, and fet himfelf to invent and forge
a plaufible hypothefis, which might fit eafily upon his
mind. He had not recourfe to abHraft and metaphy-
fical reafonings to cover or patronize any fyftem he
might have embraced before. But, as a Chriftian, he
laid open the New Teftament before him. He fearch-
ed out every text in which mention was made of the
three perfons, or any one of them. He accurately ex¬
amined the meaning of the words ufed about every one
of them y and by the beft rules of grammar and cri¬
tique, and by his fkill in language, he endeavoured to
fix plainly what was declared about every perfon, and
what was not. And what he thought to be the truth,
he publifhed under the title of ‘ The Scripture Doc¬
trine of the Trinity.’ “ I am far (fays the bifhop)
from taking upon me to determine, in fo difficult a
quertion between him and thofe who made replies to
him $ but this I hope I may be allowed to fay, that
every Chriftian divine and layman ought to pay his
thanks to Dr Clarke for the method into which he
brought this difpute j and for that colleftion of texts
of the New Teftament, by which at laft it muft be de¬
cided, on which fide foever the truth may be fuppofed
to lie.” Whifton informs us, that fome time before the
publication of this book, there was a meflage fent to
him from Lord Godolphin, and others of Queen Anne’s
minifters, importing, “ That the affairs of the public
were with difficulty then kept in the hands of thofe
that were for liberty $ that it was therefore an unfea-
fonable time for the publication of a book that would
make a great noife and difturbance ; and that there¬
fore they defired him to forbear till a fitter oppor¬
tunity fhould offer itfelfwhich meffage (fays he)
the dodlor had no regard to, but went on according
to the diflates of his own confcience with the publi¬
cation of his book. The minifters, however, were ve¬
ry right in their conjectures $ for the work made noife
and difturbance enough, and occafioned a great num¬
ber of books and pamphlets, written by himfelf and
others.
Z 2
Books
c L A [ 180 ] C L A
Clarke. Books and pamphlets, however, were not all which
the “ Scripture Doftrine of the Trinity” occafioned :
it made its author obnoxious to the power ecclefiaftical,
and his book to be complained of by the Lower Houfe
of convention. The doftor drew up a preface, and af¬
terwards gave in feveral explanations, which feemed to
fatisfy the Upper Houfe 5 at leaf! the affair was not
brought to any iffue, the members appearing defirous
to prevent diffenfions and divifions.
In 1715 and 1716, he had a difpute wuth the cele¬
brated Leibnitz, relating to the principles of natural
philofophy and religion 5 and a colleflion of the pa¬
pers which paffed between them was publilhed in 1717.
This performance of the Do&or’s is infcribed to her
late majefty Queen Caroline, then princefs of Wales,
who was pleafed to have the controverfy pafs through
her hands. It related chiefly to the important and
difficult fubje&s of liberty and neceffity.
In 1718, Dr Clarke made an alteration in the forms
of doxology in the finging pfalms, which produced no
fmall noife and difturbance, and occafioned fome pam¬
phlets to be written. The alteration was this:
To God, through Chrift, his only Son,
Immortal glory be, &c.
And,
To God, through Chrift, his Son, our Lord,
All glory be therefore, &c.
A confiderable number of thefe felefl pfalms and
hymns having been difperfed by the Society for Pro¬
moting Chriftian Knowledge, before the alteration of
the doxologies was taken notice of, he was charged
with a defign of impofing upon the fociety j whereas,
in truth, the edition of them had been prepared by
him for the ufe of his own pariffi only, before the fo¬
ciety had thoughts of purchafing any of the copies ;
and as the ufual forms of doxology are not eftabliffied
by any legal authority, ecclefiaftical or civil, in this
he had not offended.
About this time he was prefented by the lord Lech-
mere, the chancellor of the duchy of Lancafter, to the
mafterihip of Wigfton’s hofpital in Leicefter. In 1724,
he publiftied 17 fermons preached on feveral occafions,
11 of which were never before printed ; and the year
following, a fermon, preached at the parifli-church of
St James’s, upon the ere&ing a charity-fchool for the
education of women fervants. In 1727, upon the
death of Sir Ifaac Newton, he was offered by the court
the place of mafter of the mint, worth communibus an-
nis 1200 or 1500I. a-year. But to this fecular prefer¬
ment he could not reconcile himfelf, and therefore ab-
folutely refufed it. Whifton feems to wonder, that
Clarke’s eulogifts ffiould lay fo little ftrefs upon this re-
fufal, as to mention it not at all, or at leaft very negli¬
gently ; while “ he takes it,” he fays, “ to be one of
the moft glorious a&ions of his life, and to afford un¬
deniable convi6tion, that he was in earneft in his re¬
ligion.” In 1728, was publiffied, “ A Letter from
Dr Clarke to Mr Benjamin Hoadly, F. R. S. occa¬
fioned by the Controverfy, relating to the Proportion
of Velocity and Force in Bodies in Motion $” and
printed in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, N° 401.
In 1729, he publiffied the 12 firft books of “ Ho¬
mer’s Iliad.” This edition was printed in 410, and
dedicated to the duke of Cumberland. The Latin
verfion is almoft entirely new, and annotations are Clarke
added to the bottom of the pages. Homer, Bifliop V"—
Hoadly tells, was Clarke’s admired author, even to a
degree of fomething like enthufiafm, hardly natural to
his temper 5 and that in this he went a little beyond
the bounds of Horace’s judgment, and was fo unwil¬
ling to allow the favourite poet ever to nod, that he
has taken remarkable pains to find out, and give a
reafon for every paffage, word, and title, that could
create any fufpicion. “ The tranflation, (adds the
Biffiop), with his corredlions, may now be ftyled accu¬
rate, and his notes, as far as they go, are indeed a
treafury of grammatical and critical knowledge. He
was called to his talk by royal command j and he has
performed it in fuch a manner, as to be worthy of the
young prince, for whom it was laboured.” The year
of its publication was the laft of this great man’s life.
Though not robuft, he had always enjoyed a firm ftate
of health, without any indifpofition bad enough to
confine him, except the fmallpox in his youth ; till,
on Sunday May 11. 1729, going out in the morning
to preach before the judges at Serjeant’s-Inn, he was
there feized with a pain in his fide, which made it
impoffible for him to perform the office he was called
to •, and quickly became fo violent, that he was obli¬
ged to be carried home. He went to bed, and thought
himfelf fo much better in the afternoon, that he would
not fuffer himfelf to be bled 5 againft which reme¬
dy, it is remarkable that he had entertained ftrong
prejudices. But the pain returning violently about
two the next morning, made bleeding abfolutely ne-
ceffary j he appeared to be out of danger, and conti¬
nued to think himfelf fo, till the Saturday morning
following j wffien, to the inexpreffible furprife of all
about him, the pain removed from his fide to his
head ; and, after a very ffiort complaint, took away
his fenfes fo, that they never returned any more. He
continued breathing till between feven and eight of the
evening of that day, which was May 17. 17295 and
then died, in his 5-4th year..
Soon after his death were publiffied, from his origi¬
nal manufcripts, by his brother. Dr John Clarke, dean
of Sarum, “ An Expofition of the Church Catechifm,”
and ten volumes of fermons, in 8vo. His “ Expofi-
tion” is made up of thofe leflures he read every
Thurfday morning for fome months in the year, at St
James’s church. In the latter part of his time he re¬
viled them with great care, and left them completely
prepared for the prefs. As to the fermons, few dif-
courfes in the Engliffi language are more judicious,
and fewer ftill are equally inftruftive. The reafoning
and the practical parts are excellent, and the explana¬
tions of Scripture are uncommonly valuable. Though
Dr Clarke had not the turn of mind which qualified
him for moving the paffions, and indeed did not make
it his objedl, his fentiments, neverthelefs, are frequent¬
ly exprefled with fuch a clearnefs of conception and
fuch a force of language, as to produce in well difpo-
fed readers all the effedt of the pathetic. Several vo¬
lumes of fermons have been publiffied fince his time,
which are far fuperior in point of elegance and beauty,
and we have the higheft fenfe of their merit. But ftill
if we were called upon to recommend difcourfes, which
abound with the moft folid inftrudlion, and promife
the moft lading improvement, we fliould never forget
a
Clarke.
C L A [ 181 ] C L A
a Clarke and a Jortin. Three years after the do&or’s
death appeared alfo the Twelve Laft books of the
Iliad, publilhed in 410 by his fon Mr Samuel Clarke,
who informs us, in the preface, that his father had fi-
nidied the annotations to the three firft of thefe books,
and as far as the 359th verfe of the fourth 5 and had
revifed the text and verfion as far as verfe 510 of the
fame book. Dr Clarke married Catharine, the daugh¬
ter of the Reverend Mr Lockwood, reftor of Little
Miflingham in Norfolk •, in whofe good fenfe and un-
blameable behaviour he was happy to his death. By
her he had feven children, two of whom died before
and one a few weeks after him.
Of the charafter of this great divine, the following
(hort delineation appeared fome years fince in the Gen¬
tleman’s Magazine : “ Samuel Clarke, D. D. redlor
of St James’s, Weftminfter: in each feveral part of
ufeful knowledge and critical learning, perhaps with¬
out a fuperior j in all united, certainly without an
equal: in his works, the bed defender of religion j in
his pradlice, the greatefl: ornament to it; in his con-
verfation communicative, and in an uncommon man¬
ner inftru&ive ; in his preaching and waitings, ftrong,
clear, and calm •, in his life, high in the efteem of the
wife, the good, and the great j in his death, lamented
by every friend to learning, truth, and virtue.” In
the fame publication fome not incurious anecdotes
concerning him are printed, colle£led by the Rev. Mr
Jones of Welwyn. We learned from them, that Dr
Clarke was of a very humane and tender difpofition.
When his young children amufed themfelves with tor¬
menting and killing flies upon the windows, he not
only forbade fuch praflices, but calmly reafoned with
them, in fuch a familiar manner, as was calculated to
make a powerful impreflion upon their minds. He
was very ready and condefcending in anfwering appli¬
cations to him wflth refpeft to fcruples j numberlefs
inllances of which occurred in the courfe of his life;
One thing of which Dr Clarke was peculiarly cautious,
was not to lofe the lead minute of his time. He al¬
ways carried fome book about with him, which he
would read whilft riding in a coach, or walking in the
fields, or if he had any leifure moments free from
company or his other ftudies. Nay, he would read
even in company itfelf, where he might take fuch a li¬
berty without offence to good manners. His memory
was remarkably ftrong. He told Mr Pyle of Lyn,
that he never forgot any thing which he had once tho¬
roughly apprehended and underftood. The Doftor,
with his intimate friends, was perfedtly free and eafy ;
but if ftrangers w7ere introduced, he behaved with
much circumfpeflion, converfing only upon common
topics.
When he vinted Dr Sykes, his ufual way was to fit
with him upon a couch, and, reclining upon his bo-
fom, to difcourfe with him, in the moll familiar man¬
ner, upon fuch fubjefts as were agreeable to the tafte
and judgment of both. When Sir John Germaine lay
upon his deathbed, and was in great confufion and
trouble of mind, he fent for Dr Clarke, and requeft-
ed to know of him whether he fhould receive the fa-
crament, and what he fhould do in his fad condition;
The Doftor, who w7as well acquainted with Sir John’s
purfuits and courfe of life, fedately replied, that he
could not advife him to receive the facrament, and
that he did not think it likely to be of any avail to him
with refpeft to his final welfare. Having faid this, he
departed without adminiftering the communion, having
firft recommended the dying man to the mercy of
God.
Dr Clarke was of a cheerful, and even playful dif¬
pofition. An intimate friend of his, the late Rev. Mr
Bott, ufed to relate, that once when he called upon
him, he found him fwimming upon a table. At ano¬
ther time, when the two Dr Clarkes, Mr Bott, and
feveral men of ability and learning were together, and
amufing themfelves with diverting tricks, Dr Samuel
Clarke, looking out of the window, faw a grave
blockhead approaching to the houfe j upon which he
cried out, “ Boys, boys, be wife, here comes a fool.”
This turn of his mind hath fince been confirmed by Dr
Warton, who, in his obfervations on the following line
of Mr Pope,
Clarke.
“ Unthought of frailties cheat us in the wife,”
fays, “ Who could imagine that Locke was fond of
romances; that Newton once ftudied aftrology 5 that
Dr Clarke valued himfelf on his agility, and frequent¬
ly amufed himfelf, in a private room of his houfe, in
leaping over the tables and chairs y and that our au¬
thor himfelf was a great epicure ?” With refpedt to
what is here recorded of Dr Clarke, we can fcarcely
perfuade ourfelves to confider it as a frailty. To be
poffefled of fuch a temper as he was, mufl: have been
no fmall degree of happinefs; as it probably enabled
him to purfue his important and ferious ftudies with
greater vivacity and vigour. To be capable of deriv¬
ing amufement from trivial circumftances, indicates a
heart at eafe, and may generally be regarded as the
concomitant of virtue.
Clarke, William, an Englilh divine, was born at
Haghmon-abbey in Shropftrire, 1696; and after a gram¬
mar-education at Shrewftmry fchool, was fent to St
John’s college Cambridge, of which he was eledled
fellow, Jan. 17. 1716 *, B. A. 1731, M. A. 1735. He
W7as presented by Archbilhop Wake in 1724 to the rec¬
tory of Buxted in Suffex, at the particular recommen¬
dation of Dr Wotton, whofe daughter he married.
In 173S he was made prebendary and refidentiary of
the cathedral church of Chichefter. Some years before
this he had given to the public a fpecimen of his lite¬
rary abilities, in a preface of his father-in-law Dr Wot-
ton’s Leges Wall'ue Ecc/ejiajlica et Crn/es Hoe/i Boni, et
aliorum Wallies Principum ; or Ecclefiaftical and Civil
Laws of Hotvel D Da, and other princes of Wales.
There is reafon likewife to furmife, that an excellent
Difcourfe on the Commerce of the Romans, which
was highly extolled by Dr Taylor in his Elements of
the Ci vil Law, might have been written by our author.
It came either from his hand or from that of his friend
Mr Bowyer, and is reprinted in that gentleman’s Mif-
cellaneous Trails. But Mr Clarke’s chief work was,
The Connexion of the Roman, Saxon, and Englilh
Coins; deducing the Antiquities, Cuftoms, and Man¬
ners of each people to modern times j particularly the
Origin of Feudal Tenures, and of Parliaments; Illu-
ftrated throughout with critical and hiftorical Re¬
marks on various Authors, both facred and profane.
This work was publilhed, in one volume quarto, m
1767 j and its appearance from the prefs was owing ta
1. the
C L A
Clarke, the difcovery made by Martin Folkes, Efq. of the old
——v"-—' Saxon pound. It was dedicated to the duke of New-
caftle, whofe beneficent dilpofition is celebrated for
having conferred obligations upon the author, which
were not the effects of importunity. Mr Clarke’s per¬
formance was perufed in manufcript by Arthur On¬
flow, Efq. fpeaker of the houfe of commons, who ho¬
noured him with fome ufeful hints and obfervations ;
but he was chiefly indebted to Mr Bowyer, who took
upon him all the care of the publication, drew up fe-
veral of the notes, wrote part of the differtation on the
Roman fefterce, and formed an admirable index to the
whole. By this work our author acquired a great
and jull reputation. Indeed, it refle&s honour upon
the country by which it is produced $ for there are
few performances that are more replete with profound
and curious learning. Mr Clarke’s laft promotions were
the chancellorfhip of the church of Chichefter, and the
vicarage of Amport, which were bellowed upon him in
1770. Thefe preferments he did not long live to en¬
joy, departing this life on the 21 ft of October, in the
following year. He had refigned in 1768, the reftory
of Buxted to his fon Edward. In Mr Nichols’s Anec¬
dotes of Bowyer, there are feveral letters and ex-
tradts of letters written to that learned printer by Mr
Clarke, which difplay him to great advantage as a man
of piety, a friend, and a fcholar.
In a Iketch of his charadler in the Biographic Bri-
tannica, furnifhed by Mr Hayley, who was his inti¬
mate acquaintance, he is reprefented as not only a man
of extenfive erudition, but as poffeffed of the pleafing
talent of communicating his various knowledge in fa¬
miliar converfation, without any appearance of pedan¬
try or prefumption. Antiquities were the favourite
fludy of Mr Clarke, as his publications fufficiently
Ihow •, but he was a fecret, and by no means an unfuc-
cefsful, votary of the mufes. He wrote Englilh verfe
with eafe, elegance, and fpirit. Perhaps there are few
better epigrams in our language than the following,
which he compofed on feeing the words Damus ultima
infcribed on the vault belonging to the dukes of Rich¬
mond in the cathedral of Chichefter.
Did he, who thus infcrib’d the wall,
Not read, or not believe, St Paul,
Who fays there is, where’er it (lands,
Another houfe not made with hands ?
Or, may we gather from thefe words,
That houfe is not a houfe of lords ?
Among the happier little pieces of his fportive
poetry, there were fome animated ftanzas, defcribing
the charadler of the twelve Englifh poets, whofe por¬
traits, engraved by Vertue, were the favourite orna¬
ment of his parlour : but he fet fo mod eft and humble
a value on his poetical compofitions, that they were fel-
dom committed to paper, and are therefore very im-
perfe<Slly preferved in the memory of thofe to whom
he fometimes recited them. His tafte and judgment
in poetry appears indeed verv ftriking in many parts
of his learned and elaborate Connexion of Coins. His
illuftration of Neftor’s cup, in particular, may be
efteemed as one of the happieft examples of that light
and beauty which the learning and fpirit of an elegant
antiquarian may throw on a cloudy and miftaken
paffage of an ancient poet. In ftrid attention to all
c L A
the duties of his ftation, in the mod a£live and umvea- riaro-
ried charity, he might be regarded as a model to the obfcur®
minifters ot God. Though his income was never large, cj^s
it was his cuftom to devote a (hilling in every guinea .
that he received to the fervice of the poor. As a ma- T
fter, as a hufband, and a father, his condufl was ami¬
able and endearing ; and to clofe this imperfedl (ketch
of him with his mod ftriking feature, he was a man of
genuine unaffcfted piety.
CLARO-obscuro, or Clair-obscurf, in paint¬
ing, the art of diftributing to advantage the lights and
(hades of a piece, both with refpedl to the ealing
of the eye and the effe£l of the whole piece. See
Painting.
CisKo-Obfcuro, or Chiaro-fcuro, is alfo ufed to figni-
fy a defign confiding only of two colours, mod ufually
black and white, but fometimes black and yellow ; or
it is a defign wafhed only with one colour, the (hadows
being of a du(ky brown, and the lights heightened up
by white.
The word is alfo applied to prints of two colours
taken off at twice ; whereof there are volumes in the
cabinets of thofe who are curious in prints.
CLARUS, or Claros, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Ionia, famous for an oracle of Apollo. It was
built by Manto, daughter of Tirefias, who fled from
Thebes after it had been deftroyed by the Epigoni.
She was fo afflidled with her misfortunes, that a lake
was formed with her tears, where (he firft founded the
oracle. Apollo wTas from thence furnamed Clarius.
Alfo an ifland of the iEgean fea, between Tenedos and
Scios.
CLARY. See Salvia, Botany Index.
CiARY-Water, is compofed of brandy, fugar, clary-
flow'ers, and cinnamon, with a little ambergris diffolved
in it. It helps digeftion, and is cardiac. This water
is rendered either purgative or emetic, by adding refin
of jalap and fcammony, or crocus metallorum. Some
make clary-water of brandy, juice of cherries, draw-
berries, and goofeberries, fugar, cloves, white pepper,
and coriander-feeds; infufed, fugared, and drained.
CLASMIUM, in Natural Hi/lory, the name of a
genus of foflils, of the clafs of the gypfums; the cha-
radlers of w’hich are, that they are of a foft texture,
and of a dull opaque look, being compofed, as all the
other gypfums, of irregularly arranged flat particles.
The wrord is derived from the Greek KXxcpes, a
fragment or fmall particle ; from the flaky fmall parti¬
cles of which thefe bodies are compofed. Of this ge¬
nus there is only one known fpecies : this is of a tole¬
rably regular and even (Irufture ; though very coarfe
and harfh to the touch. It is of a very lively and
beautiful red in colour ; and is found in thick round-
ifh maffes, which, when broken, are to be feen com¬
pofed of irregular arrangements of flat particles; and
emulate a ftriated texture. It w’ill neither give fire
with (leel nor ferment with acids ; but calcines very
freely and eafily, and affords a very valuable plafter
of Paris, as do all the purer gypfums. It is common
in Italy, and is greatly efteemed there ; it is alfo found
in fome parts of England, particularly Derbyfhire, but
there it is not much regarded.
CLASPERS, or Tendrils. See Cirrhus.
CLASS, an appellation given to the mod general
fubdivifions of any thing: thus, animal is fubdivided
into
r .82 i
C L A
[
into the claffes quadrupeds, birds, fillies, &c. which
are again fubdivided into feriefes or orders j and thefe
laft into genera. See Botany.
Class, is alfo ufed in fchools, in a fynonymous fenfe
with form, for a number of boys all learning the fame
thing.
CLASSIC, or Classical, an epithet, chiefly ap¬
plied to authors read in the clalfes at fchools.
This term feems to owe its origin to Tullius Ser-
vius, who, in order to make an eltimate of every per-
fon’s eftate, divided the Roman people into fix bands,
which he called claffes. The eftate of the firft clafs
was not to be under 200I. and thefe by way of emi¬
nence were called clajjici, “ claflicshence authors
of the firft rank came to be called clajjics, all the reft
being faid to be infra claffetn: thus Ariftotle is a claf-
fic author in philofophy j Aquinas in fchool divini¬
ty, &c.
CLASSICUM was the alarm for battle, given by
the Roman generals, and founded by trumpets and
other martial mufic throughout the army.
CLATHRI, in antiquity, bars of wood or iron, ufed
in fecuring doors and windows. There was a goddefs
called Chrthra, that prefided over the clathri.
CLAY ARIA, club-top. See Botany Index.
CLAVARIUM, in antiquity, an allowance the Ro¬
man foldiers had for furnilhing nails to fecure th ir
ftioes with. They raifed frequent mutinies, demand¬
ing largefles of the emperors under this pretence.
CLAVATA vestimenta, in antiquity, habits a-
dorned with purple clavi, which were either broad or
narrow. See Clavus.
CLAUBERG, John, a learned profeflbr of philo¬
fophy and divinity at Diufburg, wTas born at Solingen
in 1622. He travelled into Holland, France, and
England, and in each country obtained the efteem of
the learned. The elector of Brandenburg gave him
public teftimonies of his efteem. He died in 1665.
His works were printed at Amfterdam in 2 vols 410.
The moft celebrated of thefe is his treatife, entitled
Loffca veins et nova, &c.
CLAUDE le Lorrain , or Claude Gelee, a cele¬
brated landfcape painter, and a ftriking example of the
efficacy of induftry to fupply, or at leaft to call forth,
genius. Claude was born in the diocefe of Toul in Lor¬
raine in 1600; and, being dull and heavy at fchool, was
put an apprentice to a paftry-cook : he afterwards ram¬
bled to Rome to feek a livelihood ; but, being very
ill-bred, and unacquainted with the language, nobody
eared to employ him. Chance threw him at laft in
the w^ayof Auguftin Taffi, a painter, who hired him to
grind his colours, and to do all the houfehold drudg¬
ery. His mafter hoping to make him ferviceable to
him in fome of his greateft works, taught him by de¬
grees the rules of perfpe£Hve and the elements ofde-
fign. Claude at firft did not know what to make of
thofe principles of art; but being encouraged, and not
failing in application, he came at length to underftand
them. Then his foul enlarged itfelf apace, and cul¬
tivated the art wuth wonderful eagernefs. He exerted
his utmoft induftry to explore the true principles of
painting by an inceffant examination of nature, that
genuint fource of excellence *, for which purpofe, he
made his ftudies in the open fields j where he very
frequently continued from funrife till the dulk of
83 ] c L . A
the evening compelled him to withdraw himfelf from
his contemplations. It was his cuftom to fketch what¬
ever he thought beautiful or ftriking ; and every cu¬
rious tinge of light, on all kinds of obje&s, he mark¬
ed in his Iketches, with a fimilar colour 5 from which
he perfected his landfcapes with fuch a look of real
nature, and gave them fuch an appearance of truth, a^
proved fuperior to any artift that had ever painted in
that ftyle.
The beauties of his paintings are derived from na¬
ture herfelf, which he examined with uncommon af-
fiduity *, and Sandrart relates, that Claude ufed to ex¬
plain to him, as they walked through the fields, the
ca'ufes of the different appearances of the fame profpe£l
at different hours of the day, from the refleftions or
refractions of light, from dews or vapours in the even¬
ing or morning, with all the precifion of a philofopber.
He worked on his pictures with great care, endeavour¬
ing to bring them to perfection, by touching them fre¬
quently over again ; and if any performance did not an-
fwer his idea, it was cuftomary with him to alter,
to deface, and repaint it feveral times over, till it
correfponded with the image pictured in his mind.
But whatever {truck his imagination, while he obferved
nature abroad, it was fo ftrongly impreffed on his me¬
mory, that on his return to his work, he never failed
to make the happieft ufe of it.
His fkies are warm and full of luftre, and every ob-
jeCt is properly illumined. His diftances are admira¬
ble, and in every part a delightful union and harmony
not only excite our applaufe but our admiration. His
invention is pleafing, his colouring delicate, and his
tints have fuch an agreeable fweetnefs and variety,
as have been but imperfeCtly imitated by the beft fub-
fequent artifts, but were never equalled. He frequent¬
ly gave an uncommon tendernefs to his finifhed trees
by glazing •, and in his large compofitions which he
painted in frefco, he was fo exaCf that the diftinCl fpe-
cies of every tree might readily be diftinguilhed. As to
his figures, when he painted them himfelf, they are very
indifferent •, but he was fo confcious of his deficiency
in this refpeCt, that he ufually engaged other artifts
who were eminent to paint them for him ; of which
number were Courtois and Philippo Laura. His pic¬
tures are now very rare, efpecially fuch as are unda¬
maged ; and thofe are at this time fo valued, that no
price, however great, is thought to be fuperior to their
merit. In order to avoid a repetition of the fame fub-
jeCl, and alfo to deteCl fuch copies of his works as
might be injurious to his fame, by being fold for ori¬
ginals, it was his cuftom to draw (in a paper-book pre¬
pared for this purpofe) the defigns of all thofe piftures
which were tranfmitted to different countries *, and on
the back of the drawings, he wrote the name of the
peifon who had been the purchafer. That book,
which he titled Libro di Verita, is now in the poffeffion
of the duke of Devonihire.
Claude, ffobn, a Proteftant divine, born in the
province of Angenois in 1619. Mefi'. de Port Royal
ufing tjieir utmoft endeavours to convert M. de Tu-
renne to the Catholic faith, prefented him with a piece
calculated to that end, which his lady engaged Mr
Claude to anfwer; and his performance gave rife to
the moft famous controverfy that was ever carried on
in France between the Roman Catholics and Prote-
ftants.
Claude.
C L A
Claudia ftants. On the revocation of the edi£t of Nantz, he re-
J! tired to Holland, where he met with a kind reception,
r a'u^ irKls; ancj was honoured with a confiderable penfion by the
prince of Orange. He died in 1687 ; and left a fon,
Ifaac Claude, whom he lived to fee minifter of the
Walloon church at the Hague, and who publifhed fe-
veral excellent works of his deceafed father.
CLAUDIA, a veftal virgin at Rome, who being
fufpe£ted of unchaftity, is faid to have been cleared
from that imputation in the followdng manner : the
image of Cybele being brought out of Phrygia to
Rome in a barge, and it happening to flick fo faft in
the river Tiber that it could not be moved, flie tying
her girdle, the badge of chaftity, to the barge, drew
it along to the city, which a thoufand men were unable
to do.
Claudia Aqua (Frontinus), water conveyed to Rome
by a canal or aqueduft of eleven miles in length, the
contrivance of Appius Claudius the cenfor, and the
firft ftrudlure of the kind, in the year of Rome 441.
Called alfo Aqua Appla.
Claudia Copia (Infcriptions), a name of Lugdunum,
or Lyons in France, the birth-place of the emperor
Claudius : A Roman colony called Claudia, from its
benefaftor the emperor ; and Copia, from its plenty of
^11 neceffaries, efpecially corn. See Lugdunum.
Claudia, or Clodia Via (Ovid), was that road
which, beginning at the Pons Milvius, joined the Fla-
minia, paffing through Etruria on the fouth fide of the
Lacus Sabatinus, and ftriking off from the Caflia,
and leading to Luca (Antonine): large remains of it
are to be feen above Bracciano (Holftenius).
Claudia Lex, de Comitiis, was ena£led by M. Cl.
Marcellus in the year of Rome 702. It ordained, that
at public eleftions of magittrates no notice fliould be
taken of the votes of fuch as were abfent. Another,
de Ufura, which forbade people to lend money to minors
on condition of payment, after the deceafe of their
parents. Another, de Negotiatione, by Q^Claudius the
tribune, 535. It forbade any fenator or father of a
fenator to have any veffel containing above 300 ampho-
rse, for fear of their engaging themfelves in commercial
fchemes. The fame law' alfo forbade the fame thing to
the feribes and the attendants of the queftors, as it
was naturally fuppofed that people who had any com¬
mercial connexions could not be faithful to their truft
nor promote the intereft of the ftate. Another,
576, to permit the allies to return to their refpeftive
cities, after their names were inrolled. Liv. 41. c.
8. Another, to take away the freedom of the city of
Rome from the colonifts which Ctefar had carried to
Novicomum.
CLAUDIANUS, Claudius, a Latin poet, flou-
liftied in the 4th century, under the emperor Theo-
dofius, and under his fons Arcadius and Honorius. It
is not agreed of what country he was a native •, but
he came to Rome in the year of Chrift 395, when he
was about 30 years old j and there infinuated himfelf
into Stilicho’s favour •, who, being a perfon of great
abilities both for civil and military affairs, though a
Goth by birth, was fo confiderable a perfon under Ho-
jiorius, that he may be faid for many years to have
governed the weftern empire. Stilicho afterwards fell
into difgrace, and was put to death ; and it is more
jthan probable that the poet was involved in the mis-
C L A
fortunes of his patron, and feveitiy perfecuted in his Claudius
perfon and fortunes by Hadrian, an Egyptian by birth, ^ II.
who was captain of the guards to Honorius, and fuc- ‘mus*
ceeded Stilicho. There is reafon, however, to think
that he rofe afterwards to great favour, and obtained
feveral honours both civil and military. The princefs
Serena had a great efteem for Claudian, and recom¬
mended and married him to a lady of great quality
and fortune in Libya. There are a few little poems
on facred fubjefts, which through miftake have been
aferibed by fome critics to Claudian j and fo have made
him be thought a Chriftian. But St Auftin, who was
contemporary with him, exprefsly fays that he wras a
Heathen. The time of Claudian’s death is uncertain,
nor do wTe know any further particulars of his life than
what are to be collected from his works, and which
we have already related above. He is thought to
have more of Virgil in his ftyle than all the other imi¬
tators of him.
Claudius I. Roman emperor, A. D. 41. The be¬
ginning of his reign was Very promifing j but it was
foon difeovered that little better than an idiot filled
the throne, who might eafily be made a tyrant: ac¬
cordingly he became a very cruel one, through the
influence of his emprefs, the infamous Meffalina : after
her death, he married his niece Agrippina, w'ho caufed
him to be poifoned to make room for Nero, A. D. 54.
See {liijlory of) Rome.
Claudius II. Aurelius, furnamed Gothicus, figna-
lized himfelf by his courage and prudence under the
reigns of Valerian and Julian •, and on the death of the
latter was declared emperor in 268. He put to death
Aureolus, the murderer of Gallienus; defeated the
Germans ; and in 269 marched againft the Goths, who
ravaged the empire with an army of 300,000 men,
which he at firft haiaffed, and the next year entirely
defeated j but a contagious difeafe, which had fpread
through that vaft army, was caught by the Romans $
and the emperor himfelf died of it a fliort time after,
aged 56. Pollio fays, that this prince had the modera¬
tion of Auguftus, the virtue of Trajan, and the piety
of Antoninus.
CLAVES insulae, a termufed in the ifle of Man,
where all weighty and ambiguous caufes are referred to
a jury of twelve, who are called claves mfula, the keys
of the ifland.
CLAVICHORD, and Clavicitherium, two mu-
flcal inftruments ufed in the 16th century. They were
of the nature of the fpinet, but of an oblong figure.
The firft is ftill ufed by the nuns in con vent Sj and
that the pra£litioners may not difturb the fifters in tlm
dormitory, the firings are muffled with fmall bits of
fine wroollen cloth.
CLAVICLE. See Anatomy Index.
CLAVICYMBALUM, in antiquity, a mufical in-
ftrument with 30 firings. Modern writers apply the
name to our harpfichords.
CL AVI vestium, were flowers or ftuds of purple,
interwoven wdth or fewed upon the garments of knights
or fenators; only, for diftin&ion, the former ufed them
narrowq the latter broad.
CLAVIS properly fignifies a key j and is fome-
times ufed in Englifh to denote an explanation of fome
obfeure paffages of any book or writing.
CLAVIUS, Christopher, a German Jemit,
bom
[ »84 ]
I
c L A [ 13^ ] C L A
Ciaufe born at Bamberg, excelled in the knowledge of the
lj mathematics, and was one of the chief perfons employ-
ay~ am ed to re&ify the kalendar ; the defence of which he
alfo undertook againft thofe who cenfured it, efpecially
Scaliger. He died at Rome in 1612, aged 75. His
works have been printed in five volumes folio ; the
principal of which is his Commentary on Euclid’s Ele¬
ments.
CLAUSE, in Grammar, denotes a member of a pe¬
riod or fentence.
Clause fignifies alfo an article or particular ftipu-
lation in a contract, a charge or condition in a tefta-
ment, &c.
CLAUSENBURG, a large city of Tranfilvania,
fituated on the river Samos, in E. Long. 23. 20.
N. Lat. 46. 53.
CLAVUS, in antiquity, an ornament upon the
robes of the Roman fenators and knights, which was
more or lefs broad, according to the dignity of the
perfon j hence the diftinclion of tunica angufli-clavia
and lati-clavia.
Clavus, in Medicine and Surgery, is ufed in feve-
ral fignifications: 1. Clavus hyftericus, is a fhooting
pain in the head, between the pericranium and cra¬
nium, which affedls fuch as have the green ficknefs.
2. Clavus oculorum, according to Celfus, is a callous
tubercle on the white of the eye, taking its denomi¬
nation from its figure. 3. Clavus imports indurated
tubercles of the uterus. 4. It alfo imports a chi-
rurgical inftrument of gold, mentioned by Amatus
Lufitanus, defigned to be introduced into an exul-
cerated palate, for the better articulation of the voice.
And, 5. It fignifies a callus, or corn on the foot.
Clapus Annaiis, in antiquity. So rude and igno¬
rant were the Romans towards the rife of their ftate,
that the driving or fixing a nail was the only method
they had of keeping a regifter of time $ for which
reafon it was called clavus annalis. There was an an¬
cient law, ordaining the chief praetor to fix a nail
every year on the Ides of September j it was driven
into the right fide of the temple of Jupiter Opt. Max.
towards Minerva’s temple. This cuftom of keeping
an account of time by means of fixing nails was not
peculiar to the Romans; for the Etrurians ufed like-
wife to drive nails into the temple of their goddefs
Nortia with the fame view.
CLAW, among zoologifts, denotes the (harp-point¬
ed nails with which the feet of certain quadrupeds and
birds are furnilhed.
CLAY, in Natural Hi/lory, a genus of earths, the
charafters of which are thefe : They are firmly cohe¬
rent, weighty, and compaft ; ftiff, vifcid, and du&ile to
a great degree, wdiile moilt; fmooth to the touch j not
eafily breaking between the fingers, nor readily dif-
fufible in water*, and, when mixed, not readily fubfid-
ing from it. See Chemistry and Mineralogy
Clay, a town of Norfolk in England, feated on
an arm of the fea between two rivers, in E. Long,
o. 30. N. Lat. 47. 28.
Cr.AY-Lands, thofe abounding with clay, whether
black, blue, yellow, white, &c. of which the black and
the yellow p.re the beft for corn.
All clay-foils are apt to chill the plants growing on
them in moift feafons, as they retain too much wrater:
in dry feafons, on the contrary, they turn hard and
Yol. VI. Part I.
choke the plants. The natural produce of clay Clayton
foils is goofe-grafs, large dailies, thirties, docks, pop- ^plz|me
pies, &c. Some bear clover and rye-grafs 5 and, ‘ ‘l,Z1^nL"
if wTell manured, produce the beft grain : they hold 1—y——
manure the bell of all lands j and the moft proper for
them are horfe-dung, pigeons-dung, fome kinds of
marie, folding of fheep, malt-duft, allies, chalk, lime,
foot, &c.
CLAYTON, Hr Robert, a prelate of great
learning, of diftinguilhed worth and probity, and a re-
fpedlable member of the Royal and Antiquarian Socie¬
ties at London, was advanced to the bilhopric of Kil-
lala, Jan. 23. 1729 j tranllated to the fee of Corke, Dec.
I9* *735 > to ^at of Clogher, Aug. 26. 1745; and
died much lamented, Feb. 25. 1758. His publications
are, 1. A Letter in the Philofophical Tranfadlions,
n° 461, p. 813. giving an account of a Frenchman 70
years old (at Inilhanan, in his diocefe of Corke), who
faid he gave fuck to a child.—2. The Chronology
of the Hebrew Bible vindicated, &c. 1751, 410.—
3. An impartial Inquiry into the Time of the Co¬
ming of the Meffiah, 1751, 8vo.—4. An Effay on
Spirit, 1751. 8vo—5. A Vindication of the Hiftories
of the Old and New Teftament, in Anfwer to the Ob¬
jections of the late Lord Bolingbroke ) in Twm Letters
to a young Nobleman, 1752, 8vo, reprinted in 1753.
—6. A Defence of the Efiay on Spirit, with Re¬
marks on the feveral pretended Anfwers ; and which
may ferve as an Antidote againft all that lhall ever ap¬
pear againft it, 1753, 8vo._7. A Journal from Grand
Cairo to Mount Sinai, and back again, tranflated
from a Manufcript, written by the Prefetto of E-
gypt, in Company with fome Miflionaries de propa¬
ganda Jide at Grand Cairo: to which are added, Re¬
marks on the Origin of Hieroglyphics, and the My¬
thology of the ancient Heathens, 17^3, 8vo. two
editions 410 and 8vo. It w'as foon after this publica¬
tion that his Lordlliip became (in March 1754) a fel¬
low of the Society of Antiquarians.—8. fome Thoughts
on Self-love, Innate Ideas, Free-will, Tafte, Senti¬
ments, Liberty, and Neceflity, &c. occafioned by read¬
ing Mr Hume’s Works, and the Ihort Treatife written
in French by Lord Bolingbroke on Compaflion, 1754,
8vo.—9. A Vindication of the Hiftories of the Old
and New Teftament, Part II. Adorned with feveral
Explanatory Cuts, 1754, 8vo.—10. Letters between
the bilhop of Clogher and Mr William Penn, con¬
cerning Baptifm, 1755, 8vo.—1 r. A Speech made
in the Houfe of Lords in Ireland, on Monday, Fe¬
bruary, 2. 1756, for omitting the Nicene and Atha-
nafian Creeds out of the Liturgy, &c. 1756, 8vo 
12. A Vindication, Part III. 1758, 8vo. The three
parts of the Effay on Spirit were reprinted by Mr
Bowyer, in one vol, 8vo, 1759*, with fome additional
notes, and an index of texts of Scripture illuftrated or
explained.
CLAYTONIA. See Botany Index.
% CLAZOMEN/E, -arum, (Herodotus, Strabo, Vel¬
leius, Pliny) j CUvzomena, ce, (Mela) ; one of the
twelve ancient cities of Ionia. The country of An¬
axagoras j fituated in the neighbourhood of Colophon.
The city w'as fmall, its port on the N. N. W. fide
of the ifland. Dr Chandler informs us, that traces of
the walls are found by the fea 5 and in a hill are vefti-
ges of a theatre. Three or four trees grow on it 3 and
A a by
C L E [ 186 ] C L E
Gleanthes by one is a cave hewn in the rock, and affording water.
II A vaulted room with a chimney at one end, and a ho-
Cleevers. vej or two raa(je wjth ftones piled, are all the prefent
flruftures ; and thefe are chiefly frequented by filher-
men and by perfons employed to watch and to drive
away birds when the grain ripens. Referring to this
confined fituation of Clazomenae, a famous fophift,
when importuned to adorn his native city by re-
liding in it rather than at Smyrna, replied, "The night¬
ingale refufes to Jing in a cage.
CLEANTHES, a Stoic philofopher, difciple of
Zeno, flourifhed 240 years before Chrift. He main¬
tained himfelf in the day by working in the night:
being queftioned by the magiftrates how he fubfifted,
he brought a w'oman for wfliom he kneaded bread,
and a gardener for whom he drew water j and refufed
a prefent from them. He compofed ieveral works,
of which there are now only a few fragments remain-
ing.
CLEAR, as a naval term, is varioufly applied to
the weather, the fea-coafts, cordage, navigation, &c.
The weather is faid to be clear when it is fair and
open, as oppofed to cloudy or foggy. The fea-coaft is
called clear when the navigation is not interrupted, or
rendered dangerous by rocks, fands, or breakers, &c.
It is expreffed of cordage, cables, &c. when they are
unembarraffed or difentangled, fo as to be ready for
immediate fervice. It is ufually oppofed to foul in all
thefe fenfes.
CLEARCHUS, a tyrant of Heraclea in Pontus,
who was killed by Chion and Leonidas, Plato’s pu¬
pils, during the celebration of the feftivals of Bacchus.
He had enjoyed the fovereign power during 12 years.
A Lacedaemonian fent to quiet the Byzantines. He
was recalled, but refufed to obey, and fled to Cyrus
the younger, who made him captain of 13,000 Greek
foldiers. He obtained a victory over Artaxerxes, who
was fo enraged at the defeat, that when Clearchus fell
into his hands by the treachery of Tilfaphernes, he put
him immediately to death.
CLEATS, in naval affairs, pieces of wood having
one or two projefting ends whereby to faften the
ropes: fome of them are fattened to the flirouds below
for this purpofe, and others nailed to different places
of the fhip’s deck or Tides.
CLECHE, in Heraldry, a kind of crofs, charged
with another crofs of the fame figure, but of the colour
of the field.
CLEDGE, among miners, denotes the upper ftra-
tum of fullers earth.
CLEDONISM, Cledonismus, a kind of divina¬
tion, in ufe among the ancients. The word is formed
from which fignifies two things, rumor, “ a
report,” and avis, “ a bird.” In the firft fenfe, cle-
donifm fliould denote a kind of divination drawn from
words occafionally uttered. Cicero obferves, that the
Pythagoreans made obfervation not only of the words
of the gods, but of thofe of men ; and accordingly be¬
lieved the pronouncing of certain words, e. g. incen-
dium, at a meal, very unhappy. Thus, inttead of pri-
fon, they ufed the word domicilium ; and to avoid erin-
nys, furies, faid eumenides. In the fecond fenfe, cledo-
nifm fliould feem a divination drawn from birds j the
fame with ornithomantia.
CLEEVERS. See Cmyers.
CLEF, or Cliff, in Mufc, derived from the La- Clef,
tin word clavis, “ a key j” becaufe by it is expreffed' » -
the fundamental found in the diatonic fcale, which re¬
quires a determined fucceflion of tones or femitones,
whether major or minor, peculiar to the note from
whence we fet out, and refulting from its pofition in
the fcale. Hence, as it opens a wray to this fuccef-
fion, and difcovers it, the technical term key is ufed
with great propriety. But clefs rather point out
the pofition of different mufical parts in the general
fyftem, and the relations which they bear one to an¬
other.
A clef, fays Rouffeau, is a chara&er in mufic placed
at the beginning of a ftave, to determine the degree of
elevation occupied by that ftave in the general claviary
or fyftem, and to point out the names of all the notes
which it contains in the line of that clef.
Anciently the letters by which the notes of the ga¬
mut were fignified were called clefs. Thus the let¬
ter A was the clef of the note la, C the clef of ut, E
the clef of mi, See. In proportion as the fyftem was
extended, the embarraffment and fuperfluity of this
multitude of clefs were felt.
Gui d’Arezzo, who had invented them, marked a
letter or clef at the beginning of each line in the ftave j
for as yet he had placed no notes in the fpaces. In
procefs of time they marked no more than one of the
feven clefs at the beginning of one of the lines only j
and this was fufficient to fix the pofition of all the
reft, according to their natural order : at laft, of thefe
feven lines or clefs they feledled four, which were call¬
ed claves fignatce, or diferiminating clefs, becaufe they
fatisfied themfelves with marking one of them upon
one of the lines, from which the powers of all the others
might be recognized. Prefently afterwards they even
retrenched one of thefe four, viz. the gamma, of
■which they made ufe to mark the fol below, that is to
fay, the hypoproflambanomene added to the fyftem of
the Greeks.
In reality Kircher afferts, that if we underftood the
characters in which ancient mufic was written, and exa¬
mined minutely the forms of our clefs, we ftiould find
that each of them reprefents the letter a little altered
in its form, by which the note was originally named.
Thus the clef of fol vras originally a G, the clef of ut
a C, and the clef of fa an F.
We have then three clifs, one a fifth above the piate
other : the clef of F, or fa, which is the loweft ; CXLIV.
the clef of ut, or C, which is the fifth above the for- ^;Sy
mer ; and the clef of fol, or G, which is a fifth above 0 '
that of ut. Thefe clefs, both as marked by foreigners
and in Britain, may be feen in art. 170 of Music j up¬
on which it is neceffary to remark, that by a remain
of ancient praClice, the clef is always placed upon a
line, and never in a fpace. It deferves notice, that
the clef of/a is marked in three different manners: one
in mufic which is printed ; another in mufic which is
written or engraved j and a third in the full harmony
of the chorus.
By adding four lines above the clef of fol, and three
lines beneath the clef of fa, which gives both above
and below the greateft extent of permanent or efta-
bliftied lines, it appears, that the whole fcale of notes
which can be placed upon the gradations relative to
thefe clefs amounts to 24 j that is to fay, three o£taves
C L E f
and a fourth from the F, or fa, which is found be¬
neath the firft line, to the Ji, or B, which is found
above the laft, and all this together forms what we call
the general claviary ; from whence we may judge, that
this compafs has, for a long time, conftituted the ex¬
tent of the fyftem. But as at prefent it is continually
acquiring new degrees, as well above as below, the de¬
grees are marked by leger lines, which are added above
or below as occafion requires.
Inftead of joining all the lines, as has been done by
Roufleau in his Diftionary, (plate A, fig. 5.) to mark
the relation which one clef bears to another, they fe-
parate them five by five becaufe it is pretty nearly
within the degrees to which the compafs of ordinary
voices extends. This colle&ion of five lines is called a
flave ; and in thefe they place a clef, to determine the
names of the notes, the politions of femitones, and to
fhow what ftation the Have occupies in the claviary or
general fcale.
In whatever manner wTe take five fucceffive lines in
the claviary, we (hall find one clef comprehended ; nay,
fometimes two, in wrhich cafe one may be retrenched as
ufelefs. Cuftom has even prefcribed which of the two
fhould be retrenched, and which retained j it is this
likew'ife which has determined the number of pofitions
afligned to each clef.
If I form a (lave of the firft five lines in the clavia¬
ry, beginning from below, I find the clef of fa in the
fourth line. This then is one pofition of the clef, and
this pofition evidently relates to the kweft note $ thus
likewife it is that of the bafs clef.
If I wifti to gain a third in afcent, I muft add a line
above ; I muft then obliterate one below, otherwife
the ftave will contain more than five lines. The clef of
fa then is found transferred from the fourth to the
third, and the clef of ut is likewife found upon the
fifth j but as two clefs are ufelefs, they retrench here
that of ut. It is evident, that the ftave of this clef is
a third higher than the former.
By throwing aw’ay ftill one line below to gain ano¬
ther above, we have a third kind of a ftave, where the
clef of fa will be found upon the fecond line, and that
of ut upon the fourth. Here we leave out the clef of
fa, and retain that of ut. We have now gained ano¬
ther third above, and loft it below.
By continuing thefe alterations from line to line,
we pafs fucceflively through four different pofitions
of the clef of ut. Having arrived at that offol, we
find it placed upon the fecond line, and then upon
the firft. This pofition includes the five higheft lines,
and gives the (harpeft diapafon which the clefs can fig-
nify.
The reader may fee in Rouffeau’s Mufical Diction¬
ary, Plate A. fig. 5. this fucceftion of clefs from the
lowreft to the higheft •, which in all conftitutes eight
ftaves, clefs, or different pofitions of clefs.
Whatever may be the character and genius of any
voice or inftrument, if its extent above or below does
not furpafs that of the general claviary, in this number
may be found a ftation and a clef fuitable to it *, and
there are, in reality, clefs determined for all the parts
in mufic. If the extent of a part is very confiderable,
fo that the number of lines neceffary to be added above
or below may become inconvenient, the clef is then
changed in the courfe of the mufic. It may be plainly
87 1 C L E
perceived by the figure, what clef it is neceffary to
choofe, for railing or deprefting any part, under what¬
ever clef it may be aClually placed.
It will likewife appear, that, in order to adjuft one
clef to another, both muft be compared by the gene¬
ral claviary, by means of which we may determine
what every note under one of the clefs is with re-
fpeft to the other. It is by this exercife repeated
that we acquire the habit of reading with eafe all the
parts.
From this manoeuvre it follows, that we may place
whatever note we pleaie of the gamut upon any line
or fpace whatever of the ftave, fince we have the
choice of eight different pofitions, which is equal to the
number of notes in the oCtave. Thus you may mark a
whole tune upon the fame line, by changing the clef
at each gradation. The 7th fig. of the fame plate in
Rouffeau’s Mufical Dictionary, to which we formerly
referred, (hows by the feries of clefs the order of the
notes, re, fa, la, ut, mi, fol, f, re, rifing by thirds, al¬
though all placed upon the fame line. The fig. fol¬
lowing reprefents upon the order of the fame clefs
the note ut, which appears to defeend by thirds upon
all the lines of the ftave \ and further, which yet, by
means of changing the clef, ftill preferves its unifon.
It is upon fuch examples as this, that fcholars ought
to exercife themfelves, in order to underftand at the
firft glance the powers of all the clefs, and their fimul-
taneous effedf.
There are two of their pofitions, viz. the clef of
fol upon the firft line, and that of fa upon the third,
which feem daily to fall more and more into defuetude.
The firft of thefe may feem lefs neceffary, becaufe
it produces nothing but a pofition entirely fimilar to
that oifa upon the fourth line, from which however
it differs by two oClaves. As to the clef of fa, it is
plain, that in removing it entirely from the third line,
we (hall no longer have any equivalent pofition, and
that the compofition of the claviary, which is at
prefent complete, will by thefe means become de¬
fective.
Thus much for Rouffeau’s account of clefs. He pro¬
ceeds to explain their tranfpofition ; but as this would
render the prefent article too long and intricate, we
refer the curious to his Mufical DiBionary, vol. i.
page 162. See alfo Malcom's Diffcrtation on Mufic.
CLEFT, in a general fenfe, is a fpace made by the
feparation of parts. Green timber is very apt to fplit
and cleave in feveral places, after it is wrought into
form *, and thefe cracks in it are very difagreeable to
the fight. 1 he common method of the country car¬
penters is to fill up thefe cracks with a mixture of
greafe and faw duft 5 but the neateft w^ay of all is,
the foaking both fides well with the fat of beef-broth,
and then dipping pieces of fponge into the fame broth,
and filling up all the cracks with them : they fwell
out fo as to fill the whole crack ; and accommodate
themfelves fo well to it, that the deficiency is hardly feen.
Clefts, or Cracks, in farriery, appear on the
bought o* the pafterns, and are caufed by a (harp and
malignant humour. See Farriery Index.
CLEMA, in antiquity, a twig of the vine, which
ferves as a badge of the centurion’s office.
CLEMATIS, virgin’s-bower. See Botany In¬
dex,
A a 2
CLEMENCY,
OLE ^ [ 188 ] C L E
Clemency. CLEMENCY, denotes mucli tlie fame with mercy,
^ anj implies a remiffion of feverity towards offenders.
The term is moft generally ufed in fpeaking of the
forgivenefs exercifed by princes or perfons of high
authority. It is the refult, indeed, of a difpofition
■which ought to be cultivated by all ranks, though
its effefts cannot be equally confpicuous or extenfive.
In praife of clemency joined with power, it is obferved,
that it is not only the privilege, the honour, and the
duty of a prince, but it is alfo his fecurity, and better
than all his garrifons, forts, and guards, to preferve
himfelf and his dominions in fafety : That that prince
is truly royal, who matters himfelf; looks upon all in¬
juries as below him ; and governs by equity and reafon,
not by paffion or caprice. In illuftration of this fub-
je£l, the following examples are feledted out of many
recorded in hiftory.
Sucton. c. 9. I. Twto patricians having confpired againft Titus
the Roman emperor, were difcovered, convicted, and
fentenced to death by the fenate j but the good-na¬
tured prince fent for them, and in private admonifhed
them, that in vain they afpired to the empire, which
was given by deftiny j exhorting them to be fatisfied
with the rank in which by Providence they had been
placed, and offering them any thing elfe w-hich wras in
his power to grant. At the fame time he difpatched
a meffenger to the mother of one of them, who was
then at a great diftance, and under deep concern about
the fate of her fon, to affure her, that her fon was not
only alive, but forgiven.
Zaf. ii. 674. 2. Licinius having raifed a numerous army, Zofi-
mus fays 130,000 men, endeavoured to wreft the go¬
vernment out of the hands of his brother-in-law7 Con-
ttantine the emperor. But his army being defeated,
Licinius fled with what forces he could rally to Nico-
media, whither Conftantine purfued him, and imme¬
diately invefted the place 5 but on the fecond day of
the liege, the emperor’s fitter intreating him, with a
flood of tears, by the tendernefs he had ever fhowm
for her, to forgive her hufband, and grant him at leaft
his life, he was prevailed upon to comply wdth her re-
queft ; and the next day, Licinius, finding no means
of making his efcape, prefented himfelf before the
conqueror, and throwing himfelf at his feet, yielded
to him the purple and the other enfigns of fovereignty.
Conftantine received him in a very friendly manner,
entertained him at his table, and afterwards fent him
to Theflalonica, alfuring him, that he fhould live un-
inolefted fo long as he raifed no new difturbances.
3. The council of thirty, eftablifhed at Athens by
Lyfander, committed the moft execrable cruelties.
Upon pretence of reftraining the multitude within
their duty, and to prevent feditions, they had caufed
guards to be affigned them, had armed 3000 of the
citizens for that purpofe, and at the fame time dif-
armed all the reft. The whole city was in the utmoft
terror and difmay. Whoever oppofed their injuftice
and violence fell a vidtim to their refentment. Riches
were a crime that never failed of drawing a fentence
upon their owners, always followed with death and the
confifcation of eftates •, which the thirty tyrants di¬
vided amongft themfelves. They put more people to
death (fays Xenophon) in eight months of a peace,
than their enemies had done in a war of thirty years.
All the citizens of any confideration in Athens, and
who retained a love of liberty, quitted a place reduced Clemency,
to fo hard and fhameful a flavery, and fought elfewherev——^
an afylum and retreat where they might live in fafe¬
ty. At the head of thefe was Thrafybulus, a perfon
of extraordinary merit, who beheld with the moft live¬
ly afflidlion the miferies of his country.
The Lacedemonians had the inhumanity to endea¬
vour to deprive thofe unhappy fugitives of this laft re-
fource. They publilhed an edift to prohibit the cities
of Greece from giving them refuge, decreed that they
Ihould be delivered up to the thirty tyrants, and con¬
demned all fuch as ftiould contravene the execution of
this edift to pay a fine of five talents. Only two ci¬
ties rejedfted with difdain fo unjuft an ordinance, Me-
gara and Thebes ; the latter of which made a decree
to puniftr all perfons whatfoever that Ihould fee an A-
thenian attacked by his enemies without doing his ut¬
moft to aflift him. Lyfias, an orator of Syracufe who
had been baniftied by the thirty, raifed 500 foldiers at
his own expence, and fent them to the aid of the com¬
mon country of Eloquence. Thrafybulus loft no
time. After having taken Phyta, a fmall fort in At¬
tica, he marched to the Piraeus, of which he made
himfelf matter. The thirty flew thither with their
troops, and a battle enfued. The tyrants were over¬
thrown. Critias, the moft favage of them all, was
killed on the fpot : and as the army was taking to
flight, Thrafybulus cried out, “ Wherefore do you fly
from me as from a vi&or, rather than affift me as the
avenger of your liberty ? We are not enemies, but fel¬
low-citizens, nor have we declared wrar againft the
city, but againft the thirty tyrants.” He continued
to remind them, that they had the fame origin,
country, law's, and religion : he exhorted them to
compaflionate their exiled brethren, to reftore their coun¬
try to them, and refume their own liberty. This dif-
courfe had the defired effe£t. The army, upon their
return to Athens, expelled the thirty, and fubftituted
ten perfons to govern in their room, wdiofe conduct
proved no better than theirs ; but King Paufanias,
moved with compaflion for the deplorable condition to
which a city, once fo flourifhing, was reduced, had the
generofity to favour the Athenians in fecret, and at
length obtained a peace for them. It was fealed with
the blood of the tyrants, who having taken arms to re-
inftate themfelves in the government, were all put to the
fwmrd, and left Athens in the full pofieflion of its li¬
berty. All the exiles were recalled. Thrafybulus at
that time propofed the celebrated amnefty, by which
the citizens engaged upon oath, that all paft tranfac-
tions ftiould be buried in oblivion. The government
wras re-eftabliflied upon its ancient footing, the law's
were reftored to their priftine vigour, and magiftrates
ele&ed with the ufual form.
This (faysRollin) is one of the fineft events in ancient
hiftory, worthy the Athenian clemency and benevo¬
lence, and has ferved as a model to fucceeding ages in
all good governments. Never had tyranny been more
cruel and bloody than that which the Athenians had
lately throwm off. Every houfe was in mourning,
every family bewailed the lofs of fome relation : it had
been a feries of public robbery and rapine, in w'hich
licenfe and impunity had authorized all manner of
crimes. The people feemed to have a right to demand
the blood of all accomplices in fuch notorious malver-
fationSj
C L E [ 189 T C L E
Clemency, fatlons, and even the intereft of the ftate to authorize
' fuch a claim, that by the exemplary feverities fuch
enormous crimes might be prevented for the future.
But Thrafybulus riling above thefe fentiments, from the
fuperiority of his more extenfive genius, and the views
of a more difcerning and profound policy, forefaw, that
by giving into the pumlhment of the guilty, eternal
feeds of difcord and enmity would remain, to weaken
the public by domeftic divifions, when it was necefiary
to unite againft the common enemy, and alfo occalion
the lofs to the date of a great number of citizens, who
might render it important fervices from the view of
making amends for paft milbehaviour.
4. Such conduft, after great troubles in a ftate, has
always appeared to the ablell politicians, the moll
certain and ready means to reftore the public peace and
tranquillity. Cicero, when Rome was divided into
two factions upon the occalion of Coefar’s death, who
had been killed by the confpirators, calling to mind
this celebrated amnefty, propofed, after the example
of the Athenians, to bury all that had paffed in eter¬
nal oblivion.
5. Cardinal Mazarine obferved to Don Lewis de
Haro, prime minilier of Spain, that this gentle and hu¬
mane condu£l in France had prevented the troubles and
revolts of that kingdom from having any fatal confe-
quences, and “ that the king had not loll a foot of land
by them to that day ; whereas “ the inflexible feverity
of the Spaniards was the occalion that the fubjedls of
that monarchy, whenever they threw oflf the malk,
never returned to their obedience but by the force of
arms ; which fufficiently appears (fays he) in the ex¬
ample of the Hollanders, who are in the peaceable pof-
feflion of many provinces, that not an age ago wTere the
patrimony of the king of Spain.”
Remd. 6. Leonidas the Lacedemonian having, with 300
lib. ix. men only, difputed the pafs of Thermopylae againll the
c- 77> 78< wdiole army of Xerxes j and being killed in that engage¬
ment, Xerxes, by the advice of Mardonius one of his
generals, caufed his dead body to be hung upon a gal¬
lows, making thereby the intended dilhonour of his ene¬
my his own immortal lhame. But fome time after,
Xerxes being defeated, and Mardonius llain, one of
the principal citizens of ALgina came and addreffed
himfelf to Paufanias, defiring him to avenge the indig¬
nity that Mardonius and Xerxes had fhown to Leoni¬
das, by treating Mardonius’s body after the fame man¬
ner. As a farther motive for doing fo, he added, that
by thus fatisfying the manes of thofe who were killed
at Thermopylae, he would be fure to immortalize his
own name throughout all Greece, and make his memo¬
ry precious to the latell pollerity. “ Carry thy bafe
counfels elfewhere (replied Paufanias) ; thou mull have
a very wrong notion of true glory to imagine, that the
way for me to acquire it is to refemble the barbarians.
If the elleem of the people of A£gina is not to be
purchafed but by fuch a proceeding, I lhall be con¬
tent with preferving that of the Lacedemonians only,
amongll whom the bafe and ungenerous pleafure of re¬
venge is never put in competition with that of Ihowing
clemency and moderation to their enemies, efpecially
after their death. As for the fouls of my departed
countrymen, they are fufficiently avenged by the death
of the many thoufand Perfians ilain upon the fpot in
the laft engagement.”
CLEMENS Romanus, bilhop of Rome, where he Clemen?,
is faid to have been born j and to have been fellow- Clement.
labourer with St Peter and St Paul. We have no¬
thing remaining of his works that is clearly genuine,
excepting one epilile, written to quiet fome dillurban-
ces in the church of Corinth ; which, next to holy
writ, is elleemed one of the moll valuable remains of
ecclefiallical antiquity.
Clemens Alexandrinus, fo called to dillinguilh him
from the former, was an eminent father of the church,
■who flourifhed at the end of the fecond and beginning
of the third centuries. He was the fcholar of Pan-
toenus, and the inliruflor of Origen. The bell edition
of his wmrks is that in 2 vols folio, publiflied in 1715,
by Archbiffiop Potter.
CLEMENT V. Pope, the firll who made a pub¬
lic fale of indulgences. He tranfplanted the holy fee
to Avignon in France ; greatly contributed to the fup-
preffion of the knights templars j and was author of a
compilation of the decrees of the general councils of
Vienne llyled Clementines. He died in 1314.
Clement VII. Julius de Medicis, Pope, memo¬
rable for his refuliug to divorce Catharine of Arra-^
gon from Henry VIII. j and for the bull he publiflied
upon the king’s marriage with Anne Boleyn, which*
according to the Romifli authors, loll him England.
He died in 1534.
Clement XIV. Francis Laurentius Ganganellii
Pope, was born at St Angelo in the duchy of Ur-
bino, in October 1705; and chofen pope, though
not yet a bilhop, in 1769 : at which time the fee of
Rome was involved in a moll difagreeable and dan¬
gerous contell with the houfe of Bourbon. His reign
was rendered troublefome by the collifion of parties
on the affairs of the Jefuits j and it is pretended that
his latter days were embittered by the apprehenfions
of poifon. Though this report was probably apocry¬
phal, it is faid that he often complained of the heavy
burden which he was obliged to bear ; and regretted,
with great fenlibility, the lofs of that tranquillity which
he enjoyed in his retirement when only a Ample Fran-
cifcan. He was, however, fortunate in having an
opportunity, by a Angle a£l, to diltinguiffi a Ihort ad-
minillration of five years in fuch a manner as will ever
prevent its finking into obfcurity. His death was im¬
mediately attributed to poifon, as if an old man of 70,
loaded with infirmities and diforders,. could not quit
the world without violence. His proceedings againll
the Jefuits furnilhed a plaufible pretence for this charge,
and the malevolence of their enemies embellilhed it with
circumllances. It even feems as if the minillers of
thofe powers who had procured their diflolution did
not think it beneath them to countenance the report j
as if falfehood was neceffary to prevent the revival of a
body which had already funk, in its full llrength, un¬
der the weight of real mifcondudl. The charge was
the more ridiculous, as the pontiff had undergone a
long and painful illnefs, which originally proceeded
from a fuppreffion of urine, to which he was fubjedl $
yet the report was propagated with the greatell in-
duftry ; and though the French and Spanifh minifters
were prefent at the opening of his body, the moll hor¬
rible circumllances were publilhed relative to that ope¬
ration. It was confidently told that the head fell off'
from the body, and that the llench poifoned and killed
i the
G L E [ 190 ] C L E
Clemeritine the operators. It availed but little that the operators
H (bowed themfelves alive and in good health, and that
. thg furgeons and phyficians proved the falfehood of
every part of the report. Clement XIV. appears to
have been a man of a virtuous charafter, and poffeffed
of confiderable abilities. He died much regretted by
his fubjefts.
CLEMENTINE, a term ufed among the Augu-
ftins, who apply it to a perfon who, after having been
nine years a fuperior, ceafes to be io, and becomes a
private monk, under the command of a fuperior. The
word has its rife hence that, Pope Clement, by a bull,
prohibited any fuperior among the Auguftins from
continuing above nine years in his office.
Clementines, in the canon law, are the confti-
tutions of Pope Clement V. and the canons of jhe
council of Vienne.
CLENARD, Nicholas, a celebrated grammarian
in the 16th century, was born at Died ; and after ha¬
ving taught humanity at Louvain, travelled into France,
Spain, Portugal, and Africa. He wrote in Latin,
I. Letters relating to his Travels, which are very cu¬
rious and fcarce. 2. A Greek Grammar, which has
been revifed and corre&ed by many grammarians 5 and
other works. He died at Grenoble in I542*
CLEOBIS and Biton, two youths, fons of Cy-
dippe the prieftefs of Juno at Argos. When oxen
could not be procured to draw their mother’s chariot
to the temple of Juno, they put themfelves under the
yoke, and drew it 45 ftadia to the temple, amidft the
acclamations of the multitude, who congratulated the
mother on account of the piety of her fons. Cydippe
intreated the goddefs to reward the piety of her fons
with the bed gift that could be granted to a mortal.
They went to red and awoke no more ; and by this the
goddefs ffiowed that death is the only true happy event
that can happen to a man. The Argives railed them
ftatues at Delphi.
CLEOBULUS, fon of Evagoras, and one of the
Grecian fages ; he was valiant, a lover of learning,
and an enemy to vice. Flouriffied about 560 years be¬
fore Chrid.
CLEOMBROTUS, a king of Sparta, fon of An-
axandrides. He was deterred from building a wall
acrofs the idhmus of Corinth againd the approach of
the Perfians, by an eclipfe of the fun. He died in the
75th Olympiad, and was fucceeded by Plidarchus, foil
of Leonidas, a minor.
Cleombrotus II. fon of Paufanias king of Sparta,
after his brother Agefipolis I. He made war againd
the Boeotians, and led he ffiould be fufpefted of treach¬
erous communications with Epaminondas, he gave that
general battle at Leuftra, in a very difadvantageous
place. He was killed in the engagement, and his army
dedroyed, in the year of Rome 382.
Cleombrotus III. a fon-in law of Leonidas king
of Sparta, who for a wdiile ufurped the kingdom after
the expulfion of his father-in-law. When Leonidas
was recalled, Cleombrotus was banilhed, and his wife
Chelonis, who had accompanied her father, now accom¬
panied her hufband in his exile.
CLEOME, in Botany : A genus of the filiquofa
order, belonging to the tetradynamia clafs of plants $
and in the natural method ranking under the 25th or¬
der, Putaminea. There are three nectariferous glan*
1
dules, one at each finus of the calyx except the lowed j Cleomenej
the petals all rifing upwards •, the frliqua unilocular and H
bivalved. There are 15 fpecies, all of them, except C0Patr‘t’
two, natives of warm climates. They are herbaceous
plants, rifing from one to two feet high j and are adorn¬
ed with flowers of various colours, as red, yellow, fleffi-
colour, &c. They are propagated by feeds, and re¬
quire no other care than what is common to other ex¬
otics which are natives of warm countries.
CLEOMENES, king of Sparta, conquered the
Argives, and freed Athens from the tyranny of the Pi-
fiftratidse. By bribing the oracle he pronounced De-
maratus, his colleague on the throne, illegitimate, be-
caufe he refufed to puniffi the people of iEgina, wh©
had deferted the Greeks. He killed himfelf in a fit
of madnefs.
Cleomenes II. fucceeded his brother Agefipolis If.
He reigned 34 years in the greateft tranquillity, and
was father to Acrotatus and Cleonymus. He was fuc¬
ceeded by Areus I. fon of Acrotatus.
Cleomenes III. fucceeded his father Leonidas.
He was of an enterprifing fpirit, and refolved to re-
ftore the ancient difcipline of Lycurgus in its full
force. He killed the Ephoii, and removed by poifon
his royal colleague Eurydamides, and made his own
brother Euclidas king, again!! the laws of the date,
wffiich forbade more than one of the fame family to fit
on the throne. He made war again!! the Achaeans,
and attempted to deftroy the Achaean league. Aratus
the general of the Achaeans, who fuppofed himfelf in¬
ferior to his enemy, called Antigonus to his affiftance ;
and Cleomenes, when he had fought the unfortunate
battle of Sellafia, retired into Egypt to the court of
Ptolemy Euergetes, where his wife and children had
gone before him. Ptolemy received him with great
cordiality ; but his fucceffor, weak and fufpicious, foon
exprefled his jealoufy of this noble ftranger, and im-
prilbned him. Cleomenes killed himfelf, and his body
was flayed and expofed on a crofs, 140 Olymp.
. CLEON, the name of feveral noted men of anti¬
quity. 1. Of an Athenian, who, though originally a
tanner, became general of the armies of the date by
his intrigues and eloquence. He took Thoron in
Thrace, and was killed at Amphipolis in a battle with
Brafidas the Spartan general, Olymp. 89th. 2. A ge¬
neral of Meffenia, who difputed with Aridodemus for
the fovereignty. 3. A datuary. 4. A poet who wrote
a poem on the Argonauts. 5. An orator of Halicar-
naffus who compofed an oration for Lyfander, in which
he intimated the propriety of making the kingdom of
Sparta elective. 6. A Magnefian who wrote fome com¬
mentaries, in which he fpeaks of portentous events, &c.
CLEONiE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Ar-
golis, above Mycenae, on the road which leads from
Argos to Corinth ; Handing on an eminence, on every
fide occupied by houfes. In the fored near this town
w’as (lain by Hercules the huge lion (Sil. Italicus, Se¬
neca). Cleonceus the epithet. Cleonceum Sidus, the
lion. Another Cleona: on Mount Athos in Chal-
cidice.
CLEOPATRA, the celebrated queen of Egypt,
was daughter of Ptolemy Auletes. By her extraor¬
dinary beauty, ffie fubdued the two renowned Roman
generals Julius Caefar and Mark Antony *, the latter of
whom, it is thought, lod the empire of Rome by his
attachment
s,Si»sn!r^xp.spa
^ r Wf !0 vears befoirchrift. According to feme to be evacuated. But a th.rd proport.onal to . and
cd her feu, 30 years betore ^nri u ^ ^ i;k„ J2 js the fquare 0f 12, and confequently it is the num¬
ber of equal parts into which the altitude is to be di¬
vided, to be diftributed according to the feries of the
unequal numbers, through the equal intervals of hours.
Since in lieu of parts of the fame veffel, other lefs
veffels equal thereto may be fubftituted, the altitude
of a veffel emptied in a given fpace of time being given,
the altitude of another veffel to be emptied in a given
time may be found j viz. by making the altitudes as
the fquares of the time. For a further defeription,
with a figure, fee Hydrostatics.
CLERC, John le, a molt celebrated writer and
univerfal fcholar, born at Geneva in 1657. After he
had paffed through the ufual courfe of Itudy at Geneva,
and had loft his father in 1676, he went to France in
1678 } but returning the year after, he was ordained
with the general applaufe of all his examiners. . In
168 2, Le Clerc vifited England with a view to learning
the language. He preached feveral times in the French
churches in London, and vifited feveral bilhops and
men of learning ; but the fmoky air of the town not
agreeing with his lungs, he returned to Holland withm
the year, where he at length fettled. He preached
before a fynod held at Rotterdam by the remonftrants
L684.; and was admitted profeffor of philofophy,
\ ' i.l TT 1    ^
authors, Ihe was the reftorer of the Alexandrian libra
rV, to which Ihe added that of Pergamos j and it is
faid, that Ihe ftudied philofophy to confole her for the
abfence of Antony. With her death ended the family
of the Ptolemies in Egypt, after it had reigned from
the death of Alexander 294 years: for Egypt, after
this, was reduced to a Roman province, m which
dependence it remained till it was taken from them by
the Saracens, A. D. 641.
CLEOPATRIS, in Ancient Geography, a town ol
Egypt, on the Arabian gulf. See Arsinoe. Now laid
to be Sue%, fituated at the bottom of the gulf of the
Red fea. E. Long. 34. 30. N. Lat. 30. o.
CLEOSTRATUS, a celebrated aftronomer born
in Tenedos, was, according to Pliny, the firft who dif-
covered the figns of the zodiac; others fay, that he
only difeovered the figns Aries and Sagittarius. -He
alfo correaed the errors of the Grecian year about
the 306th year before Chrift.
CLEPSYDRA, an inftrument or machine ferving
to meafure time by the fall of a certain quantity of wa-
ter.
The word comes from condo, and aqua,
11 waterthough there have likewife been clepfydrse
made with mercury.
The Egyptians, by this machine, meafured the
eourfe of the fun. Tycho Brahe, in our days, made
ufe of it to meafure the motion of the ftars, Sec. and
Dudley ufed the fame contrivance in making all his
maritime obfervations. The ufe of clepfydrse is very
ancient; they were invented in Egypt under the Pto¬
lemies, as were alio fun-dials. Their ufe was chiefly
in the winter; the fun-dials ferved in the fummer.
They had two great defeds; the one, that the water
ran out with a greater or lefs facility, as the air was
more or lefs denfe ; the other, that the water ran
more readily at the beginning than towards the con-
clufion. M. Amontons has invented a clepfydra free
from both thefe inconveniences ; and which has thefe
three grand advantages, of ferving the ordinary pur-
pofe of clocks,- of ferving in navigation for the difeo-
very of the longitude, and of meaiuring the motion of
the arteries.
ConJlrucUon of a Clepsydra. To divide any. cy-
lindric veffel into parts to be emptied in each divifion
of time ; the time wherein the whole, and that where¬
in any part, is to be evacuated, being given,
Suppofe, for example, a cylindric veffel, whofe
charge of wafer flows out in 12 hours, were required
to be divided into parts to be evacuated each hour.
1. As the part of time 1 is to the whole time 12 ; fo is
the fame time 12 to a fourth proportional, 144*
2. Divide the altitude of the veffel into 144 equal parts:
here the laft will fall to the laft hour; the three next
above to the laft part but one ; the five next to the
tenth hour, &c. ; laftly, the 23 laft to the firft hour.
For fince the times increafe in the feries of the natural
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. and the altitudes, if the
numeration be in retrograde order from the twelfth
hour, increafe in the feries of the unequal numbers 1,
polite literature, and the Hebrew tongue, in their
fchool at Amfterdam. The remainder of his life af¬
fords nothing but the hiftory of his works, and of the
controverfies he was engaged in ; but thefe would lead
into too extenfive a detail. He continued to read re¬
gular leaures ; and becaufe there was no Angle author
full enough for his purpofe, he drew up and publiftmd
his Logic, Ontology, Pneumatology, and Natural Phi¬
lofophy. He publilhed Ars Critica; a Commentary
on the Old Teftament; a Compendium of Univerfal
Hiftory ; an Ecclefiaftical Hiftory of the two firft Cen¬
turies ; a French Tranllation of the New Teftament,
&c. In 1686, he began, jointly with M. de la Crofe,
his Bibhotheque Umverfelle et Uijiorique, in imitation of
other literary journals ; which was continued to the
year 1693 inclufive, in 26 vols. In 1703> began
his Bibhotheque Cboifie, and continued it to 1714, and
then commenced another wTork on the fame plan called
Bibliotheque Ancienne et Moderne, which he continued
to the year 1728 ; all of them juftly deemed excellent
ftores of ufeful knowledge. In 1728, he was feized
with a palfy and fever; and after fpending the laft fix
years of his life with little or no underftanding, died in
; Clerc, John le, called Chevalier, an eminent hifto^
rical painter, was born at Nanci in lySy, but.ftudied
in Italy, where he refided for 20 years; and was a
difciple of Carlo Venetiano, with whom he worked
a long time, and whofe ftyle he fo effeaually ftudied
and imitated, that feveral of the pictures which were
finiflied by Le Clerc were taken for the work of Ve¬
netiano. He was moft highly efteemed at Venice for
his extraordinary merit; and as a token of public re-
fpedf, he was made a knight of St Mark. His free¬
dom of hand was remarkable ; he had a light pencil;
and
C L E
Glcrc, and in his colouiing he refembled his mfler. He died
clergy- in 1633.
Clerc, SebaJVian le, engraver, and defigner in or¬
dinary to the French king, was born at Metz in 1637.
After having learnt defigning, he applied himfelf to
mathematics, and was engineer to the marlhal de la
Ferte. He went to Paris in 1665, W'here he applied
himfelf to defigning and engraving with fuch fuccefs,
that M. Colbert gave him a penfion of 600 crowms.
In 1672 he was admitted into the royal academy of
painting and fculpture j and in 1680 wras made pro-
feflbr of geometry and perfpe&ive in the fame acade¬
my. He publilhed, belides a great number of defigns
and prints, 1. A Treatife on theoretical and practical
Geometry. 2. A Treatife on Archite&ure j and other
works: and died in 1714.—He was an excellent ar-
tift, but chiefly in the petit ftyle. His genius feldom
exceeds the dimenfions of fix inches. Within thofe
limits he could drawr up 20,000 men with great dex¬
terity. No artift except Callot and Della Bella could
touch a fmall figure with fo much fpirit. His moft
efteemed prints are : 1. The pvjjion of our Saviour, on
36 fmall plates, lengthwdfe, from his own compofitions.
The beft impreflions are without the borders. 2. The
miracle of the feeding five thoufand, a middling-fized
plate, lengthwife. In the fiffi: impreflions, which are
very rare, a town appears in the back-ground j in
place of which a mountain is fubftituted in the common
ones. 3. The elevation of the large fones ufed in build¬
ing the front of the Louvre, a large plate, lengthwife.
The firft impreflions are without the date 1677, which
was afterwards added. 4. The academy of the fciences,
a middling-fized plate, lengthwife. The firft impref¬
lions are before the Ikeleton of the flag and tortoife
were added. The fecond impreflions are before the
lhadow was enlarged at the bottom, towards the right-
hand fide of the print. Both thefe impreflions are
very fcarce. The firft is rarely met with. This print
was copied for Chambers’s Diftionary. 5. The May
of the Gobelins, a middle-fized plate, lengthwife. The
firft impreflion is before the wToman was introduced,
who covers the w’heel of the coach. 6. The four con-
quefls, large plates, lengthwife, reprefenting the taking
of Tournay, the taking of Douay, the defeat of the
comte de Marfin, and the Switzerland alliance. 7. The
battles of Alexander, from Le Brun, fix fmall long
plates, including the title, which reprefents the pidlure
gallery at the Gobelins. The firft impreflions of the
•tent of Darius, which plate makes part of this fet, is
diftinguifhed by the flroulder of the woman, who is
feated in the front, being without the Ihadow, which
was afterwards added •, for w7hich reafon they are called
the prints with the naked [boulder. 8. The entry of
Alexander into Babylon, a middling-fized plate, length-
wife. In the firft impreflions, the face of Alexander
is feen in profile •, in the fecond, it is a three quar¬
ter face, and therefore called the print with the head
turned.
Clerc, George le. See Buffon.
CLERGY, a general name given to the body of
ecclefiaftics of the Chriftian church, in contradiftindlion
to the laity. See Laity.
The diftindlion of Chriftians into clergy and laity
was derived rrom the Jewifli church, and adopted into
the Chriftian by the apoftles themfelves: whenever
c L E
any number of converts was made, as foon as they Clergy,
were capable of being formed into a congregation or ^
church, a bifliop or preftryter, wuth a deacon, were or¬
dained to minifter to them. Of the bilhops, priefts,
and deacons, the clergy originally confifted j but in the
third century, many inferior orders were appointed, as
fubfervient to the office of deacon, fuch as Acolu-
thists, Readers, &c.
This venerable body of men being feparated and fet BUclf.
apart from the reft of the people, in order to attend Commen"
the more clofely to the fervice of Almighty God, have
therefore large privileges allowed them by our muni¬
cipal laws ; and had formerly much greater, which
were abridged at the time of the refoimation, on ac¬
count of the ill ufe which the Popifti clergy had endea¬
voured to make of them. For, the laws having ex¬
empted them from almoft every perfonal duty, they
attempted a. total exemption from every fecular tie.
But it is obferved by Sir Edward Coke, that as the
overflowing of waters doth many times make the ri¬
ver to lofe its proper channel, fo, in times paft, eccle-
fiaftical perfons, feeking to extend their liberties be¬
yond their due bounds, either loft, or enjoyed not,
thofe which of right belonged to them. The perfonal
exemptions do indeed for the mod part continue : a
clergyman cannot be compelled to ferve on a jury, nor
to appear at a court leet, or view of frank-pledge,
which almoft every other perfon is obliged to do j
but if a layman is fummoned on a jury, and before the
trial takes orders, he ffiall notw'ithftanding appear and
be fworn. Neither can he be chofen to any temporal
office, as bailiff, reeve, conftable, or the like j in re¬
gard of his own continual attendance on the facred
funftion. During his attendance on divine fervice, he
is privileged from arrefts in civil fuits. In cafes alfo of
felony, a clerk in orders ffiall have the benefit of his
clergy, w'ithout being branded in the hand ; and may
likewife have it more than once ; in both which par¬
ticulars he is diftinguiffied from a layman. But, as
they have their privileges, fo they have alfo their dif-
abilities, on account of their fpiritual avocations. Cler¬
gymen are incapable of fitting in the houfe of com¬
mons j and by ftatute 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13. are not
in general allowed to take any lands or tenements to
farm, upon pain of xol. per month, and total avoidanqe
of the leafe } nor, upon like pain, to keep any tap-
houfe or brew-houfe j nor engage in any manner of
trade, nor fell any merchandife, under forfeiture of
treble value. Which prohibition is confonant to the
canon law.
Benefit of Clergy, is an ancient privilege whereby
one in orders claimed to be delivered to his ordinary to
purge himfelf of felony.
After trial and conviction * of a criminal, the judg-*See the
ment of the court regularly follows, unlefs fufpended artkles^fr-
©r arrefted by fome intervening circumftance, of which
the principal is benefit of clergy : a title of no fmall cu- ^ le[/7'ria.1,
riofity as well as uie j and concerning which, therefore,^,
it may not be improper to inquire, 1. Into its original,
and the various mutations which this privilege of the
clergy has fuftained. 2. To what perfons it is to be
allowed at this day. 3. In what cafes. 4. The confe-
quences of allowing it.
I. Clergy, the privilegwm clerica/e, or (in common Bladf..
fpeech) the benefit of clergy, had its original from the Comment.
pious
t *92 1
C L E [
Ilergy. pious regard paid by Chriftian princes to tbe church in
J-y: 1 hs infant date, and the ill ufe which the popifli eccle-
fiaftics foon made of that pious regard. The exemp¬
tions which they granted to the church were principal¬
ly of two kinds : I. Exemptions of places confecrated
to religious duties from criminal arrefts j which was
the foundation of fan£tuaries. 2. Exemption of the
perfons of clergymen from criminal procefs before the
fecular judge in a few particular cafes; wdiich was
the true original and meaning of the privi/egium clen-
calc.
But the clergy increafing in wealth, powTer, honour,
number, and intereft, foon began to fet up for them-
felves •, and that which they obtained by the favour of
the civil government, they now claimed as their in¬
herent right, and as a right of the higheft nature, in-
defeafible, and jure divino. By their canons, there¬
fore, and conftitutions, they endeavoured at, and
where they met with eafy princes, obtained, a vaft
extenfion of thofe exemptions; as well in regard to
the crimes themfelves, of .which the lift became quite
univerfal, as in regard to the perfons exempted;
among whom were at length comprehended, not
only every little fubordinate officer belonging to the
church or clergy, but even many that were totally
laymen.
In England, hotvever, although the ufurpations of
the pope were very many and grievous, till Henry VIII.
totally exterminated his fupremacy, yet a total ex¬
emption of the clergy from fecular jurifdiftion could
never be thoroughly effe£ted, though often endea¬
voured by the clergy; and therefore, though the an¬
cient privilcgium clericals was in fome capital 'cafes,
yet it was not univerfally allowed. And in thofe par¬
ticular cafes, the ufe wjas for the biftiop or ordinary to
demand his clerks to be remitted out of the king’s
courts as foon as they were indicted j concerning the
allowance of which demand there was for many years
a great uncertainty *, till at length it was finally fettled
in the reign of Henry VI. that the prifoner ftiould firft
be arraigned } and might either then claim his benefit
of clergy by wTay of declinatory plea ; or, after con¬
viction, by. way of arreft of judgment. This latter
way is moft ufually praCtifed, as it is more to the fatif-
faCtion of the court to have the crime previoufly afcer-
tained by confeffion or the verdiCt of a jury j and alfo
it is more advantageous to the prifoner himfelf, who
may poffibly be acquitted, and fo need not the benefit
of his clergy at all.
•Originally the law was held that no man ftiould be
admitted to the benefit of clergy, but fuch as had the
habitum et tonfuram clericalem. But, in procefs of
time, a much wider and more comprehenfive criterion
was eftabliffied j every one that could read (a great
mark of learning in thofe days of ignorance and her
fifter fuperftition) being accounted a clerk, or cle-
ricus, and allowed the benefit of clerkflnp, though
neither initiated in clerkfliip, nor trimmed with the
holy tonfure. But when learning, by means of the
invention of printing, and other concurrent caufes, be¬
gan to be more generally diffeminated than formerly,
and reading was no longer a competent proof of clerk-
flu p, or being in holy orders •, it w'as found that as ma¬
ny laymen as divines were admitted to the privilegium
cleric ale ; and therefore by ftatute 4 Henry VII. c. 13.
Vpl. VI. Part I.
193 1 C L E
a diftinflion was once more drawm between mere lay
fcholars and clerks that w7ere really in orders. And,
though it was thought reafonable ftill to mitigate the
feverity of the law with regard to the former, yet
they were not put upon the fame footing with ac¬
tual clergy j being fubje£ted to a flight degree of pu-
nilhment, and not allow’ed to claim the clerical privi¬
lege more than once. Accordingly the ftatute diiefts,
that no perfon, once admitted to the benefit of clergy,
lhall be admitted thereto a fecond time, until he pro¬
duces his orders 5 and in order to diftinguiih their
perfons, all laymen who are allowed this privilege,
lhall be burned with a hot-iron in the brawn of the
left thumb. This diftin&ion between learned laymen
and real clerks in orders was abolilhed for a time by
the ftatutes 28 Hen. VIII. c. 1. and 32 Hen. VIII.
c. 3. j but is held to have been virtually reftored by
ftatute I Edw. VI. c. 12. which ftatute alio enafts,
that lords of parliament and peers of the realm rnay
have the benefit of their peerage, equivalent to that of
clergy, for the fiift offence (although they cannot read,
and without being burnt in the hand), for all offences
then clergyable to commoners, and alio for the crimes
of houfe-breaking, highwray-robbery, horfe-ftealing,
and robbing of churches.
After this burning, the laity, and before it the real
clergy, were difcharged from the fentence of the law
in the king’s courts, and delivered over to the ordi¬
nary, to be dealt with according to the ecclefiaftical
canons. Whereupon the ordinary, not latisfied with
the proofs adduced in the profane fecular court, fet
himfelf formally to make a purgation of the offender
by a new7 canonical trial 5 although he had been pre¬
vioufly convi&ed by his country, or perhaps by his
own confeffion. This trial was held before the bifhop
in perfon, or his deputy ; and by a jury of twelve
clerks : And there, firft, the party himfelf was re¬
quired to make oath of his own innocence ; next,
there was to be the oath of twelve compurgators, who
fwore they believed he fpoke the truth j then, wit-
neffes were to be examined upon oath, but on behalf
of the prifoner only \ and, laftly, the jury were to
bring in their verdift upon oath, which ufually acquit¬
ted the prifoner ; otherwife, if a clerk, he was de¬
graded, or put to penance. A_ learned judge in the
beginning of laft century, remarks with much indig¬
nation the vaft complication of perjury and fuboina¬
tion of perjury in this folemn farce of a mock trial;
the witneffes, the compurgators, and the jury, being all
of them partakers in the guilt : the delinquent party
alfo, though convicted in the cleareft manner, and con-
fcious of his own offence, yet wras permitted, and almoft
compelled, to fwear himfelf not guilty j nor was the
good bifhop himfelf, under whofe countenance this fcene
was tranfafted, by any means exempt from a ffiare of
it. And yet, by this purgation, the party was reftored
to his credit, his liberty, his lands, and his capacity of
purchafing afrefh, and was entirely made a new and an
innocent man.
This fcandalous proftitution of oaths, and the forms
of jnftice, in the almoft conftant acquittal of felonious
clerks by purgation, was the occafion that, upon very
heinous and notorious circumftances of guilt, tem¬
poral courts w7ould not truft the ordinary with the
trial of the offender, but delivered over to him the
B b convi&ed
Clergy.
 T—
C L E [ I
Clergy, convl&ed clerk, abfque purgatione faciendo ; in which
v ~ ' fituation the clerk convift could not make purgation 5
but was to continue in prifon during life, and was in¬
capable of acquiring any perfonal property, or recei¬
ving the profits of his lands, unlefs the king fhould
pleafe to pardon him. Both thefe courfes were in fome
degree exceptionable} the latter perhaps being too
rigid, as the former was productive of the moft aban¬
doned perjury. As therefore thefe mock trials took
their rife from factious and popilh tenets, tending to
exempt one part of the nation from the general muni¬
cipal law, it became high time, when the reformation
was thoroughly eitablifhed, to abolilh fo vain and impi¬
ous a ceremony.
Accordingly the ftatute 18 Elizs c. 7. enaCts, that,
for the avoiding fuch perjuries and abufes, after the
offender has been allowed his clergy, he (hall not be
delivered to the ordinary as formerly 3 but, upon fuch
allowance, and burning of the hand, he fhall forthwith
be enlarged and delivered out of prifon, with pro-
vifo, that the judge may, if he thinks fit, continue the
oftender in goal for any time not exceeding a year.
And thus the law continued unaltered for above a
century 3 except only, that the ftatute 21 Jac. I. c. 6.
allow'ed, that women convidted of fimple larcenies
under the value of 10s. fhould (not properly have
the benefit of clergy, for they were not called upon to
read 3 but) be burned in the hand, whipped, or flock¬
ed, or imprifoned for any time not exceeding a year.
And a fimilar indulgence by the flatutes 3 and 4 Will,
and Mary, c. 9. and 4 and 5 Will, and Mary, c. 24. was
extended to women guilty of any clergyable felony
whatever 3 who were allowed once to claim the benefit
of the flatute, in like manner as men might claim the
benefit of clergy, and to be difcharged upon being
burned in the hand, and imprifoned for any time not
e.xceeding a year. All women, all peers, and all male
commoners who could read, rvere therefore difcharged
in fuch felonies abfolutely, if clerks in orders 3 and for
the firft offence upon burning in the hand, if lay 3 yet
all liable (except peers), if the judge faw occafion, to
imprifonment not exceeding a year. And thefe men
who could not read, if under the degree of peerage,
Were hanged.
Afterwards, indeed, it was confidered, that educa¬
tion and learning were no extenuations of guilt, but
quite the reverfe 3 and that if the punilhment of death
for fimple felony was too fevere for thofe who had
been liberally infiruited, it was, e) fortiori, too fevere
for the ignorant alfo. And thereupon, by flatute
5 Anne, c. 6. it was enafted that the benefit of clergy
ihould be granted to all thofe who were entitled to alk
it without requiring them to read by way of condi¬
tional merit. And, experience having fhown that fo
univerfal a lenity was frequently inconvenient, and an
encouragement to commit the lower degrees of felo¬
ny 3 and that though capital punifhments were too ri¬
gorous for thefe inferior offences, yet no punifhment
at all (or next to none, as branding or whipping),
was as much too gentle 3 it was enabled by the fame
ftatute 5 Anne, c. 6. that when any perfon is convift-
td of any theft or larceny, and burnt, in the hand
for the fame, he lhall, at the difcretion of the judge,
be committed to the houfe of corre&ion or public
work-houfe, to be there kept to hprd labour for any
94 ] C L E
time not lefs than fix months, and not exceeding two
years; with a power of infli&ing a double confinement
in cafe of the party’s efcape from the firft. And it is
alfo ena«^ed by the ftatutes 4 Geo. I. c. n. and
6 Geo. I. c. 23. that when any perfons fhall be con-
vifted of any larceny, either grand or petit, or any fe¬
lonious dealing or taking of money or goods and chat¬
tels, either from the perfon or the houfe of any other,
or in any other manner, and who by the law final] be
entitled to the benefit of clergy, and liable only to the
penalties of burning in the hand, or whipping ; the
court in their difcretion, inftead of fuch burning in
the hand, or whipping, may direft fuch offenders to
be tranfported to America for feven years 3 and if
they return, or are feen at large in this kingdom
within that time, it fhall be felony without benefit of
clergy.
In this ftate does the benefit of clergy at prefent
fl and 3 very confiderably different'from its original in-
ftitution 5 the wifdom of the Englifh legiflature ha¬
ving, in the courfe of a long and laborious procefs, ex-
trailed, by a noble alchemy, rich medicines out of poi-
fbnouS'ingredients ; and converted, by gradual muta¬
tions, what was at firfl an unreafonable exemption of
particular popifh ecclefiaflics, into a merciful mitiga¬
tion of the general law with refpedt: to capital punilh-
ments.
From the whole of this detail, we may collefl, that'
however in times of ignorance and fuperftition, that
monfter in true policy may for a while fubfift, of a
body of men refiding in a ftate, and yet independent
of its laws 3 yet when learning and rational religion
have a little enlightened men’s minds, fociety can no
longer endure an abfurdity fo grofs, as muft deftroy its
very fundamentals. For, by the original contrail of
government, the price of protection by the united force
of individuals, is that of obedience to the united will of
the community. This united will is declared in the
laws of the land 3 and that united force is exerted in
their due, and univerfal, execution.
II. We are next to inquire, to what perfons the be¬
nefit of clergy is to be allowed at this day ; and this
muft chiefly be collected from what has been obfer-
ved in the preceding article. For, upon the whole,
we may pronounce, that all clerks in order are, with¬
out any branding, and of courfe without any tranf-
portation (for that is only fubftituted in lieu of the
other), to be admitted to this privilege, and immedi¬
ately difcharged, or at moft only confined for one year 5
and this as often as they offend. Again, all lords of
parliament, and peers of the realm, by the ftatute
l Edw. VI. c. 12. (hall be difcharged in all clergyable
and other felonies provided for by the ad: without any
burning in the hand, in the fame manner as real clerks
conviCf; but this is only for the fiift offence. Laftly,
all the commons of the realm, not in orders, whether
male or female, fhall, for the firft offence, be difchar¬
ged of the punifhment of felonies, within the benefit
of clergy, upon being burnt in the hand, and fuffering
difcretionary imprifonment; or, in cafe of larceny, up¬
on being tranfported for feven years, if the court fhall
think proper.
HI. The third point to be confidered is, for wdiat
crimes the privilegimn clericals, or benefit of clergy,
b to be allowed. And it is to be obferved, that nei¬
ther
C L E t 1
!ergy. tiler In Vigli treafor), nor in petit larceny, nor m any
 ' mere mifdemeanors, it was indulged at the common
law ; and therefore we may lay it down as a ru c,
that it was allowable only in petit treafon and capital
felonies; which for the moll part became legally en-
titled to this indulgence by the ftatute </«? clcro,
2? Edw. III. Hat. 3. c. 4. which provides, that clerks
convia for treafon or felonies, touching other perlons
than the king himfelf or his royal majefty, hiall have
the privilege of holy church. But yet it was not al¬
lowed in all cafes whatfoever : for in fome it was de¬
nied even in common law, viz. infidatio viarum, or ly¬
ing in wait for one on the highway ; dcpopulatio agro-
rum, or deilroying and ravaging a country •, combujho
domoruvi, or arfon, that is, burning of houies •, all
which are a kind of hoftile afts, and in fome degree
border upon treafon. And farther, all thefe identical
crimes, together with petit trealon, and very many
other a&s of felony, are oufted of clergy by particular
a£ls of parliament. . .
Upon the whole, we may obferve the following
rules. 1. That in all felonies, whether new created,
or by common law, clergy is now allowable, unlefs ta¬
ken away by a& of parliament. 2. That where clergy
is taken aw^ay from the principal, it is not of courfe. ta¬
ken away from the accefibry, unlefs he be alfo particu¬
larly included in the wmrds of the ftatute. 3. I oat
when the benefit of clergy is taken away from the of¬
fence (.as in cafe of murder, buggery, robbery, rape,
and burglary), a principal in the fecond degree, being
prefent, aiding and abetting the crime, is as well ex¬
cluded from his clergy as he that is a principal in
the firft degree : but, 4- That where it is only taken
away from the perfon commiting the offence (as in
the cafe of dabbing, or committing larceny in a
<3 welling-houfe), his aiders and abettors are not ex¬
cluded, through the tendernefs of the lawr, w’hich hath
determined that fuch ftatutes {hall not be taken li¬
terally.
IV. Laftly, We are to inquire what the confequen-
ces are to the party, of allowing him this benefit of
clergy. We fpeak not of the branding, imprifonment,
or tranfportation j which are rather concomitant con¬
ditions, than confequences, of receiving this indul¬
gence. The confequences are fuch as affedl his pre¬
fent intered, and future credit and capacity •, as hav¬
ing been once a felon, but now purged from that
guilt by the privilege of clergy ; which operates as a
kind of ftatute pardon. And we may obferve, 1. That,
by his conviction, he forfeits all his goods to the king 5
which, being once veiled in the crown, {hall not after¬
wards be reftored to the offender. 2. I hat, aiter con-
viftion, and till he receives the judgment of the law
by branding or the like, or elie is pardoned by the
king, he is, to all intents and purpofes, a felon •, and
fubjeft to all the difabilities and other incidents^ of a
felon. 3. That, after burning or pardon, he is dif-
tharged for ever of that, and all other felonies before^
committed, within the benefit of clergy; but not of
felonies from which fuch benefit is excluded ; and this
"by ftatutes 8 Eliz. c. 4. and 18 Eliz. c. 7. 4. I hat,
by the burning, or pardon of it, he is reftored to all
capacities and credits, and the poffeftion of his lands,
jjs if he had never been convicted. 5. That wdiat is
laid with regard to the advantages of commoners and
95 1 CL L
laymen, fubfequent to the burning in the hand, is
equally applicable to all peers and clergymen, although
never branded at all. For they have the fame privi¬
leges, without any burning, to which others are entit¬
led after it.
CLERK (clericus), a word formerly ufed to figmfy
a learned man, or man of letters. 1 he word comes
from the Greek xAjijoj, ufed for clergy; but more pro¬
perly fignifying lot or heritage, in regard the lot and
portion of clerks or ecclefiaftics is to lerve God. Ac¬
cordingly clerus was at firft ufed to fignify thofe who
had a particular attachment to the fervice of God.
The origin of the expreflion is derived from the Old
Teftament, where the tribe of Levi is called tiie lot,
heritage, ; and God is reciprocally called their
portion i by reafon that tribe was confecrated to the
fervice of God, and lived on the offerings made to God,
without any other fettled provifion as the reft had.
Thus, Pafquier obferves, the officers of the counts (co-
mitei) were anciently created under the title of clerks
of accampts ; and fecretaries of ft ate were called clerhs
of the fecret. So clericus dotnini regis, in the time of.
Edward I. was Englilhed, the 'king's fecretary, or clerk
of his ^council* I he term was applied indifferently to
all wdio made any profeflion of learning ; or who knew
how to manage the pen ; though originally it was ap¬
propriated to ecclefiaftics. As the nobility and gentry
were ufually brought up to the exercife of arms, there
.were none but the clergy left to cultivate the fciences :
hence, as it was the clergy alone who had made any
profeftion of letters, a Very learned man came to be
called a great clerk, and a ftupid ignorant man a bad
clerk.
Clerk is alfo applied to fuch as by their courfe of
life exercile their pens in any court or office ; of which
there are various kinds: thus,
Cl&kk of the Bails, an officer in the court of king’s
bench, whofe bufinefs is to file all bail-pieces taken in
that court, where he always attends.
Clerk of the Check, an officer belonging to the king’s
court; fo called, becaufe he has the check and con-
troulment of the yeomen that belong to the king, queen,
or prince. He likewife, by himfelf or deputy, fets the
watch in the court. There is alfo an officer in the
navy of the fame name, belonging to the king’s yards.
Clerk of the Crown, an officer in the king’s bench,
who frames, reads, and records all indiftments againft
offenders, there arraigned or inditted of any public
crime. He is likewife termed clerk of the crown pfee,
in wffiich capacity he exhibits information by order of
the court for divers offences.
Clerk of the Crown, in chancery, an officer uffiofe
bufinels it* is conflantly to attend the lord chancellor
in perfon or by deputy; to w?rite and prepare for the
great feal fpecial matters of ftate by commiffion, both
ordinary and extraordinary, viz. commiffions of lieu¬
tenancy, of juftices of affize, oyer and terminer, gaol-
delivery, and of the peace ; all general pardons, grant¬
ed either at the king’s coronation, or in parliament;
the writs of parliament, with the names of the knights,
citizens, and burgeffes, are alio returned into his of¬
fice. He alfo makes out fpecial pardons and writs of
execution on bonds of ftatute-ftaple forfeited.
Clerk of the Deliveries of the Ordnance. See Ord¬
nance. , .
B b a Clerk
Clerk.
C L E [I
Clerk, of the Errors, in the court of common pleas,
an officer who tranfcribes and certifies into the king’s
bench the tenor of the record of the a&ion on which
the writ of error, made out by the curfitor, is brought
there to be determined. In the king’s bench, the clerk
of the errors tranfcribes and certifies the records of
caufcs, by bill, in that court, into the exchequer. And
the bufinefs of the clerk of the errors in the exchequer,
is to tranfcribe the records certified thither out of the’
king’s bench, and to prepare them for judgment in the
' exchequer-chamber.
Clerk of the EJfoins, in the court of common pleas,
keeps the effoin roll, or enters effoins : he alfo provides
parchment, cuts it into rolls, marks the numbers on
them, delivers out all the rolls to every officer, and re¬
ceives them again when written. See Essoin.
Clerk of the EJlreats, an officer in the exchequer,
who every term receives the eftreats out of the lord-
treafurer’s remembrancer’s office, and writes them out
to be levied for the crown.
Clerk of the Green-cloth, formerly an officer in chan¬
cery, but now aboliffied.
Clerk of the Hamper, or Hanaper, an officer in chan¬
cery, whole bufinefs is to receive all money due to the
king for the feals of charters, letters patent, commif-
fion.s, and writs j alfo the fees due to the officers for
enrolling and examining them-
Clerk-Comptroller of the King's HoufehoM, an offi¬
cer of the king’s court, authorized to allow or difallow
the charges of purfuivants, m fiengers of the green-
cloth, &c. to infpeft and controul all defers of any of
the inferior officers ; and to fit in the counting-houfe
with the lord-lfeward and other officers of the houfe-
hold for regulating fuch matters.
Clerk of the King's Silver, an officer of the common
pleas, to whom every fine is brought, after it has paf-
fed the office of the cvfos brevium ; and who enters the
eflfeft of writs of covenant, into a book kept for that
purpofe, according to which all the fines of that term
are recorded in the rolls of the court.
Clerk of the Market, an officer of the king’s houfe,
to whom is given the charge of the king’s meafures and
weights, the ftandards of thofe that ought to be ufed
all over England.
Clerk of the Nichils, or Nihils, an officer of the ex¬
chequer, who makes a roll of all fuch fums as are ni-
ehilled by the ffieriffs upon their eftreats of green wax,
and delivers them into the remembrancer of the trea-
fury, to have execution done upon them for the kino-.
See Nihil. 43
Clerk oj the Ordnance. See Ordnance.
Clerk of the Outlawries, an officer of the common
pleas, and deputy to the attorney-general, for making
out all writs of capias utlegatum after outlawry, to
which there muft be the king’s attorney’s name.
Clerk of the Paper-qfice, an officer belonging to the
king’s bench, wffiofe bufinefs is to make up the paper-
books of fpecial pleadings in that court.
Clerk of the Peace, an officer belonging to the fef-
fions of the peace, whofe bufinefs is to read indiftments,
inrol the proceedings, and draw the procefs : he like-
wife certifies into the king’s bench tranfcripts of in-
diftments, outlawries, attainders, and convictions had
before the juftices of peace, within the time limited by
Ilatute, under a certain penalty. This office is in, the
96] C L E
gift of the cufos t'otulorum, and may be executed by
deputy.
Clerk of the Pells, an officer that belongs to the ex¬
chequer, whofe bufinefs is to enter every teller’s bill
into a parchment-roll called pelhs receptorum; and to
make another roll of payments called pellis exituum.
Clerk of the Petty Bag, an officer of the court of
chancery, whereof there are three, the mafter of the
rolls being the chief: their bufinefs is to record 'the
return of all inquifitions out of every (hire ; to make
out patents of cuftomers, gaugers, comptrollers, &c. 5
liberates upon extent of ftatutes-ftaple ; conge d'elires
for biffiops ; fummons of the nobility, clergy, and bur-
geffes to parliament ; and commiffions direfted to
knights and others of every (hire, for affeffing fubfidies
and taxes.
Clerk of the Pipe, an officer of the exchequer, who
having the accounts of all debts due to the king, deli¬
vered out of the remembrancer’s office, charges them
in a great roll folded up like a pipe. He writes out
warrants to ffieriffs, to levy the faid debts on the goods
and chattels of the debtors j and if they have no goods,
then he draws them down to the treafurer’s remem¬
brancer to write eftreats againft their lands.
Clerk of the Pleas, an officer of the exchequer, in
rvhofe office all the officers of the court, having fpecial
privilege, ought to fue or to be fued in any aftion. In
this office alfo attions at law may be profecuted by other
perfons, but the plaintiff ought to be tenant or debtor
to the king, or fome way accountable to him. The
under clerks are attorneys in all fuits.
Clerks of the Pnvy-feal, four officers that attend the
lord privy feal, for waiting and making out all things
that are lent by warrant from the fignet to the privy
feal, and to be paffed the great feal; and like wife to
make out privy feals, upon fpecial occafions of his ma*
jelly’s affairs, as for loan of money or the like.
Clerk of the Rolls, an officer of the chancery, whofe
bufinefs is to make fearches after, and copies of deeds^
officers, &c.
Clerk of the Signet, an officer continually attending
upon his majefty’s principal fecretary, who has the cu*
ftody of the privy fignet, as well for fealing the king’s
private letters as thofe grants which pafs the king’s
hand by bill figned. There are four of thefe officers
who have their diet at the fecretary’s table.
Six Clerks, officers in chancery next in degree be*
low the twelve mafters, whofe bufinefs is to inrol com*
miffions, pardons, patents, warrants, &c. which pals
the great feal. They were anciently clerici, and for*
feited their places if they married. Thefe are alfo at*
torneys for parties in fuits depending in the court of
chancery.
Clerk of the Preafury, an officer belonging to the
court of common pleas, who has the charge of keeping
the records of the court, makes^out all records of niji
prius, and likewife all exemplifications of records being
in the treafury. He has the fees due for all fearches )
and has under him an under keeper, who always keeps
one key of the treafury-door.
Clerk of the Warrants, an officer of the common
pleas, whofe bufinefs is to enter all warrants of at¬
torney for plaintiffs and defendants in fuit ; and to in*
rol deeds of bargain and fale, that are acknowledged
in court, or before a judge. His office is likewife to
eft real
Clerke
II
Clermont
Manu-
feript.
C L E [i
eftreat into the exchequer all iflues, fines, eflreats, and
amercements, which grow due to the crown in that
C°CLERKE, Captain Charles, a celebrated Eng-
lifh navigator, was bred up in the navy from his youth,
and was prefent in feveral actions during the wax of
1755. In that between the Bellona and Courageaux
he was in great danger ; for having been ftationed in
the mizen-top on board the former, the malt was car¬
ried overboard by a {hot, and he fell into the fea along
with it *, but, however, was taken up without having
received any injury. When Commodore Byron made
his firft voyage round the world, Mr Clerke (erved on
board his Ihip in quality of a midftiipman * and was af¬
terwards on the American ftation. In tne year 176b,
he failed round the world a fecond time in the Endea¬
vour, on board of which he ferved in the llation of
mafter’s mate j but, during the voyage, fucceeded to
a lieutenancy. He returned in 1775, and was foon
after appointed matter and commander. When Cap¬
tain Cook undertook his laft voyage, Mr Clerke was
appointed captain of the Difcovery *, and in confe-
quence of the death of Captain Cook, natuially fuc¬
ceeded to the fupteme command. He^ did not, how¬
ever, long enjoy his new dignity. Before his depar¬
ture from England, he had manifeft fymptoms of a con-
fumption. Of this difeafe he lingered during the whole
of the voyage 5 and his long refidence in the cold
northern climates cut off all hopes of recovery ; but
though fenfible that the only chance he had of pro¬
longing his life was by a fpeedy return to a warmer
climate, his attention to his duty was fo great, that he
perfevered in fearch of a paffage between the Afiatic
and American continents until every one of the officers
was of opinion that it was impracticable.. He bore his
diltemper with great firmnefs and equanimity, retain¬
ing a good flow of fpints to the laff } and died on the
2 2d of Auguft 1778, in the 38th year of his age, the
Ihip being then within view of the coaft of Karntf-
chatka.
Clerke's IJland lies on the weftern fide of the Ame¬
rican continent, in N. Lat. 63. 15* and E. Long.
169. 30. It was difcovered by Captain Cook in his
lait voyage, but a landing could not be effedted. At
a diilance it appeared to be of confiderable extent, and
to have feveral hills connedted with the low grounds in
fuch a manner as to1 make it look like a group ofiflands.
Near its eaflern extremity is a little ifland remarkable
for having three elevated rocks upon it. Both the'large
and fmall ifland are uninhabited.
CLERMONT, a confiderable, rich, and populous
town of France, in Auvergne, with a biffiop’s fee. I he
cathedral, the public fquares, and the walks, are very
fine. Here is a bridge naturally formed, as they pre¬
tend, by the petrifying quality of a fountain. E. Long.
3. 10. N. Lat. 45. 47.
Clermont Manufcript, is a copy of St Paul’s Epi-
ftles, found in the monaflery of Clermont in France,
and ufed by Beza, together with the Cambridge MS.
in preparing his edition of the New Teftament. This
copy is in the odlavo form, and is written on fine
vellum in Greek and Latin, with lome mutilations.
Beza fuppofes that it is of equal antiquity with the
Cambridge copy •, but both were probably written by
a Latin fcribe in a later period than he afllgns to them.
07 ] c L E >
The various readings of this MS. were communicated Cleromancjr
to Archbiffiop Uffier, and they are preferved by Wal-
ton. The MS. itfelf was in the pofleffion ot Morinusy,
and after his death depofited among the MS. copies of
the Royal Library at Paris, N° 2245.
CLEROMANCY, a kind of divination performed
by the throwing of dice, or little bones j and oblerv-
ing the points, or marks, turned up. The word
comes from xhvgez, “ lot,” and [AeaTiiu, 11 divination.
At Bura, a city of Achaia, was a temple and cele¬
brated oracle of Hercules, where fuch as confulted the
oracle, after praying to the idol, threw four dice, the
points whereof being well {canned by the prieft, he
was fuppofed to draw an anfwer from them.
Something of this kind feems to have been pradifed
with regard to Jonah. .
CLERVAL, a town of France, in the Franche
Comte, feated on the river Doux, belonging to the
houfe of Wirtemburgh, but depends on the crown of
France. E. Long. 5. 57* 25'
CLERVAUX, one of the moil celebrated and finelt
abbeys of France, in Champagne, five miles from Bar-
fur-Aube, and feated in a valley furrounded with woods
and mountains. It is the chief of the Ciftercian or¬
der. Here is the famous Tun of St Bernard, which
will hold 800 tuns of wine. Near this abbey is a fmall
town.
CLESIDES, a Greek painter, about 276 years
before Chrift, in the reign of .Antiochus I. He re¬
venged the injuries he had received from Queen Stra-
tonice, by reprefenting her in the arms of a fiflietman.
However indecent the painter might reprefent the
queen, fixe was drawn with fuch perfonal beauty, that
{he preferved the piece and liberally rewarded the ar-
tift.
CLETHRA. See Botany Index-
CLEVELAND, a diftrift in the north riding of
Yorkshire in England, from whence the noble family
of Fitzroy took the title of duke, but which is now ex-
tindt.
Cleveland, John, an Engliffi poet of fome emi¬
nence in his time, who during the civil war under
Charles I. engaged as a literary champion in the royal
caufe againft the parliamentarians. He died in 1658,
and was much extolled by his party. His works, which,
confift of poems, charadlers, orations, epiftles, &c.
were printed in odlavo in 1677*
CL EVES, the duchy of, a province of the circle of
Weftphalia, in Germany. It is divided into two parts
by the Rhine, and is about 40 miles in length from
eaft to weft, and 20 in breadth from north to fouth.
It is a fine agreeable country, and pretty populous.
The towns are, Cleves the capital, Calcar, Gennet,
Santen, Orfoy, Bureck, and Greit. Thefe lie on the
left fide of the river. On the right, Dayffiurgh, Wefe,
Rees, and Emmerick. There have been great con-
tefts about this duchy, but it now belongs to the king
of Pruffia.
Cleves, a city of Germany, in the duchy ot
Cleves, of which it is the capital. It ftands upon a
pleafant hill, about a mile from the Rhine, with which
it communicates, by means ot a canal which is large
enough for great barges. The caftle ftands upon a
mountain, and, though old, is very agreeable. It was
built in the time of Julius Ctefar. It was taken^by the
C L I [ 198 ] C L I
Client French in 1794* Calvinifts, Lutherans, and Roman
'I Catholics, are all tolerated in this city. E. Long. c.
_ 50. N. Lat. 51. 45.
CLIENT, among the Romans, a citizen who put
himfelf under the protection of fome great man, who
in refpeCt of that relation was called patron.
This patron affifted his client with his protection, in-
tereft, and goods •, and the client gave his vote for his
patron, when he fought any office for himfelf or his
friends. Clients owed refpeCt to their patrons, as thefe
owed them their protection.
The right of patronage was appointed by Romulus,
to unite the rich and poor together, in fuch a manner
as that one might live without contempt and the
other without envy ; but the condition of a client, in
courfe of time, became little elfe than a moderate fla-
-very.
Cliekt is now ufed for a party in a law-fuit, who
has turned over his caufe into the hands of a counfellor
or folicitor.
CLIFFORTIA. See Botany Index.
CLIMACTERIC, among phyficians, (from cli-
tvaBer, “ a ladder”), a critical year in a perfon’s
life.
According to fome, this is every feventh year ; but
others allow only thofe years produced by multiplying
7 by the odd number, 3, 5, 7, and 9, to be climaCVeri-
cal. Thefe years, they fay, bring with them fome
remarkable change with refpeCt to health, life, or for¬
tune : the grand climafteric is the 63d year ; but
fome, making two, add to this the 81ft: the other
remarkable climaClerics are the 7th, 2lft, 35th, 49th,
and 56th.
CLIMATE, or Clime, in Geography, a part of
the furface of the earth, bounded by two circles
parallel to the equator, and of fuch a breadth, as
that the longed day in the parallel neareft the pole
exceeds the longed day in that next the equator by
fome certain fpaces ; viz. half an hour. The word
comes from the Greek kXi^cc, inclinamentum, “ an in¬
clination.”
The beginning of the climate is a parallel circle
wherein the day is the (horted. The end of the
climate, is that wherein the day is the longed. The
climates therefore are reckoned from the equator to
the pole } and are fo many bands, or zones, termi- Climate,
nated by lines parallel to the equator j though, in
ftridlnefs, there are feveral climates in the breadth of
one zone. Each climate only differs from its conti¬
guous ones, in that the longed day in fummer is longer
or fhorter by half an hour in the one place than in the
other. As the climates commence from the equator,
the fird climate at its beginning has its longed day
precifely 12 hours long; at its end, 12 hours and a
half: the fecond, which begins where the fird ends,
viz. at 12 hours and a half, ends at 13 hours; and
fo of the red, as far as the polar circles, where what
the geographers call hour-climates terminate, and month-
climates commence. As an hour-climate is a fpace
compriled between two parallels of the equator, in the
fird of which the longed day exceeds that in the latter
by half an hour; fo the month climate is a fpace ter¬
minated between twm circles parallel to the polar circles,
whofe longed day is longer or diorter than that of its
contiguous one by a month or 30 days.
The ancients, who confined the climates to wffiat
they imagined the habitable parts of the earth, only
allowed of feven. The fird they made to pafs through
Meroe, the fecond through Sienna, the third through
Alexandria, the fourth through Rhodes, the fifth
through Rome, the fixth, through Pontus, and the fe¬
venth through the mouth of the Borydhenes. The
moderns, who have failed further toward the poles,
make 30 climates on each fide ; and, in regard the
obliquity of the fphere makes a little difference in the
length of the longed day, indead of half an hour,
fome of them only make the difference of climates a
quarter.
Vulgarly the term climate is bedowed on any coun¬
try or region differing from another either in refpeft
of the feafons, the quality of the foil, or even the
manners of the inhabitants ; without any regard to ,
the length of the longed day. Abulfeda, an Arabian
author, didinguifhes the fird kind of climates by the
term real climates, and the latter by that of apparent
climates. Varenius gives us a table of 30 climates ;
but without any regard to the refraftion. Ricciolus
furniffies a more accurate one, wherein the refradlions
are allowed for ; an abffraft of which follow's :
Middle
of Clim.
Longeft
Day.
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
12th 30
13 o
J3 3°
14 o
14 3°
15 o
15 3°
Latit.
Middle
of Clim.
Longeft
Day.
Latit.
7- 18 VIII ji6th o
15 36, IX
23 8; x
29 49
35 35
40 32
44 42
XI
XII
XIII
*7
18
r9
20
22
48 15
53 46
57 44
M iddle
of Clim.
XV
XVI
XVII
XIV 124
60 39IXVIH
62 44
065 10
065 54
XIX
XX
Latit.
66' 53
69 30
73 °
78 6
84 o
90 o
Cont.
Light.
31
62
93
124
156
188
North
Night.
Cont.
Light.
27°
58
8?
117
148
180
3°
60
89
120
150
178
South
Night.
28d
59
88
118
149
177
CLIMAX, or Gradation, in Rhetoric, a figure
wherein the word or expreffion which ends the fird
member of a period begins the fecond, and io on ; fo
that every member will make a didinft fentence, tak¬
ing its rife from the next foregoing, till the argument
and period be beautifully finifhed; as in the following
x
gradation of Dr Tillotfon. “ After we have praftifed
good aflions a while, they become eafy ; and when
they are eafy, we begin to take pleafure in them ; and
when they pleafe us, we do them frequently ; and by
frequency of ads, a thing grows into a habit; and con¬
firmed habit is a kind of fecond nature; and fo far as
any
c L I [ 199 1 c L I
Clinch any thing is natural, To far it is neceflary j and we can
II hardly do otherwife ; nay, we do it many times when
Clitoris. j 1 c ’I m
we do not think or it.”
CLINCH, in the fea-language, that part of a cable
which is bended about the ring of the anchor, and then
feizcd or made fall.
CLINCHING, in the fea-language, a kind of flight
caulking ufed at fea, in a profpeft of foul weather,
about the pods : it confifts in driving a little oakum,
into their feams, to prevent the water coming in at
them.
CLINIC, a term applied by the ancient church-hi-
Ilorians to thofe who received baptifm on their death¬
bed.
Clinic Medicine, was particularly ufed for the me¬
thod of vifiting and treating fick perfons in bed, for
the mote exadi difcovery of all the fymptoms of their
difeafe.
CLINIAS, a Pythagorean philofopher, and mufi-
cian, in the 65th Olympiad. He was wont to afluage
his paflion, being very choleric, by his lyre.
CLINOPODIUM, field-basil. See Botany
Index.
C LIO, in Pagan mythology, the firfl of the mufes,
daughter of Jupiter and Mnemofyne. She prefided
over hiflory. She is reprefented crowned with laurels,
holding in one hand a trumpet, and a book in the
other. Sometimes die holds a pleflrum or quill with
a lute. Her name fignifies honour and reputation,
gloria ; and it was her office faithfully to record
the actions of brave and illuflrious heroes. She had
Hyacintha by Pierius, fon of Magnes.
CLIO, in Zoology, a genus of infefts belonging to
the order of vermes mollufca. The body is oblong and
fitted for fwimming •, and it has two membranaceous
wings placed oppofite to each other. The fpecies are
three, principally diflinguifhed by the ffiape of their
vagina, and are all natives of the ocean.
CLIPEUS, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given to
the flat deprefled centronioe, from their refembling a
Ihield. See Centronia.
CLISTHENES, a famous Athenian magiflrate,
the author of the mode of banifhing ambitious citizens
by oftracifm, or writing their names upon a fhell; the
intention was patriotic, but it was abufed like all other
human inftitutions; fome of the worthiefi: citizens of
Athens being thus exiled. He died 510 years before
Chrift.
CLITOMACHUS, the philofopher, flouriffied a-
bout 140 years before Chrift. He W’as born at Car^
thage ; quitted his country at 40 years of age ; and
went to Athens, where he became the difciple and fuc-
ceflfor of Carneades. He compofed many books, but
they are all loft.
CLITORIA. See Botany Index.
■ CLITORIS, in Anatomy, is a part of the external
pudenda, fituated at the angle which the nymphoe form
with each other. Like the penis it has an ere&ion,
and is thought to be the principal feat of venereal
pleafure. The clitoris is of different fizes in different
women ; but in general it is fmall, and covered with
the labia. The preternaturally enlarged clitoris is
what conftitutes an hermaphrodite. When the clito¬
ris is too large, it may be fo extirpated as to remove
the tinneceffary part j but this requires much care, for
a farther extirpation fubje&s the patient to an involun¬
tary difcharge of urine.
CLITUMNUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of
Umbria, on this fide the Apennines. According to
Pliny, it was a fountain confiding of feveral veins, fi¬
tuated between Hifpellum and Spoletium ; which loon
after fwelled into a very large and navigable river,
running from eafl: to well into the Tinia, and both to¬
gether into the Tiber. A river famous for its milk-
white flocks and herds, (Virgil). The god of the ri¬
ver was called Clitumnus.
CLITUS, brother to Alexander the Great’s nurfe,
followed that prince in his cohquefls, and faved his
life by cutting oft' the hand of Rofaces, who held
an axe lifted up to kill him at the paffage of the
Granicus. Alexander, who had a great regard for
him, fome time after invited him to fupper 5 when
Clitus, at the end of the repaft, being heated with
wine, diminiffied the exploits of that prince, in order
to magnify thofe of Philip his father. This fo enraged
Alexander, that he killed him with his own hand ; but
he \ vas afterwards fo afili&ed at it, that he attempted
his own life.
CLIVE, Robert, Lord, fon of Richard Clive, Elq;
of Styche near Drayton in Salop, was born in 1725.
Toward the clofe of the war in 1741, he w>as fent as
a writer in the Eaft India fervice to Madras ; but be¬
ing fonder of the camp than the compting-houfe, he
foon availed himfelf of an opportunity to exchange
his pen for a pair of colours. He firit diftinguilhed
himfelf at the liege of Pondicherry in 1748 ; afted
under Major Laurence at the taking of Devi Cotta in
Panjore, who wrote of his military talents in high
terms} commanded a fmall party for the taking of
Arcot, and afterward defended that place againft the
French j and performed many other exploits, which,
confidering the reiaotenefs of the fcene of adlion,
would require a long detail to render fufficiently in¬
telligible. He was, however, in brief, looked upon
and acknowdedged as the man who firft roufed his
countrymen to fpirited adlion, and raifed their repu¬
tation in the Eaft j fo that when he came over to
England in 1753, he was prefented, by the court of
diredlors, with a rich fword fet with diamonds, as an-
acknowledgment of paft, and an incitement to future,
fervices. Captain Clive returned to India in 1755, as
governor of Fort St David, with the rank of lieutenant-
colonel in the king’s troops ; when as commander of
the company’s troops, he, in conjunftion with Admiral
Watfon, reduced Angria the pirate, and became ma¬
iler of Geria, his capital, with all his accumulated trea-
fure. On the lofs of Calcutta and the well known
barbarity of the foubah Surajah Dowla, they failed to
Bengal $ where they took Fort William, in January
I757 i ancl Colonel Clive defeating the loubah’s*army
foon after, accelerated a peace. Surajah Dowla’s per¬
fidy, however, foon produced frelh hoftilities, which
ended in his ruin j he being totally defeated by Colonel
Clive at the famous battle of Plalley. The next day
the conqueror entered Muxadabad in triumph j and
placed Jaffier Ally Cawn, one of the principal gene¬
rals, on the throne ; the depofed foubah was foon af¬
ter taken, and privately put to death by Jaffier’s fon.
Admiral Watfon died at Calcutta j but Colonel Clive
commanded in Bengal the two fucceeding years j he
was
Clitumnns
11
Clive.
C L O
[ 200 ] C L O
Cloacae was honoured by the Mogul, with the dignity of an
k omrah of the empire ; and was rewarded by the new
— ' . foubah with a grant of lands, or a jaghire, producing
27,0001. a-year. In 1760, he returned to England,
where he received the unanimous thanks of the com¬
pany, was elefted member of parliament for Shrewf-
bury, and was raifed to an Irifh peerage by the title
of Eord Clive Baron of Plaffey. In 1764, frefh diffur-
bances taking place in Bengal, Lord Ciive was efteem-
ed the only man qualified to fettle them, and was ac¬
cordingly again appointed to that prefidency j after be¬
ing honoured with the order of the Bath, and with
the rank of major-general. When he arrived in India,
he exceeded the molt fanguine expectation, in reftor-
ing tranquillity to the province without ftriking a
blow, and fixed the higheft ideas of the Britifh power
in the minds of the natives. He returned home in
1767 j and, in 1772, when a parliamentary inquiry
into the conduCl of the Eaft India company was
agitated, he entered into an able juftification of
himfelf in a mafterly fpeech in the houfe of com¬
mons. He died fuddanly towards the clofe of the
year 1774. . ^
CLOACAE, in antiquity, the common fewers of
Rome, to carry off the dirt and foil of the city into
the Tiber; juftly reckoned among the grand works of
the Romans. The firft common fewer, called Cloaca
Maxima, was built by Tarquinius, fome fay Prifcus,
others Superbus, of huge blocks of ftone joined toge¬
ther without any cement, in the manner of the edi¬
fices of thofe early times j confifting of three rows of
arches one above another, which at length conjoin
and unite together j meafuring in the clear 18 palms
in height, and as many in width. Under thefe arches
they rowed in boats, which made Pliny fay that the
city was fufpended in air, and that they failed beneath
the houfes. Under thefe arches alfo were ways
through which carts loaded with hay could pafs with
eafe. It began in the Forum Romanum •, meafured
300 paces in length j and emptied itfelf between the
temple of Vefta and the Pons Senatorius. There
were as many principal fewers as there were hills.
Pliny concludes their firmnefs and ftrength from their
Handing for fo many ages the fhocks of earthquakes,
the fall of houfes, and the vaft loads and weights mo¬
ved over them.
CLOACINA, the goddefs of jakes and common
fewers, among the Romans.
CLOCK, a machine conftruifled in fuch a manner,
and regulated fo by the uniform motion of a pendulum
(a), as to meafure time, and all its fubdivifions, with
great exaftnefs.
The invention of clocks with wheels is referred to
Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona, who lived in the time
of Lotharius fon of Louis the Dehonnair, on the cre¬
dit of an epitaph quoted by Ughelli, and borrowed by
him from Panvinius. They were at firlt called noc¬
turnal dials, to diftinguiih them from fun-dials, which
ihowed the hour by the fun’s fhadow. Others afcribe
the invention to Boethius, about the year of 510. Mr
Derham makes clock work of a much older Handing j
and ranks Archimedes’s fphere mentioned by Clau-
dian, and that of Pofidonius mentioned by Cicero,
among the machines of this kind : not that either their
form or ufe were the fame with thofe of ours, but that
they had their motion from fome hidden weights or
fprings, with wheels, or pulleys, or fome fuch clock¬
work principle. But be this as it will, it is certain
the art of making clocks, fuch as are now in ufe, was
either firfl invented, or at leaf! retrieved, in Germany,
about 200 years ago. The water-clocks, or clepfy-
drae, and fun-dials, have both a much better claim to
antiquity. The French annals mention one of the for¬
mer kind fent by Aaron, king of Perfia, to Charle¬
magne, about the year 807, which feemed to bear
fome refemblance to the modern clocks: it was of
brafs, and fhowed the hours by twelve little balls of
the fame metal, which fell at the end of each hour,
and in falling ftruck a bell and made it found. There
were alfo figures of 12 cavaliers, wdiich at the end of
each hour came forth at certain apertures or win¬
dows in the fide of the clock, and Ihut them again,
&c.
The invention of pendulum clocks is owing to the
happy induftry of the laft age : the honour of it is dif-
puted by Huygens and Galileo. The former, who
has written a volume on the fubjeft, declares it was
firft put in pra&ice in the year 1657, and the defcrip-
tion thereof printed in 1658. Becher, tfi? iVb^ Tem-
poris dimetiendi Theoria, anno 1680, contends for Ga¬
lileo ; and relates, though at fecond-hand, the whole
hiftory of the invention j adding, that one Trefler,
clock-maker to the then father of the Grand Duke of
Tufcany, made the firft pendulum-clock at Florence,
by direftion of Galileo Galilei a pattern of which
was brought into Holland. The Academy de’l Ci-
mento fay exprefsly, that the application of the pen¬
dulum to the movement of a clock was firft propo-
fed by Galileo, and firft put in pra&ice by his fon
Vincenzo Galilei, in 1649. Be the inventor who he
will, it is certain the invention never flourifhed till it
came into Huygens’s hands, who infifts on it, that if
ever Galileo thought of fuch a thing, he never brought
it to any degree of perfeftion. The firft pendulum-
clock made in England was in the year 1662, by Mr
Fromantil a Dutchman.
Amongft the modern clocks, thofe of Strafhurg and
Lyons are very eminent for the richnefs of their fur¬
niture, and the variety of their motions and figures.
In the firft, a cock claps his wings, and proclaims the
hour ; the angel opens a door, and falutes the virgin ;
and the Holy Spirit defcends on her, &c. In the fe-
cond, two horfemen encounter, and beat the hour on
each other : a door opens, and there appears on the
theatre the Virgin, with Jefus Chrift in her arms j the
Magi, with their retinue, marching in order, and pre-
fenting their gifts ; two trumpeters founding all the
while to proclaim the proceflion. Thefe, however,
are excelled by two lately made by Englilh artifts, and
intended as a prefent from the Eaft India company to
the emperor of China. The clocks we fpeak of are
in the form of chariots, in which are placed, in a fine
attitude,
(a) A balance not unlike the fly of a kitchen-jack was formerly ufed in place of the pendulum.
C L O [ 2C
attitude, a lady, leaning her right hand upon a part
of the chariot, under which is a clock of curious work-
manfhip, little larger than a {lulling, that ftrikes and
repeats, and goes eight days. Upon her finger fits a
bird finely modelled, and fet with diamonds and ru¬
bies, with its w'ings expanded in a flying pofture, and
aftually flutters for a confiderable time on touching a
diamond button below it; the body of the bird (which
contains part of the wheels that in a manner give life
to it) is not the bignefs of the 16th part of an inch.
The lady holds in her left hand a gold tube not much
thicker than a large pin, on the top of which is afmall
round box, to which a circular ornament fet with dia¬
monds not larger than a fixpence is fixed, which goes
round near three hours in a conftant regular motion.
Over the lady’s head, fupported by a fmall fluted pil¬
lar no bigger than a quill, is a double umbrella, under
the larged of which a bell is fixed at a confiderable _di-
ftance from the clock, and feems to have no connexion
with it} but from which a communication is fecretly
conveyed to a hammer, that regularly ftrikes the hour,
and repeats the fame at pleafure, by touching a dia¬
mond button fixed to the clock below. At the feet of
the lady is a gold dog 5 before which from the point
of the chariot are two birds fixed on fpiral fprings ; the
wings and feathers of which are fet with ftones of va¬
rious colours, and appear as if flying away with the
chariot, which, from another fecret motion, is con¬
trived to run in a ftraight, circular, or any other direc¬
tion ; a boy that lays hold of the chariot, behind, feems
alfo to pufh it forward. Above the umbrella are flowers
and ornaments of precious ftones} and it terminates
with a flying dragon fet in the fame manner. The
whole is of gold, molt curioufly executed, and embel-
liftied with rubies and pearls.
Of the general Mechanifm of Clocks, and how they
tneafure Time. The firft figure of Plate CXLVI. is
a profile of a clock : P is a weight that is fufpended
by a rope that winds about the cylinder or barrel C,
which is fixed upon the axis a a ; the pivots bb go into
holes made in the plates TS, TS, in which they turn
freely. Thefe plates are made of brafs or i«n, and are
connefled by means offour pillars ZZ \ and the whole
together is called the frame.
The weight P, if not reftrained, would necefiarily
turn the barrel C with an uniformly accelerated motion,
in the fame manner as if the weight was falling freely
from a height. Eut the barrel is furniihed with a rat¬
chet wheel KK, the right fide of whofe teeth ftrikes
againft: the click, which is fixed wuth a fcrew to the
wheel DD, as reprefented in fig. 2. fo that the a£lion
of the weight is communicated to the wheel DD, the
teeth of which aft upon the teeth of the fmall wheels
which turns upon the pivots cc. The communication
or aUion of one wheel with another is called the pitch¬
ing; a fmall wheel like d is called a pinion, and its teeth
are leaves of the pinion. Several things are requifite
to form a good pitching, the advantages#of which are
obvious in all machinery wdiere teeth and pinions are
employed. The teeth and pinion leaves ftiould be of a
proper ftiape, and perfeftly equal among themfelves j
the fize alfo of the pinion Ihould be of a juft: proportion
tp the wheel afting into it; and its place muft be at a
certain diftance from the wheel, beyond or within
which it will make a bad pitching.
Vol. YE Part I.
)i ] C L Q
The wheel E E is fixed upon the axis of the pinion
d; and the motion communicated to the wheel D D
by the weight is tranfmitted to the pinion d, confe-
quently to the wheel E E, as likewife to the pi¬
nion e and wheel Eh, which moves the pinionj^ upon
the axis of which the crown or balance wdieel G H is
fixed. The pivots of the pinion f play in holes of the
plates LM, which are fixed horizontally to the plates
TS. In a word, the motion begun by the weight is
tranfmitted from the wdieel G H to the palettes I K,
and by means of the fork U X rivetted on the pa¬
lettes, communicates motion to the pendulum A B,
which is fufpended upon the hook A. The pendulum
A B deferibes, round the point A, an arc of a circle
alternately going and returning. If then the pendu¬
lum be once put in motion by a pufh of the hand, the
weight of the pendulum at B will make it return upon
itfelf, and it will continue to go alternately backward
and forward till the refiftance of the air upon the pen¬
dulum, and the fridtion at the point of fufpenfion at A,
deftroys the originally impreffed force. But as, at every
vibration of the pendulum, the teeth of the balance-
wheel GH, aft fo upon the palettes I K (the pivots
upon the axis of thefe palettes play in ttvo holes of the
potence s t), that after one tooth H has communicated
motion to the palette K, that tooth efcapes ; then the
oppofite tooth G adls upon the palette I, and efcapes
in the fame manner ; and thus each tooth of the
wheel efcapes the palettes I K, after having commu¬
nicated their motion to the palettes in fuch a manner
that the pendulum, inftead of being ftopt, continues to
move.
The wheel E E revolves in an ho^r ; the pivot c or
the wheel paffes through the plate,.iand is continued
to r ; upon the pivot is a wheel XNfwith a long focket
faftened in the centre; upon the;' extremity of this
focket r the minute-hand is fixed. The wheel NN
adts upon the wheel O ; the pinion of which p adts
upon the wheel gg, fixed upon a focket which turns
along with the wheel N. This wheel gg makes its re¬
volution in 12 hours, upon the focket of which the
hour-hand is fixed.
From the above defeription it is eafy to fee, 1. That
the weight p turns all the wheels, and at the fame
time continues the motion of the pendulum. 2. That
the quicknefs of the motion of the wheels is determined
by that of the pendulum. 3. That the wheels point
out the parts of time divided by the uniform motion of
the pendulum.
When the cord from which the weight is fufpend¬
ed is entirely run down from off the barrel, it is wound
up again by means of a key, which goes on the fquare
end of the arbor at Qi,by turning it in a contrary di-
redtion from that in which the weight defeends. For
this purpofe, the inclined fide of the teeth of the wheel
R (fig. 2.) removes the click C, fo that the ratchet-
wheel R turns while the wheel D is at reft ; but as
foon as the cord is w’ound up, the click falls in be¬
tween the teeth of the wheel D, and the right fide of
the teeth again adl upon the end of the click, which
obliges the wheel D to turn along with the barrel;
and the fpring A keeps the click between the teeth of
the ratchet-wheel R.
We (hall now explain how time is meafured by the
motion of the pendulum ; and how the wheel E, upon
C c the
Clock.
C L O [ 202 ] C L O
the axis of which the minute-hand is fixed, makes but
one precife revolution in an hour. The vibrations of
a pendulum are performed in a Ihorter or longer time
in proportion to the length of the pendulum itlelf. A
pendulum of 3 feet 84 French lines in length, makes
3600 vibrations in an hour, i. e. each vibration is per¬
formed in a fecond of time, and for that reafon it is
called a fecond pendulum. Eut a pendulum of 9 inches
2^ French lines makes 7200 vibrations in an hour, or
two vibrations in a fecond of time, and is called a half
fecond pendulum. Hence, in confliufting a wheel
whofe revolution muft be performed in a given time,
the time of the vibrations of the pendulum which re¬
gulates its motion mull be conlidered. Suppofing,
then, that the pendulum AB makes 7200 vibrations in
an hour, let us confider how the wheel E fhall take up
an hour in making one revolution. This entirely de¬
pends on the number of teeth in the wheels and pini¬
ons. If the balance-wheel confiils of 30 teeth, it will
turn once in the time that the pendulum makes 60 vi¬
brations ; for at every turn of the wheel, the fame tooth
afts once on the palette I, and once on the palette K,
which occafions two feparate vibrations in the pendu¬
lum; and the wheel having 30 teeth, it occafions twice
30, or 60 vibrations. Confequently, this wheel mufl
perform 120 revolutions in an hour ; becaufe 60 vibra¬
tions, which it occafions at every revolution, are con¬
tained 120 times in 7200, the number of vibrations
performed by the pendulum in an hour. Now, in
order to determine the number of teeth for the wheels
E F, and the pinions eft it mull be remarked, that
one revolution of the wheel E muft turn the pinion e
as many times as the number of teeth in the pinions
is contained in the number of teeth in the wheel.
Thus, if the wheel E contains 72 teeth, and the pi¬
nion e 6, the pinion will make 12 revolutions in the
time that the wheel makes 1; for each tooth of the
wheel drives forward a tooth of the pinion, and when
the 6 teeth of the pinion are moved, a complete re¬
volution is performed ; but the wheel E has by that
time only advanced 6 teeth, and has Hill 66 to ad¬
vance before its revolution be completed, which will
occafion 11 more revolutions of the pinion. For the
fame reafon, the wheel F having 60 teeth, and the
pinion f 6, the pinion will make 10 revolutions while
the rvbeel performs one. Now, the wheel F being
turned by the pinion e, makes 12 revolutions for one
of the wheel E; and the pinion f makes 10 revolu¬
tions for one of the wheel F ; confequently, the pi¬
nion y'performs 10 times 12 or 120 revolutions in
the time the wheel E performs one. But the wheel
G, which is turned by the pinion f, occafions 60 vi¬
brations in the pendulum each time it turns round ;
confequently the wheel G occafions 60 times 120 or
7200 vibrations of the pendulum while the wheel E
performs one revolution; but 7200 is the number of
vibrations made by the pendulum in an hour, and con¬
fequently the wheel E performs but one revolution in
an hour ; and fo of the reft.
From this reafoning, it is eafy to difeover how a
clock may be made to go for any length of time with¬
out being wound up : 1. By increafing the number of
teeth in the wheels : 2. By diminiftiing the number of
teeth in the pinions; 3. By increafing the length of
the cord that fufpends the weight; 4. By increafing
the length of the pendulum; and, 5. By adding to
the number of wheels and pinions. But, in proportion v"
as the time is augmented, if the weight continues the
fame, the force which it communicates to the laft w'heel
GH will be diminilhed.
It only remains to take notice of the number of
teeth in the wheels which turn the hour and minute
hands.
The wheel E performs one revolution in an hour ;
the wheel NN, which is turned by the axis of the
wheel E, muft likewife make only one revolution in
the fame time ; and the minute-hand is fixed to the
focket of this wheel. The wheel N has 30 teeth, and
afts upon the wheel O, which has likewufe 30 teeth,
and the fame diameter; confequently the wheel O
takes one hour to a revolution : now the wdreel O car¬
ries the pinion p, which has 6 teeth, and which a61s
upon the wheel q q ol 72 teeth ; confequently the pi¬
nion p makes 12 revolutions while the wheel qq makes
one, and of courfe the wheel q q takes 12 hours to one
revolution ; and upon the locket of this wheel the
hour-hand is fixed. All that has been faid here con¬
cerning the revolutions of the wheels, &c. is equally
applicable to rvatches as to clocks.
The ingenious Dr Franklin contrived a clock to
fhow the hours,* minutes, and feconds, with only three
wheels and two pinions in the whole movement. The
dial-plate (fig. 3.) has the hours engraven upon it in
fpiral fpaces along tw*o diameters of a circle containing
four times 60 minutes. The index A goes round in
four hours, and counts the minutes from any hour by
which it has pafled to the next following hour. The
time, therefore, in the pofition of the index Ihown in
the figure is either 324 minutes paft XII. III. or VIII.;
and fo in every other quarter of the circle it points to
the number of minutes after the hours which the in¬
dex laft left in its motion. The fmall hand B, in the
arch at top, goes round once in a minute, and fhows
the feconds. The wheel-work of this clock may be
feen in fig. 4. A is the firft or great wheel, contain¬
ing 160 teeth, and going round in four hours with the
index A in fig. 3. let down by a hole on its axis. This
wheel turns a pinion B of 10 leaves, which therefore
goes round in a quarter of an hour. On the axis of
this pinion is the wheel C of 120 teeth; which goes
round in the fame time, and turns a pinion D of
eight leaves round in a minute, with the fecond
hand B of fig. 3. fixed on its axis, and alfo the com¬
mon wheel E of 30 teeth for moving a pendulum
(by palettes) that vibrates feconds, as in a common
clock. This clock is wound up by a line going over
a pulley on the axis of the great wheel, like a common
thirty-hour clock. Many of thefe admirably fimple
machines have been conftru£Ied, wdrich meafure time
exceedingly well. It is fubjeft, however, to the in¬
convenience of requiring frequent winding by drawing
up the weight, and likewife to fome uncertainty as to
the particular hour ftiown by the index A. Mr Fer-
gufon has propofed to remedy thefe inconveniences by
the following conftru£Hon. In the dial-plate of his
clock (fig. 5.) there is an opening, abed, below the
centre, through which appears part of a flat plate, on
which the 12 hours, with their divifions into quarters,
are engraved. This plate turns round in 12 hours;
and the index A points out the true hour, See. B is
the
Clock
/
Plate
ILVII.
C L O [ 203 ] C L O
the minute-hand, which goes round the large circle of
60 minutes whilll the plate abed Ihifts its place one
hour under the fixed index A. There is another open¬
ing, efg, through which the feconds are feen on a
flat moveable ring at the extremity of a fleur-de-lis en¬
graved on the dial-plate. A in fig. 6. is the great
wheel of this clock, containing 120 teeth, and turn¬
ing round in 12 hours. The axis of this wheel bears
the plate of hours, which may be moved by a pin paf-
fing through fmall holes drilled in the plate, without
affe&ing the wheel-work. The great wheel A turns
a pinion B of ten leaves round in an hour, and car¬
ries the minute hand B on its axis round the dial-
plate in the fame time. On this axis is a wheel C of
120 teeth, turning round a pinion D of fix leaves in
three minutes j on the axis of which there is a wheel
E of 90 teeth, that keeps a pendulum in motion, vi¬
brating feconds by palettes, as in a common clock,
when the pendulum-wheel has only 30 teeth, and goes
round in a minute. In order to fhow the feconds by
this clock, a thin plate mufl: be divided into three
times fixty, or 180 equal parts, and numbered 10, 20,
30, 40, 50, 60, three times fucceflively $ and fixed on
the fame axis with the wheel of 90 teeth, fo as to
turn round near the back of the dial-plate and thefe
divifions will fliow the feconds through the opening
e f S fig* 5* This clock will go a week without
winding, and always ftrow the precife hour \ but this
clock, as Mr Fergufon candidly acknowledges, has two
difadvantages of which Dr Franklin’s clock is free.
When the minute-hand B is adjufted, the hour-plate
mufl: alfo be fet right by means of a pin ; and the fmall-
tiefs of the teeth in the pendulum-wdieel will caufe the
pendulum ball to deferibe but fmall arcs in its vibra¬
tions •, and therefore the momentum of the ball will be
lefs, and the times of the vibrations will be more affec¬
ted by any unequal impulfe of the pendulum-wheel on
the palettes. Befides, the weight of the flat ring on
which the feconds are engraved will load the pivots of
the axis of the pendulum-wheel with a great deal of
fridlion, which ought by all poflible means to be avoid¬
ed. To remedy this inconvenience, the fecond plate
might be omitted.
A clock fimilar to Dr Franklin’s was made in Lin-
colnfhire about the end of laft century or beginning of
this ; and is now in London in the poffefllon of a
grandfon of the perfon who made it.
A clock, fliowung the apparent diurnal motions of
the fun and moon, the age and phafes of the moon,
with the time of her coming to the meridian, and the
times of high and low water, by having only two
wheels and a pinion added to the common movement,
was contrived by Mr Fergufon, and deferibed in his Se-
letf Exercifes. The dial-plate of this clock (fig. 7.)
contains all the twenty-four hours, of the day and night.
S is the fun, which ferves as an hour index by going
round the dial-plate in twrenty-four hours; and M is
the moon, which goes round in twenty-four hours fifty
minutes and a half, the time of her going round in the
heavens from one meridian to the fame meridian again.
I he fun is fixed to a circular plate (fee fig. 8.) and
carried round by the motion of that plate on which the
twenty-four hours are engraven ; and within them is a
circle divided into twenty-nine and a half equal parts
ior the days of the moon’s age, reckoning from new
moon to new moon ; and each day ftands diredlly tin- Clock,
der the time, in the twenty-four hour circle of the "'v'—
moon’s coming to the meridian 5 the XII under the
fun Handing for noon, and the oppofite XII for mid¬
night. The moon M is fixed to another circular plate
(fig. 6.) of the fame diameter with that which carries
the fun, part of wdtich may be feen through the open¬
ing, over which the fmall wires r and b pafs in the
moon-plate. The wire a fhow^s the moon’s age and
time of her coming to the meridian, and b (hows the
time of high-water for that day in the fun-plate. The
diftance of thefe wires anfwers to the difference of time
between the moon’s coming to the meridian and high-
water at the place for which the clock is made. At
London their difl’erence is twro hours and a half.
Above the moon-plate there is a fixed plate N, fup-
ported by a wire A, joined to it at one end, and fixed at
right angles into the dial-plate at the midnight XII.
This plate may reprefent the earth, and the dot L
London, or the place to which the clock is adapted.
Around this plate there is an elliptic fhade on the
moon-plate, the higheft points of wdiich are marked
high-water, and the kwveft low-water. As this plate
turns round belowT the plate N, thefe points come fuc¬
ceflively even with L, and Hand over it at the times
when it is high or 1owt water at the given place $
which times are pointed by the fun S on the dial-
plate ; and the plate H above XII at noon rifes or
falls wuth the tide. As the fun S goes round the dial-
plate in twenty-four hours, and the moon M in twenty-
four hours fifty minutes and a half, it is plain that the
moon makes only twenty-eight revolutions and a half,
whilft the fun makes twmnty-nine and a half; fo that
it will be twenty-nine days and a half from conjunc¬
tion to conjunftion. And thus the wrire a fluffs over
one day of the moon’s age on the fun-plate in twenty-
four hours. The phafes of the moon for every day of
her age may be feen through a round hole tn in the
moon-plate : thus, at conjunction or new-moon, the
whole fpace feen through m is black ; at oppofition or
full moon this fpace is white \ at either quadrature
half black and half white ; and at every pofition the
white part refembles the vifible part of the moon for
every day of her age. The black (haded fpace Nf¥l
(fig. 8.) on the fun-plate ferves for thefe appearances.
N reprefents the new moon, F the full moon, and/
her firft quarter, and / her laft quarter, &.c. The
wheel-wrork and tide-work of this clock are repre-
fented in fig. 9. A and B are two wheels of equal
diameters: A has fifty-feven teeth, with a hollow axis
that paffes through the dial of the clock, and carries
the fun-plate with the fun S. B has fifty-nine teeth,
with a folid fpindle for its axis, which turns within the
hollow axis of A, and carries the moon-plate with the
moon M: both wheels are turned round by a pinion
C of nineteen leaves, and this pinion is turned round
by the common clock-work in eight hours $ and as
nineteen is the third part of fifty-feven, the wheel A
will go round in twenty-four hours ; and the wheel B
in twenty-four hours fifty minutes and a half: fifty-
feven being to twenty-four as fifty-nine to twenty-font
hours fifty minutes and a half very nearly. On the
back of the wheel B is fixed an elliptical ring D, which,
in its revolution, raifes and lets down a lever EF, whofe
centre of motion is on a'pin at F j and this, by the up-
C c 2 right
G L O [ 204 ] C L O
Clock, right bar G, raifes and lets down the tide-plate H
''1 twice in the time of the moon’s revolving from the me¬
ridian to the meridian again : this plate moves between
/ four rollers R, R, R, R. A clock of this kind was
adapted by Mr Fergufon to the movement of an old
watch : the great wheel of a watch goes round in four
hours j on the axis of this he fixed a wheel of twenty
teeth, to turn a wheel of forty teeth on the axis of the
pinion C } by which means that pinion was turned
round in eight hours, the wheel A in twenty-four, and
the wheel B in twenty-four hours fifty minutes and a
half.
To this article we {hall fubjoin a brief account of
two curious contrivances. The firft, for giving motion
to the parts of a clock by making it to defcend along
an inclined plane, is the invention of Mr Maurice
Wheeler 5 the clock itfelf was formerly feen in Don
Plate Saltero’s coffee-houfe at Chelfea. DE, fig. 10. is the
CXLVIII. inclined plane on which the clock ABC defcends;
this confifts externally of a hoop about an inch broad,
and two fides or plates {landing out beyond the hoop
about one-eighth of an inch all round, wdth indented
edges, that the clock may not Aide, but turn round
whilft it moves down. One of thefe plates is infcribed
with the twenty-four hours, which pafs fucceffively
under the index LP, fig. 11. which is always in a pofi-
tion perpendicular to the horizon, and {hows the hour
on the top of the machine : for this reafon the lower
part of the index, or HL, is heavieft, that it may pre¬
ponderate the other HP, and always keep it pendu¬
lous, with its point to the vertical hour, as the move¬
ment goes on. Inftead of this index, an image may
be fixed for ornament on the axis g, which with an
ere£led finger performs the office of an index. In or¬
der to defcribe the internal part or mechanifm of this
clock, let LETQ^be the external circumference of
the hoop, and ff the fame plate, on wdiich is placed
the train of wheel-work 1, 2, 3, 4, which is much the
fame as in other clocks, and is governed by a balance
and regulator as in them. But there is no need of a
fpring and fufec in this clock 5 their effects being
otherwife anfwered, as we {hall fee. In this machine
the great wheel of 1 is placed in the centre, or upon the
axis of the movement, and the other wheels and parts
towards one fide, which would therefore prove a bias
to the body of the clock, and caufe it to move, even
on a horizontal plane, for fome fiiort diftance : this
makes it necefiary to fix a thin plate of lead at C, on
the oppofite part of the hoop, to reftore the equilibrium
of the movement. This being done, the machine rvill
nbide at reft in any pofition on the horizontal plane
HH 5 but if that plane be changed into the inclined
plane DE, it will touch it in the point D ; but it
cannot reft there, becaufe the centre of gravity at M
afting in the direction MI, and the point T having
nothing to fupport it, muft continually defcend, and
carry the body down the plane. But now if any
Weight P be fixed on the other fide of the machine,
fuch as {hall remove the centre of gravity from M to
the point V in the line LD which pafles through the
point D, it will then reft upon the inclined plane, as
m the cafe of the rolling cylinder. If this weight
P be fuppofed not fixed, but fufpended at the end of
an arm, or veftis, which arm or lever is at the fame
lime faftened to a centrical wheel 1, moving on the axis
M of the machine, which wheel by its teeth {hall com- Clock,
municate with the train of wheels, &c. on the other v—'\r-
fide, and the power of the wreight be juft equal to the
fridlion or refiftance of the train, it will remain motion-
lefs as it did before when it was fixed j and confe-
quently the clock alfo wdll be at reft on the inclined
plane. But fuppofing the power of the weight P to
be fuperior to the refiftance of the train, it will then
put it into motion, and of courfe the clock likewife $
which will then commence a motion dowm the plane ’y
while the weight P, its vedtis PM, and the wheel 1,
all conftantly retain the fame pofition which they have
at firft when the clock begins to move. Hence it is
eafy to underftand, that the weight P may have fuch
an intrinfic gravity as fhall caufe it to a£t upon the
train with any required force, fo as to produce a mo¬
tion in the machine of any required velocity j fuch, for
inftance, as {hall carry it once round in twenty-four
hours : then, if the diameters of the plates ABC be
four inches, it wall defcribe the length of their circum¬
ference, viz. 12,56 inches, in one natural day j and
therefore, if the plane be of a fufficient breadth, fuch
a clock may go feveral days, and would furnifh a
perpetual motion, if the plane wTere infinitely ex¬
tended. Let SD be drawn through M perpendicular
to the inclined plane in the point D ; alfo let LD be
perpendicular to the horizontal line HH, paffing
through D ; then is the angle HDErrLDS—DMT j
whence it follows that the greater the angle of the
plane’s elevation is, the greater will be the arch DT j
and confequently the further will the common centre
of gravity be removed from M ; therefore ,the powrer
of P will be augmented, and of courfe the motion of
the whole machine accelerated. Thus it appears, that
by duly adjufting the intrinfic weight of P, at firft to
produce a motion {bowing the mean time as near as
poffible, the time may be afterwards corrected, or the
clock made to go fafter or flower by railing or depref-
fing the plane, by means of the fcrew at S. The an¬
gle to which the plane is firft railed is about ten de¬
grees. The marquis of Worcefter is alfo faid to have
contrived a wratch that moved on a declivity. See
farther Phil. Pranf. Ahr. vol. i. p. 468, &c. or N*
161.
The other contrivance is that of M. de Gennes for
making a clock afcend on an inclined plane. To this
end let ABC (fig. 12.) be the machine on the inclined
plane EDE, and let it be kept at reft upon it, or in
equilibrio by the weight P at the end of the lever PM.
The circular area CF is one end of a fpring barrel in
the middle of the movement, in which is included a
fpring as in a common w7atch. To this end of the
barrel the arm or lever PM is fixed upon the centre M$
and thus, when the clock is wound up, the fpring
moves the barrel, and therefore the lever and weight P
in the fituation PM. In doing this, the centre of
gravity is conftantly removed farther from the centre
of the" machine, and therefore it muft determine the
clock to move upwards, wffiich it will continue to do
as long as the fpring is unbending itfelf ; and thus the
weight and its lever PM will preferve the fituation they
firft have, and to do the office of a chain and fufee.
Phil. Pranf. N° 140. or Abridg. vol. i. p. 467.
By flat. 9 and 10 W. III. cap. 28. § 2. no perfon
{hall export, or endeavour to export out of this king¬
dom.
C L O
Clock.
Plate
CXLVIII.
fi£. 13.
dom, any outward or inward box-cafe or dial-plate, of
’ gold, lilver, brafs, or other metal, for clock or watch,
without the movement in or with every fuch box, &c.
made up fit for ufe, with the maker’s name engraven
thereon ; nor fhall any perfon make up any clock or
watch without putting his name and place of abode
or freedom, and no other name or place, on every
clock or watch; on penalty of forfeiting every fuch
box, cafe, and dial-plate, clotk and wratch, not made
up and engraven as aforefaid; and 20I. one moiety
to the king, the other to thofe that fhall fue for the
fame.
Qlocks, portable, or pocket, commonly denominated
Watches. See the article Watch.
CioCK-lVork, properly fo called, is that part of the
movement which ftrikes the hours, &c. on a bell $ in
contradiftindtion to that part of the movement of a
clock or watch which is defigned to meafure and ex¬
hibit the time on a dial-plate, and which is termed
IVatch-work.
I. Of the C/or^-part. The wheels compofing this
part are : The great or firft wheel H, which is moved
by the weight or fpring at the barrel G : in fixteen or
thirty-hour clocks, this has ufually pins, and is called
the pin-wheel; in eight-day pieces, the fecond wheel
I is commonly the pin-wrheel, or flriking-wheel, which
is moved by the former. Next the ftriking-wheel is
the detent-wheel, or hoop-wheel K, having a hoop
almoft round it, wherein is a vacancy at which the
clock locks. The next is the third or fourth wheel,
according to its diftance from the firft, called the warn¬
ing-wheel L. The laft is the flying pinion Q^with a
fly or fan, to gather air, and fo bridle the rapidity
of the clock’s motion. To thefe muft be added the
pinion of report, which drives round the locking-
wheel, called alfo the count-wheel; ordinarily with ele¬
ven notches in it, unequally diftant, to make the clock
ftrike the hours.
Befides the wheels, to the clock part belongs the
raflr or ratch; a kind of wheel with twelve large fangs,
running concentrical to the dial-wheel, and ferving to
lift up the detents every hour, and make the clock
ftrike : the detents or flops, which being lifted up
and let fall, lock and unlock the clock in ftriking;
the hammer, as S, which ftrikes the bell R j the ham¬
mer-tails, as T, by which the ftriking pins draw back
the hammers; latches, whereby the wmrk is lifted up
and unlocked : and lifting-pieces, as P, which lift up
and unlock the detents.
The method of calculating the numbers of a piece
of clock-work having fomething in it very entertain¬
ing, and at the fame time very eafy and ufeful, we
{hall give our readers the rules relating thereto: 1. Re¬
gard here needs only be had to the counting-wheel,
ftriking-wheel, and detent-wheel, which move round
in this proportion : the court-wheel commonly goes
round once in 12 or 24 hours j the detent wheel moves
round every ftroke the clock ftrikes, or fometimes but
once in two ftrokes : wherefore it follows, that, 2.
As many pins as are in the pin-wheel, fo many turns
hath the detent-wheel in one turn of the pin-wheel ;
or, which is the fame, the pins of the pin-wheel are
the quotients of that wheel divided by the pinion of
the detent-wheel. But if the detent-wheel moves but
once round in two ftrokes of the clock, then the faid
[ 205 1
C L O
8) 48 ( 6.
6)
6)
6)
78
60
48
C1*-
(10.
( 8-
quotient is but half the number of pins. 3. As many
turns of the pin-wheel as are required to perform the'
ftrokes of 12 hours (which are 78), fo many turns muft
the pinion of report have to turn round the count-wfheel
once $ or thus the quotient of 78, divided by the num¬
ber of ftriking-pins, {hall be the quotient for the pi¬
nion of report and the count-wheel; and this is in
cafe the pinion of report be fixed to the arbor of the
pin-wheel, which is commonly done.
An example will make all plain: The locking-wheel
being 48, the pinion of report 8, the
pin-wheel 78, the ftriking pins are 13,
and fo of the reft. Note alfo, that 78
divided by 13 gives 6, the quotient of
the pinion of report. As for the warn¬
ing-wheel and fly-wheel, it matters lit¬
tle what numbers they have j their ufe
being only to bridle the rapidity of the
motion of the other wheels.
The following rules will be of great fervice in this
calculation. 1. Toy£W how many Jlrokes a clockJlrikes
in one turn of the fufce or barrel: As the turns of the
great wheel or fufee are to the days of the clock’s
continuance } fo is the number of ftrokes in 24 hours,
viz. 156, to the ftrokes of one turn of the fufee.
2. To find how many days a clock will go ) As the
ftrokes in 24 hours are to thofe in one turn of the fu¬
fee ; fo are the turns of the fufee to the days of the
clock’s going.
3. To fnd the number of turns of the fufee or barrel:
As the ftrokes in one turn of the fufee are to thofe of
24 hours 3 fo is the clock’s continuance to the turns of
the fufee or great wheel.
4. To find the number of leaves in the pinion of re¬
port on the axis of the great wheel: As the number of
ftrokes in the clock’s continuance is to the turns of the
fufee 3 fo are the ftrokes in 1 2 hours, viz. 78, to the
quotient of the pinion of report fixed on the arbor of
the great w'heel.
5. To find the firokes in the clock's continuance: As 12
is to 78 3 fo are the hours of the clock’s continuance
to the number of ftrokes in that time.
By means of the following table, clocks and
watches may be fo regulated as to meafure true equal
time.
The ftars make 366 revolutions from
any point of the compafs to the fame
""point again in 365 days and one
minute 3 and therefore they gain a
365th of a revolution every 24 hours
of mean folar time, near enough for
regulating any clock or watch.
This acceleration is at the rate of
3 min. 55 fee. 53 thirds, 59 fourths
in 24 hours 5 or in the neareft round
numbers, 3 minutes, 56 feconds 3 by
which quantity of time every ftar
comes round fooner than it did on the
day before.
Therefore if you mark the precife
moment fhown by a clock or watch
when any ftar vanifhes behind a chim¬
ney, or any other objeft, as feen
through a fmall hole in a thin plate
of metal, fixed in a window-fhutter 3
\
Clock.
U
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
H
15
16
J7
H.M. S.
3
7
11
23
27
31
35
39
43
47
51
55
59
2
6
5^
52
44
40.
36
32
28
24
20
16
12
8
4
o
56
52
ig
C L O
and do this for feveral nights fuccef-
fively (as fuppofe twenty); if, at the
end of that time, the ftar vaniihes as
much fooner than it did the firft night,
by the clock, as anfwers to the time
denoted in the table for fo many days,
the clock goes true; otherwife not.
If the difference between the clock
and ftar be lefs than the table fhows,
the clock goes too fart; if greater,
it goes too flow ; and muft be re¬
gulated accordingly, by letting down
or raifing up the ball of the pendulum,
by little and little, by turning the
fcr cw-nut under the ball, till you find
it keeps true equal time.
Thus fuppofing the ftar fliould difappear behind a
chimney, any night when it is XII. by the clock; and
that, on the 20th night afterward, the fame ftar
fliould difappear when the time is 41 minutes 2 2 fe-
conds part X, by the clock ; which being fubtradted
from 12 hours o min. o. fee. leaves remaining 1 hour
18 minutes 40 feconds for the time the ftar is then
fafter than the clock : look in the table, and againft
2o, in the left-hand column, you will find the acce¬
leration of the ftar to be I hour 18 min. 40 fee.
agreeing exadlly with what the difference ought to be
between the clock and ftar ; which fliows that the
clock meafures true equal time, and agrees with the
mean folar time, as it ought to do.
II. Of the IVatch-yarX. of a clock or watch. This
is that part of the movement which is defigned to
meafure and exhibit the time on a dial-plate ; in con-
tradiftindlion to that part which contributes to the
ftriking of the hour, &c.
The feveral members of the tvatch-part are, 1. The
balance, confifting of the rim, which is its circular part;
and the verge, which is its fpindle ; to which belong
two palettes or leaves, that play in the teeth of the
crown-wheel. 2. The potence, or pottance, which
is the ftrong ftud in pocket-watches, wheron the lower
pivot of the verge plays, and in the middle of which
one pivot of the balance-wheel plays; the bottom of
the pottance is called the foot, the middle part the
nofe, and the upper part the (boulder. 3. The cock,
which is the piece covering the balance. 4. The re¬
gulator, or pendulum fpring, which is the fmall fpring,
in the new pocket-watches, underneath the balance.
5. The pendulum (fig. 13); whofe parts are, the verge
«•, palettes 5, 5, cocks yyy, the rod, the fork z, the
flatt 2, the bob or great ball 3, and the cori"e<ftor or
regulator, 4, being a contrivance of Dr Derham for
bringing the pendulum to its nice vibrations. 6. The
w'heels, which are the crown-wheel F in pocket-
pieces, and fwing-wheel in pendulums; ferving to
drive the balance or pendulum. 7. The contrate-wheel
E, which is that next the crown-wheel, &c. and
whofe teeth and hoop lie contrary to thofe of other
wheels; whence the name. 8. The great, or firft
wheel C ; which is that the fufee B, &c. immediately
drives, by means of the chain or firing of the fpring-
box or barrel A ; after which are the fecond wheel
D, third wheel, &c. Laftly, between the frame and
chal-plate, is the pinion of report, which is that fixed
G L O
on the arbor of the great wheel ; and ferves to drive Clock,
the dial wheel, as that ferves to carry the hand.
For the illuftration of this part of the work which lies
concealed, let ABC (fig. 14.) reprefent the uppermoft
fide of the frame-plate, as it appears when detached
from the dial-plate: the middle of this plate is perforated
wdth a hole, receiving that end of the arbor of the
centre wheel which carries the minute hand; near
the plate is fixed the pinion of report a of 10 teeth ;
this drives a wheel cd of 4c teeth ; this wheel carries
a pinion e f of 1 2 teeth ; and this again drives a wheel
g h with 36 teeth.
As in the body of the watch the wdreels every
where divide the pinions ; here, on the contrary, the
pinions divide the wheels, and by that means dimi-
nilh the motion, which is here neceflary ; for the hour
hand, which is carried on a focket fixed on the wheel
gh, is required to move but once round, while the
pinion a b moves twelve times round. For this pur-
pofe the motion of the wheel c r/ is ^ of the pinion a b.
Again, while the wheel c d, or the pinion ef, goes
once round, it turns the udreel g h but -f part round ;
confequently the motion of gh is but y of ^ of the mo¬
tion oi ab ; but of ^ is TV *• e. the hour-wheel g h
moves once round in the time that the pinion of re¬
port, on the arbor of the centre of the minute wheel,
makes 12 revolutions, as required. Hence the ftruc-
ture of that part of a clock or watch which (hows the
time may be eafily underftood.
The cylinder A (fig. 13.) put into motion by a
weight or inclofed fpring moves the fufee B, and the
great wheel C, to which it is fixed by the line or cord
that goes round each, and anfwers to the chain of a
watch.
The method of calculation is eafily underftood by
the fequel of this article ; for, fuppofe the great wheel
C goes round once in 12 hours, then if it be a royal
pendulum clock, vibrating feconds, we have 60 X 60 X 12
=43 200 feconds or beats in one turn of the great
wdieel. But becaufe there are 60 fwings or feconds
in one minute, and the feconds are ftiown by an index
on the end of the arbor of the fwing-wheel, which in
thofe clocks is in an horizontal pofition ; therefore, it
is neceffary that the fwing-wheel F (hould have 30 teeth;
wftience 2^°°—720, the number to be broken into
quotients for finding the number of teeth for the other
wdieels and pinions.
In fpring-clocks, the difpofition of the wheels in
the wTatch part is fuch as is here reprefented in the fi¬
gure, where the crown-wheel F is in an horizontal po¬
fition ; the feconds not being ftiown there by an index,
as is done in the large pendulum clocks. Whence in
thefe clocks the wheels are difpofed in a different man¬
ner, as reprefented in fig. 14. where C is the great wheel,
and D the centre or. minute wheel, as before: but
the contrate wheel E is placed on one fide, and F the
fwing-wheel is placed with its centre in the fame per¬
pendicular line GH with the minute-wheel, and with
its plane perpendicular to the horizon, as are all the
others. Thus the minute and hour hands turn on
the end of the arbor of the minute-wheel at a, and
the fecond hand on the arbor of the fwing-wheel
at b.
Theory and calculation of the Watch-part t as laid down
h
[ 206 ]
Clock.
tt
w
18
*9
20
21
22
23
H.M. S.
10 48
14 44
18 40
22 36
26 32
30 28
24| 1 34 24
25
26
27
28
29
30
38 20
42 16
46 12
50 8
54 4
58 o
1
C L O
[ 207 ]
C L O
Clock, by the Rev. Dr Derham.—i. The fame motion, it Is
—-V •' evident, may be performed either by one wheel and
one pinion, or many wheels and many pinions 5 pro¬
vided the number of turns of all the wheels bear tne
proportion to all the pinions which that one wheel
bears to its pinion : or, which is the fame thing, if
the number produced by multiplying all the wheels
together be to the number produced by multiplying
all the pinions together, as that one wheel to that
one pinion. Thus, fuppofe you had occalion for a
wheel of 1440 teeth, with a pinion of 28 leaves 5
you make it into three w’heels of 36, 8, and 5, and
three pinions of 4, 7> an<^ *• ^ 01 ''■heels,
36, 8, and 5, multiplied together, give 1440 for the
wheels, and the three pinions 4, 7, and 1, multiplied
together, give 28 for the pinions. Add, that it mat¬
ters not in wdiat order the wheels and pinions are fet,
or which pinion runs in which wdieel 5 only, for con¬
venience fake, the biggeft numbers are commonly put
to drive the reft.
2. Two wheels and pinions of different numbers
may perform the fame motion. Thus, a wheel of 36
drives a pinion of 4 j the fame as a wheel of 45 a P*"
nion of 5*, or a wheel of 90 a pinion of 10; the
turns of each being 9.
3. If, in breaking the train into parcels, any of
the quotients ftrould not be liked ; or if any other two
numbers, to be multiplied together, are defired to be
varied 5 it may be done by this rule. Divide the two
numbers by any other two numbers which will mea-
fure them ; multiply the quotients by the alternate di-
vifors; the produft of thefe two laft numbers found
will be equal to the produft of the two numbers ^ firft
given. Thus, if you wmuld vary 46 times 8, divide
thefe by any two numbers which will evenly meafure
them : fo, 36 by 4 gives 9 ; and 8 by 1 gives 8 ;
now, by the rule, 9 times I is 9* an£i ^ times 4 is
fo that for 36 X 8, you have 32X9; each equal to 288,
If you divide 36 by 6 and 8 by 2, and multiply as
before, you have 24x12=36x8=288.
4. If a wheel and pinion fall out with crofs num¬
bers, too big to be cut in wheels, and yet not to be
altered by thefe rules ; in Peeking for the pinion of re¬
port, find two numbers of the fame, or a near pro¬
portion, by this rule : as either of the two given num¬
bers is to the other, fo is 360 to a fourth. Divide
that fourth number, as alfo 360, by 4, 5» 6’ 8, 9, 10,
12, 15 (each of which numbers exaflly meafures 360),
or by any of thofe numbers that bring a quotient
neareft to an integer. As fuppofe you had 147 for
the wheel, and 170 for the pinion ; which are too
great to be cut into fmall wheels, and yet cannot be
reduced into lefs, as having no other common meaiure
but unity ; fay, as 170 : 147 : : 360 : 311. Or, as 147 :
170 : : 360 : 4x6. Divide the fourth number and
360 by one of the foregoing numbers-, as 311 and
360 by 6, it gives 52 and 60 ; divide them by 8,
you have 39 and 45 5 and ^ you divide 360 and 416
by 8, you have 45 and 52 exaftly. Wherefore, inftead
of the two numbers 147 and I7°j you may take 5 2 and
60, or 39 and 45, or 45 and 52, &c.
3. To come to praftice in calculating a piece of
watch-work : Firft pitch on the train or beats of the
balance in an hour as, whether a fwift one of about
20,000 beats (the ufual train of a common 30 honr
pocket-watch), or a florver of about 16 OOO (the tram
of the new pendulum pocket-rvatches), or any other
train. Next, refolye on the number of turns the fu- .
fee is intended to have, and the number of hours the
piece is to go : fuppofe, e. gr. 12 turns, and to go 30
hours, or 192 hours (i. e. 8 days), &c. Proceed now
to find the beats of the balance or pendulum in one
turn of the fufee-, thus in numbers ; 12 : 16 : : 20000:
26666. Wherefore, 26666 are the beats in one turn
of the fufee or great wheel, and are equal to the quo¬
tients of all the wheels unto the balance multiplied to¬
gether. Now this number is to be broken into a con¬
venient parcel of quotients 5 which is to be done thus :
firft, halve the number of beats, viz. 26666, and you
have 13233 y then pitch on the number of the crown¬
wheel,‘fuppofe 17 : divide 13333 by 17, and you have
784 for the quotient (or turns) of the reft of the
wheels and pinions ; which, being too big for one or
two quotients, may be belt broken into three. Choofe
therefore three numbers j w-hich, when multiplied all
together continually, will come neareft 784 as fup¬
pofe 10, 9, and 9, multiplied continually, give 810,
which is fomewhat too much ; therefore try again o-
ther numbers, II, 9, 8: thefe, drawn one into ano¬
ther continually, produce 792 ? which is as near as
can be, and is a convenient quotient. Having thus
contrived the piece from the great wheel to the ba¬
lance, but the numbers not falling out exaftly, as you
firft propofed, correft the work thus: firft multiply 792,
the product of all the quotients pitched upon, by 17
(the notches of the crown-wheel) 5 the produft is
1 3464, which is half the number of beats in one turn,
of the fufee : Then find the true number of beats in an
hour. Thus, 16 : 12 : : 13464: 10098, which is half the
beats in an hour. T. hen find wdiat quotient is to be
laid upon the pinion of report (by the rule given under
that word). Thus, 16 : 12 : : 12 : 9, the quotient
of the pinion of report. Haying thus found your
quotients, it is eafy to determine what numbers the
wheels (hall have, for choofing wdiat numbers the pi¬
nions (hall have, and multiplying the pinions by their
Clock.
quotients, the produft is the number (or
the wheels. Thus, the number of the
pinion of report is 4, and its quotient is
9 -, therefore the number for the dial-wheel
muft be 4X9, or 36 : fo the nextr Pini°n
beiag 5, its quotient II, therefore the
great5 wheel muft be 5 X 11 = 55 i and fo o£
the reft
4) 36 ( 9
5)
5)
5)
55
45
40
0*
( 9
( §
17
Such is the method of calculating the numbers of a
16 hour wTatch. Which watch may be made to go
longer by leffening the train, and altering the pinion
of report. Suppoie you could conveniently (lacken the
train to 16000; then fay, As 4- 16000, or 8000:
1 2464 : : 12: 20; fo that this watch will go 20 hours.
Then for the pinion of report, fay (by the rule given
under that word), as 20:12:: 12:7. 00 that 7
is the quotient of the pinion of report. ^ 2g ^ ^
And as to the numbers, the operation is 
the fame as before, only the dial-wheel ^ ^ ^
is but 28 ; for its quotient is altered to 7- r) 45 ( 9
If you would give numbers to a watch ot < 40 j 8
about 10,000 beats in an hour, to have 12
turns of’the fufee, to go 170 hours, and
17 notches in the crown-wheel; the work
rs
C L O [20
Clock, is the fame, in a manner, as in the laft example : and
confequently thus : as 12: 170:: 10000: 141666,
which fourth number is the beats in one turn of the
fufeej its half, 70833, being divided by 17, gives
4167 for the quotient; and becaufe this number is too
big for three quotients, therefore choofe four, as 10,
8, 8, 6f 5 whole product into 17 makes 71808, near¬
ly equal to half the true beats in one turn of the fu-
fee. Then fay, as 170 : 12 : 71808 : 5o69, which is
half the true train of your watch. And again, 170 :
j 2 : : 12: tlle denominator of which expreffes
the pinion of report, and the numerator is the num¬
ber of the dial-wheel. But thefe numbers being too
big to be cut in fmall wheels, they muft be varied by
the fourth rule above. I hus :
As 144 : 170 : : 360 : 425 :
Or 170: 144: : 360: 305.
24) 20 (4f Then dividing 360, and either ol theie
    two fourth proportionals (as direfted by
6) 60 (10 the rule), Ihppofe by 15 ; you will have
6) 48 ( 8 44 or If ; then the numbers of the whole
5) 40 ( 8 movement will Hand as in the margin.
5) S3 ( 6r Such Is t1ie calculation of ordinary
' watches, to fhow the hour of the day :
17 in fuch as (how minutes, and feconds, the
procefs is thus :
1. Having refolved on the beats in an hour j by di¬
viding the defigned train by 60, find the beats in a
minute 5 and accordingly, find proper numbers for the
crown-wheel and quotients, fo as that the minute-
wheel (hall go round once in an hour, and the fecond
wheel once in a minute.
Suppofe, you ftiall choofe a pendulum of feven
inches, which vibrates 142 ftrokes in a minute, and
8520 in an hour. Half thefe fums are 71, and
4260. Now, the firft work is to break this 71 into
' a good proportion, which will fall into one quotient,
and the crowm-wheel. Let the crown-wheel have 15
notches j then 71, divided by 15, gives nearly 5 5 fo
a crown-wheel of 15, and a wheel and pinion whofe
quotient is 5, will go round in a minute to carry a
hand to (how feconds. For a hand to go
8) 40 ( 5 round in an hour to fliow minutes, becaufe
- there are 60 minutes in an hour, it is but
13 breaking 60 into good quotients (fuppofe
10 and 6, or 8 and 74 &c.) : and it is
8) 64 ( 8 done. Thus, 4260 is broken as near as
8) 60 (74 can be into proper numbers. But fince it
8) 40 ( 5 does not fall out exadlly into the above-
■ mentioned numbers, you muft correct (as
ic before direfted), and find the true number
of beats in an hour, by multiplying 15 by
5, which makes 75 j and 75 by 60 makes 4500, which
is half the true train. Then find the beats in one turn
of the fufee ; thus, 16 : 192 :: 4500 : 54000 5 which
laft is half the beats in one turn of the fufee. This
54000 being divided by 4500 (the true
q) 108 (12 numbers already pitched on), the quo-
8) 64 ( 8 tient will be 12 j which, not being too big
8) 60 (74 for a Angle quotient, needs not be divided
8) 40 ( 5 into more j and the wTork will ftand as in
.   the margin. As to the hour hand, the
iy great wheel, which performs only one re¬
volution in 12 turns of the minute-wheel,
3 ] C L O
will fhow the hour; or it may be done by the minute- Clock,
wheel. > v
It is requifite for thofe who make nice aftronomical
obfervations, to have watches that make fome exaft
number of beats per fecond, without any fra£Hon ; but
we feldom find a watch that does. As four beats per
fecond wTould be a very convenient number, we fhall
here give the train for fuch a watch, which would (like
moft others) go 30 hours, but is to be wound up once
in 24 hours.
The fufee and firft wftieel to go round in four hours.
This wheel has 48 teeth, and it turns a pinion of 12
leaves, on whofe axis is the fecond wheel, which goes
round in one hour, and carries the minute-hand. This
wheel has 60 teeth, and turns a pinion of 10 leaves j
on whofe axis is the third wheel of 60 teeth, turning
a pinion of 6 leaves j on whofe axis is the fourth (or
contrate) wheel, turning round in a minute, and car¬
rying the fmall hand that (hows the feconds, on a
fmall circle on the dial-plate, divided into 60 parts :
this contrate wheel has 48 teeth, and turns a pinion
of 6 leaves j on whofe axis is the crown or balance-
wheel of 15 teeth, which makes 30 beats in each revo¬
lution.
The crown-wheel goes 480 times round in an hour,
and 30 times 480 make 14400, the number of beats
in an hour. But one hour contains 3600 feconds; and
14400 divided by 3600 quotes 4, the required number
of beats in a fecond.
The fufee muft have 74 turns, to let the chain go
fo many times round it. Then, as 1 turn is to 4
hours, fo is 74 turns to 30 hours, the time the watch
would go after it is wound up.
See further the articles Movement, Turn, &c._
And for the hiftory and particular conftru&ion of
Watches properly fo called, fee the article Watch.
CLODIA lex, de Cypro, was enabled by the tri¬
bune Clodius, in the year of Rome 607, to reduce Cy¬
prus into a Roman province, and expofe Ptolemy
king of Egypt to fale in his regal ornaments. It em¬
powered Cato to go with the piaetorean power and
fee the audlion of the king’s goods, and commiftion-
ed him to return the money to Rome. Another, de
Magi/lratibus, 695, by Clodius the tribune. It for¬
bade the cenfors to put a ftigma or mark of infamy
upon any perfon who had not- been abtually accufed
and condemned by both the cenfors. Another, de Re~
ligione, by the fame, 696, to deprive the prieft of Cy-
bele, a native of Peflinuns, of his office, and confer the
priefthood upon Brotigonus, a Gallogrecian. An¬
other, de Provinciis, 695, which nominated the pro¬
vinces of Syria, Babylon, and Perfia, to the conful
Gabinus, and Achaia, Theffaly, Macedon, and Greece,
to his colleague Pifo, with proconfular power. It
empowered them to defray the expences of their
march from the public treafury. Another, 695, which
required the fame diftribution of corn among the
people gratis, as had been given them before at fix
afies and a triens the bufhel. Another, 695, by the
fame, de Judiciis. It called to an account fuch as
had executed a Roman citizen without a judg¬
ment of the people and all the formalities of a trial.
Another, by the fame, to pay no attention to the
appearances of the heavens while any affair was be-
* fore
45
_=—
C L O C X
1’lato CXLVIII
c L O [ 209 ] C L O
Clodius fore the people. Another, to make the power of
li the tribunes free in making and propofing laws.
Cloifter. Another, to re-eftabliih the companies of artifts which
had been inftituted by Numa, but fince his time abo-
liihed.
CLODIUS, Publius, a Roman defcended of an
illuftrious family. He made himfelf famous for his li-
centioufnefs, avarice, and ambition. He committed
inceft with his three lifters, and introduced himfelf in
women’s clothes into the houfe of Julius Caefar, whilft
Pompeia Caefar’s wife, of whom he was enamoured,
was celebrating the myfteries of Ceres, where no man
was permitted to appear. He was accufed for this
violation of human and divine laws j but he made him¬
felf tribune, and by that means fcreened himfelf from
juftice. He defcended from a patrician into a ple¬
beian family to become a tribune. He was fuch an
enemy to Cato, that he made him go with praetorian
power, in an expedition againft Ptolemy king of Cy¬
prus, that by the difficulty of the campaign he might
ruin his reputation, and deftroy his intereft at Rome
during his abfence. Cato, however, by his uncommon
fuccefs fruftrated the defigns of Clodius. He was alfo
an inveterate enemy to Cicero, and by his influence he
banilhed him from Rome, partly on pretence that he
had punilhed with death and without trial the adhe¬
rents of Catiline. He wreaked his vengeance upon Ci¬
cero’s houfe, which he burnt, and fet all his goods to
fale j which, however, to his great mortification, no
one offered to buy. In fpite of Clodius, Cicero was
recalled, and all his goods reftored to him. Clodius
was fome time after murdered by Milo, whofe defence
Cicero took upon himfelf.
CLOGHER, an epifcopal town of Ireland, in the
county of Tyrone, and province of Ulfter. It fends
two members to parliament. In a very early age an
abbey of regular canons, dedicated to the Virgin Mary,
was founded here. St Patrick is faid to have prefided
over the church of Clogher ; and having appointed St
Kertenn to be his fucceffor, he refigned this govern¬
ment, and went to Armagh, where he founded his cele¬
brated abbey. On the 20th of April 1396, a dread¬
ful fire burnt to the ground the church, the two cha¬
pels, the abbey, the court of the bifhops, and thirty-
two other buildings, with all the facerdotal veftments,
utenfils, &c. belonging to the bifhop’s chapter and
church. In the year 1610, on the 24th of July,
whilft George Montgomery was bifhop of Clogher,
King James annexed this abbey and its revenues to
that fee. The fee (valued in the king’s books at 350I.
per annum by extent returned 15th James I.) is repu¬
ted to be worth 4000I. annually. W. Long. 6. 50.
N. Lat. 54. 30.
CLOISTER (Clati/Irum), a habitation furrounded
with walls, and inhabited by canons or religious, &c.
In a more general fenfe, cloifter is ufed for a mo-
naftery of religious of either fex. In a more reftrain-
ed lenfe, cloifter is ufed for the principal part of a re¬
gular monaftery, confiding of a fquare built around j
ordinarily between the church, the chapter-houfe, and
the refeftory, and over which is the dormitory. The
cloifters ferved for feveral purpofes in the ancient mo-
nafteries. Petrus Blefenfis obferves, that it w7as here
the monks held their lectures: the ledture of morali¬
ty at the north fide, next th« church ; the fchool on,
Vol. VI. Part I.
the weft, and the chapter on the eaft ; fpiritual medi¬
tation, &c, being referved for the chrirch. Lanfranc
obferves, that the proper ufe of the cloifter was for
the monks to meet in, and converfe together, at cer¬
tain hours of the day.
The form of the cloifter was fquare; and it had its
name clauftrum, from claudo, “ I ftiut or clofe j” as
being inclofed on its four fides with buildings. Hence,
in architefture, a building is ftill faid to be in form of
a cloifter, when there are buildings on each of the four
fides of the court.
CLONMELL, the affize towrn of the county of
Tipperary in Ireland, is fituated on the river Suir, hath
a barrack for two troops of horfe, and is governed by
a mayor, recorder, bailiffs, and town-clerk. The river
is navigable from this town to Garrick and Waterford j
and there is fome trade carried on here in the woollen
branch, particularly by the Quakers, who are very nu¬
merous in this neighbourhood. There is a fpring here
of Spa wrater, that iffues out of the fide of a rifing
ground, that is, notwithrtanding, overlooked by a
pretty fteep hill, on that fide of the river Suir which
is in the county of Waterford. The cures perform¬
ed by drinking this water in the fcurvy, and other
chronic diftempers, drew thither, fome years ago, a
great refort of people j but faffrion, which reigns with
an abfolute authority, has brought other waters of late
into higher credit. It W'as in this town that the cele¬
brated and reverend Laurence Sterne was born, on the
24th of November 1713. The town confifts of four
crofs ftreets, and has a fpacious bridge of 20 arches
over the river Suir; the market-houfe is ftrong and
well built, and there is a charter-fchool here for forty
children, to which the late John Dawffon, Efq ; and
Sir Charles Moore, Bart, w'ere confiderable benefac¬
tors. A Dominican friary was founded at Clonmel!
in 1269, and dedicated to St Dominick. In the fame
year Otho de Grandifon ere&ed one of the moft mag¬
nificent in Ireland. In it. was kept an image of St
Francis, refpefting the miracles wrought by which
many marvellous ftories are circulated. This town is
very ancient, being built before the invafion of the
Danes : it was formerly defended by a fquare wall.
Oliver Cromwell, who found more refiftanoe from this
place than any other of his conquefts in the kingdom,
demolifhed the caftles and fortifications, of which now-
only the ruins remain : the chief Gothic church here
is ftill kept in good repair. W. Long. 7. 27. N. Lat.
54. 14.
CLOSE, in Heraldry. When any bird is drawn in
a coat of arms with its wings clofe down about it
(i. e. not difplayed), and in a Handing pofture, they
blazon it by this word c/ofe; but if it be flying, they
call it volant. See Volant.
Close, in Mufw. See Cadence.
CiosE-hauled, in Navigation, the general arrange¬
ment or trim of a (hip’s fails when (he endeavours to
make a progrefs in the neareft dire£tion poflible to¬
wards that point of the compafs from which the wind
blows. In this manner of failing, the keel commonly
makes an angle of fix points with the line of the wind j
but (loops and fome other fmall veffels are faid to fail
almoft a point nearer. All veffels, however, are fup-
pofed to make nearly a point of leeway when clofe-
hauled, even when they have the advantage of a good
D d 6 falling
Clonmell
Clofe-haul-
ed.
/
C L O [2
Clofe-quar-failing breeze and fmooth water. The angle of lee-
t<rrs way, however, increafes in proportion to the increafe
Cloth an(^ ^ea* difpofition of the fails,
»„ . they are all extended fidewife on the Ihip, fo that
the wind as it croffes the fnip obliquely toward the
ftern from forwards, may fill their cavities. But as
the current of winds alfo enters the fails in an oblique
direction, the effort of it to make the fhip advance
is confiderably diminilhed: fhe will therefore make
the leaf! progrefs when failing in this manner. The
Ihip is fa id to be clofe-hauled, becaufe at this time her
lacks, or lower corners of the principal fails, are drawn
clofe down to her fide to windward, the (beets hauled
clofe-aft, and all the boxv-lines drawn to their greateft
extenfion to keep the fails fteady.
CL0SK-^uarlet's, certain ftrong barriers of wood,
ftretching acrofs a merchant-lhip in feveral places.
They are ufed as places of retreat when a (hip is
boarded by her adverfary, and are therefore fitted
with feveral fmall loop holes through which to fire the
(mail arms, and thereby annoy the enemy and defend
themfelves. They are likewife furnilhed with feveral
caifons called powder-chejis, which are fixed upon the
deck, and filled with powder, old-nails, &c. and may
be fired at any time from the clofe-quarters upon the
boarders.
falconer's We have known an EnglKh merchant (liip of 16
Z>i£l.vftht gUns, and properly fitted with clofe-quarters, defeat
Marine. tjie unite(j efforts of three French privateers who
boarded her in the lalt war, after having engaged at
home diftance nearly a day and a half, with very few
intervals of reft. Two of the cruifers were equipped
with twelve guns each, and the other with eight. The
French failors were, after boarding, fo much expofed
to continued fire of mufquetry and coehorns charged
with granadoes, that a dreadful feene of carnage en-
lued, in which the decks were foon covered with the
dead bodies of the enemy, feveral of which the board¬
ers, in their hurry to efcape, had left behind.
CLOT-bird: a fpecies of Fringilla. See Or¬
nithology Index.
CLOTH, in commerce, a manufacture made of
wool, wove in the loom.
Cloths are of divers qualities, fine or coarfe. The
goodnefs of cloth, according to feme, confifts in the
following particulars : I. That the wool be of a good
quality, and well dreffed. 2. It muft be equally fpun,
carefully obferving that the thread of the warp be
finer and better twifted than that of the woof. 3. The
cloth muft be well wrought, and beaten on the loom,
fo as to be everywhere equally compaft. 4. The
wool muft not be finer at one end of the piece than in
the reft. 5. The lifts muft be fufficiently ftrong, of
the fame length with the fluff, and muft confift of
good wool, hair, or oftrich-feathers ; or, what is ftill
better, of Danifh dog’s hair. 6. The cloth muft be
free from knots and other imperfeClions. 7. It muft
be well fcoured with fullers earth, w7ell fulled with
the beft white foap, and afterwards waftied in clear
water. 8. The hair or nap muft be well drawn out
without the teazel, without being too much opened.
9. It muft be (horn clofe without making it thread¬
bare. 10. It muft be well dried. 11. It muft not be
tenter-ftretched, to force it to its juft dimenfions.
o ] c L o
12. It muft be preffed cold, not hot-preffed, the latter Cloth,
being very injurious to woollen cloth. u—y—.
Ma n ufa during of white Cloths which are intendedfor
dyeing. The beft wool for the manufacturing of cloths
are thofe of England and Spain, efpecially thofe of
Lincolnthire and Segovia. To ufe thofe wools to the
beft advantage, they muft be fcoured, by putting them
into a liquor fomewhat more than lukewarm, com-
pofed of three parts fair water and one of urine. Af¬
ter the wool has continued long enough in the liquor
to foak, and diffolve the greale, it is drained and well
w^aftied in running w7ater. When it feels dry, and has
no fmell but the natural one of the (beep, it is faid to
be duly fcoured.
After this, it is hung to dry in the (hade •, the heat
of the fun making it harih and inflexible : when dry,
it is beat with rods upon hurdles of wood, or on cords,
to cleanfe it from dull and the groffer filth j the more
it is thus beat and cleanfed, the fofter it becomes, and
the better for fpinning. After beating, it muft be well
picked, to free it from the reft of the filth that had
efcaped the rods.
It is now in a proper condition to be oiled, and
carded on large iron cards placed (lopewife. Olive oil
is efteemed the beft for this purpofe ; one-fifth of which
(liould be ufed for the wrool intended for the woof, and
a ninth for that defigned for the warp. After the
wool has been well oiled, it is given to the fpinners,
who firft card it on the knee with fmail fine cards, and
then fpin it on the wheel, obferving to make the thread
of the w'arp fmaller by one-third than that of the woof,
and much compaCter twifted.
The thread thus fpun, is reeled, and made into
(keins. That defigned for the woof is wound on little
tubes, pieces of paper, or nifties, fo difpofed as that
they may be eafily put in the eye of the (buttle. That
for the warp is wound on a kind of large wooden
bobbins, to difpofe it for warping. When warped,
it is ftiff’ened with fize j the beft of which is that made
of (hreds of parchment ; and w'ben dry, is given to the
weavers, who mount it on the loom.
The warp thus mounted, the weavers, who are twro
to each loom, one on each fide, tread alternately on
the treddle, firft on the right ftep, and then on the
left, which raifes and lowers the threads of the wrarp
equally ; between which they throw tranfverfely the
(buttle from the one to the other j and every time
that the (buttle is thus throwm, and a thread of the
woof inferted within the w^arp, they ftrike it conjunCt-
ly with the fame frame, wherein is faftened the comb
or reed, between whole teeth the threads of the warp
are paffed, repeating the ftroke as often as is necef-
fary.
The weavers having continued their work till the
whole warp is filled w'ith the woof, the cloth is fi-
niftied \ it is then taken off the loom by unrolling it
from the beam whereon it had been rolled in propor¬
tion as it was wove ; and now given to be cleanfed of
the knots, ends of threads, draws, and other filth,
which is done with iron nippers.
In this condition it is carried to the fullery, to be
fcoured with urine, or a kind of potters clay, well
fteeped in w'ater, put along with the cloth in the
trough wherein it is fulled. The cloth being again
cleared
C L O [2!
Cloth cleared from the earth or urine, is returned to the
II former hands to have the leffer filth, finall ftraws, &c.
Cloud. ^ taken off as before : then it is returned to the fuller
to be beat and fulled with hot water, wherein a
fuitable quantity of foap has been diflolved ; after ful¬
ling, it is taken out to be fmoothed or pulled by the
lifts lengthwife, to take out the wrinkles, crevi¬
ces, &c.
The fmoothing is repeated every two hours, till
the fulling be finiftied, and the cloth brought to its
proper breadth after which it is walked in clear wa¬
ter, to purge it of the foap, and given wet to the
carders to raife the hair or nap on the right fide wfith
the thiftle or weed. After this preparation the cloth-
worker takes the cloth, and gives it its firft cut or
{hearing ; then the carders refume it, and after wet¬
ting, give it as many more courfes with the teazle,
as the quality of the fluff requires, always obfervmg
to begin againfl: the grain of the hair, and to end with
it} as alfo to begin with a fmoother thiftle, proceed¬
ing ftill with one {harper and.{harper, as far as the
fixth degree.
After thefe operations, the cloth being dried, is re¬
turned to the cloth-worker, wdio ftieers it a fecond
time, and returns it to the carders, who repeat their
operation as before, till the nap be well ranged on the
furface of the cloth, from one end of the piece to the
other.
The cloth thus wove, fcoured, napped, and {horn, is
fent to the dyer •, when dyed, it is waflied in fair wa¬
ter, and the worker takes it again wet as it is, lays the
nap with a brufti on the table, and hangs it on the
tenters, where it is ftretched both in length and breadth
fufficiently to fmooth it, fet it fquare, and bring it to
its proper dimenfions, without {training it too much j
obferving to brufti it afrelh, the way of the nap, while
a little moift, on the tenters.
When quite dry, the cloth is taken off the tenters,
and bruftied again on the table, to finifti the laying of
the nap 5 after which it is folded, and laid cold under
a prefs, to make it perfe&ly fmooth and even, and
give it a glofs.
Laftly, the cloth being taken out of the prefs, and
the papers, &c. for gloffing it removed, it is in a con¬
dition for fale or ufe. With regard to the manufac¬
ture of mixt cloths, or thofe wherein the wools are
firft dyed, and then mixt, fpun, and wove of the co¬
lours intended, the procefs, except what relates to
the colour, is moftly the fame with that juft repre-
fented.
Cloth made from Vegetable Filaments. See Bark
and Filaments.
Incombujlible Cloth. See Asbestos.
CLOTHO, the youngeft of the three Parcoe,
daughters of Jupiter and Themis. She was (upno-
fed to prefide over the moment that we are born. She
held the diftaff in her hand and fpun the thread of life,
whence her name to ffnn. She was reprefent-
ed wearing a crown with feven ftars, and covered wuth
a variegated robe.
x CLOUD, a colle&ion of vapours fufpended in the
Caufe of atmofphere.
the ferma- That the clouds are formed from the aqueous va-
cTouds n P0urs> which before were fo clofely united with the
certain)in* atmofphere as to be invifible, is univerfally allowed;
i ] c l o
but it is no eafy matter to account for the long conti- Q°uch t
nuance of fome very opaque clouds without diffolving j v
or to give a reafon why the vapours, when they have
once begun to condenfe, do not continue to do fo till
they at laft fall to the ground in the form of rain or
fnow, &c. The general caufe of the formation of
clouds, it has been fuppofed, is a feparation of the la¬
tent heat from the water of which the vapour is com-
pofed. The confequence of this feparation mull be the
condenfation of that vapour, in fome degree at leaft :
in fuch cafe, it will firft appear as a fmoke, mill, or
fog j which if interpofed betwixt the fun and earth,
will form a cloud ; and the fame caufes continuing to
a6l, the cloud will produce rain or fnow. But though
the feparation of this latent heat in a certain degree is
the immediate caufe of the formation of clouds, the re¬
mote caufe, or the changes produced in the atmofphere,
wdiereby fuch a feparation may be induced, are much
more difficult to be difcovered. In common obferva-
tion, we fee that vapour is moft powerfully condenfed i
by cold fubftances, fuch as metals, water, See. But J,^al^ay4
cold alone cannot in all cafes caufe the condenfation oP^£s
the atmofpherical vapours, otherwife the nights behov¬
ed to be always foggy or cloudy, owing to the va¬
pours, raifed throughout the day by the heat of the
fun, being condenfed by the fuperior coldnefs of the
night. Great rains wull happen in very w^arm weather,
when the union of the vapours with the atmofphere
ought rather to be promoted than diffolved, if cold wras
the only agent in their condenfation. The ferenity of
the atmofphere, alfo, in the moft; fevere frofts, abun¬
dantly {hows that fome other caufe befides mere heat or
cold is concerned in the formation of clouds, and con¬
denfation of the atmofpherical vapours. .
The eleflric fluid is now fo generally admitted as Eledlricity
an agent in all the great operations of nature, that it probably
is no wonder to find the formation of clouds attributed concercec^
to it. This hath accordingly been given by S. Bcc-
cavia as the caufe of the formation of all clouds what-
foever, whether of thunder, rain, hail, or fnow. The
firft, he thinks, are produced by a very great powder of
eledlricity, and the others by one more moderate. But
though it is certain that all clouds, or even fogs and
rain, are ele&rified in fome degree, it ftill remains a
queftion, whether the clouds are formed in confequence
of the vapour whereof they are compofed being firft
electrified, or whether they become ele£irificd in con¬
fequence of its being firft feparated from the atmo¬
fphere, and in fome meafure condeufed. This hath
not yet, as far as we know, been afeertained by the
experiments of Beccaria, or any other perfon j and in¬
deed, notvvithftanding the multitude of eleflrical dif-
coveries that have lately been made, there feems to be
little or no foundation for afeertaining it. Electricity
is known to be in many cafes a promoter of evapora¬
tion j but no experiments have yet been brought to
prove, that eleftrified air parts with its moifture more
readily than fuch as is not eleCtrified j fo that, till the
properties of eleClrified air are farther inveftigated, it is
impoflible to lay down any rational theory of the for¬
mation of clouds upon this principle. ^
But whether the clouds are produced, i. e. the in-OIoudsof.
vifible vapours floating in the atmofphere condenfed te.n prodi-
fo as to become vifible, by means of eleClricity or not,
it is certain that they do contain the eleClric fluid in ^ '
D d 2 prodigious
C L O [ 21
Cloud, prodigious and inconceivable quantities, and many very
terrible and deftruftive phenomena have been occa-
fioned by clouds very highly ele&rified. The moft ex¬
traordinary inflance of this kind perhaps on record
5 happened in the ifland of Java in the Eaft Indies in
Ternble Auguft 1772. On the nthof that month, at mid-
by^m elec- night» a bright cloud was obferved covering a moun-
trified cloud tain in the diftridl called Chcnbon, and at the fame
in Java. time feveral reports were heard like thofe of a gun.
The people who dwelt upon the upper parts of the
mountain not being able to fly faft enough, a great
part of the cloud, alrpoft three leagues in circumfe¬
rence, detached itfelf under them, and was feen at a
diftance rifrng and falling like the waves of the fea,
and emitting globes of fire fo luminous, that the night
became as clear as day. The effects of it were afto-
ni filing •, everything was deftroyed for feven leagues
round ; the houfes were demoliflied ; plantations were
buried In the earth ; and 2140 people loft their lives,
befides 1500 head of cattle, and a vaft number of hor-
6 fes, goats, &c.
mthedland Another inftance of a very deftruftive cloud, the
of Malta. * eleftric qualities of which will at prefent fcarcely be
doubted, is related by Mr Brydone, in his Tour
through Malta. It appeared on the 29th of Oftober
1757. About three quarters of an hour after midnight,
there was feen to the fouth-weft of the city of Melita,
a great black cloud, which, as it approached, changed
its colour, till at laft it became like a flame of fire
mixed with black fmoke. A dreadful noife was heard
on its approach, which alarmed the whole city. It
pafled over the port, and came firft on an Englifir fhip,
which in an inftant was torn ih pieces, and nothing
left but the hulk ; part of the mails, fails, and cord¬
age, were carried to a confiderable diftance along with
the cloud. The fmall boats and felloques that fell in
its way were all broken to pieces and funk. The noife
increafed and became more frightful. A fentinel ter¬
rified at its approach ran into his box j but both he and
it were lifted up and carried into the fea, where he pe-
rilhed. It then traverfed a confiderable part of the ci¬
ty, and laid in ruins almoft every thing that flood in
its way. Several houfes w^ere laid level with the
ground, and it did not leave one fteeple in its palfage.
The bells of fome of them, together with the fpires,
were carried to a confiderable diftance *, the roofs of
the churches demolilhed and beat down, &c. It went
off at the north-eaft point of the city, and demolilhing
the light-hqufe, is faid to have mounted up into the
air with a frightful noife ; and paffed over the fea to
Sicily, where it tore up fome trees, and did other da¬
mage 5 but nothing confiderable, as its fury had been
moftly fpent at Malta. The number of killed and
wounded amounted to near 200 and the lofs of fhip-
ping, &c. was very confiderable.
The effefts of thunder-ftorms, and the vaft quantity
of ele£lricity collefted in the clouds which produce
thefe ftorms, are fo well known, that it is fuperfluous
to mention them. It appears, however, that even
thefe clouds are not fo highly eleftrified as to produce
7 their fatal effefts on thofe who are immerfed in them.
Inftance of It is only the difcharge of part of their deftricity up-
two people on boc]ies as are either not eleftrified at all, or
invoked in ^ ^ ^obly eleftrified as the cloud, that does all the
doud” mifchief.° We have, however, only the following in-
2 ] c L o
ftance on record, of any perfons being immerfed in Cloud,
the body of a thunder-cloud. Profeffor Sauffure, and v ’
young Mr Jalabert, when travelling over one of the
high Alps, tvere caught among clouds of this kind ;
and to their aftoniftiment, found their bodies fo full of
ele&rical fire, that fpontaneous flalhes darted from their
fingers with a crackling noife, and the fame kind of
fenfation as when ftrongly electrified by art. 8
The height of clouds in general is not great j the Height of
fummits of very high mountains being commonly quite ^ c^ouc^s*
free from them, as Mr Brydone experienced in his jour¬
ney up Mount iEtna ; but thofe which are moft high¬
ly eleftrified defcend loweft, their height being often
not above feven or eight hundred yards above the
ground ; nay, fometimes thunder-clouds appear actu¬
ally to touch the ground with one of their edges * : *
but the generality of clouds are fufpended at the height er"
of a mile, or little more, above the earth. Some,
however, have imagined them to arife to a moft incre¬
dible and extravagant height. Maignan of Thouloufe,
in his Treatife of PerfpeCtive, p. 93. gives an account
of an exceeding bright little cloud that appeared at
midnight in the month of Auguft, which fpread itfelf
almoft as far as the zenith. He fays that the fame
thing was alfo obferved at Rome 5 and from thence
concludes that the cloud w’as a collection of vapours
raifed beyond the projection of the earth’s ftiadow,
and of conlequence illuminated by means of the fun.
This, however, can by no means be credited ; and
it is much more probable that this cloud owed its
fplendor to eleCtricity, than to the reflection of the
folar beams. . 9
In the evenings after funfet, and mornings beforeTheirvarl-
funrife, we often obferve the clouds tinged with beau-
tiful colours. They are moftly red ; fometimes o- fon
range, yellow, or purple •, more rarely bluiftr j and
feldom or never green. The reafon of this variety of
colours, according to Sir Ifaac Newton, is the differ¬
ent fize of the globules into which the vapours are con-
denfed. This is controverted by Mr Melville, who
thinks that the clouds refleCl the fun’s light precifely
as it is tranfmitted to them through the atmofphere.
This refleCb the moft refrangible rays in the greateft
quantity j and therefore ought to tianfrait the leaft re¬
frangible ones, red, orange, and yellow to the clouds,
which accordingly appear moft ufually of thofe colours.
In this opinion he was greatly confirmed by obferving,
when he was in Switzerland, that the fnowy fummits
of the Alps turned more and more reddifh after funfet,
in the fame manner as the clouds $ and he imagines,
that the fernitraniparency of the clouds, and the obli¬
quity of their fituation, tend to make the colours in
them much more rich and copious than thofe on the
tops of fnowy mountains. _ . 10
The motions of the clouds, though fometimes di-Of the me-
reCled by the wind, are not always fo, efpecially when tion5 of
thunder is about to enfue. In this cafe "they feem to
move very {lowly, and often to be abfolutely ftationary
for fome time. The reafon of this moft probably is,
that they are impelled by two oppofite ftreams of air
nearly of equal ftrength ; by which means their velo¬
city is greatly retarded. In fuch cafes both the aerial
currents feem to afcend to a very confiderable height j
for Meff. Charles and Roberts, when endeavouring to
avoid a thunder-cloud in one of their aerial voyages^
could
II
Their
fliapes.
C L O [21
Cloud, could find no alteration in the courfe of the current,
—-v—though they afcended to the height of 4000 feet from
the furface of the earth. In fome cales the motions
of the clouds evidently depend on their electricity, in¬
dependent of any current of air whatever. Thus, in
a calm and warm day, we often fee Imall clouds meet¬
ing each other in oppofite direClions, and fetting out
from fuch fhort ditfances, that we cannot fuppofe any
oppofite winds to be the caule. Thefe clouds, when
they meet, inilead of forming a larger one, become much
lefs, and fometimes vaniflr altogether ; a circumftance
undoubtedly owing to the difcharge of oppofite elec¬
tricities into each other. This ferves alfo to throw
fome light on the true caufe of the formation of clouds j
for if two clouds electrified, the one pofitively and the
other negatively, deftroy each other in contaft •, it
follows, that any quantity of vapour fufpended in the
atmofphere, while it retains its natural quantity of
electricity, remains invifible, but becomes a cloud when
electrified" either plus or minus. A difficulty, however,
Itill occurs j viz. in what manner a fmall quantity of
vapour furrounded by an immenfe ocean of the fame
kind of matter, can acquire either more or lefs eleCtri-
city than that which furrounds it; and this indeed we
feem not as yet to have any data to folve in a fatisfac-
tory manner.
The fliapes of the clouds are likewife undoubtedly
owing to their electricity j for in thofe feafons in which
a great commotion has been excited in the atmofphe-
rical eleCtricity, we fhall perceive the clouds afluming
ftrange and whimfical lhapes, which vary almoft every
moment. This, as well as the meeting of fmall clouds
in the air, and vanifhing upon contaCt, is an almoft in-
I2 fallible fign of thunder.
Connec- Befides the phenomena of thunder, rain, See. the
tion of the clouds are intimately connected with thofe of wind,
wiiuf* W*t51 an<^ always afl*ume a particular fliape, when a ftrong
continued wind is about to enfue ; though it is remark¬
able, that in the ftrongefl: winds we fliall often obferve
them ftationary. Sometimes alfo, on the approach of
a cloud, we fliall find a fudden and violent gult of wind
arife •, and at others, the wind, though violent before,
fliall ceafe on the approach of a cloud, and recover its
ftrength as foon as the cloud is paft. This connexion
of the clouds with wind is moft remarkable in moun¬
tainous countries, when the peaks are fufficiently high
to have their tops involved in clouds. A very remark¬
able mountain of this kind is met with at the Cape of
Good Hope, from the clouds on whofe top, accord¬
ing to- the relations of travellers, the winds iflue forth
as if they had been confined in a bag j and fomething
fimilar has been obferved of mountains in other parts
of the world.
The ufes of the clouds are evident $ as from them
proceeds the rain which refrefhes the earth ; and with¬
out which, according to the prefent fyffem of nature,
the whole furface of the earth muft be a mere defert.
They are likewife of great ufe as a fereen interpofed
between the earth and the fcorching rays of the fun,
which are often fo powerful as to deftroy the grafs and
other tender vegetables. In the more fecret operations
of nature alfo, where the eleChical fluid is concerned,
the clouds bear a principal fliare j and ferve efpecially
as a medium for conveying that fluid from the atmo-
fphere into the earth* and from the earth into the at-
13
Their ufes.
3 1 C L °.
mofphere j in doing w'hich, when eleftrified to a great Clove-tree
degree, they fometimes produce very terrible effe&s;
of which inftances have been already given. . ^ -
CLOVE tree. See Caryophyllus, Botany In¬
dex.
Clove, a term ufed in weights of wool. Seven
pounds make a clove. In Efiex, eight pounds of
cheefe and butter go to the clove.
Clove July-Jlower. See Dianthus, Botany In¬
dex.
CLOVER grass. See Tritolium, Botany In¬
dex, and Agriculture Index.
CLOUGH, or Draught, in commerce, arT allow¬
ance of two pounds in every hundred weight for the
turn of the fcale, that the commodity may hold out
weight when fold out by retail.
CLOVIO, Giorgio Giulio, hiftory and portrait
painter, was born in Sclavonia, in 1498. Having in
the early part of his youth applied himfelf to literature,
his genius prompted him to purfue the art of painting
for a profeffion j and at 18 years of age he went to
Rome, where he fpent thiee years to perfect his hand
in drawing, and devoted himfelf entirely to painting
in miniature. His knowledge of colouring was efla-
blifhed by the inftruftions of Julio Romano, and his
tafte of compofition and defign was founded on the ob-
fervations he made on the works of Michael Angelo
Buonaroti. By thofe affiftances he arrived at luch
a degree of excellence in portrait as well as in hiftory,
that in the former he was accounted equal to Titian*
and in the latter not inferior to Buonaroti. He died
in 1578. His works are exceedingly valuable, and
are at this day numbered among the curiofities of Rome.
Vafari, who had feen the wonderful performances of
Clovio, with inexpreflible aftoniihment, enumerates-
many of his portraits and hiftorical compofitions, and
feems to be almoft: at a lofs for language fufficiently ex-
preflive of their merit. He mentions two or three
pidlures on which the artift had bellowed the labour
of nine years; but the principal pifture reprefented
Nimrod, building the Tower of Babel \ which was fo
exquifitely finiflied, and fo perfeft in all its parts, that
it feemed quite inconceivable how the eye or the pen¬
cil could execute it. He fays it is impoffible to ima¬
gine any thing fo admirably curious j whether one con-
fiders the elegance of the attitudes, the richnefs of the
compofition, the delicacy of the naked figures, the
perfpeftive proportion of the objedls, the tender di-
ftances, the feenery, the buildings, or other ornaments j
for every part is beautiful and inimitable. He alfo
takes notice of a Angle ant introduced in one of the
piiftures of this mailer •, which, though exceedingly and
incredibly fmall, is yet fo perfect, that even the moft
minute member was as diftinft as if it had been painted
of the natural fize.
CLOVIS I. was the real founder of the French mo¬
narchy ; for he was the firft conqueror of the feveral
provinces of Gaul, pofiefled before his time by the Ro¬
mans, Germans, and Goths. Thefe he united to the
then fcanty dominions of France, removed the feat of
government from Soiffons to Paris, and made this the
capital of his new kingdom. He died in 51 1, in the
46th year of his age and 31ft of his reign. See (Hi/I'.
of) France.
CLOUTS, in Gunnery, are thin plates of iron nail-
I ed
C L U
[ 214 ]
C L U
ed on that part of the axle-tree of a gun-carriage which
comes through the nave, and through which the linfpin
goes*
CLOYNE, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Cork and province of Munfter. W. Long. 8. o.
N. Lat. 51. 40. It is but a fmall place, though an
epifcopal refidence. A church was built, and a biihop-
ric erected here, by St Colman, who died on the 4th
of November 604 •, and in 707 an abbey was alfo
founded here. In 1430, the bifhopric was united to
that of Cork ; and the union continued till the 1 ith
of November 1638, when Dr George Synge was con-
fecrated bilhop of Cloyne j fince which time this fee
has been governed by its own prelates, one of whom
was the celebrated Berkeley. This fee is not taxed in
the king’s books; but is now reputed to be worth
2500I. a-year. The chapter of Cloyne is compofed of
a dean, chanter, chancellor, treafurer, an archdeacon,
and fourteen prebendaries. The diocefe is divided in¬
to four rural deaneries, and the collegiate church of St
Mary of Youghal is united to the bifhopric. The ca¬
thedral is a decent Gothic building. The nave is a-
bout 120 feet long-, having lateral aifles, befides the
crofs ailles, divided by Gothic arches, five on each
fide. In the choir there is an excellent organ. . The
bifhop’s palace, which was rebuilt at the beginning of
the prefent century, is large and convenient. To the
north-weft of Cloyne is a reputed holy well, dedicated
to St Colman, which is much frequented on the 24th
of November, being the patron day.
CLUE of a sail, the lower corner ; and hence
CiVK-Garnets, are a fort of tackles faftened to the
clues, or lower corners of the mainfail or forefail, to
trufs them up to the yard as occafion requires, which
is ufually termed clueing up the fails.
CLUE-Lines are for the fame purpofe as clue-garnets j
only that the latter are confined to the courfes, where¬
as the former are common to all the fquare fails. See
thefe ropes as reprefented in the article Ship.
CLUNIA, in Ancient Geography, a principal town
of the Hither Spain, a Roman colony, with a conven-
tus juridicus, on the Durius, to the weft of Numantia.
Now Corunna del Conde.
CLUNIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Cor-
fica, near Baftia. Now St Catharine.
CLUNY, or clugny, a celebrated abbey of Bene-
di&ine monks, in a city of that name 5 being the head
or chief of a congregation denominated from them.
It is fituated in the Mafonnois, a little province of
France, on the river Gr6ne and was founded by
William duke of Berry and Aquitain j or, as others
fay, by the abbot Bernon, fupported by that duke, in
the year 910.
This abbey was anciently fo very fpacious and mag¬
nificent, that iq I245> a^ter the holding of the firft
council of Lyons, Pope Innocent IV. went to Cluny,
accompanied with the two patriarchs of Antioch and
Conftantinople, 12 cardinals, 3 archbifhops, 15 bifhops,
and a great number of abbots 5 wTho were all enter¬
tained, without one of the monks being put out of
their place ; though S. Louis, (^Blanche his mother,
the duke of Artois his brother, and his filler, the em¬
peror of Conftantinople, the fons of the kings of Ar-
jragon and Caftile, the duke of Burgundy, fix counts,
1
and a great number of lords, with all their retinues-, Clupea. ^
wrere theie at the fame time. — y
Cluny, at its firft ere&ion, was put under the im¬
mediate prote&ion of the apoftolic fee, with exprefs
prohibition to all fecular and ecclefiaftic powders, to dif-
turb the monks in the pofieflions of their effedls, or
the eleftion of their abbot. By this they pretended
to be exempted from the jurifdiftion of bilhops ; which
at length gave the hint to other abbeys to inlift on the
fame.
Cluny is the head of a very numerous and extenfive
congregation : in effeff, it was the firft congregation
of divers monafteries united under one chief, fo as only
to conftitute one body, or, as they call it, one order,
that ever arofe.
This order of monks was brought into England by
William earl of Whrren, fon-in-law to W illiam the
Conqueror, who built a houfe for them at Lewes in
Suffex about the year 1077. There were 27 priories
and fells of this order in England, which were govern¬
ed by foreigners, afterwards made denizens.
CLUPEA, or Herring, in Ichthyology, a genus
belonging to the order of abdominales. The upper jaw
is furnilhed with aferrated myftache 5 the branchioftege
membrane has eight rays j a fcaly fertated line runs
along the belly from the head to the tail j and the
belly-fins have frequently nine rays. There are 11
fpecies, viz.
1. The harengus, or common herring, has no fpots,
and the under jaw is longer than the upper one. A
herring dies immediately after it is taken out of the
water j whence the proverb arifes, As dead as a her¬
ring. The meat is everywhere in great efteem, being
fat, foft, and delicate j efpecially if it is dreffed as foon
as caught, for then it is incomparably better than on the
next day.
The herring was unknown to the ancients. Not-
withftanding the words and (acuvis are by tranf-
lators rendered halec, the characters given to thofe fifti
are common to fuch numbers of different fpecies as ren¬
der it impoffible to fay which they intended. . 1
Herrings are found from the higheft northern lati-Herrings,
tudes yet known, as low as the northern coafts of£^m
France and except one inftance, brought by Dod, of
a few being once taken in the bay of I angier, none
are ever found more foutherly. They are met with
in vaft fhoals on the coaft of America, as low as Ca¬
rolina. In Chefapeak-bay is an annual inundation of
thofe fifli, which cover the fliore in fuch quantities as
to become a nuifance. We find them again in the feas
of Kamtfchatka, and probably they reach Japan ; for
Kempfer mentions, in his account of the fifh of that
country, fome that are congenerous. 1 he great win¬
ter rendezvous of the herring is within the arCtic circle.
there they continue for many months in order to re¬
cruit themfelves after the fatigue of fpawning ;_the feas
within that fpace fwarming with infeCl food in a far
greater degree than thofe of our warmer latitudes. %
This mighty army begins to put itfelf in motion in the Immenfe.
fpring : we diftinguifti this vaft body by that name
for the word herring comes from the German beer, *
“ an army,” to exprefs their numbers. They begin
to appear off the Shetland hies in April and May j
thefe are only the forerunners of the grand flioal which
comes
C L U [2
Clupea. comes in June and their appearance is maiked by
« t  * certain figns, by the numbers of birds, fuch as gannets
and others, which follow to prey on them ; but when
the main body approaches, its breadth and depth is
fuch as to alter the appearance of the very ocean. It
is divided into diftinft columns of five or fix miles in
length, and three or four m breadth, and they drive
the^water before them with a kind of rippling : fome-
times they fink for the fpace of ten or fifteen minutes,
and then rife again to tne furface j and in fine wea¬
ther reflect a variety of fplendid colours like a field of
the molt precious gems} in which, or rather in a much
more valuable, light fhould this fiupendous gilt of Pro¬
vidence be confidered by the inhabitants of the Hritiin
ifles.
The firft check this army meets in its march fouth-
ward is from the Shetland ifles, which divide it into
trvo parts ; one wing takes to the eaft, the other to
the weftern Ihores of Great Britain, and fill every bay
and creek with their numbers *, others pafs on to¬
wards Yarmouth, the great and ancient mart of her¬
rings : they then pafs through the Britiflr Channel,
and after that, in a manner difappear. Thofe which
take towards the weft, after offering themfelves to the
Hebrides, where the great ftationary fiftrery is, pro¬
ceed to the north of Ireland, where they meet with a
fecond interruption, and are obliged to make a fecond
divifion : the one takes to the weftern fide, and is
fcarce perceived, being foon loft in the immenfity of
the Atlantic •, but the other, that paffes into the Irifti
fea, rejoices and feeds the inhabitants of moft of the
coafts that border on it. Thefe brigades, as we may
call them, rvhich are thus feparated from the greater
columns, are often capricious in their motions, and do
3 not (how an invariable attachment to their haunts.
Wonderful Were we inclined to confider this partial migration
inftinft of jn a moral light, we might refleft with veneration and
tures CI"ea" awe on t^!e miShty Power which originally impreffed
on this moft ufeful body of his creatures the inftindt
that dire&s and points out the courfe, that bleffes and
enriches thefe iflands, w'hich caufes them at certain
and invariable times, to quit the vaft polar deeps, and
offer themfelves to our expefting fleets. That bene¬
volent Being has never been known from the earlieft
account of time, once to withdraw this bleffing from
the whole j though he often thinks proper to deny it
to particulars, yet this partial failure (for which we fee
no natural reafon) fliould fill us with the moft exalted
and grateful fenfe of his Providence for imprefling fuch
an invariable and general inftin& on thefe fifh towards
a fouthward migration when the whole is to be bene¬
fited, and to withdraw it when only a minute part is to
fuffer.
This inftimff was given them, that they might re¬
move for the fake of depofiting their fpawn in warmer
feas, that would mature and vivify it more affuredly
than thofe of the frozen zone. It is not from defedl
of food that they fet themfelves in motion •, for they
Come to us full of fat, and on their return are almoft
univerfally obferved to be lean and miferable. What
their food is near the pole we are not yet informed •,
but in our feas they feed much on the onifcus mannus,
a cruftaceous infedi, and fometimes on their owrn fry.
They are full of roe in the end of June, and conti¬
nue in perfection till the beginning of winter, when
5 ] C L U
they depofit their fpawn. The young herrings begin .
to approach the ftiores in July and Augull, and are
then from half an inch to two inches long : thofe in ^
Yorkfliire are called herring file. Though we have no Young ones
particular authority for it, yet as very few young her-probably^
rings are found in our leas during wunter, it leems moft
certain that they muft return to their parental haunts rentSi
beneath the ice, to repair the vaft deftruClion of their
race during fummer by men, fowl, and filh. Some of
the old herrings continue on our coaft the w-hole year :
the Scarborough fifhermen never put down their nets
but they catch a few j but the numbers that remain are
not worth companion with thofe that return. See
Herring Fisnsur.
The Dutch are moft extravagantly fond of this fiflt
when it is pickled. A premium is given to the firit
bufs that arrives in Holland with a lading of this their
ambrofia, and a vaft price given for each keg. There
is as much joy among the inhabitants on its arrival, as
the Egyptians ihow on the firft overflowing of the ^
Nile. Flanders had the honour of inventing the art picking 0f
of pickling herrings. One William Beauklen of Bi-he.rmgs,
verlet, near Sluys, hit on this ufeful expedient: from ,n-
him was derived the name which we borrow fromv
the Dutch and German. Beauklen died in 1397* I
emperor Charles V. held his memory in fuch venera¬
tion for the fervice he did to mankind, as to do his
tomb the honour of a vifit. It is very Angular that
moft nations give the name of their favourite diflr to
the facetious attendant on every mountebank. Thus,
the Dutch call him pickle herring ; the Italians, maca¬
roni ; the French, pottage; the Germans, bans
wurjl, that is, jack faufage; and the Englilh dignify
him with the name of jack pudding. . 6
2. The fpratlus has 13 rays in the back fin. It is a Sprattus,.
native of the European feas, and has a great refem- where
blance to the herring, only it is of a lefs fize. They 0Un *
come into the river Thames below bridge in the be¬
ginning of November, and leave it in March ; and are,
during that feafon, a great relief to the poor of the ca¬
pital. At Gravefend and at Yarmouth they are cured
like red-herrings •, they are (ometimes pickled, and are
little inferior in flavour to the anchovy, but the bones
will not diflolve like thofe of the latter. y
3. The aloja, or Jhad, has a forked fnout, and black Alofa.or
fpots on the fides. According to Belonius and Haf- |had> where
felquift, this is a filh of paffage in the Nile. The laft oun
fays, it is found in the Mediterranean near Smyrna,
and on the coaft of Egypt near Rofetta ; and that in
the months of December and January it afeends the
Nile as high as Cairo, where the people fluff it with
pot marjoram •, and when dreffed in that manner, it 8
will very nearly intoxicate the eater. In Great Bri- The fineft
tain the Severn affords this fifh in higher perfe&ion tlie
than any other river. It makes its firft appearance
there in May, but in very warm feafons in April; for
its arrival looner or later depends much on the tem¬
per of the air. It continues in the river about two
months, and then is fucceeded by a variety which we
fhall have occafion to mention hereafter.
The Severn (had is efteemed a very delicate fifli
about the time of its firft appearance, efpecially in that
part of the river that flows by Gloucefter, where they
are taken in nets, and ufually fell dearer than falmon ;
fame are lent to London, where the filhmongers di-
ftinguifti
C L U [21
■Clupea ftinguifh them from thofe of the Thames by the French
II name alofe. Whether they fpawn in this river and the
t Clufium. js not determined, for their fry has not yet been
difcovered. The old fi(h come from the fea into the
river in full roe. In the months of July and Auguft,
multitudes of bleak frequent the river near Gloucefter;
fome of them are as big as a fmall herring, and thefe
the filhermen erroneoufly fuppofe to be the fry of the
fhad. Numbers of thefe are taken near Gloucefter, in
thofe months only, but none of the emaciated {had are
ever caught in their return.
The Thames Iliad does not frequent that river till
the latter end of May or beginning of June, and is
efteemed a very coarfe and infipid fort of fi{h. The
Severn fhad is fometimes caught in the Thames, though
rarely, and called alhs (no doubt alofe, the b rench
name) by the filhermenin that river. About the fame
p time, and rather earlier, the variety called, near Glou-
Twaite de- cefter, the twaite, makes its appearance, is taken in
fcribed. great numbers in the Severn, and is held in as great
difrepute as the (had of the Thames. The differences
between each variety are as follow: the true fhad
weighs fometimes eight pounds} but their general
fize is from four to five. The twaite, on the con¬
trary, weighs from half a pound to two pounds,
which it never exceeds. The twaite differs from a
Iliad only in having one or more round black fpots on
the Tides ; if only one, it is always near the gill; but
commonly there are three or four, placed one under
the other.
Anchov' 4- The encraficolus, or anchovy, has [its upper jaw
defcribed. longer than the under one, and is about three inches
long. They are taken in vaft quantities in the Medi¬
terranean, and are brought over here pickled. The
great fiftiery is at Georgia, a fmall ifle weft of Leg¬
horn. See Anchovy-Fishery.
The other fpecies are, 5. The atherinoides has a
fhining line on each fide, and fmall belly-fins. It is a
native of Surinam. 6. The thriffa has 28 rays in the fin
at the anus. It is found in the Indian ocean. 7. The
lima has yellow fins, thofe of the belly being very
fmall. The mouth is flat; the upper jaw is very
fhort; the body is of a fhining filver colour, and the
fins are yellow'. It is a native of Afia. 8. The fterni-
cla has no belly-fins, and the body is broad. It is a
native of Surinam. 9. The rnyflas is fhaped like a
fword, and the fins at the anus are united. It is
found in the Indian ocean. IO. The tropica has a
wedge-like tail, and a w’hite, broad, compreffed body.
It is found at Afcenfion ifland. 11. The finenfis is very
like the common herring, but broader. It has no teeth,
and is a native of China.
CLUSIA, the balsam Tfe.EE. SeeBoxANT Index.
CLUSINA palus, in Ancient Geography, a lake of
Tufcany, extending north-weft between Clufium and
Arretium, and communicating with the Arnus and Cla-
nis. Now Chiana Palude.
* CLUSINI fontes, (Horace), baths in Tufcany,
in the territory of Clufium, between this laft to the
north, and Acula to the fouth, at the diftance of eight
miles from each. Now Bagni di S. Cafciana.
CLUSIUM, anciently called Camars, (Virgil, Li¬
vy) ; a town of Tufcany, at the fouth end of the Palus
Clufina, where it forms the Clanis ; the royal refi-
dence of Porfenna, three days journey from Rome to
l
6 ] C L Y
the north, (Polybius). Clujinus the epithet. Clufim Clutia
Veteres the people. Now Chiuji. E. Long. 130, Lat. II
430.—Clufium Novum, was a town of Tufcany, near the , y
fpiings of the Tiber, in the territory of Arretium ; ^
where lies the Ager Clufinus ; now called Cafeutino.
Clufni Novi, the people, (Pliny).
CLUTIA. See Botany Index.
CLUVIER, Philip, in Latin Cluverws, a cele¬
brated geographer, born at Dantzic in 1580. He tra¬
velled into Poland, Germany, and the Netherlands, in
order to ftudy law ; but, being at Leyden, Jofeph
Scaliger perfuaded him to give way to his genius for
geography. Cluvier followed his advice, and for this
purpofed vifited the greateft part of the European
{fates. He was w'ell verfed in many languages; and
w'herever he went, obtained illuftrious friends and
proteftors. At his return to Leyden, he taught there
with great applaufe ; and died in 1623, aged 43.
He wrote, 1. De tribus Rheni alveis. 2. Germania
antiqua. 3. Sicilia antiqua. 4. Italia antiqua. 5. In-
troduclio in univerfam Geographiam. All juftly e {teem¬
ed.
CLYDE, a river in Scotland, which, arifing in An-
nandale, falls into the fea over againft the ifle of Bute.
Next to the Tay, it is the largeft river in Scotland,
and is navigable for fmall craft up to Glafgow. 1 he
canal, which joins the Forth, falls into it a little below
that city. The cataradl called the Frith of the Clyde,
oppofite to Lanark, is a great natural curiofity, and
the firft fcene of the kind of Great Britain. Phis tre¬
mendous flieet of water for about a mile falls from
rock to rock. At Stone-byers, the firft fall is about
60 feet; the laft, at Cora-Lynn, is over folid rock,
not lefs than 100 feet high. At both thefe places this
great body of water exhibits a grander and more in-
terefting fpe&acle than imagination can poffibly con¬
ceive.
At Cora-Lynn, the falls are feen to moft advantage
from a ruinous pavilion in a garden, placed in a lofty
fituation. The cataraft is full in view, feen over the
tops of trees and bulhes, precipitating itfelf, for an
amazing way, from rock to rock, with ftiort interrup¬
tions, forming a rude flope of furious foam. The fides
are bounded by vaft rocks, clothed on their tops with
trees: on the fummit and very verge of one is a ruin¬
ed tower, and in front a wood overtopt by a verdant
hill. A path condu&s the traveller down to the be¬
ginning of the fall, into which projects a high rock,
in floods infulated by the water ; and from the top is a
tremendous view of the furious ftream. In the cliffs
of this favage retreat the brave Whllace is faid to have
concealed himfelf, meditating revenge for his injured
country.
On regaining the top, the walk is formed near the
verge of the rocks, which on both fides are perteflly
mural and equidiftant, except where they overhang:
the river is pent up between them at a diftance far be¬
neath ; not running, but rather Aiding along a ftony
bottom floping the whole way. I he fummits of the
rock are w’ooded ; the fides fmooth and naked ; the
ftrata narrow' and regular, forming a ftupendous natu¬
ral mafonry. After a walk of above half a mile on the
edge of this great chafm, on a hidden appears the
great and bold fall of Boniton, in a foaming-flieet, far-
proje&ing into a hollow, in which the water {hows a
violent
Clyinens
11.
Clytia.
C L Y [ 2
violent agitation, and a wide extending mift anfes from
the furface. Above that is a fecond great fall; two
leffer fucceed ; beyond them the river winds, grows
more tranquil, and is feen for a confiderable way,
bounded on one fide by wooded banks, on the other by
rich and fwelling fields.
The great fall of Stone-byers, firfl: mentioned, has
more of the horrible in it than any of the others, and
is feen with more difficulty : it confifts of two precipi¬
tous catarafts falling one above the other into a vaft
chafm, bounded by lofty rocks, forming an amazing
theatre to the view of thofe who take the pains to de-
fcend to the bottom. Between this and Cora-Lynn
there is another fall called Dundofflin.
CLYMENE, in fabulous hiftory, the daughter of
Oceanus, who, being beloved by Apollo, he had by
her Phaeton, Lampatia, Egle, and Phebe. See Phae¬
ton.
CLYPEOLA, treacle-mustard. See Botany
Index.
CLYSSUS, an extraft prepared, not from one, but
feveral bodies mixed together j and, among the mo¬
derns, the term is applied to feveral extracts prepared
from the fame body, and then mixed together.
CLYSTER, is a liquid remedy, to be inje&ed
chiefly at the anus into the larger inteftines. It is
ufually adminiftered by the bladder ot a hog, ftieep, or
ox, perforated at each end, and having at one of the
apertures an ivory pipe fattened with pack-thread. But
the French, and fometimes the Dutch, ufe a pewter
fyringe, by which the liquor may be drawn in with
more eafe and expedition than in the bladder, and like-
wife more forcibly expelled into the large inteftines.
This remedy ffiould never be adminiftered either too
hot or too cold, but tepid •, for either of the former
will be injurious to the bowels.
Clyfters are fometimes ufed to nourifti and fupport a
patient who can fwallow little or no aliment, by reafon
of fome impediment in the organs of deglutition ; in
which cafe they may be made of broth, milk, ale, and
decoftions of barley and oats with wine. The Englifh
introduced a new kind of clyfter, made of the fmoke
of tobacco, which has been ufed by feveral other na¬
tions, and appears to be of confiderable efficacy when
other clyfters prove ineffectual, and particularly in the
iliac paffion, in the hernia incarcerata, and for the re¬
covery of drowned perfons.
CLYTEMNESTRA, in fabulous hiftory, the
daughter of Jupiter and Leda. She married Aga¬
memnon *, but while that prince was at the fiege of
Troy, fire had an amorous intrigue with JEgifthus,
whom flie engaged to murder Agamemnon at his re¬
turn to his dominions. Her fon Oreftes, however, re¬
venged the death of his father by killing iEgifthus,
with his mother Clytemneftra *, but was afterwards
haunted by the Furies as long as he lived.
CLYTIA, or Clytie, daughter of O ceanus and
Tethys, beloved by Apollo. She was deferted by her
lover, who paid his addreffes to Leucothoe ; and this
fo irritated her, that flie difcovered the whole intrigue
to her rival’s father. Apollo defpiled her the more
for this ; and (he pined away, and was changed into a
flower, commonly called a fun-flower, which ftill turns
its head towards the fun in his courfe in token of her
love.
Vol. VI. Part I.
7 ] C O A
CNEORUM, widow-wail. See Botany Index. Cneorurfi
CNICUS, blessed-thistle. See Botany Index.
CNIDUS, in Ancient Geography, a Greek town of,—
Caria j fituated on a horn or promontory of a peninfu-
la. It had in front a double port, and an ifland lying
before it in form of a theatre, which being joined to
the continent by moles or caufeways, made Cnidus a
Dipolis or double town, (Strabo), becaufe a great
number of Cnidians inhabited the ifland. Paufanias
mentions a bridge wdfich joined the ifland to the con¬
tinent.—Cnidii, the people. Cnidius, the epithet.-—
Cnidia Venus, a principal divinity of the Cnidians, (Ho¬
race). Her ftatue was executed by Praxiteles \ and fo
exquifitely done, and fo much admired, that people
came from all parts to view it (Pliny). Of this place
was Eudoxus, the famous aftronomer and geometri¬
cian, who had there an obfervatory (Strabo).
CNOSSUS, or Cnosus, anciently called Cceratos,
from a cognominal river running by it; a city of Crete,
23 miles to the eaft of Gortina (Peutinger). Here
flood the fepulchre of Jupiter, the famous labyrinth,
and the palace of Minos, a very ancient king j here
happened the adventure of Ariadne his daughter with
Thefeus, called Gnofls (Ovid). Its port-town w'as
Heracleum, on the eaft fide of the ifland.
COACH, a vehicle for commodious travelling, fu-
fpended on leathers, and moved on wheels. In Bri¬
tain, and throughout Europe, the coaches are drawn
by horfes, except in Spain, where they ufe mules. In
a part of the eaft, efpecially the dominions of the great
Mogul, their coaches are drawn by oxen. In Den¬
mark they fometimes yoke rein-deer in their coaches j
though rather for curiofity than ufe. The coachman
is ordinarily placed on a feat raifed before the body of
the coach. But the Spanilh policy has difplaced him
in that country by a royal ordonnance ; on occafion of
the Duke d’Olivares, who found that a very important
fecret, whereon he had conferred in his coach, had
been overheard and revealed by his coachman : fince
that time the place of the Spaniffi coachman is the fame
with that of the French ftage-coachman and our pofti-
lion, viz. on the firft horfe on the left.
According to Profeffor Beckmann, coaches of fome
kind were known about the beginning of the 16th cen¬
tury ; but the ufe of them was limited to women of
the higheft rank. It was accounted difgraceful in men
to ride in them. It appears from the hiftory of that
period, that the eleftors and princes of the empire,
when they did not choofe to attend the meetings of the
ftates, excufed themfelves to the emperor, by inform¬
ing him, that their health would not permit them to
travel on horfeback 5 and it wras confidered unbecom¬
ing to ride in carriages like xvomen. But it feems al-
fo pretty certain, that about the end of the 15th cen¬
tury, the emperor, kings, and fome princes, travelled
in covered carriages, and alfo employed them on pu¬
blic folemnities.
The nuptial carriage of the firft wife of Leopold, a
Spanifti princefs, coft, including the harnefs, 38,000
florins. The coaches ufed by that emperor are thus
defcribed. In the imperial coaches no great magnifi¬
cence was to be feen, being covered over with red
cloth and black nails. The harnefs was black, and no
gold was to be feen in the whole work. They had
glafs nannels, for which reafon they were called impe-
E e rial
C O A [ 218 ] C O A
Coach, rial coaches. The harnefs was ornamented with frin-
ges 0f red filk on days of feftivity. The imperial
coaches were only diftinguiflied by having leather tra¬
ces, while the ladies in the emperor’s fuite were con¬
tented with traces made of ropes. Fifty gilt coaches
having fix horfes each, were to be feen in 1681 at
the court of Erneft Auguttus of Hanover. The firft
time that plenipotentiaries appeared in coaches, was
at the imperial commiffion in 1613 held at Er-
furth.
We meet with ample proof in the hiltory of France,
that the monarchs rode on horfes, the fervants on
mules, and ladies of diftinftion fometimes on affes, at
Paris, in the 14th, 15th, and even 16th centuries.
Yet carriages of (ome kind feem to have been ufed in
France at an early period, fince there is fiill prefeived
a ftatute of Philip the Fair, iffued in 1294, for the
fuppreffion of luxury, and in which the wives of citi¬
zens w7ere prohibited the ufe of carriages.
The oldeft coaches ufed by the ladies of England
were denominated whir/icotes, a name now' funk in
oblivion. About the end of the 14th century, when
Richard II. was forced to fly before his rebellious fub-
jefts, he and all his attendants travelled on horfeback,
his mother alone riding in a coach, as Ihe w’as indifpo-
fed. This became afterwards unfafhionable, the daugh¬
ter of Charles IV. having (bowed the ladies of Eng¬
land how conveniently (he could ride on a fide-fad-
dle.
According to Stow, coaches firft came to be ufed in
England about the middle of the 16th century, having
been introduced from Germany by the earl of Arun¬
del. The Englilh plenipotentiary came to Scotland in
a coach in the year 1598, and they were generally
ufed about the year 1605.
Authors obferve, as a thing very Angular, that there
were at firft: no more than three coaches in Paris $ the
one that of the queen •, the fecond that of Diana mif-
trefs of Henry II. ; and the third belonged to Jean de
Lava de Bois Dauphin ; whofe enormous bulk difabled
him from travelling on horfeback. One may hence
judge how much vanity, luxury, and idlenefs, have
grown upon our hands in later days ; there being now
computed in that fame city no lefs than 15,000
coaches.
Coaches have had the fate of all other inventions, to
be brought by degrees to their perfe&ion $ at prefent
they feem to want nothing, either with regard to eafe
or magnificence. Louis XIV. of France made feveral
fumptuary laws for reftraining the exceflive richnefs of
coaches, prohibiting the ufe of gold, filver, &.c. there¬
in j but they have had the fate to be neglected.
The following are the duties payable on carriages of
this defeription in Britain (1804).
For one carriage, with four wheels, the
annual fum of
For tw'o -
three - *
four'
five -
fix -
feven - - *
eight -
nine and upwards,
L. 10 o
x x o
12 o
12 10
13 o
13 10
14 o
14 10
15 0
And for every additional body fuccef-
fively ufed on the fame carriage or
number of w'heels, the further fum of L. 5 O
For carriages with lefs than four w'heels,
drawn by one horfe - 55
For carriages drawn by twro or more
horfes - - - 7 7
For every additional body - 210
For carriages with four wheels let out to
hire - - - 8 8
Every maker of coaches, chaifes, chariots, &c. muft,
from and after the 5th day of July 1785, take out at
the excife office in London, or of their agents in the
country, a licenfe, to be renewed annually at lead ten
days before the expiration of the former, for which they
muft pay 20s. They muft alfo pay 20s. duty for every
four-wheeled carriage newly built for fale, and 10s. for
every two-wheeled carriage. Thefe duties are alfo
payable to the commiffioners of the excife in town, ot
their agents in the country.
Coach-makers in Scotland are to take out their li-
cenfes and pay the duties to the commiflioners of ex¬
cife in Edinburgh, or their agents in the country of
that part of Great Britain.
Every coach-maker neglefling to take out a licenfe,
and renewing the fame annually, forfeits xol. j and
neglefting or refufing to fettle every fix weeks, in the
manner particularly dire&ed by the a&, is a forfeiture
of 2ol.
Hackney-CoACMSy thofe expofed to hire, in the
ftreets of London, and fome other great cities, at rate*
fixed by authority.
One thoufand liackney-coaches are allowed in Lon¬
don and Weftminfter: which are to be licenfed by
commiflioners, and to pay a duty to the crown. They
are all numbered, having their numbers engraved on
tin plates fixed on the coach-doors. Their fares or rates
are fixed by aft of parliament j and by a late aft have
been increafed in confequence of a new weekly tax.
Stage-CoACHSS are thofe appointed for the convey¬
ance of travellers from one city or town to another.
The mafters of ftage-coaches are not liable to an ac¬
tion for things loft by their coachmen, who have mo¬
ney given them to carry the goods, unlefs where fuch
mafter takes a price for the fame.
Perfons keeping any coach, berlin, landau, or other
carriage with four wheels, or any calafh, chaife, chair,
or other carriage with two wheels, to be employed as
public ftage-coaches or carriages, for the purpoie o£
conveying pafiengers for hire to and from different
places, (hall pay annually 5s. for a licenfe 5 and no per-
fbn fo licenfed (halt by virtue of one licenfe keep more
than one carriage, under the penalty of xol.
Mail-CoACHEs are ftage-coaches of a particular con-
ftruftion to prevent overturns j and for a certain confi-
deration carry his majefty’s mails, which are protefted
by a guard, and fubjeft to the regulations of the poft-
office. They are punftual as to their time of arrival
and departure, are reftrifted to four infide paffengers,
and from experience have proved very beneficial to the
covcitxigtcc and correfpondence of this country. The
late John Palmer, Efq. who had the merit of the in¬
vention, and was indefatigable in bringing the efta-
blifhiaeut to a permanent footing, was greatly pa-
troniaed
Coach.
O
o
o
o
o
Coach
C O A [2
tronized by government j and got, as the reward of his
fervice, a handfome appointment in the general poft-
office London.
Coach, or Couch, is alfoafort of chamber or apart¬
ment in a large {hip of war near the ftern. The floor
of it is formed by the aftmofl: part of the quarter-deck,
and the roof of it by the poop : it is generally the ha¬
bitation of the captain.
COADUNATE, in Botany, an order of plants in
ihe. fragmenta methodi naturalis of Linnaeus, in which
he has thefe genera, viz. annona, liriodendrum, mag¬
nolia, uvaria, michelia, thea.
COAGULATION, in Chemi/lry, is performed by
fix different agents 5 and by each of thefe in feveral dif¬
ferent manners. 1. It is performed with water, by
congealing, cryftallizing, and precipitating, as in the
mercurius vitae and fome other preparations. 2. With
oil, which, by the force of fire, unites with fulphur,
falls, and metals. 3. With alcohol, upon the fpirit of
fal ammoniac, the white of eggs, the ferum of the
blood, &c. 4. With acid and alkali growing folid to¬
gether, as in the tartarum vitriolatum. 5. With fixed
alkali, as in milk. And, 6. With acid falls j as in
milk, ferum, and the whites of eggs.
COAGULUM, is the fame with what in Englifh
we call runnet, or rather the curd formed thereby.
COAKS. For the exciting of intenfe heats, as for
the fmelting of iron ore, and for operations where the
acid and oily particles would be detrimental, as the
drying of malt, foflil-coals are previoufly charred, or
reduced to coaks ; that is, they are made to undergo an
operation fimilar to that by which charcoal is made.
By this operation coals are deprived of their phlegm,
their acid liquor, and part of their fluid oil. Coaks,
therefore, confift of the two moft fixed conftituent parts,
the heavy oil and the earth, together with the acid
concrete fait, which, though volatile, is diffolved by
the oil and the earth.
COAL, among chemifts, fignifies any fubftance
containing oil, which has been expofed to the fire in
clofe veffels, fo that all its volatile principles are ex¬
pelled, and that it can fuftain a red heat without fur¬
ther decompofition. Coal is commonly folid, black,
very dry, and confiderably hard. The fpecific cha-
radler of perfefl coal is its capacity of burning with
accefs of air, while it becomes red-hot and fparkles,
fometimes with a fenfible flame which gives little light,
with no fmoke or foot capable of blackening white
bodies.
Coal is capable of communicating its inflammable
principle, either to the fulphuric acid, wdth which it
forms fulphur; or to the nitrous acid contained in
nitre, which it inflames; or to metallic earths, which
it reduces into metals. But the phlogifton cannot pafs
from coal to form thefe new combinations without the
afliftance of red-heat. Coal feems to be an unalter¬
able compound in every inflance but thofe mentioned,
of burning in the open air, and of communicating its
phlogifton to other bodies : for it may be expofed in
clofe veffels to the moft violent and long-continued fire
without fuffering the leaft decompofition. No difpo-
fition to fufe, nor any diminution of wreight, can be per¬
ceived. It is a fubftance exceedingly fixed, and per¬
haps the moft refractory in nature. It refills the adtion
of the moft powerful menftrua, liver of fulphur alone
I
9 ] C O A
excepted. Coal is evidently a refult of the decompofi¬
tion of the compound bodies from which it is obtain¬
ed. It confifts of the greateft part of the earthy prin¬
ciple of thefe compound bodies, with which a part of
the faline principles, and fome of the phlogifton of
the decompofed oil, are fixed and combined very inti¬
mately. Coal can never be formed but by the phlogi¬
fton of a body which has been in an oily ftate ; hence
it cannot be formed by fulphur, phofphorus, metals,
nor by any other fubftance the phlogifton of which is
not in an oily ftate. Alfo every oily matter treated
with fire in clofe veffels, furnilhes true coal ; fo that
whenever a charry refiduum is left, we may be certain
that the fubftance employed in the operation contained
oil. Laftly, the inflammable principle of coal al¬
though it proceeds from oil, certainly is not oil, but
pure phlogifton, fince coal added to fulphuric acid can
form fulphur, to phofphoric acid can form phofphorus,
&c. and fince oil can produce none of thefe effefts till
it has been decompofed and reduced to the ftate of
coal. Befides, the phenomena accompanying the burn¬
ing of coal are different from thofe which happen when
oily fubftances are burnt. The flame of charcoal is
not fo bright as that of oil, and produces no flame or
foot.
Coal.
All the phlogifton of coal is not burnt in the open
air, particularly when the combuftion is flow\ One
part of it exhales without decompofition, and forms a
vapour, or an invifible and infenfible gas. This va¬
pour (which is, or at leaft contains a great deal of
fixed air) is found to be very pernicious, and to affedt
the animal fyftem in fuch a manner as to occafion
death in a very ftiort time. For this reafon it is dan¬
gerous to remain in a clofe place, where charcoal or
any other fort of coal is burnt. Perfons ftruck by
this vapour are ftunned, faint, fuffer a violent headach,
and fall down fenfelefs and motionlefs. The beft me¬
thod of recovering them is by expofure to the open
air, and by making them fwallow vinegar, and breathe
its fteam.
Amongft coals, fome differences are obfervable,
W’hich proceed from the difference of the bodies from
which they are made : fome coals, particularly, are
more combuftible than others. This combuftibility
feems to depend on the greater or lels quantity of fa-
line principle they contain ; that is, the more of the
faline principle it contains, the more eafily it decom-
pofes and burns. For example, coals made of plants
and wood containing much faline matter capable of
fixing it, the allies of which contain much alkaline fait,
burn vigoroufly and produce much heat; whereas the
coals of animal matters, the faline principles of which are
volatile, and cannot be fixed but in fmall quantity, and
the afties of which contain little or no fait, are Icarcely
at all combuftible. For they not only do not kindle fo
eafily as charcoal does, nor even burn alone, but they
cannot be reduced to afties, without very great trouble,
even when the moft effedual methods are ufed to faci¬
litate the combuftion. The coal of bullocks blood has
been kept for fix hours very red in a ftiallow crucible,
furrounded by burning charcoal, and conftantly ftir-
red all the time, that it might be totally expofed to
the air ; yet could it not be reduced to white, or even
gray, allies : It ftill remained very black, and full of
phlogifton. The coals of pure oils, or of concrete
E e 2 oily
C O A [2
oily fubftances and foot, which is a kind of coal raifed
during inflammation, are as difficultly reduced to afhes
as animal coals. Thefe coals contain very little faline
matter, and their allies yield no alkali. 1 he coals
which are fo difficultly burnt, are alfo lefs capable of
inflaming with nitre than others more combuftiblej and
fome of them even in a great mealure refill the action
of nitre.
Coal, in Mineralogy, a kind of folid inflammable
fubftance, fuppofed to be of a bituminous nature, and
commonly uled for fuel. Of this lubftance there are
various fpecies.
1 Pit coal (Lithanthrax), is a black, folid, com¬
pact, brittle mafs, of moderate hardnefs, lamellated
llrudlure, more or leis Ihining, but feldom capable of a
good poliHi ; and does not melt when heated. ^ Ac¬
cording to Kirwan, it confifts of petrol or afphaitum,
intimately mixed with a fmall poition of earth chiefly
argillaceous j leldom calcareous.5 and frequently mixed
with pyrites. A red tin£lure is extrafled from it by
fpirit of wine, but caullic alkali attacks the bituminous
part. From feme forts of it a varnilh may be made
by means of fat oils. Fixed alkali has never been
found in any kind of it, nor fulphur, unlefs when it
happens to be mixed with pyrites.— None of the vari¬
ous kinds are found to be tlcRncs per fe (a).
The varieties of lithanthrax, enumerated by Cron-
ftedt, are, I. With a fmall quantity of argillaceous
earth and fulphuric acid. It is of a black colour, and
{Inning texture : it burns, and is moftly confirmed in
the fire, but leaves, however, a fmall quantity of afhes.
2. Slaty coal.
2. Culm coal, called holm, by the Swedes, has a
greater portion of argillaceous earth and fulphuric acid,
with a moderate proportion of petrol. It has the fame
appearance with the foregoing, though its texture is
more dull: it burns with a flame without being con¬
firmed, but leaves behind it a flag of the fame bulk
with the original volume of the coal. The following
is Mr Kirwan’s defeription of it, from the memoirs of
the Stockholm academy. “ Its fradfure has a rough¬
er fedlion than the cannel coal •, its fpecific gravity
from 1.330 to 1.370. Tire belt kind affords by dif-
tillation, at firft fixed air, then an acid liquor, af¬
terwards inflammable air, and a light oil of the na¬
ture of petrolthen a volatile alkali j and laftly pitch-
20 J C O A
oil. The refiduum is nearly three quarters of the
whole-, and being flowly burnt, affords 13 percent,
of alhes, which confift moftly of argillaceous earth ;
and about three hundredth parts of them are magnetic.
It is found in England, and among fome aluminous
ores in Sweden.”
3. Slate-coal contains fuch a quantity of argillaceous
earth, that it looks like common 11 ate ; however, it
burns by itfelf with a flame. M. Magellan is of opi¬
nion that this is the bituminous fubftance already
deferibed. This fchiftus is of a dark bluifti rufty co¬
lour ; when thrown on the fire it burns with a lively
flame, and almoft as readily as the oily wood of dry
olive tree, or lignum vitae-, emitting the very dif-
agreeable Imell of petrol. Such large quarries of it
are found near Purbeck in Dorfetflnre, that the poor¬
er part of the inhabitants are thence lupplied with fuel.
From the appearance of this flaty coal, Cronfteot has
been induced to fuppofe that the earth of all kinds of
coal is argillaceous, though it is not lo ealy to diftin-
guifn it after being burnt. The pit-coals, he fays,
contain more or lels of the fulphuric acid 5 for which
reafon the finoke arifing from them attacks filver in
the fame manner as fulphur does, let the coals be ever
fo free from marcafite, w-hich, however, is otten im¬
bibed or mixed with them.
4. Cannel coal (Ampchtes), is of a dull black co¬
lour j breaks eafily in all diveflions } and, if biokeu
tranfverfely, preients a imooth conchoiual luiface. F.
burns with a bright lively flame, but is very apt to fly
in pieces in the fire , however, it is faid to be entirely
deprived of this property by immerfion in water for
fome hours previous to its being ufed. It contains a
confiderable quantity of petrol in a lefs condenfed ftate
than other coal. Its fpecific gravity is about 1.270.
This kind of coal, being of an uniform hard texture,
is eafily turned on a lathe, and takes a good polifti. Hence
it is ufed for making various toys, which appear almoft
as well as if made of the fineft jet.
5. Kilkenny coal has a fpecific gravity equal to
1.400. It contains the largeft quantity of afpbaltum j
burns with lefs fmoke and flame, and more intenfely,
though more flow-ly, than the cannel coal. The quan¬
tity of earth it contains does not exceed one-twentieth
part of its weight -, but this kind of coal is frequently
mixed with pyrites. It is found in the county ot Kil¬
kenny,
Coal.
(a) “The varieties of this coal (fays M. Magellan) are very numerous according to h. different fub-
(lances with which it is mixed ; but in regard to their economical ufes only two kinds are taken notice y
the Britilh legiltoe, via. culm and caking coals. The caking coals, ,n burn.ng, fhow «• ^on.
fo that their fmalleft pieces unite in the fire into one malsj by w-hich means t e ma . P* / , does not
mere dull of this kind, are almoft equally valuable with the largcft pieces. The other fort called do n
fufe or unite in the fierceft fire; fo that the fmall coal, betng unfit for domefttc purpofes, can only
‘’““’f Sd°te'an eafy matter for any perfon to diflingtfiftt culm from fmall caking coal, either by try¬
ing ,0 make fire with it in a common grate, without interpofing any other fue between ... when tf^t
kindles it is a caking coal-, if not, it is culm: Or by putting fome of thefe imall fragments of co< o
ignited iron (hovel j if they melt and run together, they belong to the caking kinds j if not they are culm.
But it feems that coal merchants are now in the cuftom of calling culm the powdery par s o pi -coo , o *
fiever kind they may happen to be. The reafon of this is, that there is a difference in the duty payable by
culm and by caking coals. There never was any difficulty, however, on the lubjeft } nor would t ere e a.nF
difficulty in col left mg° the tax, were it not for til infufferable ignorance and love of defpotic oppreflion which
generally pervades the underling officers of the revenue.”
C O A [2
Coal. kenny, belonging to the province of Leinflcr in Ire-
—V——' land. The quality of it as burning without Imoke, is
proverbially ufed as an encomium on the county.
6. 5z///>Ww/j-Wconfifts of the former kinds mix¬
ed with a very conliderable portion of pyrites 5 whence
it is apt to moulder and break when expoied to the
air, after which water will acl upon it. It contains
yellow fpots that look like metal j burns with a jul-
phureous fmell, leaving behind it either flag or ful-
phureous allies, or both. Its fpecific gravity is 1.500
or more.
7. Bovey coal {Xylanthrax), is of a brown or
brownifti-black colour, and of a yellow laminar tex¬
ture. Its laminae are frequently flexible when firft
dug, though they generally harden w-hen expoied to
the air. It conlifts of wood penetrated with petrol
or bitumen, and frequently contains pj rites,^ alum,
and vitriol. According to the German chemifts, its
afhes contain a little fixed alkali *, but Mr Mills.differs
from them on this fubjeft. By diftillation it yields a
fetid liquor mixed with a volatile alkali and oil 5 part
of which is foluble in alcohol, and part of a mineral
nature, and infoluble. It is found in almoft all the
countries of Europe.
Thefe are the mofi: confiderable varieties of coals
commonly knowm *, but we muff not imagine, that
each of them is to be met homogeneous in thofe places
where they are found. On the contrary, the differ¬
ent qualities and proportions of their ingredients make
a valt number of other varieties, fit for different pur-
pofes, according to the quality and quantity of thofe
they contain. Thus, various kinds of coals aie often
found mixed with one another under ground, and
fome of the finer forts fometimes run like veins be¬
tween thofe of a coarfe kind. Thus, M. Magellan
obferved in the fine coals employed in a curious ma-
nufaftory at Birmingham, that they produced a much
clearer flame than he had ever obferved from common
coal *, yet, on inquiry, be found that thefe were picked
out from the common coals of the country, through
which they ran in veins, and were eafily diflinguiflied
by the manufafturers, though they did not afford fuf-
ficient indications of a fpecific difference. The pur-
pofe to which they were applied was the moulding rods
of tranfparent and coloured glafs into the fhapes proper
for common buttons, which they performed with afto-
nifliing expedition.
Fourcroy remarks, that this foflil bitumen, when
heated in contaft with a body in combuftion,' and ha¬
ving a free accefs of air, kindles the .more fl.owly and
with the greater difficulty in proportion as it is more
weighty and compaft. When once kindled, it emits
a ftrong and durable heat, and burns for a.long time
before it is confumed. The matter that is burned,
and produces the flame, appears very denfe, and.feems
united to fome other fubftance which retards its de-
ftruaion. On burning, it emits a particular ftrong
fmell, which is not at all fulphureous vvhen the coal
contains no pyrites. When the combuffible, oily, and
other volatile parts of the coal are diflipated, if the com¬
buftion be then flopped, the remainder is found to be
reduced to a true charred ftate, and is called coah.
This fubftance is capable of exciting the moft intcnfe
heat, for which purpofe it is ufed in metallurgic works
all over Britain.
21 ] C O A
“ It is well known (fays M. Magellan,) that the Coak
Englifh method of burning pit coal into coak has been "
a moft profitable and happy acquifition tor the imclt-    
ing our ores, and for many other metallurgical and
chemical proceffes m this ifland. But the ingenious
and advantageous undertaking of Lord Dundonald, by
which he turns to a very conliderable piofit the mines
of coals in his and other eftates, building ovens of a
proper conftruftion for burning pit coal into coak,
and at the fame time for colkaing, in feparate re¬
ceptacles, the volatile alkali, oil, tar, and pitch, which
were generally loft by the ulual method, deierves to
be noticed, as it affords a very remarkable inftance of
the great Ioffes to mankind, for want of carefully at¬
tending to every reiult from great procefl'es of art
when made on a large fcale. Thefe ovens are fo con¬
trived, as to admit an under iupply of air •, and the
coals, after being kindled, decompole themlefves by a
flow ’but incomplete combuftion, which does not de-
ftroy the ingredients. The refiduum left in the oven
proves to be moft excellent cinders or coaks j whilft
the volatile parts, which otherwife would be diflipated
in the air, are ieparated and condenled in reiervoirs, or
receptacles of capacious fize, placed at proper alliances
beyond the reach of fire. Monk faujas de St hond,
who vffited thefe works m a journey he made to Scot¬
land, undertook to eredt a fimilar kind of oven in
France •, and it is rather finguiar, that he endeavours to
eftablifh a claim of having dilcovered the lame pro¬
ceffes before he faw them in Scotland, as it it did not
refledt a greater honour on his induftry, to carry back
to his country iome uleful knowledge, than to return,
as ignorant as our Englifh travellers, &^c.
On fubjedting pit-coal of any kind to dillillation in
clofe veffcls, it fit It yields a phlegm or watery liquor,,
then an ethereal or volatile oil, afterwards a volatile
alkali, and laftly, a thick and greaiy oil > but it is re¬
markable, that, by redtifying this lait oil, a tranfparent
thin and light oil of a ftraw colour is produced, which
being expofed to the air becomes black like animal
oils. From this and other obfervations, the general
opinion is, that coals, bitumens, and other oily
fubftances found in the mineral kingdom, derive their
origin from vegetables buried in the earth, fince it is
well known that only organized bodies have the power
of producing oily and fat fubltances. “ The amazing
irregularities, gaps, and breaks (fays M. Magellan) of
the ftrata of coals, and of other foflil fubftances, e-
vince that this globe has undergone the moft violent
convulfions, by which its parts have been broken, de¬
tached and overturned in different ways, burying large
tradfs of tbeir upper iurfaces, with ail the animal
and vegetable produdtions there exifting, at the time of
thofe horrible cataftrophes, whole epoch far precedes
all human records. And it is ealy to be conceived,
that the various heaps and congeries of thefe vegetable
and animal fubftances, remaining for ages and ages m
the bowels of the earth, have obtained various confift-
encies, and ftill produce thofe oily and bituminous jui¬
ces, which find way to gufh out, leaving behind their
thickeft parts on the fame places where they aie found,
and in many others where the induftiy of mankind ne¬
ver wall be able to penetrate.”
CoAL-Mine. . See Coalery. Malicioufly fetting fire
to coal-mines is felony, by flat. 10 Geo. II. c. 3 2, §
Small
C O A [ 222 ] C O A
Coal,
Coalery.
Hiftory of
coals.
* See Am-
feliia.
f L. xxavi.
cap. 26.
Auguftus
placed the
ftatues of
four ele¬
phants
made of it
in the tem¬
ple of Con¬
cord.
IVhittaitr s
Jiijtory of
JMancheJler,
$ L /. “ the
place of
tents.” An
ancient Bri-
tilh town,
the fite of
which was
the prefent
Caftlefield
at Manche-
jfter.
Smal/Coal, a fort of charcoal prepared from the fpray
j and brulhwood dripped off from the branches of cop¬
pice wood, fometimes bound in bairns for that purpofe,
and fometimes charred without binding, in which cafe it
is called “ coming it together.”
COALERY, Coal iery, or Colliery j a coal-
work, or place where Coals are dug.
It is generally agreed, that our cannel-coal * is the
lapis ampelites of the Romans, though it feems to
have been ufed by them only for making toys, brace¬
lets, &c. But of that common fuel which we denomi¬
nate coals, the native Romans were entirely ignorant.
It is certain that they are not, as fome have imagined,
the lapis obfidianus of Pliny, about which there have
been great difputesf: nor the Gagates, or Jet, which
others, again, have taken for the lapis objidianus;
though the lightnefs and texture fliow plainly that it is
not either done or coal. In faft, there are no beds of
it in the compafs of Italy. The great line of that fuel
feems to fweep away round the globe, from north-eaft
to fouth-wed 5 not ranging at a didance even from the
louth-eaderly parts of our ifland as is generally ima¬
gined, but a&ually vidting Biabant and France, and
yet avoiding Italy.
But the primaeval Britons appear to have ufed it.
And in the precindls of Manchelter particularly, which
are furnifhed writh an inexhaudible abundance of it,
they could not have remained unapprifed of the agree¬
able combudible around them. The currents there
frequently bring down fragments of coal from the
mountains; and in the long and winding courfe of
them through the parifh, the Britons would foon mark
the fhining dones in the channels ; and by the aid of
accident, or the force of rede£tion, find out the utility
of them. But wre can advance dill nearer to a cer¬
tainty. Several pieces of coal were difcovered fome
years ago in the fand under the Roman way to Rib-
cheder, wThen both were dug up at the condru&ion of
a houfe in Quay-dreet. The number of pieces, feve-
ral of them as large as eggs, was not lefs than 40 j
and a quantity of dack wTas dug up with them. Thefe
circumdances (how7 the coals to have been lodged upon
the fpot, before the road of the Romans covered it.
That ground being in the neighbourhood of Mancc-
mon t, the Britons had there repofited a quantity of
coals, probably for the ufe of the garrifon j and many
of the fmaller fragments, and fome of the dack, were
buried in the fand upon which they were laid. And
that the Britons in general were acquainted with this
fuel, is evident from its appellation amongd us at pre¬
fent, which is not Saxon, but Britidi ; and fubfids
among the Iridr in their 0 gual, and among the Cornidi
in their kolan, to this day.
1 he extenfive beds of fuel, therefore, with which the
kingdom of England and the precimds of Mancheder
are fo happily dored, w7ere fird noticed by the fkill,
and fird opened by the labour of the Britons $ and
fome time before the arrival of the Romans among us.
And the nearer quarries in the confines of Bradford,
Newton, and Mancheder, would naturally attradl the
notice, and invite the inquiries of the Britons, before
any others. The current of the Medlock, which
waflres the fides of them, w7ould bring dowm fpecimens
of the riches within, lodge many of them about the
Cadlefield, and allure the Britons fucceflively to a col- Coalery.
ledtion of the one and a fearch after the other. u—v—.
But, even for ages after the difeovery, wood continu¬
ed to compofe the general fuel of the nations. In 852,
a grant was made of fome lands by the abbey of Peter¬
borough, under the refervation of certain boons and
payments in kind to the monadery ; as, one night’s
entertainment j 10 veffels of Welfh and tw7o of com¬
mon ale-, 60 cart-loads of wood, and 12 of pit-coal j
where we fee the quantity of coal w7as only one cart¬
load to five of wrood. The latter naturally continued
the principal article of our fuel as long as the foreds
and thickets prefented themfelves fo ready to the
hand \ and fuch it continued till a very late period.
The fird public notice of the former is mentioned by
Mr Hume to have been in the time of Henry HI. who
in the year 1272, granted a charter to the town of
New-cadle, giving the inhabitants a licenfe to dig coals j
and the fird datute relating to this article was the
9 Henry V. c. 10. ordaining all keels in the port of
Newxadle to be meafured by commidioners, before
carriage of coals, on pain of forfeiture. They w7ere not
brought into common ufe till the reign of Charles I. ;
and were then fold for about 17s. a chaldron. In Camplrtr*
fome years after the redoration, there were zhout Political
200,000 chaldrons burnt in London; in 1670, about Surrey.
270,000 chaldrons; at the revolution, upwards of
300,000 chaldrons ; and at prefent, full 600,000 are
annually confumed there. There is, befides, an im-
menfe confumption in other parts of Briton, and in
Ireland. In Scotland, they fupply their own confump¬
tion, and alfo export. In Ireland, though they have
coal, yet they take annually to the value of 30,000!.
from England, and I2,oool. from Scotland.
The mod remarkable coalery, or coal-work, that w7e
have ever had in this ifland, was that wrought at Bor-
rowdounnefs, under the fea. The veins of coal were
found to continue under the bed of the fea in this place,
and the colliers had the courage to work the vein near
half way over; there being a mote half a mile from the
fliore, w7here there was an entry that w7ent down into
the coal-pit, under the fea. This w7as made into a
kind of round key or mote, as they call it, built fo as to
keep out the fea, which flowed there twTelve feet. Here
the coals were laid, and a fhip, of that draught of wa¬
ter, could lay her fide to the mote, and take in the
coal.—This famous coalery belonged to the earl of
Kincardine’s family. The frefli water which fprung
from the bottom and fides of the coal pit, was always
drawn out upon the (bore by an engine moved by wa¬
ter, that drew it forty fathoms. This coal-pit con¬
tinued to be wrought many years to the great profit of
the owners, and the wonder of all that faw it; but, at
laft, an unexpected high tide drowned the whole at
once: the labourers had not time to efcape, but perifli-
ed in it.
There are feveral other countries in Europe which
poffefs confiderable coal-mines ; as France, Liege,
Germany, and Sweden. Alfo on the other fide of the
Atlantic ocean, there has been coal difcovered, and
wrought; in Newfoundland, Cape-Breton, Canada,
and fome of the New England provinces. But in all £xcefjence
thefe countries, the coal is of a quality much inferior of the Bri¬
to the Britiih, and entirely unfit to be ufed in many coals.
ipanufaflures j
C O A
[ 223 ]
C O A
Coatery. manufa&uresj fo that they are obliged to import great
> quantities from Britain for the ufe of their manufac-
3 tures of iron, &c.
Importance Our inland coal-trade, that is, carrying Coals from
of--he coal-Newcaftiei Sunderland, Blith, and other adjacent
trade. p]aCes in the north of England, as alfo from the frith
of Edinburgh in Scotland, and other places adjacent,
to the city of London, and to the port towns on the
coall all the way, as well on this fide of Newcaftle,
north, as up the channel as high as Portfmouth weft,
is a prodigious article, and employs abundance of (hip¬
ping and feamen •, infomuch that, in a time of ur¬
gent neceflity, the coalery navigation alone has been
able to fupply the government with a body of feamen
for the royal navy, able to man a confideiable fleet at
a very (hort warning, and that without difficulty, when
no other branch of trade could do the like. Likewife
the Whitehaven coaleries in Cumberland, belonging, to
Sir James Lowther, furnifti feveral counties in Ireland
with coals, and conftantly employ upwards of 2000
feamen ; which alfo is a noble nurfery for the navy of
this kingdom. And not only do the pit-coals fuffici-
ently fupply all the ports, but, by means of thofe ports
and the navigable rivers, all the adjacent counties
very far inland.
In ftiort, coals, though not an exclufive, yet may,
with propriety, be ftyled a peculiar blefling to Britain,
from their great plenty, their acknowledged excel¬
lence, and their being found in fuch place* as are
conveniently fituated for exportation. Nor is there
any danger of the export trade being leffened even by
the feveral duties that have been laid upon them ; for
the foreign confumpt being founded in neceflity with
regard to manufaftures, and in economy where they
are ufed for convenience (wood and turf being dearer
than coals with the duty), we need be in no fear of
the markets declining. There is as little room to be
alarmed from an apprehenfion of their being exhaufted,
as the prefent works are capable of fupplying us for a
long feries of years, and there are many other mines
ready to be opened when thefe (hall fail. Befides,
there are known to be coals in many parts of the three
kingdoms, which hitherto tbey have had no encourage¬
ment to work.
Befides the value of this commodity as a conveni-
ency of life, as an article of commerce, and as giving
rife to a nurfery of feamen for the increafe of the
marine j other important advantages deferve to be no¬
ticed. Coals are in many refpe&s, and in a very high
degree, ufeful to the landed intereft } not only by rai¬
ling exceedingly the real value, and of courfe the pur-
chafe, of thofe lands in which they are found, and thofe
«* Thefe are through which it is neceflary to pafs * from the works
emphati- to the places where they are embarked, but from the
Callywd Senera^ improvements they have occafioned ; fo that
arid are let very ^ew counties are now better cultivated than Nor-
st as high thumberland, and the fame eflfe&s they have had in a
rents as ant greater or lefs degree in other places. Thoufands of
landed pro- laborious people are employed in and about the mines ;
Britain1 thoufands more in conveying them to the ports, and
on board the ftiips j to fay nothing of thofe that draw
their fubfiflence from the carriage of them by land to
fupply families, &c. There are alfo great numbers
that live in a (uperior ftation y as ftewards, dire&ors,
fa&ors, agents, book-keepers, &c. To thefe we may Coalery. ^
add the extraordinary encouragement given to inge- '
nious artifts who have invented, and the numerous
workmen continually employed about thofe feveral
curious and coftly machines which, for a variety of
purpofes in this bufinefs, are in continual ufe, and of
courfe in continual wear ; w'e may join to thefe the
multitudes that obtain their living from the many ma-
nufaflures in which they are employed, and which
could not be carried on but by the help and cheapnefs
of coals. Laftly, the produce of coals exported, wdiich
amounts to a very confiderable fum, befides being pro¬
fitable to the owners, merchants, and mariners, is fo
much clear gain to the nation.
It might be expe&ed, that a trade fo beneficial to
individuals, and to the nation in general, and which
has been gradually increafing for feveral centuries part,
would have been advanced by this time to very great
perfe&ion, and reduced to a regular fyftem. But, in
one very efiential refpedl, it is found to be quite other-
wife. The art of working coal-mines in the moft pro¬
fitable manner is indeed highly improved but the fun¬
damental of the art, that of fearching for and difco-
vering coal in any diffridt of country where it has not
yet been found, has never, that we know of, been
treated in a fyftematic manner. The reader, there¬
fore, will not be difpleafed to find this defedt fupplied
in the courfe of the prefent article, together wuth a'
detail of all the other operations in the bufinefs of
coaleries. ^
The terreftrial matters which compofe the folid Situation of
parts of the earth are difpofed in ftrata, beds, or lay- the ftrata.
ers, the under furface of one bearing againft or lying*
upon the upper furface of that below it, which laft
bears or lies on the next below in the fame manner.
Thefe ftrata confift of very different kinds of mat¬
ter, fuch as free-ftone, lime-ftone, metal-ftone or whin-
ftone, coal, &c. as will be particularly fpecified in the
fequel.
Some of thefe ftrata are of a confiderable thicknefs,
being often found from 100 to 200 feet or upwards,
nearly of the fame kind of matter from the fuperior
to the inferior furface ; and others are found of the
leaf! thicknefs imaginable, one inch or lefs.
All thefe ftrata are divided or parted from each o-
ther laterally, either by their even, fmooth, polifhed
furfaces, with very thin lamina of foft or dufty matter
betwixt them, called fbe parting, which renders them
eafy to feparate j or elfe only by the furfaces clofely
conjoined to each other, without any vifible matter in-
terpofed betwixt them : yet the different fubftance of
each ftratum is not in the lead intermixed, though
fometimes they adhere fo ftrongly together, that it is
very difficult to part or disjoin them : in this laft cafe
they are faid to have a bad parting.
Befides this principal divifion or parting laterally,
there are, in fome ftrata, fecondary divifions 01 part¬
ings alfo laterally, feparating or approaching towards
a feparation, of the fame ftratum, into parts of dif¬
ferent thickneffes, nearly parallel to each other, in the
fame manner as the principal partings divide the dif¬
ferent ftrata from each other : but thefe fecondary
ones are not fo ftrong or vifible, nor make fo effe&ual
a parting, as the principal ones do 5 and are only met
with
C O A [ 224 ] C O A
■Coalery. vvith in fuch ftrata, as are not of an uniform hardnefs,
v~ "''J texture, or colour, from the upper to the under fur-
face.
There are other divifions or partings, called backs,
in almoft every flratum, which crofs the former late¬
ral ones longitudinally, and cut the whole ftratum
through its two furfaces into long rhomboidal figures.
Thefe again are croffed by others called cutters, run¬
ning either in an oblique or perpendicular direction
to the laft mentioned backs, and alfo cut the ftratum
through its two furfaces. Both thefe backs and cut¬
ters generally extend from the upper or fuperior ftra¬
tum down through feveral of the lower ones j fo that
thefe backs and cutters, together with the lateral
partings before mentioned, divide every flratum into
innumerable cubic, prifmatic, aud rhomboidal figures,
according to the thicknefs of the ftratum, and the po-
fition and number of the backs and cutters. They
fometimes have a kind of thin partition of dufty or
foft matter in them, and fometimes none, like the firft
mentioned partings j but the fofter kind of ftrata ge¬
nerally have more backs and cutters than the harder
kind, and they do not extend or penetrate through the
others.
•CXLIX r^° explain this a little further, let A, B, C, D, E,
' * " * F, G, (fig. 1.) reprefent the principal partings before
mentioned, or the upper and under furfaces of any
ftratum; then a, b,c, d,e,f, will reprefent the fe-
condary lateral partings nearly parallel to the princi¬
pal ones ; g, h, z, k, /, m, the longitudinal partings cal¬
led backs ; n, 0, p, q, r, j-, the crofs partings called
cutters, crofiing the laft mentioned ones either oblique¬
ly or perpendicular.
In all places where the ftrata lie regular, they are
divided and fubdivided in the manner above men¬
tioned ; and fometimes in this manner extend through
a pretty large diftrifl of country ; though it is often
otherwife ; for their regularity is frequently interrupt¬
ed, and the ftrata broken and difordered, by fundry
chafms, breaches, or fiffures, which are differently de¬
nominated according to their various dimenfions, and
the matters with which they are filled, viz. dikes,
hitches, and troubles, which fhall be explained in
2 order.
Dikes. Dikes are the largeft kind of fiffures. They feem to
be nothing but a crack or breach of the folid ftrata,
occafioned by one part of them being broken away and
fallen from the other. They generally run in a ftraight
line for a confiderable length, and penetrate from the
furface to the greateft depth ever yet tried, in a di-
reflion fometimes perpendicular to the horizon, and
fometimes obliquely. The fame kind of ftrata are found
lying upon each other in the fame order, but the whole
of them greatly elevated or depreffed, on the one fide
of the dike as on the other. Thefe fiffures are fome¬
times two or three feet wide, and fometimes many
fathoms. If the fiffure or dike be of any confiderable
width, it is generally filled with heterogeneous mat¬
ter, different from that of the folid ftrata on each fide
of it. It is fometimes found filled with clay, gravel,
or fand ; fometimes with a confufed mafs of different
kinds of ftone lying edgeways; and at other times
with a folid body of free-ftone, or even whin ftone.
When the fiffure is of no great width, as fuppofe two
or three feet only, it is then ufually found filled with
I
a confufed mixture of the different matters W’hich Coalerf.
compofe the adjoining ftrata, confolidated into one-v—
mafs. If the dike runs or ftretches north and fouth,
and the fame kind of ftrata are found on the eaft fide
of the dike, in a fituation with refpefl to the horizon
10 or 20 fathoms lower than on the other fide, it is
then faid to be a dip-dike or downcajl-dike of 10 or 20
fathoms to the eaftward ; or counting from the eaft:
fide, it is then faid to be a rife-dike or upcajl of fo
many fathoms weft ward. If the ftrata on one fide
are not much higher or lower with refpefl to the ho¬
rizontal line, than thofe on the other, but only broken
off and removed to a certain diftance, it is then faid
to be a dike of fo many fathoms thick, and from the
matter contained between the two fides of the fiffure
or dike, it is denominated a day-dike, Jlone-dyke, &c. ^
A hitch is only a dike or fiflure of a fmaller degree,Hitches,
by which the ftrata on one fide are not elevated or
feparated from thofe on the other fide above one fa¬
thom. Thefe hitches are denominated in the fame
manner as dikes, according to the number of feet they
elevate or deprefs the ftrata.
There are dikes (though they are not often met
with in the coal-countries) whofe cavities are filled
with fparr, the ores of iron, lead, vitriol, or other me¬
tallic or mineral matters ; and it is pretty well known,
that all metallic veins are nothing elfe than what in
the coal countries are called dikes.
The ftrata are generally found lying upon each
other in the fame order on one fide of the dike as on
the other, as mentioned above, and nearly of the fame
thickneffes, appearing to have been originally a con¬
tinuation of the fame regular ftrata, and the dike only
a breach by fome later accident, perpendicularly or
obliquely down through them, by which one part is
removed to a fmall diftance, and depreffed to a lower
fituation than the other. But this is not the only al¬
teration made in the ftrata by dikes ; for generally to
a confiderable diftance on each fide of the dike, all the
ftrata are in a kind of lhattered condition, very ten¬
der, eafily pervious to water, and debafed greatly in
their quality, and their inclination to the horizon often
altered.
Troubles may be denominated dikes of the fmalleftTroubie5.
degree ; for they are not a real breach, but only a ten¬
dency towards it, which has not taken a full effefl.
The ftrata are generally altered by a trouble from
their regular fite to a different pofition. When the
regular courfe of the ftrata is nearly level, a trouble
will caufe a fudden and confiderable afeent or defeent ;
where they have, in their regular fituation, a certain
degree of afeent or defeent, a trouble either increafes
or alters it to a contrary pofition : and a trouble has
thefe effe£ls upon the ftrata in common with dikes,
that it greatly debafes them from their original qua¬
lity ; the partings are feparated ; the backs and cutters
disjoined, and their regularity difordered ; the original
cubic and prifmatic figures, of which the ftrata were
compofed, are broken, the diflocation filled with hete¬
rogeneous matter, and the whole ftrata are reduced to
a fofter and more friable ftate.
The ftrata are feldom or never found to lie in a
true horizontal fituation ; but generally have an incli¬
nation or defeent, called the dip, to fome particular
part of the horizon. If this inclination be to the eaft¬
ward,
C O A
[ 22J ]
C O A
Dip and
rife of the
ffrata.
Plate
CXLIX.
Coalery. ward, it is called an eajl dip, and a ivejl rife ; and ac¬
cording to the point of the compafs to which the dip
inclines, it is denominated, and the afcent or rife is
to the contrary point. This inclination or dip of the
ftrata is found to hold everywhere. In fome places, it
varies very little from the level ; in others, very con-
fiderably j and in fome fo much, as to be nearly in
a perpendicular diredlion : but whatever degree of
inclination the ftrata have to the horizon, if not inter¬
rupted by dikes, hitches, or troubles, they are always
found to lie in the firft regular manner mentioned.
They generally continue upon one uniform dip until
they are broken or difordered by a dike, hitch, or
trouble, by which the dip is often altered, fometimes
to a different part of the horizon, and often to an op-
polite pointfo that on one fide of a dike, hitch, or
trouble, if the ftrata have an eaft dip, on the other fide
they may have an eaft rife, which is a weft dip j and
in general, any confiderable alteration in the dip is ne¬
ver met with, but what is occafioned by the circum-
ftances laft mentioned.
To illuftrate what has been faid, fee fig. 2. where
a, b, c, d, &c. reprefent a courfe of ftrata lying upon
each other, having a certain inclination to the horizon.
AB, is a downcaft-dike, which depreffes the ftrata
obliquely to efgh, &c. lying upon each other in the
fame order, but altered in their inclination to the ho¬
rizon. CD reprefents a clay or freeftone dike, W’here
the ftrata are neither elevated nor depreffed, but only
broken off and removed to a certain diftance. EF, re¬
prefents a hitch, which breaks off and depreffes the ftra¬
ta only a little, but alters their inclination to the hori¬
zon. GH, reprefents a trouble, where the ftrata on
one fide are not entirely broken off from thofe on the
other, but only in a crulhed and irregular fituation.
As fome particular ftrata are found at fome times to
increafe, and at other times to diminilh, in their thick-
neffes, whilft others remain the fame, confequently
they cannot be all parallel; yet this increafe and dimi¬
nution in their thickneffes come on very gradually.
The ftrata are not found difpofed in the earth ac¬
cording to their fpecific gravities 5 for we often find
ftrata of very denfe matter near the furface, and per¬
haps at 50 or even too fathoms beneath, we meet
with ftrata of not half the fpecific gravity of the firft.
A ftratum of iron ore is very often found above one
of coal, though the former has twice the gravity of
the latter; and, in ftiort, there is fuch an abfolute un¬
certainty in forming any judgment of the difpofition
of the ftrata from their fpecific gravities, that it can¬
not in the leaft be relied upon.
It has been imagined by many, that hills and val-
lies are occafioned by thofe breaches in the ftrata be¬
fore mentioned called dikes; but this is contradifted
by experience. If it was fo, we Ihould meet with
dikes at the Ikirts of the hills, and by the fides of val-
lies, and the fea-ihore ; but inftead of that, we gene¬
rally find the ftrata lying as uniformly regular un¬
der hills and vallies, and beneath the bottom of the
fea (as far as has been yet tried), as in the moft cham¬
paign countries. It may happen, indeed, that a dike
is met with in fome of thefe places j but that being
only a cafual circumftance, can never be admitted as
a general caufe. Whatever irregularities are ccca-
fioned in the folid ftrata by dikes, or other breaches,
Vox.. VI. Part I.
are commonly covered over and evened by thofe beds. Coalery. ^
of gravel, clay, fand, or foil, which lie uppermoft,
and form the outward furface of the earth. Where-
ever thefe fofter matters have been carried off, or
removed by accident, as on the tops of hills and the
fides of vallies, there the folid ftrata are expofed, and
the dip, rife, and other circumftances of them may
be examined ; but no certain conclufions can be drawn,
merely from the unevennefs and inequalities of the out¬
ward furface.
The preceding obfervations, upon the general difpo¬
fition of the folid ftrata, are equally applicable to the
ftrata of coal as to thofe of ftone or other matter. 9
We (hall next give an account of the feveral ftrata Defcription
of coal, and of ftone, and other matters, which are ftra-
ufually connefted with coal, and are found to have
particular affinity with it j and, for the fake of diftinc-
tion, (hall arrange them into fix principal claffes, which
will include all the varieties of ftrata that have been
found to occur in all thofe diftri&s of country, both in
Scotland and England, where coal abounds.
1. Of Whin-Jlone.The ftrata of what is denomi¬
nated whin-ftone are the hardeft of all others j the an¬
gular pieces of it will cut glafs j it is of a very coarfe
texture, and when broken acrofs the grain, exhibits the
appearance of large grains of fand half vitrified j it
can fcarcely be wrought, or broken in pieces, by com¬
mon tools, without the affiftance of gunpowder j each
ftratum is commonly homogeneous in fubftance and
colour, and cracked in the rock to a great depth. The
moft common colours of thefe ftrata are black or dark
blue, yet there are others of it alh-coloured and light
brown. Their thicknefs in all the coal countries is
but inconfiderable, from fix or five feet down to a few
inches; and it is only in a few places, they are met
with of thefe thickneffes. In the air it decays a little,
leaving a brown powder ; and in the fire it cracks, and
turns reddifh brown. Limeftone, and what is called
bajlard limejlone, is fometimes, though rarely, met with
in coaleries. It is a well known ftone j but from its
refemblance in hardnefs and colour is often miftaken
for a kind of whin. Sometimes, particularly in hilly
countries, the folid matter next the furface is found
to be a kind of foft or rotten whin j—but it may be
noted, that this is only a mafs of heterogeneous mat¬
ter difpofed upon the regular ftrata \ and that beneath
this, all the ftrata are generally found in as regular an
order as where this heterogeneous matter does not oc¬
cur.
2. Of Pof -fone.~\ This is a freeftone of the hard¬
eft kind, and next to the limeftone with refpeft to
hardnefs and folidity. It is of a very fine texture ; and
when broken appears as if compofed of the fineft fand.
It is commonly found in a homogeneous mafs, though
variegated in colour ; and, from its hardnefs, is not
liable to injury from being expofed to the weather.
Of this kind of ftone there are four varieties, which
may be diftinguiffied by their colour. The moft com¬
mon is white poft, which in appearance is like Port¬
land ftone, but confiderably harder ; it is fometimes
variegated with ftreaks or fpots of brown, red, or
black.
Gray poft is alfo very common j it appears like a
mixture of fine black and white fand : it is often va¬
riegated with brown and black ftreaks j the laft men-
F f tioned
C O A [ 226 ] GOA
Coaleiy. tioned appear like fmall clouds compofed of particles
0f coal.
Brown or yellow poll is often met with of differ¬
ent degrees of colour ; mod commonly of the colour
of light ochre or yellow fand. It is as hard as the
reft, and fometimes variegated with white and black
ftreaks.
Red poft is generally of a dull red colour : this is
but rarely met with $ it is often ftreaked with white
or black.
All thefe lie in ftrata of different thickneffes ; but
commonly thicker than any other ftrata whatever: they
are feparated from each other, and from other kinds
of ftrata, by partings of coal, fand, or foft matter of dif¬
ferent colours wdiich are very diftinguifhable.
3. Of Sand-Jlone.~\ This is a freeftone of a coarfer
texture than poft, and not fo hard ; is fo lax as to be
eafily pervious to water ; w'hen broken, is apparently
of a coarfe fandy fubftance ; is friable and moulders to
fand when expofed to the wind and rain 5 has frequent¬
ly white fhining fpangles in it, and pebbles or other
fmall ftones enclofed in its mafs. Of this, there are
two kinds commonly met with, diftinguifhed by their
colours, gray and brown, which are of different (hades,
lighter or darker in proportion to the mixture of
w'hite in them. It is moft generally found in ftrata of
confiderable thicknefs, without many fecondary part¬
ings j and fometimes, though rarely, it is fubdivided
into layers as thin as the common gray (late. It has
generally fandy or foft partings.
4. Of Metalflone.~] This is a tolerably hard ftratum,
being in point of hardnefs next to fand-ftone j gene¬
rally folid, compact, of confiderable weight, and of
an argillaceous fubftance, containing many nodules or
balls of iron ore, and yellow or white pyrites 5 its part¬
ings, or the furfaces of its ftrata, are hard, polifhed,
and fmooth as glafs. When broken, it has a dull
dufky appearance (though of a fine texture), like hard
dried clay mixed with particles of coal. Though hard
in the mine or quarry, w'hen expofed to the frefh air it
falls into very fmall pieces. The moft ufual colour of
this ftone is black ; but there are feveral other lighter
colours, down to a light brown or gray. It is eafily
diftinguifhed from freeftone by its texture and colour,
as well as by its other charafteriftics. It lies in ftrata
of various thickneffes, though feldom fo thick as the
two laft mentioned kinds of ftone.
5. Of Shiver.'] This ftratum is more frequently met
with in coaleries than any other. There are many va¬
rieties of it, both in hardnefs and colour ; but they all
agree in one general charafteriftic. The black colour
is moft common ; it is called by the miners black fhiver,
black metal, or bleas. It is fofter than metal-ftone,
and in the mine is rather a tough than a hard fub¬
ftance, is not of a folid or compafl matter, being ea¬
fily feparable, by the multitude of its partings, &c.
into very fmall parts, and readily abforbing water.
The fubftance of this ftratum is an indurated bole,
commonly divided into thin laminae of unequal thick-
neffes, which break into long fmall pieces w hen ftruck
with force ; and, on examination, they appear to be
fmall irregular rhomboids : each of thefe fmall pieces
has a polifhed glaffy furface j and, wThen broken crofs
the grain, appears of a dry, leafy, or laminated tex¬
ture, like exceedingly fine clay: it is very friable; Coalery.
feels to the touch like an undfuous fubftance ; and dif- ’““"■'V—
folves in air or wrater to a fine pinguid black clay.
Tbere are almoft conftantly found inclofed in its ftrata
lumps or nodules of iron ore, often real beds of the
fame.
There are other colours of this ftratum befides black.
The brown or dun fhiver is very frequently met with j
it agrees with the above defeription in every thing but
colour. Gray fhiver is alfo very common : it feems to
be only a mixture of the black and dun •, and by the
different degrees of mixture of thefe colours others are
produced. It lies in ftrata fometimes of confiderable
thicknefs, at other times not exceeding a few feet :
they are commonly parted from each other by laminae
of fpar, coal, or foft matter.
6. Of Coal.] Referring the reader, for the fcientific
divifion of coals, to Mineralogy, and the preceding
articles, wre fhall here confider them as diftinguifhable
into three kinds, according to their degrees of inflam¬
mability.
I. The leaft inflammable kinds are thofe known by
the name of Welfh coal, which is found in Wales ; Kil¬
kenny coal, which is found near Kilkenny in Ireland j
and blind or deaf coal, which is found in many parts of
Scotland and England. This coal takes a confiderable
degree of heat to kindle it, but when once thoroughly
ignited will burn a long time ; it remains in the fire
in feparate pieces without flicking together or caking j
it produces neither flame nor fmoke, and makes no
cinder, but burns to a white ftony flag : it makes a
hot glowing fire like charcoal or cinders, and emits
effluvia of a fuffocating nature, which renders it unfit
for burning in dvvelling-houfes, its chief ufe being
among maltfters, dyers, &c. for drying their commo¬
dities. 2. Open burning coal, foon kindles, making a
hot pleafant fire, but is foon confirmed : it produces
both fmoke and flame in abundance ; but lies open in
the fire, and does not cake together fo as to form cin¬
ders, its furface being burnt to afhes before it is tho¬
roughly calcined in the midft •, from this it has its
name of an open burning coal; it burns to white or
brown afhes very light. Of this kind is cannel-coal,
jett, parrot, fplint, and moft of the coals in Scotland.
3. Clofe burning coal, kindles very quickly, makes a
very hot fire, melts and runs together like bitumen,
the very fmalleft culm making the fineft cinders, which
being-thoroughly burnt, are porous and light as a pu¬
mice ftone, and when broken are of a fhining lead co¬
lour ; it makes a more durable fire than any other
coal, and finally burns to brown or reddifh coloured
heavy afhes. Of this kind are the Newcaftle and fe¬
veral other of the Englifh coals, and the fmithy coals
of Scotland. The open and the clofe burning coal
mixed together, make a more profitable fire for domef-
tic ufes than either of them feparate.
In all thofe diftrifts of country wftiere coal is found,
there are generally feveral ftrata of it; perhaps all the
different kinds above mentioned will be found in fome,
and only one of the kinds in others •, yet this one kind
mav be divided into many different feams or ftrata,
by beds of fhiver or other kinds of matter interpofing,
fo as to give it the appearance of fo many feparate
ftrata.
All
C O A
[ 227 1
C O A
Coaiery
10
The order
in which
they lie.
Plate
CXLIX.
All thefe ftrata above defcrlbed, with their feveral
1 varieties, do not lie or bear upon each other in the
order in which they are defcribed, nor in any certain
or invariable order. Though there be found the fame
kinds of ftrata in one coaiery or diftri£l: as in another,
yet they may be of very different thickneffes. In
fome places there are moft of the hard kinds, in others
moft of the fofter ; and in any one diftrift it rarely
happens that all the various kinds are found *, for fome
kinds, perhaps, occur only once or twice, whilft others
occur io or 20 times before we reach the principal
ftratum of coal.
In order to explain this, fuppofe the ftrata in the
pit at A (fig. 3.) He in the order a, b, c, d, &c. they
may be fo much altered in their thickneffes, by rea-
fon of fome of them increafing and others dimJnifh-
ing, at the diftance of B, that they may be found there
of very different thickneffes ; or if they are examined
in a pit at D, by reafon of its lower fituation, and the
ftrata there not being a continuation of thofe in the
other places, they may be very different both in their
order and thickneffes, and yet of the fame kinds.
Though they be thus found very different in one
coaiery or diftrift from what they are found to be in
another, with refpeft to their thickneffes, and the or¬
der in which they lie upon each other, yet we never
meet with a ftratum of any kind of matter but what
belongs to fome of thofe above defcribed.
To illuftrate how the various ftrata lie in fome
places, and how often the fame ftratum may occur be¬
twixt the furface and the coal, we (hall give the fol¬
lowing example. The numbers in the left-hand co-
lumb refer to the claffes of ftrata before defcribed, to
whiclj each belongs. The fecond column contains the
names of the ftrata ; and the four numeral columns to
the right hand, exprefs the thicknefs of each ftratum,
in fathoms, yards, feet, and inches.
Example.
Soil and gravel
Clay mixed with loofe ftones
Coarfe brown fand-ftone, with foft part¬
ings - - - -
White poft, with (hivery partings
Black fhiver or bleas, with iron-ftone balls
Coarfe fplinty coal
Soft gray fliiver - - -
Biown and gray poft, ftreaked with black
Black fliiver, with beds and balls of iron-
ftone, -
Gray and black metal-ftone
White and brown poft
Biack and gray fliiver, ftreaked with white
Soft gray fand-ftone, with Ihivery partings
Yellow and white poft, with fandy partings
Black and dun ftiiver, with iron-ftone balls
White poft ftreaked witn black, and black
partings -
Giay fhiver, with iron-ftone balls
Brown and black metal-ftone
Hard flaty black fhiver
Coal, hard and fine fplint
Soft black fhiver
Coal, fine and clear
Hard black fhiver
Total Fathoms
jFas
o
Yd
Ft.
In.-
Plate
CXLIX.
In this inftance the fpecies of fand-ftone only oc- Coalrry. ^
curs twice, poft five times, whilft the ftiiver occurs no
lefs than nine times.
To apply the foregoing obfervationS to pradlice.
Suppofe it was required to examine whether there
was coal in a piece of ground adjoining to, or in the
neighbourhood of, other coaleries. it
In the firft place, it is proper to be informed, at Methods of
fome of the adjacent coaleries, of the number and kinds
of ftrata, the order in which they lie upon each other j
to what point of the horizon, and in what quantity,
they dip *, if any dikes, hitches, or troubles, and the
courfe they ftretch. Having learnt thefe circumftan- Rule ift»
ces, fearch in the ground under examination where
the ftrata are expofed to view, and compare thefe
with the other. If they be of the fame kinds, and
nearly correfpond in order and thicknefs, and be lying
in a regular manner, and agree by computation with
the dip and rife, it may fafely be concluded the coal is
there j and the depth of it may be judged from the
depth of the coal in the other coaiery, below any par¬
ticular ftratum which is vifible in this.
If the folid ftrata are not expofed to view, neither Ruk
in the hills nor valleys of the ground under examina¬
tion, then fearch in the adjoining grounds, and if the
fame kind of ftrata are found there as in the adjacent
coaiery, and there is reafon, from the dip and other
circumftances, to believe that they ftretch through the
ground to be examined $ it may then be concluded that
the coal is there, as well as thefe other ftrata.
Suppofe a coaiery is on the fide of a hill at A, fig. 3*
and you would fearch for a coal at B, on the other fide
of the hill, but in a much lowrer fituation j by obferving
the feveral ftrata lying above the coal at A, and the
point to which they dip, which is diredly towards B
(if clear of dikes), you may expeift to find the fame
kind of ftrata on the other fide of the hill, but much
lower down. Accordingly, if fome of the ftrata are
vifible in the face of the precipice C, they may be
compared with fome of thofe in the pit at A. Or, if
they are not to be feen there, by fearching in the op-
polite hill, they may perhaps be difcovered at the place
F j where, if they be found in the manner before men¬
tioned, and there be reafon to believe they extend re¬
gularly from the firft place to this, it is more than pro¬
bable the coal, as well as thefe ftrata, will be found in
the intermediate ground.
If the ground to be examined lie more to the rife ruic
of the coal, as at E, which being fuppofed to be on a
flat, perhaps the folid ftrata there may be wholly co¬
vered by the gravel, clay, &c. of the outward furface
lying upon them. In this cafe, by meafuring the ho¬
rizontal diftance and the defcent of ground from A
to E, and computing the quantity of afcent or rife of
the coal in that diftance \ by comparing thefe toge¬
ther, it may be judged at what depth the coal will be
found there, allowing that it lie regular. 1 bus, fup¬
pofe the coal at A 80 yards deep, the diftance from
A to E 500 yards, and that the coal rifes one yard in
10 of horizontal diftance :
Then, from the depth of the pit 80
Deduft th? defcent of ground from A to
E, fuppofe - - - 24
Ef 2
This
V
[ 228
C O A
Coalery. This remainder would be the depth, if the
1 v coal was level - - 56
But as the coal rifes 1 in 1 o yards, then de¬
duct what it rifes in 500 yards, which
is - - - 50
And the remainder is the depth of that
coal at E. 6 Yards.
Rule 4th. Or fuppofe that the place at B is 500 yards the
contrary way, or to the full dip of the coal at A 5 if a
view of the folid llrata cannot be obtained, then by
proceeding in the fame manner as before, the depth
of the coal at that place may be computed. Thus,
To the depth of the coal at the pit A
Add the defcent or inclination of the
coal in 500 yards, which, as before,
80
50
Rule 5th.
This fum would be the depth, if the
ground was level - - 130
But as the ground defcends towards B,
dedu£t the quantity of that, which
fuppofe - - - 80
Remains the depth of the coal at B J° ^ ards.
If the place to be examined be neither to the full
dip nor full rife, but in fome proportion towards ei¬
ther, the fame method may be purfued, computing
how much the coal rifes or dips in a certain diftance in
that dire&ion.
If there is known to be a dike in the workings of
the pit at A, which elevates or depreffes the ftrata to¬
wards the place under examination, then the quantity
of the elevation or depreflion mull be accordingly ad¬
ded to or deduced from the computed depth of the
coal at that place. Suppofe there is an upcaft dike
of 10 fathoms or 20 yards towards B, then deduft 20
from 50, the depth before computed, there wall re¬
main 30 yards or 15 fathoms for the depth of the coal
at B.
But it often happens that coal is to be fearched for,
in a part of the country, at fuch a confiderable diftance
from all other coaleries, that by reafon of the interven¬
tion of hills, vallies, unknown dikes, &c. the con¬
nexion or relation of the ftrata with thofe of any other
coalery cannot be traced by the methods laft mention¬
ed j in which cafe a more extenfive view muft be tak¬
en of all circumftances than was neceffary in the for¬
mer j and a few general rules founded on the foregoing
obfervations, and on conclufions drawn from them,
will greatly aflift in determining fometimes with a
great degree of probability, and fometimes with abfo-
lute certainty, whether coal be in any particular di-
ftridft of country or not.
The firft proper ftep to be taken in fuch a cafe, is
to take a general view of that diftrift of country in¬
tended to be fearched, in order to judge, from the out¬
ward appearance or face of the country^ which parti¬
cular part out of the whole is the moft likely to con¬
tain thofe kind of ftrata favourable to the produftion
of coal *, and confequently fuch particular part being
found, is the moft advifable to be begun with in the
examination.
] GOA
Though the appearance of the outward furface Coalery.
gives no certain or infallible rule to judge of the kindsv \r~J
of ftrata lying beneath, yet it gives a probable one ;
for it is generally found, that a chain of mountains orousfitua_
hills rifing to a great height, and very fteep on thetions.
fides, are commonly compofed of ftrata much harder
and of different kinds from thofe before deferibed
wherein coal is found to lie, and therefore unfavour¬
able to the production of coal-, and thefe mountainous
fituations are alfo more fubjeft to dikes and tioubles
than the lower grounds; fo that if the folid ftrata com-
pofing them gave even favourable fymptoms of coal,
yet the laft circumftance would render the quality
bad, and the quantity precarious. And, on the whole
it may be obferved, that mountainous fituations are
found more favourable to the produ&ion of metals ^
than of coal. It is likewife generally found that thofe Hills and
diftricts abounding with valleys, moderately rifing hills, valleys,
and interfpeifed wuth plains, fometimes of confider¬
able extent, do more commonly contain coal, and
thofe kinds of ftrata favourable to its production, than
either the mountainous or champaign countries ; and
a country fo fituated as this laft deferibed, efpecially
if at fome confiderable diftance from the mountains,
ought to be the firft part appointed for particular ex- 14
amination. Plains, or level grounds of great extent, Plains.
generally fituated by the fides of rivers, or betwixt
fuch moderate rifing grounds as laft deferibed, are
alfo very favourable to the produCfion of coal, if the
folid ftrata, and other circumftances in the higher
grounds adjoining, be conformable ; for it will fcarce-
ly be found, in fuch a fituation, that the ftrata are fa¬
vourable in the rifing grounds, on both fides of the
plain, and not fo in the fpace betwixt them. Though
plains be fo favourable, in fuch circumftances, to the
produCfion of coal,- yet it is often more difficult to be
difeovered in fuch a fituation, than in that before de¬
feribed ; becaufe the clay, foil, and other lax matter,
brought off the higher grounds by rains and other
accidents, have generally covered the furfaces of fuch
plains to a confiderable depth, which prevents the ex¬
ploration of the folid ftrata there, unlefs they be ex-
pofed to view by digging, quarrying, or fome fuch
operation.
That part of the diftriCt being fixed upon which
abounds with moderate hills and valleys as propereft
to begin the examination at, the firft ftep to be taken is
to examine all places where the folid ftrata are ex-
pofed to view (which are called the crops of the ftra¬
ta), as in precipices, hollows, &c. tracing them as ac¬
curately and gradually as the circumftances will allowq
from the uppermoft ftratum or higheft part of the
ground to the very undermoft : and if they appear to
be of the kinds before deferibed, it will be proper to
note in a memorandum book their different thickneffes;
the order in which they lie upon each other; the point
of the horizon to which they dip or incline, the quan¬
tity of that inclination, and whether they lie in a re¬
gular ftate. This fliould be done in every part of the
ground where they can be feen, obferving at the fame
time, that if a ftratum can be found in one place,
which has a connexion wuth fome other in a fecond
place, and if this other has a connection with another
in a third place, &c.; then, from thefe feparate con¬
nections, the joint correfpondence of the whole may
* be
C O A
[ 229 ]
C O A
Coalery. be traced, and the ftrata, which in fome places are co-
'-“■"V——' vered, may be known by their correfpondence with
thofe which are expofed to view.
If by this means the crops of all the ftrata cannot
be feen (which is often the cafe), and if no coal be
difcovered by its crop appearing at the futface ; yet
if the ftrata that have been viewed confift of thofe
kinds before defcribed, and are found lying in a regu¬
lar order, it is fufficiently probable that coal may be
in that part of the diftrift, although it be concealed
from fight by the furface of earth or other matter.
Rule 6th. Therefore, at the fame time that the crops of the rtrata
are under examination, it will be proper to take notice
of all fuch iprings of water as feem to be of a mineral
nature, particularly thofe known by the name of iron
water, which bear a mud or fediment of the colour of
ruft or iron, having a ftrong aftringent tafte. Springs
of this kind proceed originally from thofe ftrata which
contain beds or balls of iron-ore *, but by reafon of
the tenacity of the matter of thofe ftrata, the water
only difengages itfelf flowly from them, defcending
into fome more porous or open ftratum below, where,
gathering in a body, it runs out to the furface in fmall
ftreams or rills. The ftratum of coal is the moft ge¬
neral refervoir of this water-, for the iron-ftone being
lodged in different kinds of ftiiver, and the coal com¬
monly connedled with fome of them, it therefore de-
fcends into the coal, where it finds a ready paflage
through the open backs and cutters. Sometimes, in¬
deed, it finds fome other ftratum than coal to colleft
and tranfmit it to the furface 5 but the diff'erence is
eafily diftinguiftiable j for the ochrey matter in the
water, when it comes from a ftratum of coal, is of a
darker rufty colour than when it proceeds from any
other, and often brings with it particles and fmall
pieces of coal ; therefore, wherever thefe two cir-
cumftances concur in a number of thefe kind of fprings,
fituated in a direftion from each other anfwerable to
the ftretch or to the inclination of the ftrata, it may
be certain the water comes off coal, and that the coal
lies in a fomewhat higher fituation than the apertures
of the fprings.
There are other fprings alfo which come olf coal,
and are not diftinguilhable from common water, other-
wife than by their aftringency, and their having a blue
feum of an oily or glutinous nature fwimming upon
the furface of the water. Thefe, in common with the
others, bring out particles of coal, more efpecially in
rainy feafons when the fprings flow with rapidity.
When a number of thefe kinds are fituated from each
other in the direction of the ftrata, as above defcri¬
bed or if the water does not run forth as in fprings,
but only forms a fwamp, or an extenfion of ftagnant
water beneath the turf; in either cafe, it may be de¬
pended upon that this water proceeds from a ftratum
of coal.
Rule 7th. If the ftratum of coal is not expofed to view, or
cannot be difcovered by the firft method of fearching
for the crop, although the appearance of the other
ftrata be very favourable, and afford a ftrong proba¬
bility of coal being there j and if the laft-mentioned
method of judging of the particular place where the
crop of the coal may lie, by the fprings of water iffu-
ing from it, fhould, from the deficiency of thofe fprings
or other circumftances, be thought equivocal, and
not give a fatisfa&ory indication of the coal 5 then a
further fearch may be made in all places where the
outward furface, or the ftratum of clay or earth, is
turned up by ploughing, ditching, or digging, particu¬
larly in the lower grounds, in hollows, and by the
fides of ftreams. Thefe places ihould be ftriftly exa¬
mined, to fee if any pieces of coal be intermixed with
the fubftance of the fuperior lax ftrata j if any fuch be
found, and if they be pretty numerous and in detached
pieces, of a firm fubftance, the angles perfect or not
much worn, and the texture of the coal dillinguifh-
able, it may be concluded, that the ftratum of coal to
which they originally did belong is at no great dis¬
tance, but in a fituation higher with refpedft to the
horizon ; and if there be alfo found along with the
pieces of coal other mineral matter, fuch as pieces of
ftiiver or freeftone, this is a concurrent proof that it
has come only from a fmall diftance. Though the two
fore-mentioned methods Ihould only have produced a
ftrong probability, yet if this laft-mentioned place,
where the pieces of coal, &c. are found in the clay,
be in a fituation lower than the fprings -, when this
circumftance is joined to the other two, it amounts to
little Id’s than a moral certainty of the ftratum of coal
being a very little above the level of the fprings. But
if, on the contrary, thefe pieces of coal are found more
fparingly interfperfed in the fupeiior ftratum, and if
the angles are much fretted or worn off, and very lit¬
tle of other kinds of mineral matter conneded with
them ; it may then be concluded, that they have come
from a ftratum of coal fituated at a greater diftance
than in the former cafe j and by a ftridl fearch and an
accurate comparifon of other circumftances, that par¬
ticular place may be difcovered with as much certainty
as the other.
After the place is thus difcovered, where the ftra¬
tum of coal is expedled to lie concealed, the next pro¬
per ftep to be taken, is to begin digging a pit or hole
there perpendicularly down to find the coal. If the
coal has no folid ftrata above and beneath it, but be
found only embodied in the clay or other lax matter,
it will not be there of its full thicknefs, nor fo hard
and pure as in its perfedf ftate when enclofed be¬
twixt two folid ftrata, the uppermoft called the rooft
and the undermoft called the pavement, of the coal ;
in fuch fituation therefore it becomes neceffary, either
to dig a new pit, or to work a mine forward until the
ftratum of coal be found included betwixt a folid roof
and pavement, after which it need not be expected to
increafe much in its thicknefs : yet as it goes deeper
or farther to the dip, it moft likely will improve in its
quality, for that part of the ftratum of coal which lies
near the furface, or only at a fmall depth, is often de-
bafed by a mixture of earth and fundry other impuri¬
ties, waflred down from the furface, through the backs
and cutters, by the rains 5 whilll the other part of the
ftratum which lies at a greater depth is preferved pure,
by the other folid ftrata above it intercepting all the
mud waflred from the fuiface.
The above methods of inveftigation admit of many
different cafes, according to the greater or lefs number
of favourable circumftances attending each of the modes
of inquiry 5 and the refult accordingly admits every
degree of probability, from the moft diftant, even up
to abfolute certainty. In fome fituations, the coal
1 will
Coalery.
C O A [ 230 1 C O A
Coalery. will be difcovered by one method alone, in others, by
-v ' a comparifon of certain circumftances attending each
method j whilft in fome others, all the circumitances
that can be colle&ed only lead to a certain degree of
probability.
In the laft cafe, where the evidence is only proba¬
ble, it will be more advifable to proceed in the fearch
by boring a hole through the folid ftrata (in the man¬
ner hereafter defcribed), than by digging or linking a
pit, it being both cheaper and more expeditious; and
in every cafe, which does not amount to an abfolute
certainty, this operation is necelfary, to afcertain the
real exiltence of the coal in that place.
We (hall now fuppofe that, having examined a cer¬
tain diftri61, lituated within a few miles of the fea or
dome navigable river, that all the circumftances which
offer only amount to a probability of the coal being
there, and that boring is neceffary to afcertain it. We
fhall therefore defcribe the operation of boring to the
coal then the method of clearing it from water, com¬
monly called winning it; and all the fubfequent opera¬
tions of working the coal and railing it to the furface,
leading it to the river or harbour, and finally putting
T^ it on board the Ihips.
Of boring Suppofe that the ground, A, B, C, D, fig. 4. has
for the been examined, and from the appearance of the ftrata
c°ah wdiere they are vifible (as at the precipice D, and fe-
P]ate veral other places), they are found to be of thofe kinds
CXLIX. ufually connedted with coal, and that the point to
which they rife is diredlly weft towards A, but the
ground being flat and covered to a confiderable depth
with earth, &c. the ftrata cannot be viewed in the
low grounds; therefore, in this and all limilar lituations,
the firft hole that is bored for a trial for coal Ihould be
on the weft fide of the ground, or to the full rife of
the ftrata as at A, where, boring down through the
ftrata 1, 2, 3, fuppofe 10 fathoms, and not finding
coal, it will be better to bore a new hole than to pro¬
ceed to a great depth in that; therefore, proceeding fo
far to the eaftward as B, where the ftratum 1, of the
firft hole, is computed to be 10 or 12 fathoms deep, a
fecond hole may be bored, where boring down through
the ftrata 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, the ftratum I is met with, but
no coal; it would be of no ufe to bore farther in this
hole, as the fame ftrata would be found which were
in the hole A : therefore, proceeding again fo far to
the eaftward, as it may be computed the ftratum 4 of
the fecond hole will be met with at the depth of I® or
12 fathoms, a new hole may be bored C, where,
boring through the ftrata 9, 10, 11, 12, the coal is
met with at 13, before the hole proceed fo deep as
the ftratum 4 of the former. It is evident, that, by
this method of procedure, neither the coal nor any
other of the ftrata can be paffed over, as the laft hole
is always bored down to that ftratum which was near-
eft the furface in the former hole.
The purpofes for which boring is ufed are numerous,
and fome of them of the utmoft importance in coaleries.
In coaleries of great extent, although the coal be known
to extend through the whole grounds, yet accidental
turns, and other alterations in the dip, to which the
coal is liable, render the boring of three or more holes
neceffary, to determine exactly to what point of the
horizon it dips or inclines, before any capital operation
for the winning of it can be undertaken ; becaufe a
X
very fmall error in this may occafion the lofs of a great Coalery.
part of the coal, or at leaft incur a double expence in ’
recovering it.
Suppofe A, B, C, D, fig. 5. to be part of an exten-
five field of coal, intended to be won or laid dry by
a fire-engine ; according to the courfe of the dip in
adjoining coaleries, the point C is the place at rvhich
the engine ftiould be eredled, becaufe the coal dips in
dire£Hon of the line AC, confequently the level line
would be in the direftion CD ; but this ought not to
be trufted to. Admit two holes, 1, 2, be bored to
the coal in the direflion of the fuppofed dip, at 200
yards diftance from each other, and a third hole 3 at
200 yards diftance from each of them : fuppofe the
coal is found, at the hole 1, to be 20 fathoms deep ; at
the hole 2, 10 fathoms deeper ; but at the hole 3, only
8 fathoms deeper than at 1. Then to find the true
level line and dip of the coal, fay, As 10 fathoms, the
dip from 1 to 2, are to 200 yards the diftance, fo are 8
fathoms, the dip from 1 to 3, to 160 yards, the dif¬
tance from one on the line 1, 2, to rz, the point upon a
level with the hole 3. Again fay, As 8 fathoms, the
dip from 1 to 3, are to 200 yards the diftance; fo are
10 fathoms, the dip from 1 to 2, to 250 yards, the
diftance from 1, in direction of the line 1, 3, to £, the
point upon a level with the hole 2. Then let fall the
perpendicular 1, r, which will be the true direction of
the dip of the coal, inftead of the fuppofed line AC ;
and by drawing ED, and DF, parallel to the other
lines, the angle D, and no other place, is the deepeft
part of the coal, and the place where the engine
Ihould be eredted. If it had been eredted at the angle
C, the level line would have gone in the diredlion cby
by which means about one-third part of the field of
coal would have been below the level of the engine,
and perhaps loft, without another engine was eredled
at D.
Boring not only fiiows the depth at which the coal
lies, but its exadt thicknefs; its hardnefs ; its quality,
whether clofe burning or open burning, and whether
any foul mixture is in it or not; alfo the thicknefs, hard¬
nefs and other circumftances of all the ftrata bored
through ; and from the quantity of water met with in
the boring, fome judgment may be formed of the fize
of an engine capable of drawing it, where an engine
is neceffary. When holes are to be bored for thefe
purpofes, they may be fixed (as near as can be gueffed)
in fuch a fituation from each other, as to fuit the places
where pits are afterwards to be funk ; by which means
moft of the expence may be faved, as thefe pits would
otherwife require to be bored, when finking, to dif-
charge their water into the mine below. There are
many other ufes to which boring is applied, as will be
explained hereafter.
For thefe reafons, boring is greatly pradlifed in Eng¬
land, and is brought to great perfedlion ; and as the
operation is generally entrufted to a man of integrity,
who makes it his profeflion, the accounts given by him
of the thicknefs and other circumftances of the ftrata,
are the moft accurate [imaginable, and are trufted to
with the greateft confidence ; for as very few gentle¬
men choofe to take a leafe of a new coalery which
has not been fufficiently explored by boring, it is ne-
ceffary the accounts ftiould be faithful, being the only
rule to guide the landlord in letting his coal, and the
tenant
C O A [23
Coalery. tenant in taking it. In Scotland it is not fo generally
v.„—praftifed ; nor are there any men of character who
are profelTed borers, that operation being commonly
left to any common workman ; whence it happens that
it never has been in any efteem, the accounts given by
them being fo imperfedf and equivocal as not to merit
any confidence.
The tools or inflruments ufed in boring are very
fimple. The boring rods are made of iron from 3 to
4 feet long, and about one inch and a half fquare, with
a fcrew at each end, by which they are fcrewed toge¬
ther, and other rods added as the hole increafes in
depth. The chifel is about 18 inches long, and two
and a half broad at the end, which being fcrewed on
at the lower end of the rods, and a piece of timber
put through an eye at the upper end, they are prepa¬
red for work. The operation is performed by lifting
them up a little, and letting them fall again, at the
fame time turning them a little round ; by a conti¬
nuance of which motions, a round hole is fretted or
worn through the hardeft ftrata. When the chifel is
blunt, it is taken out, and a fcooped inllrument call¬
ed a wimble put on in its ftead ; by which the dull or
pulverized matter which was wTorn off the ftratum in
the laid operation is brought up. By this fubftance,
the borers know exaftly the nature of the ftratum
they are boring in : and by any alteration in the
working of the rods (which they are fenfible of by
handling them), they perceive the leaft variation of the
ftrata. The principal part of the art depends upon
keeping the hole clean, and obferving every variation
of the ftrata with care and attention.
The eftabliftied price of boring in England was fome
time ago 5s. per fathom for the firft five fathoms, 10s.
per fathom for the next five fathoms, and 15s. per fa¬
thom for the next five fathoms j and fo continually in-
creafing 5s. per fathom at the end of every five fa¬
thoms ; the borer finding all kinds of boring inftru-
ments, and taking his chance of the hardnefs of the
ftrata, except above one foot in thicknefs of whin occur,
xq when the former price ceafes, and he is paid per day.
Of winning It is exceedingly uncommon to meet with a ftratum
the coal. of coal which is naturally dry, or W’hofe fubterranean
fprings or feeders of water are fo very fmall as to re¬
quire no other means than the labour of men to draw
off or conduft them away •, for it moft commonly hap¬
pens that the ftratum of coal, and the other ftrata ad¬
jacent, abound fo much in feeders of water, that, be¬
fore accefs can be had to the coa1, fome other methods
muft be purfued to drain or conduct aw7ay thefe feed¬
ers •, therefore, after the deepeft part of the coal is
difcovered, the next confideration is of the beft method
of draining it, or, in the miners language, of winning
the coal.
If the coal lies in fuch an elevated lituation, that a
part of it can be drained by a level brought up from
the lower grounds, then that w7ill be the moft natural
method ; but whether it be the moft proper or not,
depends upon certain circumftances, If the fituation
of the ground be fuch, that the level would be of a
great length, or have to come through very hard ftrata,
and the quantity of coal it would drain, or the profits
expelled to be produced by that coal, fhould be ina¬
dequate to the expence of carrying it up ; in fuch cafe
fome other method of winning might be more proper.
i ] COA
Or luppofe, in another cafe, it be found, that a level Coalery.
can be had to a coalery, which will coft 2000I. and v f
require five years to bring it up to the coal, and that
it will drain 30 acres of coal when completed •, yet if it
be found that a fire engine, or fome other machine,
can be erefted on that coalery, for the fame fum of
money, in one year, which will drain 50 acres of the
fame coal, then this laft wrould be a more proper me¬
thod than the level; becaufe four years profit would
be received by this method before any could come in
by the other j and after the 30 acres drained by the
level is all wrought, a machine of fome kind would ne-
vertbelefs be neceffary to drain the remaining 20 acres j
fo that erefling a machine at firft would be on all ac¬
counts the moft advifable.
Where a level can be driven, in a reafonable time,
and at an adequate expence, to drain a fufticient tract
of coal, it is then the moft eligible method of win¬
ning } becaufe the charge of upholding it is generally
lefs than that of upholding fire-engines or other ma¬
chines.
If a level is judged propereft after confideration of
every neceffary circumftance, it may be begun at the
place appointed in the manner of an open ditch, about
three feet wide, and carried forward until it be about
fix or feven feet deep from the furface, taking care to
fecure the bottom and fides by timber-work or build¬
ing, after which it may be continued in the manner
of a mine about three feet wide, and three feet and a
half high, through the folid ftrata, taking care all along
to keep the bottom upon a level, and to fecure the
roof, fides, and bottom, by timber or building, in all
places where the ftrata are not ftrong enough to fup-
port the incumbent weight, or where they are liable
to decay by their expofure to the freftr air. If the
mine has to go a very long way before it reaches the
coal, it may be neceffary to fink a fmall pit, for the
convenience of taking out the ftones and rubbifh pro¬
duced in working the mine, as well as to fupply freffv
air to the workmen ; and if the air fhould afterwards
turn damp, then fquare wooden pipes made of deals
clofely jointed (commonly called air-boxes), may be
fixed in the upper part of the mine, from the pit-bot¬
tom all the way to the end of the mine, which will
caufe a fufficient circulation of frefh air for the work¬
men. Perhaps in a great length it will be found pro¬
per to fink another or more pits upon the mine, and
by proceeding in this manner it may be carried for-
W’ard until it arrive at the coal j and after driving a
mine in the coal a few yards to one fide, the firft coal¬
pit may be funk.
If a level is found impra&icable, or for particular
reafons unadvifable, then a fire-engine*, or fome ^ ^
other machine will be neceffary, which ftiould be fixed tjrjp gu"a?n,
upon the deepeft part of the coal, or at leaft fo far Engine.
towards the dip as will drain a fufficient extent of
coal, to continue for the time intended to work the
coalery ; and whether a fire-engine, or any other
machine is ufed, it will be of great advantage to have
a partial level brought up to the engine-pit, if the fi¬
tuation of the ground will admit it at a fmall charge,
in order to receive and convey away the water with¬
out drawing it fo high as to the furface ; for if the pit
was 30 fathoms deep to the coal, and if there was a
partial level which received the water five fathoms
only
C O A [23
the engine by this means
tloalery. only below the furface, w
l*-**'“v"' ' would be enabled to draw one-6th part more water than
without it j and if there were any feeders of water in
the pit above this level, they might be conveyed into
it, where they wTould be difcharged without being
drawn by the engine.
The engine-pit may be from feven to nine feet
wide, and whether it be circular, oval, or of any
other form, is not very material, provided it be fuf-
ficiently ftrong, though a circular form is moft gene¬
rally approved. If any feeders of water are met
with a few fathoms from the furface, it will be pro¬
per to make a circular or fpiral cutting about one foot
deep, and a little hollowed in the bottom, round the
circumference of the pit, in order to receive and con-
dudt the water down, without flying over the pit and
incommoding the w'orkmen. If the ftrata are of fo
tender or friable a nature as not to bear this opera¬
tion, or if the water leaks through them, then it will
be neceffary to infert in the fore-mentioned cutting a
circular piece of timber called a crib, hollowed in the
fame manner to colleft the wrater 5 and a fecond may
be inferted two or three yards below the firft, with a
Hoping niche down the wall or fide of the pit, to con¬
vey the water from the former into it; proceeding by
fome of thefe methods until the pit is funk 15 or 20
fathoms, at which place it would be proper to fix a
ciftern or refervoir, for the firft or upper fet of pumps
to ftand in ; for if the pit be 30 fathoms as fuppofed,
it would be too great a length for the pumps to be all
in one fet from bottom to top j therefore, if any ex¬
traordinary feeders are met wfith, betwixt 15 and 20
fathoms deep, it would be beft to fix the ciftern where
it may receive them, and prevent their defcending to
the bottom j obferving that the upper fet of pumps be
fo much larger than the lower one, as the additional
feeders may require j or if there are no additional
feeders, it ought then to be a little fmaller.
After the upper ciftern is fixed, the operation may
be purfued by the other fet of pumps in much the fame
manner as has been defcribed, until the pit is funk to
the coal ; which being done, it wrould be proper to
fink it fix or eight feet deeper, and to work fome coal
out from the dip fide of the pit, to make room for a
large quantity of water to colleft, without incommod¬
ing the coal-pits when the engine is not working.
It would exceed the proper bounds of this article to
enumerate all the accidents to wdnch engine-pits are
liable in finking j we ftrall therefore only recite a few
which feem important.
If a quickfand happens to lie above the folid ftrata,
next the furface, it may be got through by digging
the pit of fuch a widenefs at the top (allowing for the
natural Hope of running of the fand) as to have the
proper fize of the pit on the uppeimoft folid ftratum,
where fixing a wooden frame or tub as the timber-
work of the pit, and covering it round on the out-
fide with wrought clay up to the top, the fand may
again be thrown into the excavation round the tub,
and levelled with the furface.
If the quickfand ftiould happen to lie at a confider-
able depth betwixt the clay and folid ftrata, then a
ftrong tub of timber clofely jointed and (hod with
iron, of fuch a diameter as the pit will admit, may be
£et down into it; and by fixing a great weight upon
Coakrv.
2 ] GOA
the top, and by working out the fand, it may be made
to fink gradually, until it comes to the rock or other
folid ftratum below j and when all the fand is got
out, if it be lightly calked and fecured, it will be fuf-
ficient.
It fometimes happens, that a ftratum of foft matter,
lying betwixt two hard folid ones, produces fo large a
quantity of water as greatly to incommode the opera¬
tions. In fuch a cafe, a frame-work of plank, ftrength-
ened with cribs and clofely calked, will keep back the
whole or the greateft part of it, provided the two ftra¬
ta which include it are of a clofe texture *, or let an ex¬
cavation of about two feet be made in the foft ftratum,
quite round the circumference of the pit, and let that
be filled clofe up betwixt the hard ftrata w ith pieces of
dry fir-timber about ten inches fquare inferted endwife,
and afterwards as many wooden wedges driven into
them as they can be made to receive j if this be well
finifhed, little or no water will find a pafiage through
it.
It rarely happens that any fuffocating damp or foul
air is met with in an engine-pit 5 the falling of w’ater,
and the working of the pumps, generally caufing a fuf-
ficient circulation of freftr air. But that kind of com-
buftible vapour, or inflammable air, w'hich will catch
fire at a candle, is often met with. It proceeds from
the partings, backs, and cutters, of the folid ftrata,
exhaling from fome in an infenfible manner, whilft
from others it blowTs with as great impetuolity as a
pair of bellows. When this inflammable air is per¬
mitted to accumulate, it becomes dangerous by taking
fire, and burning or deftroying the workmen, and
fometimes by its explofion will blow the timber out of
the pit, and do confiderable damage. If a confider-
able fupply of freftr air is forced down the pit by air-
boxes and a ventilator, or by dividing the pit into two
by a clofe partition of deals from top to bottom, or by
any other means, it will be driven out, or fo weakened,
that it will be of no dangerous confequence ; or when
the inflammable air is very ftrong, it may be fafely car¬
ried off by making a clofe flreathing or lining of thin
deals quite round the circumference of the pit, from
the top of the folid ftrata to the bottom, and length¬
ening it as the pit is funk, leaving a fmall vacancy be¬
hind the ftreathing } when the combuftible matter
which exhales from the ftrata, being confined behind
thefe deals, may be vented by one or two fmall leaden
pipes carried from the Iheathing to the furface, fo
that very little of it can tranfpire into the area of the
pit. If a candle be applied to the orifice of the pipe
at the furface, the inflammable air will inftantly take
fire, and continue burning like an oil-lamp, until it be
extinguilhed by fome external caufe. Upon the whole,
every method ftrould be ufed to make the pit as ftrong
in every part, and to keep it as dry as poffible $ and
whenever any accident happens, it ftiould be as ex-
peditioully and thoroughly repaired as poflible, before
any other operation be proceeded in, left an additional
one follow', which wmuld more than double the difficul¬
ty of repairing it. ... *7
The firft operations, after finking the engine-pit, are of working
the working or driving a mine in the coal, and fink-the coal,
ing the firft coal-pit. The fituation of the firft coal¬
pit ftiould be a little to the rife of the engine-pit, that
the water which colleas there may not obftru£t the
workinp-
(5 O A
Goalerjr, working of the coals every time
 ^ > and jt fljouid not exceed the diftance of 20, 30,. or 40
yards, becaufe when the firft mine has fo be driven
long way, it becomes both difficult and expenfive. If
there be not a fufficient circulation of freffi air in the
mine, it may be fupplied by the before defcribed air-
boxes and a ventilator, until it arrives below the in¬
tended coal-pit, when the pit may be bored and lumc
to the coal, in the manner before mentioned.
After the pit is thus got down to the coal, the next
confideration ffiould be, the belt method of working
it. The moft general praftice in Scotland is to ex¬
cavate and take away a part only of the ftratum of
coal in the firft working of the pit, leaving the other
part as pillars for fupporting the roof; and alter the
coal is wrought in this manner to fuch a diftance from
the pit as intended, then thele pillars, or fo many of
them as can be got, are taken out by a fecond work¬
ing, and the roof and other folk] ftrata above permit¬
ted to fall down and fill up the excavation. The
quantity of coal wrought away, and the fize of the
pillars left in the firft working, is proportioned to the
hardnefs and ftrength of the coal and other ftrata adja¬
cent, compared with the incumbent weight of the fupe-
rior ftrata.
The fame mode of working is purfued in moft parts
of England, differing only as the circumftances of the
coalery may require j for the Englifh coal, particularly
in the northern counties, being of a fine tender tex¬
ture, and of the clofe-burning kind, and alfo the roof
and pavement of the coal in general not fo ftrong as
in Scotland, they are obliged to leave a larger propor¬
tion of coal in the pillars for fiupporting the roof, du¬
ring the firft time of working j and, in the fecond work¬
ing, as many of thefe pillars are wrought away as can
be got with fafety.
The Scots coal in general being very hard, and of
the open-burning kind, it is neceiTary to work it in
fuch a manner as to produce as many great coals as
poffible, which is heft effe&ed by taking away as high
a proportion of the coal as circumftances will allow in
the firft working 5 on the contrary, the Englifh coal
being very tender, cannot poffibly be wrought large,
nor is it of much importance how fmall they are, be¬
ing of fo rich a quality •, fo that a larger proportion
may be left in pillars in this coal than could with pro¬
priety be done in the other •, and, when all circumftan¬
ces are confidered, each method feems well adapted to
the different purpofes intended.
The ancient method of working was, to work away
as much of the coal as could be got with fafety at one
working only, by which means the pillars were left fo
fmnll as to be cruflied by the weight of the fuperior
flrata, and entirely loft. As great quantities of coals
were loft by this method, it is now generally ex¬
ploded, and the former adopted in its place, by which
a much larger quantity of coal is obtained from the
fame extent of ground, and at a much lefs expence in
the end.
The exa£l proportion of coal proper to be wrought
away, and to be left in pillars at the firft working,
may be judged of by a comparifon of the circumftan¬
ces before, mentioned. If the roof and pavement are
both ftrong, as well as the coal, and the pit about 30
fathoms deep, then two-thirds, or probably three*
Vol. VI. Part I.
[ 233 1 G O A
the engine flops; fourths, may be taken away at the firft
one-third or one-fourth left in pillars.
or tender, then
working, and
If both roof
a larger pro-
Coalerv.
and pavement be foft --— , -
portion nluft be left in pillars, probably one-third or
near one half; and in all cafes the hardnefs or ftrengtu
of the coal muft be confidered. If tender it ml! re¬
quire a larger pillar than hard coal, becaufe, y C1,’S
expofed to the air after the firft working, a part of it
will moulder and fall off, by which it will lole much
of its iolidity and refiftance.
The proportion to be wrought away and left in
pillars being determined, the next proper hep is to
fix upon fuch dimenfions of the pillars to be left, and
of the excavations from which the coal is to be taken
away, as may produce that proportion. In older to
form a juft idea of which, fee a plan of part ot a pit’s
workings (fig. 6.), fuppofed to be at the depth of 30
fathoms, and the coal having a moderate rife. A, u-
prefents the engine-pit; B, the coal-pit; A d x>, the
mine from the former to the latter; 1-C, the futt
working or excavation made from the coal-pit, com¬
monly called the winning mine or winning headway,
nine feet wide ; bibb, &c. the workings called rooms
turned off at right angles from the others, of the width
of 12 feet : cccc, &.c. the workings called throughers
or thirlings, 9 feet wide, wrought through at right
angles from one room to another ; ddd, &c. the pil¬
lars of coal left at the firft working for fupporting the
roof, 18 feet long and 12 feet broad ; DD, two large
pillars of coal near the pit bottom, 15 or 20 yards long,
and 10 or 15 broad, to fupport the pit, and prevent its
being damaged by the roof falling in ; ee, the level
mine wrought in the coal from the engine-pit bottom,
four or five feet wide ; ff, &c. large pillars of coal left
next the level, to fecure it from any damage by the
roof falling in ; gg, a dike which depreffes the coal,
I fathom ; /->£, &c. large pillars and barriers of coal
left unwrought, adjoining to the dike where the roof
is tender, to prevent its falling down. The coal ta¬
ken out by the firft working in this pit is fuppofed to
be one-third of the whole ; and allowing the rooms
12 feet wide, and the thirlings 9 feet wide, then the
pillars will require to be 12 feet wide and 18 feet long;
for if one pillar be in a certain proportion to its ad¬
joining room and thirling, the whole number of pillars
will be in the fame proportion to the whole number
of rooms and thirlings in the pit. Suppdfe AECD
(gg. 7.) to be a pillar of coal 18 feet long and 1 2 feet
broad, its area will be 2 16 fquare feet; ACHE, the
adjoining thirling, i 2 feet by 9 feet, and its area 108
fquare feet; BAEFG, the adjoining room, 27 feet long
and t 2 feet broad, and its area 324 fquare feet ; which
added to 108 gives 432 fquare feet, or two-thirds
wrought, and 216 fquaie feet left, or one third of the
whole area FGHD.
It is proper to obferve, that in the profecution of
the workings, the rooms to the right of the winning
headway ffiould be oppofite to the pillars on the left,
and the firft, third, and fifth pillar, or the fecond,
fourth, and fixth, adjoining to the faid headway, ffiould
be of fuch a length as to overlay the adjoining thir¬
lings, as, in the plan, the pillar 2 overlays the thir¬
lings 1 and 3 ; and the pillar 4 overl .ys the thir¬
lings 3 and 5 ; this will effeftually fupport the roof
of the main road BC, and will bring the other pillars
G g into
Plate.
CXLIX.
Coalery.
G O A [ 234 ] C O A
into their regular order, by which means each pillar
will be oppofite to two thirlings. Alfo a larger pro¬
portion of coal than common {hould be left in all
places which are intended to be kept open after the
fecond working, fuch as the pit-bottoms, air-courfes,
roads, and water-courfes, or where the roof is ten¬
der, as it generally is near dikes, hitches, and troubles;
and if the roof {hould continue tender for a confider-
able fpace, it will perhaps be found proper to leave a
few inches of coal adhering to the roof, which, toge¬
ther with a few props of timber fixed under it, may
fupport it effedlually for a long time. The level mine
ee, and the winning headway BC, {hould be wrought
forward a confiderable length before the other rooms,
in order to be driven through any dikes that might in-
terpofe, otherwife the progrefs of the workings might
probably be flopped a confiderable time, rvaiting until
a courfe of new rooms were procured on the other
fide of the dike. Suppofe the dike gg, fig. 6. to de-
prefs the coal fix feet or one fathom, and that it rifes
in the fame manner on the under fide of the dike as it
does on the upper fide ; in fuch a cafe, the only reme¬
dy would be to work or drive a level mine through the
flrata of ftone from the engine-level at e, over the
dike, until it interfeft the coal at i; and from thence to
drive a new level mine in the coal at zY, and a new
winning headway ik. In order to gain a new fet of
rooms and to fupply frefli air to this new operation, a
fmall mine might be driven from the room h, and a hole
funk down upon the level room ii; therefore, if the
level mine ee was not driven fo far forward as to have
all thefe operations completed before the rooms and
other workings were intercepted by the dike, the
working of the pit might ceafe until thefe new places
were ready.
If there be two or three ftrata or feams of coal in
the fame pit (as there often are) having only a ftratum
of a few feet thick lying betwixt them, it is then ma¬
terial to obferve, that every pillar in the fecond feam
be placed immediately before one in the firft, and
every pillar in the third feam below one in the fe¬
cond ; and in fuch a fituation the upper ftratum of coal
ought to be firft wrought, or elfe all the three toge¬
ther ; for it would be unfafe to work the lower one
firft, left the roof {hould break, and damage thofe lying
above.
It fometimes becomes neceffary to work the coal
lying to the dip of the engine or the level ; which coal
is confequently drowned with water, and muft there¬
fore be drained by fome "means before it can be wrought.
If the quantity of water proceeding from it be mcon-
fiderable, it may then be drained by fmall pumps laid
upon the pavement of the coal, and wrought by men
or horfes, to raife the water up to the level of the en¬
gine-pit bottom ; or if the feeders of w'ater be more
confiderable, and the fituation be fuitable, the work¬
ing rod of thele pumps might be connected with thofe
in the engine-pit; by which means the water would be
raifed up to the level ; but if the quantity of water be
very great ; or if, from other circumftances, thefe me¬
thods may not be applicable ; then the engine-pit may
be funk as deep below the coal as may be neceffary,
and a level ftone mine driven from its bottom to the dip
of the ftrata, until it interfedl the ftiatum of coal, from
whence a new level mine might be wrought, which would
effe&ually drain it. Suppofe AB, fig. 8. to be a fee- Coalery,
tion of the engine-pit ; BC, the coal drained by the v—
engine; BD, the coal to the dip of the engine in¬
tended to be drained ; then if the engine-pit be funk
deeper to E, a ftone mine may be wrought in the di-
reflion ED, until it interfedl the coal at D, by which
the water will have a free paffage to the engine, and
the coal will be drained.
If there be another ftratum of coal lying at fuch a
depth below the firft as the engine-pit is intended to
be funk to, the upper feam may in fome fituations be
conveniently drained, by driving a mine in the lower
feam of coal from E to F, and another in the upper
one from B to D; and by boring a hole from D to F,
the water will defeend to F, and, filling the mine EF,
rife up to the engine-pit bottom at E, which is upon
a level with D.
Whenever it is judged neceflary to work the pil¬
lars, regard muft be had to the nature of the roof.
If the roof is tender, a narrow room may be wrought
through the pillar from one end to the other, leaving
only a fhell of coal on each fide for fupporting the roof
the time of working. Suppofe ABCD, fig. 7. to be
a pillar of coal 18 feet long and 1 2 feet broad : if the
roof is not ftrong, the room 1, 2, 3, 4, of eight feet
wide, may be wrought up through that pillar, leaving
a fhell of two feet thick on each fide ; and if it can be
fafely done, a part of thefe fhells may alfo be wrought
away, by working two places through them as at 5 and
6. By this means very little of the coal will be loft ;
for two-thirds of the whole being obtained by the firft
veorking, and above two-thirds of the pillar by the fe¬
cond working, the lofs upon the whole would not ex¬
ceed one-tenth : but it may be obferved, that fome pil¬
lars will not produce fo great a proportion, and per¬
haps others cannot be wrought at all ; fo that, upon
the whole, there may be about one-fixth, one-feventb,
or in fome fituations but one-eighth part of the coal loft.
If the roof be hard and ftrong, then as much coal may be
wrought off each fide and each end of the pillar as can
be done with fafety, leaving only a fmall piece {landing
in the middle ; and when the roof is very ftrong, fome¬
times feveral pillars may be taken entirely out, without
any lofs of coal : and in general this laft method is at¬
tended with lefs lofs, and produces larger coals, than
the former. In all cafes it is proper to begin working
tbofe pillars firft which lie fartheft from the pit bottom,
and to proceed working them regularly away towards
the pit ; but if there be a great number of pillars
to the dip of the pit, it is the fafeft method to work
thefe out before thole to the rife of the pit are begun
with.
There is no great difference in the weight of differ¬
ent kinds of coals, the lighteft being about 74 pounds
avoirdupois, and the heavieft about 79 pounds the cu¬
bic foot ; but the moft ufual weight is 75 pounds the
foot, which is 18 hundred weight and 9 pounds the
cubic yard. The ftatute chalder is 53 hundred weight j
or when meafured is as follows: 268.8 cubic inches to
the Winchefter gallon ; 4^ gallons to the coal peck,
about 3 pounds rveight; 8 coal-pecks to the boll, about
247-3- pounds ; and 24 bolls to the chalder, of 53
hundred weight. If one coal meafuring exaftly a cu¬
bic yard (nearly equal to 5 bolls) be broken into
pieces of a moderate fize, it will meafure feven coal
bolls
i
Coalery.
i8
■Of cruftes
and fitts.
C O A [:235 ] C O A
bolls and a half. If broken very finall, it will mea-
fure 9 bolls ; which (hews, that the proportion of the
weight to the meafure depends upon the lize of the
coals; therefore accounting by weight is the mofl: ra¬
tional method,
A Table of the weight and quantity of coal contained
in one acre Scots meafure, allowing one-fixth part
to be loft below ground, in feams of the following
thickneffes.
Thicknefs of Coal.
Feet. Inches.
Weight in Tons.
3068
3835
4602
53^9
6136
6903
7670
8437
9204
Quantity in Chalders.
1158 —
1447 +
I73<^ +
2026 -|-
23I5 +
2604 -j-
2894 -j-
3i83 +
3473 +
We {hall next mention fome of the various methods
of bringing the coals from the rooms and other work¬
ings to the pit-bottom. Where the ftratum of coal is
of a fufficient thicknefs, and has a moderate rife and
dip, the coals are moft advatitageoufly brought out by
horfes, who draw out the coals in a tub or bafket pla¬
ced upon a fledge : a horfe by this means will bring out
from four to eight hundred weight of coals at once,
according to the quantity of the afcent or defcent. In
fome coaleries they have accefs to the workings by a
mine made for them, Hoping down from the furface of
the earth to the coal; and where that convenience is
wanting, they are bound into a net, and lowered down
the pit. If the coal be not of fuch a height as to ad¬
mit horfes, and has a moderate rife like the laft, then
men are employed to bring out the coals : they ufually
draw a bafket of four or five hundred weight of coals,
fixed upon a fmall four-wheeled carriage. There are
fome fituations in which neither horfes nor men can be
properly ufed j particularly where the coal has a great
degree of defcent, or where many dikes occur : in fuch
a cafe the coals are beft brought out by women called
bearers, who carry them in a kind of balket upon their
backs, ufually a hundred, or a hundred weight and a
half, at once.
When the coals are brought to the pit-bottom, the
balkets are then hooked on to a chain, and drawn up
the pit by a rope to the furface, which is beft effedled
by a machine called a gin, wrought by horfes. There
are other kinds of gins for drawing coals, fome wrought
by water, others by the vibrating lever of a fire-engine,
but either of thefe laft is only convenient in fome par¬
ticular fituations, thofe wTrought by horfes being in
moft general ufe. After the coals are got to the fur¬
face, they are drawn a fmall diftance from the pit, and
laid in feparate heaps: the larger coals in one heap, the
fmaller pieces called chews in another, and the culm or
pan-coal in a feparate place.
There is an accident of a very dangerous nature, to
wbich all coaleries are liable, and which has been the
ruin of feveral $ it is called a crujh, or a Jitt, When
the pillars of coal are left fo fmall as to fail, or yield Coalery.
under the weight of the fuperior ftrata ; or when the ' v' ^
pavement of the coal is fo foft as to permit the pillars
to fink into it, which fometimes happens by the great
weight that lies upon them j in either cafe the folid
ftratum above the coal breaks and falls in, crufhes the
pillar to pieces, and clofes up a great extent of the
workings, or probably the whole coalery. As fuch an
accident feldsm comes on fuddenly, if it be perceived
in the beginning, it may fometimes be flopped by build¬
ing large pillars of ftone amongft the coal pillars : but
if it has already made fome progrefs, then the beft me¬
thod is to work aw7ay as many of the coal pillars ad¬
joining to the crufli as may be fufficient to let the roof
fall freely down j and if it makes a breach of the folid
ftrata from the coal up to the furface, it will very pro¬
bably prevent the crufh from proceeding any farther in
that part of the coalery. If the crufh begins in the rife
part of the coalery, it is more difficult to flop it from
proceeding to the dip, than it is to flop it from going
to the rife when it begins in a contrary part.
Another circumftance proper to be taken notice ofpouiair.
is the foul or adulterated air fo often troublefome in
coaleries. Of this there are twTo kinds 5 the black
damp or ftyth, which is of a fuffocating nature 5 and
the inflammable or combuftible damp. Without flay¬
ing to inquire, in this place, into the origin and effects
of thefe damps, it may be fufficient to obferve, that,
in whatever part of any coalery a conftant fupply or
a circulation of freftr air is wanting, there fome of
thefe damps exift, accumulate in a body, and become
noxious or fatal; and whenever there is a good circu¬
lation of frelh air, they cannot accumulate, being mixed
with and carried away by the ftream of air as fall
as they generate or exhale from the ftrata. Upon
thefe principles are founded the feveral methods of
ventilating a coalery. Suppofe the workings of the Plate
pits A and B (fig. 6.) to be obnoxious to the inflamma- CXLIX,
ble damps j if the communication w7as open betwixt the
two pits, the air which went down the pit A would
proceed immediately along the mine a, and afcend out
of the pit B j for it naturally takes the neareft direc¬
tion, fo that the air in all the workings would be ftag-
nant j and they would be utterly inacceflible from the
accumulation of the combuftible damp. In order to
expel this, the air muft be made to circulate through
all the different rooms by means of collateral air-
courfes made in this manner : The paffage or mine a
muft be clofed up or flopped by a partition of deals, or
by a wall built with bricks or {tones, to prevent the air
pafling that way. This building is called a Jlopping.
There muft alfo be ftoppings made in the thirlings
ill, &c. betwixt the pillars ff, &c. which will di¬
rect the air up the mine e e, until it arrives at the in-
nermoft thirling 2, which is to be left open for its paf¬
fage. There muft alfo be ftoppings made at the fide of
the mine a at m m, and on both fides of the main head¬
way BC at b b, &c. then returning to the innermoft thir¬
ling 2, proceed to the third row of pillars, and build
up the thirlings 2 2, &c. leaving open the thirling 3
for a paffage for the air 3 and proceeding on to the
fifth tow of pillars, build up in the fame manner the
ftoppings 3 3, &c. leaving open 4 for an air-courfe :
and by proceeding in this manner to flop up the thir¬
lings or paffages in every other row of pillars, the cur-
G g 2 rent
20
Of!e- dng
and diip
ping the
coals.
C O A t236
Owlery. rent of freflt air will circulate through and ventilate the
  whole workings, in the direction pointed to by the fmall
arrows in the plan, clearing away all the damps and
noxious vapours that may generate. When it is arrived
at C, it is conducted acrofs the main headway, and car¬
ried through the other part of the pit’s workings in the
fame manner, until it returns through n n to the pit B,
where it afcends ; and as the rooms advance farther,
other Hoppings are regularly made.
In fome of thofe Hoppings, on the fides of the main
headway, there mull be doors to admit a pailage foi
the bringing out of the coals from the rooms to tne pit,
as at 5 5 : thefe doors mull be conflantly Hint, except
at the time of palling through them.
There are other methods of difpoling tne Hoppings
fo as to ventilate the pit •, but none which will fo ef-
feftuallv difperfe the damps as that deicribed above.
If the damps are not very abundant, then the couile
of flopping 111, &c. in the level mine, and the others
bb b* &c. in the main headway, without any others,
may perhaos be iuflicient to keep the pit clear. B at
any time the circulation of the frelh air is not brilk
enough., then a large lamp of fire may be placed at the
bottom of the pit B, which, by rarefying tne air there,
will make a quicker circulation.
Molt of the larger coaleries fend their coals to the
fliips for the coafting trade or exportation j and, as the
quantity is generally very large, it would take a greater
number of carts than could conveniently be obtained at
all times to carry them-, befides the confiderable expenc.e
of that manner of carriage : they therefore generally
ufe waggons, for carrying them along waggon-ways,
laid with timber, by which means one horfe will draw
from twto to three tons at a time, when in a cart not
above half a ton could be drawn.
The firfl thing to be done in making a waggon-way
is to level the ground in fuch a manner as to take off
all Hidden afcents and defcents, to effefl which, it is
fometimes neceffary to cut through hills, and to mile
an embankment to carry the road through hollows.
The road fliould be formed about 12 teet wide, and
no part lh mid have a greater defcent than of one yard
perpendicular in r o of a horizontal line, nor a greater
afcent than one yard in 30. After the road is formed
pieces of timber, about fix feet long and fix inches
diameter, called/e<?/>£TX, are laid acrofs it, being 1 8 or
24 inches diflant from each other. Upon fheie lleepers
other pieces of timber, called rtfz/.r, of four or five inches
fquare, are'laid in a lateral direction, four feet diflant
from each other, for the waggon wheels to mn unon;
which being firmly pinned to the (1< epers, the road may
then be filled with gravel and fin Hied.
The waggons have four wheels, either made of fo-
lid wood or of caft iron. The body of the carriage is
lormer and w’ider at the top than at the bottom } rind
ufually lias a kind of trap-door at the bottom, which,
being loofed, permits the coals to run out without any
trouble. The fize of a waggon to carry 50 hundred
weight of coals is as follows :
Length of the top,
Breadth of the top,
Length of tire bottom,
Breadth of the bottom,
Perpendicular height,
Feet.
7
5
5
2
4
Inch
9
o
o
6
3
] C O A
Where the pits are fituated at fome confiderable di-Coaiefcence
flance from the harbour, it becomes neceffary to have ^11^
a ftore-houfe near the flopping place, where the coals . , 1
may be lodged, until the lighters or flops are ready
to take them in. The rvaggon-way fliould be made
into the ftore-houfe, at fuch a height from the ground,
as to permit the coals to run from the waggons down
a fpout into the veffels •, or elfe to fall down into the
ftore-houfe, as occafion may require.
This kind of ftore-houfe is- well adapted to difpatch
and Hiving expence 5 for a waggon load of coals may be
delivered either into the ftore-houfe or veffels inftant-
Iv with very little trouble : and if the coals were ex-
pofed to the effefts of the fun and rain, they would be
greatly injured in their quality j but being lodged un¬
der cover of the ftore-houfe, they are preferved.
COALESCENCE, the union or growing together
of two bodies before feparate. It is principally ap¬
plied to fome bones in the body, Which are leparate
during infancy, but afterwards grow together *, or to
fome morbid union of parts, which fhould naturally
be diftiiuft from each other. Thus there is a coaief¬
cence of the fides of the vulva, anus, and nares j of the
eye lids, fingers, toes, and many other parts.
COALL1KR, a veffel employed to carry coals from
one port to another, chiefly from the northern parts
of England to the capital, and more foutherly parts,
as well as to foreign markets. This trade is known
to be an excellent nurfery for feamen, although they
are often found, from the conftitution of their cli¬
mate, not to be fo well calculated for fouthern navi¬
gation.
COAMINGS, in {hip-building, are thofe planks,
or that frame, forming a border round the hatches,
which raife them up higher than the reft of the deck.
Loop-holes for mufkets to (hoot out at are often made
in the coamings, in order to clear the deck oi the ene¬
my when the fhip is boarded.
COANE, among the Greeks, a name given to a
peculiar fpecies of tutia or tutty, which was always
found in a tubular form. It bad its name from
a word ufed to exp refs' a fort of cylindric tube, 11 to
which the melted brafs was received from the furnace,
and in which it was fuffered to cool. In cooling, it
always depofited a fort of recrement on the lides
of the veffel or tube, and this wTas the tutty cal.ed
coane.
COAST, a fea-fhore, or the country adjoining to
the edge of the fea. Dr Campbell, in his political
furvey of Great Britain, confiders an extenfive fea-
coaft as of great advantage to any kingdom ; and con-
fequently that this ifland hath many conveniences re-
fulting from the extent of its coafts, fupenor to ot net
kingdoms which are much larger. I he chief ao\ n-
tages arifing from an extenfive fea-coaft are, tiiat
thus there is a conven ent opportunity for exportation
and importation to or from all parts ot die kingdom.
Thus, a number ot cities are foimed on the coalts ,
bv this means the internal parts are improved, &C.
The extent of the iea coafts of Arabia, he looks upon
as the genuine lource of w ealth and fplendour to the
ancient inhabitants of that peninfula •, the fame was
the inftrument of the greatnefs of ancient Egypt, of
Phoenicia, Stc. In ftiort, according to him, no coun¬
try or city can for any length of time be fiourifiling
J unlefs
Coaft,
CapeCoaft.
—V—■
C O A
[ 237 ]
C O A
unlefs it hnth a con!idcrab!e connexion with the fea.
“ It is indeed true (fays he) that the wifdom and in-
duftry of man, taking hold of fome peculiar circum-
ftances, may have rendered a few inland cities and
countries very fair and flouriihing. In ancient hiftory
eve read of Palmyra, and the diltriit round it, becom¬
ing a luxuriant paradife in the midft of inholpitable
deferts. But this was no more than temporary gran¬
deur ; and it has now lain for fome ages in ruins.
The city and principality of Candahar was in 1 ke
manner rendered rich and famous, in coelequence of
its being made the centre of the Indian commerce ;
but long ago declining, its deltruclion has been com¬
pleted in our days, from that dreadful defolation
which Thamas Kouli Khan fpread through Pevfia and
the Indies. Here, in Europe, man v of the laige ci¬
ties in Germany, which for a time made a great figure
from the freedom and indultry of the inhabitants, and
dilfufed cafe, plentv, and profperity, through the di-
ftricls dependent on them, which of courle rendered
them populous, are now fo much funk’through inevi¬
table accidents, as to be but (hadows of what they
were; and though they ftill continue to fubfift, fubiilt
only as the melancholy monuments of their own mis¬
fortunes. We may therefore, from hence, with great
certainty difcern, that all the pains and labour that
can be bellowed in fupplying the defect of fituation,
in this reipedt, proves, upon the whole, but a tedious,
difficult, and precarious exoedient. But, however,
we mult at the fame time admit, that it is not barely
the polTelfion even of an extended coalt that can pro¬
duce all thele d'efirable effedts. That coaft muft like-
wile be diftinguilfied by ocher na ural advantages,
fuch as capes and promontories, favourably difpofed
to break the ftirv of the winds ; deep bavs, fafe roads,
and convenient harbours. For, without thefe, an ex-
tende 1 coaft is no more than a maritime barrier againft
the maritime force of other nations ; as is the cafe in
many parts of Europe, and is one of the principal
reafons why Africa derives fo little benefit from a fitu¬
ation which has fo prom ding an appearance ; there
being many confiderable tradls upon ns coafts equally
void of havenS and inhabitants, and which afford not
the fmalleft encouragement to the attempting any
thing that might alter their prefent defolate condition.
It is, however, a leA inconvenience, and in fome cafes,
no inconvenience at all, if,- in the compafs of a very
extended coaft there ftiould he fome parts d’ffi ult or
dangerous of accefs, provided they are not altogether
inaccofhble.—-The fea coaft of Britain, from the figure,
in fome meafure, of the iiland, but chit-ftv from the
inlets of the fea, and the very irregular indented line
which forms its ftiore, comprehends, allowing for thofe
fi.uiofities, at leaft 800 marine leagues : we may, from
hence, therefore, with fafety affirm, that in this refpeff
it is funerior to France, though that be a much laryer
country; and equal to Spain and P rtugal i.i this cir-
cnmftance, though Britain is not half the fize of that
noble peninfula, which is alfo fingularly happy in this
very particular.’1
Cape-Coast, the name of the chief Britilh fettle-
ment on the coaft of Guinea in Africa. The name is
thought to be a corruption of Cabo Corfo. the ancient
Portuguefe appellation. This cape is formed by an
angular point, waftied on the fouth and eaft by the
fea, on which ftands the Englifti fort.' Here the Por¬
tuguefe fettled in 1610, and built the citadel of Cape-(,
Coaft upon a large rock that projefts into the fea. A
few yeais afterwards they -were diflodged by the Dutch,
to whom this place is principally indebted for its
ftvength. In 1664 it was demolifhed by Admiral
Holmes, and in 1665 the famous Dutch admiral De
Ruyter wms ordered by the States to revenge the in-
fults of the Englilh. With a fquadron of 13 men of
war, he attacked all the Englifti fettlements along the
coaft ; ruined the fafftories ; and took, burnt, and lunk
all the (hipping of the Englifti Company : however,
after all his efforts, he was baffled in his attempts on
Cape Coaft. By the treaty of Breda it was confirm¬
ed to the Eugliih, and the king granted a new charter
in 1^72 ; on which the Company applied all their at¬
tention to the fortifying and rendering it commodi¬
ous.
COASTING, in Navigation, the aft of making a
progreis along the lea-coalf of any country. 'I he
principal articles relating to this part of navigation
are, the obferving the time apd direction of the tide ;
k lOwL-dge of the reigning winds ; of the roads and
havens ; of the different depths of the water, and qua¬
lities of the ground.
Coasting Pi'ot, a pilot who by long experience has
become lufticiently acquainted with the nature ot any’
particular coaft, and of the requifites mentioned in the-
preceding article, to conduft a ftiip or tleet from one-
part of it to another.
COAT, or coat of arms, in Heraldry, a habit-
worn by the ancient knights over their arms both in.
war and tournaments, and ftill borne by heralds at
arms. It was a kind of fur-coat, reaching as low as-
the navel, open at the Tides, with ftiort fleeves, fome-
times furred with ermine and hair, upon which were
applied the armories of the knights embroidered in
gold and filver, and enamelled with beaten tin colour¬
ed black, green, red, and blue; whence the rule ne¬
ver to apply colour on colour, nor 'metal on metal.
The coats of arms wrere frequently open, and diverft-
fied with bands and fillets of feveral colours, alternate¬
ly placed, as we ftill fee cloths fcarleted, watered. &.c.
Hence they were called devifes, as being divided and
compofed of feveral pieces fewed together ; whence the
words fefs, pale, chevron, bend, crop, faltier, lozenge,
&c. which have fince become honourable pieces, or
ordinaries of the flaield. See Cross, Bend, Chev¬
ron, &c.
Coats of arms and banners were never allowed to be.
worn by any but knights and ancient nobles.
Coat, in Anatomy. See Tunic and Eye.
Coat of Mail; a kind of armour made in form of a
fhirt; confifting of iron rings wove together netwrfe.
See Mail.
COAT I, in 'Zoology, a fynonvme of a fpecies of Vr-
terra and Ursus See Mammalia Index.
COATIM JNDI, a variety of the above.
Coating of Phials, Panes of Glafs, &c. among
electricians, is ufually performed by covering the out-
fide of the phial with tinfoil, brafs or gold-leaf, &c,
and filling its infide with loofe pieces of brafs-leaf, by
which means it becomes capable oi bGiug charged. See
Electricity.
COATZQNTECOXOCHITL, or Flower with
the.
Ccafti.-rg
II
oatzoi.tee
.coxochitl-
Coboofe.
COB [2
Cobalt the viper's head, is the Mexican name of a flower of
incomparable beauty. It is compofed of five petals .or
leaves, purple in the innermofl part, white in the mid¬
dle, the reft red but elegantly ftained wdth yellow and
white fpots. The plant which bears it has leaves re-
fembling thofe of the iris, but longer and larger *, its
trunk is fmnll and Aim: This flower was one of the
moft efteemed among the Mexicans. The Lincean
academicians of Rome, who commented on and pub-
liflied the Hiftory of Hernandez in 1651, and faw the
paintings of this flower, with its colours, executed in
Mexico, conceived fuch an idea of its beauty, that they
adopted it as the emblem of their very learned acade¬
my, denominating it Fior di Ltn.ce.
'COBALT, a metallic fubftance which was former¬
ly clafled with the femimetals. See Chemistry and
Mineralogy Index.
COBBING, a puniftiment fometimes infli&ed at
fea. It is performed by ftriking the offender a certain
number of times on the breech with a flat piece of
wood called the cobbing-board. It is chiefly ufed as a
puniftiment to thofe who quit their ftation during the
period of the night-watch.
COBITIS, the loache, in Ichthyology, a genus
of fifties belonging to the order of abdominales. See
Ichthyology Index. It is frequent in the ftream
near Amefbury in Wiltftiire, where the fportfmen,
through frolic, fwallow it down alive in a glais of
white-wine.
COBLE, a boat ufed in the turbot fifhery, twenty
feet fix inches long, and five feet broad. It is about
one ton burthen, rowed with three pair of oars, and
admirably conftrufted for encountering a mountainous
fea.
COBLENTZ, an ancient, handfome, and ftrong
town of Germany, in the ele&orate of Triers or
. Treves, feated at the confluence of the rivers Rhine and
Mofelle, in a fertile country, with mountains covered
with vineyards. It is the ufual refidence of the elec¬
tor of Treves, to whom it belongs. Over the Rhine
is a bridge of twelve arches, built for the convenience
of the inhabitants of Coblentz and the adjacent places.
A ferry machine is conftantly going from the city to
the other fide of the Rhine, where there is a little
town and very ftrong caftle built on an eminence
named the rock of honour. This machine is erefted on
two boats, in the form of a large fquare gallery, en-
compaffed with balluftrades, and carries a tall flag-
ftaff, on which are difplayed the arms of the electorate
of Treves. It is put in motion by the ferry-man’s
pulling a rope, which is fixed to a ftandard on each
fide the river. The caftle appears to be almoft inac-
ceftible to an enemy, and entirely commands the city
of Coblentz. The archbiftiop’s palace ftands at the
foot of this rock, and the arfenal at a little diftance.
E. Long. 7* S2* N. Lat. 50. 24.
COBOB, the name of a difh among the Moors. It
is made of feveral pieces of mutton wrapt up in the
cawl, and afterwards roafted in it 5 the poorer people,
inftead of the meat, ufe the heart, liver,, and other
parts of the entrails, and make a good difti, though
not equal to the former.
COBOOSE, in fea-language, is derived from the
Dutch kambuis, and denotes a fort of box, refembling
a fentry-box, ufed to cover the chimneys of fome mer-
38 ] COG
chant fliips. It generally ftands againft the barricade,
on the fore part of the quarter deck. It is called in
the Weft Indies cobre vega. v.
COBURG, a town of Germany in the circle of
Franconia, and capital of a territory of the fame name,
with a famous college, a fort, and a caftle. This town,
with its principality, belongs to the houfe of Saxony,
and the inhabitants are Proteftants. It is feated on
the river Itch, in E. Long. II. 18. N. Lat. 50. 22.
COBWEB, in Phyfology, the fine net-work which
fpiders fpin out of their own bowels, in order to catch
their prey. See Aranea.
COCCEIUS, John, profeffor of theology at Bre¬
men, was founder of a fe<ft called Cocceians : they held,
amongft other fingular opinions, that of a vifible reign
of Chrift in this world, after a general converfion. of
the Jews and all other people to the true Chriftian
faith, as laid dowm in the voluminous works of Coc-
ceius. He died in 1699, aged 66.
COCCINELLA, in Zoology, a genus of infers of
the order of coleoptera. See Entomology Index.
COCCOLOBO, in Botany : A genus of the trigy-
nia order, belonging to the o&andria clafs of plants $
and in the natural method ranking under the I2th or¬
der, Holoracece. See Botany Index.
COCCOTHRAUSTES, the trivial name of a fpe-
cies of Loxia. See Ornithology Index.
COCCULUS Indicus, the name of a poifonous
berry, too frequently mixed with malt-liquors in order
to make them intoxicating ; but this pradlice is ex-
prefsly forbidden by aft of parliament. It is the
fruit of the Menispermum Cocculus. Fiftiermen have
a way of mixing it with pafte, which the fifti fwallow
greedily, and are thereby rendered lifelefs for a time,
and float on the water. It is fometimes ufed with
ftavefacre, for deftroying vermine in children’s heads.
COCCUS, in Zoology, a genus of infe&s belonging
to the order of hemiptera. See Entomology Index.
COCCYGiEUS musculus. See Anatomy, Ta¬
ble of the Mufcles.
COCCYX, or Coccygis os. See Anatomy
Index.
COCHIN, a Dutch fettlement on the coaft of Ma¬
labar, in N. Lat. 10. o. E. Long. 75. 30. The.town
is not unpleafant, though it falls far ftiort of their fet¬
tlement at Columbo in the ifland of Ceylon. 1 he for¬
tification is irregular, but ftrong enough to refill any
of the Indian powers, and has 40 or 50 cannon facing
the fea. The people in this town and the country
adjacent are fubjedl to a ftrange diforder of the legs,
called Cochin or elephant legs, in which the fwelled
limb is fometimes of fuch an enormous bulk as to have
greatly the appearance both in fliape and fize of the
leg of an elephant. According to Mr Ives, this dif¬
order feems to be merely an cedematous fvvelling, oc-
cafioned by an impoverilhed ftate of the blood and
juices. The perfons affliaed with this diftemper very
feldom apply to European furgeons, and thus are
rarely, if ever, cured. Indeed, our author, obferves,
that their application would probably be of little avail,
as the only thing that could be preferibed would be an
alteration from the pooreft to the moft cordial and
nutritious diet j and the Indians are fo invincibly wed¬
ded to their own cuftoms, that they would fooner die
than break through them. Of this he fays there were
Coburg
II
Cochin.
fpveral
G O C [ 239 ] COG
Cochin- feveral inftances in their long paftage to Bengal, during
which fome of the Sepoys periihed for want of food,
v rather than fave themfelves by partaking of the fhip’s
provifions after their own had been expended. Moft of
thofe afflifted with the diforder we fpeak of, are un¬
able to call any affiftance, being the very pooreft of the
people, who live entirely upon a kind of fifh called far-
dimasj without being able to purchafe even the fmall-
eft quantity of rice to eat along with it ; their drink is
alfo mere water, unlefs they fometimes procure a
draught of the fimple unfermented juice called toddy.
Cochin is the principal place from whence the Dutch
import their pepper into Europe.
Cochin-China, a kingdom of Alia, bounded on
the north by Tonquin ; on the eaft, by the fea of
China ; on the fouth by the Indian ocean 5 and on the
well, by Cambodia, and a ridge of mountains inhabited
by a favage people called Kemois, who live indepen¬
dent of any government. Little of the hiftory of this
kingdom is known. M. le Poivre, a French traveller,
informs us, that about half a century before the French
firft arrived in thefe diftant regions, a prince of Ton¬
quin, as he fled from his fovereign, by whom he was
purfued as a rebel, had wdth his foldiers and adherents
croffed the river, wdiich ferves as a barrier between
Tonquin and Cochin-China. The fugitives, who were
warlike and civilized men, foon expelled the fcatter-
ed inhabitants, who wandered about without any fociety
or form of government, and founded a new kingdom,
which loon grew rich and populous. During the
reigns of the firft fix kings, no nation could be hap¬
pier than the Cochin Chinefe. Their monarchs go¬
verned them as a father does his family, eftablifhing
no lawT$ but thofe of nature, to which they themfelves
were the firft to pay obedience. They honoured and
encouraged agriculture, as the moft ufeful employment
of mankind ; and required from their fubje&s only a
fmall annual free-gift to defray the expence of their
defenfive wmr againft the Tonquinefe, wrho were their
enemies. This impofition was regulated, by way of
poll-tax, wdth the greateft equity. Every man, able
to till the ground, paid in to the prince a fmall fum
proportioned to the ftrength of his conftitution, and
the vigour of his arm, and nothing more.
Cochin-China continued happy under thefe princes
for more than a century ; but the difcovery of gold¬
mines put a flop to the above mild regulations. Luxu¬
ry immediately took place. The prince began to de-
fpife the fimple habitation of his anceftors, and caufed a
fuperb palace to be built a league in circumference,
furrounded with a wall of brick in the model of that
of Pekin, and defended by 1600 pieces of cannon.
Not content wdth this, he would needs have a winter
palace, an autumn palace, and a fummer palace. The
old taxes were by no means fufficient to defray thefe
expencesnew ones w'ere devifed ; and oppieflion
and tyranny everywhere took place. His courtiers,
to flatter their prince, gave him the title of the king
of heaven, which he ftill continues to aflume. When
fpeaking of his fubje&s, he ftyles them his chil-
aren, but by no means behaves as if he was their fa¬
ther ; for our author informs us, that he has feen
whole villages newly abandoned by their inhabitants,
who wrere haraffed wdth toil and infupportable ex-
addions 3 the necelfary confequence of which was,
l
that their lands returned to their former uncultivated Cochin*
ftate. China.
M. le Poivre reprefents theCochin-Chinefe as gentle,
hofpitable, frugal, and induftrious. There is not a
beggar in the country, and robbery and murder are
abfolutely unknown. A ftranger may wander over
the kingdom from one end to the other (the capital
excepted) without meeting wdth the flighteft infult.
He will be everywhere received with the moft eager
curiofity, but at the fame time with the greateft bene¬
volence. A Cochin-Chinefe traveller, who has not
money fufficient to defray his expences at an inn, en¬
ters the firft houfe of the town or village he arrives at,
and waiting the hour of dinner, takes part wdth the
family, and goes away when he thinks proper, with¬
out fpeaking a word, or any perfon’s putting to him a
Angle queftion.
The country of Cochin-China is much of the fame
temperature with that of Tonquin ; though rather
milder, as lying near the fea. Like Tonquin, it is an¬
nually overflowed, and confequently fruitful in rice,
which requires no other manure than the mud left by
the inundations. They have fugar-canes, and the
fame kinds of fruits common to other parts of India.
The country produces no grapes, and therefore they
drink a liquor brewed from rice. They have vaft:
wmods of mulberiy trees, which run up as faft as our
hemp. Their filk is ftronger than that of China, but
not lo fine. They have the beft timber in the world,
particularly a fort which abounds in the mountains, and-
is called the incorruptible tree, becaufe it never rots un¬
der earth or w'ater, and is fo folid that it ferves for an¬
chors. There are two kinds, black and red. The
trees are very tall, ftraight, and fo big that two men
can fcarce grafp them. They have alfo on the moun¬
tains of the Kemois a tree of the moft fragrant fcent,
which is fuppofed to be the fame wdth lignum aloes.
This, being reckoned the beft produd of the country,
is engroffed by the king, and is fold from five to 16
ducats per pound. It is highly valued both in China
and Japan, where the logs of it are fold for 200 ducats •
a pound, to make pillows for the king and nobility ;
and among thofe Indians which continue to burn their
dead, great quantities of it are ufed in the funeral piles.
The young trees called aquila, or eagle-wmod, are eve¬
ry one’s property, which makes the old ones called ca~
lamb a fo fcarce and dear. They have oak, and large
pines, for the building of (hips, fo that this country is
of the fame ufe to China that Norway is to Britain.
In genera], they have the fame kind of trees and plants
that are to be met with in Fonquin. I hey have mines
of gold, as well as diamonds ; but the laft they do not
value fo high as pearl. Toey alio efteem their coral
and amber very much. In all the provinces there are
great granaries filled with rice, in fome of which that
grain is kept upwards of 30 years. One of the great-
ell rarities of thefe parts, eipecially in grand entertain¬
ments, is a ragout made of the eatable birds nefts,
which fome fay are found only in Cochin-China, and
others in four iflands that lie fouth of its coaft. See
Birds-Nests.
The merchants of Cambodia, Tonquin, China, Ma¬
cao, Manila, Japan, and Malacca, trade to Cochin-
China wdth plate, which they exchange for the com¬
modities of the country. The Portuguefe are the moft;
favoured
C O C [ 240 ] , G O C
'Cochin- favoured here of any Europeans. The Cochin-Chinefe
China, themfelves, not being inclined to travel, feldom fail out
^ 'v of light of their own Ihore, but purchafe many trilles
from foi'eigners at great rates, particularly combs, nee¬
dles, bracelets, glafs pendants, &.c. Thcv are very
fond of our hats, caps, girdles, (hirts, and other clothes ;
and, above all, let a great value on coral. The coun¬
try is laid to have 700 miles of coaft, with many large
inlets of the fea, and above 60 convenient landing
places 5 which, however, according to Captain Hamil¬
ton, are but leldom vilited by ftrangers.
The people of this country have a great affinity
with thole of Tonquin, with whom they have a com¬
mon origin, and from whom they differ very little in
their manner of living, as well as their manners and
cuftoms, all of which they have in a great mealure
borrowed from the Chinefe. The principal exports
of the country are illk, fugar, ebony, and calamba-
wood ; gold in dull or in bars, which is fold for only
ten times its weight in filver \ and copper tand porce¬
lain brought from China and Japan. From this coun¬
try alfo are exported the birds-nefts efteemed fuch
a delicacy at the table. They are found in four iflands
fituated near the coafts of Cochin-China, to the eafl-
.ward of which are five other fmaller ones, where are
found prodigious numbers of turtles, the flefh of which
is fo delicate that the Tonquinefe and people of Co¬
chin China frequently fight defperate battles, in order
to take them from one another. The commodities
which fell moft readily in this country are, faltpetre,
fulphur, lead, fine cloth, and barred or flowered
chintz. Pearls, amber, and coral, were formerly in
great requeft, but at prefent only the two laft are lale-
able \ and even thefe will not anfvver unlefs the
beads of coral be round, well polifhed, and of a beau¬
tiful red colour •, the amber muff alfo be extremely
clear, the beads of an equal fize, and not larger than
a hazel nut.
The.only money current in Cochin-China is that of
Japap, which is paid and received by weight. The
money of.the country is of copper, and as large as our
counters •, of a round figure, and having a hole in
the middle by which the pieces may be ftrung like
beads. Three hundred of thefe are put on one fide
and as many on the other, which in Cochin-China
pafs for a thoufand } becaufe in 600 are found ten
times 60, which make a century among almolt all the
people of the eafl. There is, however, fcarce any
country in which merchants are more apt to be de¬
ceived with regard to the value of money than Cochin-
China, owing to the pieces being unequal in figure
and quality, and the difficulty of determining their va¬
lue, which is regulated only by a few characters ftamp-
ed upon them. The dealers muft therefore be at pains
to have honefl and fkilful people to afeertain the va¬
lue of the pieces they receive, otherwife they run a
great rfk of being deceived in their value, as the Co¬
chin Chinefe make a great merit of being able to cheat
an European.
Eurooean merchants complain, according to M.
Grofiev, unjuftly of the demands made in Cochin-Chi¬
na for entrance, clearance, and anchorage. 1 he du¬
ties, indeed are very trifling, amounting only, even
thofe of the cuftomhoufe, to 4 per cent ; but noth • g
xan be removed from a ffiip which arrives there until
2
fire has firfl been infpeCted, when the cuflomhoufe Cochin-
officers unload her, weigh and count the fmallefl pieces,
and generally take what they look upon to be moft ,
valuable, in order to End it to the king. The mo¬
narch takes what he thinks proper, and returns the va¬
lue j but the grandees a;e faid to keep part of the goods
alfo, without paying any thing for them. Thus the
ordinary goods, which, had they been accompanied
with the more valuable part of the cargo, would have
found a ready market, can now fcarcely be difpofed
of; though our author is of opinion, that the matter
is not altogether without remedy. When the Dutch
fent to this country, veffels loaded with cloths, lead,
and faltpetre, their cargoes were fuffered to remain
entire, becaufe they had taken the precaution to pay
every year a certain fum-for each veiTel that entered,.
Other nations, by endeavouring to avoid the payment
of this duty, entirely defttoyeu their commerce : ’the
people of Cochin-China, however, for fume years pafl,
have been much more moderate in their demands j and
whatever their exactions may be, they are far kis ex¬
orbitant than thofe of the Tonquinefe.
M. Grofier obferves, that a falfe report has gained
ground in Europe, that when a trading vefiel happens
to run aground in Cochin-China, or to be driven into
any of its harbours by flrefs of w eather, the king feizes
the cargo if the rudder be broken. He allures us,
however, that, fo far from this being the cafe, a vef-
fel in diflrefs is much fafer on the coafts of Cochin-
China than almofl anywhere elfe. Eaiks are imme¬
diately fent to the rebef of the crew, and people em¬
ployed to drag the fea with nets in order to recover
the goods that are loft ■, and, in ibort, neither labour
nor expences are fpared to put the ftiips in the btft
condition poffible. Only two things can hurt the
trade of foreigners at Cochin-China, cne of which
may be eafilv avoided. This regards the clearing out
of vefiels. Thus, while the mafter is waiting on the
evening before his departure, or on the day fixed for
failing, in order to receive his difpatches, it often hap¬
pens that he lofes his voyage, which may prove the
ruin of a trader. For this'reaf’on, care muft be taken
to folicit a clearance a month before } by w hich means
one is always certain of obtaining it, and departing
on the day appointed. The other difficulty is occafion-
ed by the neceflity of felling goods on credit, which are
feldom paid at the ftipulated time. This however, is
contrary to the inclination of the pilnce ; for every
merchant who can convey to him an account of theie
unjuft delays, is fure to be paid, and fometimes even
with intereft.
COCHINEAL, or Cochineel, a drug ufed by
the dvers, &c. for giving red colours, efpecially crim-
fons and fcarlets, and for making carmine ; and like-
wife in medicine as a cardiac, cordial, fudorific, alexi-
pharmac, and febrifuge.
The cochineal, in the ftate in which it is brought
to us, is in {mall bodies of an irregular figure, ufually
convex, ridged and furrowed on one fide, and con¬
cave on the other. The colour of the beft is a purplifh
gray, powdered over with a fort of white duft. All
that the world knew of it for a long time was, that
it was gathered from .certawi plants in Mexico 3 and
therefore it was naturally fuppofed to be a feed, till
in the year 1692 Father Plumier gave Pomet an ac¬
count
Cock-Pit.
C O C £ a
Cochlea count of its being an animal. And this, though then
difregarded, has been confirmed by fubfequent obfer-
vations. Indeed, to determine the point, vve have
now the means in our own hands, even in this part ot
the world.—We need only, moillen and foak in wa¬
ter, or in vinegar, a number of cochineals till they
are fwelled and diitended, to know that every one is
the more or lefs perfefl body of an inle£l j the molt
imperfect and mutilated fpecimens always (bow the
rings of the body ^ and from obfcrving others, it will
be eafy to find the number and difpofition of the legs,
parts, or even whole ones, being left on feveral, and
often complete pairs. In this way the legs. anten-
me' and .probofcis, may be difcoyered. See Coccus
above.
M. Macquer obferves, that the cochineal of Sylvef-
ter is gathered in the woods of Old and New Mexico.
The infedd lives, grows, and multiplies on the unculti¬
vated opuntiaSj which grow there in great abundance.
It is there expofed to the inclemencies of the weather,
and dies naturally. The colour is more durable than
that of the common cochineal, but lels bright : but
there is no advantage in ufing it j for, though cheaper,
a greater quantity is requifite.
COCHLEA, the shell snail. See Helix, Con-
chology Index.
Cochlea, in Anatomy. See Anatomy Index.
COCHLEARIA, scurvy-grass. See Botany
Index.
COCHLITES, in Natural Hijlory, an appellation
given to the petrified (hells of the cochleae or fnails.
COCINTUM. in Ancient Geography, a promontory
of the Bruttii, reckoned the longeft in Italy, and which
Holftemus and Voflius have reftored to Ovid, reading
Cocintia for Ccurunia, Metam. xv. v. 704.—Cocintum,
alfo a town, 2 2 miles to the Couth of Scylaceum, al-
inoft on the fpot where now Stilo (lands, from which
the oppofite promontory Cocintum is commonly called
Capo de Sti/o.
COCK, in Zoology, the Englifii name of the males of
gallinaceous birds, but more efpecially ufed for the com¬
mon dunghill cock. See Phasianus, Ornithology
Index.
Black Cock. T See Tetrao, Orn ithology/«-
Cock of the Wood, y dex.
CocK-Chajfer. See Scarab^us, Entomology In¬
dex.
CoCK-Paddle, Lump-ffj or Sea-owl. See Cyclop-
terus, Ichthyology Index.
CocK-Pit, a fort of theatre upon which game-cocks
fight.
It mud appear aflonifhing to every refledling mind,
tliat a mode of diverfion fo cruel and inhuman as that
of cock-fighting firould fo generally prevail, that not
only the ancients, barbarians, Greeks, and Romans,
(liould have adopted it ; but that a praftice fo favage
and heathenifh (liould be continued by Chriftians of all
forts, and even purfued in thefe better and more en¬
lightened times.
The ancient Greeks and Romans, as is well known,
were wont to call all the nations in the world barba¬
rians ; yet certainly, if we confider the many inftances
of cruelty pradlifed among them, there w.as very little
reafon for the diftindlion. Hutrian facrifices w’ere com¬
mon both to them and the barbarians} and with them
Vol. VI. Part I.
4t ] C Q C
the ejcpofing of infants, the combats of men with wild Cock-Pit.
beads, and of men with men in the gladiatorial fcenes, v
were fpeftacles o( delight and fedivity.
The i(landers of Delos, it feems. Were great lovers
of cock-fighting ; and Tanagfa a city in B'oeotia, t ie
ifle of Rhodes, Chalcis in EuBbca, and the country of
Media, were famous for their generous and magnani¬
mous race of chickens. The kingdom of Perfia was
probably included in the lad, from whence this kind
of poultry was fird brought into Greece $ and if or e
may judge of the red from the fowls of Rhodes and
Media, the excellency of the broods at that time con¬
fided in their weight and largenefs (as the fowls of
thofe countries were heavy and bulky.) .md of the na¬
ture of what our fportfmen cW fhakebags or turnpokes.
The G eeks, moreover, had feme method of prepaiing
the buds for battle, by feeding ; as may be colltfted
from Columella.
It (liquid feem, that at fird cock fighting Was partly
a religious and partly a political inditution at Athens j
and was there continued for the purpofe of improving
the feeds of valour in the minds of their youth ; but
was afterwards abufed and perverted both here and in
the other parts of Greece to a common padime, with¬
out any moral, political, or religious intention, and as it
is now followed and piadlifed among us.
At Rome, as the Romans were prone to imitate the
Greeks, we may expedl to find them following their
example in this mode of diverfion, and in the vvorll
way, viz. without any good or laudable motives, fince
when they took and brought it to Rome, the Greeks
had forgotten every thing that wms commendable in it,
and had already perverted it to a low and unmeaning
fport. Signior Hyam thinks the Romans borrowed
the padime from Dardanus, in Afia •, but there is little
reafon for making them go fo far for it, when it was
fo generally followed in Greece, whofe cudomsthe Ro¬
mans were addifted to borrow and imitate. However,
it is probable, they did not adopt this opinion very
early. It may be gathered from Columella, that the
Romans did not ufe the fport in his time. This au¬
thor dvles cock-fighting a Grecian djvcrfon ; and
fpeaks of it in terms of ignominy, as an expt-nfive a-
mufement, unbecoming the frugal honfeholder, and of¬
ten attended with the ruin of the parties that followed
it. The words are remarkable. “ Nos enim cenfe-
mus indituere vefligal indudrii patris familias, non ri-
xofarum avium lanidte, cujus plerumque totum patrimo-
nium pignus aleue, vidlor gallinaccus pyftes abdulit
When he deferibes, as we think, the manner, not of
the Romans, but of the Greeks, who had in his time
converted the diverfion of cock-fighing into r. fpecies
of gaming, and even to the total ruin of their families,
as happens but too often in England at this day. The
Romans, however, at lad gave into the cud am, though
not till the decline of the empire. The firft caufe of
contention between the two brothers Baffianus and
Geta, fons of the emperor Septimus Severus, happen¬
ed, according to Herodian, in their youth, about
the fighting of their cocks} and if the battling be¬
tween the'e two princes was the fird indance of it,
probably they had feen and learned it in Greece, whi¬
ther they had often accompanied the emperor their fa¬
ther.
It is obfervable, that cocks and quails pitted for the
H h purpofe
c o c
[
Cock-Pit. purpofe of engaging one another, a entrance, or to the
]aft gafp, for diverfion, are frequently compared, and
with much propriety, to gladiators. Hence Pliny’s
expreffion, Galloriitn ecu gladiatorum; and that of
Columella, rixofarum avium lanijhz ; lan'jia being the
proper term for the mafter of the gladiators. Confe-
quently one would expeft, that when the bloody
feenes of the amphitheatre were difearded, as they
were foon after the Chriftian religion became the
eftablifhment of the empire, the wanton fhedding of
men’s blood in fport, being of too cruel and favage
a nature to be patronized and encouraged in an in-
flitution fo harmlefs and innocent as the Chriftian
was, one might juftly expeft that the cqxuyopcaM and
the uXvtl£V6[Mtnct would have ceafed of courle.. The
fathers of the church are continually inveighing
againft the fpe£lacles of the arena, and upbraiding
their adverfaries with them. Thefe indeed wrere more
unnatural and Ihocking than a main of cocks; but
this, however, had a tendency towards infufing the like
ferocity and implacability in the breafls and diipofi-
tions of men.
Befides. this mode of diverfion has been in fact the
bane and deflruclion of thoufands here, as well as of
thofe lanijlce avium, “ cock-feeders,” mentioned by
Columella, whofe patrimonial fortunes were totally dil-
fipated and dellroyed by it.
The cock is not only an ufeful animal, but (lately in
his figure, and magnificent in his plumage. ‘‘ Imperi-
tant fuo generi, fays Pliny, et regnum in quacunque lunt
domo, exercenty Ariftophanes compares him to the
king of Perfia ; moll authors alfo take notice of the
“ fpcdlatifTimum infigne, ferratum, quod eorum verti-
cem regice corona modo exornat.” His tendernefs to¬
wards his brood is fuch, that, contrary to the cuilom
of many other males, he will fcratch and provide lor
them with an afliduity almofl equal to that of the hen ;
and his generofity is fo great, that, on finding a hoard
of meat, he will chuckle the hens together, and with¬
out touching one bit himfelf will relinquilh the whole
of it to them. He uas called the bird, xxr by
many of the ancients ; he was highly efteemed in lome
countries, and in others was even held iacred, in!o-
xnuch that one cannot but regret that a creature fo ufe-
fril and noble, fhould, by a llrange fatality, be fo enor-
moufly abufed by us. It is true, our ot,Xix.T£v»xunx, or
the maffacre of Shrove Tuelday, is now in a declining
way ; and, in a few years, it is to be hoped, will be
totally difufed ; but the cock-pit Hill continues a re¬
proach to the humanity of Englifhmen, and to their
religion ; the pureft, the tendered and mod compaf-
fionate, of all others, not excepting even the Brach-
mannic.
It is unknown when the pitched battle fird entered
England, but it was probably brought thither by the
Romans. The bird was here before Ctefar’s arrival,
but no notice of his fighting occurs earlier than the
time of William Fitz-Stephen, who wrote the life of
A chbifhop Becket, fome time in the reign of Henry II.
and deferibes the cocking as a fport of Ichooi boys on
Shiove Tuelday. From this time at lead the diver¬
fion, however abfurd, and even impious, was continued
amongd us. It was followed, though difapproved and
prohibited, 39 Edward III.; alfo in the reign of
Henry VIIL and A. D. 1569. It has by fome been
242 ] G O C
called a royal divtrjion ; and, as every one knows, the Cock-Pit,
cock-pit at Whitehall was ere&ed by a crowned head, Cockburiie^
for the more magnificent celebration of it. 1 here was
another pit in Drury-lane, and another in Javin-dreet.
It was prohibited, however, by one of Oliver’s afts,
March 31. 1664. What aggravates the reproach and
difgrace upon Englidwnen, are thofe fpecies of fight¬
ing which are called the battle-royal and the Welp'-main,
known nowhere in the world but there ; neither in
China, nor in Perfia, nor in Malacca, nor among the
favage tribes in America. Thefe are feenes fo bloody
as almod to be too diocking to relate ; and yet, as
many may not be acquainted with the horrible nature
of them, it may be proper for the excitement of cur
averfion and detedation to deferibe them in a few
words. In the former, an unlimited number of fowls
are pitted, and when they have daughtered one ano¬
ther for the diverfion [Dii bom !) of the otherwife ge¬
nerous and humane Ehglifhman, the fingle furviving
bird is to be edeemed the vidor, and carries away the
prize. The Wellh-main cOndds we will fuppofe of
16 pairs of cocks ; of thefe, the 16 conquerors are pit¬
ted a fecond time ; the 8 conquerors of thefe are pitted
a third time ; the 4 conquerors the fourth time ; and
ladly, the two conquerors of thefe are pitted the filth
time: fo that (incredible barbarity) 31 cocks are
fure to be mod inhumanly murdered for the Iport and
pleafure, the noife and nonfenfe, the profane ciirfing
and fwearing, of thofe who have the effrontery to call
themfelves, with all thel'e bloody doings, and with all
this impiety about them, Gbrijlians; nay, what with
many is a fuperior and didimff charafler, men of be¬
nevolence and morality. But let the morality and be¬
nevolence of fuch be appreciated from the following
infthnee recorded as authentic in the obituary of the
Gentleman’s Magazine for April 1789. “ Died,
April 4. at Tottenham, John Ardefoif, Efq; a young
man of large fortune, and .in the fplendor of his
carriages and horfes rivalled by few country gentle¬
men. ' His table was that of hofpitality, where it may
be faid be facrificed too much to conviviality ; but if
he had his foibles, he had his merits alfo that far out¬
weighed them. Mr Ardefoif was very fond of cock-
fighting, and had a favourite cock upon which he had
won many profitable matches. 1 he laft bet he laid
upon this cock he loft ; which fo enraged him, that he
had the bird tied to a fpit and roafted alive before a
large fire. The fereams of the miferable animal were
fo affefting, sth,it fome gentlemen who were prefent
attempted to interfere, wThich io enraged Mr Ardefoif,
that he feized a poker, and with the moft furious ve¬
hemence declared, that he would kill the firft man who
interpofed ; but, in the midft of his paffionate affe-
verattons, he tell down dead vrpon the fpot. Such,
we are affured, were the circumftances which attended
the death of this great pillar of humanity.”
Cock pit, of a (hip of war, the apartment of tha
furgeon and his mates, being the place where the
wounded men are dtefled in time of battle, or other-
wife. It is fituated under the lower deck.
COCKBURNE, Mrs Catharine, a moft accom¬
pli Hied lady and celebrated writer, was the daughter of
Captain David Trotter, a native of Scotland, and a lea-
commander in the reign of King Charles II. She was
born in London, Aughft 16. 1679, and baptized m
• - the
COG
[ 243 3
c o c
Cockburne. the Proteftant church, according to which Are was bred
up. She gave early marks of her genius ; and learned
to write, and alfo made herfelf miftrefs of the Irench
language, by her own application and diligence with¬
out any inllrudfor 5 but (he had fome affiftance in tne
ftudy of the Latin grammar and logic, of which latter
{he drew up an abftraft for her own ufe. The. moft
ferious and important fubje£ls, and efpecially religion,
foon engaged her attention.—But notwithftanding her
education, her intimacy with feveral families of.diilinc-
tion of the Romilh perfualion, expofed her, while very
young, to impreffions in favour of that church, which
not being removed by her conferences with fome emi¬
nent and learned members of the church of England,
{lie embraced the Romidi communion, in which (lie con¬
tinued till the year 1707. In 1695 die produced a tra¬
gedy called Agnes de Ca/tro, which was afled at the
theatre-royal when (he was only in her 1 7th year. The
reputation of this performance, and the verfes which
{he addreffed to Mr Congreve upon his Mourning Bride
in 1697, were probably the foundation of her acquaint¬
ance with that celebrated writer. Her fecond tragedy,
Ratal Friendfhip, was aaed in 1698, at the new theatre
in Lincoln’s-Inn Fields, This tragedy met with great
applaufe, and is ftill thought the mod perFeft of her
dramatic performances. Her dramatic talents not be¬
ing confined to tragedy, fhe brought upon the ftage, in
1701, a comedy called Love at a lojs, or A'lo/i votes
tarry it. In the fame year flie gave the public her
third tragedv, entitled the \jnhappy Penitentf afted at
the theatre royal in Drury-lane. But poetry and dra¬
matic writing did not lo far engrofs the thoughts
of our author but that fhe fometimes turned them to
fubjedls of a very different nature, and diftinguifhed
herfelf in an extraordinary manner in defence of Mr
Locke’s writings, a female metaphyfieian being a re¬
markable phenomenon in the republic of letters*
She returned to the exercife of her dramatic genius
in 1703, and fixed upon the revolution of Sweden, un¬
der Guifavus Erickfon, for the fubjeft of a tragedy.
This tragedy was adfed in 1706, at the queen stheatie
in the Hay-Market. In 1707, her doubts concerning
the. Romifh religion, which fhe had fo many years pro-
feffed, having led her to a thorough examination of
the grounds of it by confulting the belt books on both
fides of the queftion, and advifing with men of the beft
judgment, the refult was a convi&ion of the falfenefs
of the pretenfions of that church, and a return to that
of England, to which fhe adhered during the remain¬
der of her life. In 1708 fire was married to the Rev.
Mr Cockburne, then curate of St Dunftan’s in Eleet-
ftreet, but he afterwards obtained the living of Long-
Horfely, near Morpeth in Northumberland. Lie was
a man of confiderable abilities j and, among feveral
other things, wrote an account ©f the Mofaic Deluge,
which was much approved by the learned.
Mrs Cockburne’s remarks upon fome writers in the
controverfy concerning the foundation of moial duty
and moral obligation, were introduced to the world
in Auguft 1743* in the Literary Journal, entitled s he
llijlory of the Works of the Learned. I he ftrength,
clearnefs, and vivacity fhown in her remarks.upon the
moft abftraff and perplexed queftions, immediately rai¬
led the curiofity of all good judges about the conceal¬
ed writer 5 and their admiration was greatly increafed
when her fex and advanced age v/ere known. Dr Ru-
therforth’s Effay on the Nature and Obligations of
Virtue, publifhed in May 1744, foon engaged her
thoughts 5 and notwithftanding the afthmatic diforder
which had feized her many years before, and now left
her fmall intervals of eafe, (lie applied herfelf to the
confutation of that elaborate difcourfe, and finifhed it
with a fpirit, elegance, and perfpicuity equal, if not
fuperior, to all her former writings.
The lofs of her hufband in 1748, in the 71ft year of
his age, was a fevere fliock to her ; and fhe did not
long furvive him, dying on the nth of May 1749) in
her 71ft year, after having long fupported a painful
diforder with a refignation to the Divine will, which
had been the governing principle of her whole life, and
her fupport under the various trials of it.
Her works are collefted into two large volumes 8vo
by Dr Birch, who has prefixed to them an account of
her Life and Writings.
COCKERMOUTH, a town of Cumberland in
England, fituated in W. Long. 3. 12. N. Eat. 54. 35.
It is a large town, irregularly built, with broad ftreets.
It is wafhed by the Derwent on the weftern fide j
divided in two by the Cocker-, and the parts are con-
neffed by a ftone-bridge of a fingle arch.. The num¬
ber of inhabitants is between three and four thoufand ;
the manufactures are {balloons, worfted ftockings, and
hats; the laft exported from Glafgow to the Weft
Indies. It is a borough-town, and the right of vo¬
ting is veiled by burgefs tenure in certain houfes: this
is alfo the town where the county eleftions are held.
 Here is a cattle feated on an artificial mount on a
bank above the Derwent. It is a fquare building,
and {Lengthened with feveral fquare towers: on each
fide of the inner gate are two deep dungeons capable
of holding 50 perfons in either. They are vaulted at
top, and have only a fmall opening in order to lower
through it the unhappy viftims into this dire prifon ;
and on the outfide of each is a narrow flit with a Hope
from it, down which were put the piovifions allotted
for the wretched inhabitants. This caftle was found¬
ed by Waldof, firft lord of Allerdale, and fon of Gof-
patrick earl of Northumberland, cotemporary with
William the Conqueror. Waldof refided firft at.Pap-
caftle, which he afterwards demoliftied and with the
materials built that at Cockermouth, where he and his
family long refided j but feveral arms over the gate¬
way, which Camden fays are thofe of the Multonsy
Humfranvillesy LucieSy and Percies, evince it to have
belonged in later times to thofe families. It appears
that it was firft granted by Edward II. to Anthony
de Lucie, fon of Thomas de Multon, who had affirm¬
ed that name, becaufe his mother was daughter and
co-heirefs to Richard de Lucie ; and afterwards, by
marriages, this caftle and its honours defcended to the
Humfranvilles, and finally to the Percies. In 1658,
it was garrifoned for the king 5 and being befieged
and taken by the rebels, was burnt, and never after¬
wards repaired.—Cockermouth is now in the poffef-
fion of the Lowther family, who have here a great
property in coal-works. I he town fends two mem¬
bers to parliament.
COCKET, is a feal belonging to the king’s cuftom-
H h 2 houfe*
Cocker-
mouth,
Cocket.
COG [ 244 ] COG
houfe, or rather a fcroll of parchment fealed and deli¬
vered by the officers of the cuftoms to merchants, as a
warrant that their merchandifes are cuftomed.
It is alfo ufed for the office where goods tranfport-
ed were fir ft entered, and paid their cuftom, and had
a cocket or certificate of difcharge.
COCKLE. See Cardium, Conchology Index.
Cockle, Schorl, or Shirle, in Mineralogy, a fpe-
cies of ftones, belonging to the filiceous clals. See
Mi neralogy Index.
COCKNEY, a very ancient nickname for a citizen
of London. Ray fays, an interpretation of it is, A
young perfon coaxed or cockered, made a wanton, or
neftle-cock, delicately bred and brought up, fo as when
arrived at man’s eftate to be unable to bear the leaft
hardfhip. Another, A perfon ignorant of the terms of
country economy, fuch as a young citizen, who ha¬
ving been ridiculed for calling the neighing of a horfe
laughing, and told that it was called neighing, next
morning, on hearing the cock crow, to fhow inftru6!ion
was not thrown away upon him, exclaimed to his for¬
mer inftruffor, How that cock neighs! whence the ci¬
tizens of London have ever fince been called cock-
neighs, or cockneys. Whatever may be the origin of
this term, we at leaft learn from the following ver'es,
attributed to Hugh Bagot earl of Norfolk, that it was
in ufe in the time of King Henry II.
Was I in my caftle at Bungay,
Fall by the river Waveney,
I would not care for the king of Cockney.
(i. e. the king of London).
The king of the cockney occurs among the regula¬
tions for the fports and ffiows formerly held in the
Middle Temple, on Childermas day, where he had his
officers, a marlhal, conftable, butler, &c. See Hug-
dale’s Origines Jundicales, p. 247.
COCKROACH. SccBlatta. In Captain Cook’s
laft voyage, the ffiips, while at Huaheine, were infeft-
ed with incredible numbers of thefe creatures, whom
it was found impoffible by any means to deftroy. li¬
very kind of food, when expofed only for a lew mi¬
nutes, was covered with thefe noxious inledls, and pier¬
ced fo full of holes, that it refembled a honeycomb.
They were particularly deftrudfive to birds which had
been fluffed for curiofities, and wrere fo fond of ink,
that they ate out the writing on labels. Books, how¬
ever, were fecured from their ravages by the clofenefs
of the binding, which prevented them from getting in
between the leaves. They were of two kinds, the
Blatta Orient a!Is, and Germanic a.
COCKSWAIN, or Cockson, an officer on board
a man of war, who hath the care of the boat, or fioop,
and all things belonging to it. He is to be always
ready with his boat’s gang or crew, and to man the
boat on all occafions. He fits in the ftern of the boat,
•and fleers \ and hath a whittle to call and encourage
his men.
COCLES. Pub. Horatius, a celebrated Roman,
who alone oppofed the whole army of I orftnna at
the head of a bridge, while his companions behind
him were cutting off the communication ■witn the
other fhore. When the bridge was d' fttoyed, Codes
though wounded by the darts of the -enemy, leapt
into the Tiber, and fwam acrofs it with his arms.
A brazen flatue was raifed to him in the temple Cocoa
of Vulcan, by the conful Publicola, for his eminent !)
. . ' J Codex,
fervices. >
COCOA.. See Cocos, Botany Index.
COCONATO, a town of Piedmont in Italy, fa¬
mous for being the birth-place of Columbus, who
firft difeovered America. E. Long. 8. o. N. Lat.
44- 5°-
COCOS, in Botany; a genus belonging to the na¬
tural order of Palnuv. See Botany Index.
COCTION, a general term for all alterations made
in bodies by the application of fire or heat.
COCYTCJS, one of the rivers of hell, according to
the theology of the poets. It has its name «cra ra
x.ux.vitv, from groaning and lamenting. Hence Milton,
Cocytus nam’d of lamentation loud,
Heard on the rueful ftream.
It was a branch of the river Styx j and flowed, accord¬
ing to Horace, with a dull and languid ftream.
COD, in Ichthyology. See Gadus and Fishery.
Cod is alfo a term ufed, in forne parts of the king¬
dom, for a pod. See Pod.
Coo-Cape, a promontory on the coaft of New En-
land, near the entrance of Bofton harbour. W. Long.
69. 50. N. Lat. 42. o.
CODDY-moddy, the Englifti name of a fpecies of
Larus.
CODE [codex), a colledlion of the laws and confli-
tutions of the Roman emperors, made by order of
juftinian. The word comes from the Latin codex,
“ a paper book j” fo called a codicihus, or caudicihus ar~
horum, “ the trunks of trees }” the bark whereof be¬
ing flapped off, ferved the ancients to write their
books on.
The Code is accounted the fecond volume of the ci¬
vil law, and contains twelve books j the matter of
which is nearly the fame with that of the digefts, ef-
pecially the firft eight b«oks 5 but the ftyle is neither
fo pure, nor the method io accurate, as that of the di¬
gefts j and it determines matters of daily ufe, where¬
as the digefls difeufs the more abftrufe and fubtle
queftions of the law, giving the various opinions of
the ancient lawyers. Although Juflinian’s code is di-
ftinguifhed by the appellation of code, by way of emi¬
nence, yet there were codes before his time : fuch
were, i.The Gregorian code, and Hermogenean code,
colledlions of the Roman laws, made by two famous
lawyers, Gregorius and Hermogenes, which included
the conftitutions of the emperors from Adrian to Dio-
clefian and Maximinus. 2. The 1 heodofian code, com¬
prised in 16 books, formed out of the conflitutions of
the emperors from Conflantine the Great to I heodo-
fius the Younger : this was obferved almoft over all the
w'eft, till it was abrogated by the Juftinian code. 1 here
are alfo feveral later codes, particularly the ancient Go¬
thic, and thoie of the trench kings j as the code of
Euridic, code-Lewis, code-Henry, code-Marcbande,
code des Eaux, &c. j and the prefent king of Pruffia
has lately publiffied a code, which compnfes the laws
of his kingdom in a very fmall volume.
CODEX, in antiquity, denotes a book or tablet on
which the ancients wrote. See C0D1-.
Codex alfo denoted a kind of puniffiment by means-
of a clog or block of wood, to which flaves who had of-
0 fended .
COE
[ 245 ]
COE
Codia
Coecum.
fended were tied faft, and obliged to drag it along with
them •, and fometimes they iat on it cloiely bound.
COD I A, among botanifts, fignifies the head of any
plant, but more particularly a poppy head ; whence its
fyrup is called diacodium.
CODICIL, is a writing, by way of fupplement to a
will, w7hen any thing is omitted that the teftator wmuld
have added, or wants to be explained, altered, or re¬
called.
CODLIN, an apple ufeful in the kitchen, being the
moft proper for baking.
CODLING, an appellation given to the young
cod-filh. See Gadus, Ichthyology Index.
CODON (K&dGv), in antiquity, a cymbal, or rather
little brafs bell, refembling the head of a poppy. They
were faftened to the trappings and bridles of horles.
CODRINGTON, Christopher, a brave Englilh
officer, and not lels diftinguiihed for his learning and
benevolence, was born at Barbadoes in the year 1668,
and educated at Oxford •, after which he betook him-
felf to the armv •, and, by his merit and courage, foon
recommending himfelf to the favour of King W illiam-,
wras made a captain in the firft regiment of foot-guards.
He was at the fiege of Namur in 1695 > and, upon the
conclufion of the peace ofRyfvvick, was made captain-
general and governor in chief of the Leeward and
Caribbee ifhnds. However, in 1 701, feveral articles
were exhibited againll him to the houfe of commons
in England *, to which he publiihed a diilintd and par¬
ticular anfwer, and was honourably acquitted of all
imputations. In 1 703, he Ihowied great bravery at the
attack of Guadaloupe, but at bail he refigned his go¬
vernment, and lived a ftudious retired life 5 for a few
years before his death, he chiefly applied himfelf to
church-hiflory and metaphvfics. H* died at Barba¬
does on the 7th of April 1710, and was buried there
the day following ; but his body was afterwards brought
over to England, and interred, on the 19th of June
1716, in the chapel of AH-Souls College, Oxford. By
his laft will, he bequeathed his plantations in Barba-
does, and part of the ifland of Barbuda, to the looiety
for propagating the gofpel in foreign parts ; and left a
noble legacy to All Souls-College, of which he had
been, a fellow. This legacy confided of his library,
which .was valued at 6ocob; and io.oooI. to be laid
out, 6000 in building a lihrarv, and 4000 in furnilh-
ing it with books. He wrote fome of the ooems in the
Mule An heance, printed at London in I741*
CODRUS, the I7rh and laft king of Athens, fon
of Mehmthus. When the Heracfldae made war againft
Athens, the oracle faid that the viefory would be
granted to that nation whofe king was killed in battle.
The Heraclidae upon this gave ftridl orders to fpare
the life of Codrus 5 but the patriotic king difguifed
himfelf and attacked one of the enemy, by whom he
was killed. The Athenians obtained the victory, and
Codrus was defervedlv called the fa her of his coun¬
try. He reigned 21 years, about 2153 years before
the Chriftian era. To pay more honour to his me¬
mory, the Athenians made a refolution that no man
after Codrus fhould reign in Athens under the name of
COECUM, or blind gut. See Anatomy Index.
Dr Mufgrave gives us an account, in the Philofo-
phical Tranfa&ions, of the caecum of a dog being cut
out without any prejudice to the animal. Mr Giles
gives us another of the coscum of a lady being diftend-
ed, lo as to form a tumor that held almoft fix pints of
a thin, grayiffi, almoft liquid fubifance, of which Ihe
died. And Mr Knowler a third, of a boy’s ccecurn
being vaftly extended and fluffed with cherry-ftones,
which likewife proved mortal.
COEFFICIENTS, A/gelra, are fuch numbers or
known quantities as are put before letters or quanti¬
ties, whether known or unknown, and into which they
are luppofed to be multiplied. Thus, in 3 .r, ax, or
b x ; 3, « and b, are the coefficients of x : and in 6 a,
9 b ; 6 and 9 are the coefficients of a and b. See
Algebra.
COELESTIAL, or Celestial, in general, de¬
notes any thing belonging to the heavens : thus we fay,
cclejlial observations, the celejbialglobe, is'e.
COELI AC artery, in Anatomy, that artery which
iffues from the aorta, juft below the diaphragm. See
Anatomy Index.
Coeliac Vein, in Anatomy, that running through the
inteiiinum redtum, along with the coeliac artery.
COELIMONTANA Porta (PJiny), one of the
gates of Rome, fttuated at the loot ot Mount Coelius $
and hence its name, thought to be the ancient Ajmnna
by fome but this others doubt. By this gate Alaric
with his Goins is faid to have entered and plundered
Rome.
COELIOBRIGA, in Ancient Geography, a town
of the Bracari in the Hither Spai:., to the fouth of
Bracara Augutla, the north of the Durius, and not
far from the Atlantic •, a municipium (Coin). Now
thought to be Ba>-celos, a town of Entre Minho y
Duero. W. Long. 9. 15. Lat. 41. 20.
COE LI US mjns, one of the (even hills of Rome,
fo called from Codes, a 1’ufcan captain, who came to
the afliftance ot R xnulus againft the Sabines, (Diony-
fius Halicarnaffeus). Called alio or §)jer-
cetulanus, from the oaks growing on it \ and Augujtus,
by Tioeriu- ( Facitus, Suctoniu'). To the eait it had
the city walls, on the fouth the Coeliolus, to the weft
the Palatine, and on the north the Efquiliae.
COELIOLUS, a oart of Mount Ccelius to the
fouth called Minor Ccdius (MavFal) ;* having the city
walls on the call, the Aventme to the fouih, and on the -
weft ana north the valley through which the rivulet of
the Appia runs.
COELOM A, among pbyficians, a hollow ulcer,
feated in the tunica cornea of the eye.
COELOS portus, in Ancient Geography, a town
of the Cherfonefus of Thrace, to the fouth of Selios,.
w-here the Athenians erected a trophy, after a fea vic¬
tory over the Lacedemonians (Diodorus Siculus).
COELOSYRI A, in the larger fenfe of the word,
was the name of the whole country lying fouthward
of Seleucia, and extending as far as Egypt and Arabia}
but this word is principally applied to the valley lying
between Libanus and Antilibanus. This word occurs
only in the apocryphal writings-of the Old Tefta-
ment,
COELUS (Heaven), in Pagan mythology, the fon (
of TErher and Dies, or Air and Day. According to
Hefiod, he married Terra or the Earth, on whom he
begat Aurea or the Mountains, the Ocean, &.c. But
having at length imprifoned the Cyclops, who weren
alfa.'
Coefficients
il
Coe 1 us.
C O F
[ 246 1
C O F
Coft'ea.
Cermetery alfb his children, his wife, being offended, incited her
fon Saturn to revenge the injury done to his brothers ;
, and, by her afliftance, he bound and caftrated Coelus,
when the blood that flowed from the wound produ¬
ced the three furies, the giants, and the wood-nymphs j
and the genital parts being thrown into the fea, im¬
pregnated the waters, and formed the goddefs Venus.
This deity was called by the Greeks Uranus.
COEMETERY. See Cemetery.
COEMPTION ALES, among the Romans, an ap¬
pellation given to old Haves, which were fold in a lot
with others, becaufe they could not be fold alone.
COENOBITE, a religious who lives in a convent,
or in community, under a certain rule j in oppofition
to anchoret, or hermit, who lives in folitude. 1 he
wrord comes from the Greek xaivo(f communis ; and
vita, “ life.” Caflian makes this difference between a
convent and a monnjlery, that the latter may be applied
to the refidence of a Angle religious or recluie, whereas
the convent implies coenobites, or numbers of religious
living in common. Fleury fpeaks of three kinds of
monks in Egypt; anchorets, who live in folitude j
coenobites, who continue to live in community ; and /rr-
rabaites, who are a kind of monks-errant, that ttroll
from place to place. He refers the inftitution of coe¬
nobites to the times of the apoftles, and makes it a kind
of imitation of the ordinary lives of the faithful at Je-
rufalem. Though St Pachomius is ordinarily owned
the inftitutor of the coenobite life, as being the firfl:
who gave a rule to any community.
COENOBIUM, (Konojiio*), the ftate of living in a fo-
ciety, or community, where all things are common.
Pythagoras is thought to be the author or firft infti¬
tutor of this kind of life ; his _ difciples? though feme
hundreds in number, being obliged to give up all their
private eftates, in order to be annexed to the joint
flock of the whole. The Effenians among the Jews,
and Platonifts, are faid to have lived in the fame man¬
ner. Many of the Chriftians alfo have thought this
the moft perfedl kind of fociety, as being that in which
Chrift and his apoftles chofe to live.
COESFELDT, a town of Germany, inWeftphalia,
and in the territories of the bilhop of Munfter, where
he often refldes. It is near the river Burkel, E. Long.
64. 2. N. Lat. 51. 58.
COEVORDEN, one of the ftrongeft towns in the
United Provinces, in Overyffel, fortified by the fa¬
mous Cohorn. It was taken by the biftiop of Munfter,
1673 j and the Dutch retook it the fame year. It is
furrounded by a morafs. E. Long. 6. 41. N. Lat.
52. 40.
COFFEA, the Coffee-tree. See Botany Index.
The flowers, which are produced in clufters at the root
of the leaves, are of a pure white, .and have a very
grateful odour. The fruit, which is the only ufeful
part, refembles a cherry. When it comes to be of
a deep red, it is gathered for the mill, in order to be
manufactured into thofe coffee-beans now fo generally
known. The mill is compofed of two wooden rollers
furnifhed with iron plates 18 inches long, and 10 or
12 in diameter. Thefe moveable rollers are made to
approach a third which is fixed, and which they call
the chops. Above the rollers is a hopper, in which
they put the coffee, from wThence it falls between the
rollers and the chops, where it is ftripped of its fiift
1
fkin, and divided into two parts, as may be feen by the
form of it after it has undergone this operation ; being
flat on the one fide and round on the other. From
this machine it falls into a brafs fieve, where the fldn
drops between the wires, while the fruit Hides over
them into balkets placed ready to receive it : it is then
thrown into a veffel full of water, where it foaks for
one night, and is afterwards thoroughly waftied. When
the whole is finifhed, and well dried, it is put into an¬
other machine called the peeling-mi//. This is a wood¬
en grinder, turned vertically upon its trendle by a
mule or horfe. In palling over the coffee it takes off
the parchment, which is nothing but a thin fkin that
detaches itfelf from the berry in proportion as it grows
dry. The parchment being removed, it is taken out
of this mill to be put into another, which is called the
winnowing-mi/l. 1 his machine is provided wuth four
pieces of tin fixed upon an axle, which is turned by a
Have with confiderable force •, and the wind that is
made by the motion of thefe plates clears the coffee
of all the pellicles that are mixed with it. It is after¬
wards put upon a table, w’here the broken berries,
and any filth that may remain among them, are fe-
parated by negroes, after which the coffee is fit for
fale.
The coffee-tree is cultivated in Arabia, Perfia, the
Eaft Indies, the ifle of Bourbon, and feveral parts of
America. It is alfo raifed in botanic gardens in feve¬
ral parts of Europe. Prince Eugene’s garden at Vi¬
enna produced more coffee than was lufficient for his
own confumption. It delights particularly in hills and
mountains, where its root is almoft always drj', and
its head frequently watered with gentle ftiowers. . It
prefers a weftern afpeft, and ploughed ground with¬
out any appearance of grafs. I he plants fhould be
placed at eight feet diftance from each other, and in
holes twelve or fifteen inches deep. If left to them-
felves, they would rife to the height of 16 or 18 feet,
as already obferved ; but they are generally ftinted
to five, for the conveniency of gathering their fruit
with the greater eale. Fhus dwarft, they extend
their branches fo, that they cover the whole fpot
round about them. They begin to yield fruit the third
year, but are not in full bearing till the fifth. With the
fame infirmities that moft other trees are fubjeft to,
thefe are likewife in danger of being deftroyed by a
worm or by the fcorching rays of the fun. The
hills where the coffee-trees are found have generally
a gravelly or chalky bottom. In the laft, it languilhes
for fome time and then dies } in the former, its loots,
which feldom fail of ftriking between ftones, obtain
nouriftiment, and keep the tree alive and fruitful for
30 years. This is nearly the period for plants of the
coffee-tree. The proprietor, at the end of this period,
not only finds himfelf without trees, but has his land
reduced, that it is not fit for any kind of culture; and
unlefs he is fo fituated, that he can break up a fpot of
virgin land, to make himfelf amends for that which is
totally exhaufted by the coffee-trees, his iofs is 11 re¬
parable. . . r
The coffee produced in Arabia is found fo greatly
to excel that raifed in the American plantations or
elfewhere, that the cultivation of the tree is now but
feldom pradifed in any of the Britifh colonies. . Large
plantations of this kind were formerly made in fome
Caffe a.
C O F [
Coffea, of them; and it was propofed to the parliament to
Coffee, give a proper encouragement for cultivating this com-
"“■'V""" ’ modity there, fo as to enable the planters to under-
fell the importers from Arabia. Accordingly, there
was an abatement of the duty payable on all coffee
imported from our colonies in America, which at that
time was fuppofed to be lufficient encouragement for
this kind of commerce ; but the inferiority of the A-
merican coffee to the Arabian hath almoft ruined the
projeft. Mr Miller propofes fome improvements in
the method of cultivation. According to him, the
trees are planted in too moift a foil, and the berries
are gathered too foon. They ought, he fays, to be
permitted to remain on the trees till their Ikins are
ffirivelled, and they fall from the trees when lhaken.
This will indeed greatly diminiih their weight, but
the value of the commodity will thereby be increafed
to more than double of that which is gathered fooner.
In Arabia, they always (hake the berries off the trees,
fpreading cloths to receive them, and only take fuch
as readily fall at each time. Another caufe may be
the method of drying the berries. They are, he ob-
ferves, very apt to imbibe moifture, or the flavour of
any thing placed near them. A bottle of rum placed
in a clofet, in which a canifter of coffee-berries clofely
flopped was Handing on a flielf at a confiderable di
ftance, in a few days fo impregnated the berries as to
render them very difagreeable. Some years ago, a
coffee-lhip from India had a few bags of pepper put on
board, the flavour of which was imbibed by the coffee,
and the whole cargo fpoiled. For thefe reafons coffee-
berries ihould never be brought over in (hips treighted
with rum, or laid to dry in the houfes where fugars are
boiled or rum di (filled. When they are fully ripe,
they (hould be ffiaken off when the trees are perfeftly
dry, and fpread upon cloths to dry in the fun, carry¬
ing them every evening under cover, to prevent the
dews or rain from falling on them. When perfectly
dry, they (hould have their outer (kins beaten off, and
then be carefully packed up in cloths or bags three or
four times double.
Coffee alfo denotes a kind of drink, prepared from
thofe berries *, very familiar in Europe for thefe loo
years, and among the Turks for 170.
Its origin is not well known. Some aferibe it to
the prior of a monaitery, wffio being informed by a
goat-herd, that his cattle fometimes browzing on the
tree would wake and caper all night, became curi¬
ous to prove its virtue : accordingly, he firff tried it
on his monks, to prevent their fleeping at matins.
Others, from Sehehabeddin, refer the invention of
coffee to the Perfians, from whom it was learned in
the 15th century by Gumaleddin, mufti of Aden, a city
near the mouth of the Red fea, and who having tried
its virtues himfelf, and found that it diffipated the
fumes which oppreffed the head, infpired joy, opened
the bowels, and prevented deep, without being in¬
commoded by it, recommended it firft to his der-
vifes, with whom he ufed to fpend the night in prayer.
Their example brought coffee into vogue at Aden ;
the profeflbis of the law for ftudy, artifans to work,
travellers to walk in the night, in fine every body
at Aden, drank coffee. Hence it paffed to Mecca,
where firff the devotees, then the reft of the people,
took it. From Arabia Felix it paffed to Cairo. In
247 ] C o F
1511, Kahie Reg prohibited it, from a perfuafion that Coffee,
it inebriated, and inclined to things forbidden. But ‘
Sultan Caufou immediately after took off the prohibi¬
tion, and coffee advanced from Egypt to Syria and
Conftantinople. The dervifes declaimed againft it
from the Alcoran, which declares, that coal is not of
the number of things created by God for food. Ac¬
cordingly, the mufti ordered the coffee-houfes to be
(hut ; but his fucceflbr declaring coffee not to be coal,
they were again opened. During the war in Candia
the affemblies of news-mongers making too free with
date affairs, the grand vifir Cuproli fuppreffed the
coffee-houfes at Conftantinople, which fuppreffion,
though ftill on foot, does not prevent the public ufe
of the liquor there. Thevenot the traveller, was the
firft: who brought it into France ; and a Greek fervant,
named Pafqua, brought into England by Mr Dan.
Edwards, a Turkey merchant, in 1652, to make his
coffee, firft fet up the profeflion of coifee-man, and in¬
troduced the drink into this ifland.
The word is originally Arabic : the Turks pro¬
nounce it caheub, and the Arabians cahuah\ which fome
authors maintain to be a general name for any thing
that takes away the appetite, others for any thing that
promotes appetite, and others again for any thing that
gives ftrength and vigour.—The Mahometans, it is
obferved, diftinguifti three kinds of cahuah. The firft:
is wine, or any liquor that inebriates } the fecond is
made of the pods that contain the coffee-berry ; this
they call the Sultan's coffee, from their having firft:
introduced it on account of its heating lefs than the
berry, as well as its keeping the bowels open $ the
third is that made with the berry itfelf, which alone
is ufed in Europe, the pods being found improper for
tranfportation. Some Europeans who imported the
pods, called them the Jlower of the cofee-tree. The
deep brown colour of the liquor occafioned its being
called fyrup of the Indian mulberry, under which fpe-
cious name it firft gained ground in Europe.
The preparation of coffee confifts in roafting, or gi¬
ving it a juft degree of torrefadlion on an earthen or
metalline plate, till it has acquired a brownifti hue
equally deep on all fides. It is then ground in a mill,
as much as ft rves the prefent occafion. A proper quan¬
tity of water is next boiled, and the ground coffee put
into it. After it has juft boiled, it is taken from the
fire, and the decodlion having flood a while to fettle
and fine, they pour or decant it into d:(hes. The or¬
dinary method of roafting coffee amongft us is in a tin
cylindrical box (ull of holes, through the middle
whereof runs a fpit. Under this is a femicircular hearth,
whereon is a large charcoal-fire : by help of a jack the
fpit turns fvvift, and fo roads the berry, being now
and then taken up to be (haken. When the oil riles,
and it is grown of a dark brown colour, it is emptied
into two receivers made with large hoops, whofe bot¬
toms are iron plates : there the coffee is {haken, and
left till almoft cold ; and if it look bright and oily, it
is a fign it is well done.
Very different accounts have been given of the me¬
dicinal qualities of this berry. To determine its real
effe&s on the human body. Dr Percival has made fe-
veial experiments, the refult of which he gives in the
following words : “ From thefe obfervations vve may
infer, that coffee is (lightly aftringent, and antifeptic;
that.
C O F [2
TToFFee, • that it moderates alimentary fermentation, and is
, • powerfully fedative. Its adlion on the nervous fyftem
^ probably depends on the oil it contains; which re-
•ceives its flavour, and is rendered mildly empyreu-
matic, by the procefs of roafling. Neumann obtained
by ditlillation from one pound of coffee, five ounces
five drachms and a half of water, fix ounces and half
a drachm of thick fetid oil, and four ounces and two
drachms of a caput mortuum. And it is well known,
that rye, torrefied with a few almonds, which furnilh
the neceffary proportion of oil, is now’ frequently em-
•ployed as a fubftitute for thefe berries.
“ The medicinal qualities of coffee feem to be de¬
rived from the grateful fenfation which it produces in
the ftomach, and from the fedative powers it exerts
<011 the vis vitce. Hence it afiifis digeftion, and re-
-lieves the headach ; and is taken in large quantities,
•with peculiar propriety, by the Turks and Arabians,
•becaufe it counteracts the narcotic effedls of opium, to
the ufe of which thofe nations are much addiCIed.
“ In delicate habits, it often occafions watchfulnefs,
tremors, and many of thofe complaints which are de¬
nominated nervous. It has been even fufpeCted of
producing palfies ; and from my own obfervation, I
-ihould apprehend, not entirely without foundation.
•Slare affirms, that he became paralytic by the too li¬
teral ufe of coffee, and that this diforder was remo¬
ved by abflinenee from that liquor.
“ The following curious and important obferva¬
tion is extraCled from a lettei with which I was ho¬
noured by Sir John Pringle, in April 1773 : ‘ On
reading your feftion concerning coffee, one quality
occurred to me which I had obferved of that liquor,
confirming w hat you have faid of its fi dative virtues.
It is the bell abater of the paroxyfms of the periodic
afthma that I have feen. The coffee ought to be of
the beft Mocco, newly burnt, and made very ftrong
immediately after grinding it. I have commonly or¬
dered an ounce for one did) ; which is to be repeated
frelh after the interval of a quarter or half an hour ;
and which I diredl to be taken without milk or fugar.
The medicine in general is mentioned by Mufgrave,
in his treatife De arthntide anotnala ; but I fird beard
of it from a phyfician in this place, w’ho having once
praciifed it in Litchfield, had been informed by the
old people of that place, that Sir John Floyer, during
the latter years of his life, kept free from, or at lead
lived eafy under, his adhma, from the ufe of very
drong coffee. This difeovery, it feems, he made af¬
ter the publication -of his book upon that -difeafe.
Since the receipt of that letter, I have frequently di¬
rected coffee in the adhma with great fuccefs.”
COFFER, in Architr&uri', a fquare depreffure or
finking in each interval between the modillions of the
Corinthian cornice ; ordinarily filled up with a rofe ;
fometimes with a pomegranate, or other enrichment.
Coffer, in Fortification, denotes a hollow lodge¬
ment, athwart a dry moat, from 6 to 7 feet deep,
and from 16 to 18 broad; the upper part made of
pieces of timber raifed two feet above the level of
the moat, which little elevation has hurdles laden
with earth for its covering, and ferves as a parapet
w ith embrafures : the coffer is nearly the fame with
the caponiere, excepting that this lad is fometimes
,!uade beyond the counterfcarp on the glacis, and the
2
i8 ] C O F
coffer always in the moat, taking up its whole breath, Cof&r-r,
which the caponiere does not. It differs from the Gottin.
traverfe and gallery, in that thefe latter are made by ^ ~~~
the befiegers, and the coffer by the bedeged. The
befieged generally make ufe of coffers toiepulfe the
befiegers when they endeavour to pafs the ditch. To
fave themfelves from the fire of thefe coffers, the be¬
fiegers throw up the earth on that fide towards the
coffer.
COFFERER of the King's household, a princi¬
pal officer in the court, next under the comptroller.
He was likewife a white-daff officer, and always a
member of the privy council. He had a fpecial charge
and overfight of the other ofiicers of the houfehold.
He paid the wages of the king’s fervants below dairs,
and for provifions as diredied by the board of green
cloth. This office is now fuppreffed, and the bufinefs
of it is tran fa died by the lord deward, and paymader
of the boufehold. He had look a-year wages, and
400I. a-vear board-wages.
COFFIN, the ched in which dead bodies are put
into the ground.
The fepulchral honours paid to the manes of de¬
parted friends in ancient times, demand attention,
and are extremely curious. Their being put into a
coffin has been particularly conddered as a mark of
the highed didindlion. With us the pooved people
have their coffins. If the relations cannot afford them,
the paridi is at the expence. On the contrary, in
the ead they are not at all made ule of in our times ;
Turks and Chridians, as Thevenot affures us, agree
in this. The ancient Jews feem to have buried their
dead in the fame manner : neither was the body of
our Lord, it diould feem, put into a coffin ; nor that
of Efifha, 2 Kings xiii. 21. whole bones were touched
by the corpfe that was let down a little after into his
fepulchre. However, that they were anciently made
ufe of in Egypt, all agree ; and antique cefifins of /lone,
and fycatnore-wood, are dill to be feen in that country ;
not to mention thofe faid to be made of a kind of
padeboard ; formed by folding or glueing cloth to¬
gether a great many times, curioufly pladered, and
then painted with hieroglyphics. Its being an ancient
Egyptian cudcm, and not pradlifed in the neigh¬
bouring countries, were, doubtlefs, the caufe that the
facred h dorian exprefsly obferves of Jofepb, that he
was not only embalmed, but put into a coffin too * ; * Qen^
both being managements peculiar to the Egyptians. 26.
Blffiop Patrick, in his commentary on this paffage,
takes notice of thefe Egyptian coffins of fycamore
wood, and of padeboard ; but he doth not mention
the contrary ufage in the neighbouring countries,
which was requifite, one might Juppofe, in order fully
to illudrate the place : but even this perhaps would
not have conveyed the whole idea of the facred au¬
thor. Maillet apprehends that all were not incloled
in coffins who were laid in the Egyptian repofitories
of the dead -; but that it was an honour appropriated
to perfons of figure : for after having given an ac¬
count of feveral riches found in thofe chambers of
death, be adds f, “ But it mud not be imagined that | Let. vii,
the bodies depofited in thefe gloomy apartments we rep. 1S1.
all inclofed in chefs, and placed in niches. The
greated part were {imply embalmed and iwathed af¬
ter that manner which every one hath fome notion,
of;
COG [ 249 ] C O H
Coffin of; after which they laid them one by the fide of
I! another without any ceremony. Some were even laid
Cognac. ^ thefe tombs without any embalming at all; or fuch
a flight one, that there remains nothing of them in
the linen in which they were wrapped, but the bones,
and thofe half rotten. It is probable, that each
confiderable family had one of thefe burial-places to
themfelves; that the niches were defigned for the
bodies of the heads of the families 5 and that thofe of
their domeftics or flaves had no other care taken of
them than the laying them on the ground, after ha¬
ving been embalmed, or even without that 5 which,
undoubtedly, was alfo all that was done even to the
heads of families of lefs diftindtion.” After this he
gives an account of a way of burial, pradiifed anci¬
ently in that country, which had been but lately difco-
vered, and which confifted in placing the bodies, af¬
ter they were fwathed, upon a layer of charcoal, and
covering them with a mat, under a depth of fand of
feven or eight feet.
That coffins then were not univerfally ufed in E-
gypt, is undoubted from thefe accounts ; and probably
they were only perfons of diftindlion who were buried
in them. It is alfo reafonable to believe, that in
times fo remote as that of Jofeph, they might be
much lefs common than afterwards; and confequently,
that Jofeph’s being put in a coffin in Egypt might be
mentioned with a defign to exprefs the great honours
which the Egyptians did him at his death, as well as
in life, being interred after the moft fumptuous man¬
ner of the Egyptians, embalmed, and put into a coffin.
Agreeably to this, the Septuagint verfion, which was
made for Egyptians, feems to reprefent coffins as a
mark of grandeur. Job xxi. 32.
It is no objection to this account, that the widow
of Nain’s fon is reprefented as carried forth to be
buried in a o-agof, or “ on a bier for the prefent
inhabitants of the Levant, who are well known
to lay their dead bodies in the earth uninclofed, carry
them frequently out to burial in a kind of coffin. So
Dr Ruffel, in particular, defcribes the bier ufed for
the Turks at Aleppo, as a kind of coffin much in the
form of ours, only that the lid rifes with a ledge in
the middle. Chriftians, indeed, as he tells us, are car¬
ried to the grave on an open bier: but as the moft
common kind of bier refembles our coffins, that ufed
by the people of Nain might very poffibly be of the
fame kind $ in which cafe the word vega? was very
proper.
GOGGLE, or Cog, a fmall fiffiing-boat upon the
-coafts of Yorkffiire : and cogs {cogones} are a kind of
little fhips or veflels ufed in the rivers Oufe and Hum¬
ber ; (Stat. 23. Hen. VIII. c. 18.) Prceparatis cogoni-
bus, galleis, et aliis navibus, b'c. (Mat. Paris, ann.
1066). And hence the cogmen, boatmen, and fea-
iflen, who after ffiipwreck or Ioffes by fea travelled
and wandered about to defraud the people by beg¬
ging and ftealing, until they were reftrained by proper
laws.
COGITATION, a term ufed by fome for the aft
of thinking.
COGNAC, a town of France in Angoumois, with
a caftle, where Francis I. was born. It is feated on the
Ever Charante, in a very pleafant country, abounding
Vol. VI. Part I.
in wine, and remarkable for excellent brandy. W. Cognate
Long. o. 10. N. Lat. 45. 44. r JL
COGNATE, in Scots Law, any male relation. 0 y0"*,
by the mother.
COGNATION, in the civil law, a term for that
line of confanguinity which is between males and fe¬
males, both defcended from the fame father 5 as ag¬
nation is for the line of parentage between males only
defcended from the fame flock.
COGNI, an ancient and flrong town of Caramania
in Turkey in Afia, and the refidence of a beglerbeg.
It is feated in a pleafant country, abounding in corn,
fruits, pulfe, and cattle. Here are (beep whofe tails
weigh 30 pounds. E. Long. 35. 56. N. Lat. 37. 56.
COGNITIONIS causa, in Scots Law. When a
creditor charges the heir of his debtor to enter, in
order to conftitute the debt againft him, and the heir
renounces the fucceffion, the creditor can obtain no
decreet of conftitution of that debt againft the heir ;
but only a decreet fubjefting the hcereditas jacens, or
the eftate which belonged to the debtor, to his dili¬
gence : and this is called a decreet cognitionis caufa.
COGNIZANCE, or Connusance, in Law, has
divers fignifications. Sometimes it is an acknowledge¬
ment of a fine, or confeffion of fomething done 5 fome-
times the hearing of a matter judicially, as to take cog¬
nizance of a caufe ; and fometimes a particular jurif-
di&ion, as cognizance of pleas is an authority to call
a caufe or plea out of another court, which no perfon
can do but the king, except he can ffiow a charter for
it. This cognizance is a privilege granted to a city
or a town to hold plea of all contradls, &cc. within the
liberty j and if any one is impleaded for fuch matters
in the courts at Weftminfter, the mayor, &c. of fuch
franchife may demand cognizance of the plea, and
that it may be determined before them.
Cognizance is alfo ufed for a badge on a water¬
man’s or ferving-man’s fleeve, which is commonly the
giver’s creft, whereby he is decerned to belong to this
or that nobleman or gentleman.
COGGS. See Goggle.
COHABITATION, denotes the ftate of a man
and a woman who live together without being legally
married. By the common law of Scotland, cohabita¬
tion for year and day, or a complete twelvemonth, is
deemed equivalent to matrimony.
CO-HEIR, one who fucceeds to a ffiare of an inhe¬
ritance, to be divided among feveral.
COHESION, one of the four fpecies of attra&ion,
denoting that force by which the parts of bodies ad¬
here or flick together. t
This power was firft confidered by Sir Ifaac New-Confidered
ton as one of the properties effential to all matter, and ky ShTiaac
the caufe of all that variety we obferve in the texture
of different terreftrial bodies. He did not, however, pr0perty
abfolutely determine that the power of cohefion was matter/
an immaterial one-, but thought it might poffibly arife,
as well as that of gravitation, from the aftion of an 2
ether. His account of the original conftitution of mat-His'account
ter is as follows: It feems probable, that God in theoHhe 01>
beginning formed matter m folid, maffy, ^mPene,:rahle,
moveable particles j of fuch fizes, figures, and other matter
properties, and in fuch proportion to fpace, as moft
conduced to the end for which he formed them $ and
I i that
Cohefion.
C O H
that thefe primitive particles being folid, are incom
1 parably harder than any porous bodies compofed of
them j even fo very hard as never to wear or break
in pieces ; no ordinary power being able to divide
what God himfelf made one at the firft creation. While
the particles continue entire, they may compofe bodies
of one and the fame nature and texture in all agesj
but Ihould they wear away, or break in pieces, the
nature of all things depending on them would be chan¬
ged. Water and earth compofed of old worn particles
and fragments of particles, would not now be of the
fame texture with water and earth compofed of en¬
tire particles in the beginning. And therefore, that
nature may be lafting, the changes of corporeal things
are to be placed in the various feparations and new
affociations and motions of thefe permanent particles;
compound bodies being apt to break, not in the midft
of folid particles, but where thefe particles are laid to¬
gether, and touch in a few points.” It feems farther,
“ That thefe particles have not only a vis inertice, ac¬
companied with fuch paffive laws of motion as natu¬
rally refult from that force } but alfo that they are
moved by certain aftive principles, fuch as that of gra¬
vity, and that which caufeth fermentation and the co¬
hefion of bodies. Thefe principles are to be confider-
ed not as occult qualities, fuppofed to refult from the
fpecific forms of things, but as general laws of nature
by which the things themfelves are formed; their
truth appearing to us by phenomena, though their
caufe is not yet difcovered.”
The general law of nature, by which all the diffe-
the general rent bodies in the univerfe are compofed, according
Jaw ofna- to Sir Ifaac Newton, is that of attraflion : i. e. “ Eve-
ture. ry particle of matter has an attraftive force, or a
tendency to every other particle j which power is
ftrongeft in the point of contaft, and fuddenly de-
creafes, infomuch that it a£fs no more at the leaft fen-
fible diftance j and at a greater diftance is converted
into a repellent force, whereby the parts fly from
each other. On this principle of attradfion may we
account for the cohefion of bodies, otherwife inexpli-
^ cable.
Formation “ The fmallefi: particles may cohere by the ftrong-
of particles efl: attradlions, and compofe bigger particles of weaker
of different virtue } and many of thefe may cohere, and compofe
bigger particles, vrhofe virtue is ftill lefs ; and fo on
for divers fucceffions, until the piogreflion end in the
biggeft particles, on which the operations in chemifiry,
and the colours of natural bodies, depend ; and which,
by cohering, compofe bodies of a fenfible magnitude.
If the body is compadt, and bends or yields inward to
preffure without any Aiding of its parts, it is hard and
elaftic, returning to its figure with a force arifing
[ 2jo J C O H
to a fmall diftance. Now, as in algebra, where af- Cohefion.
firmative quantities ceafe, there negative ones begin 5'v
fo in mechanics, where attradlion ceafes, there a re- <5
pulfive virtue muft fucceed. That there really is fuch
a virtue feems to follow from the refledlions and in
Attraction
fizes.
Diftinclion
of bodies
into hard,
of repulfive
10ft, humid, from the mutual attiadHon of its parts. If the parts
Aide from one another, the body is malleable or foft.
If they flip eafily, and are of a fit fize to be agita¬
ted by heat, and the heat is great enough to keep
them in agitation, the body is fluid j and if it be apt
to flick to things, it is humid •, and the drops of every
fluid affedl a round figure by the mutual attra&ions
of their parts, as the globe of the eaith and fea affedls
a round figure from the mutual attradlion and gravity
of its parts.
“ Since metals diffolved in acids attradl but a fmall
quantity of the acid, their attradfive force reaches but
, - . „ power pro-
fledfions of the rays of light 5 the rays being repelled ved.
by bodies in both thefe cafes without the immediate
contadf of the refledfing or infledfing body. The fame
thing leems alfo to follow from the emiffion of light j
a ray, as foon as ftiaken off from a body by the vibra¬
ting motion of the parts of the body, and got beyond
the reach of attradlion, being driven away with ex¬
ceeding great velocity ; for that force which is fuffi-
cient to turn it back in refledlion may be fufficient to
emit it. From the fame repelling powder it feems to
be that flies walk upon the water without wetting their
feet j that the objedl-glaffes of long telefcopes lie up¬
on one another without touching j and that dry pow¬
ders are difficultly made to touch one another fb as to
flick together, without melting them or wetting them
with water, which, by exhaling, may bring them to¬
gether.
“ The particles of all hard homogeneous bodies
which touch one another, cohere with a great force j
to account for which, fome philofophers have recourfs
to a kind of hooked atoms, which in effedl is nothing
elfe but to beg the queftion. Others imagine, that
the particles of bodies are connedled by reft, i. e. in ef¬
fedl by nothing at all and others, by confpiring mo¬
tions, i. e. by a relative reft among themfelves. For
myfelf, it rather appears to me, that the particles of
bodies cohere by an attradlive force, whereby they tend
mutually to each other.”
From this account of the formation and conftitution^
of bodies, v/e can conclude nothing, except that they c[u(10n t£>
are compofed of an infinite number of little particles, be drawn
kept together by a force or power ; but of what na-^romth;&
ture that power is, whether material or immaterial, a''CoUnti
wre muft remain ignorant till farther experiments are
made. Some of the Newtonian philofophers, how¬
ever, have pofitively determined thefe powers to be
immaterial. In confequence of this fuppofition, they
have fo refined upon attradlions and repulfions, that
their fyftems feem not far from downright fcepticifm,
or denying the exiftence of matter altogether. A
fyftem of this kind we find adopted by Dr Prieftley *, * HiJI of
from Meffrs Bofcovich and Michell, in order to folve
fome difficulties concerning the Newtonian dodlrine of^’
light. “ The eafieft method (fays he) of folving all Mr
difficulties, is to adopt the hypothefis of Mr Bofcovich,‘hell,s
who fuppofes that matter is not impenetrable, as haspothefi- a-
been perhaps univerially taken for gianted ; but tbatdopted by
it confifts of phyfical points only, endued with powers•lJr
of attrablion and repulfion in the fame manner as folid It^'
matter is generally fuppoftd to be : provided there¬
fore that any body moves with a fnfficient degree of
velocity, or has a fufficient momentum to overcome
any powers of repulfion that it may meet with, it will
find no difficulty in making its way through any body
whatever ; for nothing elfe w?ill penetrate one another
but powers, fuch as we know do in faft exift in the
fame place, and counterbalance or overrule one ano¬
ther. The moft obvious difficulty, and indeed almoft
the only one that attends this hypothefis, as it fuppofes
the mutual penetrability of matter, arifes from the
idea
Cohefien.
Bodies op-
pofe each
other not
from ac¬
tual con-
tad.
to
Mr Baxter’s
opinion.
it
Cohefion
fuppofed
owing to
elementary
fire.
C O H [2
idea or the nature of matter, and the difficulty we
meet with in attempting to force two bodies into the
fame fpace. But it is demonftrable that the firft ob-
ftrudtion arifes from no aftual contact of matter, but
from mere powers of repulfion. The difficulty we
can overcome j and having "got within one fphere of
repulfion, we fancy that we are now impeded by the
folid matter itfelf. But the very fame is the opinion
of the generality of mankind with refpedl to the firft
obftrudiion. Why, therefore, may not the next be
only another fphere of repulfion, which may only re¬
quire a greater force than we can apply to overcome
it, without difordering the arrangement of the confti-
tuent particles $ but which may be overcome by a
body moving with the amazing velocity of light.
“ This fcheme of the immateriality of matter as it
may be called, or rather the mutual penetration of mat¬
ter, firft occurred to Mr Michell on reading Baxter on
the immateriality of the foul. He found that this au¬
thor’s idea of matter was, that it confifted, as it were,
of bricks cemented together writh immaterial mortar.
Thefe bricks, if he would be confiftent with his own
reafoning, were again compofed of lefs bricks, ce¬
mented likewife by an immaterial mortar; and fo on
ad infinitum. This putting Mr Michell upon the con-
fideration of the feveral appearances of nature, he be¬
gan to perceive that the bricks were fo covered with
this immaterial mortar, that if they had any exiftence
at all, it could not poffibly be perceived ; every ef¬
fect being produced, in nine inftances of ten certainly,
and probably in the tenth alfo, by this immaterial, fpi-
ritual, and penetrable mortar. Inftead therefore of pla¬
cing the world upon the giant, the giant upon the tor-
toife, and the tortoife upon, he could not tell what, he
placed the world at once upon itfelf.”
Other philofophers have fuppofed the powers both
of gravitation and cohefion to be material; and to be
only different aftions of the ethereal fluid, or elemen¬
tary fire. In fupport of this it has been urged, that
before we have recourfe to a fpiritual and immaterial
power as the caufe of any natural phenomenon, we
ought to be well affured that there is no material fub-
ftance with which we are acquainted, that is capable
of producing fuch effefts. In the prefent cafe, we
are fo far from having fuch affurance, that the contra¬
ry is manifeft to our fenfes. One inftance of this is
in the experiment with the Magdeburg hemifpheres,
as they are called. Thefe are two hollow hemifphdres
of brafs, exactly fitted to one another, fo as to form
one globe when joined together, without admitting any
air at the joining. In this ftate, if the air within
them is exhaufted by means of a pump, they will co¬
here with fuch force, if they are five or fix inches dia¬
meter, as to require a weight of fome hundreds of
pounds to feparate them. The prefiure of the at-
mofphere, w-e fee, is in this cafe capable of produ¬
cing a very ftrong cohefion 5 and if there is in nature
any fluid more penetrating, as well as more power¬
ful in its effe&s, than the air we breathe, it is poffible
that what is called the attra&ion of cohefion may fome
how or other be an effect of the aftion of that fluid.
Such a fluid as this is the element of fire. Its activity
is fuch as to penetrate all bodies whatever j and in the
ftate in which it is commonly called fire, it a£Is accord¬
ing to the quantity of folid matter contained in the
51 ] co H
body. In this ftate, it is capable of diflolving the Cohefion.
ftrongeft cohefions obferved in nature j but whatever i
is capable of diffolving any cohefion, mull neceffarily
be endued with greater power than that by which the
cohefion is caufed. Fire, therefore, being able to
diffolve cohefions, muft alfo be capable of caufing
them, provided its power is exerted for that purpole.
Nor will it feem at all ftrange that this fluid flrould aft
in two fuch oppolite wTays, when we conflder the dif¬
ferent appearances w'hich it affumes. Thefe. are
three, viz. fire or heat, in which it confumes, de-
ftroys, and diffolves : light, in which it feems deprived
of all deftruftive or diffolvent power, and to be the
moft mild, quiet, and placid being in nature. The
third ftate of this element is, when it becomes what
is called the electric fluid; and then it attrafts, re¬
pels, and moves bodies, in a vaft variety of ways,
wuthout either burning or rendering them vifible by
its light. In this ftate it is not lefs powerful than iu
either of the other two 5 for a violent fhock of elec¬
tricity will difplace and tear in pieces the moty. heavy
and folid bodies. The feeming capricious nature of
this fluid, however, probably renders it lefs fufpefted
as the caufe of cohefion, than it otherwife would be,
were the attraftions regular and permanent, which
we obferve it to occafion. But here we muft oblerve,
that the fluid has an exiftence in all bodies before the
experiments are tried which make its effects vifible to
us, and is afting in them according to its fettled and
eftabliflied laws. While afting in this manner it is
perfeftly invilible $ and all we can do is, to produce
fome little infringement of thefe regular laws according.
to w’hich it commonly afts. In fome cafes, however,
the eleftrical attraftions produced by art are found to
be pretty permanent and ftrong. Thus, Mr Symmer,
in fome experiments with filk ftockings, found their at-
traftion fo ftrong, that it required upwards of 15 pounds
weight to feparate them from each other \ and this at-
traftion would continue for more than an hour. In
plates of glafs, too, he obferved a remarkable cohe¬
fion when eleftrified. In the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions for 1777, we find this hypothefis taken notice of,
and in fome meafure adopted, by Mr Henley. “ Some
gentlemen (fays he) have fuppofed that the eleftric mat¬
ter is the caufe of the cohefion of the particles of bo¬
dies. If the eleftric matter be, as I fufpeft, a real
elementary fire inherent in all bodies, that opinion
may probably be well founded ; and perhaps the fol-
dering of metals, and the cementation of iron, by fire,
may be confidered as ftrong proofs of the truth of their
hypothefis.”
On this laft hypothefis we muft obferve, that if the
eleftric, or any other fluid, is fuppofed to be the caufe
of the attraftion of cohefion univerfally, the particles
of that fluid muft be deftitute of all cohefion between
themfelves; otherwife we Ihould be at as great a lofs
to account for the cohefion of thefe particles, as for
that of terreftrial matter. Philofophers, indeed, do not
fuppofe any cohefion between the particles c,f the elec¬
tric fluid themfelves •, it is generally believed that the
particles of this fluid are repulfive of one another, though
attrafted by all other matter. If this is a faft, we
cannot fuppofe the eleftric fluid to be the caufe of co¬
hefion. The probability or impiobability of the hy¬
pothefis juft mentioned, muft greatly depend on its be-
l i Z ing
C O I [ 252 ] G O I
Coholiation ing afcertamcd whether the particles of the eleftric
. ii fluid do really repel one another, and attraft all other
'Coimbra. ^ j, jn(js Qf TOatt:er, or not; but for this we muft refer to
the article Electricity.
COHOBATION, in Chemiftry, an operation by
which the fame liquor is frequently diftilled from the
fame body, either with an intention to diflblve this
body, or to produce fome change upon it. This is one
of thofe operations which the ancient chemifts prac-
tifed with great patience and zeal, but which is now
neglefled. To make the operation eafier, and to pre¬
vent the trouble of frequently changing the veffels, a
particular kind of alembic, called a pelican, was in¬
vented. This veflel was made in the form of a cucur¬
bit with an alembic-head, but had two fpouts commu¬
nicating with the body. As the vapour rofe up into
the head, it was gradually condenfed, and ran down
the fpouts into the body of the pelican from whence it
was again diftilled j and fo on.
COHORN (N.) the greateft engineer Holland has
produced. Among his other works, which are efteem-
ed mafterpieces of fkill, he fortified Bergen-op-zoom j
which, to the furprife of all Europe, was taken by the
French in 1747 j but that, it is believed, wTas the ef-
feft of treachery. He wrote a treatife on fortification,
and died in 1704.
COHORT, in Roman antiquity, the name of part
of the Roman legion, comprehending about 600 men.
There w’ere ten cohorts in a legion, the firft of w'hich
exceeded all the reft both in dignity and number of
men. When the army was ranged in order of battle,
the firft cohort took up the right of the firft line j
the reft followed in their natural ordei } fo that the
third was in the centre of the firft line of the legion,
and the fifth on the left ; the fecond between the firft
and third ; and the fourth between the third and fifth :
the five remaining cohorts formed a fecond line in their
natural order.
COIF, the badge of a fergeant at law, who is
called fergeant of the coif, from the lawm coif they
wear under their caps w'hen they are created fer-
geants.
The chief ufe of the coif was to cover the clerical
tonfure. See Tonsure.
COILING, on ftiipboard, implies a fort of ferpen-
tine winding of a cable or other rope, that it may oc¬
cupy a fmall fpace in the (hip. Each of the wind¬
ings of this fort is called a fahe; and one range of
fakes upon the fame line is called a tier. There are
generally from five to ieven fakes in a tier •, and three
or four tiers in the wdiole length of . the cable. This,
however, depends on the extent of the fakes. The
fmaller ropes employed about the fails are coiled upon
cleats at fea, to prevent their being entangled amongft
one another in traverfing, contra&ing, or extending
the fails.
COILON, in the ancient Grecian theatres, the
fame with the cavea of the Romans.
COIMBRA, a handfome, large, and celebrated
town of Portugal, capital of the province of Beira,
with a biftiop’s fee, and a famous univerfity. The
cathedral and the fountains are very magnificent. It
is feated in a very pleafant country abounding in vine¬
yards, olive-trees, and fruits. It Hands on a mountain,
by the fide of the river Mondego. W. Long. 8. 17. Coin.
N. Lat. 40. 12. v—-y—
COIN, a piece of metal converted into money by the
impreflion of certain marks or figures thereon.
Coin differs from Money as the fpecies from the
genus. Money is any matter, whether metal, wood,
leather, glafs, horn, paper, fruits, (hells, or kernels,
which have currency as a medium in Commerce. Coin
is a particular fpecies, always made of metal, andftruck
according to a certain procefs called Coining.
The precife epocha of the invention of money is too
ancient for our annals ; and, if we might argue from
the neceflity and obvioufnefs of the thing, muft be
nearly coeval with the wTorld.
Whether coins be of equal antiquity, may admit of
fome doubt j efpecially as moft of the ancient writers
are fo frequent and exprefs in their mention of leathern-
moneys, paper-moneys, wooden-moneys, &c. Some,
however, notwithftanding this, are of opinion, that
the firft moneys were of metal: the reafons they give,
are the firmnefs, neatnefs, cleannefs, durablenefs, and
univerfality of metals 5 which, however, do rather con¬
clude they ought to have been fo, than that they actu¬
ally were fo.
In effeft, the very commodities themfelves were-
the firft moneys, i. e. w'ere current for one another
by way of exchange ; and it was the difficulty of cut¬
ting or dividing certain commodities, and the impof-
fibility of doing it rvithout great lofs, that firft put men
on the expedient of a general medium. See Ex¬
change. •
Indeed, thus much may be faid in behalf of coins,
that, on this view, it was natural for men to have their
firft recourfe to metals, as being almoft the only things
whofe goodnefs, and as it were integrity, is not dimi-
nilhed by partition ; befides the advantages above ex-
preffed, and the conveniences of melting and returning
them into- a mafs of any fize or weight.
It was probably, then, this property of metals which
firft accuftomed people, who traded together, to ac¬
count them in lieu of quantities of other meichandifes
in their exchanges, and at length to fubftitute them
wholly in their (lead ; and thus arofe money ; as it
was their other property to preferve any mark or im¬
preflion a long time, which confirmed them in the
right j and thus was the firft rife of coins.
In the firft ages, each perfon cut his metal into
pieces of different fizes and forms, according to the
quantity to be given for any merchandife, or accord¬
ing to the demand of the feller, or the quantity ftipu-
lated between them. To this end they went to mar¬
ket loaded with metal in proportion to the purchafe
to be made, and furniftied with inftruments for por¬
tioning it, and feales for dealing it out, according as
occafion required. By degrees, it was found more
commodious to have pieces ready weighed ; and as
there were different weights required according to the
value of the different wares, all thofe of the fame weight
began to be diftinguiftied wfith the fame mark or figure:
thus were coins carried one ftep further. At length
the growing commerce of money beginning to be di-
fturbed with frauds, both in the weights and the mat¬
ter, the public authority interpofed •, and hence the
firft ftamps or impreflions of money j to which fucceed-
C O I [253
ed the names of the moniers; and at length the effigy
of the prince, the date, legend, and other precautions
to prevent the alterations of the fpecies ; and thus were
coins completed.
Modern Coins. In England the current fpecies of
gold are the guinea, half-guinea, feven-fhillings piece,
Jacobus, laureat, angel, and rofe-noble 5 the four lalt
of which are now feldom to be met with j having been
moil of them converted into guineas, chiefly during the
reign of Charles II. and James II. The filver coins
are the crown, half-crown, (hilling, and fixpence. Cop¬
per coins are the farthing, half-penny, penny and two¬
penny pieces.
In Scotland, by the articles of the Union, it is ap¬
pointed that all the coins be reduced to the Englifh,
and the fame accounts obferved throughout. Till then
the Scots had their pounds, (hillings, and pence, as in
England •, but their pound was but 20 pence Englifli,
and! the others in proportion: accordingly, their merk
was 13^-5. Scots, current in England at 134-d.J their
noble in proportion. Befrdes thefe they had their tur-
norer-pence and half-pence •, their penny ^ of that of
England: befides bafe money of achifons, babees, and
placks. The bodle -g- of the penny, of the achifon,
\ of the babee, and 4- °I pipk¬
in Ireland, the coins are as in England, viz. dril¬
lings, pence, &c. with this difference, that their (hil¬
ling is but equal to 1 i^od. (telling: whence their
pound is only 18s. 5^*
But, for a view of all the coins prefently current
in the four quarters of the globe, with thr-ir values
and proportions, (ee the table fubjoined to the article
Money.
In many places flrells are current for coins •, particu¬
larly 3 fmall white kind dug out of the ground in the
Maldives, and fome parts of America, called in the In¬
dies cowries, as coris, on the coaft of Africa io/zgej-, and
in Ascwricn.porce/cnnes; of which it takes a vaft number
to be equivalent in value to a penny. Of zimbis, an¬
other kind of (hell current, particularly in the kingdoms
of Angolo and Congo, two thoufand make what the ne¬
groes call a macoute, which is no real money ; for of this
thereis none in this part of Africa, but a manner of reck¬
oning: thus, two Flemilh knives they efteem a macoutej
a copper bafon two pounds weight, and 12 inches dia¬
meter, they reckon three macoutes; a fufee 10, &c.
In fome places fruits are current for coins. Of thefe
there are three forts ufed •, two in America, particu¬
larly among the Mexicans, which are the cacao and
maize; the other in the Eaft Indies, viz. almonds
brought thither from Ear, and growing in the defects of
Arabia. Of cacao 15 are efteemed equivalent to a Spa-
nidi rial, or feven pence derling. Maize has ceafed to
be a common money fince the difcovery of America by
the Europeans. Almonds are chiefly ufed where the
cowries are not current. As the year proves more or
lefs favourable to this fruit, the value of the money is
higher or lower. In a common year 40 almod are fet
againft a pefcha, or halfpenny flerling ; which brings
each almond to ^ of a farthing.
Ancient Coins are thofe chiefly which have been
current among the Jews, Greeks and Romans. Their
values and proportions are as follow :
Gerali
c o
JEWISH.
derl. /.
o
1200
60000
Becah
d.
Coin.
120
600c
Shekel
Maneh
5°
Mina hebraica
}
T S ’
t TcTo
2|
5 H
3000; 60[Talent
Solidus aureus, or iextula, worth
Siculus aureus, worth
A talent of gold, worth
342
o
1
5475
3
12
16
GRECIAN.
Lepton
>7!Chalcus
H
28
561
2jDichalcus
2 Hemiobolum
Obolus
fter. s. d.
O o
o o
1 1 2
6fl2
I324
1660
16
11
48
16
1±\:
o o
O I
qrs.
°ttV
1- TT
2- fS
96
r 12
384
48
9b
120
11
48 2.
60 30
Diobolum - 022
Tetrobolum o 5
Drachma o 7
2 Didrachmon 1 3
4 2|Tetrardflat.2 7
1574 5 2 4[ 14;] Pent rad. 3 2
T
°T
3
2
d.
Note : Of thefe the drachma, didrachma, &c. were of
filver, the red for the mod part of brafs. The other
parts, as tridrachm, tribolus, &c. were fomttimes
coined.
Note alfo : The drachma is here, with the generality
of authors, fuppofed equal to the denarius $ though
there is reafon to believe that the drachma was fome-
what the weightier. See Drachma and Denari¬
us.
der. /.
The Grecian gold coin was the daterj
aureus, weighing two Attic drachms, |
or half of the dater argenteus, and ex¬
changing ufually for 25 Attic drachms of
filver in our money.
According to our proportion of gold
to filver -
There were likewife the dater cyzice-
nus, exchanging for 28 attic drachms, or
Stater Philippicus, and dater Alexandri-
nus, of the fame value.
Stater daricus, according to Jofephus,
worth 50 attic drachms, or
Stater croefius, of the fame value.
o 16
o 18
'}
1 12
3*
ROMAN.
der.
d.
Teruncius
2jS“milibella
iLibellal
1 As J
c 2,
2010 5
40,20,10 4
Sedertius
Quinarius 1
Vifloriatus j
2|Denarius
qrs.
n 7 7 *
0rooi'
3l
3 3t
7 3
Note
J
[ 454 ]
Colo,
Coinage.
}
/.
d.
i 4
109
O 12 II
> O
l6
C O I
Note: Of thefe the denarius, vi&oriatus, feftertius,
and fometimes the as, were of filver, the reft of brafs.
See As, &c.
There were fometimes alfo coined of brafs the triens,
fextans, uncia, fextula, and dupondius.
The Roman gold coin was the aureus,
which weighed generally double the dena¬
rius ) the value of which according to the
firft proportion of coinage, mentioned by
Pliny, was
According to the proportion that ob¬
tains now amongft us, worth ^
According to the decuple proportion,'!
mentioned by Livy and Julius Pollux,
worth
According to the proportion mention--
ed by Tacitus, and which afterwards ob¬
tained, whereby the aureus exchanged for
25 denarii, its value.
Coin, in Architetturc, a kind of dye cut diagonal¬
ly, after the manner of a flight of a ftaircafe, fer-
ving at bottom to fupport columns in a level, and at
top to corredt the inclination of an entablature fuppcrt-
ing a vault. . \
Coin is alfo ufed for a folid angle compofed of two
furfaces inclined towards each other, whether that
angle be exterior, as the coin of a wall, a tree, &c. or
interior, as the coin of a chamber or chimney. See
Quoin.
COINAGE, or Coining, the art of making mo¬
ney, as performed either by the hammer or mill.
Formerly the fabric of coins was different from
what it is at prefent. They cut a large plate of metal
into feveral little fquares, the corners of which were
cut off with fciffars. After having fliaped thefe pieces,
lo as to render them perfectly conformable, in point
of weight, to the ftandard piece, they took ?ach piece
in hand again, to make it exadfly round by a gentle
hammering. This was called a planchet, and was fit
for immediate coining. Then engravers prepared, as
they ftill do, a couple of fteel maffes in form of dyes,
cut and terminated by a flatfurface, rounded off at the
edges. They engraved or ftamped on it the hollow of
a head, a crofs, a fcutcheon, or any other figure, ac¬
cording to the cuftom of the times, with a ftiort le¬
gend. As one of thefe dyes was to remain dormant,
and the other moveable, the former ended in a fquare
prifm, that it might be introduced into the fquare hole
of the block, which, being fixed very fail, kept the
dye as fteady as any vice could have done. The plan¬
chet of metal was horizontally laid upon this inferior
mafs, to receive the ftamp of it on one fide, and that
of the upper dye, wherewith it was covered, on the
other. This moveable dye, having its round engraved
furface refting upon the planchet, had at its oppofite
extremity a flat fquare, and larger furface, upon which
they gave feveral heavy blows, with a hammer of an
enormous fize, till the double flamp was fufficiently,
in relievo, impreffed on each fide of the planchet.
This being finifhed, was immediately fucceeded by
another, and they thus became a ftandard coin, which
had the degree of finenefs of the weight and mark de¬
termined by the judgment of the infpedlors, to make it
good current money $ the ftrong tempering which
c o 1
was and is ftill given to the two dyes, rendering them Coinage,
capable of bearing thofe repeated blows. Coining has v""1"7
been coufiderably improved and rendered expeditious,
by feveral ingenious machines, and by a wife applica¬
tion of the fureft phyfical experiments to the methods
of fining, dyeing, and ftamping the different metals.
The three fineft inftruments the mint-man ufes, are
the laminating engine •, the machine for making the
impreflions on the edges of coins) and the mill.
After they have taken the laminae, or plates of me¬
tal, out of the mould into which they are caft, they
do not beat them on the anvil, as was formerly done,
but make them pafs and fepafs between the fe¬
veral rollers of the laminating engine, which being
gradually brought clofer and clofer to each other, pre-
fently give the lamiua its uniform and exaft thicknefs,
Inftead of dividing the lamina into fmall fquares, they
at once cut clean out of it as many planchets as it can
contain, by means of a (harp fteel trepan, of a roun-
di(h figure, hollow within, and of a proportionable
diameter, to Ihape and cut off the piece at one and the
fame time. After thofe planchets have been prepared
and weighed with ftandard pieces, filed or feraped to
get off the faperfluous part of the metal, and then
boiled and made clean, they arrive, at laft, at the ma¬
chine (fig. 1.), which marks them upon the edge;
and finally, the mill (fig. 2.), which, fquedzing each Plate Cl,
of them fingly between the two dyes, brought near
each other with one blow, forces the two furfaces or
fields of the piece to fill exa£tly all the vacancies of the
two figures engraved hollow. The engine which ferves
to laminate lead, gives a fufficient notion of that which
ferves to flatten gold and filver laminae .between rollers
of a leffer fize.
The principal pieces of the machine (fig. 1.), to
ftamp coins on the edge, are two fteel lamiuse, about
a line thick. One half of the legend, or of the ring,
is engraved on the thicknefs of one of the laminae,
and the other half on the thicknefs of the other ; and
thefe two laminae are ftraight, although the planchet
marked with them be circular.
When they ftamp a planchet, they firft put it be¬
tween the laminae in fuch a manner, as that thefe be¬
ing each of them laid flat upon a copperplate, which
is faftened upon a very thick wooden table, and the
planchet being likewife laid flat upon the lame plate,
the edge of the planchet may touch the two laminae
on each fide, and in their thick part.
One of thefe laminae is immoveable, and faftened
with feveral ferews ; the other Hides by means of a
dented wheel, which takes into the teeth that are on
the furface of the lamina. This Hiding lamina makes
the planchet turn in fuch a manner, that it remains
ftamped on the edge, when it has made one turn. On¬
ly crown and half-crown pieces can bear the impreflion
of letters on the thicknefs of their edges.
The coining engine or mill is fo fitted for defpatch
(fig. 2.), that a fingle mah may ftamp 20,000 planch¬
ets in one day : gold, filver, and copper plan diets, are
all of them coined with a mill, to which the coining
fquares (fig. 3.), commonly called dyes are faftened ;
that of the" face under, in a fquare box furniftied with
male and female ferews, to fix and keep k fteady ; and
the other above, in a little box garniihed with the
fame ferews, to faften the coining fquare. The plan¬
chet
C O I [
Coinage, diet is laid flat on the fquare of the effigy, which is
dormant and they immediately pull the bar of the
mill by its cords, which caufes the fcrew fet within it
to turn. This enters into the female fcrew, which is
in the body of the mill, and turns with fo much ftrength,
that by pulling the upper fquare upon that of the effi¬
gy, the planchet, violently prefled between both fquares,
receives the impreffion ot both at one pull, and in the
twinkling of an eye.
The planchet thus ftampt and coined, goes through
a final examination of the mint wardens, from wffiofe
hands it goes into the world.
In the Coining of Medals, the procefs is the fame in
effect with that of money, the principal difference con-
fifting in this, that money having but a fmall relievo,
receives its imprtffion at a fingle ftroke of the engine;
whereas for medals, the height of their relievo makes
it neceffary that the ftroke be repeated feveral times :
to this end the piece is taken out from between the
dyes, heated, and returned again ; which procefs, in
medallions and large medals, is repeated 15 or 20
times before the full impreffion be given : care murt be
taken, every time the planchet is removed, to take off
the fuperfluous metal ftretched beyond the circumfe¬
rence with a file. Medallions, and medals of a high
relievo, are ufually firft caff in fand, by reafon of the
difficulty of ftamping them in the prefs, where they
are put only to perfedf them ; in regard the fand does
not leave them clear, fmooth, and accurate enough.
Therefore we may fee that medals receive their form
and impreffion by degrees, whereas money receives
them all at once.
Britifh Coinage, both by the beauty of the engra¬
ving, and by the invention of the impreffions on the
edges, that admirable expedient for preventing the al¬
teration of the fpecies, is carried to the utmoft perfec¬
tion.
It was only in the reign of King William III. that
the hammer-money ceafed to be current in England,
where till then it was ftruck in that manner, as in
other nations. Before the hammer fpecie w’as called
in, the Englifh money was in a wretched condition,
having been filed and clipped by natives as well as fo¬
reigners, infomuch that it was fcarce left of half the
value : the retrieving this diftreffed ftate of the Eng-
liffi money is looked upon as one of the glories of King
William’s reign.
The Britiffi coinage is now wholly performed in the
Tower of London, where there is a corporation for
it, under the title of the mint. Formerly there were
here, as there are ftill in other countries, the rights of
fcinorage and braffage , but fince the eighteenth year
of King Charles II. there is nothing taken either for
the king or for the expences of coining ; lo that wTeight
is returned for weight to any perfon who carries their
gold and filver to the Tower.
The fpecies coined in Great Britain are efteemed
contraband goods, and not to be exported. All fo¬
reign fpecies are allowed to be fent out of the realm,
as well as gold and filver in bars, ingots, duft, &c.
.Barbary Coinage, particularly that of Fez and Tu¬
nis, is under no proper regulations, as every goldfmith,
Jew, or even private perfon, undertakes it at pleafure ;
wffiich praffice renders their money exceedingly bad,
and their commerce very unfafe.
tfs *J
Mufcovile Coinage.
coin ftruck but filver,
Mofcow, Novogorod,
Coke.
C O K
In Mufcovy there is no other Coinage
and that only in the cities of
Twere, and Plefkow, to wffiich u
may be added Peterlburgh. The coinage of each of
tffiefe cities is let out to farm, and makes part of the
royal revenue.
Ferfian Coinage. All the money made in Perfia
is ftruck with a hammer, as is that of the reft of Afia ;
and the fame may be underftood of America, and the
coafts of Africa, and even Mufcovy : the king’s duty,
in Perfia, is feven and a half per cent, for all the mo¬
neys coined, which are lately reduced to filver and
copper, there being no gold coin there except a kind
of medals, at the acctffion of a new fophi.
Spanijh Coinage is efteemed one of the leaft perfect
in Europe. It is fettled at ^ Seville and Segovia, the
only cities where gold and filver are ftruck.
GOIRE, or, as the Germans call it, Chur, a large
and handfome town of Switzerland, and capital of the
country of the Grifons, with a bilhop’s fee whofe pre¬
late has the right of coining money. It is divided
into two parts; the leaft of which is of the Roman
Catholic religion, and the greateft of the Proteftant.
It is governed by its own laws, and feated in a plain,
abounding in vineyards and game, on the river Plef-
fure, half a mile from the Rhine. E. Long. 9. 25.
N. Lat. 46. 50.
COITION, the intercourfe between male and fe¬
male in the a6t of generation.
It is obferved that frogs are forty days in the a£f of
coition. Bartholine, &c. relate, that butterflies make
130 vibrations of the wings in one a£l of coition.
COIX, job’s-tears. See Botany Index. In
Spain and Portugal the poor people grind the feeds
of this plant in times of fcarcity, and make a coarfe
kind of bread of them. The feeds are inclofed in
fmall capfules about the bignefs of an Engliffi pea, and
of different colours. Thefe are ftrung upon filk, and
ufed inftead of bracelets by fome of the poorer fort in
the Weft Indies, but efpecially by the negroes.
COKE, or Cooke, Sir Edward, lord chief juftice
of the king’s bench in the reign of James I. was de-
fcended from an ancient family in Norfolk, and born
at Milcham in I 49. When he was a ftudent in the
Inner-Temple, the firft occafion of his diftinguiffiing
himfelf was the ftating the cafe of a cook belonging to
the Temple fo exadfly, that all the houfe, who were
puzzled with it, admired him and his pleading, and the
whole bench took notice of him. After his marriage
with a lady of a' great fortune, preferments flowed in
upon him. The cities of Norwich and Coventry chofe
him for their recorder ; the county of Norfolk, for
one of their knights in parliament ; and the houfe of
commons, for their fpeaker, in the 35th year ol Queen
Elizabeth. The queen appointed him folicitor-general
in 1592, and attorney-general the next year. In
1603, he was knighted by King James I. ; and in No¬
vember the fame year, upon the trial ot Sir Walter
Raleigh, &c. at Winchefter, he treated that gentle¬
man with a fcurrility of language hardly to be paral¬
leled. June 27. he was appointed lord chief juftice
of the common pleas; and in 1613, lord chief juftice
of the king’s bench, and fworn one of the privy coun¬
cil. In 1615, he was very vigorous in the difcovery
and profecution of the perfons employed in poifoning
Sic
CokenhaU'
fen
I!
Colbert.
COL
Sir Thomas Overbury in the Tower in 1612.
conteft not long after with the lord chancellor Egerton,
with fome other cafes, haliened the ruin of his inte-
; reft at court .; fo that he was fequeftered from the
.council-table and the office of lord chief juftice. In
1621, he vigoroufly maintained in the houle of com¬
mons, that no proclamation is of any force againft the
parliament. The fame year, being looked -upon as
one of the great incendiaries in the houfe of commons,
he tvas removed from the council of ftate with dif-
grace ; the king faying, that “ he was the fitteft in-
ftrument for a tyrant that ever was in England he
was alfo committed to the Tower, and his papers were
feized. Upon the calling of a new parliament in
1625, the court-party, to prevent his being elefted a
member, got him appointed ftieriff of Buckingham-
fhire j to avoid the office, if poffible, he drew up. ex¬
ceptions againft the oath ol a Iheriff, but was obliged
to undertake the office. In 1628 he fpoke vigoroully
upon grievances, and made a fpeech, in which he af¬
firmed,"that “ the duke of Buckingham was the caufe
pf all our miferies.” While he lay upon his death¬
bed, his papers and laft will were leized by an order
of council. He died in i634> and pubblhed many
■works : the moft remarkable are his Inftitutes of the
laws pf England ; the firft part of which is only a tranf-
lation and comment of Sir Thomas Littleton, one of
the.chief juftices of the common pleas in the reign of
Edward IV.
COKENHAUSEN, a ftrong town of Livonia in
Ruffia on the river Dwina. E. Long. 25. 50. N.
Lat. 56. 30.
COL, one of the weftern illands of Scotland, which
is annexed to the county of Argyle. It is 13 miles
long, and 9 broad. It abounds in corn, pafture, fal-
mon, eels, and cod. The inhabitants are chiefly em¬
ployed in the fiffieries. W. Long. 7* I5* N. Lat. 57.
COLAPIS, Colops, in Ancient Geography, a ri¬
ver of Liburnia, which after a winding north-eaft
courfe, falls into the Savus, at the Infula Segeftica.
Now the Culpe, the boundary of the . Alps, running
through Croatia into the Save. Colapiani, the people
living on it (Pliny).
COLARBASIANS, or Colorbasians, a fet of
Chriftians in the fecond century ; fo called from their
leader Colarbafus, a difciple of Valentinus ; who., with
Marcus, another difciple of the fame mafter, maintain¬
ed the whole plenitude and perfection of truth and re^
ligion to be contained in the Greek alphabet; and that
it was upon this account that Jefus Chrift was called
the alpha and omega. This ft ft was a branch of the
Valentinians. See alfo Marcosians.
CO LB ERG, a ftrong, handfome fea-port town of
Germany, in Pomerania, belonging to the king of
Piuffia. It is remarkable for its fait works ; and is
feated at the mouth of the river Perfant, on the Baltic
fea, 60 miles north-eaft of Stetin, and 30 north-eaft of
Camin. It w'as taken by the Ruffians in 1761, but
reftored at the fubfequent peace. E. Long. 15* 39*
N. Lat. 54. 21.
COLBERT, John Baptist, marquis of Segnelai,
pne of the greateft ftatefmen that France ever had,
was born at Paris in 1619 » an!^ defcended from a fa¬
mily that lived at Rheims in Champagne, no way
confiderable for its fplendour and antiquity. His
x
256 ] COL
His grandfather is faid to have been a wine merchant, and Colbert-
his father at firft followed the fame occupation ; but' v—
afterwards became clerk to a notary. In 1648, his
relation John Baptift Colbert, lord of S. Pouange, pre¬
ferred him to the fervice of Michael le Tellier, fecre-
tary of ftate, whofe filter he had married 5 and here he
difcovered fuch diligence, and exaftnels in executing
all the commiffions that were entrufted to his care, that
he quickly grew diftinguiffied. One day his mafter
fent him to Cardinal Mazarine, who was then at Se¬
dan, with a letter written by the queen-mother ; and
ordered him it to bring it back, after that minifter had
feen it. Colbert carried the letter, and would not re¬
turn without it, though the cardinal treated him rough¬
ly, ufed feveral arts to deceive him, and obliged him
to wait for it feveral days. Some time after, the car¬
dinal returning to court, and wanting one to write his
agenda or memoranda, defired Le Tellier to furniffi
him with a fit perfon for that employment : and Col¬
bert being prefented to him, the cardinal had fome re¬
membrance of him, and defired to know where he had
feen him. Colbert was afraid of putting him in mind
of Sedan, left the remembrance of his importunacy, in
demanding the queen’s letter, ffiould renew the cardi¬
nal’s anger. But his eminency was fo far from hating
him for his faithfulnefs to his late mafter, that he re¬
ceived him, on condition that he ftiould ierve him with
the like zeal and fidelity.
Colbert applied himfelf wholly to the advancement
of his mafter’s interefts, and gave him fo many marks
of his diligence and ikill, that afterwards he made him
his intendant. He accommodated himfelf fo dexte-
roufly to the inclinations of that minifter, by retrench¬
ing his fuperfluous expences, that he was entrufted
with the management of that gainful trade of felling
benefices and governments. It was by Colbert’s coun-
fel, that the cardinal obliged the governors of frontier
places to maintain their garrifons with the contribu¬
tions they exafted ; with which advice his eminency
wras extremely pleafed. He w'as lent to Rome to ne-
gociate the reconciliation of Cardinal de Rets, for
which the pope had ffiowed fome concern ; and to per-
fuade his holinefs to confent to the difincamerating of .
Cafto, according to the treaty concluded with his pre-
deceffor Urban VIII. Upon the whole, Mazarine, had
lb high an opinion of Colbert’s abilities, and w’ithal
fuch a regard for his faithful fervices, that at his death,
which happened in 1661, he earneftly recommended
him to Louis XIV. as the propereft perfon to regulate
the finances, which at that time flood in much need of
reformation. Louis accepted the recommendation,
and made Colbert intendant of the finances. He ap¬
plied himfelf to their regulation,, and fucceeded,
though it procured him many enemies,, and iome af¬
fronts. France is alfo obliged to this minifter ior efta-
bliftung at that time her trade with the Eaft and Weft
Indies: a great defign, and from which ftie has reaped
innumerable advantages. .
In 1664, he became fuperintendant of the build¬
ings ; and from that time applied himlelf lo e.arneftly to
the enlarging and adorning of the royal edifices, that
they are at prefent fo many mafterpieces. of architec¬
ture : witnefs the palace of the Thuilleries, the Lou¬
vre St Germain, Fountainbleau, and Chambord. As
for Verfailles, it may be faid that he railed it from the
ground.
Colbert.
\
COL [ 257 ] COL
ground. It was formerly a dog-kennel, where Louis
XIII. kept his hunting furniture : it is now a palace
fit for the greateft monarch. But royal palaces were
not Colbert’s only care : he formed feveral defigns for
increafing the beauty and convenience of the capital
city, and he did it with great magnificence and gran¬
deur. The public was obliged to this fame minifter for
the eftablifhment of the academy for painting and fculp-
ture in 1664. The king’s painters and fculptors, with
other Ikilful profeflbrs of thofe arts, being profecuted
at law by the mafter-painters at Paris, joined together,
and began to form a fociety, under the name of the
Royal Academy for Sculpture and Painting. Their
defign was to keep public exercife«, for the fake of
improving thofe fine arts, and advancing them to the
higheft degree of perfeftion. They put themfelves un¬
der the proteflion of Mazarine, and chofe Chancellor
Seguier their vice-prote&or *, and after Mazarine’s
death chofe Seguier their protedlor, and Colbert their
vice-prote&or. It was at his folicitation that they
were finally eftablilhed by a patent, containing new pri¬
vileges, in 1664. Colbert, being made proteftor af¬
ter the death of Seguier, thought fit that a hiftorio-
grapher fhould be appointed, whofe bufinefs it (hould
be to colled! all curious and ufeful obfervations that
might be made at their conferences. This was ac¬
cordingly done; and his majefty was pleafed to fettle
on him a falary of 300 livres. To Colbert alfo the
lovers of naval knowledge are obliged for the ereftion
of the Academy of Sciences, for the making of which
the more ufeful, he caufed to be eredled, in 1667, the
royal obfervatory at Paris, which was firft inhabited
by Caflini. But thefe are not the only obligations
France has to that minifier. She owes to him all the
advantages fhe receives by the union of the two feas j a
prodigious work, begun in 1666 and finilhed in 1680.
Colbert was alfo very intent upon matters of a more
private nature, fuch as regarded the order, decency,
and well-being of fociety. He undertook to reform
the courts of juftice, and to put a flop to the ufurpa-
tion of noble titles, which it feems was then very
common in France. In the former of thefe attempts
he failed, in the latter he fucceeded.
In 1669, he was made fecretary of ftate, and en-
trufted with the management of affairs relating to the
fea ; and his performances in this province were an-
fwerable to the confidence his majefty repofed in him.
He fuppreffed feveral offices, which were chargeable,
but ufelefs j and in the mean time, perceiving the
king’s zeal for the extirpation of herefy, he flmt up
the chamber inftituted by the edifts of Paris and Roan.
He propofed feveral new regulations concerning cri¬
minal courts, and was extremely fevere with the par¬
liament of Tholoufe for obfl:ru£!ing the meafures he
took to carry the fame into execution. His main de¬
fign in reforming the tedious methods of proceeding at
law, was to give the people more leifure to apply them¬
felves to trading; for the advancement of which he
procured an edift, to ereft a general infurance-office
at Paris, for merchants, &c. In 1672, he was made
miniffer of ftate 5 for how bufied foever he was in the
regulation of public affairs, yet he never neglefled his
own or his family’s intereft and grandeur, or miffed any
opportunity of advancing either. He had been mais
Vol. VI. Part I.
ried many years, had fons and daughters grown up,
all of which, as occafion ferved, he took care to marry
to great perfons. For though he had no reafon to
doubt of his mafter’s favour, yet he wifely fecured his
fortune by powerful alliances. However, bufinefs was
certainly Colbert’s natural turn, and he not only loved
it, but was very impatient to be interrupted in it, as
the following anecdote may ferve to (how. A lady of
great quality was one day urging him, when he was in
the height of his power, to do her fome piece of fer-
vice, and perceiving him inattentive and indexible,
threw herfelf at his feet, in the prefence of above 100
perfons, crying, “ I beg your greatnefs, in the name
of God, to grant me this favour.” Upon which Col¬
bert, kneeling down over againft her, replied, in the
fame mournful tone, “ I conjure you, madam, in the
name of God, not to difturb me.”
This great minifter died of the ftone, September 6.
1683, in his 65th year, leaving behind him fix fons
and three daughters. He was of a middle ftature, ra¬
ther lean than fat. His mien was low and dejedled,
his air gloomy, and his afpeft ftern. He flept little,
and was very fober. Though naturally four and mo-
rofe, he knew how to aft the lover, and had miftreffes.
He was of a flow conception, but fpoke judici-
oufly of every thing after he had once comprehended
it. He underftood bufinefs perfeftly well, and he pur-
fued it with unwearied application. Thus he filled
the moft important places with high reputation and
credit; and his influence diffufed itfelf through every
part of the government. He reftored the finances,
the navy, the commerce j and he erefted thofe various
works of art, which have ever fince been monuments
of his tafte and magnificence. He was a lover of
learning, though he never applied to it himfelf; and
therefore conferred donations and penfions upon fcho-
lars in other countries, while he eftabliffied and pro-
tefted academies in his own. He invited into France
painters, ftatuaries, mathematicians, and artifts of all
kinds, who were any way eminent, thus giving new
life to the fciences, and making them flourifti, as they
did, exceedingly. Upon the whole, he was a wife, ac¬
tive, generous-fpirited minifter 3 ever attentive to the
interefts cf his mafter, the happinefs of the people, the
progrefs of arts and manufaftures, and in ftiort to
every thing that could advance the credit and intereft
of his country. He was a pattern for all minifters of
ftate 3 and every nation may with themfelves bleffed
with a Colbert.
COLCHESTER, the chief town of Effex, is plea-
fantly fituated upon an eminence, gradually rifing on
the fouth fide of the river Colne. It is the ancient
Colonia Camulodunum, from which word, Colonia, both
the town and the river Colne received their names.
The Saxons called it Colneceafter. That it flouriftied
under the Romans, feveral buildings full of their bricks,
and innumerable quantities of coin dug in and about
it, fully evince. In the year 1763, a curious teffel-
lated or mofaic pavement was found in a garden three
feet under the fuvface of the earth. The emperor
Conftantine the Great w'as born here, his mother He¬
len being daughter of Cool, governor or king of this
diftrift under the Romans. She is faid to have found
out the crofs of Chrift at Jerufalem j and on that ac-
K k count
Colbert,
Colchefter.
COL
[ 258 1
COL
eJdMlta count the firms of this town are a erofs regalee between
I! three ducal coronets, two in chief and one in bate,
Colchis. the coronet in bafe paffing through the crofs.
V —' xhe walls of the town are Hill tolerably entire on
the fouth, eaft, and weft fides, but much decayed on
the north fide; they are generally about nine feet
thick. By a llatute of Henry VIII. this town was
made the fee of a fuffragan biftiop.
This town is the moft noted in England for making
of baize ; it is alfo of fpecial note for candying the
eringo roots, and for oyfters..
In the conclufion of the civil w7ar 1648, this town
fuftained a fevere fiege of 10 weeks; and the befieged
making a very gallant defence, it was changed into a
blockade, wherein the garrifon and inhabitants lutter-
ed the utmoft extremity of hunger, being reduced to
the neceflity of eating horfe flefh, dogs, and. cats, and
were at laft obliged to furrender at difcretion, when
their two valiant chief officers, Sir Charles Lucas, and
Sir George Lifte, were (hot under the caftle walls in
cold blood. Colchefter is a borough by prefcription,
and under that right fends two members to parliament,
all their charters being filent on that head. The
charter was renewed in 1763. The town is now go¬
verned by a mayor, recorder, iz aldermen, .18 alhi-
tants, 18 common-council men. Quarter feffions are
held here four times in the year.
The famous abbey gate of St John is ftill ftandmg,
and allowed to be a furprifing, curious, and beautiful
» piece of Gothic architedure, great numbers of per-
fons coming from diftant places to fee it. It was
built, together with the abbey, in 1097 ; and Gudo,
fteward to King William Rufus, laid the firft ftone.
St Ann’s chapel, Handing at the eaft end of the
town, is valuable in the efteem of antiquarians as a
building of great note in the early days of Chriftian-
ity, and made no fmall figure in hiftory many cen¬
turies paft. It is ftill pretty entire. St Botoph’s
priory was founded by Ernulphus, in the reign of
Henry I. in the year 1110. It was demoliflied in the
wars of Charles I. by the parliament army under Sir
Thomas Fairfax. The ruins ftill exhibit a beautiful
fketch of ancient mafonry, much admired by the
lovers of antiquities. The caftle is ftill pretty entire,
and is a magnificent ftruaure, in which great improve¬
ments have of late been made. Here is an excellent
and valuable library.
The markets, which are on Wednefday and Satur¬
day, are very well fupplied with all kinds , of provi-
fions. There are no fewer than fix. diffenting meet-
ing-houfes in this town. Colchefter is 31 miles from
London, and 22 ENE of Chelmsford. It had 16
parilh churches, in and out of the walls, only 12 of
which are now ufed, the reft being damaged at the
fiege in 1648. E. Long. ‘I. o. N. Lat. 51, 55*
COLCHI (Arrian, Ptolemy), a town of the Hi¬
ther India, thought to be Cochin, on the coaft of Ma¬
labar ; now a faftory and ftrong fort of the Dutch.
E. Long. 75* N. Lat. IO. O.
COLCHICUM, MEADOW-SAFFRON. See BOTANY
Jftdcoc %
COLCHIS, a country of Afia, at the fouth of
Afiatic Sarmatia, eaft of the Euxine fea, north of Ar¬
menia, and weft of Iberia. It is famous for the expe¬
dition of the Argonauts, and as the birth-place of Me¬
dea. It was fruitful in poifonous herbs, and produced Colcotliar,
excellent flax. The inhabitants were originally Egyp- , Cold- ,
tians, who fettled there when Sefoftris king of Egypt
extended his conquefts in the north.
COLCOTHAR, the fubftance remaining after the
diftillation or calcination of martial vitriol or fulphate
of iron. See Chemistry Index.
COLD, in a relative fenfe, fignifies the fenfation
produced by the abftraftion of heat fiom the body..
The nature of cold, and the methods of producing
it artificially, have been treated of under the article
Chemistry, to which we refer the reader.
Great degrees of cold occur naturally in many parts
of the globe in the winter-time. In the winter of
1780, Mr Wilfon of Glafgow obferved, that a thete
mometer laid on the fnow funk to 250 below o ; but
this was only for a ffiort time ; and in general our at-
mofphere does not admit of very great degrees of cold
for any length of time. In I7S“» thermometer at
Peterfburg Hood at 28“ below o *, and in 1737, when
the French academicians wintered at the north polar
circle, or near it, the thermometer funk to .33° below
o ; and in the Afiatic and American continent, ftill
greater degrees of cold are very common.
The effects of thefe extreme degrees of cold are
very furprifing. Trees are burft, rocks rent, and ri¬
vers and lakes frozen feveral feet deep ; metallic fub-
ftances blifter the {kin like red-hot iron: the air, when
drawm in by refpiration, hurts the lungs, and excites a
cough : even the effe&s of fire in a great meafure
feem to ceafe ; and it is obferved, that though metals
are kept for a confiderable time before a ftrong fire,
they will ftill freeze water when thrown upon them.
When the French mathematicians wintered at Torneo
in Lapland, the external air, when fuddenly admitted
into their rooms, converted the moifture of the air
into whirls of fnow, their breafts feemed to be
rent when they breathed it, and the contaft of it
was intolerable to their bodies ; and the alcohol,
which had not been highly redified, burft fome of
their thermometers by the congelation of the aqueous
part. ....
Extreme cold very often proves fatal to animals m
thofe countries where the winters are very fevere ; and
thus 7000 Swedes perifhed at once in attempting to
pafs the mountains which divide Norway from Sweden.
It is not neceffary, indeed, that the cold, in order to
prove fatal to the human life, ffiould be fo very intenfe
as has been juft mentioned. There is only requifite a
degree fomewhat below 320 of hahrenheit, accompa¬
nied with fnow or hail, from wffiich ffielter cannot be
obtained. The fnow which falls upon the clothes, or
the uncovered parts of the body, then melts, and by
a continual evaporation carries off the animal heat to
fuch a degree, that a fufficient quantity is not left for
the fupport of life. In fuch cafes, the perfon firft feels
himfelf extremely chill and uneafy ; he begins to turn
liftlefs, unwilling to walk or ufe exercife to keep him-
felf warm ; and at laft turns drowfy, fits down to re-
freffi himfelf with fleep, but wakes no more. An m-
ftance of this was feen not many years ago at Terra
del Fuego, where Dr Solander, with fome others, ha¬
ving taken an excurfion up the country, the cold was
fo intenfe, that one of their number died. The Doc¬
tor himfelf, though he had warned his companions ot
COL
[ 2S9 ]
COL
Cold
II
Cold-finch
tlie danger of fleeping in that lituation, yet could not
be prevented from making that dangerous experiment
himfelf; and though he was awaked with all poflible
expedition, his body was fo much Ihrunk in bulk, that
his (hoes fell off his feet, and it was with the utmoft
difficulty that he was recovered.
In thofe parts of the world where vaft maffes of ice
are produced, the accumulation of it, by abforbing the
heat of the atmofphere, occafions an abfolute fterility
in the adjacent countries, as is particularly the cale
with the ifland of Iceland, where the vail colleftions
of ice floating out from the Northern ocean, and
flopped on that coaff, are fometimes feveral years in
thawing. Indeed, where great quantities of ice are
colle&ed, it would feem to have a power like fire,
both augmenting its own cold and that of the adja¬
cent bodies. An inftance of this is related under the
article Evaporation, in Mr Wedgewood’s experi¬
ment, where the true caufe of this phenomenon is allb
pointed out.
Cold, in Medicine. See Medicine Index.
Cold. See Farriery Index.
COLDENIA. See Botany Index.
COLDINGHAM, fuppofed to be the Coloma'oi
Ptolemy, and called by Bede the city Coldana and of
Colud (Coludum), fituated on the borders of Scot¬
land, about two miles from Eyemouth, was a place
famous many ages ago for its convent. This was the
oldeft nunnery in Scotland, for here the virgin-wife
Etheklreda took the veil in 670 ; but by the ancient
name Coludum it (liould feem that it had before been
inhabited by the religious called Culdees. In 870 it
was deftroyed by the Danes, but its name rendered
immortal by the heroifm of its nuns 5 who, to pre-
ferve themfelves inviolate from thofe invaders, cut off
their lips and nofes; and thus rendering themfelves
objefts of horror, were, with their abbefs Ebba, burnt
in the monaftery by the difappointed favages. After
this it lay deferted till the year 1098, when King
Edgar founded on its fite a priory of Benedi&ines in
honour of St Cuthbert, and beftowed it on the monks
of Durham.
Mr Pennant’s defcription of the black, joylefs,
heathy moor, where it was fituated, might be fufficient
to guard the fair inhabitants of the nunnery were it
flill fubfifling. That defcription, however, is now al¬
together inapplicable ; The whole traft, five miles
over, has been fince improved, and converted into
corn fields; the cheerlefs village of Old Cambus is no
more ; a decent inn. with good accommodations has
been eftabliflied at a convenient diftance*, and the paf-
fage of the deep glen called the Peafe, which termi¬
nates the moor on the road towards Edinburgh, and
was formerly the terror of travellers, is now rendered
fafe and eafy by means of a bridge extending from one
fide of the chafm to the other.
COLDINGUEN, a town of Denmark, in North
Jutland, and diocefe of Ripen. It is remarkable for
its bridge, over which pals all the oxen and other
cattle that go from Jutland into Germany, which brings
in a confiderable revenue to the king. It is feated on
an eminence, in a pleafant country abounding with
game. E. Long. 9, 25. N. Lat. 55. 35.
COLD-finch, a fpecies of Motacilla. See Or¬
nithology Index.
COLD-SHIRE iron, that which is brittle when CoM-fhire
cold. _ Colcra'" -*
COLE, William, the mod famous botanid of his, x
time, was born at Adderbury in Oxforddrire about
the year 1626, and dudied at Merton college in Ox¬
ford. He at length removed to Putney, near Lon¬
don j and publidied “ The Art of Simpling ; and A-
dam in Eden, or Nature’s Paradife.” Upon the re-
ftdration of King Charles II. he wras made fecretary
to Dr Duppa, bifliop of Wincheder j but died two
years after, aged 37.
COLE-fish, a fpecies of Gadus. See Ichthyo¬
logy Index.
CoLS-Seed, the feed of the nnfius fativa, or long-
rooted, narrow’-leaved rapa, called in Englidr navew,
and reckoned by Linnaeus among the brafficas, or cab¬
bage kind. See Brassica.
This plant is cultivated to great advantage in many
parts of England, on account of the rape oil expreffed
from its feeds. The practice of fowing it was firft
introduced by the Germans and Dutchmen who drain¬
ed the fens * of Lincolnflrire •, and hence the notion
hath generally prevailed, that it will thrive only in a
marffiy foil j but this is now found to be a midake. In
preparing the land which is to receive it, care mull
be taken to plow it in May, and again about mid-
fummer, making the ground as fine and even as pof-
fible. It is to be fown the very day of the lad plow¬
ing, about a gallon on an acre. In the months of Ja¬
nuary, February, and March, it affords very good food
for cattle, and will fprout again when cutj after rvhich
it is excellent nouriffiment for flreep. After all, if it
is not too clofely fed, it will bear feed agair.d next
July. The fame caution, however, is requifite with
this food as with clover, till cattle are accudomed to
it, otherwife it is apt to fwell them. When this plant
is cultivated folely with a view to the feed, it mud
be fown on deep drong land without dung, and mud
be fuffered to dand till one-half of the feeds at lead
are turned brown •, which, according to the feafons,
will be fometimes fooner, fometimes later. In this date
it is to be cut in the fame manner and with the fame
care as wheat j and every handful as it is cut is to be
regularly ranged on flreets, that it may dry leifurely
in" the fun, which will commonly be in a fortnight
after which it is to be carefully thredied out, and car¬
ried to the mill for exprefling the oil. The produce
of cole-feed '.is generally from five to eight quar¬
ters on an acre j and is commonly fold at 20s. per
quarter.
COLEOPTERA, or beetle, the name of Lin-
nmus’s fird order of infers. See Entomology Index.
COLEWORT. See Brassica.
COLERA1N, a large town of Ireland, in the
county of Londonderry and province of Ulder ; feated
on the river Bann, four miles fouth of the ocean, in
W. Long. 7. 2. N. Lat. 55. 10. It was formerly a
place of great confideration, being the chief town of a
county ere&ed by Sir John Perrot, during his govern¬
ment of Ireland $ whereas it is now only the head of
one of the baronies in the county of Londonderry j
but it is dill a corporation, and fends two members
to parliament. It is of a tolerable fize, and very ele¬
gantly built. The port is very indifferent, occafioned
by the extreme raoidity of the river, which repels the
* Kk2 *ide,
Coles,
Colet.
COL [ 260
tide, and makes the coming up to the town difficult j
fo that it has but little trade, and might perhaps have
lefs, if it was not for the valuable falmon-fiffiery, which
amounts to fome thoufand pounds a-year. If the na¬
vigation of the Bann could be opened, which is total¬
ly obftrufted by a ridge of rocks, it would quickly
change the face of things ; for then, by the help of
this river, and the Newry canal, there would be a di-
reft communication acrofs the kingdom, and, with the
affiftance of the Black-water river, which likewife falls
into Lough Neagh, almoft all the counties of the pro¬
vince of Ulfter might have a correfpondence with each
other by water-carriage, to their reciprocal and very
great emolument.
COLES, Elisha, author of the well known Latin
and Englifh di&ionary, was born in Northamptonffiire
about the year 1640 and was entered of Magdalene
College Oxford, which he left without taking a de¬
gree; and taught Latin to young people, and Engliffi
to foreigners, in London, about the year 1663- He
afterwards became an uffier in Merchant-taylors fchool ;
but for fome great fault, nowhere exprefsly mention¬
ed, he was forced to withdraw to Ireland, whence he
never returned. He w>as, however, a good critic in
the Engliffi and Latin tongues ; and wrote feveral ufe-
ful books of inftruftion in his profeffion.
COLET, John, dean of St Paul’s, thefonofHen-
ry Colet knight, was born in London in the year 1466.
His education began in St Anthony’s fchool in that
city, from whence, in 1483, he was fent to Oxford,
and probably to Magdalene college. After feven years
lludy of logic and philofophy, he took his degrees in
arts. About the year 1493, Mr Colet went to Paris,
and thence to Italy, probably with a defign to improve
himfelf in the Greek and Latin languages, which at
this time were imperfeclly taught in our univerfities.
On his return to England in 1497, he took orders; and
returned to Oxford, where he read leftures gratis, on
the epiftles of St Paul. At this time he pofieffed the
reftory of St Dennington in Suffolk, to which he had
been inftituted at the age of J9. He was alfo pre¬
bendary of York, and canon of St Martin’s le Grand
in London. In 1502 he became prebendary of Sarum;
prebendary of St Paul’s in 1505 ; and immediately af¬
ter dean of that cathedral, having previoufly taken
the degree of doctor of divinity. He was no fooner
raifed to this dignity, than he introduced the practice
of preaching and expfiunding the feriptures ; and foon
after eftabliffied a perpetual divinity lefture in St Paul’s
church, three days in every week; an inftitution which
gradually made wayTor the reformation. About the
year 1508, Dean Colet formed his plan for the foun¬
dation of St Paul’s fchool, which he completed in 15 12,
and endowed with ertates to the amount of 122I. and
upwards. The celebrated grammarian, William Lyle,
was his firft mafter, and the company of mercers were
appointed truftees. The dean’s notions of religion
were fo much more rational than thofe of his contem¬
porary priefts, that they deemed him little better than
a heretic ; and on that account he was fo frequently
rnolefted, that he at laft determined to fpend the reft
of his days in peaceful retirement. With this inten¬
tion he built a houfe near the palace at Richmond ;
but, being feized with the fweating ficknefs, he died
in 1519, in the 53d year of his age. He was buried
Colil'eum.
] COL
on the fouth fide of the choir of St Paul’s; and a Colibert*
ftone was laid over his grave, with no other infeription
than his name. Befides the preferments above men- _
tioned, he was re6tor of the guild of Jefus at St
Paul’s, and chaplain to King Henry VIII. Dean Co-
let, though a Papift, was an enemy to the grofs fuper-
ftitions of the church of Rome. He difapproved au¬
ricular confeffion, the celibacy of the priefts, and fuch
other ridiculous tenets and ceremonies as have ever
been condemned by men of found underftanding in
every age and country. He wrote, 1. Rudimenta gram-
matices. 2. The conftru&ion of the eight parts of
fpeech. 3. Daily devotions. 4. Ept/io/a ad Erafmum.
5. Several fermons: and other works which ftill re¬
main in manufeript.
COLIBERTS (Caliberti), in Law, wrere tenants in
foccage, and particularly fuch villeins as wTere manu¬
mitted or made freemen. But they had not an abfo-
lute freedom ; for though they were better than fer-
vants, yet they had fuperior lords to whom they paid
certain duties, and in that refpeft might be called fer-
vants, though they were of middle condition between
freemen and fervants.
COLIC, a fevere pain in the low’er venter, fo call¬
ed becaufe the colon wTas formerly fuppofed to be the
part affefted. See Medic in E-Zrakx.
Colic, in Farriery. See Farriery Index.
COLIGNI, Gaspard de, admiral of France, w^as
born in 1516. He lignalized himfelf in his youth, in
the reigns of Francis I. and Henry II. and was made
colonel of infantry and admiral of France in 1552*
Henry II. employed him in the moft important affairs ;
but after the death of that prince, he embraced the re¬
formed religion, and became the chief of the Prote-
ftant party : he ftrongly oppofed the houfe of Guife,
and rendered this oppofition fo powerful, that it was
thought he wrould have overturned the French go¬
vernment. On the peace made after the battles of
Jarnac and Montcontour, Charles IX. deluded Coligni
into fecurity by his deceitful favours ; and though he
recovered one attempt on his life, when he attended
the nuptials of the prince of Navarre, yet he was in¬
cluded in the dreadful maffacre of the Proteftrmts on
St Bartholomew’s day 1572, and his body treated with
wanton brutality by a mifguided Popiffi populace.
COLIMA, a fea-port town of Mexico in North
America, and capital of a fertile valley of the fame
name. It is feated at the mouth of a river, in W. Long.
109. 6. N. Lat. 18. 30.
COLIOURE, a fmall, but ancient and ftrong town
of France, in Roufillon, feated at the foot of the Py¬
renean mountains, with a fmall harbour. E. Long.
3. 10. N. Lat. 43. 24.
COL1R, an officer in China, who may properly be
called an infpeflor, having an eye over what palles in
every court or tribunal of the empire. In order to
render him impartial, he is kept independent, by
having his poll for life. The power of the colirs is
fuch, that they make even the princes of the blood
tremble.
COLISEUM, or Coliseum, in the ancient archi-
tefture, an oval amphitheatre, built at Rome by Vef-
pafian, in the place where flood the bafon of Nero’s
gilded houfe. The wmrd is formed from eolofeeum on
account of the coloffus of Nero that flood near it;
or*
Collateral.
COL [
Collaert or, according to Nardini, from the Italian coiifeo.
this were placed flatues, reprefenting all the provinces
of the empire j in the middle whereof flood that of
Rome, holding a golden apple in her hand. The fame
term, colifeum, is alfo given to another amphitheatre of
the emperor Severus. In thefe colifea were repre-
fented games, and combats of men and wild beafts j
but there is now little remaining of either of them,
time and war having reduced them to ruins.
COLLAERT, Adrian, an eminent engraver who
flouriihed about 1550, was born at Antwerp. After
having learned in his own country the firft principles
of engraving, he went to Italy, where he redded fome
time to perfeft himfelf in drawing. He wrought en¬
tirely with the graver, in a firm neat rtyle, but rather
ftiff and dry. The vaft number of plates executed by
his hand fufficiently evince the facility with which he
engraved *, and though exceedingly neat, yet they are
feldom highly finifhed.
Collaert, Hans or John, fon to the foregoing,
was alfo an excellent artift. He drew and engraved
exa&ly in the ftyle of his father, and was in every
refpeft equal to him in merit. He muft have been
very old when he died ; for his prints are dated from
1555 to 1622. He aflifted his father in all his great
works, and engraved befides a prodigious number of
plates of various fubjefts. One of his beft prints is
Mofes Jlriking the rock, a large print, lengthwife, from
Lambert Lombard. A great number of fmall figures
are introduced into this print 5 and they are admirably
well executed : the heads are fine, and the drawing
very corredt.
COLLAR, in Roman antiquity, a fort of chain put
generally round the neck of flaves that had run away,
after they were taken, with an infcription round it, in¬
timating their being deferters, and requiring their be¬
ing reftored to their proper owners, &c.
Collar, in a more modern fenfe, an ornament con-
fifting of a chain of gold, enamelled, frequently fet
with ciphers or other devices, with the badge of the
order hanging at the bottom, wore by the knights of
feveral military orders over their fhoulders, on the
mantle, and its figure drawn round their armories.
Thus, the collar of the order of the garter confifts
of S. S. with rofes enamelled red, within a garter en¬
amelled blue, and the George at the bottom.
Lord Mayor's Collar is more ufually called chain.
See Chain.
Knights of the Collar, a military order in the re¬
public of Venice, called alfo the order of St Mark, or
the medal. It is the doge and the fenate that confer
this order ; the knights bear no particular habit, only
the collar, wdiich the doge puts around their neck,
with a medal, W'herein is reprefented the wunged lion
of the republic.
Collar of a Dr aught-horfe, a part of harnefs made
of leather and canvas, and fluffed with ftraw or wool,
to be put about the horfe’s neck.
COLLARAGE, a tax or fine laid for the collars
of wine-drawine horfes.
COLLATERAL, any thing, place, country, &c.
fituated bv the fide of another.
Collateral, in genealogy, thofe relations which
proceed from the fame flock, but not in the fame line
of afcendants or defcendants, but being, as it were, afide
26l
In of each other.
]
COL
  Thus, uncles, aunts, nephews, nieces, Collateral
and coufins, are collaterals, or in the fame collateral ^0j[a’[jon
line: thofe in a higher degree, and nearer the common » - ‘
root, reprefent a kind of paternity with regard to thofe
more remote. See Consanguinity .
Collateral Succejfion. When a defunft, for want
of heirs defcended of himfelf, is fucceeded in his eftate
by a brother or filler, or their defcendants, the eftate
is faid to have gone to collateral heirs.
COLLATIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Sabines, thought to be diftant between four or five
miles from Rome to the eaft ; fituated on an eminence
(Virgil). Of this place was Tarquinius Collatinus,
married to Lucretia, ravilhed by Sextus Tarquinius
(Livy); fituated on this or on the left fide of the Anio
(Pliny). Extant in Cicero’s time, but in Strabo’s
day only a village ■, now no trace of it remains.—A-
nother fuppofed Collatia of Apulia, near Mount Gar-
ganus, becaufe Pliny mentions the Collatim in Apulia,
and Frontinus the Ager Collatinus.
COLLATINA porta, a gate of Rome, at the
Collis Hortulorum, afterwards called Pinciana, from
the Pincii, a noble family. Its name Collatina is from
Collatia, to the right of which was the Via Collatina,
which led to that towm.
COLLINA, a gate of Rome at the Collis Quiri-
nalis, not far from the temple of Venus Erycina (Ovid) j.
called alfo Solaria, becaufe the Sabines carried their
fait through it (Tacitus). Now Salaro.
COLLATION, in the canon law, the giving or
beftmving of a benefice on a clergyman by a bifhop,
who has it in his own gift or patronage. It differs
from inftitution in this, that inftitution is performed
by the biftiop, upon the prefentation of another 5 and
collation is his own gift of prefentation 5 and it dif¬
fers from a common prefentation, as it is the giving
of the church to the perfon, and prefentation is the
giving or offering of the perfon to the church. But
collation fupplies the place of prefentation and infti-
tution, and amounts to the fame as inftitution where
the bilhop is both patron and ordinary. Anciently the
right of prefentation to all churches wTas in the bi¬
ftiop ; and now if the patron negle&s to prefent to a
church, this right returns to the bifhop by collation.
If the bifhop neglefts to collate wdthin fix months after
the elapfe of the patron, then the archbifhop hath a
right to do it 5 and if the archbifhop neglefts, then it
devolves to the king ; the one as fuperior, to fupply
the defers of bifliops, the other as fupreme, to fupply
all defefts of government.
Collation, in common law, the comparifon or
prefentauon of a copy to its original, to fee whether
or not it be conformable ; or the report or a£l of the
officer who made the comparifon. A collated aff is
equivalent to its original, provided all the parties con¬
cerned were prefent at the collation.
Collation, in Scots Law, that right wdiich an heic
has of throwing the whole heritable and moveable
eftates of the deceafed into one mafs, and fharing it
equally with the others in the fame degree of kindred,
when he thinks fuch {hare will be more than the value
of the heritage to which he had an exclufive title.
Collation is alfo ufed among the Romanifts for
the meal or repaft made on a faft-day, in lieu of a flip¬
per, Only fruits are allowed in a collation : F. Lobi-
i neau
COL, [ 262 ] COL
Collation neau obferves, that anciently there was not allowed
ti even bread in the collations in Lent, nor any thing
, Colkcto:^ a few comfits ancj dried herbs and fruits j which
cuftom, he adds, obtained till the year 1513. Cardi¬
nal Humbert obi'erves further, that in the middle of
the 1 ith century there were no collations at all allow¬
ed in the Latin church in the time of Lent $ and that
the cuftom of collations was borrowed from the Greeks,
who themfelves did not take it up till about the I ith
century.
Collation is alfo popularly ufed for a repaft be¬
tween meals, particularly between dinner and fupper.
The word collation, in this fenfe, Du Cange derives
from collocutio, “ conference,” and maintains, that ori¬
ginally collation was only a conference, or converfation
on fubje6ts of piety, held on faft-days in monafteries ;
but that, by degrees, the cuftom was introduced of
bringing in a few refreftrments $ and that by the ex-
ceffes to which thofe fober repafts veere at length car¬
ried, the name of the abufe was retained, but that of
the thing loft.
Collation of Seals, denotes one feal fet on the fame
label, on the reverfe of another.
COLLEAGUE, a partner or aflbciate in the fame
office or magiftrature. See Adjunct.
COLLECT, Collection, a voluntary gathering
of monev, for fome pious or charitable purpofe. Some
fay, the name colleB, or colleBion, was ufed, by reafon
thofe gatherings wxre anciently made on the days of
coileBs, and in colleBs, i. e. in affemblies of Chriftians ;
but, more probably, quia coliigebatur pecunia.
Collect, is fometimes alfo ufed for a tax, or impo-
fition, raifed by a prince for any pious defign. Thus,
hiftories fay, that in 1166, the king of England com¬
ing into Normandy, appointed a colleft for the relief
of the holy land, at the defire and after the example of
the king of France. See Croisade.
Collect, in the liturgy of the church of England,
and the mafs of the Romanifts, denotes a prayer ac¬
commodated to any particular day, occafion, or the
like. See Liturgy and Mass.
In the general, all the prayers in each office are
called colleBs ; either becaufe the prieft fpeaks in the
name of the whole affembly, whofe fentiments and de-
lires he fums up by the word oremus, “ let us pray,”
as is obferved by Pope Innocent III. or, becaufe thofe
prayers are offered when the people are affembled to¬
gether, which is the opinion of Pamelius on Tertul-
' lian. >
The congregation itfelf is in fome ancient authors
called colleB. '' The popes Gelafius and Gregory are
faid to have been the firft who eftabliftied colleBs. De-
fpence, a doftor of the faculty of Paris, has an ex-
prefs treatife on colleBs, their origin, antiquity, au¬
thors, &c.
COLLECTIVE, among grammarians, a term ap¬
plied to a noun expreffmg a multitude, though itfelf be
only Angular ; as an army, company, troop, &c. cal¬
led colleBive nouns.
COLLECTOR, in general, denotes a perfon who
gets or brings together things formerly difperfed and
feparated. Hence,
Collector, in matters of civil polity, is a perfon
appointed by the commiflioners of any duty, the inha¬
bitants of a parifti, &c. to raife or gather any kind of Colle&or
tax. e
Collector, among botanifts, one who gets toge- . ^ ' r
ther as many plants as he can, without ftudying bota¬
ny in a fcientifical manner.
COLLEGATORY, in the Civil Law, a perfon
who has a legacy left him in common with one or more
other perfons.
COLLEGE, an affemblage of feveral bodies or fo-
cieties, or of feveral perfons into one fociety.
College, among the Romans, ferved indifferently
for thofe employed in the offices of religion, of go¬
vernment, the liberal and even mechanical arts and
trades; fo that, with them, the word fignified what
we call a corporation or company.
In the Roman empire, there were not only the col¬
lege of augurs, and the college of capita hm, i. e. of thofe
who had the fuperintendence of the capitoline games $
but alfo colleges of artificers, collegia artificuni; col¬
lege iff carpenters, ox fabrorum tignano-
rum ; of potters, figulorum ; of founders, ccrariorum ;
the college of lockfmitbs, fabrorum ferrariorum; of
engineers of the army, tignamorum ; of butchers, la-
niorum ; of dendrophori, dendrophororutn ; of centena¬
ries, ccntonariorum ; of makers of military cafques,y«-
gariorum; of tent-makers, tabernaculariorum; of ba¬
kers, piforum; of muficians, tibicinum, &.c. Plu¬
tarch obferves, that it was Numa w7ho firft divioed the
people into colleges, which he did to the end that each
confulting the interefts of their college, wdiereby they
were divided from the citizens of the other colleges,
they might not enter into any general confpiracy a-
gainft the public repofe.
Each of thefe colleges had diftinft meeting places or
halls r and likewife, in imitation of the ftate, a trea-
fury and common chett, a regifter, and one to repre-
fent them, upon public occafions, and a£ls of govern¬
ment. Thefe colleges had the privilege of manumit¬
ting Haves, of being legates, and making by-laws for
their own body, provided they did not clafti with
thofe of the government.
There are various colleges on foot among the mo¬
derns, founded on the model of thofe of the ancients.
Such are the three colleges of the empire, viz.
College of EleBors, or their Deputies, affembled in
*the diet of Ratifbon.
College of Princes ; the body of princes, or their
deputies at the diet of Ratilbon.
College of Cities, is, in like manner, the body of
deputies wffiich the imperial cities fend to the diet.
College of Cardinals, or the Sacred College ; a
body compofed of the three orders of cardinals. See
Cardinals.
College is alfo ufed for a public place endowed
with certain revenues, wdiere the feveral parts of learn¬
ing are taught.
An affemblage of feveral of thefe colleges conftitutes
an umverfity. The erection of colleges is part of the
royal prerogative, and not to be done without the
king’s iicenfe.
The eftablilhment of colleges or univerfities is a
remarkable period in literary hiflory. The fchools
in cathedrals and monafteries confined themfelves
chiefly to the teaching of grammar. There were on-
I
COL [ 263 ] COL
College. ]y one or two mafters employed in that office. But,
 * in colleges, profeffbrs are appointed to teach all the
different parts of fcience. The firft obfcure mention
of academical degrees in the univerfity of Paris (from
, which the other univerfrties in Europe have borrowed
moft of their cuftoms and inllitutions), occurs A. D.
I2I5.
College of Civilians, commonly called DoBors Com*
mans ; a college founded by Dr Harvey, dean of the
arches, for the profeffors of the civil law reliding in
London $ where ufually, likewife, refide the judge of
the arches court of Canterbury, judge of the admi¬
ralty, of the prerogative court, &c. with other civi¬
lians ; who all live, as to diet and lodging, in a col¬
legiate manner, commoning together ; whence the ap¬
pellation of Doctors Commons. Their houfe being
confumed in the great fire, they all refided at Exeter-
houfe in the Strand till 1672 ; when their former houfe
was rebuilt, at their own expence, in a very fplendid
manner. To this college belong 34 proftors, who
make themfelves parties for their clients, manage their
caufes, &c.
College of Phyfcians, a corporation of phyficians
in London, who, by feveral charters and a<ffs of par¬
liament of Henry VIH. and his fucceffors, have cer¬
tain privileges, whereby no man, though a graduate
in phylrc of any univerfity, may, without licenfe un¬
der the faid college-feal, praftife phyfic in or within
feven miles of London; with power to adminifler
oaths, fine and imprifon offenders in that and feveral
other particulars j to fearch the apothecaries (hops, &c.
in and about London, to fee if their drugs, &c. be
wholefome, and their compofitions according to the
form prefcribed by the faid college in their difpenfa-
tory. By the faid charter they are alfo freed from all
troublefome offices, as to ferve on juries, be conftable,
keep watch, provide arms, &c.
The fociety had anciently a college in Knight-rider-
flreet, the gift of Dr Linacre phyfician to King Hen¬
ry VIII. Since that time they have had a houfe
built them by the famous Dr Harvey in 1652, at the
end of Amen-corner, which he endowed with his
whole inheritance in his lifetime •, but this being burnt
in the great fire in 1666, a new one was eredled, at
the expence of the fellow's, in Warwick-lane, wuth a
noble library, given partly by the marquis of Dorche-
fter, and partly by Sir Theodore Mayerne.
Of this college there are at prefent a prefident, four
cenfors, eight elettors, a regifler, and a treafurer,
chofen annually in Odlober ; the cenfors have, by char¬
ted power to furvey, govern, and arreft, all phyfi¬
cians, or others pra&ifing phyfic, in or w'ithin feven
miles of London, and to fine, amerce, and imprifon
them, at difcretion. The number of fellows was an¬
ciently thirty, till King Charles II. increafed their
number to forty 5 and King Jame? II. giving them a
new charter, allowed the number of fellows to be en¬
larged fo as not to exceed fourfcore ; referving to him-
felf and fucceffors the power of placing and difplacing
any of them for the future.
The college is not very rigorous in afferting their
privileges •, there being a great number of phyficians,
fame of very good abilities, who praftife in London,
&c. without their licenfe, and are connived at by the
college j yet, by law, if any perfon not exprefsly al-
low’ed to pra&ife, take on him the cure of any difeafe,
and the patient die under his hand, it is deemed felo¬
ny in the praftifer. In 1696, the college made a fub-
fcription, to the number of forty-tw'o of their mem¬
bers, to fet on foot a difpenfatory for the relief of the
fick poor : fince that they have ere&ed two other dif-
penfatories.
College.
Edinburgh College of Phyficians was erefted on the
29th November 1681. The defign of this inftitution
was, to prevent the abufes daily committed by foreign
and illiterate impoflers, quacks, &c. For this reafon,
his majefty, at the time above mentioned, granted let¬
ters patent to ereft into a body corporate and politic,
certain phyficians in Edinburgh and their fucceffors,
by the title of “ the Prefident and Royal College of
Phyficians at Edinburgh,” with pow’er to choofe an¬
nually a council of feven, one w'hereof to be prefident:
thefe are to eleft a treafurer, clerk, and other officers j
to have a common feal \ to fue and be fued ; to make
laws for promoting the art of phyfic, and regulating
the praftice thereof, wdthin the city of Edinburgh,
towm of Leith, and diftridts of the Canongate, Weft-
port, Pleafance, and Potterrow j through all which
the jurifdidlion of the college extends. Throughout
this jurifdidlion, no perfon is allowed to pradlife phy¬
fic, without a warrant from the college, under the pe¬
nalty of 5I. fterling the firft month, to be doubled
monthly afterwards while the offence is continued ;
one-half the money arifing from fuch fines to go to the
poor, the other to the ufe of the college. They are
alfo empow'ered to puniffi all licentiates in phyfic with¬
in the above-mentioned bounds, for faults committed
againft the inftitutions of the college ; and to fine them
of fums not exceeding 40s. On fuch occafions, how¬
ever, they muft have one of the baillies of the city to
fit in judgment along with them, otherwife their fen-
tence will not be valid. They are alfo empow'ered to
fearch and infpedt all medicines w'ithin their jurifdic-
tion, and throw out into the ftreet all fuch as are bad
or unwholefome. That they may the better attend
their patients, they are exempted from watching,
warding, and ferving on juries. They are, however,
reftrained from eredling fchools for teaching the art of
phyfic, or conferring degrees on any perfon qualified
for the office of a phyfician ; but are obliged to licenfe
all fuch as have taken their degrees in any other uni¬
verfity, and to admit as honorary members all the pro¬
feffors of phyfic in the reft of the univerfities of Scot¬
land. Thefe privileges and immunities are not, how'-
ever, to interfere with the rights and privileges of the
apothecary furgeons, in their pra&ice of curing wounds,
contufions, fractures, and other external operations.
Edinburgh College of Surgeons. This is but a ve¬
ry late inftitution, by which the furgeons of Edin¬
burgh are incorporated into a Royal College, and au¬
thorized to carry into execution a fcheme for making
provifion for their widows and children, &c. They
have alfo the privilege of examining, and licenfing, if
found qualified, all prattitioners in furgery within
certain bounds.
College of Jufiice, the fupreme civil court of Scot¬
land ; otherwife called Court of Sejfion, or, of Council
and Seffion. See Law Index.
Sion College, or the college of the London clergy j
which has been a religious houfe time out of mind,
fometimea
COL
[ 264 ]
COL
College, fometimes under the denomination oi a priory, fome-
»■—v—^ times under that of a fpital or hofpital: at its diflfolu-
tion under 31ft Henry VIII. it was called Elfon's Spi-
tal, from the name of its founder, a mercer, in 1329.
At prefent it is a compofition of both, viz. a college
for the clergy of London, who were incorporated in
1630, in purfuance to the will of Dr White, under
the name of the Prejident and Fellows of Sion College ;
and an hofpital for ten poor men and as many wo-
The officers of the corporation are the prefi
Collegiate.
men.    * -
dent, two deans, and four affiftants, who are annually
chofen from among the re£Iors and vicars of London ;
and are fubjeft to the vifitation of the bifhop. _ They
have a good library, built and docked by Mr Simpfon,
and furniffied by feveral other benefa&ors, chiefly for
the clergy of the city, without excluding other ftudents
on certain terms 5 and a hall, with chambers for ftu¬
dents, generally occupied by the minifters of the
neighbouring parifhes.
Grejham College, or College of Philofophy ; a col¬
lege founded by Sir Thomas Grefham, and endowed
with the revenue of the Royal Exchange. One moiety
of this endowment the founder bequeathed to the
mayor and aldermen of London and their fucceffors,
in truft, that they ffiould find four able perfons to read,
within the college, divinity, geometry, aftronomy, and
mufic j who are chofen by a committee of the common
council, confifting of the lord mayor, three aldermen,
and eight commoners, and allowed each, befides lodg¬
ing, 50k per annum. The other moiety, he left to
the company of mercers, to find three more able per¬
fons, chofen by a committee of that company, confift-
ing of the mailer and three wardens, during their of¬
fice, and eight of the court of affiftants, to read law,
phyfic, and rhetoric, on the fame terms j with this li¬
mitation, that the feveral lefturers Ihould read in term-
time, every day in the week except Sundays j in the
morning in Latin, in the afternoon the fame in Eng-
lith ; but that in mufic to be read only in Engliffi.
By 8th Geo. III. cap. 32. the building appropriated to
this college was taken down, and the excife-office
ere£led in its room. Each of the profeffors is allowed
col. per annum, in lieu of the apartments, 8cc. relin-
quiffied by them in the college, and is permitted to
marry, notwithftanding the reftriftion of Sir Thomas
Greffiam’s will. The lettures are now read in a room
over the Royal Exchange ; and the city and mercer’s
company are required to provide a proper place for
this puvpofe.
In this college formerly met the Royal Society, that
noble academy, inftituted by King Charles II. and ce¬
lebrated throughout the world for their improvements
in natural knowledge. See their hiftory and policy
under Society.
College de Propaganda Fide, was founded at Rome
in 1622 by Gregory XV. and enriched with ample re¬
venues. It confifts of thirteen cardinals, two prices,
and a fecretary ; and was defigned for the propagation
and maintenance of the Romifti religion in all parts of
the world. The funds of this college have been very
confiderably augmented by Urban VIII. and many
private donations. MIffionaries are fupplied by this
inftitution, together with a variety of books fuited to
their fcveral appointments. Seminaries for their in-
ftru&ion are fupported by it, and a number of charlta- College
ble eftabliftiments connefted with and conducive to the
main objefl of its inftitution. _ _ _
Another college of the fame denomination was efta-
bliffied by Urban VIII. in 1627, in confequence of the
liberality of John Baptift Viles, a Spanifli nobleman.
This is fet apart for the inftruflion of thofe who are
defigned for the foreign miffions. It was at firft com¬
mitted to the care of three canons of the patriarchal
churches •, but ever fince the year 1641 it is under the
fame government with the former inftitution.
College of Heralds, commonly called the Heralds
Office; a corporation founded by charter of King
Richard III. who granted them feveral privileges, as
to be free from fubfidies, tolls, offices, &c. 1 hey had
a fecond charter from King Henry VI.; and a houfe
built near Doftors Commons, by the earl of Derby, in
the reign of King Henry VII. was given them by the
duke of Norfolk, in the reign of Queen Mary, which
houfe is now rebuilt.
This college is fubordinate to the earl marffial of
England. They are afliftants to him in his court of
chivalry, ufually held in the common hall of the col¬
lege, where they fit in their rich coats of his majefty s
arms. See Herald.
College of Heralds in Scotland, confifts of Lyon
king at arms, fix heralds, and fix purfuivants, and a
number of meflengers. See Lyon.
COLLEGIANS, Collegiani, Collegiants, a
religious fe£l formed among the Arminians and Ana-
baptifts in Holland, about the beginning of the feven-
teenth century j fo called becaufe of their colleges, or
meetings, twice every week, where every one, females
excepted, has the fame liberty of expounding the
Scripture, praying, &c. They are faid to be. all ei¬
ther Arians or Socinians j they never communicate in
the college, but meet twice a-year from all parts of
Holland at Rhinffiergh, whence they are fo called
Rhinjberghers, a village two miles from Leyden, where
they communicate together } admitting eveiy one that
prefents himfelf, profeffing his faith in the divinity of
the Holy Scriptures, and refolution to live fuitably to
their precepts and do£lrines, without regard to his feft
opinion. They have no particular minifters, but
each officiates as he is difpofed. They never baptize
without dipping.
COLLEGIATE, or Collegial, churches, are
thofe which have no biffiop’s fee, yet have the ancient
retinue of the bifhop, the canons andprebctids* Such
are Weftminfter, Rippon, Windfor, &c. governed by
deans and chapters.
Of thefe collegiate churches there are two kinas;
fome of royal, and others of ecclefiaftical foundation ;
each of them, in matters of divine fervice, regulated
in the fame manner as the cathedrals. 1 here are
even fome collegiate churches that have.the epifcopal
rights. Some of thefe churches were anciently abbeys,
which in time were fecularized. The church of St
Peter’s, Weftminfter, was anciently a cathedral j but
the revenues of the monaftery being by aft of parlia¬
ment I Elizabeth veiled in the dean and chapter,
it commenced a collegiate church. In/feveral caufes
the ftyling it cathedral, inftead of collegiate, church of
Weftminfter, has occafioned error in the P^^ET
COL L 265 ] COL
COLLET, among jewellers, denotes the horizontal
face or plane at the bottom of brilliants. See Bril¬
liant.
Collet, in glafs-making, is that part of glafs vef-
fels which flicks to the iron inftrument wherewith the
metal was taken out of the melting-pot : thefe are af¬
terwards ufed for making green glafs.
COLLETICS, in Pharmacy, denotes much the
fame with Agg^utinants or Vulneraiues.
COLLIER, Jeremy, a learned Englifh nonjuring
divine, born in 1650, and educated in Caius college
Cambridge. He had firft the fmall rectory of Amp-
ton, near St Edmund’s Bury in Suffolk, which in fix
years he refigned, to come to London, in 1685,
where he was made lecturer of Gray’s Inn ; but the
change of government that followed, foon rendered
the public exercife of his function impracticable. He
was committed to Newgate for writing againft the
revolution ; and again, for carrying on a correfpon-
dence which that change of events made treafonable j
but was releafed both times, without trial, by the in¬
tervention of friends. It is obfervable that he carried
his fcruples fo far, as to prefer confinement to the ta¬
cit acknowledgment of the jurifdi&ion of the court by
accepting his liberty upon bail. Suitable to thefe
principles, he next afted a very extraordinary part
with two other clergymen of his own way of think¬
ing, at the execution of Sir John Friend and Sir Wil¬
liam Perkins for the affaffination plot; by giving them
folemn abfolution, and by impofition of hands. Ab-
fconding for which, he continued under an outlawry
to the day of his death in 1726. Thefe proceedings
having put a flop to his aftivity, he employed his re¬
tired hours rather more ufefully in literary works.
In 1698, he attempted to reform our theatrical enter¬
tainments, by publiflaing his “ Short view of the im¬
morality and profanenefs of the Englifh ftage,” which
engaged him in a controverfy with the wits of the time j
but as Mr Collier defended his cenfures not only with
wit, but with learning and reafon, it is allowed that
the decorum obferved, for the moft part, by fucceed-
ing dramatic writers, has been owing to his animad-
verfions. He next undertook a tranflation of Mor-
reri’s great Hiftorical and Geographical Dictionary j
a work of extraordinary labour, and which appeared
in 4 vols folio. After this he publiflied “ An Eccle-
fiaftical Hiftory of Great Britain, chiefly of England,”
in 2 vols folio ; which is allowed to be written with
great judgment, and even with impartiality. He was
befides engaged in feveral controverfies, which his
conduCt and writings gave rife to, not material to men¬
tion. In Queen Anne’s reign, Mr Collier was tempt¬
ed, by offers of confiderable preferment, to a fub-
miflion j but as he was a nonjuror upon principle, he
could not be brought to liften to any terms.
Collier, or Coallier. See Coallier.
COLLIERY, Coalery, or Coalliery. See
CoALERY.
COLLINS, Anthony, a polemical writer, born at
Heften near Hounflow in the county of Middlefex
in 1676, was the fon of Henry Collins, a gentleman
of about 1500I. a-year. He was firft bred at Eton
college, and then went to King’s-college Cambridge,
where he had for his tutor Mr Francis Hare, after¬
wards bifhop of Chichefter. He was afterwards a
Vol. VI. Part I.
ftudent of the Temple ; but not relifhing the law, Collins,
foon abandoned that ftudy. He was an ingenious v““
man, and author of feveral curious books. His firft
remarkable piece was publiflied in 1707, “ An Effay
concerning the ufe of reafon in propofitions, the evi¬
dence whereof depends on human teftimony.” In
1702, he entered into the controverfy between Mr
Clark' and Dr Dodwell, concerning the immortality
of the foul. In 1713, he publiflied his difeourfe on
free-thinking, which made a prodigious noife. In
1725, he retired into the county of Eflex, and a£Ied
as a juftice of peace and deputy lieutenant for the
fame county, as he had done before for that of Mid¬
dlefex and liberty of Weftminfter. The fame year,
he publiflied a “ Philofophical Effay concerning hu¬
man liberty.” In 1718, he was chofen treafurer of
the county of Effex ; and this office he difeharged
with great honour. In 1724, he publiflied his “ Hi¬
ftorical and critical Effay on the 39 Articles.” Soon
after, he publiflied his “ Difeourfe of the Grounds and
reafons of the Chriftian religiony” to which is prefix¬
ed, “ An Apology for free debate and liberty of
writing $” which piece was immediately attacked by
a great number of authors. In 1726 appeared his
“ Scheme of literary prophecy confidered, in a view of
the controverfy occafioned by a late book entitled, A
difeourfe of the grounds, &c.” In this difeourfe he
mentions a MS. differtation of his, to fliow the Sibyl¬
line oracles to be a forgery made in the times of the
primitive Chriftians, who, for that reafon, were call¬
ed Siby/lifts by the Pagans j but it never appeared in
print. His fcheme of literary prophecy was replied to
by feveral writers; and particularly by Dr John Ro¬
gers, in his “ Neceffity of divine revelation afferted.”
In anfwer to which our author wrote, “ A letter to
the Reverend Dr Rogers, on occafion &c.” His
health began to decline fome years before his death,
and he was very much afflidled with the ftone, which
at laft put an end to his life at his houfe in Har¬
ley fquare in 1729. He was interred in Oxford cha¬
pel, where a monument was erefted to him, with an
epitaph in Latin. His curious library was open to
all men of letters, to whom he readily communicated
all the affiftance in his power ; he even furniflied his
antagonifts with books to confute himfelf, and direc¬
ted them how to give their arguments all the force of
which they were capable. He was remarkably averfe
to all indecency and obfeenity of difeourfe ; and was,
independent of his fcepticifm, a fincerely good man.
Collins, ’John, an eminent accountant and ma¬
thematician, born in 1624, and bred a bookfeller at
Oxford. Befides feveral treatifes on practical fubje&s,
he communicated fome curious papers to the Royal So¬
ciety, of which he was a member, which are to be
found in the early numbers of the Philofophical Tranf.
adftions : and wras the chief promoter of many other
fcientifical publications in his time. He died in 1683 j
and about 25 years after, all his papers coming into
the hands of the learned William Jones, Efq. F. R. S.
it appeared that Mr Collins held a conftant correfpond-
ence for many years with all the eminent mathema¬
ticians j and that many of the late difeoveries in phy-
fical knowledge, if not adlually made by him, were
yet brought forth by his endeavours.
Collins, William, an admirable poet, was born
LI at
COL [ 266 ] COL
Collins, at Chichefter, about the year 1724. He received his
v claffical education at Winchefter, alter which he ftu-
died at New college, in Oxford, was admitted a com¬
moner of King’s college in the fame univerfity, and
was at length defied a demy of Magdalene college.
While at Oxford, he applied himfelf to the ftudy of
poetry, and publilhed his Oriental Eclogues, after
which he came to London. He was naturally pof-
fefled of an ear for all the varieties of harmony and
modulation} his heart was fufceptible of the fineft
feelings of tendernefs and humanity, and was particu¬
larly carried away by that high enthuliafm which gives
to imagination its ftrongeft colouring ; and he was at
once capable of foothing the ear with the melody of
his numbers, of influencing the paflions by the force
of the pathos, and of gratifying the fancy by the luxu¬
ry of defcription. With thefe powers, he attempted
lyric poetry 5 and in 1746, publifhed his Odes, de-
fcriptive and allegorical ; but the fale of this work be¬
ing not at all anfwerable to its merit, he burnt the
remaining copies in indignation. Being a man of
a liberal fpirit and a fmall fortune, his pecuniary re-
fources were unhappily foon exhaufted •, and his life
became, a miferable example of neceflity, indolence,
and diflipation. He projected books which he was
well able to execute ; and became in idea an hiilorian,
a critic, and a dramatic poet j but wanted the means
and encouragement to carry thefe ideas into execu¬
tion. Day fucceeded day, for the fupport of which
he had made no proviflon j and he w’as obliged to fub-
flft, either by the repeated contributions of a friend
or the generolity of a cafual acquaintance. His fpi-
rits became opprefled, and he funk into a fullen de-
fpondence. While in this gloomy ftate of mind, his
uncle Colonel Martin died, and left him a confiderable
fortune. But this came too late for enjoyment 5 he
had been fo long haraffed by anxiety and diftrefs
that he fell into a nervous diforder, which at length
reduced the fined underdanding to the mod deplor¬
able childidinefs. In the fird dages of this diforder
he endeavoured to relieve himfelf by travelling, and
pafled into France 5 but the, growfing malady obliged
him to return ; and having continued, with fhort in¬
tervals, in this pitiable date till the year 1756, he
died in the arms of his fider.
The following character of the poetry of Collins is
drawn by Mrs Barbauld, and is extracted from an
eflay prefixed to an edition of his works publiflied in
1797. “ He will be acknowledged to poflefs imagi¬
nation, fwreetnefs, bold and figurative language. His
numbers dwell on the ear, and eafily fix themfelves in
the memory. His vein of fentiment is by turns ten¬
der and lofty, always tinged with a degree of melan¬
choly, but not poffefling any claim to originality. His
originality confids in his manner, in the highly figu¬
rative garb in which he clothes abdraft ideas, in the
felicity of his expreflions, and his Ikill in embodying
ideal creations. He had much of the mydicifm of
poetry, and fometimes became obfcure, by aiming at
impreffions dronger than he had clear and well-de¬
fined ideas to fupport. Had his life been prolonged,
and with life had he enjoyed that eafe which is necef-
fary for the undidurbed exercife of the faculties, he
would probably have rifen far above mod of his con¬
temporaries.”
COLLINSON, Peter, an eminent naturalid and Collinfon.
antiquarian, defcended of an ancient family, was born u-—
on the paternal edate called Hugal Hall, or Height of
Hugal, near Windermere lake, in the pariflr of Stavely,
about 10 miles from Kendal in Wedmorland. Whilft
a youth, he difcovered his attachment to natural hidory.
Fie began early to make a colleftion of dried fpeci-
mens of plants, and had accefs to the bed gardens at
that time in the neighbourhood of London. He be¬
came early acquainted with the mod eminent natural-
ids of his time •, the Drs Derham, Woodward, Hale,
Lloyd, and Sloane, were amongd his friends. Among
the great variety of articles which form that fuperb
colleftion, now (by the wife difpofition of Sir Hans
and the munificence of parliament) the Britilh Mu-
feum, fmall was the number of thofe with whole hi¬
dory Mr Collinfon was not well acquainted ; he being
one of thofe few who vifited Sir Hans at all times fa¬
miliarly ; their inclinations and purfuits in refpe£l to
natural hidory being the fame, a firm friendfhip had
early been edabliflied between them. Peter Collin¬
fon was eledled a fellow of the Royal Society on the
12th of December 1728 ; and perhaps was one of the
mod diligent and ufeful members, not only in fupply-
ing them with many curious obfervations himfelf, but
in promoting and preferving a mod extenfive corre-
fpondence with learned and ingenious foreigners, in all
countries and on every ufeful fubjeft. Befides his at¬
tention to natural hidory, he minuted every driking
hint that occurred either in reading or converfation $
and from this fource he derived much information, as
there were very fewr men of learning and ingenuity
who were not of his acquaintance at home j and mod
foreigners of eminence in natural hidory, or in arts and
fciences, were recommended to his notice and friend-
drip. Flis diligence and economy of time were fucjjk
that though he never appeared to be in a hurry, he
maintained an extenfive correfpondence with great
punflualxty ; acquainting the learned and ingenious in
didant parts of the globe with the difcoveries and im¬
provements in natural hidory in this country, and re¬
ceiving the like information from the mod eminent
perfons in almod every other. His correfpondence
with the ingenious Cadwallader Golden, Efq. of New-
York, and the judly celebrated Dr Franklin of Phila¬
delphia, furnifli indances of the benefit refulting from
his attention to all improvements. The latter of thefe
gentlemen communicated his fird eflays on eledlricity
to Mr Collinfon, in a feries of letters, which wTere then
publiflied, and have been reprinted in a late edition of
the Do&or’s ingenious difcoveries and improvements.
Perhaps, in fome future period, the account procured
of the management of flieep in Spain, publifhed in the
Gentleman’s Magazine for May and June 1764, may
not be confidered among the lead of the benefits ac¬
cruing from his extenfive and inquifitive correfpon¬
dence. His converfation, cheerful and ufefully enter¬
taining, rendered his acquaintance much defired by
thofe who had a relifh for natural hidory, or were du-
dious in cultivating rural improvements ; and fecured
him the intimate friendfhip of fome of the mod emi¬
nent perfonages in this kingdom, as didinguifhed by
their tade in planting and horticulture, as by their rank
and dignity. He was the fird who inti'oduced the
great variety of feeds and fhrubs which are now the
principal
COL [267
Collinfonla principal ornaments of every garden 5 and It was ow-
II Ing to his indefatigable induftry, that fo many perfons
Collybus. firft diftinftion are now enabled to behold groves
v ' tranfplanted from the weftern continent flouriftiing as
luxuriantly in their feveral domains as if they were
already become indigenous to Britain. He had fome
correfpondents in almoft every nation in Europe, fome
in Afia, and even at Pekin j who all tranfmitted to
him the moft valuable feeds they could colledt, in re¬
turn for the treafures of America. The great Lin¬
naeus, during his refidence in England, contrafted an
intimate friendlhip with Mr Collinfon, which was re¬
ciprocally increafed by a multitude of good offices, and
continued to the laft. Befides his attachment to na¬
tural hiftory, he was very converfant in the antiquities
of our own country, having been elefted a member of
the Society of Antiquaries April 7. 1737? and he
fupplied them often with many curious articles of in¬
telligence and obfervation, refpefting both our own
and other countries. He died in 1768, leaving be¬
hind him many materials for the improvement of na¬
tural hiftory.
COLLINSONIA. See Botany Index.
COLLIQUAMENTUM, in Natural Ht/lory, an
extreme tranfparent fluid in an egg, obfervable after
two or three days incubation, containing the firft ru¬
diments of the chick. Tt is included in one of its own
proper membranes, diftinft from the albumen. Har¬
vey calls it the oculus.
COLLIQUATION, in Chemijlry, is applied to
•animal, vegetable, and mineral fubftances, tending to¬
wards fufion. See Fusion.
Colliqu at ion, in Phyjic, a term applied to the
blood, when it lofes its crafts or balfamic texture j and
to the folid parts, when they wafte away, by means of
the animal fluids flowing off through the feveral glands,
and particularly thofe of the ftcin, fafter than they
ought ; wrhich occafions fluxes of many kinds, but
moftly profufe, greafy, and clammy fweats.
COLLIQUATIVE fever, in Phyjic, a fever at¬
tended with a diarrhoea, or wfith profufe fweats.
COLLISION, the ftriking of one hard body
againft another ; or the fri£fion or percuflion of bodies
moving violently with different dire6tions, and dafhing
againft each other, as flint and fteel.
COLLUM, the fame wfith Neck.
COLLUSION, in Law, a fecret underftanding be¬
tween tw7o parties, who plead or proceed fraudulently
againft each, to the prejudice of a third perfon.
COLLUTHIANS, a religious left who rofe about
the beginning of the fourth century, on occafion of
the indulgence ftiown to Arius by Alexander, patriarch
of Alexandria. Several people being fcandalized at
fomuch condefcenfion *, and, among the reft, Colluthus,
a prieft of the fame city, he hence took a pretence for
holding feparate affemblies, and by degrees proceeded
to the ordination of priefts as ir he had been a bilhop,
pretending a neceflity for this authority in order to
oppofe Arius. To his fchifm he added herefy, teach¬
ing, that God did not create the wicked that he was
not author of the evils that befal men, &c. He was
condemned by a council held at Alexandria by Ofius,
in the year 33c.
COLLYBUS (KoAAv&js), in antiquity, the fame
with what is now called the rate of exchange.
Collyr®
] COL
COLLYRiE, or Collyrides, in antiquity, a cer-
tain ornament of hair, worn by the wromen on theii Q0iman
necks. It w7as made up in the form of the fmall ,
roundifh cakes called collyrce.
COLLYRIDIANS, in church-hiftory, a feft, to¬
wards the clofe of the 4th century, denominated from
a little cake, called by the Greeks ko^v^iomi, collyridia,
which they offered to the Virgin Mary.
This fedh, it feerns, confifted chiefly of Arabian
wTomen, who, out of an extravagance of devotion to
the Virgin, met on a certain day in the year, to cele¬
brate a folemn feaft, and to render divine honours to
Mary as to a goddefs, eating the cake which they
offered in her name. St Epiphanius, who relates the
hiftory of this fuperftitious ceremony, ridicules it.
They fprung up in oppofition to the Antidico-Ma-
RIANITES.
COLLYRIUM, in Pharmacy, a topical remedy tor
a diforder of the eyes, defigned to cool and repel hot
(harp humours-
COLMAN, George, a mifcellaneous and theatri¬
cal waiter, was born at Florence about the year 1733'
He was the fon of Mr Colman, at that time Britifli
refident at the court of the duke of Tufcany, and of a
After of the countefs of Bath. He received the early
part of his education at Weftminfter fchool, w here
Lloyd, Churchill, Bonnel Thornton, and fome others
who became afterwards diftinguiftied literary characters,
were among his intimate companions. While at fdhooi
he appeared in the charafter of a poet, having addreffed
a copy of verfes to his coufin Lord Pulteney, which
were afterwards publifhed in the magazine of St James.
He was next fent to Chrift Church College,. Oxford,
where he gave many proofs of his lively genius., unit¬
ing wflth Thornton in producing a weekly periodical
paper, entitled the “ Connoiffeur,” which was con¬
tinued from January I754> September 175^} anci
afterwards publiftied in 4 vols izmo. Although this
wTork met not with an equal fhare of approbation with
the World, the Adventurer, and the Rambler, which
made their appearance much about the lame time, yet
it may with juftice be affirmed, that fome papers of.it
are fuperior to any which thefe performances contain,
for a ludicrous delineation of the current, manners,
which has always been conlidered as an effential depait-
ment of every periodical w7ork. When Mr Colman
took the degree of A. M. he left the college, and re-
fided in London. He entered at Lincoln’s-Inn, and in
proper time w'as admitted to the bar ; but literary pur-
fuits were much more confonant to the bent of his ge¬
nius. He publiftied in 1760 a dramatic piece of great
humour, called Polly Honeycombe, which was fuccefs-
fully afted in Drury-lane , and the following year he
gave the world his comedy of the Jealous Wife, deem¬
ed the beft which had for many years appeared. By
the demife of Lord Bath he came to the poffeflion of
a handfome fortune, and it was farther augmented by
the death of General Pulteney, in 1767. He ftill con¬
tinued to wnite for the ftage, and produced, along wuth
Garrick, that excellent comedy called the Clandeftine
Marriage. He alfo tranflated the comedies of Terence
into a kind of blank verfe, which gained him confider-
able applaufe. .
He foon after this made a purchafe of Haymarket
theatre from Mr Samuel Foote, which he fupphed.with
L 1 2 Pieces
COL [ 268 ] COL
pieces either original or tranflations, and fele&ed the
ableft a£lors, particularly in comedy. To a tranflation
he made of Horace’s Art of Poetry, he prefixed an in¬
genious account of the intention of its author •, and ad¬
ded importance to the whole work by many critical
notes. The Genius, and the Gentleman, were other
two of his performances, as alfo a number of fmall
pieces of the humorous kind. His underftanding was
much impaired by a ftroke of the palfy, which feized
him in the year 1789, in confequence of which melan¬
choly event, his fon was intrufted with the manage¬
ment of the theatre. He died in the month of Auguft,
1794, in the 6zd year of his age.
COLMAR, a confiderable town of France, in Up¬
per Alface, of which it is the capital. It has great
privileges, and the Proteilants have liberty of con-
fcience. It is feated near the river 111, in E. Long.
7. 27. N. Lat. 48. 5.
COLMARS, a town of France in Provence, and
the diocefe of Sens. It is feated near the Alps, in E.
Long. 6. 35. N. Lat. 44. 7.
COLMOGOROD, a town of the empire of Ruffia,
with an archbifhop’s fee, feated in an ifland formed by
the river Dwina, in E. Long. 39. 42. N. Lat. 64. 14.
COLNBROOK, a town of Buckinghamflfire in
England, feated on the river Coin, which feparates
this county from Middlefex. It is a great thorough¬
fare on the wefiern road, and has feveral good inns.
W. Long. o. 25.N. Lat. 51. 30.
COLNE, a town of Lancalhire in England, feated
on a fmall hill near the confines of the county. W.
Long. 2. 5. N. Lat. 5.3. 50.
COLOCHINA, an ancient town of the Morea, in
Turkey in Europe. E. Long. 23. 22. N. Lat. 36. 32.
COLOCYNTHIS, in Botany, a fpecies of Cu-
c u m 1 s.
COLOCZA, a town of Hungary, feated on the Da¬
nube, and capital of the county of Bath, with an arch-
bilhop’s fee. It was taken by the Turks in 1686, but
afterwards retaken by the Imperialifts. E. Long. 18.
29. N. Lat. 46. 38.
COLOGN A, a town of Italy, in Padua, and in the
territory of Venice. E. Long. 17. 27. N. Lat. 45.
14-
COLOGNE, The Archbishopric or Diocese
of, one of the ftates that compofe the eleftoral circle
of the Rhine, in Germany. It is bounded on the north
by the duchy of Cleves and Gueldres, on the weft by
that of Juliers, on the fouth by the archbiftiopric of
Cleves, and on the eaft by the duchy of Berg, from
which it is almoft wholly feparated by the Rhine.
This country is very fruitful in corn and wine, which
the inhabitants difpofe of by embarking it on the
Rhine, it extending above feventy miles along that
river. It is divided into the Higher and Lower Dio¬
cefe : the Higher Diorefe contains that part wdiich lies
above Cologne, w’herein is Bonne, the capital town
of this eleftorate, and wdiere the eleftor refides j be-
fides which there are Leichnich, Andernach, Bruyl,
Zulich, and Kerpen. The Lower Diocefe is on the
other fide of Cologne, and contains the towns of Zonz,
Neuys, Heizarwart, Kempen, Rhynberg, and Alpen.
The city of Cologne and county of Meurs, though
within the diocefe of Cologne, do not belong to it j
for Cologne is a free city, and Meurs belongs to the
houfe of NafTau Orange; but by way of recompenfe, Cologne,
the eleftor has confiderable dominions in Weftphalia, —y~“~
which they call the Domain. It contains the duchy of
Weftphalia, and the county of Rechlinchufen. This
prelate is one of the electors of the empire, and holds
alternately with that of Treves the fecond or third
rank in the ele&oral college. He is arch-chancellor
of the empire in Italy, which dignity was very im¬
portant when the emperors were mailers of Italy, but
now it is next to nothing. When the emperors were
crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, the archbiihop of Cologne
performed the ceremony, which cauled him to pretend
to the fame right elfcwhere ; but he was oppofed by
the archbifhop of Mentz. This occafioned an order,
that they ihould each of them have that honour in
his own diocefe, but if it was done eliewhere, they
ihould perform it alternately. The archbiftiop of Co¬
logne is eledted by the chapter in that city, which is
the moil illuftrious in all Germany. They are all
princes or counts, except eight dotlors, who have no
occafion to prove their nobility.
Cologne, an ancient and celebrated town of Ger¬
many, in the diocefe of that name, with an archbiftiop Y
fee, and a famous univerfity, feated on the river Rhine,
in E. Long. 7. 10. N. Lat. 50. 55. In the times of
the Romans, this city was called Colonia Agrippina, and
Ubiorum, becaufe it was‘built by Agrippina, the wife
of Claudius I. and mother of Nero ; and becaufe the
Ubii inhabited this country on the Lower Rhine. In
it was an archbiihopric, and in 1260 entered into
the Hanfeatic league, which has now no exiftence. The
univerfity was eftabhftied in 1388 by Pope Urban VI*
The city is fortified with ftrong walls, flanked with 83
large towers, and furrounded with three ditches; but
thefe fortifications, being executed after the ancient
manner, could make but a poor defence at prefent. It
lies in the fliape of a half-moon, and is faid to have
20 gates, 19 parilhes, 17 monafteries, and 365 churches
and chapels; but the ftreets, in general, are dirty
and badly paved, the windows of the houies compofed
of fmall bits of round glafs, and the inhabitants are
but few for fo large a place. It is inhabited moftly by
Papifts; but there are alfo many Proteftants, who re¬
pair to the neighbouring town of Mulheim, in the
duchy of Berg, for public vrorftiip. Its trade, which
is confiderable, efpecially in Rhenifti wine, is chiefly
in the hands of Proteftants, and carried on by the
Rhine. The ftiips with which they trade to the Nether¬
lands are of a particular conftrudtion, and confiderable
burden. The clergy here are very numerous, and have
large revenues. That of the archbiftiop is 130,000!-.
Baron Polnitz fays, that though Cologne is one of
the greateft cities, it is one of the moft melancholy in
all Europe ; there being nothing to be feen but priefts,
friars, and ftudents, many of whom beg alms with a
fong ; and nothing to be heard but the ringing of
bells ; that there are very few families of quality ; that
the vulgar are very clownifh ; and that the noblemen
of the chapter ftay no longer in town than their duty
obliges them. Mr Wright, in his travels, fays, that
the women go veiled ; and that the beft gin is that
diftilled from the juniper berries which grow in this
neighbourhood. This city is perhaps the moft re¬
markable of any in the world for the great number of
precious relics it contains, of which the Popifti clergy,
no
COL [ 269 ] COL
Cologne, no doubt make their advantage. In the church of
v St Urfula, they pretend to fhow her tomb, and the
bones of the 11,000 pretended virgin martyrs, though
that ftory is entirely owing to a miftaken infeription.
The heads of fome of thefe imaginary martyrs are kept
in cafes of filver, others are covered with fluffs of gold,
and fome have caps of cloth of gold and velvet. Bre-
vat fays, he faw between 400© and 5000 fkulls, decked
with garlands, and coronets, ranged on fhelves. The
Canoneffes of St Urfula, who muff be all counteffes,
have a handfome income. In their church they pre¬
tend to fhow three of the thorns of our SaviouUs
crown, and one of the veffels which contained the
water that he converted into wine at the marriage of
Cana. In the church of St Gereon are 900 heads of
Moorifh cavaliers, faid to have been in the army of
Conflantine before it was converted, and to have been
beheaded for refufing to facrifice to idols. Every
one of the heads has a cap of fcarlet, adorned with
pearls. In the magnificent cathedral of St Peter, the
three wife men who came from the eaft to vifit our
Saviour, are faid to be interred. They lie in a large
purple fhrine fpangled with gold, fet upon a pedef-
tal of brafs, in the midfl of a fquare maufoleum, faced
within and without with marble and jafper. It is
opened every morning at nine o’clock, if two of the
canons of the cathedral are prefent, when thefe kings
or wdfe men are feen lying at full length, with their
heads bedecked with a crown of gold garnifhed with
precious ftones. Their names, which are Gafper, Mel-
chier, and Balthafar, are in purple charafters on a
little grate, which is adorned with an infinite number
of large rich pearls and precious ftones, particularly
an oriental topaz as big as a pigeon’s egg, and valued
at above 30,000 crowns. Over againft them are fix
large branches of filver, with wax candles, which burn
night and day. The bones of thefe men, we are told,
were brought to Conftantinople by Helena mother to
Conftantine, from thence to Milan by Euftorpius
bifhop of that fee, and afterwards hither by Arcbbifiiop
Rainold. In the Jefuits college are the portraits of
the firft 13 generals of that order, with Ignatius Lo¬
yola at their head y and in the church, ■which is the
fineft in Cologne, are many rich ftatues, with an ama¬
zing quantity of fine filver- plate ; and the utenfils for
mafs are all of gold enriched with precious ftones. In
the Cordeliers church, is the tomb of the famous Duns'
Scotus, furnamed DoBor Subii/is, with this epitaph,
“ Scotia me genuit, Anglia me fufeepit, Gallia me
docuit, Colognia me tenet.” Cologne is a free impe¬
rial city, and as fuch has a feat and voice at the diets'
of the empire, and circle of the Lower Rhine. In
thofe of the empire, it has the firft place on the Rhe-
niib bench. Towards the defence of the empire, its
affeffment is 825 florins ; and towards the maintenance
of the chamber-court, 405 rix-dollars 72-i kruitzers,
each term. Its militia confifts of four companies of
foot, who keep guard at the gates. It is governed
by its own fenate, in refpeft to civil matters and
caufes ; but the criminal jurifdidtion belongs to the
ele&or and his chapter ; and fo jealous are the inha¬
bitants of him, that they will not permit him to ftay
in the city above three days at a time, nor to come
into it with a large retinue. For this reafon the elec¬
tor refides commonly at Bonn. Cologne furrendered to Cologne-
the French in 1794. Eaith
CoioGNE-Eartb, a kind of very light baftard ochre, c0km.
of a deep brown colour. u—y——i
COLOMBO, a handfome, pleafant, and ftrong town
of Afia, feated on the eaftern fide of the ifland of
Ceylon in the Eaft Indies. It was built by the For-
tuguefe in 1638 ; and in 1658 they were driven from
it by the natives, aflifted by the Dutch, who are now
in poffeffion of it. It is about three quarters of a mile
long, and as much in breadth. The natives live in
the old town, wdthout the walls of the new, the ftreets
of this laft are wide and fpacious; and the buildings
are in the modern tafte, particularly the governor’s
houfe which is a handfome ftrudture. E. Long. 80. 25.
N. Lat. 7. 10.
COLOMEY, or Colomia, a town of Poland in
Red Ruffia, feated on the river Pruth, in E. Long.
25. 9. N. Lat. 48. 45.
COLOMNA, Fabio, a very learned botanift, bom
at Naples about the year 1567. He became {killed
in the languages, in mufic, defigning, painting, and'
the mathematics ; and died about the middle of the
17th century. He wrote, 1. (bvTofiettrayos, feu Planta-
tarum aliquot (ac pifeium) hilloria. 2. Minus cogni-
tarurn rariorumque ftirpium = itemque de aqua-
tilibus, aliifque nonnullis ammalibus, libellus ; and
and works.
COLON, in Anatomy, the firft and moft confider-
able of the large inteftines. See Anatomy, N° J94.
Colon, in Grammar, a point, or character formed-
thus [:], ferving to mark a paufe, and to divide the
members of a period. See Pointing ; fee alfo Pe¬
riod, Comma, and Semicolon. Grammarians gene¬
rally affign the ufe of a colon to be, to mark the mid¬
dle of a period ; or to conclude a fenfe lefs perfect than
the dot or period:—but, a fenfe lefs perfect than the-
period, is an expreffion extremely vague and indeter¬
minate. See Period.
Others fay, a colon is to be ufed when the fenfe is
perfect, but the fentence not concluded ; but neither
is this over clear and exprefs.
A late author, in an ingenious difeourfe, De ratione
interpungendi, marks the office of the colon, and where¬
in it differs from the femicolon, &c. more precifelyv
A colon, on his principles, ferves to diftinguifh thofe
conjundl members of a fentence, which are capable of
being divided into other members ; whereof one, at
leaft, is conjunft. Thus, in the fentence, As we can¬
not difeern the jhadove moving along the dial-plate, fo the'
advances we make in knowledge are only perceived by
the di/lance gone over ; the two members being both
Ample, are only feparated by a comma. In this, As
we perceive the Jhadow to have moved, but did not per¬
ceive it moving; fo our advances in underfunding, in
that they conff of fuch minute feps, are only perceivable
by the difance ;—the fentence being divided into two
equal parts, and thofe conjunct ones, fince they include
others ; we feparate the former by a femicolon, and
the latter by commas. But in this, As we perceive
the fhadow to have moved along the dial, but did not
perceive it moving ; and it appears the grafs has grown,
though nobody ever faw it grow : fo the advances we
make in knowledge, as they conff of fuch minute feps,
are
l
COL [ 270 ]
Colonel are only perceivable by the diftance—^t advancement of Belgica,
COL
furnanted alfo Ulpia, (Antonine) ; and
Colonia
Trajana.
in knowledge is compared to the motion of a fltadow,
and the growth of grafs •, which comparifon divides
1 the fentence into two principal parts : but fince what
is faid of the movement of the {hadow, and likewife of
the growth of grafs, contains two fimple members,
they are to be feparated by a femicolon ; confequently
a higher pointing is required to feparate them from the
other part of the fentence, which they are oppofed to :
and this is a colon. See Punctuation.
COLONEL, in military matters, the commander
in chief of a regiment, wdiether horfe, foot, or dra-
goons. . f
Skinner derives the word from colony, being ot
opinion, the chiefs of colonies, called crdomales, might
give the name to chiefs of forces. In the French and
Spanilh armies, colonel is confined to the infantry and
dragoons : the commanding officer of a regiment of
horfe they ufually call mejlre de camp. Formerly, in-
itead of colonel, the French ufed the word coronel j
and this old fpelling comes nearer to our common way
of pronouncing the word colonel.
A colonel may lay any officer of his regiment in
arreft, but muft acquaint the general with it •, he is
not allowed a guard, only a fentry from the quarter-
guard.
CoLONEL-Lieutenant, he who commands a regiment
of guards, whereof the king, prince, or other perfon
of the firft eminence, is colonel. Thefe colonel-lieu¬
tenants have always a colonel’s commiffion, and are
ufually general officers.
Lieutenant-CoioNEL, the fecond officer in a regiment,
■who is at the head of the captains, and commands in
the abfence of the colonel.
COLONIA, in Ancient Geography^ a town of the
Trinobantes, a little above Camelodunum. Now Col-
chefter in Effex, according to Camden, who fuppofes
it to take its name from the river Colne, and not that
it was a colony j though others think Antonine s di-
Itances agree with Sudbury.
Colonia Equejlris, an ancient and noble colony on
the Lacus Lemanus. It appears to be the work of
Julius Csefar, who fettled there Equites Limatenei ; and
to this Lucan is thought to refer. By the Itinerary it
is fuppofed to have flood between Laufanne and Gene¬
va, 12 miles from the laft place by Peutinger’s map,
which directs to Nyon, placed in Cavo Lemano, ac¬
cording to Lucan’s expreffion, that is, a bay or cove
of the lake. Its ancient name was Noviodunum, (No-
titia Galliae) : hence its modern name.
Colonia Metallina, or Metallinenjis, a town of Lu-
fitania, fituated on the right or weft fide of the Anas,
or Guadiana *, but now on the left or eaft fide, from
the river’s fhifting its bed or channel, and called Me-
delin, a town in Eftremadura. W. Long. 6. 12. Lat.
38. 45.
Colonia Morinorum, a towm of Belgica, thought
to be Tarvenna, the capital of the Morini. Now
Terrouen, a town of Artois. E. Long. 2. 15. Lat.
5°. 37.
Colonia Norbenjis, or Norba Cafarea, a towm of
Lufitania, to the fouth of Trajan’s bridge on the Ta¬
gus. Now Alcantara, in Eftremadura. W. Long.
7. 10. N. Lat. 39 10.
Colonia 7rajana, (Antonine, Peutinger) j a town
X
Ericejima, from being the ftation of the thirtieth le¬
gion, (Ammian). Now Kellen, a village of the
duchy of Cleves, a mile from the Rhine,
Colonia Valentia, (Ptolemy, Livy); a town of
the Hither Spain, on the Turias ; deftroyed by Pom-
pey, (Salluft) ; reftored by Julius Ctefar. Still cal¬
led Valencia, on the river Guadalaviar, in Valencia.
\V. Long. 35. Lat. 39. 20.
COLONNA, a town of Italy, in the Campagna of
Rome, 18 miles eaftward of that city. E. Long. 12.
56. N. Lat. 41. 55.
Colonna, Pompey, cardinal archbiflrop of Mon¬
treal in Sicily, and biftiop of a very great number of
places, made a confpicuous figure in the world. Fie
was equally qualified to wear the cardinal’s hat and
the helmet, and experienced more than once the re¬
veries of fortune. Julius II. removed him from all
his dignities ; but Leo I. reftored him, created him
cardinal, and fent him on feveral embaflies. . Cle¬
ment VII. divefted him of the purple, and again re¬
ftored him to it. It was pretended he was obliged to
him for his exaltation to the papal throne. . The pope
refufing him fome requeft, he reproached him, faying,
“ That it was by his intereft he had arrived at his
dignity.” The pope replied, “ It is true, but let me
be pope, and do not endeavour to be fo yourfelf; for
by a fling as you do, you endeavour to difpoflefs me
of that you have railed me to.” He died viceroy of
Naples in 1532. He wrote fome poems in praife of
Ifabella Filamarini, in which he protefts the chaftity
of his wifhes. He wwote another work, De landibus
mulierum.
COLONNADE, in ArchiteBure, a periftyle of a
circular figure ; or a feries of columns difpoled in a
circle, and infulated wuthin fide.
A Polyflyle Colonnade, is that whofe numbers of
columns are too great to be taken in by the eye at a^
fingle view. Such is the colonnade of the palace of
St Peter’s at Rome, confifting of 284 columns of the
Doric order, each above four feet and a half diameter,
all in Tiburtine marble.
COLONOS, in Ancient Geography, zn eminence
near Athens, whither CEdipus, after his baniffiment
from Thebes, is faid to have retired ; and hence it is
that Sophocles calls the tragedy on the fubjeft Oedipus
Coloneus. A place facred to Neptune, and where
flood an equeftrian ftatue of him. Here alfo flood
Timon’s tower; who, for his love of folitude, and ha¬
tred to mankind, was called Mifanthropos, (Paufa-
n*aS)‘ • ttt n.
COLONSAY, one of the Hebrides or Weftern
Ifiands belonging to Scotland. It comprehends that
of Oronfay, from which it is only feparated in time of
flood, and both belong to the fame proprietor, viz.
Mr M'Neil. See Oronsay.
COLONUS, a hufbandman, or villager, who was
bound to pay yearly a certain tribute, or at certain
times of the year to plough fome part or ihe lord s
land ; and from hence comes the word clown, who is
called by the Dutch, boor.
COLONY, a company of people tranlplanted in¬
to a remote province in order to cultivate and inha-
bltWe may diftinguilh three kinds of colonies. Firft,
Colonia
Valentia.
Colony.
COL [
Colony, thofe ferving to eafe or difcharge the inhabitants of a
■—~v 1 country, where the people are become too nume¬
rous, fo that they cannot any longer conveniently
fubfift.
The fecond are thofe eftablifhed by viflorious prin¬
ces, and people in the middle of vanquilhed nations, to
keep them in awe and obedience.
The third may be called colonies of commerce ; be-
caufe, in effefl, it is trade that is the lole occafion and
objeft thereof.
It was by means of the firft kind of colonies that,
fome ages after the deluge, the call; firft, and fuccef-
fively all the other parts of the earth, became inha¬
bited •, and without mentioning any thing of the Phoe¬
nician and Grecian colonies, fo famous in ancient hi-
ftory, it is notorious that it was for the eftabliftiment
of fuch colonies, that, during the declenfion of the em¬
pire, thofe torrents of barbarous nations, iffuing, for
the generality, out of the north, overran the Gauls,
Italy, and the other fouthern parts of Europe ; and,
after feveral bloody battles, divided it with the ancient
inhabitants.
For the fecond kind of colonies, the Romans ufed
them more than any other people ; and that to fecure
the conquefts they had made from the weft to the
eaft. It is well known how many cities in Gaul,
Germany, Spain, and even England, value themfelves
on their having been of the number of Roman colo¬
nies.
There were two kinds of colonies among the Ro¬
mans : thofe fent by the fenate ; and the military ones,
confifting of old foldiers, broken and difabled with the
fatigues of war, who were thus provided with lands
as the reward of their fervices. See Benefice. The
colonies fent by the fenate were either Roman or La¬
tin, i. e. compofed either of Roman citizens or Latins.
The Coloniae Latinae were fuch as enjoyed the jus La-
tii; faid to confift in thofe two things : one, that
whoever was edile or praetor in a town of Latium, be¬
came for that reafon a Roman citizen $ the other, that
the Latins were fubjeft to the edifts of their own and
not to thofe of the Roman magiftrates : in the year of
the city fix hundred and fixty two, after the Social
war, the city was granted to all Latium, by the lex
ju/ia. The coloniae Romance, were fuch as had the
jus Romanum, but not in its full extent; namely, in
the right of fuffrage, putting up for honours, magiftra-
cies, command in the army, &c. ; but the jus Quiri-
tum only, or private right y as right of liberty, of
gentility, or dignity of family, facrifice, marriage, &c.
For it wras long a rule, never to grant the liberty of
the city in full to colonies ; nor is there any inftance
to the contrary, till after the Social war, in the year
of the city fix hundred and fixty-two. According to
Ulpian (1. i. Z). deCenfj, there were other colonies,
which had little more than the name, only enjoying
what they called jus Italicum, i. e. they were free from
the tributes and taxes paid by the provinces. Such
were the colonies of Tyre, Berytus, Heliopolis, Pal¬
myra, &c. M. Vaillant has filled a volume in folio
with medals ftruck by the feveral colonies, in honour
of the emperors who founded them. The ordinary
fymbol they engraved on their medals, was either an
eagle ; as when the veteran legions were diftributed in
the colonies j or a labourer, holding a plough drawn
271 ] COL
by a pair of oxen ; as when the colony confifted of or- Colony,
dinary inhabitants. On all the medals are feen the v
names of the decemviri, who held the fame rank and
had the fame authority there as the confuls had at
Rome.
Laftly, the colonies of commerce, are thofe efta-
bliftied by the Englifh, French, Spaniards, Portuguefe,
and other nations, within thefe two laft centuries, and
which they continue ftill to eftablifh, in feveral parts
of Afia, Africa, and America-, either to keep up a
regular commerce with the natives, or to cultivate the
ground, by planting fugar-canes, indigo, tobacco, and
other commodities. The principal of this kind of co¬
lonies, are in the one and the other America, north¬
ern and fouthern ; particularly Peru, Mexico, Canada
(lately Virginia, New-England, Carolina), la Loui-
fiana, I’Acadia, Hudfon’s Bay, the Antilles iilands,
Jamaica, Domingo, and the other iflands.—In Africa,
Madagafcar, Cape of Good Hope, Cape Verd, and its
Blands, and all thofe vaft coafts extending thence as far
as to the Red fea. Laftly, in Afia, the famous Bata¬
via of the Dutch 5 Goa, Diu, of the Portuguefe ; and
fome other lefs confiderable places of the Englilh,
French, and Danes.
The pra6tice of fettling commercial colonies in di-
ftant countries hath been adopted by the wifeft nations
of antiquity, who afted fyftematically upon maxims
of found policy. This appears to have been the cafe
with the ancient Egyptians, the Chinefe, the Phoeni¬
cians, the commercial ftates of Greece, the Carthagi¬
nians, and even the Romans 5 for though the colonies
of the latter were chiefly military, it could eafily be
(hown that they were likewife made ufe of for the pur-
pofes of trade. The favage nations who ruined the
Roman empire, fought nothing but to extirpate or
hold in vaffalage thofe w'hom they overcame ; and
therefore, whenever princes enlarged their dominions
at the expence of their neighbours, they had recourfe
to ftrong forts and garrifons to keep the conquered in
awe. For this they have been blamed by the famous
Machiavel, who labours to fliow, that the fettling of
colonies would have been a cheaper and better me¬
thod of bridling conquered countries, than building'
fortrefles in them. John de Witt, who was one of
the ableft and beft ftatefmen that ever appeared,
ftrongly recommended colonies ; as affording a refuge
to fuch as had been unfortunate in trade $ as opening
a field for fuch men to exert their abilities, as through
want of intereft could not raife themfelves in their
own country •, and as a fupplement to hofpitals and
other charitable foundations, which he thought in time
might come to be overcharged. Some, however, have
ridiculed the fuppofed advantages of colonies, and af«
ferted that they muft always do mifchief by depopulat¬
ing the mother-country.
The hiftory of the Britifh colonies, undoubtedly
(hows, that when colonifts become numerous and opu¬
lent, it is very difficult to retain them in proper fub-
je&ion to the parent ftate. It becomes then a quef-
tion not vety eafily anfwered, how far they are entit¬
led to the rights they had as inhabitants of the mother-
country, or how far they are bound by its laws ? On
this fubjeft Mr Blackftone hath the following obferva-
tions.
“ Plantations, or colonies in diftant countries, are
either
COL
[ 272 1
COL
Colony, either fuch where the lands are claimed by right of
^ occupancy only, by finding them defert and unculti¬
vated, and peopling them from the mother-country ;
or where, when already cultivated, they have either
been gained by conquert, or ceded to us by treaties.
And both the rights are founded upon the law of na¬
ture, or at lead on that of nations. But there is a
difference between thefe two fpecies or colonies with
refpe£t to the laws by which they are bound. For it
hath been held, that if an uninhabited country be dif-
covered and planted by Englifh fubjefts, all the Eng-^
lifh laws then in being, which are the birthright of
every fubjeft, are immediately there in force. But
this muff be underflood with many and very great re-
firidtions. Such colonifls carry with them only fo
much of the Englifh law as is applicable to their own
fituation, and the condition of an infant comny } fuch,
for inftance, as the general rules of inheritance, and of
protedlion from perfonal injuries. The artificial re¬
finements and diftinclions incident to the property of a
great and commercial people, the laws of policy and
revenue (fuch efpecially as are enforced by penalties),
the mode of maintenance for the eflablifhed clergy, the
jurifdidlion of fpiritual courts, and a multitude of other
provifions, are neither neceffary nor convenient for
them, and therefore are not in force. What fhall be
admitted, and what rejedled, at what times, and under
what reftridlions, mufl, in cafes of dilpute, be decid¬
ed in the firff inftance by their own provincial judica¬
ture, fubjedl to the revifion and controul of the king
in council } the whole of their conftitution being alfo
liable to be new-modelled and reformed by the gene¬
ral fuperintending power of the legiflature in the mo-
ther-country. But in conquered or ceded countries,
that have already laws of their own, the king may in¬
deed alter and change thofe laws ; but, till he does
a (finally change them, the ancient laws of the country
remain, unlefs fuch as are againft the law of God, as
in an infidel country. Our American plantations are
principally of this latter fort, being obtained in the
laft century, either by right of conqueft and driving
out the natives (with what natural juftice 1 (hall not at
prefent inquire), or by treaties. And therefore, the
common law of England, as fuch, has no allowance or
authority there ; they being no part of the mother-
country, but diftimfl (though dependent) dominions.
They are fubjeft, however, to the controul of the par¬
liament •, though (like Ireland, Mann, and the reft)
not bound by any a£ls of parliament, unlefs particular¬
ly named.”
With refpe£l to their interior polity, our colonies,
whether thofe wre formerly pofleffed or ftill poffefs,
may be diftinguifhed into three forts, i. Provincial
eftablifhments, the conftitutions of which depend on
the refpe£live commiflions iffued by the crown to
the governors, and the inftruftions which ufually ac¬
company thofe commiflions ", under the authority of
which provincial affemblies are conftituted, with the
power of making local ordinances not repugnant to
the laws of Britain. 2. Proprietary governments,
granted out by the crown to individuals, in the nature
pf feudatory principalities, with all their inferior rega¬
lities, and fubordinate powers of legiflation, which
formerly belonged to the owners of counties palatine 5
yet ftill with thefe exprefs conditions, that the ends
f:har-Co!ophony-,
for which the grant was made be fubftantially purfued, Colony
and that nothing be attempted which may derogate
from the fovereignty of the mother-country. 3. Char- __
ter governments, in the nature of civil corporations j
with the power of making bye-laws for their own in¬
terior regulation, not contrary to the laws oi Britain j
and with fuch rights and authorities as are fpecially
given them in their feveral charters of incorporation.
The form of government, in molt of them, is bor¬
rowed from that of England. They have a governor
named by the king (or, in fome proprietary colonies,
by the proprietor), who is representative or deputy.
They have courts of juftice of their own, from whofe
decifions an appeal lies to the king in council here in
England. Their general affemblies, which are their
houfe of commons, together with their council of ftate,
being their upper houfe, with the concurrence of the
king, or his reprefentative the governor, make laws
fuited to their own emergencies. But it is particu¬
larly declared, by flat. 7 and 8 W. HI. c. 22. that all
laws, bye-laws, ufages, and cuftoms, which (hall be in
pradlice in any of the plantations, repugnant to any
law made or to be made in this kingdom relative to
the faid plantations, ftiall be utterly void _ and of none
effett. And, becaufe feveral of the colonies had claim¬
ed the foie and exclufive right of impofmg taxes upon
themfelves, the ftatute 6 Geo. III. c. 12. exprefsly
declares, that all his majefty's colonies in America,
have been, are, and of right ought, to be, lubordinate
to and dependent upon the imperial crown and par¬
liament of Great Britain, who have full power and
authority to make laws and ftatutes of fufticient vali¬
dity to bind the colonies and people of America, fub-
iedls to the crown of Great Britain in all cafes what-
foever. And the attempting to enforce this by other
a6ls of parliament, penalties, and at laft by military
power, gave rife, as is well known, to the late revolt
and final feparation of thirteen colonies. See the arti¬
cle America. This country is now detached from
Britain, and confifts of 13 independent Hates, fome-
times denominated the United Frovinces.
COLOPHON, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Ionia, in the Hither Afia, on a promontory on the E-
gean fea, and waftied by the Haleius. 1 he ancient
Colophon was deftroyed by Lyfimachus, in his war
with Antigonus, in order to enlarge Ephefus. Pau-
fanias fays, it was rebuilt in the neighbourhood, m a
more commodious fcite. This was one of tne cities
that laid claim to Homer. Qolophonem addere, a pro¬
verbial faying, explained by Strabo to denote, that tne
Colophonian horfe turned the fcales in favour of the
fide on which they fought. The Colophonians had a
grove, a temple, and an oracle of Apollo Clarms
(Strabo). Of this town was the poet Antimachus,
remarked on for his turgid ftyle by Catullus. He
wrote a life of Homer, whom he makes a Colophonian
^ COLOPHONY, in Pharmacy, black refin, or tur¬
pentine, boiled in water, and afterwards dried ; or,
which is ftill better, the caput mortuum remaining af-
the diftillation of the ethereal oil, being further
ter
urged by a more intenfe and long continued fire.—It
receives its name of colophonia, from Colophon, a city
of Ionia, becaufe the beft was formerly brought from
thence. Two forts are mentioned in ancient writings;
the.
COL [ 273 ] COL
Cofoquin- the one dry, the other in a liquid ftate. The latter
uda feems to have been liquid pitch, which is the crude
Colour re^n t^e P^ne brouSht ^rom Colophon ; the other
>r 0 1 ' 1 was called refina fri&a, and confided only of the for¬
mer deprived of its humid parts.
COLOQUINTIDA, in Botany. See Cucumis.
COLORATURA, in Mujtc, denotes all manner of
variations, trillos, diminutions, &c. ferving to make a
fong agreeable.
COLORNO, a town of Italy, in the Parmafan,
near the river Po, eight miles from Parma. The duke
of Parma has a pleafure-houfe here, one of the moft
delightful feats in all Italy, and the gardens are very
fine. E. Long. 9. 15. N. Lat. 44. 54.
COLOSSiE, or Colose^e, in Ancient Geogra¬
phy, a confiderable town of Phrygia Magna, in wLich
the Lycus falls into a gulf, and at the diftance of five
ffadia emerges again, and runs into the Meander (He¬
rodotus). Others fay, the genuine name is Colojfce,
and the people Colojfenfes, to whom St Paul wrote an
epiftle : Strabo calls them ColoJJ'eni. In Nero’s time
the town was deftroyed by an earthquake (Orofius).
COLOSSUS, a flatue of enormous or gigantic fize.
The mod eminent of this kind was the colodus of
Rhodes, a datue of Apollo, fo high, that drips paded
with full fails betwixt its legs. It was the workman-
fliip of Chares, a difciple of Lyfippus, who fpent 12
years in making it: it was at length overthrown by an
earthquake, after having dood 1360 years. Its height
was fix fcore and fix feet: there wTere few people who
could fathom its thumb, &c. When the Saracens be¬
came poflefled of the idand, the datue was found pro-
drate on the ground : they fold it to a Jew, who load¬
ed 900 camels with the brafs.
The balls that fupported it was a triangular figure ;
its extremities wTere fudained with 60 pillars of marble.
There was a winding daircafe to go up to the top of
it, from whence one might difcover Syria, and the
drips that went into Egypt, in a great looking-glafs,
that was hung about the neck of the datue. Among
the antiquities of Rome, there are feven famous colof-
fufes ; two of Jupiter, as many of Apollo, one of Ne¬
ro, one of Domitian, and one of the Sun.
COLOSTRUM, the fird milk of any animal after
bringing forth young, called in fome places beejiings.
It is remarkable that this milk is generally cathartic,
and purges the meconium; thus ferving both as an
aliment and medicine.
An emulfion prepared with turpentine diflfolved
with the yolk of an egg, is fometimes called by this
name.
COLOSWAR, a large and celebrated town of
Tranfylvania, where the fenates have their meetings.
It is feated on the river Samos, in E. Long. 21. 35.
N. Lat. 46. 53.
COLOUR, in Phyfics, a property inherent in light,
by which, according to the various fizes of its parts,
or from fome other caufe, it excites different vibrations
in the optic nerve 5 which propagated to the fenforium,
affe£t the mind with different fenfations. See Chro¬
matics and Optics.
Colour, in Painting, is applied both to the drugs,
and to the tints produced by thofe drugs varioudy mix¬
ed and applied.
The principal colours ufed by painters are red and
Vol. VI. Part I.
wLite lead, or cerufe ; yellow and red ochres ; feveral Colours,
kinds of earth, umbre, orpiment, lamp-black, burnt
ivory, black lead, cinnabar or vermilion, gamboge,
lacca, blue and green allies, verdigris, biftre, bice,
fmalt, carmine, ultramarine : each of which, with
their ufes, &c. are to be found under their proper ar¬
ticles.
Of thefe colours fome are ufed tempered with gum-
water, fome ground with oil, others only in frefco,
and others for miniature.
Painters reduce all the colours they ufe under thefe
two claffes, of dark and light colours: dark colours
are black, and all others that are obfeure and earthy,
as umbre, biftre, &c.
Under light colours are comprehended white, and all
that approach neareft to it.
Painters alfo diftinguilh colours into fimple and
mineral.
Under fimple colours they rank all thofe which are
extracted from vegetables, and which will not bear
the fire ; as the yellow made of faffron, French ber¬
ries, lacca, and other tindlures extracted from flowers,
ufed by limners, illuminers, &c.
The mineral colours are thofe which being drawn
from metals, &c. are able to bear the fire, and there¬
fore ufed by enamellers. Changeable and permanent
colours is another divifion, which, by fome, is made of
colours.
Changeable colours are fuch as depend on the fitua-
tion of the objects with refpedt to the eye, as that of
a pigeon’s neck, taffeties, &c. the firft, however, be¬
ing attentively viewed by the microfcope, each fibre
of the feathers appears compofed of feveral little
fquares, alternately red and green, fo that they are fix¬
ed colours.
JVater-CoLOURS, are fuch as are ufed in painting
wfith gum-water or fize, without being mixed with
oil.
Incapacity of diftinguifhing Colours. Of this extra¬
ordinary defeat in vilion, wre have the follow’ing in-
ftances in the Philofophical Tranfaftions for 1777*
One of the perfons lived at Maryport in Cumberland.
The account wras communicated by Mr Huddart to
Dr Prieftley, and is as follows. “ His name w'as
Harris, by trade a ftioemaker. I had often heard
from others, that he could difeern the form and mag¬
nitude of all objetts very diftindlly, but could not di-
ftinguifh colours. This report having excited my cu-
riofity, I converfed with him frequently on this fub-
je£L The account he gave was this : That he had
reafon to believe other perfons faw fomething in ob-
jefts which he could not fee that their language
feemed to mark qualities wdth precifion and confidence,
which he could only guefs at with hefitation, and fre¬
quently with error. His firft fulpicion of this arofe
when he was about four years old. Having by acci¬
dent found in the ftreet a child’s flocking, he carried
it to a neighbouring houfe to inquire for the owner ;
he obferved the people called it a red flocking, though
he did not underftand why they gave it that denomi¬
nation, as he himfelf thought it completely deferibed
by being called a flocking. This circumftance, how¬
ever, remained in his memory, and, together with fub-
fequent obfervations, led him to the knowledge of his
defefh
“ He
M m
COL
“ He alfo obferved, that when young, other chil¬
dren could difcern cherries on a tree, by lome pretend¬
ed difference of colour, though he could only diftin-
guifh them from the leaves by the difference of their
hze and ihape. He obferved alfo, that by means of
this difference of colour they could fee the cherries at
a greater diftance than he could, though he could fee
other objefls at as a great a diftance as they, that is,
where the fight was not aflifted by the colour. Large
objefts he could fee as well as other perfons; and
even the fmaller ones if they were not enveloped in
other things, as in the cafe of cherries among the
leaves.
“ I believe he could never do more than guefs the
name of any colour j yet he could diftinguifh wftiite
from black, or black from any light or bright colour.
Love or ftraw colour he called white, and different
colours he frequently called by the fame name •, yet
he could difcern a difference between them when pla¬
ced together. In general, colours of an equal degree
of brightnefs, however they rriight otherwife differ, he
confounded together. Yet a ftriped ribbon he could
diftinguifh from a plain one j but he could not tell
what the colours were with any tolerable exadlnefs.
Lark colours, in general, he often miftook for black ;
but never imagined w’hite to be a dark colour, nor
dark to be a white colour.
“ He was an intelligent man, and very defirous of
underftanding the nature of light and colours j for
which end he had attended a courfe of leftures in na¬
tural philofophy.
“ He had two brothers in the fame circumftances as
to fight ; and two other brothers and fillers, who, as
well as their parents, had nothing of this defeat.
“ One of the fiift mentioned brothers, who is now
living, I met with at Lublin, and wifhed to try his
capacity to diftinguifh the colours in a prifm ; but not
having one by me, I afked him, whether he had ever
feen a"rainbow ? he replied, He had often, and could
diftinguifh the different colours 5 meaning only, that it
was compofed of different colours, for he could not tell
what they were.
“ I then procured, and fhowed him a piece of rib¬
bon ; he immediately, and without any difficulty, pro¬
nounced it a ftriped, and not a plain, ribbon. He
then attempted to name the different ftripes : the fe-
veral ftripes of white he uniformly and without hefi-
tation called white ; the four black ftripes he was de¬
ceived in ) for three of them he thought brown,
though they were exactly of the fame fhade with the
other, which he properly called black. He fpoke,
however, with diffidence, as to all tboie ftripes ; and
it muft be owned, that the black was not very di-
ftinfl; the light green he called yellow7", but he was
not very pofitive •, he faid, “ I think this is what you
call yellow.” The middle ftripe, which had a flight
tinge of red, he called a fort of blue. But he was
moft of all deceived by the orange colour, of wffiich he
fpoke very confidently, faying, “ This is the colour of
grafs, this is green.” I alfo fhowed him a great va¬
riety of ribbons, the colour of which he fometimes
named rightly, and fometimes as differently as poffible
from the true colour.
“ I afked him, whether he imagined it poffible for
all the various colours he faw to be mere difference of
COL
light and fhade ; and that all colours could be compo- Colour,
fed of tbefe tw7o mixtures only ? With fome hefitation
he replied, No, he did imagine there was fome other
difference.
“ It is proper to add, that the experiment of the
ftriped ribbon was made in the day-time, and in a good
light.”
Colours for falning different hinds of Stones. See
Chemistry.
Colour, in Dyeing. See Lyeing.
Colour of Plants, is an attribute found to be very
variable. Lifferent colours are obferved, not only in
different individuals of the fame fpecies, but likewife in
different parts of the fame individual. Thus, marvel
of Peru, and fweet-william, have frequently petals of
different colours on the fame plant. Three or four
different colours are frequently found upon the fame
leaf or flower, as on the leaves of the amaranthus
tricolor, and the flowers of the tulip, auricula, three-
coloured violet and others. To produce The moft
beautiful and linking variety of colours in fuch
flowers, is the principal delight and bufinefs of the
florift.
The primitive colours, and their intermediate ftiades
or gradations enumerated by botanifts, are as follow7 :
Water-colours, hyal'mus.
W HITE.
Lead-colour, cinereus.
Black, niger.
Brown,/h/ew.
Pitch-black, atcr.
Yellow, luteus.
Straw-colour, fiavus.
Flame-colour, fulvus.
Iron-colour, gilvus.
Red.
Fltfh-colour, incarnatus.
Scarlet, coccmeus.
Purple.
Violet-colour, cteruleo-purpureus.
Blue, car ulcus.
Green.
Tbefe colours feem to be appropriated to particular
parts of the plant. Thus, white is moft common in
roots, fvveet berries, and the petals of fpring flowers.
Water-colour, in the filaments and ftyles. Black, in
the roots and feeds •, rarelv in the feed-veffel, and
fcarce ever to be found in the petals. Yellow is fre¬
quently in the antherae or tops of the ftamina ; as like¬
wife in the petals of autumnal flowers, and the com¬
pound legulated flow7ers of Linnaeus. Red is common
in the petals of fummer flowers, and in the acid fruits.
Blue and violet-colour, in the petals. Green, in the
leaves and calyx, but rarely in the petals. In the in¬
terchanging of colours, which in plants is found to
depend upon differences in heat, climate, foil, and cul¬
ture, a fort of ele£live attraftion is obferved to take
place. Thus, red is more eafily changed into white
and blue ; blue into white and yellow j yellow into
white \ and white into purple. A red colour is often
changed into a white, in the flowers of heath, mother
of thyme, betony, pink, vifeous campion, cucuhalus,
trefoil, orchis, fox-glove, thift.le, cudweed, faw-wort,
[ 274 1
Colour.
COl.' [
rofe, poppy, fumitory, and geranium. Red pafies in¬
to blue in pimpernel. Blue is changed into white in
bell-flower, greek-valerian, bindweed, columbine, violet
vetch, milk-wort, goat’s rue, viper’s buglols, comfrey,
borrage, hyffop, dragon’s head, fcabious, blue-bottle,
and fuccory. Blue is changed into yellow in crocus.
Yellow paffes eaflly into white in melilot, agrimony,
mullein, tulip, blattaria, or moth-mullein, and corn ma¬
rigold. White is changed into purple in wood-forrel,
thorn-apple, peafe, and daily.
Although plants are fometimes obferved to change
their colour upon being moiftened with coloured juices,
vet that quality in vegetables feems not fo much
owing to the nature of their nourilhment, as to the ac¬
tion of the internal and external air, heat, light, and
the primitive organization of the parts. In fupport
of this opinion, we may obferve with Dr Grew, that
there is a far lefs variety in the colours of roots than
of the other parts of the plant •, the pulp within the
{kin, being dually white, fometimes yellow, rarely
red.’ That this effea is produced by their fmall m-
tercourfe with the external air appears from this cir-
cumftance, that the upper parts of roots, when they
happen to ftand naked above the ground, are often
dyed with feveral colours \ thus the tops or fori el
roots turn red ; thofe of turnips, mullein, and radifhes,
purple ; and many others green ; whillt thofe parts of
the fame roots which lie more under ground are com¬
monly white. The green colour is fo proper to leaves,
that many, as thofe of fage, the young fprouts of St
John’s wort, and others which are reddifh when in the
bud, acquire a perfeft green upon being fully expand¬
ed. In like manner, the leaves of the fea-fide grape, (/><?-
ly^onum), which when young are entirely red, become,
as they advance in growth, perfeftly green, except the
middle and tranfverfe ribs, which retain their former
colour.
As flowers gradually open and are expofed to the
air, they throw off their old colour, and acquire a new
one. In faft, no flower has its proper colour till it is
fully expanded. I hus the purple flock-julyflowers
are white or pale in the bud. In like manner ba¬
chelor’s buttons, blue-bottle, poppy, red dailies, and
many other flowers, though of divers colours when
blown, are all white in the bud. Nay, many flowers
change their colours thrice fucceflively ; thus, the very
young buds of lady’s looking-glafs, buglofs, and the
like, are all white ; the larger buds purple, or murrey;
and the open flowers blue.
With refpeff to the colours of the juices of plants,
we may obferve, that moll refinous gums are tin&ured;
fours, however, are limpid j that which drops from the
domeltic pine is clear as rock-water. The milk of
fotne plants is pale, as in burdock 5 of others white, as
in dandelion, euphorbium, and fcorzonera and of
others yellow, as in lovage, and greater celandine.
Mofl mucilages have little colour, talle, or Imell. Of
all the colours above enumerated, green is the nroft
common to plants, black the moft rare.
Colour being a quality in plants fo apt to change,
ought never to be employed in diftinguifhing their
fpecies. Thefe ought to be chara&erized from cir-
cumftances not liable to alteration by culture or other
accidents. The fame inconftancy of colour obferved
in the flowers, is likewife to be found in the other
2 75 1 COL
parts of plants. Berries frequently change from green ^
to red, and from red to white. liven in ripe firms,
the colour, whether white, red, or blue, is apt to vaiyj
particularly in apple, pear, plum, and cherry trees.
Seeds are more conilant in point of colour than the
veflel which contains them. In the feeds, however,
of the poppy, oats, pea, bean, and kidney-bean, va¬
riations are frequently obferved. 1 he root, too, al¬
though not remarkably fubjeft to change, is found to
vary in lome fpecies of carrot and radiflr. Leaves
frequently become fpotted, as in a fpecies of orchis,
hawk-weed, ranunculus, knot-grafs, and lettuce ; but
feldom relinquifh their green colour altogether. 1'hofe
of fome fpecies of amaranthus, or flower-gentle, are
beautifully coloured. The fpots that appear on the
furface of the leaves are of different colours, liable to
vary, and not feldom difappear altogether. d he
leaves of officinal lung-wort, and fome fpecies of iou-
bread, forrel, trefoil, and ranunculus, are covered with
white fpots. Thofe of dog’s-tooth violet, with purple
and white. Thofe of feveral fpecies of ranunculus, and
orchis with black and purple. Thofe of amaranthus tri¬
color, with green, red, and yellow. Thofe of ranunculus
acris,’and a fpecies of bog-bean, with red or purple. The
under furface of the leaves of fome fpecies of pimpernel
and the fea-plantain is marked with a number of dots or
points ; a white line runs through the leaves of Indian'
reed, black-berried heath, and a fpecies of Canaiy
grafs : and the margin or brim of the leaf, in fome fpe¬
cies of box, honeyfuckle, ground-ivy, and the ever¬
green oak, is of a filver-white colour, dhe whole plant
is often found to affume a colour that is unnatural or
foreign to it. The varieties in fome fpecies of eryngq,
mug-wort, orrach, amaranthus, purflane, and lettuce,
furnifli examples.
Such being the inconflancy of colour in all the parts
of the plant, fpecific names derived from that quality
are very properly, by Linna;us, deemed enoneousj
whether they refpeft the colour of the flowei, fiuit,
feeds, root, leaves, or exprefs in general the beauty
or deformity of the entire plant, with a particular
view to that circumftance. Of this impropriety, com¬
mitted by former botanifts, Linnseus himlelf is not al¬
ways guiltlefs. Thus the two fpecies offarraccna, or
the fide-faddle flower, are diftinguilhed by the colour
of their petals into the yellow and purple iairacena;
although the (hapes and'figure of the leaves afforded
much more conftant as well as ftriking characters. The
fame may be faid of his lupinus albus and luteus j ic-
feda alba, glauca, and lutea ; angelica atro-purpurea.;
diCtamnus albus ; Inmium album ; felago coccinea; fida
alba ; pafliflora rubra, lutea, incarnata, and cocrulea ;
and of many others, in which the ipecific name is de¬
rived from a character or quality that is lo liable to vaiy
in the fame fpecies.
We (hall conclude this article with obferving,_ that
of all feniible qualities, colour is t.ie leaft ufeful in in¬
dicating the virtues and powers of vegetables^. I he
following general pofltions on this lubjetl are laid dovsn
by Limiceus, and feem fufficiently conmmed by ex¬
periment. A yellow colour generally indicates a bitter
tafte; as in gentian, aloe, celandine, turmeric, and other
vellow flowers. Red indicates an acid or foui tafte ,
as in cranberries, barberries, currants, rafpberries,
mulberries, cherries ; the fruit of the rofe, iea-buck-
M m z thorn,
Colour.
COL [ 276 ] COL
Colours, thorn, and fervice-tree. Herbs that turn red towards
Colour- auturnn, have likewife a four tafte ; as forrel, wood-
,s’ , forrel, and bloody dock. Green indicates a crude al¬
kaline talfe, as in leaves and unripe fruits. A pale co¬
lour denotes an infipid tafte, as in endive, afparagus,
and lettuce. White promifes a fweet lufcious taite ;
as in white currants and plums, fweet apples, &c.
Laftly, black indicates a harlh, naufeous, difagreeable
tafte 5 as in the berries of deadly nightfhade, myrtle¬
leaved fumach, herb-chriftopher, and others 5 many of
which are not only unpleafant to the tafte, but perni¬
cious and deadly in their effedts.
To be afcertained of the acid or alkaline property
of any plant, exprefs.fome of the juice, and rub it up¬
on a piece of blue paper •, which, if the plant in que-
ftion is of an acid nature, will turn red ; if of an alka¬
line, green. For the methods of extradling colours
from the different parts of plants, fee the article
Colour- Making.
Difference of Colour of the Human Species. See Com¬
plexion.
Colour, in Heraldry. The colours generally ufed
in heraldry are, red, blue, black, green, and purple ;
which the heralds call gules, arzure, fable, vert orJinople,
and. purpure; tenne, or tawny, and fanguine, are not
fo common ; as to yellow and white, called or and ar¬
gent, they are metals, not colours.
The metals and colours are fometimes expreffed in
blazon by the names of precious ftones, and fometimes
by thofe of planets or liars. See Blazoning.
CEnomaus is faid firft to have invented the difiinc-
tions of colours, to diflinguifh the gundillm of comba¬
tants at the Circenfian games $ the green for thofe
who reprefented the earth, and blue for thofe who re-
prefented the fea.
Colours, in the military art, include the banners,
flags, enfigns, &c. of all kinds, borne in the army or
fleet. See Flag and Standard.'
Colours, in the Latin and Greek churches, are
ufed to diflinguifh feveral myfieries and feafts celebra¬
ted therein.
Five colours only are regularly admitted into the
Latin church : thefe are white, green, red, violet, and
black. The white is for the myfleries of our Saviour,
the feafl of the Virgin, thofe of the angels, faints, and
confeiTors : the red is for the myfieries and folemnities
of the holy facrament, the fcafts of the apofiles and
martyrs 5 the green for the time between pentecofl and
advent, and from epiphany to feptuagefima; the violet
in advent and Chrifimas, in vigils, rogations, &c. and
in votive maffes in time of war •, lafily, the black is for
the dead, and the ceremonies thereto belonging.
In the Greek church, the ufe of colours is almofi
abolifhed, as well as among us. Red wTas, in the Greek
church, the colour for Chrifimas and the dead, as black
among us.
To Colour Strangers Goods, is when a freeman al¬
lows a foreigner to enter goods at the cufiomhoufe in
his name.
CoiouR-Making, the art of preparing the different
kinds of colours ufed in painting.
This art properly belongs to chemifiry j and is one
of the mofl curious, though leaf! underflood, parts of
it. The principles on which colour-making depends
are entirely different from thofe on which the theory Colour,
of other parts of chemifiry is founded j and the pra£li- making,
cal part being in the hands of thofe who find it their '
interefi to conceal their methods as much as poflible,
it thence happens, that there is not only no diflinft
theory of this art, but fcarce a fingle good receipt for
making any one colour hath ever appeared.
The firfl general divifion of colours is into opaque ^.^5
and tranfparent. By the firfl are meant fuch colours
as, when laid over paper, wood, &c. cover them fully to opaque
fo as to efface any other painting or fiain that might and tranf.
have been there before $ the others are of fuch a na-Parent*
ture as to leave the ground on which they are laid
vifible through them. Of the firfl kind are white-
lead, red-lead, vermilion, &c. 5 of the latter kind are
the colours ufed for illuminating maps, &c.
Another divifion is into oil-colours and waf;er*co"oilandwa
lours j by which is meant fuch as are appropriated to ter colour?”
painting in oil and in wrater. Moll of thofe which
are proper for painting in water, are alfo proper for
being ufed in oil. There is, however, this remarkable
difference betwixt colours when mixed with wrater and
with oil, that fuch as are quite opaque in water will
become perfe£lly tranfparent in oil. Thus, blue ver-
diter, though exceedingly opaque in water, if ground
with oil, feems totally to diffolve, and will become
very tranfparent. The fame thing happens to fuch
colours as have for their balls the oxide of tin, alabafler,
or calcareous earth. The molt perfeftly opaque co¬
lours in oil are fuch as have lead, mercury, or iron, for
their bafis: to the latter, howrever, Pruffian blue is
an exception ; for though the bafis of that colour is
iron, it proves quite tranfparent when ground with oil.
In water-colours, thofe prepared from metals, Pruf¬
fian blue alone excepted, are always opaque 5 from ve¬
getables or animals, tranfparent. Coals, however,
whether vegetable or animal, are opaque both in water
and oil.
Colours, again, may be confidered as either fimple or am|
compound. The fimple ones are fuch as require no-compound
thing to be fuperadded to them, in order to make a ones,
full llrong colour, without regarding whether they are
formed of many or few ingredients *, and in this view,
white-lead, red-lead, vermilion, oxides of iron, &c. are
fimple colours. The compound ones are formed by
the union of two or more colouring fubflances 5 as blue
and yellow united together to form a green, red and
yellow to form an orange, a white earth or oxide with
the red colour of cochineal or brazil to form a lake,
&c. 5 and thus carmine, lake, rofe-pink, Dutch-pink,
Englilh-pink, See. are compound colours.
The laft and moll important divifion of colours isTrue^ang
into true and falfe. By the former are meant thofe fa|fe c0.
which retain their colour under every polfible variety lours,
of circumltances, without fading in the lead: the others
are fuch as do not; but either lofe their colour alto¬
gether, or change to fome other. What is chiefly apt
to afiedl colours, is their being expofed to the fun in
fummer, and to the cold air in winter : but to this
there is one exception, viz. white-lead ; which, wdien
ground with oil, retains its whkenefs if expofed to the
weather, but degenerates into a brownilh or yellowilh
colour if clofe kept. In water this fubltance is very
apt to lofe its colour, whether expofed to the air or
not.
COL
[ 277 ]
COL
vegetable
juices.
Colour- not. The great defideratum In colour-making is to
making, produce the firft kind of colours, viz. fuch as will not
v— 1 * faje by expofure to the weather; and indeed it is to
be regretted, that the moft beautiful are in general the
leall permanent. It may, for the moft part, however,
be expected, that the more frmple any colour is, the
lefs liable will it be to change upon expofure to the
air.
The great difficulty of knowing a priori whether a
colour will fade or not, is owing to our ignorance con¬
cerning the nature of colouring fubftances. With all
our difadvantages, however, we may obferve, that
whatever change of colour is produced in any fubftance
by expofure to the fun and air, that colour to which
it changes wall bid fair for being permanent, and
therefore ought to be employed where it can be done.
Of thefe changes the inftances are but very rare.
Inllances of One is in the purple of the ancients, which affumed
colours pro-its colour by expofure to the fun, and confequently
duced by was exceedingly permanent. Another is in the folu-
tlie^'un^nd ti°n hlv61,5 which, being mixed with chalk, the
air. * precipitate turns to purpliih black where it is expofed
to the fun. A third is in folutions of indigo by alka¬
line fubftances, which conftantly appear green till ex¬
pofed to the air by fpreading them very thin, upon
6 which they become almoft inftantaneoufly blue, and
Bythe mix-continue fo ever after. Sometimes, though ftill more
ture of two rarely, a very remarkable change of colour happens,
upon mixing trvo vegetable juices together. Almoft:
the only inftance of this we have on the authority of
Mr George Forfter, who informs us, that the inhabi¬
tants of Otaheite dye their cloth of a crimfon colour,
by mixing together the yellow juice of a imall fpecies
of fig with the greenilh juice of a kind of fern. But
the moft: remarkable alterations of colour are effected
by different metallic and faline folutions mixed with
certain animal or vegetable fubftances j and with thefe
the colour-maker will be principally converfant.
It is a common obfervation in chemiftry, that acids
mixed with blue vegetable juices turn them red, and
alkalies green. It is equally certain, though not fo
generally known, that acids of all kinds generally tend
to heighten red colours, fo as to make them approach
to the fcarlet or true crimfon ; and alkalies to darken,
or make them approach to blue or purple. Mixed
with yellow7 colours, acids alfo univerfally tend to
brighten the yellow; and alkalies to turn it to an
orange, and make it become more dull. But though
this is very generally the cafe, we are not to expedt
that all acids are equally powerful in this refpeft. The
nitric acid is found to heighten the moft of any, and
the muriatic acid the leaft of the mineral ones. The
vegetable, as might be expedled, are lefs powerful
than the mineral acids. Thus, if with a tindlure of
cochineal, either in w’ater or alcohol, is mixed the
pure nitrous acid, it will change the colour to an ex¬
ceeding high orange or flame colour, which it wdll
impart to cloth. If fulphuric acid is ufed, a full
fcarlet, inclining to crimfon rather than orange, is
produced. With muriatic acid a true crimfon colour,
bordering on purple, is the confequence. Alkalies,
both fixed and volatile, change the colour to a purple,
which is brighter with the volatile than the fixed al-
a lies.
Here it is obvious, that whatever colours are pro-
E tie els of
acids and
alkalies on
colours.
duced by the mixture cf different fubftances together ; Colour-
the permanency of thefe colours can only be in pro- makirig. ^
portion to the ability of fuch mixtures to refill the
weather. Thus, fuppofe a high fcarlet or orange co‘perrnanen
lour is produced by means of ipirit of nitre, it is plain Cy0fC0_
that, w7as fuch a colour expofed to the air, it could re-lours, by
main no longer than the fpirit of nitre which produced wjiat deter-
it remained. In proportion, therefore, as the fpirit n“ne{*'
of nitre wTas exhaled into the air, or otherwife deftroyed,
the colour behoved to fade, and at laft to be totally
deftroyed ; and thus, in proportion to the deftrutftibility
of the fubftances by which colours are produced, will
be the difpofition of fuch colours to fade, or the con¬
trary. In this refpe6t alkalies are much more deftruc-
tible than acids, and confequently lefs proper for the
preparation of colours. With regard to acids, the ni¬
tric feems moft deftruftible, the fulphuric lefs fo, and
the muriatic the leaft of all. From the extreme fixity
of the phofphoric acid and fedative fait, perhaps they
might be of fervice in preferving colours.
As all colours, whether derived from the animal or
vegetable kingdom, muft be extrafled either by pure
w7ater or fome other liquid menftruum, they cannot
be ufed for the purpofes of painting till the colouring
fubftance is united wflth fome earthy or folid matter, ^
capable of giving it a body, as the workmen call if, Opaque or
and according to the nature of this fubftance, the co-tranfparent
lour wflll be tranfparent or otherwife. This bafis colou’ls*
ought to be of the moft fixed and durable nature ; 0‘m
unalterable by the weather, by acids, or by alkalies.
It ought alfo to be of a pure white colour, and eafily
reducible into an impalpable powder. For this reafon
all earthy fubftances fliould be avoided as being afled
upon by acids ; and therefore, if any of thefe were
added to heighten the colour, they would not fail to
be deftroyed, and their effedt totally loft. Precipitates
of lead, bifmuth, 8tc. though exceedingly fine and
white, ought alfo to be avoided, as being apt to turn io
black by expofure. The only fubftance to be chofen Oxide of
in preference to all others, is oxide of tin, prepared tmA^
either by fire or the nitric acid. This is fo exceed-
ingly refradtory as not only to be unalterable by al- for fine co-
kalies, acids, or the fun and weather, but even by lours,
the focus of a very large burning mirror. It is be-
fides white as fnow, and capable of being reduced to
an extreme degree of finenefs, infomuch that it is
made ufe of for poliffiing metallic fpeculums. For
thefe reafons, it is the moft proper bafis for all fine co- ir
lours. For coarfe ones, the wffiite precipitate of lead, ptecip.;tate
mentioned under the article Chemistry, will anfwer of lead molt
very well. It hath a very ftrong body, i. e. is very PrcPer f°r
opaque, and will cover well; may be eafily ground coari’e one?’
fine, and is much lefs apt to turn black than white
lead ; it is befides very cheap, and may be prepared
at the fmall expence of 3d. per pound. j,.
If what we have juft now obferved is attended to, General
the general method of extrafting colours from any method of
vegetable or animal fubftance, and fixing them on a Prepanng
proper bafis, muft be very eafily underftood. For101"1'
this purpofe, a quantity of oxide of tin is to be procu¬
red in proportion to the quantity of colour defired.
This muft be well rubbed in a glafs mortar, with a
little of the fubftance defigned for brightening the
colour, as alum, cream of tartar, fpirit of nitre, &c.
after which it muft be dried, and left for fome time,
I that
*3
Effe&s of
different
kinds of
falts.
COL
'Colour- that the union between the
making. as perfe(5t as poflible. If the colour is to be a very
v fine one, fuppofe from cochineal, the colouring mat¬
ter muft be extrafted with alcohol without heat.
When the fpirit is fufficiently impregnated, it is to
be poured by little and little upon the oxide, rub¬
bing it conftantly, in order to dillribute the colour
equally through all parts of the oxide. The fpirit foon
evaporates, and leaves the oxide coloured with the co¬
chineal. More of the tindlure is then to be poured
on, rubbing the mixture conftantly as before ; and
thus, with proper management, may very beautiful
colours, not inferior to the beft carmine, be prepared
at a moderate expence. If, inftead of cochineal, vre
fubftitute brazil-wood, turmeric, logwood, &c. difier-
ent kinds of red, yellow, and purple, will be produced.
For the coarfer colours, aqueous decoilions are to be
ufed in a fimilar manner; only as thele are much
longer in evaporating than the alcohol, very little
muft be poured on at a time, and the colours ought
t-o be made in large quantity, on account of the tedi-
oufnefs of the procefs.
Hitherto we have confidered only the effefts of the
pure and fimple falts, viz. acids and alkalies, on differ¬
ent colours ; but by combining the acids with alka¬
lies, earths, or metals, thefe eftefts may be varied
almoft in infinitum; neither is there any rule yet laid
dowm by which we can judge a prion of the changes
of colour that will happen on the admixture of this or
that particular fait with any colouring fubftance. In
general, the perfeft neutrals a6l weakly 5 the imper¬
fect ones, efpecially thofe formed from metals, much
more powerfully. Alum and fal ammoniac confider-
ably heighten the colour of cochineal, brazil, turme¬
ric, fuftic, madder, logwood, &c. The fame thing
is done, though in a lefs degree, by common fait,
Glauber’s fait, nitre, and many other neutrals. So¬
lutions of iron in all the acids ftrike a black with
every one of the above-mentioned fubftances 5 and
likewife with fumach, galls, and other aftringents.
Solutions of lead, or faccharum faturni, univerfally
debafe red colours to a dull purple. Solution of cop¬
per changes the purple colour of logwood to a pretty
good blue •, and, in general, folutions of this metal are
friendly to blue colours. The effeCfs of folutions of
gold, filver, and mercury, are not fo well known ;
they feem to produce dark colours of no great beauty.
Solution of The moft powerful folution, however, with regard to
tin the molt a great number of colours, is that of tin, made in ni-
tro-muriatic acid. Hence we may fee the fallacy of
Mr Delaval’s hypothefis concerning colours *, that
the leaft refrangible ones are produced by the moft;
denfe metals: for tin, which hath the leaft denfity of
any metal, hath yet, in a ftate of folution, the moft ex¬
traordinary effe£ls upon the leaft refrangible colours as
well as thofe that are moft fo. The colour of cochi¬
neal is changed by it into the moft: beautiful fcarlet 5
a fimilar change is made upon the colouring matter
of gum-lac. Brazil-wood is made to yield a fine pur-
plifti crimfon 5 logwood, a beautiful dark purple •, tur¬
meric, fuftic, weld, and all yellowy-colouring woods and
flowTers, are made to communicate colours far more
beautiful than can be got from them by any other me¬
thod. The blue colour of the flowers of violets,
2
I4
powerful,
* See Cbro
maths,
M0 8.
[ 278 ] COL
two fubftances may be eye-bright, iris, &.C. are heightened fo as to equal, Col on r-
if not excel, the blue produced by a foiution of cop- makmg. ^
per in volatile alkali. In fhort, this folution feems "v
to be of much more extenfive ufe in colour-making,
wdien properly applied, than any thing hitherto thought
of. It is not, however, univerfally ferviceable. The
colour of madder it totally deftroys, and likewife that
of faf-flowyer, changing them both to a dull orange.
It likewife fpoils the colour of archil j and what is
very remarkable, the fine red colour of tindture of rofes
made with fulphuric acid is by folution of tin changed
to a dirty green.
The moft important confideration in colour-making oiiediions
is to make choice of fuch materials as produce the i0r the
moft durable colours 5 and if thefe can be procured, choice of
an ordinary colour from them is to be preferred to^°^jf
a bright one from thofe which fade fooner. In what
the difference confifts between the colours that fade
and thofe which do not, is not known with any de¬
gree of certainty. From fume appearances it would
feem, that thofe fubftances which are moft remarkable
for keeping their colour contain a vifcous glutinous
matter, fo combined with a refinous one as to be fo-
luble both in water and alcohol. The moft durable
red colour is prepared from gum-lac. This is very
ftrongly refinous, though at the fame time fo far
glutinous, that the colouring matter can be extracted
from it by water. Next to gum-lac are madder roots
and cochineal. The madder is an exceedingly pene¬
trating fubftance, infomuch that, when given to ani¬
mals along w:ith their food, it tinges their bones of a
deep red colowr. Its colouring matter is foluble both
in water and alcohol. Along with the pure red, how¬
ever, there is in madder a kind of vifcous aftringent
fubftance, of a dark brown colour, which feems. to
give the durability to the whole. The colouring
matter of cochineal, though foluble both in water and
alcohol, is very tenacious and mucilaginous, in which
it bears fome refemblance to the purpura of the an¬
cients, which kept its colour exceedingly well. Where
the colours are fugitive, the tinging fubftance feems to
be too refinous or too mucilaginous. I bus the colours
of brazil, turmeric, &c. are very refinous, efpecially
the latter, infomuch that the colouiing matter of tur¬
meric can fcarcely be extrafted by water. Both thefe
are perifhablc, though beautiful colours 5 and much
more are the red, purple, and blue flowers, commonly
to be met with. Thefe feem to be entirely mucila¬
ginous, without the leaft quantity of refinous matter.
The yellow flowers are different, and in general keep
their colour pretty well. Whether it would be^ pofli¬
ble, by adding occafionally a proper quantity gum
or refin, to make the fugitive colours more durable,
hath not yet been tried, but feems to have.fome proba- jg
bility. What tends a little to confirm this, is a pro- M. Heilot’s
cefs given by M. Hellot for imparting durability to method of
the colour of brazil. It confifts only in letting decoc- thePdurab^
tions of the wood ftand for fome time in wooden cafks 0f bra-
till they grow ftale and ropy. Pieces of woollen cloth zil-wood.
now dyed in the liquor acquired a colour lo durable,
that they were not in the leaft altered by expofure to
the air" during four months in the winter feafon.
Whether this change in the durability of the colour
was cffedled by the ropinefs following the fermenta¬
tion,
COL T 279 ] COL
Colour- tion, or by fome other caufe, or whether the experi-
making. ment can be at all depended upon, muft be referred to
U,■,' v——- futUre obfervation.
17 Having thus collefled all that can as yet be de-
Prepara- pen(jeci Up0n for eftablidiing a general theory of co-
fereru co-" lour-making, we fliall now proceed to give an account
lours. of the different pigments generally to be met with in
18 the colour-fhops.
Lamp- 1. Black. Thefe are lamp-black, ivory-black, blue-
biack. black, and Indian-ink. The firft is the fineft of what
are called the foot-blacks, aud is more ufed than any
other. Its preparation is defcribed in the Swedifh
Tranfaftions for the year 1754, as a procefs dependent
on the making of common reiin : the impure refinous
juice collected from incifions made in pine and fir
trees, is boiled down with a little water, and ftrained
whilft hot through a bag •, the dregs and pieces of
bark left in the ftrainer are burnt in a low oven,
from which the fmoke is conveyed through a long
paffage into a fquare chamber, having an opening on
the top on which is a large fack made of thin woollen
fluff: the foot, or lamp-black, concretes partly in the
chamber, from whence it is fwept out once in two or
three days, and partly in the fack, which is now and
then gently ftruck upon, both for fhaking down the
foot, and for clearing the interftices betwixt the
threads, fo as to procure a fufficient draught of air
through it. In this manner lamp-black is prepared at
the turpentine houfes in England, from the dregs and
refufe of the refinous matters which are there manu-
fadlured.
Dr Lewis’s On this fubjeft Dr Lewis hath fome curious obfer-
obferva- vations. “ The foot (fays he) arifing in common
lions. chimneys, from the more oily or refinous woods, as the
fir and pine, is obferved to contain more diffo'uble
matter than that from the other woods; and this dif-
foluble matter appears, in the former, to be more of
an oily or refinous nature than in the latter, alcohol
extracting it moft powerfully from the one, and water
from the other. The oilinefs and folubility of the
foot fetming therefore to depend on thofe of the
fubjeft it is made from, it has been thought that lamp¬
black muft poffefs thefe qualities in a greater degree
than any kind of common foot. Neverthelefs, on ex¬
amining feveral parcels of lamp-black, procured from
different {hops, I could not find that it gave any tinc¬
ture at all, either to alcohol or to water.
“ Sufpeding fome miftake or fophiftication, or that
the lamp-black had been burnt or charred, as it is to
fit it for fome particular ufes, I prepared myfelf fome
foot from linfeed oil, by hanging a large copper pan
over the flame of a lamp to receive its fmoke. In this
manner the more curious artifts prepare lamp black
» for the nicer purpofes ; and from this colleCIion of it
from the flame of a lamo, the pigment probably recei¬
ved its name. The foot fo prepared gave no tinfture
either to water or to alcohol, any more than the com¬
mon lamp-black of the fhops. I tried different kinds
of oily and refinous bodies with the fame refult ; even
the foots obtained from fifli-oils and tallow did not ap¬
pear to differ from thofe of the vegetable-oils and re¬
fins. They were all of a finer colour than the lamp¬
black commonly fold.
“ Some foot was colleCIed in like manner from fir
and other woods, by burning fmall pieces of them
{lowly under a coppcr-pan. All the foots were of a Colour-
deeper black colour than thofe obtained from the fame , rnak)r!g- _
kinds of woods in a common chimney ; and very little,'"”””'^
if at all, inferior to thofe of the oils: they gave only
a juft difcernible tin&ure to wrater and alcohol, while
the foots of the chimney imparted a rtrong deep onfe
to both. The foot of mineral bitumens, in this clofe
way of burning, appears to be of the fame qualities with
thofe of woods, oil, and refins : in fome parts of Ger¬
many, great quantities of good lamp-black are pre¬
pared from a kind of pit-coal.
“ It appears, therefore, that the differences of foots
do not depend altogether on the qualities of the fub-
jedls, but in a great meafure on the manner in which
the fubjeft is burnt, or the foot caught. The foots
produced in common chimneys, from different kinds of
wood, refinous and not refinous, dry and green, do
not differ near fo much from one another, as thofe
which are produced from one kind of wood in a com¬
mon chimney, and in the confined way of burning
above mentioned.” 20
Ivory-black is prepared from ivory or bones burnt Tvory-
in a clofe veffel. This, when finely ground, forms a^^ac^’
more beautiful and deeper colour than lamp-black •,
but in the common methods of manufadluring, it is fo
much adulterated with charcoal-duft, anchfo grofsly le¬
vigated, as to be unfit for ufe. An opaque deep black
for water-colours, is made by grinding ivory-black
with gum-water, or wuth the liquor which fettles from
the whites of eggs after they have been fuffered to
ftand a little. Some ufe gum-wrater and the whites
of eggs together, and report, that a fmall addition of
the latter makes the mixture flow more freely from
the pencil, and improves its gloffinefs. It may be ob¬
ferved, however, that though ivory-black makes the
deepeft colour in wrater as well as in oil-painting, yet
it is not on this account always to be preferred to
other black pigments. A deep jet-black colour is fel-
dom w-anted in painting •, and in the lighter fhades,
whether obtained by diluting the black with white
bodies, or by applying it thin on a white ground, the
particular beauty of the ivory-black is in a great mea¬
fure loft. ar
Blue black is faid to be prepared from the burnt Blue-black,
ftalks and tendrils of the vine. Thefe, however, the
colour-makers feldom give themfelves the trouble of
procuring, but fubftitute in its place a mixture of ivory-
black and the common blue ufed for clothes. a2
Indian-ink is an excellent black for wrater-colours. Indian-ink*
It hath been difcovered by Dr Lewis to confift of a
mixture of lamp-black and common glue. Ivory-black,
or charcoal, he found to anfwer equally well, provided
they were levigated to a fufficient degree of finenefs,
which indeed requires no fmall trouble. 23
2. White. The w hite colours commonly to be met White
with are, white-flake, white-lead, calcined hartfhorn,coiours*
pearl-white, Spanifh-white, egg-fhell-white, and ni¬
trate of bifmuth. The flake-white and white-lead are
properly the fame. The preparation of the former is
kept a fecret ; the method of preparing the latter is
defcribed under Chemistry, N° 1856. Thefe are the
only whites that can be ufed in oil, all the reft being
tranfparent unlefs they are laid on wuth water. Cal¬
cined hartfhorn is the moft ufeful of the earthy wTites,,
as being the leaf! alkaline. Spanifh-white is only
finely
COL [280] COL
Colour- finely prepared chalk. Pearl-white is made from
making. . 0yfter.fhells ; and egg-lhell white from the (hells of
1 v ' eggs. All thefe, by their attraftion for acids, mud
neceflarily defiroy fuch colours as have any acid or
metallic fait in their compofition. The nitrate of
bifmuth is apt to turn black, as are alfo flake-white and
white-lead, when ufed in water. The white precipi¬
tate of lead recommended under Chemistry, N° i 856.
is greatly fuperior as a water-colour to all thefe, being
perfeftly free of any alkaline quality, and not at all
apt to lofe its own colour, or to injure that of other fub-
llances. It is a carbonate of lead.
Rfd*0- 3- rec* coi°urs ufed in painting are of
lours. two forts, viz. thofe which incline to the purple, .and
fuch as are ot a full fcarlet and tend rather to the orange.
The firfi: are carmine, lake, rofe-pink, red-ochre, and
Venetian-recT. The fecond are vermilion, red-lead,
fcarlet-ochre, common Indian-red, Spanifli-brswn, and
terra di Sienna, burnt.
We have already laid down fome general rules for
the preparation of carmine and lake. Particular re¬
ceipts have been delivered with the greateft confidence
for making thefe fine colours 5 but all of them mud
neceflarily prove ineffectual, becaufe an earthy bafis
is recommended for ftriking the colour upon. From
the principles of chemiftry, howrever, we are certain,
that if nitric acid, or folution of tin, is made ufe of
for brightening a colour made with any earthy bafis, it
muff infallibly be defiroyed by that bafis, by reafon of
its alkaline quality. Carmine is the brighteft and mod
beautiful red colour known at prefent} the bed comes
from France. Lake differs from it in being capable
of mixture with oil, which carmine is not, unlefs with
great difficulty. The former is alfo much more in¬
clined to purple than carmine. This lad quality, how¬
ever, is reckoned a defe£l ; and accordingly, the more
that lake approaches to the fcarlet or true crimfon,.the
more it is valued. On dropping folution of tin into
an aqueous tindure of brazil-wood, a beautiful preci¬
pitate falls, of a purpliflr crimfon colour. 'I his may
be very well fubdituted in place of the dearer lakes on
many occafions.
Rofe-pink is a very beautiful colour, inclining more
to the purple than fcarlet. It feems to be made of chalk,
coloured with a deco&ion of brazil-wood, heightened
by an alkaline fait *, for which reafon it is exceedingly
periffiable, and but little edeemed. The colour might
be made much more durable as well as better, by em¬
ploying for a bafis the white precipitate of lead above-
mentioned, and brightening it with folution of tin.
Red ochre and Venetian red differ in nothing from
the colcothar of vitriol well calcined. The oxides of
iron may be made to appear either purplilh, or in¬
clining to the fcarlet, according to the manner in which
the calcination is performed. If the matter is per-
fe£lly deprived of its phlogidon, and fubjefted to an
intenfe fire, it always turns out red ; but the mixture
of a fmall quantity of inflammable matter gives it a pur-
pliffi cad. Hence various paints are kept in the (hops
under different names, which yet differ from each other
only in the (light circumdance above mentioned ; and
fuch are the fcarlet-ochre, Spanilh-brown, and terra
di Sienna burnt. It is remarkable, that the oxides of
iron never (how their colour till they becpme cold.
Colcothar of vitriol, while hot, always appears of a Colour-
very dark du(ky purple. ^ mairing. ^
Of the preparation of vermilion and red lead, an ac- 'r"~
count is given under the article Chemistry, N° ijoi.
1832. Thefe are very durable colours; the firfl is the
belt red ufed in oil painting, but does not anfwer well
in water 5 the other is rather an orange ; and, like
other preparations of lead, is in fome cafes apt to turn
black. 25
Orange. The only true orange-coloured paints 0range c°-
are red orpiment and orange lake. The fird is a fub- our5'
limate formed of aifenic and fulphur : the other may
be prepared from turmeric infufed in alcohol having
its colour druck upon oxide of tin, and brightened
by a folution of that metal. All the (hades of orange,
however, may be extemporaneoufly prepared by mix¬
ing red and yellow colours together, in due propor¬
tions. 16
5. Yelloiv. The yellow paints mod commonly in ufe Yellow co«
are, king’s-yellow, Naples-yellow, Dutch-pink, Eng-tours,
lifli-pink, maflicot, common orpiment, yellow-ochre,
terra di Sienna unburnt, and turpith-mineral.
King’s-yellow is evidently an arfenical preparation.
Its colour is exceedingly beautiful, but apt to fade,
on which account, and its great price, it is feldom
dfed.
Naples-yellow’ was for a long time thought to be a
preparation of arfenic, but is now difcovered to have
lead for its bafis. It is therefore apt to turn black
and lofe its colour, wdiich makes it the lefs valuable.
It is neverthelefs ufed in preference to king’s-yellow’,
on account of its inferiority in price. This colour is
particularly liable to be fpoiled by iron when mold,
and therefore fliould never be touched by that metal
unlefs previoufly ground in oil.
Dutch-pink is faid to be prepared by flriking the
colour of yellow berries upon finely levigated chalk.
But of this there is great reafon to doubt; the bafis
of Dutch-pink feems much more hard and gritty than
chalk, and its colour more durable than thofe druck
upon that earth ufually are. Very good yellows may
be prepared with the white precipitate of lead, for¬
merly mentioned, by ufing either yellow berries, fudic,
or any other fubdance capable of yielding that colour.
Englifli pink is paler than the Dutch, and keeps its
colour greatly worfe.
Maflicot is prepared by calcining white-lead till it
affumes a yellowifh colour. It is not apt to change,
but the colour is fo dull that it is feldom ufed either in
oil or water.
Common orpiment is a pretty bright greeniffi-yellow’,
prepared by fubliming arfenic with fulphur. Its nau-
feous fmel], which is greatly increafed by grinding in
oil, makes it very difagreeable ; nor does it keep its
colour for any length of time. That kind of orpiment
lead inclined to green is to be preferred for the pur-
pofes of painting.
Yellow-ochre and terra di Sienna are ferruginous
earths; capable of becoming red by calcination. Green
vitriol precipitated by lime may be advantageoufly fub-
flituted for either of them. See Chemistry.
Turpith mineral is but little ufed in painting, though
its fine yellow colour feems greatly to recommend it.
This preparation is in all probability very durable 5
and
COL [ 281 ] COL
Colour- and fliould feem therefore worthy of a preference either
a making. ^ ]-jng»s or Naples yellow. See Chemistry Index.
^ 'v Gamboge is a paint that can only be ufed in water,
and is the moft common yellow made ufe of for co¬
louring maps, &c. but for this it is not very proper,
27 being neither quite tranfparent, nor very durable.
Green co- 6. Green. The only fimple green colour that hath
iours. a tolerable degree of brightnefs is verdigris, or pre¬
parations of it. This, however, though a very beau¬
tiful colour, is far from being durable. It is improved
in colour, though not in durability, by diiTolution and
cryftallization in diftilled vinegar, in which ilate it is
called dijliiledverdigris. A more durable water-colour
is made by dilTolving the verdigris in cream of tar¬
tar, or rather the pure tartaric acid ; but in oil this
is found to be equally fugitive with the verdigris it-
felf. See Chemistry Index.
Compound greens are either made of Pruffian or
fome other blue, mixed with yellow $ but in whatever
way thefe colours can be compounded, the beauty of
the green produced is greatly inferior to diftilled, or
even common verdigris. The tartaric folution of
verdigris, mixed with a little gamboge, is the beft
tranfparent green water-colour we have had an oppor¬
tunity of trying ; and a mixture of Pruftian blue and
turpith-mineral is probably the beft opaque one.
Sap-green is a fimple colour, but exceedingly infe-
lior to diftilled verdigris, or even to the tartaric
folution of verdigris with gamboge. It is prepared
from the juice of unripe buckthorn berries evaporated
to the confiftence of a gum. Its green colour is greatly
inclined to yellow. A kind of compound green has
been fometimes ufed, called PruJJian-green, which con-
fifts only of Pruffian blue and yellow ochre. It has
no beauty, nor is it durable. It is prepared as Pruf¬
fian blue, only not pouring on any muriatic acid to
dilTolve the ochreous fediment which falls at the fame
time.
Another green fometimes ufed is called terre verte.
This is a native earth, probably impregnated with cop¬
per. It is of a bluiih-green colour, much ot that tint
called fea-green. It is gritty, and therefore muft be
well levigated before it is ufed. Its colour is durable,
2S but not very bright.
Blue co- Blue. The blue colours are ultramarine, Pruf-
lour:’ fian-blue, verditer, fmalt, bice, and indigo. Of thefe
the ultramarine is the fineft, but its great price hin¬
ders its being much ufed. It is a preparation from
lapis lazuli \ is an exceeding bright colour, and never
fades with whatever fubftance it is mixed. It is now,
however, in a great meafure fuperfeded by Pruffian
blue, ^ to the difadvantage of painting in general 5 as
Pruffian blue, though very beautiful, is far from being
durable. For an account of its preparations fee the
article Ultramarine.
The procefs for making Pruffian blue is defcribed,
and its nature fully confidered, under Chemistry,
N° 774; fo that it is fufficient here to obferve, that
Pruffian blue is to be accounted of the beft quality
when it is deep, bright, and not inclined to purple.
It ought to be tried by mixture with white lead, as
the brightnefs of the colour will appear much more
when diluted than when concentrated in the lumps of
the blue itfelf.
The preparation of blue verditer is kept a fecret, and
> Vox. VI. Part I.
the beft chemifts have been puzzled to find out the CoTour-
method. The colour is exceedingly bright, and has a makn,g-1
confiderable tinge of green. A method ot preparing v
a colour equally beautiful, and agreeing in all refpedls
with what is fold in the (hops, except that of effer-
vefcing with acids, we have found to be as follows :
Diflblve copper in ftrong cauftic alkali, until the liquid
has affumed a very deep blue colour 5 and the deeper
this colour is, the finer will your veiditer be. When
the menftruum has diffolved as much of the metal as it
can take up, it is to be poured out into a broad and
well glazed earthen pan, held over a very gentle fire j
and from the moment it is put on the liquor is to be
continually agitated with a wooden fpatula, fo that the
liquor may be heated as equally as poffible. The
whole fecret confifts in properly regulating the degree
of heat ; for if it exceeds the due proportion ever fo
little, the verditer will turn out of a dirty green. The
proper degree is about 90° of Fahrenheit’s thermome¬
ter. In this gentle heat the alkali {lowly evaporates ;
and in proportion to its doing fo the verditer falls to
the bottom. After it is once formed, freed from the
alkaline liquor, and dried, it can bear the affufion of
boiling water without the leaft injury. Dr Prieftley,
in his fixth vo1ume, takes notice, that a folution of
copper in volatile alkali affords a blue precipitate by
heat, but without taking notice of the requifites for its
fuccefs. In making this preparation it is neceffary to
diffolve copper in its metallic ftate ; for the folution of
any oxide wall not yield a blue but a green colour.
This colour is durable in water, but diffolves in oil,
and has then all the inconveniences of verdioris above
# O
mentioned.
Smalt is glafs coloured with zaffre, a preparation
from cobalt*. It is commonly fo grofsly powdered *
that it cannot be ufed in painting, and its texture is foanc^ Smalt.
hard that it cannot eafily be levigated. Its colour is
exceedingly bright and durable ; fo that when finely
levigated it is ufed inftead of ultramaiine. The moft;
proper materials for levigating this fubftance feem to
be the plates of M. Reaumur’s porcelain recommended
by Dr Lewis. See Chemistry Index. For the pre-
paration and qualities of bice, fee the articles Arm ex us
Lnfyis and Bice.
Indigo is but little ufed in painting either in oil or
water, on account of the dulnefs of the colour. It re¬
quires no other preparation than being waftred over.
Its goodnefs is known by the darknefs and brightnefs
of the colour. See Indigo.
8. Purple. The only fimple colour of this kind ufed Purple co¬
at prefent is colcothar of vitriol. A beautiful purplelours*
lake may be prepared from logwood by means of folu¬
tion of tin ; but this method of preparing colours is
very little known as yet.
9. Brown. The browm colours are, biftre, brown-Brown co¬
ochre, Cologne-earth, umbre, and brown-pink. Under lours,
the article Bistre is given a procefs for making that
colour, by infufing foot in w:ater, pouring off the tine- r
ture, and then evaporating it to an extradl j but Dr Dr Bew;s«s
Lewis is of opinion, with M. Landois in the Frenchopinion
Encyclopedfe, that the foot is either boiled in xvater,c8ncerD*nS
or ground with a little liquid of fome kind into a fmooth
pafte ; it is then diluted with more wTater, and after
ftanding for about half an hour till the groffer fub¬
ftance of the foot has fettled, the liquor is poured off
N n into
Colour¬
making.
3*
Attempts
to make
lake of all
colours.
Black from
afhingents.
* See Dye¬
ing.
COL [2?
into another vefiel, and fet by for two or three days,
that the finer parts may fall to the bottom, and this
fine matter is the biltre. This is a very ufeful colour
in water, being exceedingly fine, durable, and not apt
to fpoil any other colours with which it is mixed. The
brown pink is faid to confift of chalk tinged with the
colouring matter of fuftic, heightened by fixed alka¬
line falts. It is therefore very perilhable, and is fel-
dom ufed. The other browns are a kind of ochreous
earths •, for a defcription of which fee their proper
articles.
Having now confidered moll of the colouring fub-
ftances ufually to be met with in the {hops, we {hall
next take notice of fome attempts that have been made
to produce all the different colours from vegetables,
after the manner of lakes j which, though the methods
hitherto tried have for the moft part failed of fuccefs,
may perhaps fome time or other be found applicable to
valuable purpofes.
From infufions of afiringent vegetables mixed with
green vitriol, is produced a deep black liquor of very
extenfive ufe in dyeing *. The fubftances which pro¬
duce the deepell blacks are galls and logwood. When
a deco&ion or infufion of the galls is dropped into a
folution of the vitriol .largely diluted with water, the
fir ft drops produce bluifti or purplifh red clouds, which
foon mingling with the liquor, turn it uniformly of
their own colour. It feems to be on the quality of
the water that this difference in the colour depends.
With diftilled water, or the common fpring-w’aters,
the mixture is always blue. If we previoufly diffolve
in the water the moft minute quantity of any alkaline
fait, too fmall to be difcovered by any of the common
means by which waters are ufually tried, or if the wa¬
ter is in the leaft putrid, the colour of the mixture
proves purple or reddifh. Rain-w7ater, caught as it
falls from the clouds in an open field in clean glafs-vef-
fels, gives a blue; but fuch as is colledled from the tops
of the houfes, grows purple with the mixture of vitriol
and galls: from whence it may be prefumed, that this
laft has contra&ed a putrid tendency, or received an
alkaline impregnation, though fo flight as not to be
fenfible on other ways of trial.
Both the purple and blue liquors, on adding more
of the aftringent infufion, deepen to a black, more or
lefs intenfe according to the nature of dilution: if the
mixture proves of a deep opaque blacknefs, it again
becomes bluifti or purplifh when further diluted. If
fuffered to ftand in this diluted ftate for two or three
days, the colouring matter fettles to the bottom in
form of a fine black mud, which by {lightly fhaking
the veffel, is diflufed again through the liquor, and
tinges it of its former colour. When the mixture is of
a full blacknefs, this feparation does not happen, or in
a far lefs degree ; for though a part of the black mat¬
ter precipitates in {landing, yet fo much remains dif-
folved, that the liquor continues black. This fufpen-
fion of the colouring fubftance, in the black liquid,
may be attributed in part to the gummy matter of the
aftringent infufion increafing the confiftence of the
watery fluid ; for the feparation is retarded in the
diluted mixture by a fmall addition of gum arabic.
If the mixture either in its black or diluted flate is
poured into a filter, the liquor paffes through colour¬
ed ; only a part of the black matter remaining on the
2 ] c 0 L
filter. The filtered liquor on {landing for fome time Cofour-
becomes turbid and full of fine black flakes: being making,
freed from thefe by a fecond filtration, it again puts 1 *
on the fame appearance ; and thus repeatedly till all
the colouring parts are feparated, and the liquor has
become colourlefs.
Dr Lew'is, from whofe Philofophical Commerce of
Arts this account is taken, further informs us, that this
colouring matter, when feparated from the liquor and
dried, appeared of a deep black, which did not feem
to have fuffered any change from the air by expofure
for upwards of four months. Made red-hot, it glowed
and burnt, but did not flame, and became a rufty
brown powder, which was readily attra&ed by a mag¬
netic bar ; though in its black ftate the magnet had
no aftion upon it. Sulphuric acid, diluted with wa¬
ter and digefted on the black powder, diffolved the
greateft part of it, leaving only a very fmall quantity
of whitifh matter. Solution of pure fixed alkaline ^
fait diffolved very little of it: the liquor received a
reddifh brown colour, and the powder became blackifli
brown. This refiduum was attra&ed by the magnet
after being red-hot, though not before : the alkaline
tindlure, palled through a filter, and mixed with a
folution of green vitriol, ftruck a deep brownifh black
colour, nearly the fame with that which refults from
mixing with the vitriolic folution an alkaline tindlure
°f galls.
It hath alfo been attempted to produce black from Black from
a combination of other colours; as green may be pro-a combina-
duced from a mixture of blue and yellow7. M. le Blon, t*011 ot 0-
in his Harmony of Colours, gives a method of forming
black, by mixing together the three colours called
primitive, viz. blue, red, and yellow; and M. Caftel,
in his Optique des Couleurs, publiftied in 1740,'fays
that this compound black has an advantage in paint¬
ing, above the fimple ones, of anfw'ering better for
the darkening of other colours. Thus, if blue, by the
addition of black, is to be darkened into the colour
called b/ue-blach, the fimple blacks, according to him,
if ufed in fufficient quantity to produce the requifite
deepnefs, conceal the blue, while the compound blacks
leave it diftinguiftiable. Le Blon does not mention
the proportions of the three colours neceffary for pro¬
ducing black. Caftel dire61s 15 parts of blue, five of
red, and three of yellow ; but takes notice, that thefe
proportions are rather fpeculatively than pra&ically
juft, and that the eye only can be the true judge ; our
colours all being very imperfedl, and our pigments or
other bodies of one denomination of colour being
very unequal in their degree of intenfity. He ob-
ferves, that the pigments ftiould all be of the deepeft
and darkeft kind ; and that, inftead of taking one pig¬
ment for each colour, it is better to take as many as
can be got ; for the greater difcord there is of hete¬
rogeneous and difcordant drugs, the more true and
beautiful, he fays, will the black be, and the more
capable of uniting with all other colours, without
fupprefling them, and even without making them
tawny.
Dr Lewis acquaints us, that by mixing different
blue, red, and yellow colours, he has not been able to
produce a perfect black; but has often obtained from
them very dark colours, fuch as may be called brown-
blacks, or gray-blacks} fuch as we commonly fee in the
dark
Colour¬
making.
35 .
Dr Lewis’s
SKperi*
ments on
vegetable
colours.
COL [2
dark parts of paintings, and fuch as the charcoal and
foot blacks appear when diluted a little. The ingre¬
dients being each of a dark deep colour is a very necef-
fary condition j for bright blues, bright reds, and bright
yellows, mixed in fuch proportions that neither colour
prevailed, produced only a gray. In effeft, all com-
pofitions of this kind, phyfically confidered, can be no
other than grays, or fome of the intermediate tints
between whitenefs and darknefs ; and thefe grays will
be fo much the lighter or darker as the component
colours of themfelves are bright or dark.
With regard to the extraftion of the colouring
matter from the different kinds of vegetables com¬
monly to be met with of all colours, this would cer¬
tainly be a very valuable acquifition, could the colours
fo procured be made durable. On this lubjeft nothing
hath yet appeared more fatisfa&ory than what is de¬
livered by Dr Lewis in his notes on Neumann’s che-
miftry. His obfervations are curious, but promife very
little fuccefs to any who (hall attempt to fix thefe ve¬
getable colours.
“ Among the infinite variety of colours (fays he),
which glow in the flow’ers of plants, there are very
few which have any durability, or whofe fugitive
beauty can be arrefted by art, fo as to be applied to
any valuable purpofes. The only permanent ones are
the yellow, the red, the bluej and all the intermediate
fhades of purple, crimfon, violet, &c. are extremely
perilhable. Many of thefe flowers lofe their colours
on being barely dried ; efpecially if they are dried
flowly, as has been ufually diretled, in a fhady, and
not warm place. The colours of all of them perifh
on keeping even in the clofeft veffels. The more
haftily they are dried, and the more perfeftly they
are fecured from the air, the longer they retain their
beauty. The colouring matter extracted and ap¬
plied on other bodies is ftill more perilhable : often¬
times it is changed or deftroyed in the hands of the
operator.
“ The colour of many blue flowers is extrafted by
infufion in water; but there are fome from which water
gains only reddifli, or purplilh blue. Of thofe that have
been tried there is not one which gives any blue tinc¬
ture to fpirituous liquors: fome give no colour at all,
and fome a reddilh one. The juice preffed out from
the frefh flowers is for the moll part blue. The blue
juices and infufions are changed red by all acids. The
muriatic acid feems to ftrike the moft florid red. The
flowers themfelves, macerated in acid liquors, impart
alfo a deep red tin&ure. Alkalies, both fixed and
volatile, and lime-water, change them to a green.
Thofe infufions of the juices which have nothing of
the native colour of the flowers, fuffer the fame changes
from the addition of acid and alkaline liquors: even
when the flowers have been kept till their colour is
loft, fafufions made from them acquire ftill a red co¬
lour from the one, and a green from the other, though
in a lefs degree than wTen the flowers were frefh.
The red colour produced by acids is fcarcely more
durable than the original blue: applied upon other
bodies and expofed to the air, it gradually degenerates
into a faintifh purple, and at length difappears, leaving
hardly any ftain behind. The green produced by
alkalies changes to a yellow, which does not fade fo
foon. The green, by lime-water, is more permanent
making.
83 ] COL
and more beautiful; green lakes, prepared from thefe Colour*
1 . ~ • | WV* oh t r»
flowers by lime-water, have been uied as pigments by ^
the painter. The flowers of cyanus have been greatly
recommended, as affording elegant and durable blue
pigments ; but I have never been able to extra£l: from
them any blue colour at all. They retain their colour
indeed, when haftily dried, longer than fome other
blue flowers ; but they communicate nothing of it to
any kind of menftruum. Infufions of them in watery,
fpirituous, and oily liquors, are all of them more or
lefs of a reddifh caft, without any tendency to blue.
Alum, which is faid to heighten and preferve their
blue colour, changes it, like that of other blue flowers,
to a purplifh red ; acids to a deep red ; alkalies and
lime-water to a green : folution of tin added to the
watery infufion, turn^ it to a fine crimfon ; on (land¬
ing, a beautiful red faecula fubfides, but it lofes all
its colour as foon as it is dry. The watery infufion,
infpiffated to the confiftence of an extraft, appears of
a dark reddifh brown: an extract made with rectified
fpirit is of a purplifh colour. The colour of both ex¬
tracts fpread thin, and expofed to the air, quickly
fades. The flowers employed in thefe experiments
were thofe of the common blue-bottle of the corn¬
fields.
“ Red flowers readily communicate their own red
colour to watery menftrua-; among thofe that, have
been trifed, there is not one exception. Thofe of a
full red colour give to rectified fpirit alfo a deep red
tinCture, brighter, though fomewhat paler, than the
watery infufion: but the lighter red flowers, and
thofe which have a tendency to purplifh, impart very
little colour to fpirit, and feem to partake more of the
nature of the blue flowers than of the pure red. Infu¬
fions of red flowers are fuppofed to be heightened by
acids, and turned green by alkalies, like thofe of the
blue; but this is far from being univerfal. Among
thofe I have examined, the rofe-colours and purplifh
reds were changed nearly in the fame manner as the
blues; but the full deep reds were not. The deep
infufion of red poppies is changed by alkalies, not to a
green, but to dufky purple.
“ The colours of yellow flowers, whether pale or
deep, are in general durable. Many of them are as
much fo, perhaps, as any of the native colours of ve¬
getables. The colour is extracted both by water and
by fpirit. The watery infufions are the deepeft. Nei¬
ther alkalies nor acids alter the fpecies of the colour,
though both of them vary its fliade ; acids rendering
it paler, and alkalies deeper; alum liketvife confider-
ably heightens it, though not fo much as alkalies.
An infufion of the flowers, made in alkaline ley, pre¬
cipitated by alum, gives a durable yellow lake. In fome
of the deep reddifh yellow, or orange-coloured flowers,
the yellow matter feems to be of the fame kind with
that of the pure yellow flowrers, but the red to be of
a different kind from the pure red ones ; watery men¬
ftrua take up only the yellow, and leave the red,
which may afterwards be extracted by alcohol, or
by water acuated by fixed alkaline fait. Such par¬
ticularly are the faffron-coloured flowers of carthamus.
Thefe, after the yellow matter has been extracted by
water, are faid to give a red tinCture to ley; from
which, on Handing at reft for fome time, a deep
bright red faecula fubfides; called from one of the
N n 2 names
36
Colour^
from Iruits.
C O I, I
names of the plant which produces it, ; and
from the countries whence it is commonly brought to
us, Spanijh-red, and China-laie. This pigment im¬
pregnates alcohol with a beautiful red tindlure, but
communicates no colour to water. I have endea¬
voured to feparate, by the fame treatment, the red
matter of fome of the other reddifh yellow flowers,
as thole of garden marigold, but without fuccefs.
Plain water extrafled a yellow colour, and alkaline
ley extracted afterwards only a paler yellow : though
the digeftions were continued till the flowers had loft
their colour, the tindlures were no other than yellow,
and not fo deep as thofe obtained from the pure yel¬
low flowers. The little yellow flocculi, which in
fome kinds of flowers are colledled into a compafl
round difc, as in the daify and corn marigold, agree,
fo far as they have been examined, with the expand¬
ed yellow petala. Their colour is affedfed in the fame
manner by acids, by alkalies, and by alum ; and e-
qually extracted by tvater and by ipirit. But the yel¬
low farina, or fine duft, lodged on the tips of the fta-
mina of flowers, appears to be of a different kind. It
gives a fine bright yellow to fpirit, and a duller yel¬
low to water} the undiffolved part proving in both
cafes of a pale yellowifh white. Both the wfatery and
fpirituous tindlures were heightened by alkaline li¬
quors, turned red by acids, and again to a deep yel¬
low on adding more of the alkali : I know no other
vegetable yellow that is turned red by acids.
“ White flowers are by no means' deflitute of co¬
louring matter. Alkaline lixivia extradl from fome
of them a green tinclure, and change their colourlefs
exprefled juices to the fame colour 5 but I have not
obferved that they are turned red by acids. The
flowers of the common wild convolvulus or bind-wreed,
which in all their parts are wdiite, give a deep yellow
or orange tindlure to plain water ; which, like the
tinfhires of flowers that are naturally of that colour,
is rendered paler by acids, heightened a little by alum,
and moi-e confiderably by alkaline falts. The vapours
of the volatile fuiphuric acid, or of burning fulphur,
which whiten or deftroy the colour of the coloured
flowers, make no change in the white.
“ The red juices of fruits, as currants, mulberries,
elder-berries, morelfo, black cherries, &c. gently in-
fpiffated to drynefs, diffolve again almoft totally in
w'ater, and appear nearly of the fame red colour as at
firft. Rcdtified fpirit extrafls the tinging particles,
leaving a confiderable portion of mucilaginous matter
undiffolved 5 and hence the fpirituous tinfture proves
of a brighter colour than the watery. The red folu-
tions, and the juices themfelves, are fometimes made
dull, and fometimes more florid, by acids, and gene¬
rally turned purplilh by alkalies. The colours of thele
juices are for the molt part perifhable. They refill,
indeed, the power of fermentation, and continue al¬
moft unchanged, after the liquor has been converted
into wine ; but when the juice is fpread thin upon
other bodies, exficcated, and expofed to the air, the
colour quickly alters and decays: the bright lively red
changes the fooneft : the dark dull red ftain from the
juice of the black cherry, is of confiderable durability.
The fruit of the American opuntia or prickly pear,
the plant upon which the cochineal infedt is produced,
is perhaps an exception : This bright red fruit, ac-
284 ] COL
cording to Labat, gives a beautiful red dye. Some Colour-
experiments, however, made upon the juice of that
fruit, as brought into England, did not promife to be
of any great advantage j but the particulars I cannot
now recoiled!.
“ The ripe berries of buckthorn ftain paper of a
green colour. From thefe is prepared the fubftance
called Jap-green, a pigment fufficiently durable, rea¬
dily foluble in water, but not mifcible with oil. The
berries dried while green, and macerated in alum-
water, are faid to yield a yellow pigment 5 and when
they have grown over ripe fo as to fall off Ipontane-
oufly, a purple one. It is faid that the berry of the
heliotropum tricoccum, which grows wild about Mont¬
pelier, itains paper of a green colour, and that this
green turns prefently to a blue: that the common blue
paper receives its colour from this juice : and that the
red rags called turnfol, employed tor colouring wines
and other liquors, are tindtuied by the lame juice
turned red by acids. According to M. Nilfole of the
French academy of fclences (as quoted by Savary in
his Didtionaire de Commerce), the following juice is
obtained, not from the berries, but from tops of the
plant gathered in Augult, ground in mills, and then
committed to the prefs. The juice is expofed to the
fun about an bout, the rags dipt in it, dried in the
fun, moiftened by the vapour w-hich arifes during the
flaking of quicklime with urine, then dried again in
the fun, and dipped again in the juice. The Dutch
and others are faid to prepare turnfol rags, and turn¬
fol in the mafs, from different ingredients, among
which archil is a principal one.
“ In fome plants, peony for inflance, the feeds at
a certain point of maturity are covered with a fine
fhining red membrane. The pellicles of the feeds of
a certain American tree afford the red raaffes brought
into Europe under the names of annotto, orlean, and
raucou*. Mr Pott, in the Berlin Memoirs for the * See An*
year 1752, mentions a very extraordinary property
of this concrete. ‘ With fuiphuric acid it produces
a blue colour, of extreme beauty ; but with this
capital defedt, that all falts and liquors, and even com¬
mon water, deftroy it.’ The fpcclmen of annotto, which
I examined, was not fenfibly adted upon by fuiphuric
acid •, it received no change in its own colour, and
communicated none to the liquor. Nor did any vi-
fible change enfue upon dropping the acid into tinc¬
tures of annotto made in water, or in fpirit.
“ The green colour of the leaves of plants is ex- Colours
tradted by redtified fpirit of wine and by oils. T. he from
fpirituous tindtures are generally of a fine deep green,leaveSj
even when the leaves themfelves are dull-coloured, or
yellowifli, or hoary. The colour, however, feldom
continues long even in the liquor ; much lels when the
tinging matter is feparated in a folid form, and expo-
fed with a large furface to the air. The editor of the
Wirtemberg Pharmacopoeia obferves, that the leaves
of acanthus, brankurfine, or bear's-breach, give a
more durable green tindture to fpirit than thofe of any
other herb. Alkalies heighten the colour both of the
tindtures and green juices; acids weaken, deftroy, or
change it to a brownilh : lime water improves both
the colour and durability : by means of lime, not in¬
elegant green Ekes are procurable from the leaves, of
acanthus, lily of the valley, and feveral other plants.
There
Colour-
makin?.
COL [2
There are very few herbs which communicate any
{hare of their green colour to water j perhaps none
that give a green of any coniiderable deepnefs. It is
faid, however, that the leaves of fome plants give a
green dye to woollen, without the addition of any
other colouring matter} particularly thoie ol the wild
chervil, or cow-weed, the common ragwTort, and de-
vil’s-bit. The leaves of many kinds ot herbs and
trees give a yellow dye to wool or woollen cloth that
has been previoufly boiled with a folution of alum and
tartar. Weld, in particular, affords a fine yellow,
and is commonly made ufe of for this purpofe by the
• dyers, and cultivated in large quantity in lome parts of
England. There is no colour for which we have
fuch plenty of materials as for yellow. M. Hellot
oblerves that all leaves, barks, and roots, which on
being chewed dilcover a flight aftringency, as the
leaves of the almond, peach, and pear trees, afli-bark,
(especially that taken off after the firfl: rifing of the
fap in the fpring), the roots of wild patience, &c.
yield durable yellows, more or lels beautiful accor¬
ding to the length of time that the boiling is conti¬
nued, and the proportions of alum and tartar in the
preparatory liquor : that a large quantity of alum
makes thefe yellows approach to the elegant yellow
of weld : that if the tartar is made to prevail, it in¬
clines them to an orange ; that if the roots, barks, or
leaves be too long boiled, the yellow proves tarnilh-
ed, and acquires {hades of brown.” See the article
Dyeing.
The moft capital preparations from the leaves of
plants, are thoie of indigo, and weld ; which are both
very much ufed in dyeing, though the firfl only in
painting *. Both the indigo and woad plants, give
trr i their colour, by proper management, to water,
in form of a blue fsecula or lake. M. Hellot fufpedls
that a like blue faecula is procurable from many other
vegetables. Blue and yellow blended together, com-
pofe a green. He fuppofes the natural greens in ve¬
getables to be compounded in like manner of thefe
two colours ; and that the blue is oftentimes the moft
permanent, fo as to remain entire after the putrefac¬
tion or deftrudlion of the yellow. '1 he theory is fpe-
cious, and perhaps juft : we know of no other that
accounts in any degree for the production of the indi¬
go and woad blue. Dr Lewis, however, informs us,
that he never was able to produce the leaft appear¬
ance of either blue or yellow' from any of the plants
he tried by treating them in the manner ufed for the
preparation of indigo.
There are fundry modes, which in their natural
ftate, like the indigo and vvoad plants, promife nothing
of the elegant colours that can be extraded from them
by art. The moft remarkable of thefe is archil; for
the preparation of which, and the colours that may
be produced from it, fee the article. Linnaeus fu-
'fpecls that there are feveral other more common
mofies from which valuable colours might be extract¬
ed : a quantity of lea-mofs, having rotted in heaps on
the ftiore, he oblerved the liquor in the heaps to be
as red as blood the fea-water, the fun, and the
putrefaClion, having brought out the colour. Mr
Kalm, in an appendix to Linumus’s paper, in I74?>
mentions two forts of mofles aCtually employed in
Sweden for dyeing, woollen red; one is the lichenoides
and Woad
Produchen
of indigo
accounted
for.
39
Colours
from
uioffes.
85 ] COL
coralliforme apicibus coccineis of Ray’s Synopfis} the
other the lichenoides tartareum, farinaceum, fcutel- ' b ,
larum umbone fufco, of Dillenius. 1 his laft is a white
fubftance like meal clotted together, found on the fides
and tops of hills. It is fliaved oft' from the rocks al¬
ter rain, purified from the ftony matters intermixed
with it by waftiing with water, then dried in the
fun, ground in mills, and again wallied and dried : it
is then put into a veffel with urine, and fet by for a
month : a little of this tinClure added to boiling wa¬
ter makes the dveing colour. In the {ame I lanfaCtions
for the year 1754, there is an account of another mofs
which, prepared with urine, gives a beautiful and
durable red or violet dye to wool and iilk. This is the
lichen foliaceus umbilicatus lubtus lacunenlis, Linn,
flor. Suec. It grows upon rocks, and is readily dif-
tingui{liable from others of that clafs, by looking as i£
burnt or parched, confifting of leaves as thin as pa¬
per, convex all over on the upper fide, with corre-
fponding cavities underneath, adhering firmly to tne
Hones by a little root under the leaves, and coming
afunder, when dry, as foon as touched. It is gather¬
ed after rain, as it then holds bell together, and parts
eafiell from the ftone. In France, a cruftaceous mofs,
growing upon rocks in Auvergne, is prepared with
lime and urine, and employed by the dyers as a fuc-
cedaneum for the Canary archil, to which it is laid to
be very little inferior. M. Hellot relates, that he
has met with feveral other mofles, which, on being
prepared in the fame manner, acquire the fame co¬
lour. The moft: expeditious way, he fays, of trying
whether a mofs "will yield an atchil or not, is to moift-
en a little of it with a mixture of equal parts of fpi-
rit of fal ammoniac and ftrong lime- water, and add
a fmall proportion of crude (al ammoniac. I he glafs
is then to be tied over with a piece of bladder, and
fet by for three or four days. If the mo(s is of the
proper kind, the little liquor which runs trom it upon
inclining the veffel, will appear of a deep crimfon
colour ; and this afterwards evaporating, the plant
itfelf acquires the fame colour. Dr Lewis informs us,
that he has tried a good number of the common
moffes, many both of the cruftaceous and foliaceous
kind, and not a few of the fungi; as alfothe herbs cna-
momile and milfoil, which yield a blue effential oil ; and
thyme, whole oil becomes blue by digeftion with vola¬
tile fpirits ; but never met with any that yielded a co¬
lour like archil. Moft of them gave a yellow or
reddifti broWn tindlure. A few gave a deep red co¬
lour to the liquor : but when diluted, it {bowed a yel-
lowifti cart, and when applied on cloth it gave only a
yellowilb-red. 40
To thefe obfervations we {ball only add, that though Some blue
in general, the blue colours of flowers are exceeding- ^CH'’e|s,may'
ly periftiable, there feem to be at leaft two exceptions
to this rule ; for the blue flowers of iris, or flower- manent co¬
de-luce, and thofe of columbine, when treated with lours,
folution of tin, yielded a colour tolerably permanent.
Indeed, when experiments are made with a view to
extract the colour from any part of a vegetable, it
will always be proper to try whether it can bear a
mixture with this folution. If the colour is not de-
ftroyed by it, there is a very great probability that the
folution will, by proper management, preferve, and
give a durability to it, which could fcarce be obtained!
by.
COL [ 286 ] COL
Colouting
Colt.
41
Colours
from roots.
4*
Colours
for maps.
Sportfman t
JO iitionary.
by any other method. It muft, however, be obferved,
that there are feveral fubftances ufed in colour-making,
which folution of tin cannot bear to be mixed with.
Thefe are principally fugar of lead and cream of
tartar, as well as all the calcareous earths and alka¬
line falts. With alum it may be mixed very fafely,
and is in many cafes the better for it. The roots of
plants, however, feem to promife more durability of
colour than the upper parts. We have feen a blue co¬
lour of confiderable durability and brightnefs prepared
from the roots of common radifhes by expreffing the
juice, combining it with tobacco-pipe clay, and bright¬
ening it with a little alum. The root of the red beet
is alio faid to yield a durable colour of a beautiful red,
inclining to fcarlet j but this we cannot affirm from our
own experience.
With regard to liquid colours for maps, &c. we
apprehend there can be very little difficulty in pre¬
paring all the poffible varieties of them, if what we
have above laid down is attended to. The only co¬
lour with which there can be any difficulty is blue;
but the common folution of indigo in alkalies or acids
may be made to anfwer this purpofe, though, on ac¬
count of their ftrongly faline quality, they are not very
proper. A very curious method of procuring a beau¬
tiful tranfparent blue colour is by extra&ing the colour¬
ing matter from Pruffian blue, by means of a cauftic
alkali. This, when laid upon paper, appears of a dirty
browm colour ; but if waffied over with a wreak folution
of green vitriol, is inftantly changed to a moft beauti¬
ful blue. This feems to afford a method of procuring
blue tranfparent colours of greater beauty than they
are ufually met with.—See fpecimens of tranfparent
colours prepared according to the above rules, on the
Chart fubjoined to History.
COLOURING, among painters, the manner of ap¬
plying and conducing the colour of a pi&ure $ or the
mixtures of light and (hade, formed by the various co¬
lours employed in painting. See Painting.
Colouring of Glafs. See Glass.
Colouring of Porcelain. See Porcelain.
COLT, in Zoology, a general name for the young of
the horfe kind : the male being likewife, for diftinc-
tion’s fake, called a horfe-colt; the female, a flly.
After the colts have been foaled, you may fuffer
them to run with the mare till about Michaelmas,
fooner or later, according as the cold weather comes in j
then they muft be weaned j though fome perfons are for
having them weaned after Martinmas, or the middle of
November. The author of the Complete Horfman is of
opinion, that the reafon why moft foals advance fo {low¬
ly, and are not capable of fervice till they are fix or
feven years old, is becaufe they have not fucked long
enough ; whereas, if they had fucked the wffiole winter
over, they wrould be as good at four or five years old
as they are now at eight.
They ought now to be kept in a convenient houfe,
with a low rack and manger for their hay and oats,
which muft be fweet and good ; with a little wheaten
bran mixed with the oats to caufe them to drink, and
to keep their bodies open. But, fince there are fome
who allege, that oats make foals become blind, or
their teeth crooked j the fame author is of opinion,
that oats will wear their teeth, and make them the
fooner to change, and alfo to raze $ therefore he
1
judges it to be the beft w’ay to break them in a mill, Colt,
becaufe, that by endeavouring with their jaws to bruife v~
and chew them, they ftretch and fwell their eye and
nether-jaw veins, which fo attract the blood and hu¬
mours that they fall down upon the eyes, and frequently
occafion the lofs of them $ fo that it is not the heating
quality of the oats, but the difficulty in chewing, that
is the caufe of their blindnefs.
Further, colts thus fed with grain do not grow
thickifti upon their legs, but grow broader and better
knit than if they had eaten nothing but hay and bran,
and will endure fatigue the better. But above all,
they muft be kept from w^et and cold, which are hurt¬
ful to them, nothing being more tender than they are.
For proof of this, take a Spaniffi ftallion, and let him
cover two mares, which for age, beauty, and comeli-
nefs may admit of no difference between them j and
if they produce both horfe-colts, or both fillies, which-
is one and the fame thing, let one run abroad, and the
other be houfed every winter, kept wTarm, and ordinari¬
ly attended } and that colt that has been kept abroad
ffiall have large fleffiy ftioulders, flabby and gouty legs,
weak pafterns, and ill hoofs j and ffiall be a dull heavy
jade, in comparifon to the other which is houfed, and
orderly kept j and which will have a fine forehead,
be fine ffiaped, and have good legs and hoofs, and be
of good ftrength and fpirit j by which you may know,
that to have the fineft ftaliion, and the moft beautiful
mare, is nothing, if they are fpoiled in the breeding
up. It is worth obfervation, that fome foals, under
fix months old, though their dams yield plenty of milk,
yet decay daily, and have a cough, proceeding from
certain pellicles or {kins that breed in their ftomachs,
which obftruft their breathing, and at laft deftroy
them entirely. To remedy this malady, take the bag
wherein the colt was foaled, dry it, and give him as
much of it in milk as you can take up with three fin¬
gers j but if you have not preferved the bag, procure
the lungs of a young fox, and ufe it inftead of the
aforefaid powder.
It will be proper to let the colts play an hour or
two in fome court-yard, &c. when it is fair weather,
provided you put them up again carefully, and fee
that they take no harm. When the winter is fpent,
turn them into fome dry ground, where the grafs is
ffiort and fweet, and where there is good water,
that they may drink at pleafure ; for it is not necef-
fary that a colt ffiould fill his belly immediately, like
a horfe that labours hard. The next winter you may
take them into the houfe, and ufe them juft as you do
your other horfes j but let not your horfe-colts and
fillies be kept together after the firft year. This me¬
thod may be obferved every fummer and winter till
you break them, which you may do after they have
been three years old ; and it will be a very eafy thing,
if you obferve the aforefaid method of houfing them j
for ordering them the fecond year as you do your
other horfes, they will be fo tame and gentle, that
you need not fear their leaping, plunging, kicking,
or the like j for they will take the faddle quietly. As
for all thofe ridiculous methods of beating and curbing
them, they are in effefl fpoiling them, whatever they
call it, in ploughed fields, deep ways, or the like j
inftead of which, let the rider ftrive to win them by
gentle ufage, never corre&ing them but when it is
neceffary.
COL [ 287 ] COL
Colt. neceffary, and then with judgment and moderation.
■—v You will not need a cavelTon of cord, which is a head
ftrain, nor a pad of ftraw ; but only a common faddle,
and a common caveflbn on his nofe, fuch as other
horfes are ridden with ; but it ought to be well lined
with double leather j and, if you pleafe, you may put
on his mouth a watering bit, but without reins, only
the head flail, and this but for a few days; and then
put on fuch a bit as he fhould be always ridden with ;
and be fure not to ufe fpurs for fome time after back¬
ing. Take notice, that as yearlings mult be kept abroad
together, fo thofe of two years old together ; and the
like for thofe of three yearlings ; which ordering is
moft agreeable to them.
In order to make him endure the faddle the better,
the way to make it familiar to him will be by clap¬
ping the faddle with your hand as it Hands upon his
back, by linking it, and fwaying upon it, dangling
the Hirrups by his lides, rubbing them againft his fides,
and making much of them, and bringing him to be fa¬
miliar with all things about him; as ftraining the
crupper, fattening and loofening the girths, and ta¬
king up and letting out the ftirrups. Then, as to
his motion, when he will trot with the faddle obe¬
diently, you may wafh a trench of a full mouth, and
put the fame into his mouth, throwing the reins over
the forepart of the faddle, fo that he may have a full
feeling of it; then put on a martingale, buckled at
fuch a length that he may but juft feel it when he
jerks up his head ; then take a broad piece of leather,
and put it about his neck, and make the ends of it
fall by plaiting it, or fome other way, at the withers,
and the middle part before his weafands, about two
handfuls below the thropple, betwixt the leather and
his neck ; let the martingale pafs fo, that when at any
time he offers to duck, or throw down his head, the
caveffon being placed upon the tender griftle of his
nofe, may correft and punilh him ; which will make
him bring his head to, and form him to an abfolute
rein ; trot him abroad, and if you find the reins or mar¬
tingale grow flack, ftraiten them, for when there is no
feeling there is no virtue.
Colt-EviI, among farriers. See Farriery.
Con-Earning, is the breaking of a colt lo as to en¬
dure a rider. Colts are moft eafily broken at three
or four years of age; but he who will have patience
to fee his horfe at full five, will have him much more
free of difeafes and infirmities than if he was broken
fooner.
Preparatory to their breaking for the faddle, they
Ihould be ufed to familiar actions, as rubbing, clawing,
haltering, leading to water, taking up their feet,
knocking their hoofs, &c. In order to bridle and
faddle a colt, when he is made a little gentle, take a
fweet watering trench, walked and anointed with
honey and fait, which put into his malh, and fo place
it that it may hang about his tulh ; then offer him the
faddle, but take care not to frighten him with it. Suf¬
fer him to fmell at it, to be rubbed with it, and then to
feel it; after that fix it, and gird it fall, and make that
motion the moft familiar to him to which he feems
moft averfe. Being thus faddled and bridled, lead
him out to water, and bring him in again; when he
has flood reined upon the trench an hour or more,
take off the bridle and faddle, and let him go to his
meat till the evening, and then lead him out as be- Coltle
fore; and when you carry him in again to fet him
up, take off his faddle gently, clothing him for the ,
night.
COLTIE, a term ufed by timber-merchants, for a
defedl or blemilh in fome of the annular circles of a
tree, whereby its value is much diminilhed.
COLUBER, in Zoology, a genus of ferpent be-
longing to the order of amphibia. See Ophiology
Index.
COLUMB-KILL. See Jona.
COLUMBA, the Pigeon, in Ornithology, a genus--
of birds belonging to the order of pafferes. See Or¬
nithology Index.
COLUMBA, St, in allufion to whofe name the
ifland of Jona (one of the Hebrides), received its
name ; ‘jona being derived from a Hebrew word fig-
nifying a dove. This holy man, inftigated by his zeal,
left his native country, Ireland, in the year 565, with
the pious defign of preaching the gofpel to the Pi£ls.
It appears that he left his native foil with warm refent-
ment, vowing never to make a fettlement within fight
of that hated ifland. Pie made his firft trial at Oran-
fay ; and finding that place too near to Ireland, fuc-
ceeded to his wilh at Hy, for that was the name of
Jona at the time of his arrival. He repeated here the
experiment on feveral hills, erefting on each a heap
of ftones ; and that which he lall afcended is to this
day called Carnan-chul-reh-Eirium, or “ The eminence
of the back turned to Ireland.’
Columba was foon diftinguilhed by the fan&ity of
his manners : a miracle that he wrought fo operated
on the Piftilh king Bradeus, that he immediately made
a prefent of the little ifle to the faint. It leems that
his majefty had refufed Columba an audience; and
even proceeded fo far as to order the palace-gates to be
Ihut againft him : but the faint, by the power of his
word, inftantly caufed them to fly open. As foon as
he was in poffeflion of Jona, he founded a cell of monks,
borrowing his inftitutions from a certain oriental mo-
naftic order. It is laid that the firft religious were
canons regular, of whom the founder was the fiift
abbot; and that his monks, till the year 716, differed
from thofe of the church of Rome, both in the obfer-
vation of Eafter and in the clerical tonfure. Columba
led here an exemplary life, and was highly refpe£led
for the fan£lity of his manners for a confiderable num¬
ber of years. He is the firft on record who had the
faculty of fecondJight, for he told the vidlory of Aidan
over the Pidls and Saxons on the very inftant it hap¬
pened. He had the honour of burying in his ifland,
Convallius and Kinnatil, two kings of Scotland, and
of crowning a third. At length, worn out with age,
he died in Jona in the arms of his difciples ; was in¬
terred there, but (as the Iriflr pretend) in after times
tranflated to Down ; where, according to the epitaph,,
his remains were depefited with thofe of St Bridget
and St Patrick.
Hi tres in Duno tumulo tumulantur in uno;
Brigida, Patricias, atque Golutnba plus.
But this is totally denied by the Scots ; who af¬
firm, that the contrary is Ihown in a life of the
faint, extradled out of the pope’s library, arid tranfla¬
ted out of the I.atin into Erfe, by Father Cailoharan;.
which
COL [ 288 ]
Columbanus which decides in favour of Jona the momentous dif- appear on the furface.
COL
Golumbo- PUtC
■root.
COLUMBANUS, a faint and a poet, was born in
Ireland, and brought up-to a religious life among the
difciples of St Columba. He made uncommon pro-
giefs in learning ; and very early in life diftinguifhed
himfelf for poetical abilities, by the compofition of a
book of pfahns, and a number of moral poems, intend¬
ed alfo to be let to mufic. Jonas, a writer of eccle-
fiaftical hilfory, mentions, that Columbanus belonged
originally to a monaftery of the name of Benchor.
The fame monaftery is mentioned by St Bernard in his
life of his friend St Malachi; and he relates that it fent
out a great number of monks, who fpread over Eu¬
rope. Columbanus pafled from Britain into I ranee,
and founded the monaftery of Luxeville near Be fan 5011.
He had been kindly received and patronized by King
Childebeit j but he was afterwards expelled out of
France by the wicked cjueen Brunichild. He retired
to Lombardy in Italy, and was well received by King
Argulphus. In Lombardy he again founded the mo¬
naftery of Bobio. The Regal a Cxnohialu and Peni¬
tent ialis, which he eftablifhed in that monaftery, have
been publilhed in the Codex Regularum compiled by the
learned Holftenius. He was contemporary with St
Benedia. It was in the year 589 he went into
France.
COLUMBARIA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland
like a rock on the weft of Sicily, oppohte to IDrepanum j
faid by Zonares to have been taken from the Caitha-
ginians by Numerius Fabius the conful. Now Colum-
barn, with a very ftrong and almoft impregnable citadel
(Cluverius).
COLUMBIC acid. See Chemistry Index.
COLUMBINE. See Aquilegia, Botany In¬
dex.
COLUMBIUM, a new metal which was difcover-
ed in a mineral from North America. See Chemis¬
try Index.
COLUMBO-root, an article lately introduced in¬
to the materia medica, the natural hiitory of which is
not yet well known. According to Dr Percival’s ac¬
count, it grew originally on the continent of America,
from whence it was tranfplanted to Columbo, a town
in Ceylon, which gives name to, and fupplies all
India with it. The inhabitants of thefe countries have
for a long time ufed it in diforders of the ftomach and
bowels. They carry it about with them, and take it
fticed or feraped in Madeira wine. Phis root comes
to us in circular pieces, wdrich are from half an inch
or an inch to three inches in diameter ; and divided in-
\nto frujla, which meafure from two inches to one quar¬
ter of an inch. The Tides are covered with a thick
corrugated bark, of a dark brown hue on its exteinal
furface, but internally of a light yellow colour. The
furfaces of the tranfverfe fe&ions appear very unequal,
higheft at the edges, and forming a concavity towards
the centre. On feparating this furface, the root is
obferved to confift of three lamina, viz. the cortical,
which in the larger roots, is a quarter of an inch
thick } the ligneous, about half an inch } and tne me¬
dullary, which forms the centre, and is near an inch
in diameter. This laft is much fofter than the other
parts, and, when chewed, leems mucilaginous; a num¬
ber of fxnall fibres run longitudinally through it, and
The cortical and ligneous parts Columh
are divided by a black circular line. All the thicker root-
pieces have (mail holes drilled through them, for the ' ~w
convenience of drying. Columbo root has an aroma¬
tic fmell, but is difagreeably bitter, and flightly pun¬
gent to the tafte, fomewhat refembling muftard-feed,
when it has loft, by long keeping, part of its eilential
oil. Yet, though ungrateful to the tafte, when recei¬
ved into the ftomach, it appears to be corroborant,
antifeptic, fedative, and powerfully antiemetic. In
the cholera morbus it alleviates the violent tormina,
checks the purging and vomiting, corredls the putrid
tendency of the bile, quiets the inordinate motions of
the bowels, and fpeedily recruits the exhaufted ftrength
of the patient. It w-as adminiftered to a great number
of patients, fometimes upwards of 20 in a day, afftid-
ed with the cholera morbus, by Mr Johnfon ol Che-
fter, in 1756. He generally found that it foon Hopped
the vomiting, which was the moft fatal fymptom, and
that the purging and remaining complaints quickly
yielded to the lame remedy. 1 he dole he gave was
from half a drachm to two drachms of the powder,
every three or four hours, more or lefs according to
the urgency of the fymptoros. I hough this medi¬
cine pofleffes little or no aftringency, it has been ob¬
ferved to be of great fervice in diarrhoeas, and even in
the dvfentery. In the firft ftage of thefe dilordeis,
where aftringents would be hurtful, Colombo-root
may be preferibed with fafety ", as, by its antifpafmodic
powers, the irregular aflions of the primae vise are cor-
reaed. But as'a cordial, tonic, and antifeptic remedy,
it anfwers better w'ben given tow7ards their decline. Its
efficacy has alfo been obferved in the vomitings which
attend the bilious cholic } and in fuch cafes, where an
emetic is thought neceffary, after adminiltering a Imail
dofe of ipecacuan, the ftomach may be wafhed with an
infufion of Columbo-root. This wdll tend to prevent
thofe violent and convulfive retchings which in irrita¬
ble habits abounding with bile are fometimes excited
by the mildeft emetic. In bilious fevers, 15 or 20
grains of this root, wdth an equal or double quantity
of vitriolated tartar, given every four, five, or fix
hours, produce very beneficial eftedls. From its efti-
cacy in thefe bilious difeales of this country, it is pro¬
bable that it may be ufeful in the yellow fever of the
Weft Indies, which is always attended with great fick-
nefs, violent retchings, and a copious difeharge of bile.
The vomiting recurs at fliort intervals, often becomes
almoft inceffant, and an incredible quantity of bile is
fometimes evacuated in a few hours. Children during
dentition are often fubjeft to fevere vomitings and di¬
arrhoeas. In thefe cafes the Columbo-root is an ufe¬
ful remedy, and hath often procured almoft inftant re¬
lief, when other remedies often efficacious have been
tried invain. This root is alfo extremely beneficial m
a languid ftate of the ftomach, attended with want of
appetite, indigeftion, naufea, and flatulence. It may
be given either in fubftance, w'ith lome grate ul aro¬
matic, or infufed in Madeira wine. Habitual vomi¬
ting, when it proceeds from a weaknefs or irritability
of the ftomach, from an irregular gout, acidities, acii-
monious bile, or an increafed and depraved fecretion of
the pancreatic juice, is greatly relieved by the rife of
Columbo-root, in conjundion with aromatics, chaly-
beates, or the teftaceous powders. In the naufea and
vomiting
COL
[
Colambo- vomiting occafioned by pregnancy, an infufion of Co-
roo1: lumbo-root fucceeds better than any other medicine
Columbus. that hath been tr.ied*
t - -t From Dr Percival’s experiments on this root, it ap¬
pears, that reftified fpirit of wine extrafts its virtues
in the greateft perfection. The watery infufion is
more perifhable than that of other bitters. In 24
hours a copious precipitation takes place } and in two
days it becomes ropy, and even mufty. The addition
of orange peel renders the infufion of Columbo root
lefs ungrateful to the palate. An ounce of the powder¬
ed root, half an ounce of orange-peel, two ounces of
French brandy, and 14 ounces of water, macerated 12
hours without heat, and then filtered through paper,
afford a fufficiently ftrong and tolerably pleafant infu¬
fion. The extraft made firft by fpirit and then with
water, and reduced by evaporation to a pilular confift-
ence, is found to be equal, if not fuperior, in efficacy to
the powder. As an antifeptic, Columbo-root is infe¬
rior to the bark j but as a corrector of putrid gall, it
is much fuperior j ■whence alfo it is probable that it
would be of fervice in the Weft India yellow fever.
It alfo reftrains alimentary fermentation, without im¬
pairing digeftion, in which property it refembles muf-
tard. Hence its great fervice in preventing acidities.
It hath alfo a remarkable power of neutralizing acids
already formed. It doth not appear to have the leaft
heating quality ; and therefore may be ufed with pro¬
priety and advantage in the phthifis pulmonalis and in
heCHcal cafes, to correCt acrimony and ftrengthen di¬
geftion. It occafions no difturbance, and agrees very
well with a milk diet, as it abates flatulence, and is in-
difpofed to acidity.
Columbo, a maritime town of the ifland of Ceylon
in the Eaft Indies, feated on the fouth-wert part of its
coaft, and fubjeCt to the Dutch. E. Long. 68. 10.
N. Lat. 7. 5.
COLUMBUS, or Congregation of St Columbus, a
fociety of regular canons, who formerly had 100 ab¬
beys or monafteries in the Britiffi ifles.
Columbus, Chrifopher, a Genoefe, the celebra¬
ted navigator, and firft difcoverer of the iflands of
America, was a fubjeCt of the republic of Genoa.
Neither the time nor the place of his birth, however,
are known with certainty j only he was defcended of
an honourable family, who, by various misfortunes,
had been reduced to indigence. His parents were
feafaring people j and Columbus having difcovered, in
his early youth, a capacity and inclination for that
way of life, was encouraged by them to follow the
fame profeffion. He went to fea at the age of 14:
his firft voyages were to thofe ports in the Mediter¬
ranean frequented by the Genoefe, after which he
took a voyage to Iceland •, and proceeding ftill further
north, advanced feveral degrees within the polar
circle. After this, Columbus entered into the fervice
of a famous fea captain of his own name and family.
This man commanded a fmall fquadron, fitted out at
his own expence j and by cruifing, fometimes againft
the Mahometans, and fometimes againft the Venetians,
the rivals of his country in trade, had acquired both
wealth and reputation. With him Columbus conti¬
nued for feveral years, no lefs diftinguiflied for his
courage than his experience as a failor. At length,
in an obftinate engagement off tha coaft of Portugal,
Vol. VI. Part I.
S9 ] CO L
with fome Venetian caravals returning richly laden Go
from the Low Countries, the veffel on board which he
ferved took fire, together with one of the enemies ftiips
to which it was fait grappled. Columbus threw him-
felf into the fea, laid hold of a floating oar, and by the
fupport of it, and his dexterity in fwimming, he reach¬
ed the fhore, though above two leagues dill ant.
After this dilafter, Columbus repaired to Lilbon,
where he married a daughter of Bartholomew Pere-
ftrello, one of the captains employed by Prince Henry
in his early navigations, and who had difcovered and
planted the iflands of Porto Santo and Madeira. Hav-
ing got poffeffion of the journals and charts of this ex¬
perienced navigator, Columbus was feized with an ir-
refiftible defire of vifiting unknown countries. In order
to indulge it, he made a voyage to Madeira, and con¬
tinued during feveral years to trade with that ifland,
the Canaries, Azores, the fettlements in Guinea, and
all the other places which the Portuguefe had difco¬
vered on the continent of 'Africa.
By the experience acquired in fuch a number ot
voyages, Columbus now became one of the moft Ikil-
ful navigators in Europe. At this time the great ob-
je6f of difcovery was a paffage by fea to the Eaft;
Indies. This was attempted, and at laft accomplilhed,
by the Portuguefe, by doubling the Cape of Good
Hope. The danger and tedioufnefs of the paflage,
however, fuppofing it to be really accompliftied, which
as yet it was not, fet Columbus on confidering whe¬
ther a ffiorter and more direfl paffage to thefe regions
might not be found out 5 and, after long confideration,
he became thoroughly convinced, that, by failing
acrofs the Atlantic ocean, direftly towards the weft,
new countries, which probably formed a part of the
vaft continent of India, muft infallibly be difcovered.
His reafons for this were, in the firft place, a know¬
ledge he had acquired of the true figure of the earth.
The continents of Europe, Afia, and Africa, as far as
then known, form but a fmall part of the globe. It
was fuitable to our ideas, concerning the wifdom and
beneficence of the Author of nature, to believe, that
the vaft fpace, ftill unexplored, was not entirely co¬
vered by a wafte and barren ocean, but occupied by
countries fit for the habitation of man. It appeared
likewife extremely probable, that the continent on
this fide the globe was balanced by a proportional
quantity of land in the other hemifphere. 1 hefe
conjeftures were confirmed by the obfervations of mo¬
dern navigators. A Portuguefe pilot having ftretch-
ed farther to the weft than was ufual at that time,
took up a piece of timber, artificially carved, floating
upon the fea j and as it was driven towards him by a
wefterly wind, he concluded that it came from fome
unknown land fituated in that quarter. Columbus’s
brother-in-law had found to the weft of the Madeira
ifles a piece of timber faffiioned in the fame manner,
and brought by the fame wind ; and had feen alio
canes of an enormous fize floating upon the waves,
which refembled thofe defcribed by Ptolemy, as pro-
duflions peculiar to the Eaft Indies. After a courfe
of wefterly winds, trees torn up by the roots were
often driven upon the coaft of the Azores j and at
one time the dead bodies of two men, with Angular
features, which refembled neither the inhabitants of
Europe nor Africa, were call affiore there. The moft:
O o cogent
COL [ 290 ] COL
Columbus, cogent reafon, however, was a miflaken notion of
v the ancient geographers concerning the immenfe ex¬
tent of the continent of India. Though hardly any of
them had penetrated beyond the river Ganges, fome
Greek writers had ventured to defcribe the provinces
beyond that rivet, which they reprefented as regions
of an immenfe extent. Ctefias affirmed that India
was as large as all the reft of Afia. Oneficritus, whom
Pliny the naturalift follows, contended that it was equal
to a third part of the habitable earth. Nearchus af-
ferted that it would take four months to march from
one extremity of it to the other in a ftraight line. The
journal of Marco Polo, wdio travelled into Afia in the
13th century, and wyho had proceeded towards the eaft
far beyond the limits to which any European had ever
advanced, feerned alfo fo much to confirm thefe ac¬
counts, that Columbus was perfuaded that the diftance
from the moft wefterly part of Europe to the moft
eaftevly part of Afia w7as not very confiderable ; and
that the ihorteft, as well as moft diredt courfe to the
remote regions of the eaft, w^as to be found by failing
due weft.
In 1474, Columbus communicated his ideas on this
fubjedt to one Paul a phyfician in Florence, a man
eminent for his knowledge in cofmography. He
approved of the plan, fuggefted feveral fadts in con¬
firmation of it, and wTarmly encouraged Columbus
to perfevere in an undertaking fo laudable, and which
muft redound fo much to the honour of his country
and the benefit of Europe. Columbus, fully fatisfied
of the truth of his fyftem, was impatient to fet out on
a voyage of difcovery. The firft ftep towards this
was to fecure the patronage of fome of the confidera¬
ble powers of Europe capable of undertaking fuch an
enterprife. He applied firft to the republic of Genoa j
but his countrymen, ftrangers to his abilities, incon-
fiderately rejedted his propofal as the dream of a chi¬
merical projedtor, and thus loft for ever the opportu¬
nity of reftoring their commonwealth to its ancient
luftre. His next application w'as to the court of Por¬
tugal, where King John II. liftened to him in the moft
gracious manner, and referred the confideration of
his plan to Diego Ortiz, bifhop of Ceuta, and two
few'iftr phyficians, eminent cofmographers, whom he
was accuftomed to confult in matters of this kind.
Unhappily thefe were the perfons who had been the
chief diredtors of the Portuguefe navigations, and had
advifed to fearch for a paffage to India by fleering a
courfe diredlly oppofite to that which Columbus had
recommended as Ihorter and more certain. They
could not therefore approve of his propofal, without
fubmitting to the double mortification of condemning
their own theory, and of acknowledging his fuperio-
rity. The refult of their conferences w'as, that they
advifed the king to fit out a veflel privately, in order to
attempt the propofed difcovery, by following exadtly
the courfe which Columbus feemed to point out.
John forgetting on this occafion the fentiments of a
monarch, meanly adopted this perfidious counfel. But
the pilot chofen to execute Columbus’s plan had nei¬
ther the genius nor fortitude of its author. Contrary
winds arofe 5 no fign of approaching land appear¬
ed ; his courage failed j and he returned to Lifbon,
execrating the prqjedl as equally extravagant and dan¬
gerous.
On difcovering this diftionourable tranfa£lion, Co-C0lumbuS'
lumbus immediately quitted Portugal, and applied to y
the king of Spain 5 but left he ftiould be here again dif-
appointed, he fent his brother Bartholomew into Eng¬
land, to whom he had fully communicated his ideas,
in order that he might negociate at the fame time
veith Henry VII. who was reckoned one of the moft
fagacious as well as opulent princes of Europe. Bar¬
tholomew was very unfortunate in his voyage : he
fell into the hands of pirates, who ftripped him of
every thing, and detained him a prifoner for feveral
years. At laft he made his efcape, and arrived in
London, but in fuch extreme indigence that he was
obliged to employ himfelf, during a confiderable time,
in drawing and felling ‘maps, in order to pick up as
much money as would purchafe a decent drefs in which
he might venture to appear at court. The propofals
were received by Henry with more approbation than
by any monarch to whom they had hitherto been pre-
fented.
Columbus himfelf made his propofals to the king of
Spain, not without many doubts of fuccefs, which
foon appeared to be well founded. True fcience had
as yet made fo little progrefs in the kingdom of Spain,
that moft of thofe to whom the confideration of his
plan was referred were utterly ignorant of the firft
principles on which he founded his hopes. Some,
from miftaken notions concerning the dimenfions of
the globe, contended that a voyage to thofe remote
regions of the Eaft, which Columbus expefted to dif-
cover, could not be performed in lefs than three
years. Others concluded, that either he would find
the ocean of infinite extent, according to the opinion
of fome ancient philofophers; or that if he ftiould per-
fift in fleering weftwards beyond a certain point,
the convex figure of the globe muft infallibly pre¬
vent his return, and he muft perifh in the vain at¬
tempt to unite the two oppofite hemifpheres, which
nature had forever disjoined. Even without deign¬
ing to enter into any particular difcuflion, fome re¬
jected the fcheme in general, upon the credit of a
maxim made ufe of by the ignorant in all ages, “ That
it is prefumptuous in any perfon to fuppofe that he
alone poffelfes knowledge fuperior to all the reft of
mankind united.” By continual difappointments
and delays, he was at laft wearied out, and refolved
to repair to the court of England in perfon, in hopes
of meeting with a favourable reception there. He
had already made preparations for this purpoie, and
taken meafures for the difpofal of his children during
his abfence, w'hen Juan Perez, the prior of the mo-
naftery of Rabida near Palos, in which they had been
educated, earneftly folicited him to defer his journey
for a fliort time. Perez was a man of confiderable
learning, and fome credit with Queen Ifabella. To
her therefore he applied 5 and the confequence of his
application wTas a gracious invitation of Columbus back
to court, accompanied with the prefent of a fmall
fum to equip him for the journey. Ferdinand, how¬
ever, ftill regarded the project as chimerical 5 and had
the addrefs to employ, in this new negociation with
him, fome of the perfons who had formerly pro¬
nounced his fcheme to be impracticable. To their
aftonifhment, Columbus appeared before them with
the fame confident hopes of fuccefs as formerly, and
infifted
COL [29
Columbus, infixed on the fame high recompenfe. He propofed
——v ' tjlat a fmaii fleet fl10uia be fitted out, under his com¬
mand, to attempt the difcovery ; and demanded to
be appointed perpetual and hereditary admiral and
viceroy of all the leas and lands which he fhould dilco-
ver 5 and to have the tenth of the profits arifing from
them fettled irrevocably upon him and his defcendants
for ever. At the fame t:me he offered to advance
the eighth part of the fum neceffary for accomplifhing
his defign, on condition that he fhould be entitled to a
proportional (hare in the adventure. If the enterprile
fhould totally mifcarry, he made no flipulation for any
reward or emolument whatever. Thefe demands
were thought unreafonable ; Ifabella broke off the
treaty {he had begun, and Columbus was once more
difappointed. He now refolved finally to leave Spain j
and had aftually proceeded fome leagues on his jour¬
ney, when he was overtaken by a meffenger from
Ifabella, who had been prevailed upon by the argu¬
ments of Quintanilla and Santangel, two of Colum¬
bus’s patrons, again to favour his undertakings. The
negociation now went forward wTith all manner of fa¬
cility and difpatch ; and a treaty with Columbus was
figned on the 17th of April 1492. The chief articles
of it were, that Columbus fhould be conftituted high
admiral in all the feas, iflands, and continents he fhould
difcover, with the fame powers and prerogatives that
belonged to the high admiral of Caftile within the li¬
mits of his jurifdicfion. He was alfo appointed vice¬
roy in all thofe countries to be difcovered $ and a
tenth of the products accruing from their produftions
and commerce was granted to him for ever. All con-
troverfies or law-fuits with refpect to mercantile tranf-
aftions were to be determined by the foie authority of
Columbus, or of judges to be appointed by him. He
was alfo permitted to advance one eighth part of the
expence of the expedition, and of carrying on com¬
merce with the new countries; and was entitled, in re¬
turn, to an eighth part of the profit. But though the
name of Ferdinand was joined with Ifabella in this
tranfa&ion, his diftruft of Columbus was ftill fo violent,
that he refufed to take any part in the enterprife as
king of Arragon ; and as the whole expence of the
expedition was to be defrayed by the crown of Caftile,
Ifabella referved for her fubje&s of that kingdom an
exclufive right to all the benefits which might accrue
from its fuccefs.
At laft our adventurer fet fail with three fmall {hips,
the whole expence of which did not exceed 4000I.
During his voyage he met with many difficulties from
the mutinous and timid difpofition of his men. He
was the firft who obferved the variation of the com-
pafs, which threw the failors into the utmoft terror.
For this phenomenon Columbus was obliged to invent
a reafon, which, though it did not fatisfy himfelf, yet
ferved to drfpel their fears, or filence their murmurs.
At laft, however, the failors loft all patience ; and
the admiral was obliged to promife folemnly, that in
cafe land wTas not difcovered in three days he (hould
return to Europe. That very night, however, the
iftand of San Salvador was difcovered, which quickly
put an end to all their fears. The failors rvere then as
extravagant in the praife of Columbus as they had be¬
fore been infolent in reviling and threatening him.
They threw themfelves at his feet, implored his pardon,
1 ] COL
and pronounced him to be a perfon infpired by. heaven
with more than human fagacity and fortitude, in order JJ111 ’ (
to accompliih a defign fo far beyond the ideas and con¬
ception of all former ages. Having vifited feveral or
the Weft India iflands, and fettled a colony in Hifpa-
niola *, he again fet fail for Spain ; and after efcaping * See Hi*
great dangers from violent tempefts, arrived at the YfOtl/faniola,
of Palos on the 15th of March 1493.
As foon as Columbus’s fhip was difcovered ap¬
proaching, all the inhabitants of Palos ran eagerly
to the ftioie, where they received the admiral with
royal honours. The court was then at Barcelona,
and Columbus took care immediately to acquaint
the king and queen of his arrival. They were no
lefs delighted than aftonifhed with this unexpefled
event. They gave orders for conducing him into the
city with all imaginable pomp. They received him
clad in their royal robes, and feated on a throne under
a magnificent canopy. When he approached, they
{food up ; and, railing him as he kneeled to kifs their
hands, commanded him to take his leat upon a chair
prepared for him, and to give a circumftantial account
of his voyage. When he had finifhed his oration,
which he delivered with much modefty and fimplicity,
the king and queen, kneeling down, offered up lolemn
thanks to God for the difcovery. Every poftible mark
of honour that could be fuggefted by gratitude or
admiration was conferred* on Columbus ; the former
capitulation wras confirmed, his family was ennobled,
and a fleet was ordered to be equipped, to enable him
to go in queft of thofe more opulent countries which
he ftill confidently expeffed to find.
Notwnthftanding all this refpedf, however, Colum¬
bus was no longer regarded than he was fuccefsful.
The colonifts he carried over with him were to the
laft degree unreafonable and unmanageable ; fo that
he was obliged to ufe fome feverities wnth them ; and
complaints were made to the court of Spain againft
him for cruelty. On this, Francis de Bovadilla, a
knight of Calatrava, was appointed to inquire into the
condudf of Columbus ; with orders, in cafe he found
the charge of maladminiftration proved, to fuperfede
him, and affume the office of governor of Hifpaniola,
The confequence of this w'as, that Columbus was fent
to Spain in chains. From thefe, however, he was
freed immediately on his arrival, and had an opportu¬
nity granted him of vindicating his innocence. He
was, however, deprived of all power ; and notwith-
ftanding his great fervices, and the folemnity of the
agreement between him and Ferdinand, Columbus ne¬
ver could obtain the fulfilment of any part of that trea¬
ty. At laft, difgufted with the ingratitude of a mo¬
narch whom he had ferved with fuch fidelity and fuc¬
cefs, and exhaufted with fatigues, he ended his life on
the 29th of May 1506.
Columbus, Bartholomew, brother to Chriftopher,
famous for his marine charts and fpheres, which he
prefented to Henry VII. of England. He died in
15 H-
Columbus, Don Ferdinand, fon of Chriftopher,
and writer of his life. Fie entered into the ecclefiafti-
cal ftate ; and founded a library, which he bequeathed
to the church of Seville, to this day called the Colum¬
bine library. He died in 1560.
COLUMELLA, Lucius Junius Moderatus, a
O 0 2 Roman
Oolumey,
Column.
COL [ 292 ] COL
Roman philofopher, was a native of Cadiz, and lived
under the emperor Claudius, about the year 42. He
wrote a book on agriculture entitled De Re RuJIica,
and another De Arboribus.
COLUMEY, a town of Red Ruffia in Poland, feat-
ed on the river Pruth, towards the confines of Mol¬
davia, about 38 miles from Halicz, and 63 fouth of
Leopol. This town has been very ill treated by the
Coflacks, infomuch that it is now inconfiderable,
though there are feveral mines of fait in its diltridt.
E. Long. 16. 25. N Lat. 48. 45.
COLUMN, in ArchiteBure, a round pillar made
to fupport and adorn a building, and compofed of a
bafe, a (haft, and capital. See Architecture,
N° 33. . ' _
Columns, denominatedfr0771 //fezr«/e.—-Aftronomi-
cal column is a kind of obiervatory, in form of a very
high tower built hollow, and with a fpiral afcent to an
armillary fphere placed a-top for obferving the motions
of the heavenly bodies. Such is that of the Doric or¬
der ere6ted at the Hotel de Soiflbns at Paris, by Catha¬
rine de Medicis, for the obfervations of Orontius Fine-
us, a celebrated aftronomer of that time.
Chronological Column, that which bears fome hifto-
rical infcription digefted according to the order of time 5
as by luftres, olympiads, fafti, epochas, annals, &c. At
Athens, there were columns of this kind, whereon was
infcribed the whole hiftory of Greece digefted into
olympiads.
Funeral Column, that which bears an urn, wherein
are fuppofed to be enclofed the afhes of fome deceafed
hero ; and whofe fhaft is fometimes overfpread wdth
tears and flames, which are fymbols of grief and of
immortality.
Gno7no7iic Column, a cylinder w'hereon the hour of
the day is reprelented by the ftiadow of a ftile. See
Dial.
Hl/lorical Column, is that whofe fhaft is adorned
with a baflb-relievo, running in a fpiral line its whole
length, and containing the hiftory of fome great perfo-
nage : fuch are the Trajan and Antonine columns at
Rome.
Hollow Column, that which has a fpiral ftaircafe
withinfide for the convenience of afcending to the top ;
as the Trajan column, the ftaircafe whereof confifts of
185 fteps, and is illuminated by 43 little windows, each
of which is divided by tambours of white marble. The
monument, or fire-column, at London, has alfo a
ftaircafe \ but it does not reach to the top. Thefe
kinds of columns are alfo called columns coclidece, or
cochlidece.
Indicative Column, that wftiich ferves to Ihow the
tides, &c. along the fea-coafts. Of this kind there is
one at Grand Cairo of marble, on which the overflow¬
ings of the Nile are expreffed ; by this they form a
judgment of the fucceeding feafons; when the water,
for inftance, afcends to 23 feet, it is afign of great fer¬
tility in Egypt. See Nilometer.
InJlruBive Column, that raifed, according to Jofe-
phus, lib. i. cap. 3. by the fons of Adam, whereon
were engraven the principles of arts and fciences.
Baudelot tells us, that the fon of Pififtratus raifed ano¬
ther of this kind, of ftone, containing the rules and
precepts of agriculture.
Itinerary Column^ a column tvith feveral faces, pla¬
ced in the crofs w7ays in large roads ; ferving to ftiow Column,
the different routes by infcriptions thereon. u—y——
Lattary Column, at Rome, according to Feftus,
was a column erefted in the herb-market, now the
place Montanara, which had a cavity in its pedeftal,
wherein young children abandoned by their parents,
out of poverty or inhumanity, were expofed, to be
brought up at the public expence.
Legal Column. Among the Lacedemonians there
were columns raifed in public places, whereon were en¬
graven the fundamental laws of the ftate.
Limitrophous or Bou7idary Column, that which fliows
the limits of a kingdom or country conquered. Such
was that which Pliny fays Alexander the Great erect¬
ed at the extremity of the Indies.
Manubiary Column, from the Latin manubice, “fpoils
of the enemy j” a column adorned with trophies built
in imitation of trees, whereon the fpoils of enemies were
anciently hung. See Trophy.
Memorial Column, that raifed on occafion of any
remarkable event, as the monument of London, built
to perpetuate the memory of the burning of that city
in 1666. It is of the Doric order, fluted, hollow,
with a winding-ftaircafe j and terminated a-top with
waving flames. There is alfo another of the kind, in
form of an obelilk, on the banks of the Rhine in the
Palatinate, in memory of the famous paflage of that ri¬
ver by the great Guftavus Adolphus and his army.
Menian Column, any column which fupports a bal- .
cony or meniana. The origin of this kind of column,
Suetonius and Afcanius refer to one Menias ; who ha¬
ving fold his houfe to Cato and Flaccus, confuls, to be
converted into a public edifice, referved to himlelf the
right of raifing a column withoutfide, to bear a balco¬
ny, whence he might fee the {hows.
Military Column, among the Romans, a column
■whereon was engraven a lift of the forces in the Roman
army, ranged by legions, in their proper order j with
defign to preferve the memory of the number of fol-
diers, and of the order preferved in any military ex¬
pedition. They had another kind of military column,
which they called columna bellica, {landing before the
temple of Janus •, at the foot whereof the conful decla¬
red war, by throwing a javelin towaids the enemies
countries.
Mil liary Column, was a column of marble raifed
by order of Auguftus in the middle of the Roman fo¬
rum ; from whence, as a centre, the diftances of the
feveral cities, &c. of the empire were reckoned, by
other milliary columns difpoled at equal diftances on
all the grand roads. This column was of white mar¬
ble, the fame with that which is now feen on the bal-
luftrade of the perron of the capitol at Rome. Its
proportion is maffive, being a ftiort cylinder, the fym-
bol of the globe of the earth. It was called milliarium
aureuni, as having been gilt, at leaft the ball, by or¬
der of Auguftus. It was reftored by the emperors Ve-
fpafian and Adrian, as appears by the infcriptions.
Sepulchral Column, anciently was a column ereaed
on a tomb or fepulchre, with an infcription on its bafe.
Thofe over the tombs of perfons of diftinaion were
very large ; thofe for the common people fmtdl: thefe
laft are called Jlelce and cippi.
Statuary Column, that which fupports a ftatue. Such
was that ereaed by Pope Paul Y. on a pedeftal before
the
COL
[ 293 1
C O M
Column the church of St Maria at Rome ; to fupport a ftatue
II of the Virgin, which is of gilt brafs. '1 his column
Colyba. was j Up jn temple of Peace ; its (haft is a fingle
block of white marble 494- feet high, and five feet eight
inches diameter, of the Corinthian order.
The term Jlatuary column may likewife be applied
to Caryatides, Perfians, termini, and other human fi¬
gures, which do the office of columns ; and which Vi¬
truvius calls telamones and citlantes^ bee Architec¬
ture, N° 54.
Triumphal Column, a column erefted among the an¬
cients in honour of a hero } the joints of the ftones,
or courfes whereof, were covered with as many crowns
as he had made different military expeditions. Each
crown had its particular name, as vallaiis, which was
befet with fpikes, in memory of having forced a pali-
fade. Muralis, adorned with little turrets, or battle¬
ments, for having mounted an aifault. Naval is, of
prows and beaks of veffels } for having overcome^ at
fea. Obfidionalis, or graminahs, of grafs 5 for having
raifed a fiege. Ovans, of myrtle ; which expreffed an
ovation, or little triumph ; and tmumphahs, of laurel,
for a grand triumph. See Crown.
COLUMNARIUM, in Roman antiquity, a heavy
tribute, demanded for every pillar of a houle. It was
firft laid on by Julius Caefar, in order to put a flop, to
the extravagant expences laid out on fumptuous build-
ings.
COLUMNEA. See Botany Index.
COLUMNIFERI, in Botany, an order of plants
in the fragmenta methodi naturahs of Linnaeus. See
Botany Index.
COLURES, in AJlronomy and Geography, two great
circles fuppofed to interfea each other at right angles
in the poles of the world, and to pafs through the fol-
ftitial and equinoctial points of the ecliptic. See Geo-
GRAPHY.
COLURI, a little ifland in the gulf of Engia, in
the Archipelago, formerly called Salamis. 1 he prin¬
cipal town is of the fame name, and feated on the fouth
fide, at the bottom of the harbour, which is one of the
fineft in the world. The famous Grecian hero, Ajax,
who makes fuch a figure in Homer’s Iliad, was king
of this ifland. It is now, however, but a poor place 5
its commodities confifi: of wheat, barley, tar, rofin,
pit-coal, fponges, and pot-aflies, which they carry to
Athens. It is feven miles fouth from Athens, and is
feparated from the continent by a ftrait about a mile
over. "
COLUTEA, bastard-sena. See Botany Index.
COLYBA, or Colybus ; a term in the Greek li¬
turgy, fignifying an offering of corn and boiled pulfe,
made in honour of the faints, and for the fake of the
'dead.
Balfamon, P. Goar, Leo Allatius, and others, have
written on the fubjeft of colybte y the lubflance of what
they have faid is as follows: The Greeks boil a quan¬
tity of wheat, and lay it in little heaps on a plate }
adding beaten peas, nuts cut fmall, and grape-flones,
which they divide into feveral compartments, fepa¬
rated from each other by leaves of parfley.^ A little
heap of wheat, thus feafoned, they call xaXv'ex.
have a particular formula for the benediction of the
colybec, wherein, praying that the children of Babylon
may be fed with pulfe, and that they may be in better
condition than other people, they defire God to bids Colymbus
thofe fruits, and thofe who eat them, becaufe oftered ^om^jna_
to his glory, to the honour of fuch a faint, and in me- tjon<
mory of the faithful deceafed. Ballamon refers the ' " ^ *
inftitution of this ceremony to St Athanafius j but
the Greek Synaxary to the time of Julian the apo-
ftate.
COLYMBUS, a genus of birds belonging to the
order of anferes. See Ornithology Index.
COM, a town of Afia in the empire of Perfia, and
province of Irac-agemi. It is a large populous place,
but has fuffered greatly by the civil wars. E. Long.
51. 56. N. Lat. 34. 5.
COMA, or Coma-vigil, a preternatural propen-
lity to deep, when, neverthelefs, the patient does not
deep, or if he does, awakes immediately without any
relief. See Medicine Index.
Coma Berenices, Berenice’s hair, in AJlronomy, a
modern confteliation of the northern hemifphere, com-
pofed of unformed liars between the Lion’s tail and
Bootes. This conftellation is faid to have been form¬
ed by Conon, an aftronomer, in order to confide the
queen of Ptolemy Euergetes for the lofs of a lock oi
her hair, which was ftolen out of the temple of Venus,
where Ihe had dedicated it on account of a vi£tory ob¬
tained by her hulhand. The ftars of this, conftella¬
tion, in Tycho’s Catalogue, are fourteen 3 in Heveli-
us’s, twenty-one 3 and in the Britannic Catalogue, for¬
ty-three.
Coma Somnolentum, is when the patient continues in
a profound deep 3 and, when awakened, immedi¬
ately relapfes, without being able to keep open his
eyes.
COMARUM, marsh-cinquefoil. See Botany
Index.
COMB, an inftrument to clean, untangle, and drefs
flax, wool, hair, &c.
Combs for wool are prohibited to be imported into
England.
Comb is alfo the creft, or red fleftiy tuft, growing
upon a cock’s head.
COMBAT, in a general fenfe, denotes an engage¬
ment, or a difference decided by arms. See Battle.
Combat, in our ancient law, was a formal trial ot
fome doubtful caufe or quarrel, by the fwmrds. or ba¬
llons of two champions. This form of proceeding was
very frequent, not only in criminal but in civil cauies 3
being built on a fuppofition that God would never
grant the vi&ory but to him who had the beft right.
The laft trial of this kind in England was between
Donald Lord Reay appellant, and David Ramfay, Efq.
defendant, when, after many formalities, the matter
was referred to the king’s pleafure. See the article
Battle.
COMBINATION, properly denotes an affemblage
of feveral things, tw7o by two.
Combination, in Mathematics, is the variation or
alteration of any number of quantities, letters, or
the like, in all the different manners poflible. See
Changes.
Aphorifms. I. In all combinations, if from an arith¬
metic decreafing feries, w’hofe firft term is the number
out of which the combinations are to be formed, and
whofe common difference is 1, there be taken as many
terms as there are quantities to be combined, and theie
I terms
G0M [ 294 1 COM
Combina- terms be multiplied into each other ; and if from the
tl0n- ^ feries x, 2, 3, 4, &tc. there may be taken the fame
number of terms, and they be multiplied into each
other, and the firft product be divided by the fecond ;
the quotient will be the number of combinations re¬
quired. Therefore, if you would know how many
ways four quantities can be combined in feven, multi¬
ply the firft four terms of the feries, 7, 6, 5, 4, &c.
together, and divide the produft, which will be 840,
by the produdl of the firft four terms of the feries, 1,
2, 3, 4, &c. which is 24, and the quotient 35 will
be the combinations of 4 in 7. II. In all permutations,
if the feries 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. be continued to as many
terms as there are quantities to be changed, and thofe
terms be multiplied into each other ; the produft will
be the number of permutations fought. Thus, if you
would know how many permutations can be formed
xvith five quantities, multiply the terms 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
together, and the produft 120 will be the number of
all the permutations.
Problems. I. To find the number of changes that
may be rung on 12 bells. It appears by the fecond
aphorifm, that nothing more is necelfary here than to
multiply the numbers from 1 to 12 continually into
each other, in the following manner, and the laft pro-
duft will be the number fought.-
1
2
2 >
_3
6
 4
24
5
120
6
the quotient, which is 478,741,050,720,092,r6o, will Combina-
be the number of yarcis required, to contain the t‘on-
above-mentioned number of permutations. But as * '
all the 24 letters are contained in every permuta¬
tion, it w, 11 require a fpace 24 times as large *, that is,
1 x,489,785,217,282,211,840. Now the number of
fquare yards contained on the furface of the whole
earth is but 617,197,435,008,000, therefore it would
require a furface 18620 times as large as that of the
earth to write all the permutations of the 24 letters in
the fize above mentioned.
III. To find how many different ways the eldeft
hand at piquet may take in his five cards. The eldeft
hand having 12 cards dealt him, there remain 20
cards, any five of which may be in thofe he takes in j
confequently wTe are here to find how many ways five
cards may be taken out of 20. Therefore, by apho-
rilm I. if we multiply 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, into each
other, which will make 1860480, and that number be
divided by 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, multiplied into each other,
which make f2o, the quotient, which is 15504, will
be the number of ways five cards may be taken out of
20. From hence it follows, that it is X5503 to 1,
that the eldeft hand does not take in any five certain
cards.
IV. To find the number of deals a perfon may play
at the game of wrhift, without ever holding the fame
cards twice. The number of cards played’ with at
wThift being 52, and the number dealt to each perfon
being 13, it follow’s, that by taking the fame me¬
thod as in the laft experiment, that is, by multiplying
52 by 51, 50, &c. fo on to 41, which will make
3,954,242,643,911,239,680,000, and then dividing
that fum by ij 2, 3, &c. to 13, wdiich will make
6,227,020,800, the quotient, which is 63 5,013,559,600
will be the number of different ways 13 cards may be
taken out of 52, and confequently the number fought.
720
 7
504°
8
40320
 9
62880
10
28800
11
16800
12
479,001,600
II. Suppofe the letters of the alphabet to be wrote
fo fmall that no one of them {hall take up more fpace
than the hundredth part of a fquare inch : to find how
many fquare yards it would require to write all the
permutations of the 24 letters in that fize. By fol¬
lowing the fame method as in the laft problem, the
number of permutations of the 24 letters will be found
to be 62,044,840,173,323943,936,000. Now the
inches ia a fquare yard being 1296, that number mul¬
tiplied by 100 gives 129,600, which is the number of
letters each fquare yard will contain ; therefore if we
divide 62,044,840,173,323,943,936,000 by 129600,
1
36
399
W
rl
O
£
>—1
H
u
l
H
£
K
b—<
<1
o
-c
p
fc*.
§
V.
£
o
Cn
w - VO
r-<
VO
< ~
~ 00 ^ ^
^ 4--
M ^ ~ d
• M Vo . • “ <N OS
ir n vo *"•
*+- ” . N . T+- .
b: . eo o u-, p* cs
O r-v
so
O
VC_ OX
VO
2 d
<N PO
. N 00 CO O ■ Oa
^ ^ . 2 VO «-
VO '. VO « .
ro
00
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2
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a
rt
m ct CO "i- Vo vo r-00 C\ O l~l N
The
COM [ 295
The conftru&ion of this table is very fimple. The
line A a confifts of the firft 12 numbers. The line
A b confifts everywhere of units; and fecond term 3,
of the line B c, is compofed of the two terms 1 and 2
in the preceding rank : the third term 6, in that line,
is formed of the two terms 3 and 3 in the preceding
rank : and fo of the reft j every term, after the firft,
being compofed of the two next terms in the preced¬
ing rank : and by the fame method it may be conti¬
nued to any number of ranks. To find by this table
how often any number of things can be combined in
another number, under 13, as fuppofe 5 cards out of
8 ; in the eighth rank look for the fifth term, which is
56, and that is the number required.
Though we have ftiown in the foregoing problems
the manner of finding the combination of all numbers
rvhatever, yet as this table anfwers the fame purpofe,
for fmall numbers, by infpeftion only, it will be found
ufeful on many occafions j as will appear by the fol¬
lowing examples.
V. To find how many different founds may be pro¬
duced by ftriking on a harpfichord two or more of
the feven natural notes at the fame time. 1. The
combinations of two in feven, by the foregoing tri¬
angle are, - - - - 21
2. The combinations of 3 in 7, are - 35
3. The combinations of 4 in 7, are - 35
4. The combinations of 5, are - 21
5. The combinations of 6, are - 7
6. T ne feven notes all together once. - 1
Therefore the number of all the founds will be 120
VI. Take four fquare pieces of pafteboard, of the
fame dimenfion, and divide them diagonally, that is,
by drawing a line from two oppofite angles, as in the
figures, into 8 triangles ; paint 7 of thefe triangles
with the primitive colours, red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo, violet, and let the eighth be white. To
find how many chequers or regular four-fided figures,
different either in form or colour, may be made out
of thofe eight triangles. Firft, by combining two of
thefe triangles, there may be formed either the trian¬
gular fquare A, or the inclined fquare B called a rhomb.
Secondly, by combining four of the triangles, the large
fquare C may be formed $ or the long fquare D, call-
ed a parallelogram.
] COM
Now the firft: two fquares, confifting of two parts Combina-
out of 8, they may each of them, by the eighth rank Uon‘
of the triangle, be taken 28 different ways, which 'r"""
makes 56. And the laft two fquares, confifting of
four parts, may each be taken by the fame rank of the
triangle 70 times, which makes
To which add the foregoing number
140
56
196
And the number of the different fquares that”)
may be formed of the 8 triangles will be J
VII. A man has 12 different forts of flowers, and a
large number of each fort. He is defirous of fetting
them in beds or flourifhes in his parterre : Six flowers
in fome, 7 in others, and 8 in others ; fo as to have
the greateft variety poflible ; the flowers in no two
beds to be the fame. To find how many beds he
muft have. 1. The combinations of 6 in 12 by the
laft rank of the triangle, are
2. The combinations of 7 in 12, are
3. The combinations of 8 in 12, are
Therefore the number of beds muft be
924
792
495
2211
VIII. To find the number of chances that may be
thrown on two dice. As each die has fix faces, and as
each face of one die may be combined with all the
faces of the other, it follows, that 6 multiplied by 6,
that is, 36, will be the number of all the chances j as
is alfo evident from the following table :
Points.
2 1.1
3 2.1
4 2.2
5 4-1
6 3-3
6.1
4- 4
6-3
5- 5
6.5
6.6
1.2
3*1
1.4
i .6
6.2
3-6
6.4
5.6
Numb, of
chances.
i-3
3-2
1 -5
5-2
2.6
5-4
4.6
2-3
4- 2
2-5'
5- 3
4-5
2.4
4-3
3-5
3-4
36
Numb, of
points.
2
6
12
20
3°
42
40
36
3°
22
252
It appears by this table, 1. That the number of
chances for each point continually increafes to the
point of feven, and then continually decreafes till 12 :
therefore if two points are propofed to be thrown,
the equality, or the advantage of one over the other,
is clearly vifible (a). 2. The whole number of chances
on the dice being 252, if that number be divided by
36, the number of different throw's on the dice, the
quotient is 7 : it follow's therefore, that at every throw
there is an equal chance of bringing feven points.
3. As there are 36 chances on the dice, and only 6
of them doublets, it is 5 to 1, at any one throw*, a-
gainft throwing a doublet.
By
(a) It is eafy from hence to determine whether a bett propofed at hazard, or any other game with the dice,
be advantageous or not 5 if the dice be true (ivhich, by the way, is rarely the cafe for any long time together,
as it is fo eafy for thofe that are poffeffed of a dexterity of hand to change the true dice for falfe).
COM
COM [2
By the fame method the number of chances upon
any number of dice may be found : for if 36 be mul¬
tiplied by 6, that produft, which is 216, will be the
chances on 3 dice ; and if that number be multiplied
by 6, the produff will be the chances on 4 dice, &c.
Combinations of the Cards. The following expe¬
riments, founded on the doflrine of combinations, may
poffibly amufe a number of our readers. The tables
given are the bafis of many experiments, as well on
numbers, letters, and other fubjeffs, as on the cards j
but the effe£l produced by them with the laft is the
moll furpriling, as that which fhould feem to prevent
any collufion, that is, the fhuffling of the cards, is on
the contrary the caufe from whence it proceeds.
It is a matter of indifference what numbers are made
ufe of in forming thefe tables. W e {hall here confine
ourfelves to fuch as are applicable to the fubfequent
experiments. Any one may conftrudl them in fuch
manner as is agreeable to the purpofes he intends they
fhall anfwer.
To make them, for example, correfpond to the
nine digits and a cipher, there mull be ten cards, and
at the top of nine of them muft be written one of the
digits, and on the tenth a cipher. Thefe cards muft
be placed upon each other in the regular order, the
number 1 being on the firff, and the cipher at bottom.
Youthen take the cards in your left hand, as is com¬
monly done in fhuffling, and taking off the two top
cards, 1 and 2, you place the two following, 3 and 4,
upon them ^ and under thofe four cards the three fol¬
lowing 5, 6, and 7 : at the top you put the cards 8
and 9, and at the bottom the card marked o } con-
ftantly placing in fucceflion 2 at top and 3 at bottom :
And they will then be in the following order :
8.9.. 3.4..1.2...5.6.7..0
If you fhuffle them a fecond time, in the fame manner,
they will then ftand in this order :
6.7.. 3.4..8.9..1.2.5..0
Thus, at every new fliuffle, they will have a differ¬
ent order, as is expreffed in the following lines :
1 Ihuffle 8.9.3.4.1.2.5.6.7.0
2 6.7.34.8.9.1.2.5.0
3 2.5.3.4.6.7.8.9.1.O
4 9.1.3.4.2.5.6.7.8.0
5 7.8.3.4.9.1.2.5.6.0
6 5.6.3.4.7.8.9.1.2.0
7 1.2.34.5.6.7.8.9.0
It is a remarkable property of this number, that
the cards return to the order in which they were firft
placed, after a number of (huffles, which added to the
number of columns that never change the order, is
equal to the number of cards. Thus the number of
fhuffles is 7, and the number of columns in which the
cards marked 3, 4, &c. never change their places is 3,
which are equal to 10, the number of the cards. This
property is not common to all numbers ; the cards
fometimes returning to the firff order in a lefs number,
and fometimes in a greater number of Ihuffles than that
of the cards.
96 ]
Tables of Combinations,
Conffru&ed on the foregoing principles.
I. For ten numbers.
Order before dealing. After ift deal. After the 2d. After the 3d.
8 6
9 7
3
Thefe tables, and the following examples at piquet
except the 36th, appear to have been compofed by
M. Guyot.
II. For twenty-four Numbers.
Order before dealing.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
J3
14
*5
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
After ift deal. After the 2d. After the 3d.
21
23
24
18
'9
13
14
8
9
3
4
x
e
5
6
7
10
11
12
15
16
17
20
21
22
22
12
5
6
9
3
18
t9
23
24
*3
14
8
4
1
2
7
10
11
16
20
17
20
2
7
13
14
3
18
12
*5
21
22
5
6
9
19
23
24
8
4
1
10
11
16
III. For Twenty-feven Numbers.
Order before dealing. After ift deal. After the 2d. After the 3d.
21 I?
2 2 20
12
23
24
18
19
13
14
IO
J I
T 2
13
15
5
6
9
3
18
19
13
24
13
2
7
13
14
3
18
12
16
21
22
5
*4
9
COM
Order before dealing. After i ft deal.
6
7
i4
16
17
18
*9
20
21
22
23
24
2 5
26
27
10
11
12
16
17
20
2 t
22
25
26
27
After the ad.
14
S
4
x
2
7
10
11
16
*7
20
25
26
27
After the 3d.
6
9
*9
23
24
8
4
1
10
11
16
25
26
27
297 1 CO M
which, after they have been twice Auiffled, (hall give Combina«
the following anfvver : , tl<'n'
dream of joy that foon is o'er.
Firft, write one of the letters in that line on each of
the cards (b). Then write the anfwer on a paper, and
affign one of the 24 firft numbers to each card, in the
following order :
IV. For Thirty-two Numbers.
Order before dealing. After 1 ft deal. After the 2d.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
j 1
12
»3
J4
15
16
*7
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
2<i
26
27
28
29
30
31
22
28
29
23
24
18
19
!3
14
8
9
3
4
x
2
5
6
7
10
x 1
12
15
16
*7
20
21
2 2
25
26
27
3°
31
32
26
27
17
20
10
11
1
2
14
8
23
24
28
29
18
J9
J3
9
3
4
5
6
7
12
21
22
25
30
31
S2
I S
20 21
DREAM
2 3 4 5 6
’ E R.
23 24
OF JOY THAT SOON
7 8 910111213141516171819
O
22
After the 3d.
22
25
7
12
9
3
28
29
2
14
17
20
26
27
10
11
1
8
23
24
18
J9
13
4
5
6
16
21
3°
31
32
I. “ Several letters that contain no meaning, being
“ written upon cards, to make them, after they have
“ been twice ftiuffled, give an anfwer to a queftion
“ that (hall be propofed ; as, for example, What is
“ love Let 24 letters be written on as many cards
Vol. VI. Part I.
Next, write on another paper a line of numbers
from 1 to 24, and looking in the table for 24 combi¬
nations, you will fee that the firft number after the fe-
cond fhuffle is 2 1 •, therefore the card that has the firft
letter of the anfwer, which is A, muft be placed
againft that number, in the line of numbers you have
juft made (c.) In like manner the number 22 being
the fecond of the fame column, indicates that the card
which anfwers to the fecond letter D of the anfwer,
muft be placed againft that number ; and fo of the reft.
The cards will then ftand in the following order :
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91011 1213 141516171819
OOFSAMNTOI S RHAEO’EJO
20 21 22 23 24
R A D Y T
From whence it follows, that after thefe cards have
been twice ftiuffled, they muft infallibly ftand in the
order of the letters in the anfwer.
Obferve. 1. You ftiould have feveral queftions, with
their anfwers, confifting of 24 letters, written on cards ;
thefe cards ftiould be put in cafes, and numbered, that
you may know’ to which queftion each anfwer belongs.
You then prefent the queftions 5 and when any one of
them is chofen, you pull out the cafe that contains the
anfwer, and fhowing that the letters written on them
make no fenfe, you then fliuffle them, and the anfwer
becomes obvious.
2. To make this experiment the more extraordi¬
nary, you may have three cards, on each of which
an anfwer is written ; one of which cards muft be a
little wider,' and another a little longer, than the
others. You give thefe three cards to any one, and
■when he has privately chofen one of them, he gives
you the other two, which yTou put in your pocket with¬
out looking at them, having difeovered by feeling
which be has chofen. YouAhen pull out the cafe that
contains the cards that anfwer to his queftion, and per¬
form as before.
3. You may alfo contrive to have a long card at the
bottom after the fecond fliuffle. The cards may be
then cut feveral times, till you perceive by the touch
that the long card is at bottom, and then give the an-
P p fwer j
(b) Thefe letters ftiould be written in capitals on one of the corners of each card, that the words may be eafi-
ly legible when the cards are fpread open.
(c) For the fame reafon, if you would have the anfwer after one ftiuffle, the cards muft be placed according
to the firft column of the table j or if after three (huffles, according to the third column.
COM [ 298 ] COM
Combina- Aver j for the repeated cuttings, however often, will
uon. make no alteration in the order of the cards.
v " The fecond of thefe obfervations is applicable to
fome of the fubfequent experiments, and the third may¬
be praftifed in almoft all experiments with the cards.
You fhould take care to put up the cards as foon as
the anfwer has been (hewn $ fo that if any one fhould
defire the experiment to be repeated, you may offer
another queflion, and pull out thofe cards that contain
the anfwer.
Though this experiment cannot fail of exciting at all
times pleafure and furprife, yet it muft be owned that
a great part of the applaufe it receives arifes from the
addrefs with which it K performed.
II. “ The 24 letters of the alphabet being written
“ upon fo many cards, to fhuifle them, and pronounce
“ the letters fhall then be in their natural order ; but
“ that not fucceeding, to fhuffle them a fecond time,
14 and then {how them in proper order.” Write the
24 letters on the cards in the following order :
123456789101112
R S H QJ1 F1' P G U X C
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
NODYZ IK&ABLM
The cards being difpofed in this manner, fhow them
upon the table, that it may appear they are promifcu-
oufly marked. Then fhuffie and lay them again on the
table, pronouncing that they will be then in alphabe¬
tical order. Appear to be furprifed that you have fail¬
ed ; take them up again, and give them a fecond fhuffle,
and then counting them down on the table they will
all be in their natural order.
III. “ Several letters being written promifcuoufly
“ upon 32 cards, after they have been once fhuffled,
“ to find in a part of them a queftion j and then fhuf-
“ fling the remainder a fecond time, to {how the an-
“ fwer. Suppofe the queftion to be, What is each Bri-
“ /o/P-r boaft ? and the anfwer, His liberty ; which
li taken together contain 32 letters.”
After you have written thofe letters on 32 cards,
write on a paper the words, his liberty, and annex to
the letters the firft ten numbers thus :
HIS LIBERTY.
1 234567 89 10
Then have recourfe to the table of combinations for
ten numbers, and apply the refpe&ive numbers to them
in the fame manner as in experiment I. taking the firfl;
column, as thefe are to be fhuffled only once accord¬
ing to that order.
123 456789x0
IBS LERTHIY
This is the order in which thefe cards muft ftand
after the whole number 32 has been once fhuffled, fo
that after a fecond fhuffle they may ftand in their pro¬
per order. Next difpofe the whole number of letters
according to the firft column for 32 letters ; the laft
ten are to be here placed in the order above j as fol¬
lows :
WHAT IS EACH BR ITON’S
1 2 34 56 7891011121314151617
BOAST? Combina.
i 8 19 20 21 22 , tl0n-
I BSLER THIY
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
Therefore, by the firfl: column of the tabic, they w ill
next ftand thus :
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 it 12 13 14 15 16
ITBRONSCHB O A E AS T long card.
1718192021 222324 2526272829 30 31 32
I ISB SL IB E RTWHH I Y
You muft obferve, that the card here placed the
16th in order, being the laft of the queftion, is a long
card ; that you may cut them, or have them cut, after
the firfl: fhuffle, at that part, and by that means fepa-
rate them from the other ten cards that contain the
anfwer.
Your cards being thus difpofed, you fhow that they
make no meaning ; then fhuffle them once, and cut¬
ting them at the long card, you give the firft part to
any one, who reads the queftion, but can find no an¬
fwer in the others, wfflich you open before him j you
them fhuffle them a fecond time, and fhow the anlwer
as above.
IV. “To write 32 letters on fo many cards, then
“ fhuffle and deal them by twros to two perfons, in
“ fuch manner, that the cards of one fliall contain a
“ queflion, and thofe of the other an anfwer. Sup-
“ pofe the queftion to be Is nothing certain ? and the
“ anfwer, 7'es, difappointmentH
Over the letters of this queftion and anfwer, write
the following numbers, which correfpond to the order
in which the cards are to be dealt by two and two.
IS NOTHING CERTAIN?
31 32 27 28 23 24 19 20 15 16 11 12 7 834
YES, DISAPOINTMENT.
29 30 25 26 21 22 17 18 13 14 9 10 5 6 1 2
Then have recourfe to the firft: column of the table
for 32 numbers, and difpofe thefe 32 cards in the fol¬
lowing order, by that column.
1 2 34 5 6 7 8 910111213141516
OI ERGCANT P I NT A I S
17 l8 IQ 20 21 22 23 24 2 C 26 27 28 2Q 30 31 32
TMEHSDINNOYNTE IS
The cards being thus difpofed, fhuffle them once,
and deal them two and two ; when one of the parties
will necelTarily have the queftion, and the other the
anfwer.
Inftead of letters you may write words upon the 32
cards, 16 of which may contain a queftion, and the re¬
mainder the anfwer j or what other matter you pleafe.
If there be found difficulty in accommodating the
words to the number of cards, there may be two or
more letters or fyllables written upon one card.
V. “ The five beatitudes.” The five bleffings we
will fuppofe to be, 1. Science, 2. Courage, 3. Health,
4. Riches, and 5. Virtue. Thefe are to be found
upon cards that you deal, one by one, to five perfons..
Fit ft, write the letters of thefe words fucceflively, in
the
' COM [ 299 ]
Combina- tlie order they ftand, and then add the numbers here 15 Ten
tion.
annexed to them.
SC I E N C E
31 26 21 16 11 6 1
HEALTH
28 23 1813 8 3
VI R T U E
30 25 20 15 10 5
COURAGE
32 27 22 17 12 7 2
R I CUES
29 24 19 14 9 4
16 Nine } fpadeS
17 King clubs
18 Ten 1 , v
XT. J- hearts
19 Nine J
20 Seven clubs
21 Ace diamonds
22 Knave fpades
23 Queen hearts
O M
24 Knave hearts
25 Ace fpades
26 King diamonds
27 Nine clubs
28 1 hearts
29 King j -
30 Eight clubs
31 King I fpacles
3 2 Queen j r
Then range them in order agreeable to the firft co¬
lumn of the table for 32 numbers, as in the latl expe¬
riment. Thus,
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
LHNATEREU A C RGT I U
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 qi 32
EECI I CHSOHREEVSC
Next take a pack of cards and write on the four firfl:
the word Science ; on the four next, the word Courage j
and fo of the reft.
Matters being thus prepared, you (how that the
cards on which the letters are written convey no mean¬
ing. Then take the pack on which the words are writ¬
ten, and fpreading open the firft four cards, with their
backs upward, you defire the firft perfon to choofe one.
Then clofe thofe cards, and fpread the next four to the
fecond perfon ; and fo to all the five j telling them to
hold up their cards left you ftiould have a confederate
in the room.
You then fhuffie the cards, and deal them one by
one, in the common order, beginning with the perfon
who chofe the firft card, and each one will find in his
hand the fame word as is written on his card. You will
obferve, that after the fixth round of dealing, there
will be two cards left, which you give to the firft and
fecond perfons, as their words contain a letter more
than the others.
VI. “ The cards of the game of piquet being mixed
together, after fhuffling them, to bring, by cutting
them, all the cards of each fuit together.” The order
in which the cards muft be placed to produce the effeft
defired being eftablifhed on the fame principle as that
explained in experiment II. except that the ftiuf-
fling is here to be repeated three times, we think it
will be fufficient to give the order in which they are
to be placed before the firft fhutBe.
Order of the Cards.
1 Ace
2 Knave
3 Eight
4 Seven
wide card
5 Ten clubs
6 Eight
7 Seven
wide card
clubs
diamonds
fpades
8 Ten '
9 Nine 1
10 Queen
11 Knave _
diamonds
I 2 Queen clubs
13 Eight
14 Seven
wide card
1
hearts
You then fliuffle the cards, and cutting at the wide
card, w'hich wull be the feven of hearts, you lay the
eight cards that are cut, which will be the fuit of
hearts, down on the table. Then fnuffling the remaining
cards a fecond time, you cut at the fecond wide card,
which wdll be the feven of fpades, and lay, in like
manner, the eight fpades down on the table. You
ftiuffle the cards a third time, and offering them to
any one to cut, he will naturally cut them at the wide
card (d), wrhich is the feven of diamonds, and con-
fequently divide the remaining cards into twro equal
parts, one of which will be diamonds and the other
clubs.
VII. “ The cards at piquet being all mixed together,
to divide the pack into two unequal parts, and name
the number of points contained in each part.” You
are firft to agree that each king, queen, and knave, ftrall
count, as ufual, 10, the ace 1, and the other cards ac¬
cording to the number of the points. Then difpofe
the cards, by the table for 32 numbers, in the following
order, and obferve that the laft card of the firft divi-
fion muft be a wide card.
Order of the Cards before fiiuffling.
1 Seven hearts
2 Nine clubs
3 Eight hearts
4 Eight
5 Knave > fpades
6 Ten J
9 Ace hearts
wude card
10 Nine hearts
11 Queen fpades
12 Knave clubs
13 Ten diamonds
14 Ten 7
15 King >• hearts
16 Queen J
17 Nine diamonds
18 Ace fpades
19 Ten clubs
20 Knave 7
21 Eight > diamonds
22 King j
23 Seven fpades
24 Seven 7 j- j
r ^ J- diamonds
25 Queen 3
26 Knave hearts
27 King clubs
28 Nine 1 r j
29 King j fPades
30 Ace diamonds
31 Seven 7 1 l
h Eight j dub!
You then ftiuffle them carefully, according to the
method before defcribed, and they will ftand in the
following order.
P p 2
1 Nine
(D) You muft take particular notice whether they be cut at the wide card, and if they are not, you mull
have them cut, or cut them again yourfelf.
Cards.
c o
Number?.
1 Nine 1
2 King > ipades
3 Seven J
4 Seven diamonds
5 Ace fpades
9
io
7
7
i
M
Cards.
brought up
6 Ten clubs
7 Ten diamonds
8 Ten hearts
9 Ace clubs
f 3°° 1
Numbers. 25 Seven fpades
26 Seven diamonds
27 Nine fpades
28 King 1 r j
29 Ac, j fi>ades
34
10
10
10
1
O M
30 Ten clubs
31 Ten diamonds
3 2 Ace hearts
wide card.
I o Ace hearts (wide card) I
carried up 34
total 66
11 Eight hearts
12 Eight fpades
j 3 Seven hearts
14 Nine clubs
17 Queen clubs
1 8 Nine hearts
19 Queen fpades
20 Knave clubs
21 King hearts
8
8
7
9
10
10
xo
9
10
10
brought up
22 Queen hearts
23 Nine
24 Knave
2 $ Eight
26 King
27 Queen
28 Knave hearts
29 King clubs
30 Ace diamonds
3 x Seven 1
32 Eight j
diamonds
clubs
101
10
9
10
8
10
10
10
10
1
7
8
carried up 101
total 194
Eight hearts
Eight J
Knave >
Ten J
Queen 1
Knave 3
King 1
8 Queen 5
9 Eight
xo King „ diamonds
11 Queen
1 2 Ace
clubs
fpades
clubs
hearts
13 Seven 1
14 Eight 3
15 Knave hearts
16 King clubs
Is Knave} di3m0mls
19 Nine hearts
20 Queen fpades
21 Seven hearts
2 2 Nine clubs
23 Ten hearts
24 Ace clubs
The cards being thus difpofed, you afk your adver-
fary in what fuit you fhall repique him ? If he fay in
clubs or diamonds, you muft deal the cards by threes,
and the hands will be as follows:
Elder.
Hearts, king
   queen
  knave
  nine
 eight
When the cards are by fliufiling difpofed in this or¬
der, you cut them at the wide card, and pronounce
that the cards you have cut off contain 66 points, and
confequently the remaining part 194.
VIII. “ The Inconceivable Repique (e).” When
you would perform this experiment with the cards ufed
in the laft, you muff obferve not to diforder the firft 10
cards in laying them down on the table. Putting
thofe cards together, in their proper order, therefore,
you fixufile them a fecond time in the fame manner,
and offer them to any one to cut, obferving carefully
if he cut them at the wide card, which will be the ace
of hearts, and will then be at top ; if not, you mufl:
make him, under fome pretence or other, cut them
till it is j and the cards will then be ranged in fuch or¬
der that you will repique the perfon againft whom you
play, though you let him choofe (even after he has
cut) in what fuit you fhall make the repique.
Order of the cards after they have been fliuffled and
cut.
Younger.
Clubs, ace
 king
  queen
  knave
nine
 fei
Spades, queen
  knave
—  eight
Diamonds, eight
Clubs, eight
 feven
Rentree, or take in of
the elder.
Seven fpades
Seven diamonds
Nine
King > fpades
Ace j
Diamonds, ace
■ k'nig
  queen
  knave
nine
Spades, ten
Hearts, ten
Rentree of the younger.
Ten clubs
Ten diamonds
Ace hearts
If he again ft whom you play, who is fuppofed to be
elder hand, has named clubs for the repique, and has
taken in five cards, you muft then lay out the queen,
knave, and nine of diamonds, and you will have, with
the three cards you take in, a fixiem major in clubs,
and quatorze tens. If he leave one or two cards, you
muft difeard all the diamonds.
If he require to be repiqued in diamonds, then dif¬
eard the queen, knave, and nine of clubs : or all the
clubs, if be leave two cards-, and you will then have a
hand of the fame ftrength as before.
Note. If the adverfary fhould difeard five of his
hearts, you will not repique him, as he will then have
a feptiem in fpades : or if he only take one card : but
neither of thefe any one can do, who has the leaft
knowledge of the game. If the perfon againft whom
you play would be repiqued in hearts or ipades, you
muft deal the cards by twos, and the game will ftand
thus :
Eider hand.
King 1
l diamonds
Nine I
Eight J
Younger hand.
Ace
King _
Ace 1
Queen j
}
clubs
diamonds
Queen
(,e) This manoeuvre of piquet was invented by the countefs of L-
by her to M. Guyot.
(a French lady), and communicated
1
Combina¬
tion.
c
EWer hand.
Qneen"]
Knave j
Nine j> clubs
Eight
Seven j
\ liearts
Seven j
Eight ipades
Ren tree.
Seven fpades
Seven diamonds
Nine "1
King > fpades
Ace j
O M [ 301
Younger hand.
Queen ~i
Knave > fpades
Ten J
King I
Queen
Knave > hearts
1'en j
Nine J
Rentree.
Ten clubs
Ten diamonds
Ace hearts
If he require to be repiqued in hearts, you keep the
quint to a king in hearts, and the ten of fpades, and
lay out which of the reft you pleafe : then, even if he
ftiould leave two cards, you will have a fixiem major
in hearts, and quatorze tens, which will make a re¬
pique.
But if he demand to be repiqued in fpades*, at the
end of the deal you muft dexteroufly pafs the three
cards that are at the bottom of the ftock (that is, the
ten of clubs, ten of diamonds, and ace of hearts) to
the top (f), and by that means you referve the nine,
king, and ace of fpades for yourfelf; fo that by keep¬
ing the quint in hearts, though you fhould be obliged
to lay out four cards, you will have a fixiem to a king
in fpades, with which and the quint in hearts you muft
make a repique.
Obferve here likewife, that if the adverfary lay out
only three cards, you will not make the repique j
but that he will never do, unlefs he be quite ignorant
of the game, or has fome knowledge of your intention.
This laft ftroke of piquet has gained great applaufe,
when thofe that have publicly performed it have
known how to conduft it dexteroufly, Many perfons
who under ftand the nature of combining the cards,
have gone as far as the palling the three cards from
the bottom of the ftock, and have then been forced to
confefs their ignorance of the manner in which it was
performed.
IX. “ The Metamorphofed Cards.” Provide 32
cards that are differently coloured, on which feveral
different words are written, and different o’hje<Rs paint¬
ed. Thefe cards are to be dealt two and two to four
perfons, and at three different times, flmffling them
each time. After the firft deal, every one’s cards are
to be of the fame colour ; after the fecond deal they
are all to have objedls that are fimilar : and after the
third, words that convey a fentiment.
Difpofe of the cards in the following order.
Cards.
1
2
3
4
Colours.
Yellow
Yellow
Green
Green
Objecfts.
Bird
Bird
Flower
Flower
Words.
I find
In you
Charming
Flowers
1
Cards.
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
H
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
3°
31
S2
Colours.
White
White
Red
Red
Red
Red
Green
Green
White
White
Yellow
Yellow
White
Yellow
Yellow
White
Red
Red
Green
Green
Green
Green
Yellow
Red
Red
Yellow
White
White
O M
Obiedts.
Bird
Orange
Butterfly
Flower
Flower
Butterfly
Butterfly
Butterfly
Flower
Flower
Orange
Flower
Orange
Butterfly
Butterfly
Bird
Orange
Orange
Orange
Orange
Bird
Bird
Flower
Bird
Bird
Orange
Butterfly
Butterfly
Words.
To hear
Beauty
My
Note*
In
Shepherdefs
Lover
Your
Of
an inconftant
Image
Enchanting
Adorn
My
Phyllis
Birds
Sing
Dear
andfweetneis
The
Of
Prefent
As
Changes
Bofom
Me
Your
I long
The cards thus coloured, figured, and tranferibed,
are to be put in a cafe, in the order they here ftand.
When you would perform this experiment you take
the cards out of the cafe, and fhow, without changing
the order in which they were put, that the colouis,
objedfs, and words, are all placed promifeuoufly. You
then ftniffle them in the fame manner as before, and deal
them, two and two, to four perfons, obferving that they
do not take up their cards till all are dealt, nor mix
them together : and the eight cards dealt to each peifon
will be found all of one colour. You then take each
perfon’s cards, and put thofe of the fecond perfon un¬
der thofe of the firft, and thofe of the fourth perfon un¬
der thofe of the third. After which you fhuffle them
a fecond time *, and having dealt them in the fame
manner, on the firft perfon’s cards will be painted all
the birds ; on the fecond perfon’s cards, all the butter¬
flies 5 on thofe of the third, the oranges*, and on tbofe
of the fourth, the flowers. You take the. cards a fe¬
cond time, and obferving the fame precautions, Ihuffle
and deal them as before j and then the firft perfon, who
had the laft time the birds in his hand, will have the
words that compofe this fentence :
iS7/?y, dear birds ,* I long to bear your enchanting notes.
The fecond perfon, who the laft deal had the but¬
terflies, will now have thefe words :
Of an inconflant lover your changes prefent me the image.
The third, who had the oranges, will have this fen¬
tence : •
As 1
(f) The manner of doing this is explained in the article Legerdemain.
COM
'Combina¬
tion
t 3°2 ]
COM
dsm my Phyllis, IJhid In you beauty andfiucctnefs.
Comedy. The fourth, who had the flowers, will have thefe
v——; words:
Charming flowers, adorn the bofom of my fhepherdefs.
It feems quite unneceffary to give any further detail,
as they who underlland the foregoing experiments will
eahly perform this.
Among the different purpofes to which the doftrine
of combinations may be applied, thofe of writing in
cipher, and deciphering, hold a principal place. See
the article Cipher.
Combination, in Chemiflry, fignifies the union of
two bodies of different natures, from which a new
compound body refults. For example, when an acid
is united with an alkali, we fay that a combination be¬
twixt thefe two faline fubflances takes place ; becaufe
from this union a neutral fait refults, w^hich is compo-
fed of an acid and an alkali.
COMBUST, in Aflronomy. When a planet is in
conjunflion with the fun, or not diftant from it above
hair its difk j it is faid to be combuft, or in com-
buflion.
According to Argol, a planet is combufl, or in
combufhon, when not above eight degrees and thirty
minutes diftant from the fun, either before or after him.
COMhUS 110 pecuniae, the ancient wTay of trying
mixed and corrupt money, by melting it down, upon
payments into the exchequer. In the time of King
Henry II. a conftitution was made, called the trial by
combufl ion ; the praflice of which differed little or no¬
thing from the prefent method of affaying lilver. But
whether this examination of money by combuftion was
to reduce an equation to money only to fterling, viz.
a due proportion of alloy with copper, or to reduce it
to pure fine filver, does not appear. On making the
conlbtution of trial it was confidered, that though the
money did anfwer numero et pondere, it might be de¬
ficient in value ; becaufe mixed with copper or brafs
&c. *
COMBUSTION, a term denoting the operation of
fire upon any inflammable fubftance, by which it
fmokes, flames, and is reduced to allies.
I here is not a phenomenon in nature by which the
attention of philofophers has been more engaged, nor
which has puzzled them more to account for, than this
very common operation. To explain it,' theories have
oeen invented the moft oppofite and contiadi&ory to
one another that can be imagined ; and, till very
lately, the ftate of fcience did not afford data fufficiest
to explain it in a rational manner. See Chemistry
Index.
COMEDO, a fort of dramatic poetry, which gives
a view or common and private life, recommends vir¬
tue, and corrects the vices and follies of mankind by
means of ridicule. See the article Poetry.
1 his laft kind alone was received among the Ro¬
mans, who neverthelefs made a new fubdivifion of it
into ancient, middle, and new, according to the vari¬
ous periods of the commomvealth. Aiifong the an¬
cient comedies were reckoned thofe of Livius Andro-
meus; among the middle thofe of Pacuvius ; and a-
mong the new ones, thofe of Terence. They likewife
diftinguifhed comedy according to the quality of the Comenius,
pei ions reprefented, and the drefs they wTore, into Comet,
togatte, praetextatae, trabeatae, and tabernariae, which ^ J‘
laft agrees pretty nearly with our farces. Among us,
comedy is diftinguilhed from farce, as the former re-
prelents nature as fhe is ; the other diftorts and over¬
charges her. i hey both paint from the life, but with
different view's: the one to make nature known, the
other to make her ridiculous.
COMENIUS, John Amos, a grammarian and
Proteftant divine, born in Moravia in 1592. He was
eminent foi his defign to introduce a new method
of teaching languages ; for which purpofe he publilh-
ed fome effays in 1616, and had prepared fome others,
when the Spaniards pillaged his library, after having
taken the city of Fulnec, where he was minifter and
mailer of the fchool. Comenius fled to Lefna, a city
0/ Poland, and taught Latin there. The book he pub-
lilhed in 1631, under the title of Janua Linguarum
referata, gained him a prodigious reputation, infomuch
that he was offered a commilTion for regulating all the
fchools in Poland. The parliament of England deli-
red his afliftance to regulate the fchools in that king¬
dom. He arrived at London in 1641 5 and would
have been received by a committee to hear his plan
had not the parliament been taken up with other mat¬
ters. He therefore went to Sweden, being invited
by a generous patron, who fettled a ftipend upon him
that delivered him from the fatigues of teaching j and
now he employed himfelf wholly in difeovering ge¬
neral methods for thofe who inftrucled youth. In
1657 he publilhed the different parts of his new me¬
thod of teaching. He was not only taken up with the
reformation of fchools j but he alfo filled his brain with
piophecies, the fall of Antichrift, Millennium, &c. At
laft Comenius took it into his head to addrefs Louis
XIV. of France, and to fend him a copy of the pro¬
phecies of Drabicius ; infinuating that it was to this
monarch God promifed the empire of the world. He
became fenfible at laft of the vanity of his labours,
and died in 1671.
COMET, an opaque,' fpherJcal, and folid body
like a planet, performing revolutions about the fun
in elliptical orbits, which have the fun in one of their
foci.
There is a popular divifion of comets into tailed,
bearded, and hairy comets; though this divifion rather
relates to the different circumftances of the fame co¬
met, than to the phenomena of feveral. Thus, when
the light is weftwrard of the fun, and fets after it, the
comet is faid to be tailed, becaufe the train follows it
in the manner of a tail: when the comet is eaftward
of the fun, and moves from it, the comet is faid to be
bearded, becaufe the light marches before it in the
manner of a beard. Laftly, when the comet and the
fun are diametrically oppofite (the earth between
them), the train is hid behind the body of the comet,
except a little that appears round it in form of a bor¬
der of hair: and from this laft appearance the word
comet is derived ; as cometa, comes from
coma, hair. But there have been comets whofe difk
was as clear, as round, and as well defined, as that of
Jupiter, without either tail, beard, or coma. See A-
stronomy Index.
j
COMETARIUM,
COM T 3°3 1 CO M
Coweta* COMETARIUM, a curious machirce, exhibiting
num an jjgg af revolution of a comet about the fun.
Comitia ^ee Astronomy Index.
- _ • COMETEAN, a town of Bohemia in the circle of
Saltz, with a handfome town-houfe. It was taken by
ftorm in 1421, and all the inhabitants, men, women,
and children, put to the fword. It is feated in a fer¬
tile plain, in E. Long. 13. 35. N. Lat. 50. 30.
COMETES. See Botany ///rZe.r.
COMEREY. See Symphytum, Botany///r/car.
COMINES, Philip de, an excellent hiftorian,
born of a noble family in Flanders in 1446. He lived
in a kind of intimacy with Charles the Bold, duke of
Burgundy, for about eight years ; but being feduced
to the court of France by Louis XL he was highly
promoted by him, and executed feveral fuccefsful ne-
gociations. After this king’s death he experienced
many troubles on account of being a foreigner, by the
envy of other courtiers, and lay long in prifon before
he was difcharged : he died in 1509. Comines was
a man of more natural abilities than learning ; he
fpoke feveral living, but knew nothing of the dead
languages ; he has left behind him fome memoirs of
his own times, that are admired by all true judges of
hiftory. Catharine de Medicis ufed to fay, that Co¬
mines made as many heretics in politics as Luther had
done in religion.
Comines, a town of French Flanders on the lines
which the French have made to defend their country
againft the Auftrian Netherlands. It is fituated on
the river Lis, in E. Long. 3. 1. N. Lat. 50. 30.
CO MI FATUS, in Ln\x>, a county. Ingulphus tells
us, that England was firft divided into counties by
King Alfred ; and the counties into hundreds, and
thele again into tythings : and Fortefcue writes, that
regtunn Anglic? per comitatus, at regnum Francicc per
balhvatus dijlinguiiur. Sometimes it is taken for a ter¬
ritory or jurifdiftion of a particular place j as in Mat.
Paris, anno 1234. See County.
COMITIA, in Roman antiquity, were general af-
femblies of the people, lawfully called by fome ma-
giftrate for the enjoinment or prohibition of any thing
by their votes.
The proper comitia were of three forts ; curiata,
centunata, and tnbuta; with reference to the three
grand divifions of the city and people into curue, cen-
turi<e, and tribes : For, by comitia ca/ata, which we
fometimes meet with in authors, in earlier times were
meant all the comitia in general ; the word calata
from or calo, being their common epithet; though
it was at lart reftrained to two forts of aflemblies, thofe
for the creation of priefls, and thofe for the regulation
of lafl wills and tedaments.
The comitia curiata owe their origin to the divifion
which Romulus made of the people into 30 curiae ;
ten being contained in every tribe. They anfwered
in mod refpefls to the parilhes in our cities, being not
only feparated by proper bounds and limits, but di-
ftinguifhed too by their different places fet apart for
the celebration of divine fervice, which was performed
by particular prieds (one to every curia), with the
name of curiones.
Before the inditution of the comitia centuriata, all
the grand concerns of the date were tranfa&ed in the
aiTembly of the curiae 5 as the eleflion of kings and
other chief officers, the making and abrogating of Cornitia.
laws, and the judging of capital caufes. After the ex-
pulfion of the kings, when the compions had obtained
the privilege to have tribunes and cediles, they defied
them for fome time at thefe affemblies; but that ce¬
remony being at length transferred to the comitia tri-
buta, the curios were never convened to give their
votes, except now and then upon account of making
fome particular law relating to adoptions, wills, and
tedaments, or the creation of officers for an expedi¬
tion ; or for eleding fome of the prieds, as the Jlatni-
nes, and the curio maximus, or fuperintendant of the
curiones, who were themlelves chofen by every parti¬
cular curia.
The power of calling thefe affemblies belonged at
fird only to the kings ; but upon the edabliffiment of
the democracy, the fame privilege was allowed to mod
of the chief magidrates, and fometimes to the pon-
tifices.
The perfons who had the liberty of voting here
were fuch Roman citizens as belonged to the curiae;
or fuch as actually lived in the city, and conformed
to the cudoms and rites of their proper cuiiae; all
thofe being excluded who dwelt without the bounds
of the city, retaining the ceremonies of their own
country, though they had been honoured with the jus
civitatis, or admitted free citizens of Rome. The
place where the curias met was the comitium, a part of
the forum : No fet time was appointed for the hold¬
ing thefe, or any other of the comitia, but only as
bulinefs required.
The people being met together, and confirmed by
the report of good omens from the augurs (which was
neceffary in all the aflemblies), the rogatio, or bufinefs
to be propofed to them was publicly read. After
this (if none of the magidrates interpofed), upon
the order of him that prefided in the comitia, the
people divided into their proper curias, and confulted
of the matter ; and then the curias being called out,
as it happened by lot, gave their votes man by man,
in ancient times viva voce, and afterwards by tablets ;
the mod votes in every curia going for the voice of the
whole curia, and the mod curiae for the general con-
fent of the people.
In the time of Cicero, the comitia curiata w’ere fo
much out of fafhion, that they were formed only by
30 Tudors reprefenting the 30 curiae; whence, in his
fecond oration againd Rullus, he calls them comitia
adumbrate.
The comitia centuriata were indituted by Servius
Tullius ; who, obliging every one to give a true ac¬
count of what he was worth, according to thofe ac¬
counts, divided the people into fix ranks or clafles,
which he fubdivided into 193 centuries. The fird
claffis, containing the equites and richcd citizens,
confided of 98 centuries. The fecond, taking in the
tradefmen and mechanics, confided of 22 centuries.
The third, 20. The fourth, 22. The fifth, 30.
The fixtb, filled up with the poorer fort, but one
century : and this though it had the lame name with
the red, yet was feldom regarded, or allowed any
pow'er in public matters. Hence it is a common thing
with the Roman authors, when they fpeak of the dalles,
to reckon no more than five, the fixth not being
worth their notice. This lad claffis or order was di¬
vided-
X
COM
[ 3°4 1
COM
•’trimitia. vlded into two parts or orders ; prole tar li and the
1 capite cenji. The former, as their name implies, were
defigned purely to (lock the republic with men, fince
they could fupply it with fo little money : and the
latter, who paid the loweft tax of all, were rather
counted and marlhalled by their heads than by their
eltates.
Perfons of the firft rank, by reafon of their pre-emi¬
nence, had the name of clajjtci; whence came the name
of clajfici auBores for the moft approved writers. All
others, of what claffis foever, were faid to be infra
clajfem. The aflembly of the people by centuries was
held for the ele&ing of confuls, cenfors, and praetors;
as alfo for the judging of perfons acculed of wdiat they
called crimen perdue/honis, or aftions by which the
.party had fhowed himfelf an enemy to the date, and
/or the confirmation of all fuch law’s as w'ere propoled
by the chief magiftrates, who had the privilege of cal¬
ling thefe afiemblies.
The place appointed for their meeting was the cam¬
pus martins; becaufe in the primitive times of the com¬
monwealth, when they wTere under continual appie-
henfions of enemies, the people, to prevent any fud-
den a (fault, went armed, in martial order, to hold thefe
affemblies; and were for that reafon forbidden by the
Jaw's to meet in the city, becaufe an army was upon
no account to be marfhalled within the walls: yet, in
later ages, it was thought fufficient to place a body
of foldiers as a guard in the janiculum, where an im¬
perial ftandard was erefted, the taking down of which
denoted the conclufion of the comitia.
Though the time of holding thefe comitia for other
matters was undetermined ; yet the magiftrates, after
the year of the city 601, when they began to enter
on their place, on the kalends of January, were con-
llantly defigned about the end of July and the begin¬
ning of Auguft.
All the time between their ele/lion and confirmation
they continued as private perfons, that inquifition
might be made into the eleflion, and the other candi¬
dates might have time to enter objections, if they met
with any fufpicion of unfair dealing. Yet, at the eleCtion
of the cenfors, this cuftom did not hold ; but as foon
as they were eleCled, they were immediately invefted
with the honour.
By the infiitution of thefe comitia, Servius Tullius
fecretly conveyed the whole of the power from the
commons ; for the centuries of the firft and richeft
clafs being called out firft, who w-ere three more in
number than all the reft put together, if they all a-
greed, as generally they did, the bufinefs was already
decided, and the other claffes were needlefs and infig-
nlficant. However, the three laft fcarce ever came
to vote.
The commons, in the time of the free ftate, to re¬
medy this difadvantage, obtained, that before they
proceeded to voting any matter at theie comitia, that
century fhould give their fuffrages firft upon whom it
fell by lot, with the name of centuria prerogative ; the
reft being to follow according to the order of their
claffes. After the conftitution of the 35 tribes into
which the clafies and their centuries were divided, in
the firft place, the tribes caft lots which fhould be the
Prerogative tribe ; and then the centuries of the tribes
jpj: the honour of being a prerogative century. All
the other tribes and centuries had the appellation of Comma.
jure vocatee, becaufe they were called out according to
their proper places.
The prerogative century being chofen by lot, the
chief magiftrate, fitting in a tent in the middle of the
campus martins, ordered that century to come out and
give their voices; upon which they prefently feparated
from the reft of the multitude, and came into an inclo-
fed apartment, which they termed feptai or ovi/ia, paf-
fing over the pontes or narrow’ boards laid there for the
occafion; on wdrich account, depontibus dejici fignifies to
be denied the privilege of voting, and perlons thus dealt
with are called depontani.
At the higher end of the pontes flood the diribitores
(a fort of under officers fo called from their marffial-
ling the people), and delivered to every man, in the
election of magiftrates as many tablets as there appear¬
ed candidates, one of w-hofe names was written upon
every tablet. A proper number of great chefts were
fet ready in the fepta, and every body threw in which
tablet he pleafed.
By the chefts were placed fome of the public fer-
vants, who taking out the tablets of every century,
for every tablet, made a prick or a point in another
tablet which they kept by them. Thus, the bufinefs
being decided by moft points, gave occafion to the
phrafe omne tulit punBum, and the like.
The fame method was obferved in the jufticiary pro-
cefs at thefe comitia, and in the confirmation of laws ;
except that, in both thefe cafes, only twm tablets w’ere
offered to every perfon ; on one of which was written
U. R. and on the other A, in capital letters ; the two
firft Handing for uti rogas, “ be it as you defire,” rela¬
ting to the magiftrate who propofed the queftion ; and
the laft for antiquo, or “ I forbid it.”
It is remarkable, that though in the election of ma¬
giftrates, and in the ratification of laws, the votes of
that century, whofe tablets were equally divided, fig-
nified nothing ; yet in trials of life and death, if the
tablets pro and con were the fame in number, the per¬
fon was aflually acquitted.
The divifion of people into tribes w’as an invention
of Romulus, after he had admitted the Sabines into
Rome ; and though he conftituted at that time only
three, yet as the ftate increafed in powder, and the
city in number of inhabitants, they rofe by degrees to
35. For a long time after this inftitution, a tribe fig-
nified no more than fuch a fpace of ground wfith its in¬
habitants. But at laft the matter was quite altered,
and a tribe w’as no longer pars urbis, but pars civitatis ;
not a quarter of the city, but a company of citizens
living where they pleafed. This change was clnefiy
occafioned by the original diffcience between the tubes
in point of honour. For Romulus having committed
all fordid and mechanic arts to the care of ftrangers,
flaves, and libertines ; and referved the moie honelt
labour of agriculture to the freemen and citizens, wrho
by this adlive courfe of life might be prepared for
martial fervice ; the tribus ruficce weie for this rea¬
fon efteemed more honourable than the tribus urbance.
And now all perfons being defirous of getting into the
more creditable divifion; and there being feveral ways
of accompliffiing their wiffies, as by adoption, by the
power of cenfors, or the like ; that ruftic tribe which
had the moft worthy names in its roll had the prefe¬
rence
COM
t 3°5 1
C O M
Morbus
I!
Comma.
Comitialis rence to all others, though of the fame general de¬
nomination. Hence all of the fame great family,
bringing themfelves by degrees into the fame tribe,
gave the name of their family to the tribe they ho¬
noured j whereas at firft the generality of the tribes
did not borrow their names from perlons but from
places.
The firft affembly of the tribes we meet with is
about the year of Rome 263, convened by Sp. Sici-
nius, tribune of the commons, upon account of the trial
of Coriolanus. Soon after, the tribunes of the com¬
mons were ordered to be eledted here ; and at laft,
all the inferior magiftrates, and the collegiate priefts.
The fame comitia ferved for the enadfing of laws re¬
lating to war and peace, and all others propofed by
the tribunes and plebeian officers, though they had not
properly the name of leges, but plebifcita. 1 hey were
generally convened by the tribunes of the commons ;
but the fame privilege was allowed to all the chief
magiifrates. They were confined to no place ; and
therefore fometimes we find them held in the comitium j
fometimes in the campus martins, and now and then
in the capitol. The proceedings w'ere in moft refpedls
anfwerable to thofe already deferibed in the account
of the other comitia, and therefore need not be infift-
ed on. Only we may farther obferve of the comitia
in general, that when any candidate was found to have
moft tablets for a magiftracy, he was declared to be
defigned or elected by the prefident of the afiembly;
and this they termed renunciari canful, prcctor, or the
like ; and that the laft fort of the comitia only could
be held without the confent or approbation of the
fenate, which was neceffary to the convening of the
other twm.
COMITIALIS MORBUS, an appellation given to
the Ep ilepsy, by reafon the comitia of ancient Rome
were diffolved if any perfon in the afl'embly happened
to be taken with this diftemper.
COMITIUM, in Roman antiquity, a large hall in
the forum, where the Comitia were ordinarily held.
COMMA, among grammarians, a point or charac¬
ter marked thus (,), ferving to denote a fliort flop,
and to divide the members of a period. Different au¬
thors define and ufe it differently. According to F.
Ruffier, the comma ferves to diftinguifh the members
of a period, in each of wdiich is a verb and the nomi¬
native cafe of the verb : thus, “ That fo many people
are pleafed with trifles, is owing to a w^eaknefs of
mind, which makes them love things eafy to be com¬
prehended.” Befides this, the comma is ufed to diftin-
guifti, in the fame manner of a period, feveral nouns-
fubftantive, or nouns-adjedtive, or verbs not united by
a conjundtion : thus, “ Virtue, wit, knowledge, are
the chief advantages of a man or, “ A man never
becomes learned without ftudying conftantly, methodi¬
cally, with a guft, application, &c.” If thofe words
are "united in the fame phrafe with a conjundlion, the
comma is omitted : thus, “ the imagination and the
judgment do not always agree.”
The ingenious author of the trad! De ratione in-
terpungendi, printed with Voflius’s Element. Rhetor.
Lend. 1724, lays down the ufe of a comma to be, to
diftinguifh the Ample members of a period or fentence-,
i. e. fuch as only confift of one fubjedl, and one defi¬
nite verb. But this rule does not go throughout; the
Vql. VI. Part I.
fame author inftancing many particular cafes not yet
included herein, where yet the comma is advilable.
See Punctuation.
It is a general rule that a comma ought not to come
between a nominative and a verb, or an adjedlive and
lubllantive, when thele are not otherwife disjoined :
thus, in the fentence, God ruleth with infinite wifdom, a
comma between God and ruleth, 01 between infinite and
wifdom, would be abfurd. But to this exceptions may
occur ; as w'hen not a Angle w ord, but a fentence.
happens to be the nominative : thus, in the example
firft above given, where the fentence that fo many peo¬
ple are pleaftd with trifles, forms the nominative to the
verb is, a comma at trifles is proper, both for the lake
of perfpicuity, and as coinciding with a flight natural
paufe.
Comma, in Mu fie. See Interval.
COMMANDINUS, Frederic, born at Urbino in
Italy, and defeended from a very noble family, in the
16th century. To a vaft Ikill in the mathematics, he
had added a great knowledge in the Greek tongue, by
which he was well qualified to tranflate the Greek
mathematicians into Latin : accordingly he tranfla-
ted and publiflied feveral, which no writer till then
had attempted 5 as Archimedes, Apollonius, Euclid,
Sec.
COMMAND RY, a kind of benefice or fixed reve¬
nue belonging to a military order, and conferred on
ancient knights xvho had done confiderable fervices to
the order.
There are ftridl or tegular commandries, obtain¬
ed in order, and by merit; there are others of grace
and favour, conferred at the pleafure of the grand
mafter ; there are alfo commandries for the religious,
in the orders of St Bernard and St Anthony. The
kings of France have converted feveral of the hof-
pitals for lepers into commandries of the order of St
Lazarus.
The commandries of Malta are of different kinds ;
fo" as the order confifts of knights, chaplains, and bro-
thers-fervitors, there are peculiar commandries or re¬
venues attached to each. The knight to whom one
of thefe benefices or commandries is given is called
commander, which agrees pretty nearly with the
prmpofitus fet over the monks in places at a diftance
from the monaftery, whofe adminiftration was called
obedienlia; becaufe depending entirely upon the ab¬
bot w'ho gave him his commiflion. Thus it is with
the Ample commanders of Malta, who are rather far¬
mers of the order than beneficiaries ; paying a certain
tribute or rent, called refponfio, to the common trea-
fuiy of the order.
COMM ELINA. See Botany Index.
COMMEMORATION, in a general fenfe, the re¬
membrance of any perfon or thing, or the doing any
thing to the honour of a perfon’s memory, or in re¬
membrance of any paft event. Thus, the eucharift is a
commemoration of the fufferings of Jefus Chrift
COMM END AM, in the ecclefiaftical law, the truft
or adminiftration of the revenues of a benefice, given
either to a layman, to hold by way of depofitum for
fix months, in order to repairs, Sec. or to an ecclefia-
ftic or beneficed perfon, to perform the paftoral duties
thereof, till once the benefice is provided with a regu¬
lar incumbent.
Qji
Couuu*
Anciently
Commenda-
tus.
COM
Anciently the adminiftration of vacant bifhoprics
belonged to the neareft neighbouring bifhop ; which is
ftill praflifed between the archbifhopric of Lyons and
the bifliopric of Autun : on this account they were
called commendatory bijhops.
This cuftom appears to be very ancient. St Atha*
nafius fays of himfelf, according to Nicephorus, that
there had been given him in commendam, i. e. in ad-
miniftration, another church befides that of Alexan¬
dria whereof he was Hated bilhop.
The care of churches, it feems, which had no pa¬
llor, was committed to a bilhop, till they were provi¬
ded wuth an ordinary : the regiller of Pope Gregory I.
is full of thefe commiffions, or commendams, granted
during the abfence or ficknefs of a bilhop, or the va¬
cancy of the fee.
Some fay, that Pope Leo IV. *firlt ellablilhed the
modern commendams, in favour of eccleliallics who had
been expelled their benefices by the Saracens j to whom
the adminillration of the vacant churches was commit¬
ted for a time, in expectation of their being reftored j
though St Gregory is faid to have ufed the fame while
the Lombards defolated Italy.
In a little time the praClice of commendams was ex¬
ceedingly abufed j and the revenues of monafteries gi¬
ven to laymen for their fubfillence. The bifhops alfo
procured feveral benefices, or even bifhoprics, in com-
mendam, which ferved as a pretext for holding them all
without direftly violating the canons. Part of the
abufe has been retrenched; but the ufe of commendams
is Hill retained as an expedient to take off the incompa¬
tibility of the perfon by the nature of the benefice.
When a parfon is made bilhop, his parfonage be¬
comes vacant; but if the king give him power he may
Hill hold it in commendam.
COMM END ATUS, one who lives under the pro¬
tection of a great man. CotJimendati homines, were
perfons who, by voluntary homage, put themfelves
COM
under the proteClion of any fuperior lord : for ancient Commer-
homage was either predial, due for fome tenure ; or fura^le>
perfonal, which was by compulfion, as a fign of necef- myi
fary fubjeftion ; or voluntary, with a defire of protec- u—y—j
tion; and thofe who, by voluntary homage, put them¬
felves under the proteClion of any man of power, were
fometimes called homines ejns commendati, as often oc¬
curs in Doomfday. Commendati dimidii were thofe who
depended on two feveral lords, and paid one half of
their homage to each ; and fub-commendati were like
under-tenants under the command of perfons that were
themfelves under the command of fome fuperior lord:
alfo there wrere dimidti fub-commendati, who bore a dou¬
ble relation to fuch depending lords. This phrafe
feems to be Hill in ufe in the ufual compliment, “ Com¬
mend me to fuch a friend,” &c. which is to let him
know, “ I am his humble fervant.”
, COMMENSUR ABLE, among geometricians, an
appellation given to fuch quantities as are meafured by
one and the fame common meafure.
Commensurable Numbers, whether integers or frac¬
tions, are fuch as can be meafured or divided by fome
other number without any remainder ; fuch are 12 and
18, as being meafured by 6 and 3.
Commensurable in Power, is faid of right lines,
when their fquarcs are meafured by one and the fame
fpace or fuperficies.
Commensurable Surds, thofe that being reduced to
their leall terms, become true figurative quantities of
their kind ; and are therefore as a rational quantity to
a rational one.
COMMENTARY, or Comment, in matters of li¬
terature, an illuftration of the difficult or obfcure p^f-
fages of an author.
Commentary, or Commentaries, likewife denotes a
kind of hiftory, or memoirs of certain tranfaClions,
wherein the author had a confiderable hand : fuch are
the Commentaries of Csefar.
[ 3°S ]
COMMERCE,
IS an operation by which the wealth, or work, either
of individuals or of focieties, may be exchanged
by a fet of men called merchants, for an equivalent, pro¬
per for fupplying every want, without any interruption
to induftry, or any check upon confumption.
Chap. I. History of Commerce.
§ 1. General Hi/lory.
It is a point as yet undecided by the learned, to
what nation the invention and firll ufe of commerce
belonged ; fome attribute it to one people, fome to
another, for reafons that are too long to be difcufied
here. But it feems moft probable that the inhabitants
of Arabia were thofe that firft made long voyages.
It muff be allowed, that no country was fo happily
fituated for this purpofe as that which they inhabited,
being a peninfula waflied on three fides by three fa¬
mous feas, the Arabian, Indian, and Perfian. It is
alfo certain, that it was very early inhabited; and the
firft notice we have of any confiderable trade refers
it to the Ilhmaelites, who were fettled in the hither
part of Arabia. To them Jofeph w’as fold by his
brethren, when they wTere going down with their ca¬
mels to Egypt with fpicery, balm, and myrrh. It
may feem ftrange to infer from hence, that commerce
was already praftifed by this nation, fince mention is
here made of camels, or a caravan, w’hich certainly
implies an inland trade : and it muff be likewife al¬
lowed, that balm and myrrh were the commodities of
their country. But whence had they the fpicery ? Or
how came Arabia to be fo famous in ancient times for
fpices ? Or whence proceeded that miftake of many
great authors of antiquity, that fpices aftually grew
there ? Moft certainly, becaufe thefe people dealt in
them ; and that they dealt in them the firft of any
nation that we know of, appears from this very in-
ftance. Strabo and many other good authors affure
us, that in fucceeding times they were very great
traders: they tell us particularly what ports they had;
what prodigious magazines they kept of the richeft
kinds
COMMERCE.
3°7
Hiftory.
kinds of gdods; what wonderful wealth they obtained;
in what prodigious magnificence they lived, and into
what excefles they fell in refpedt to their expences for
carving, building, and flatues. All this firows that
they were very great traders ; and it alfo fhows, that
they traded to the Eaft Indies; for from thence only
they could have their fpices, their rich gums, their
fweet-fcented woods, and their ivory, all which it is
exprefsly faid they had in the greateft abundance.a.
This therefore proves, that they had an extenfive and
flouriihing commerce ; and that they had it earlier
than any other nation, feems evident from their deal¬
ing at that time in fpices. Befides, there is much lefs
difficulty in fuppofing that they firft difcovered the
route to the Indies, than if we afcribe that difcovery
to any other nation ; for in the firft place they lay
neareft, and in the next they lay moft conveniently ;
to which we may add, thirdly, that as the fituation
of their country naturally inclined them to navigation,
fo by the help of the monfoons they might make regu¬
lar voyages to and from the Indies with great facility;
nor is it at all unlikely that this difcovery might be at
firft owing to chance, and to feme of their veflels be¬
ing blown by a ftrong gale to the oppofite coaft, from
whence they might take the courage to return, by ob-
ferving the regularity of the wands at certain feafons.
All thefe reafons taken together feem to favour this
opinion, that commerce flouriffied firft among them;
and as to its confequences in making them rich and
happy, there is no difpute about them.
We find in the records of antiquity no nation cele¬
brated more early for carrying all parts to perfe£Iion
than the inhabitants of Egypt : and it is certain alfo,
that no art wras there cultivated more early, with
more affiduity, or with greater fuccefs, than trade.
It appears from the foregoing inftance, that the richeft
commodities were carried there by land ; and it is no
lefs certain, that the moft valuable manufaclures were
invented and brought to perfection there many ages
before they were thought of in other countries; for,
as the learned Dr Warburton very juftly obferves, at
the time that Jofeph came into Egypt, the people
were not only poflefled of all the conveniences of
life, but were remarkable alfo for their magnificence,
their politenefs, and even for their luxury ; which ar¬
gues, that traffic had been of long Handing amongft
them. To fay the truth, the great advantages deri¬
ved from their country’s lying along the Red Sea, and
the many benefits that accrued to them from the Nile,
which they very emphatically called The River, or The
River of Egypt, and of which they knew how to make
all the ufes that can be imagined, gave them an op¬
portunity of carrying their inland trade not only to a
greater height than in any country at that time, but
even higher than it has been carried anywhere, Chi¬
na only excepted ; and fome people have thought it
no trivial argument to prove the defcent of the Chi-
nefe from the Egyptians, that they have exa&ly the
fame fort of genius, and with wonderful induftry and
care have drawn fo many cuts and canals, that their
country is almoft in every part of it navigable. It
was by fuch methods, by a wife and w'ell-regulated
government, and by promoting a fpirit of induftry
amongft the people, that the ancient Egyptians be¬
came fo numerous, fo rich, fo powerful} and hat
their country, for large cities, magnificent ftruflures,
and perpetual abundance, became the glory and won¬
der of the old world.
The Phoenicians, though they poffefied only a nar¬
row flip of the coaft of Afia, and w'ere lurrounded by
nations fo powerful and fo warlike that they were
never able to extend themfelves on that fide, became
famous, by erebling the firft naval power that makes
any figure in hiftory, and for the railing of which they
took the moft prudent and effedlual meafures. In or¬
der to this, they not only availed themfelves of all the
creeks, harbours, and ports, which nature had beftow-
ed very liberally on their narrow territory, but im¬
proved them in fuch a manner, that they were no lefs
remarkable for their ftrength than confiderable for
their conveniency; and fo attentive were they to
whatever might contribute to the increafe of their
power, that they were not more admired for the valt
advantages they derived from their commerce, than
they were formidable by their fleets and armies.
They w’ere likewife celebrated by antiquity as the in¬
ventors of arithmetic and aftronomy; and in the laft
mentioned fcience they muft have been very confider¬
able proficients, fince they had the courage to under¬
take long voyages at a time when no other nation
(the Arabians and Egyptians excepted) durft venture
farther than their own coafts. By thefe arts Tyre
and Sidon became the moft famous marts in the uni-
verfe, and were reforted to by all their neighbours,
and even by people at a confiderable diftance, as the
great ftorehoufes of the world. We learn from the
Scriptures how advantageous their friendfhip and al¬
liance became to the twm great kings of Ifrael, David
and Solomon ; and wTe fee, by the application of the
latter for architefts and artifts to Hiram king of Tyre,
to what a prodigious height they had carried manu-
faflures of every kind.
It is very certain that Solomon made ufe of their
affiftance in equipping his fleets at Elath and Ezionge-
ber ; and it is very probable that they put him upon
acquiring thofe ports, and gave him the firft hints of
the amazing advantages that might be derived from
the poffeffion of them, and from the commerce he
might from thence be able to carry on. Thefe ports
were moft commodioufly fituated on the Arabian
gulf; and from thence his veffels, manned chiefly by
Phoenicians, failed to Ophir and Tharfis, wherever
thofe places were. Some writers will needs have
them to be Mexico and Peru, which is certainly a
wild and extravagant fuppofition ; others believe that
we are to look for Ophir on the coaft of Africa,
and Tharfis in Spain ; but the moft probable opinion
is, that they w7ere both feated in the Eaft Indies.
By this adventurous navigation he brought into his
country curiofities not only unfeen, but unheard of be¬
fore, and riches in fuch abundance, that, as the Scrip¬
ture finely expreffes it, “ He made filver in Jerufalem,
as ftones, and cedar-trees as fycamores that grow in the
plains.” The metaphor is very bold and emphatical ;
but when we confider that it is recorded in this Hi¬
ftory, that the return of one voyage only to Ophir
produced 450 talents of gold, which makes 51,328
pounds of our Troy weight, about 2,463,744!. fterling,
w e cannot doubt of the immenfe profit that accrued from
this commerce. It is alfo obfervable that the queen of
Qjj 2 Sheba,
Hiftory.
0
3c8
COMM
Hiftory.
Sheba, or Saba, which lies in thai part of Arabia be¬
fore mentioned, furprifed at the reports that were fpread
of the magnificence of this prince, made a journey to
his court on purpofe to fatisfy herfelf, whether fame had
not exaggerated the fad ; and from the prefents {he
made him of 120 talents of gold (656,640!.), of fpices
in great abundance, and precious {tones, we may dif-
cern the true reafon of her curiofity, which proceeded
from an opinion that no country could be fo rich as her
own. And there is another circumftance very remark¬
able, and which feems ftrongly to fortify what we have
advanced in the beginning of this fedion 3 it is added,
“ neither were there any fuch fpices as the queen of
Sheba gave to King Solomon 5” which feems to inti¬
mate, that the Arabians had penetrated farther into
the Indies than even the fleets of this famous prince,
and brought from thence other fpices (perhaps nut¬
megs and cloves) than had ever been feen before. It
was by his wifdom, and by his fieady application to
the arts of peace, all of which mutually fupport each
other, as they are all driven on by the wheel of com¬
merce, which fupplies every want, and converts every
fuperfiuity into merchandife, that this monarch railed
his lubjeds to a condition much fuperior to that of
any of their neighbours, and rendered the land of If-
rael, while he governed it, the glory and wonder of
the Eaft. He made great acquifitions without making
wars j and his fucceffbr, by making wars, loft thofe
acquifitions. It was his policy to keep all his people
employed j and, by employing them, he provided
equally for the extenfion of their happinefs, and his
own power; but the following kings purfued other
meafures, and other confequences attended them.
The trade of Judea funk almoft as fuddenly as it role,
and in procefs of time they loft thofe ports on the
Red Sea, upon which their Indian commerce depend¬
ed.
The whole trade of the univerfe became then, as
it were, the patrimony of the Phoenicians and the
Egyptians. The latter monopolized that of the In¬
dies, and, together with her corn and manufactures,
brought fuch a prodigious balance of wealth continu¬
ally into the country, as enabled the ancient monarchs
of Egypt to compafs all thofe memorable works that
in fpite of time and barbarous conquerors remain the
monuments of their wifdom and power, and are like
to remain fo as long as the world fubfifts. The Phoe¬
nicians drew from Egypt a great part of thofe rich
commodities and valuable manufactures which they
exported into all the countries between their own and
the Mediterranean fea ; they drew likewife a vaft re-
foit to their own chics, even from countries at a
great difiance ; and we need only look into the pro¬
phets Ifaiah and Ezekiel in order to be convinced that
thefe governments, founded on trade, w'ere infinitely
more glorious and more {table than thofe that were
credited by force. All this we find likewife confirmed
by profane hiftories ; and by comparing thefe, it is
evident, that the induftry of the inhabitants of this
fur all country triumphed over all obfiacles, procured
the great eft plenty in a barren foil, and immenfe
riches, where, without induftry, there muft have been
the greateft indigence. It is true, that Old Tyre was
deftroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, but not till the had
flourilhed for ages; and even then fne fell with dig-
E R C- E.
nity, and after a refiftance that ruined the army of Hiftory.
the great conqueror of Alia. Out of the allies of v—"~
this proud city the great fpirit of its inhabitants pro¬
duced a phoenix, little, if at all, inferior in beauty to
its parent. New Tyre was fituated on an ifland ; and
though her bounds were very narrow, yet Hie became
quickly the miftrefs of the fea, and held that fupreme
dominion till fubdued by Alexander the Great, whom
no power could refill. The ftruggle Ihe made, how¬
ever, though unfuccefsful, was great, and very much
to the honour of her inhabitants : it muft be owned,
that the Greek hero found it more difficult to mailer
this fingle place, than to overcome the whole power of
Perfia.
7 he views of the Macedonian prince were beyond
comparifon more extenfive than his conquefts ; and
whoever confiders Alexander’s plan of power, and
enters into it thoroughly, will think him more a poli¬
tician than he was a conqueror. He framed in his
own mind an idea of univerfal monarchy, which it
was indeed impoftible ^to accomplifii j but the very no¬
tion of it does him far greater honour than all his vic¬
tories. He thought of placing his capital in Arabia ;
and of difpofing things in fuch a manner, as to have
commanded the molt remote parts of the Indies, at
the fame time that he maintained a connexion with
tlie moft diftant countries in Europe. He was for
making ufe of force to acquire, but he very well
knew, that commerce only could preferve, an empire,
that was to have no other limits than thole which na¬
ture had affigned the world. He defired to be mailer
of all 5 but at the fame time he was willing to be a
wife and gracious mafter, and to place his happinefs
in that of his people, or rather in making all the na¬
tions of the earth but one people. A vaft, an extra¬
vagant, an impra&icable fcheme it was, of which he
lived not long enough to draw the outlines ; but the
fample he left in his new city of Alexandria fufficiently
Ihows how juft and how corrctl his notions were, and
how true a judgment he had formed of what might
be effedled by thofe methods upon which he depended.
That city, w’hich he might be laid to defign vrith his
own hand, and which was built, as it were, under his
eye, became in fucceeding times all that he expe&ed,
the glory of Egypt, and the centre of commerce for
feveral ap-es.
While T yre was in the height of her glory, and had
no rival in the empire of the fea, tire founded her
noble colony of Carthage on the coaft of Africa. The
fituation of the city was everywhere admirable, whe¬
ther confidered in the light of a capital, of a ftrong
fortrefs, or of a commodious port. It was equally
diftant from all the extremities of the Mediterranean
fea, had a very fine country behind it, and was not in
the neighbourhood of any power capable of reftraining
its commerce or its growth. It is almoft inexpieffible
how foon its inhabitants became not only numerous
and wealthy, but potent and formidable. By degrees
they extended thenffelves on all fides, conquered the
beft part of Spain, and ererfted there a new Carthage j
the iflands of Sicily and Sardinia, or at leaft the
belt part of them, fubmitted likewife to their yoke.
Their conquefts, however, were inconfiderable in ex¬
tent, when compared with their navigation. On one
fide they ftretched as far weftward as Britain 5 and
the
COMM
Hiftory. the Scilly inand1"', which are now fo inconfiderable,
——V—were to them an Indies, the route to which they ufed
the utmoft induftry to conce?.!. On the other hand,
they difcovered a great part of the coaft of Africa,
the Canary iflands; and fome there are who believe
they firft found the way to America. While they
confined themfelves to trade, and the arts which be¬
longed thereto, their power was continually increa-
fing ; but when induftvy gave way to luxury, and a
fpirit of ambition banifhed their old mayims of fruga¬
lity and labour, their acquifitions remained at a ftand.
The Romans began to grow jealous of their naval
porver, which it cold them two obftinate wars of 40
years continuance to humble. When (lie was at length
deftroyed, her very ruins were majetlic ; for at the
beginning of the third fatal Punic war, this city con¬
tained 700,000 inhabitants alone, and had 300 cities
in Africa under her dominion. Such was the empire
of Carthage, raifed entirely by commerce : and to
which, if Ihe had been content to have applied herfelf
with the fame fteadinefs in her higheft profperity as in
her early beginnings, there is no doubt Ihe had pre-
ferved her freedom much longer than fhe did ; for as
economy, diligence, and good faith, are the pillars of
a commercial date •, fo when thefe are once fhaken, it
is not only natural that fhe fhould decline, but alfo
unavoidable.
The Ptolemies, who tvere the fucceflbrs of Alex¬
ander in Egypt, entered deeply into that hero’s fcheme,
and reaped the benefit of his wife eftablifhment. Pto
lemy Philadelphus, by encouraging trade, made his
fubjefds immenfely rich, and himlelf inexpreffibly
powerful. We are told by an ancient author, that he
had 120 gallevs of war of an enormous fize, and up¬
wards of 4000 other veffels, fmall and great. This
would appear incredible, if other wonders were trot
related of him, which feem to explain and confirm
thefe. He raifed a new city on the coal! of the Red
fea ; he was at an immenfe expence in opening har¬
bours, conftru&ing quays, in railing inns at proper
diltances on the road, and in cutting a canal from fea
to fea. A prince who comprehended the importance
of commerce to a degree that induced him to dare
fuch expences as thefe, might have what treafbres,
what armies, what fleets he pleafed. In his time,
Alexandria appeared in pomp and fplendor. She
owed her birth to Alexander •, but it was Ptolemy,
■who caught a double portion of his mafter’s fpirit,
which raifed her to that magnificepce that ages could
not deface. We may guefs at w’hat fhe was in her
glorv, by what we are told was the produce of her
cufloms, which fell little fhort of two millions of our
money annually; and yet we cannot fuppofe that
Ptolemy, who underftood trade fo well, would cramp
it by high duties, or extravagant impofitions. When
the revenue of the prince from a fingle port was fo
great, what muff have been the riches of his fubjedls !
But what fliows us Alexandria in the higheft point
of light, is the credit fhe maintained after Egypt funk
from an empire into a province. The Romans them¬
felves were ftruck with the majefty of her appearance ;
and though till then they had little regarded traffic,
yet they were not long before they comprehended
the advantages of fuch a port, and fuch a mart as
Alexandria } they confirmed her- privileges, they pro-
E r c E.
tedded her inhabitants, they took every tneafure poffi-
ble to preferve her commerce } and this with fo good
an effedd, that fire a&ually preferved it longer than
Rome herfelf could preferve her power. She follow¬
ed, indeed, the fortune of the empire, and became at
laft dependent upon Cojiftantinople, when its founder
removed thither the capital of the empire •, and his
fucceffor found means to transfer alfo a part of the
trade of Alexandria to the fame place. Yet this city
continued flill to hold up her head, and though ffie
funk under the barbarous power of the Arabs, yet
they grew poliffied by degrees ; by degrees flic re¬
covered fomewhat of her ancient pre-eminence ; and
though ffie never role to any thing like her former
luftve, yet fhe remained the centre of what little trade
there was in the world ; which is more than can be laid
of almofl any place that has fallen under the Moham¬
medan power.
When the Roman empire was overrun by barbari¬
ans, and arts and feiences funk with that power which
had cultivated and protected them, commerce alio vi-
fibly declined ; or, to fpeak with greater propriety,
was overwhelmed and loft. When that irruption of
various nations had diiven the Roman policy out of
309
Hiftory.
the greateft part of Europe, fome ft niggling people,
either forced by neceffity, or led by inclination, took
fhelter in a few ftraggiing iilands that lay near the
co?.ft of Italy, and which would never have been
thought worth inhabiting in a time of peace. This
was in the 6th century ■, and at their firft fixing there
they had certainly nothing more in view than living in
a tolerable Hate of freedom, and acquiring a fubfiftcnce-
as well as they could. Thefe iflands being divided
from each other by narrow channels, and thofe chan¬
nels fo incumbered by (hallows that it was impoffible
for ftrangers to navigate them, thefe refugees found
themfelves tolerably fafe j and uniting amongft them¬
felves for the fake of ifnproving their condition, and:
augmenting their fecurity, they became in the 8th
century a well-fettled government, and affumed the
form of a republic.
Simple and mean as this relation may appear, yet it
is a plain and true account of the rife, progrefs, and
eftablifhment of the famous and potent republic of Ve¬
nice. Her beginnings were indeed weak and flow 5
but when the foundation was once well laid, her
growth was quick, and the increafe of her power
amazing. She extended her commerce on all fides 5.
and taking advantage of the barbarous maxims of the
Mohammedan monarchies, (lie drew to herfelf the
profits of the Indian trade, and might, in fome fenfe,
be faid to make Egypt a province, and the Saracens
her fubjedfs. By this means her traffic fvvelled beyond
conception ; fhe became the common mart of all na¬
tions •, her naval power arrived at a prodigious height
and, making ufe of every favourable conjuncture, ihe
ftretched her conqueft not only over the adjacent ter¬
ra firma of Italy, but through the iflands of the Ar¬
chipelago, fo as to be at once miftrefs of the fea, of
many fair and fruitful countries, and of part of the
great city of Conftantinople itfelf. But ambition, and
the defire of lording it over her neighbours, brought
upon her thofe evils which firft produced a decay of
trade, and then a declenfion of power. General hi-
ftories indeed aferibe this to the league of Cambray,
when
310 COMM
Hiftory. when all the great powers in Europe combined againfl:
this republic j and in truth, from that period the
finking of her power is truly dated ; but the Venetian
writers very juftly obferve, that though this effe£!
followed the league, yet there was another more la¬
tent, but at the fame time a more efteftual caufe,
which was, the falling off of their commerce ; and
they have ever fince been more indebted to their wif-
dom than their power ; to the prudent concealing
of their own weaknefs, and taking advantage of the
errors of their enemies, than to any other caufe, for
their keeping up that part which they ftill bear, and
which had been loft long ago by any other nation but
themfelves.
At the fame time that Venice rofe, as it were, out
-of the fea, another republic was eredted on the coaft
of Italy. There could not well be a worfe fituation
than the narrow, marfhy, unprofitable, and unwhole-
fome iftands in the Adriatic, except the rocky, barren,
and inhofpitable fhores of Liguria ; and yet as com¬
merce railed Venice the Rich on the one, fo ftie eredl-
ed Genoa the Proud on the other. In fpite of ambi¬
tious and warlike neighbours, in fpite of a confined
and unproducing country, and, wdiich w'ere ftill great¬
er impediments, in fpite of perpetual fadlions and
fucceffive revolutions, the trade of Genoa made her
rich and great. Her merchants traded to all countries,
and throve by carrying the commodities of the one to
the other. Her fleets became formidable ; and, be-
fides the adjacent ifland of Corfica, ftie made larger
and important conquefts. She fixed a colony at Caffa,
and was for fome time in poffeflion of the coafts on
both fides of the Black fea. That emulation which
is natural to neighbouring nations, and that jealoufy
•which rifes from the purfuit of the fame miftrefs, com¬
merce, begat continual wars between thefe rival re¬
publics j which, after many obftinate and bloody bat¬
tles, were at laft terminated in favour of Venice, by
that famous vi&ory of Chiozzo gained by her doge
Andrew Contarini, from which time Genoa never pre¬
tended to be miftrefs of the fea. Thefe quarrels were
fatal to both j but what proved more immediately
deftru&ive to the Genoefe, was their avarice, which
induced them to abandon the fair profits of trade for
the fake of that vile method of acquiring wealth by
ufury. All Italy is now fubjedl to France.
But we muft now look to another part of the world.
In the middle age of the German empire, that is,
about the middle of the 13th century, there was
formed a confederacy of many maritime cities, or at
leaft of cities not far from the fea. This confederacy
folely regarded commerce, which they endeavoured to
promote and extend, by interefting therein a great
number of perfons, and endeavouring to profit by
their different views and different lights. Though the
cities of Germany held the principal rank in the Teu¬
tonic Hanfe, they did not however forbear affociating
many other cities, as well in France as in England and
in the Low Countries 5 the whole, however, without
hurting the authority, without prejudice to the rights,
of the fovereign on whom they depended. Phis confe¬
deracy had its laws, its ordinances, and its judgments,
which were obferved with the fame refpedl as the ma¬
ritime code of the Rhodians, who paffing for the ab-
ieft feamen in all antiquity, their conftitutions were
1
E R C E.
obferved by the Greeks and Romans. The Teutonic
Hanfe grew in a fhort time to fo high a rank in power
and authority by the immenfe riches it acquired, that
princes themfelves rendered it a fincere homage from
principles of efteem and admiration. Thole of the
north principally had frequent occafion for their cre¬
dit, and borrowed of them confiderable fums. The
grand mailers of the Teutonic order, who were at
that time fovereigns of Livonia, declared themfelves
confervators of the rights and privileges of the Hanfe:
all fucceeded, not only to, but beyond their wilhes j
and Germany, charmed with their progrefs, looked
on them with the fame eyes as a curious gardener
does on certain rare plants, though not of his own
railing and culture. The kings of Fiance and Eng¬
land granted alfo various privileges to the Teutonic
confederacy ; they exempted their veffels in cafe of
Ihipwreck from all demands whatfoever from the ad¬
miralty, or from private perfons; they forbade any
difturbance to their navigation at all times, and even
when France was at war with the emperor, or the
princes of the north. In fine, during the courfe of
thofe unhappy wars w?hich wrere ftyled Croifades, the
Hanfe was fignally confulted, and gave always puif-
fant fuccours in money and in Ihips to the Chriftians
opprefled by infidels. It is aftonilhing, that cities at fo
great a diftance from each other, fubjeft to different
kings, fometimes in open war, but always jealous of
their rights, Ihould be able to confederate and live to¬
gether in fo ftri£l an union. But when this union had
rendered them very rich and powerful, it cannot feem
at all ftrange, that on the one hand they grew arro¬
gant and overbearing, took upon them not only to
treat with lovereigns on the foot of equality, but even
to make war with them, and more than once with
fuccefs. It will, on the other hand, appear ftill lefs
ftrange, that fuch behaviour as this awakened various
princes to a more particular viewr of the dangers that
fuch a league might produce, and the advantages that
would naturally flow to their refpe&ive ftates, by re¬
covering their trade thus made over, at leaft in fome
part to others, entirely to themfelves j and thefe, in
few words, w'ere the caufes of the gradual declenfion
of the Hanfeatic alliance, which is now totally dif-
folved, although the cities of Lubeck, Hamburgh,
and Bremen, maintain fufficient marks of that fplen-
dor and dignity with which this confederacy was
once adorned.
We muft now turn our eyes to Portugal and Spain,
where in the fpace of about 50 years there happened
a train of events which gradually led on to fuch dif-
coveries as changed the whole face of affairs in the
commercial world, and gave to the knowledge of later-
ages what for fome thoufand years had been kept fe-
cret from all mankind ; we mean a perfeft and diftinfl
notion of that terraqueous globe which they inhabit.
The kingdom of Portugal was fmall, but well cultiva¬
ted, v^ry populous, and bleffed with a variety of good
ports 5 all which, however, had flood them in little
ftead, if they had not had a fucceflion of wife princes,
who, inftead of involving themfelves in war with
their neighbours to gratify their ambition, endeavour¬
ed to extend the happinefs and wealth of their fubjefis,
an'd confequently their own power, in the fotter and
more fuccefsful method of protefting arts and fciences,
encouraging
Hiftory.
COMM
Hiftory. encouraging xnduftry, and favouring trade. This, with
1 11 v ' the convenient htuation of their country, in the begin¬
ning of the 15th century, prompted fome lively fpirits
to attempt diicoveries; and thsfe, countenanced by a
heroic young prince, pulhed on their endeavours with
fuch fuccefs, that fiep by dep the coaft of Africa was
furveyed as far as the Cape of Good Hope, to wrhich
they gave that name. The point they had in view
was a new route to the Eaft Indies, which Vafquez
de Gama happily difeovered 5 and in a fhort fpace of
time Portugal, from one of the lead confiderable, grew
to be one of the richeft powers in Europe, gained pro¬
digious dominions in Alia and Africa, and raifed a
naval power fuperior to any thing that had been feen
for many ages before.
See Colum- But while this was doing, Chridopher Columbus, a
(Cbriflo-of great capacity, though of almod unknown
^ sr'' original, w’ho had been bred to the fea from his youth,
and who had carefully dudied what others made a
trade, formed in his mind the amazing projeft of
counterafting experience, and failing to the Indies by
a wedern courfe. He offered this projedl to the Portu-
guefe, by whom it was confidered and rejedled as a
chimera. He propofed it afterwards to other dates,
but with no better fortune ”, and at lad owed the dif-
covery of the New World to the high fpirit of a he¬
roine, the famous Ifabella queen of Callile, who al¬
mod at her own expence, and with very little coun¬
tenance from her hulband, who yet was dyled Ferdi¬
nand the Wife, furnilhed the adventurous Columbus
with that poor fquadren, with which at once, in fpite
of all the difficulties that the envy of his officers, and
the obdinacy of his mutinous crew, threw in his way,
he perfedled his defign, and laid open a new Indies,
though in reality he aimed at the difeovery of the old.
Neither wras this noble effort of his matchlefs under-
danding defeated ; for after his deceafe, Ferdinand
Magellan, a Portuguefe, propofed to the emperor
Charles V. the difeovery of a paffage to the fpice
illands by the South feas, which was what Columbus
aimed at 5 and though Magellan lived not to return,
yet in one voyage the difeovery was perfedled. It is
inconceivable almod how many and how great benefits
accrued to Europe from thefe difeoveries •, of which,
howrever, it is certain, that the Portuguefe made a
very indifferent, and the Spaniards a much w’orfe, ufe j
the former making (laves of, and the latter rooting
out, the natives. This, as it was a mod ungrateful
return to divine Providence for fo high a bleffing , fo
it might have been ealily forefeen it wTould prove, as
experience has (hown it did prove, highly prejudicial
to their own intereffs, by depopulating very fine coun¬
tries, wdiich have been thereby turned into deferts :
and though on their fird difeovery infinite treafures
were returned from them, which wTere coined in the
mints of Spain j yet by an obdinate purfuit of this
falfe policy, the Spanifh iflands in the Wed Indies are
now brought fo low as to be fcarce W’orth keeping.
The confequences that naturally followed on the dif¬
eovery of a paffage by the Cape of Good Hope, and
of a fourth part of the globe in the wedern hemi-
fphere, w'ere, as it has been already hinted, the caufe
of an entire change in the date of Europe, and produ¬
ced, not only in Portugal and Spain, but in mod other
nations, a defire of vifiting thefe remote parts, of
E R C E. '
edablidiing colonies and manufactures ; of export- (
ing and importing commodities, and of railing, fet¬
tling, and protecting new manufactures. By this
means, as the reader cannot but perceive, not only
particular nations brought about fignal advantages to
themfelves, but Europe in general received a lading
and invaluable benefit; for its potentates made them¬
felves formidable, and even terrible, in thofe diffant
parts of the earth, where their fame had hardly reach¬
ed before. It is however true, that this has not been
carried on as high as it might have been j for though
there was room enough for every nation to have had
its diare, and though it might be demondrated that
the good of the whole would have contributed fuf-
ficiently to the profit of every date, the fubjefts of
W’hich had engaged in this traffic j yet, indead of
profecuting fo natural and fo equitable a meafure,
they have taken a quite contrary courfe ; and by de¬
crying, attacking, and dedroying each other, have
very much leffened that prodigious reverence which
the Afiatics, Africans, and Americans, at fird had for
the inhabitants of Europe.
The naval powTer of the Portuguefe received an in¬
curable wound by falling under the powTer of the Spa¬
niards ; and though human policy wrould have fug-
geded, that this alone mud have raifed the latter to
the monopoly of commerce, and the univerfal domi¬
nion of the fea *, yet the very purfuit of a defign fo
vifibly detrimental to the intered of mankind, proved
very quickly their ruin alfo. For the Spaniards, from
the natural haughtinefs of their temper, milled by the
boundlefs ambition of their princes, and endeavouring
to become the lords of Europe, forced other nations in
their own defence to make a much quicker progrefs
in navigation than otherwife they could have done.
For the Englifh and Dutch, who till this time feemed
blind to the advantages of their fituation, had their
eyes opened by the injuries they received j and by de¬
grees the paflion of revenge infpired them with defigns
that poffibly public fpirit would never have excited. In
(liort, the pains taken by Spain to keep all the riches
that downed from thefe difeoveries to herfelf, and the
dangerous, deteftable, and deftru£live purpofes to
which (he applied the immenfe wealth that flow'ed in
upon her from them, produced effefts diredlly oppofite
to thofe which (he propofed, and made her enemies
rich, great, % powerful, and happy, in proportion as
her commerce dwindled away, and as her naval power
funk and crumbled to pieces, merely by an improper
difplay, an ill-managed exertion, and a wrong applica¬
tion of it.
It w’as from hence that the inhabitants of the Seven
Provinces, whom her oppreffion had made poor, and
her feverities driven mad, became firft free, then po¬
tent, and by degrees rich. Their diftreffes taught
them the neceflity of eftablilhing a moderate and equal
government j the mildnefs of that government, and
the bleflings which it procured to its fubjeffs, raifed
their number, and elevated their hopes. The con¬
fequences became quickly vifible, and in a (liort time
amazing both to friends and enemies; every fi(h-
ing village improved into a trading-town ; their little
towns grew up into large and magnificent cities j
their inland boroughs wrere filled with manufactures j
and in lefs than half a century the diffreffed States of
Holland
\
31*
Hiftory.
—V—J
COM M
Holland became high and mighty } nay, in fpite of
the danger and jcxpences which attended a war made
all that°time againft a fuperior force, thefe people,
furrounded with enemies, loaded with taxes, expofed
to perfonal fervice, and to a thoufand other d’.lad-
vantages, grew up to fuch a ftrength as not only made
the Spaniards defpair of reducing them any more un¬
der their dominion, but inclined them to wifh, and at
laft forced them to folicit, their friend(liip.
This, at lead as far as either ancient or modem hif-
tories inform us, was the quickcft and ftrongeft of all
the productions of commerce that the world has ever
feen. For it is beyond difpute that the republic of the
United Provinces owes her freedom, her power, aT‘d
her wealth, entirely to induftry and trade. I ne
greateft part of the country is far from being fertile j
and what is fo, produces not enough to fuffice the tenth
part of the inhabitants for the tenth part of the year •
the climate is rather tolerable than wholefome ; aim
its havens are rather advantageous from the difficulty of
entering them, than from their commodioufnefs in any
other refpeCl. Of native commodities they have few
* 0r none 5 timber and maritime ftores are entirely want¬
ing j their country cannot boaft fo much as of a coal¬
mine •, and yet thefe provinces, upon which nature has
bellowed fo little, in confequence of an extenlive
trade, are enriched with all things. Their llore-
houfes are full of corn, even when the harveft in corn-
countries fails*, there is no commodity, however
bulky, or fcarce and hard to come at, which may not
be had from their magazines. The (hipping of Hol¬
land is prodigious *, and to fee the quantities of naval
ftores with which their yards and ports abound, afto-
niflies thofe who are unacquainted with the vigour of
that caufe which produces this abundance. But aboT. e
all, the populoufnefs of this country is the greateft mi¬
racle. That men ftiould refort to a Canaan, and defire
to live in a land flowing with milk and honey, is
nothing ftrange *, but that they Ihould make it their
choice' to force nature, to raife palaces, lay out gar-
dens, dig canals, plant woods, and ranfack all the
quarters of the earth for fruit and flowers, to produce
an artificial paradife in a dead plain, or upon an un¬
grateful heath in the midft of fogs and Handing lakes,
would in fo critical an age as this pafs for a fable, if
the country did not lie fo near us as to put the truth of
it out of queftion. It is now fubject to France.
Britijh Hi/lory.
R
E.
We may eafily conceive, that foreign commerce by
the natives of this ifland muft have been a work of
time ; for men think fir ft of neceffaries, then of con-
veniencies, and laft of fuperfluities. Thofe who came
originally from the continent might have better no¬
tions of things *, but as it muft be prefumed that ei¬
ther fear or indigence drove them hither, fo it is eafy
to apprehend that fucceeding generations muft for fome
time fink much below their anceftors in their notions
of the commodities of life ; and, deriving theii man¬
ners from their circumftances, become quite another
fort of people. Rut thofe on the oppofite continent,
knowing that this ifland was inhabited, and having
the ufe, though in ever fo imperfedft a degree, of vef-
fels, and of foreign traffic, came over lyther, and bar¬
tered their goods for the raw commodities of the Bri¬
tons, till by degrees perhaps they taught the latter to
make fome improvement in thole flight leather and
wicker boats, which they ufed for palling their own
rivers, and creeping along their coafts, till at laft they
ventured themfelves over to Gaul, and enteied upon
fome kind of correfpondence with their neighbours.
All this is fo deducible from the laws of nature, that
we might have conceived thus much by the light of
reafon, if we had not the commentaries of Caefar to
guide us, and to ftrengthen by the authority of hiftory,
the fadts that might have been found out by the force
of rational conjecture.
Things were precifely in this fituation when the
Romans" invaded Britain ; and there is no doubt that
our anceftors falling under the power of that empire,
and under its power at a time when, with refpect to
arts and fciences, it was in a moft flouriftiing condition,
was a great advantage to them*, and though horn
their love of civil liberty, which, when under the di-
reftion of reafon, is the moft natural and laudable ot
all paffions, they made a long and vigorous, and m
fome fenfe a noble and glorious, refiftance ; yet by
degrees they caught the manners and cuftoms of then-
conquerors, and grew content to be happy rather than
free. With learning and politenefs the Romans in¬
troduced foreign commerce *, and according to the na¬
ture of their policy, as they made high roads through
the ifland, eftabliffied colonies in proper places, and
fixed Handing camps, which were a kind of tortreiles,
where they thought proper *, fo they were no leis
careful with regard to marts or emporiums lor the
conveniency of traders, and of which what they found
was uncertain ) but that they left many is without
queftion 1 and amongft the reft London, which is not
more famous for her prefent extenfive trade, than ve¬
nerable for her unrecorded antiquity. _ _
When the Romans unwillingly left Britain, and the
Britons as unwillingly made way for the Saxons, a
new deluge of barbarity overflowed this illand : al-
moft all the improvements of our civilized conquerors
were effaced *, and upon the eftablilhment as it were
of a new people, things were all to begin again.
This neceffarily took up a great deal of time j and
before they were in any tolerable pofture, the Saxons
found themfelves dilfreffed by freffi fwarms of barba¬
rians. Yet there Hill remain fome evidences ot their
having been acquainted with, inclined to, and, it their
circumftances would have permitted, moft certain y
would have entered upon and carried foreign com¬
merce to a great height. We have authentic tefti-
monies, that Alfred the Great formed projeas 0. vaft
difeoveries to the North, as he ^uaily fent perfons
of great prudence and abilities into the Fall *, and the
cuiiofities which they brought home were for many
ages preferved in the treafury of the church of bald-
°UAs for the Danes, they were not long our mailers
but as they became fo by a maritime force, and as
their countrymen had eftablifhed themfelves not only
on the oppolite thorc of France, but in other parts of
Europe, it is rcafonable to believe that they held fome
correfpondence with them from thence; arid that,
if their dominion had laded longer, this mtght have
been better regulated, and produa.ve of many advan¬
tages. Eut they had foott to do with then brethre
Hiflory.
2
E R C E.
3'3
Principles.
COMM
Rlftory. In another way j for the Normans, men of the fame
race, but better eftablifhed in another country, difpof-
feffed them here •, and partly under colour of right,
partly by force, erefted that monarchy, which, not
without various alterations and changes, fublifts even
to our times, and to the fubfiftence of which, with the
help of thofe changes and alterations, we owe that
happy conftitution under which we live j that univer-
fal improvement which adorns the face of our country ;
that domeftic trade which nourilhes fo numerous a peo¬
ple, by plentifully rewarding their induftry •, and that
extenhve commerce which is at once the fource of our
wealth and the fupport of our liberty.
It cannot be expedled, that in a work like this we
Ihould attempt to trace the progrefs of trade through
every reign •, (how how it was encouraged and protedl-
ed, or difcountenanced and checked ; what occafions
were luckily feized, or what opportunities unfortunate¬
ly loft. It may be fufficient for us, after what has
been already faid, to obferve, that the opinion com¬
monly entertained, of our having little or no trade be¬
fore the reign of Queen Elizabeth, is very far from
being well founded.
In fa£I, the reign of that princefs was great and
glorious in whatever light we confider it j but it was
moft fo in this, that, under Providence, it became
great and glorious by the wifdom and prudence of the
queen and her minifters. The Englifh nation never
was in fo defperate a condition as at her acceflion.
The crown was in debt, the treafury empty, the na¬
tion involved in a foreign war dire&ly againft her own
interefts, her coafts naked j in a word, without credit
abroad, and without concord at home, no fettled reli¬
gion, the great men fplit into fa&ions, and the com¬
mon people diftrafted and deje&ed. Sad circumftances
thefe ! and yet from hence arofe the grandeur of that
reign, and the eftabliftiment of our commerce. The
queen found herfelf obliged to a£t with great caution,
to derive afliftance from every quarter, to employ it
faithfully, and to promote to the utmoft of her power
the welfare of her fubjedfts, whom nothing but the pu-
blic-fpiritednefs of her government could enable to
grow rich enough to fupport the neceffary expences of
the crown. It was this gave a popular turn to her
councils. She encouraged her fubjedls to arm againft
the Spaniards, that they might be accuftomed to the
fea, and acquire that knowledge in navigation, with
which, till then, they had been unacquainted. She
palled many laws for the public good, ere&ed feveral
companies, and faw that thofe companies purfued the
ends for which they were erefted $ in Ihort, (he did
every thing that could be expedted, during the whole
courfe of her reign, to excite and encourage induftry
at home, and to enable us to make a proper figure a-
broad. In a word, Ihe furnilhed us with ftock and
credit, put us upon improving our commodities and
manufadfures, brought the art of Ihip-building amongft
us, filled our ports with able feamen, (bowed a juft re-
fpedt to Englilh merchants, reduced Ireland fo as to
render it beneficial to Britain, and approved our fend¬
ing colonies into America ; and thus the feeds of Bri-
tilh wealth were fown in her time, though the harveft
was reaped in the days of her fucceflbrs. See the ar¬
ticles Coalery, Colony, Fisheries, Manvfac-
T'Ures, Shipping, and Trade.
Vol. VI. Part I.
Chap. II. Principles of Commerce.
Sect. I. Origin of Trade.
The moft fimple of all trade is that which is car¬
ried on by bartering the neceffary articles of fubfift¬
ence. If we fuppofe the earth free to the firft pol-
feffor, this perfon who cultivates it will firft draw"
from it his food, and the furplus will be the objedt of
barter : he will give this in exchange to any one who
will fupply his other wants. This naturally fuppofes
both a furplus quantity of food produced by labour,
and alfo free hands ; for he who makes a trade of agri¬
culture cannot fupply himfelf with all other neceflaries,
as well as food ) and he who makes a trade of fupply-
ing the farmers with fuch neceflaries, in exchange for
his furplus of food, cannot be employed in producing
that food. The more the neceflities of man increafe,
the more free hands are required to fupply them ; and
the more free hands are required, the more furplus food
muft be produced by additional labour, to fupply their
demand.
This is the leaft complex kind of trade, and may be
carried on to a greater or lefs extent, in different
countries, according to the different degrees of the
wants to be fupplied. In a country where there is no
money, nor any thing equivalent to it, the wants of
mankind will be confined to few objects ; to wit, the
removing the inconveniences of hunger, third, cold,
heat, danger, and the like. A free manr who, by his
induftry, can procure all the comforts of a fimple life,
wall enjoy his reft, and work no more ; and, in gene¬
ral, all increafe of work will ceafe, fo foon as the de¬
mand for the purpofes mentioned comes to be fatisfied.
There is a plain reafon for this. When the free hands
have procured, by their labour, wherewithal to lupply
their wants, their ambition is fatisfied : fo foon as the
hufbandmen have produced the neceffary furplus for
relieving theirs, they work no more. Here then is
a natural flop put to induftry, confequently to bar¬
tering.
The next thing to be examined is, how bartering
grows into trade, properly fo called, and underftood,
according to the definitio'n given of it above ; how
trade comes to be extended among men ; how ma-
nufa£!ures, more ornamental than ufeful, come to be
eftablilhed ; and how men come to fubmit to labour,
in order to acquire wrhat is not abfolutely neceffary for
them.
This, in a free fociety, is chiefly owing to the in-
trodudftion of money, and a tafte for fuperfluities in
thofe who poffefs it.
In ancient times, money was not wanting; but the
tafte for fuperfluities not being in proportion to it,
the fpecie was locked up. This was the cafe in Eu¬
rope four hundred years ago. A new tafte for fuper-
fluity has drawn, perhaps, more money into circula¬
tion, from our own treafures, than from the mines of
the new world. The poor opinion we entertain of
the riches of our forefathers, is founded upon the mo¬
dern way of eftimating wealth, by the quantity of coin
in circulation, from which we conclude, that the great-
eft part of the fpecie now in our hands muft have come
from America.
Rr
It
314 COMM
Principles. It is more, therefore, through the tafle of fuper-
'r'*—' fluity, than in confequence of the quantity of coin,
that trade comes to be eftablifhed j and it is only
in confequence of trade that we fee induftry carry
things in our days to fo high a pitch of refinement and
delicacy. Let us illuftrate this, by comparing toge¬
ther the different operations of barter, fale, and com¬
merce.
When reciprocal wants are fupplied by barter, there
is not the fmalleft occafion for money : this is the moft
Ample of all combinations.
When wants are multiplied, bartering becomes more
difficult : upon this money is introduced. This is the
common price of all things : it is a proper equivalent
in the hands of thofe who want, perfe£!ly calculated
to fupply the occafions of thofe who, by induftry, can
relieve them. This operation of buying and felling is
a little more complex than the former j but ftill we
have here no idea of trade, becaufe we have not in¬
troduced the merchant, by whofe induftry it is car¬
ried on.
Let this third perfon be introduced, and the
whole operation becomes clear. What before we
called wants, is here reprefented by the confumer ;
what we called indujlry, by the manufacturer ; what
we called money, by the merchant. The merchant
here reprefents the money, by fubftituting credit in
its place j and as the money was invented to facili¬
tate barter, fo the merchant, with his credit, is a new
refinement upon the ufe of money. This renders it
ftill more effectual in performing the operations of
buying and felling. This operation is trade : it re¬
lieves both parties of the whole trouble of tranfporta-
tion, and adjufting wants to wants, or wants to
money j the merchant reprefents by turns both the
confumer, the manufacturer, and the money. To
the confumer he appears as the whole body of manu¬
facturers 5 to the manufacturers as the whole body of
confirmers j and to the one and the other clafs his cre¬
dit fupplies the ufe of money. This is fufficient at pre-
fent for an illuftration. We now return to the Ample
operations of money in the hands of the two contract¬
ing parties, the buyer and the feller, in order to Ihow
how men come to fubmit to labour in order to acquire
fuperfluities.
So foon as money is introduced into a country, it
becomes an univerfal objeCt of want to all the inhabi¬
tants.
The confequence is, that the free hands of the ftate,
who before ftopt working, becaufe all their wants
were provided for, having this new objeCt of ambition
before their eyes, endeavour, by refinements upon their
labour, to remove the fmaller inconveniences which re-
lult from a fimplicity of manners. People, who for¬
merly knew but one fort of clothing for all feafons,
willingly part with a little money to procure for them-
felves different forts of apparel properly adapted to
fummer and winter, which the ingenuity of manufac¬
turers, and their defire of getting money, may have
fuggefted to their invention.
Indeed thefe refinements feem more generally ow¬
ing to the induftry and invention of the manufactu¬
rers (who by their ingenuity daily contrive means of
foftening or relieving inconveniences which mankind
feldom perceive to be fuch; till the way of removing
e r c E.
them is contrived), than to the tafte for luxury in thePrinc5ples»
rich, who, to indulge their eafe, engage the poor to
become induftrious.
Let any man make an experiment of this nature
upon himfelf, by entering into the firft fhop. He will
nowhere fo quickly difcover his wants as there. Every
thing he fees appears either neceflary, or at leaft highly
convenient j and he begins to wonder how he could
have been fo long without that which the ingenuity of
the workman alone had invented, in order that from
the novelty it might incite his defire $ for perhaps
when it is bought, he will never once think of it more,
nor ever apply it to the ufe for which at firft it ap¬
peared fo neceffary.
Here then is a reafon why mankind labour though
not in want. They become dtfirous of poffeffing the
very inftruments of luxury, which their avarice or
ambition prompted them to invent for the ufe of
others.
What has been faid reprefents trade in its infancy,
or rather the materials with which that great fabric is
built.
We have formed an idea of the wants of mankind
multiplied even to luxury, and abundantly fupplied by
the employment of all the free hands fet apart for that
purpofe. But if we fuppofe the workman himfelf dif-
pofing of his work, and purchafing with it food from
the farmer, clothes from the clothier y and, in general,
feeking for the fupply of every want from the hands
of the perfon direClly employed for the purpofe of re¬
lieving it j this will not convey an idea of trade ac¬
cording to our definition.
Trade and commerce are an abbreviation of this
long procefs *, a fcheme invented and fet on foot by
merchants, from a principle of gain, fupported and ex¬
tended among men, from a principle of general utility
to every individual, rich or poor > to every fociety^
great or fmall.
Inftead of a pin-maker exchanging his pins with 50"
different perfons, for whofe labour he has occafion, he
fells all to the merchant for money or for credit j and
as occafion offers, he purchafes all his wants, either
direftly from thofe who fupply them, or from other
merchants, who deal with manufa&urers in the fame
way his merchant dealt with him.
Another advantage of trade is, that induftrious peo¬
ple in one part of the country may fupply cuftomers in
another, though diftant. They may eftablilh them-
felves in the moft commodious places for their refpec-
tive bufinefs, and help one another reciprocally, with¬
out making the diftant parts of the country fuffer for
want of their labour. They are likewife expofed
to no avocation from their work, by feeking for cu¬
ftomers.
Trade produces many excellent advantages j it marks
out to the manufacturers when their branch is under or
overftocked with hands. If it is underftocked, the^
will find more demand than they can anfwer y if it is
overftocked, the fale will be flow.
Intelligent men, in every profeffion, will eafily dif¬
cover when thefe appearances are accidental, and when
they proceed from the real principles of trade.
Polls, and correfpondence by letters, are a confe¬
quence of trade y by the means of which merchants are
regularly informed of every augmentation or dimi¬
nution
COMM
Principles, nution of mduftry in every branch, in every part of
» the country. From this knowledge they regulate the
prices they offer j and as they are many, they ferve as
a check upon one another, from the principles of com¬
petition.
From the current prices, the manufacturers are as
well informed, as if they kept the correfpondence
themfelves; the ftatefman feels perfe&ly where hands
are wanting, and young people deftined to induftry,
obey, in a manner, the call of the public, and fall na¬
turally in to fupply the demand.
Two great affiftances to merchants, efpecially in the
infancy of trade, are public markets for colle&ing the
work of fmall dealers, and large undertakings in the
manufadhrring way by private hands. By thefe means
the merchants come at the knowledge of the quantity
of work in the market, as on the other hand the ma-
jnufafturers learn, by the fale of the goods, the extent
of the demand for them. Thefe two things being
juftly known, the price of goods is ealily fixed.
Public fales ferve to correft the fmall inconveni¬
ences which proceed from the operations of trade. A
fet of manufa&urers got all together into one town,
and entirely taken up with their induftry, are thereby
as well informed of the rate of the market as if every
one of them carried thither his work } and upon the
arrival of the merchant, who readily takes it off their
hands, he has not the leaft advantage over them from
his knowledge of the ftate of demand. This man
both buys and fells in what is called vuholefale; and
from him retailers purchafe, who diftribute the goods
to every confumer throughout the country. Thefe
laft buy from wholefale merchants in every branch, that
proportion of every kind of merchandife which is
fuitable to the demand of their borough, city, or pro-
Thus all inconveniences are prevented, at feme ad¬
ditional coft to the confumer, who muft naturally re-
imburfe the whole expence. The diftance of the ma-
nufa&urer, the obfcurity of his dwelling, the caprice
in felling his work, are quite removed ; the retailer
has all in his fhop, and the public buys at a current
price.
§ 2. How the price of Goods is determined by Trade.
In the price of goods, two things muft be confider-
*d as really exirting, and quite different from one ano¬
ther ; to wit, the real value of the commodity, and the
profit upon alienation.
I. The firft thing to be known of any manufa&ure,
when it comes to be fold, is how much of it a perfon
can perform in a day, a week, a month, according to
the nature of the work, which may require more or
lefs time to bring it to perfection. In making fuch
fcftimates, regard is to be had only to what, upon an
average, a workman of the country in general may
perform, without fuppofing him the beft or the worft
in his profeflion, or having any peculiar advantage or
difadvantage as to the place where he works.
Hence the reafon why fome people pfofper by their
induftry, and others not; why fome manufactures flou-
rifti in one place and not in another.
II. The fecond thing to be known is, the value of
the workman’s fubfiftence, and neceffary expence, both
for fupplying his perfonal wants and providing the
E R C E. 315
inftruments belonging to his profeflion, which muff: be Principles,
taken upon an average as above, except when the -"v*—
nature of the work requires the prefence of the work¬
man in the place of confumption j for although fome
trades, and almoft every manufacture, may be carried
on in places at a diftance, and therefore may fall under
one general regulation as to prices j yet others there
are, which, by their nature, require the prefence of
the workman in the place of confumption 5 and in that
cafe the prices muft be regulated by circumftances re¬
lative to every particular place.
III. The third and laft thing to be knotvn, is the
value of the materials, that is, the firft matter employ¬
ed by the workman j and if the objeCt of his induftry
be the manufacture of another, the fame procefs of in¬
quiry muft be gone through with regard to the firft as
the fecond j and thus the moft complex manufactures
may be at laft reduced to the greateft fimplicity.
Thefe three articles being known, the price of ma¬
nufacture is determined. It cannot be lower than the
amount of all the three, that is, than the real value j
whatever it is higher, is the manufacturer’s profit.
This will ever be in proportion to demand, and there¬
fore will fluctuate according to circumftances.
Hence appears the neceflity of a great demand, in
order to promote flourilhing manufactures.
By the extenfive dealings of merchants, and their
conftant application to the ftudy of the balance of
work and demand, all the above circumftances are
known to them, and are made known to the induftri-
ous, who regulate their living and expence according
to their certain profit.
Employ a workman in a country where there is
little trade or induftry, he proportions his price al¬
ways to the urgency of your want, or your capacity
to pay j but feldom to his own labour. Employ ano¬
ther in a country of trade, he will not impofe upon
you, unlefs perhaps you be a ftranger, which fuppofes
your being ignorant of the value \ but employ the
fame workman in a work not ufual in the country,
confequently not demanded, and therefore not regula¬
ted as to the value, he will proportion his price as in
the firft fuppofition.
We may therefore conclude, from what has been
faid, that in a country where trade has been eftablilh-
ed, manufactures muft flourilh, from the ready fale, the
regulated price of work, and the certain profit refult-
ing from induftry. Let us next inquire into the con-
fequences of fuch a lituation.
§ 3. How foreign Trade opens to an induflrious Peoplet
and the confequences of it to the Merchants who Jet it
on foot.
The firft confequence of the fituation defetibed in
the preceding feCtion is, that wants are eafily fupplied
for the adequate value of the thing wanted.
The next confequence is, the opening of foreign
trade, under its two denominations of paflrve and ac¬
tive. Strangers and people of diftant countries, find¬
ing the difficulty of having their wants fupplied at
home, and the eafe of having them fupplied from this
country, immediately have recourfe to it. This is paf-
five trade. The aCtive is when merchants, who have
executed this plan at home with fuccefs, begin to tranf-
R r 2 port
316
COMM
Princip’es. port the labour of tlieir countrymen into other re-
^ ” gions, which either produce, or are capable of produ¬
cing iuch articles of confumption, proper to be rrtanu-
fadlured, as are moft demanded at home } and confe-
quently will meet wdth the readieft fale, and fetch the
largefl profits.
Here then is the opening of foreign trade, under its
two denominations of aflive and paffive.
What then are the confequences of this new com¬
merce to our merchants, who have left their homes in
queft of gain abroad ?
The firft is, that, arriving in any new country, they
find themfelves in the fame lituation with regard to the
inhabitants, as the workman in the country of no trade,
wdth regard to thofe who employ him •, that is, they
proportion the price of their goods to the eagernefs of
acquiring, or the capacity of paying, in the inhabi¬
tants, but never to their real value.
The firft profits then, upon this trade, muft be very
confiderable j and the demand from fuch a country will
be high or /otu, great or /mail, according to the fpirit,
not the real wants of the people j for thefe in all coun¬
tries muft firft be fupplied by the inhabitants them¬
felves, before they ceafe to labour.
If the people of this not-trading country be abun¬
dantly furnifhed wuth commodities ufeful to the traders,
they wall eafily part with them, at firft, for the inftru-
ments of luxury and eafe •, but the great profit of the
traders will infenfibly increafe the demand for the pro¬
ductions of their new correfpondents : this will have
the effedt of producing a competition between them¬
felves, and thereby throwing the demand on their fide.
This is perpetually a difadvantage in traffic *, the moft
unpoliffied nations in the wmrld quickly perceive the
effedts ®f it, and are taught to profit by the difcovery,
in fpite of the addrefs of thofe who are the moft ex¬
pert in commerce.
The traders will therefore be very fond of falling
upon every method and contrivance to infpire this
people with a tafte of refinement and delicacy. A-
'bundance of fine prefents, confifting of every inftru-
ment of luxury and fuperfluity, the belt adapted to the
genius of the people, will be given to the prince and
leading men among them. Workmen will even be
employed at home, to ftudy the tafte of the ftrangers,
and to captivate their defires by every poffible means.
The more eager they are of prefents, the more lavifh
the traders will be in bellowing and diverfifying them.
It is an animal put up to fatten 5 the more he eats, the
fooner he is fit for flaughter. When their tafte for
fuperfluity is fully formed, when the relilh for their
former fimplicity is fophifticated, poifoned, and obli¬
terated, then they are furely in the fetters of the
traders, and the deeper they go, the lefs poffibility
there is of being extricated. The prefents then will
die away, having ferved their purpofe j and if after¬
wards they are found to be continued, it will probably
be to fupport the competition againft other nations,
who will incline to ffiare of the profits.
If, on the contrary, this not-trading nation does not
abound with commodities ufeful to the traders, thefe
will make little account of trading with them, what¬
ever their turn may be ; but, if we fuppofe this coun¬
try inhabited by a laborious people, who, having ta-
E R C E.
ken a tafte for refinement from the traders, apply Principles. ^
themfelves to agriculture, in order to produce articles * 11
of fubfiftence, they will folicit the merchants to give
them part of their manufaftures in exchange for thofe j
and this trade will undoubtedly have the effeft of mul¬
tiplying numbers in the trading nation. But if food
cannot be furniffied, nor any other branch of produc¬
tion found out to fupport the correfpondence, the tafte
for refinement will foon die away, and trade will flop
in this quarter.
Had it not been for the furs in thofe countries ad¬
jacent to Hudfon’s Bay, and in Canada, the Europeans
never would have thought of fupplying inftruments of
luxury to thofe nations } and if the inhabitants of thofe
regions had not taken a tafte for the inftruments of
luxury furnilbed to them by the Europeans, they ne¬
ver wmuld have become fo indefatigable nor fo dex¬
terous hunters. At the fame time we are not to fup¬
pofe that ever thefe Americans would have come to
Europe in queft of our manufactures. It is, there¬
fore, owing to our merchants, that thefe nations are
become in any degree fond of refinement $ and this
tafte, in all probability, will not foon exceed the pro¬
portion of the productions of their country. From
thefe beginnings of foreign trade it is eafy to trace its
increafe.
One ftep towards this, is the eftabliffiing correfpon-
dences in foreign countries 5 and thefe are more or lefs
neceffary in proportion as the country where they are
eftabliffied is more or lefs poliflied, or acquainted with
trade. They fupply the want of polls, and point out
to the merchants what proportion the productions of
the country bear to the demand of the inhabitants for
manufactures. This communicates an idea of com¬
merce to the net-trading nation, and they infenfibly
begin to fix a determined value upon their own pro¬
ductions, which perhaps bore no determined value at
all before.
Let us trace a little the progrefs of this refinement
in the favages, in order to Ihow how it has the effeCl of
throwing the demand upon the traders, and of creating
a competition among them, for the productions of the
new country.
Experience ffiows, that, in a new difcovered coun¬
try, merchants conftantly find fome article or other of
its productions, which runs out to a great account in
commerce j and we fee that the longer fuch a trade
fubfifts, and the more the inhabitants take a tafte for
European manufactures, the more their own produc¬
tions rife in their value, and the lets profit is made by
trading wuth them, even in cafes where the trade is car¬
ried on by companies; which is a very wife inftitution
for one reafon, that it cuts off a competition between
our merchants.
This is the belt means of keeping prices low in fa¬
vour of the nation j however, it may work a contra¬
ry effeCt with refpeCt to individuals who muft buy from
thefe monopolies.
When companies are not eftablilhed, and when trade
is open, our merchants, by their eagernefs to profit by
the new trade, betray the fecrets of it ; they enter in¬
to competition for the purchafe of the foreign pro¬
duce j and this raifes prices, and favours the commerce
of the molt ignorant favages.
COMM
Principles.
§ 4. Confequences of the Introduction of a pqflive fo¬
reign Trade among a People who live in Simplicity and
Idlenefs.
We now fuppofe the arrival of traders, all in one
intereft, with inftruments of luxury and refinement, at
a port in a country of great fimplicity of manners, a-
bundantly provided by nature with great advantages
for commerce, and peopled by a nation capable of
adopting a tafte for fuperfiuities.
The firft thing the merchants do is, to expofe their
goods, and point out the advantages of many things,
either agreeable or ufeful to mankind in general, fuch
a^ wines, fpirits, inftruments of agriculture, arms and
ammunition for hunting, nets for fiftiing, manufa&ures
for clothing, and the like. The advantages of thefe
are prefently perceived, and fuch commodities are ea¬
gerly fought after.
The natives, on their fide, produce what they moll
efteem, generally fomething fuperfluous or ornamen¬
tal. The traders, after examining all circumftances,
determine the objeft of their demand, giving the leaft.
quantity poftible in return for this fuperfluity, in order
to imprefs the inhabitants with a high notion of the
value of their own commodities j but as this parfimony
may do more hurt than good to their intereft, they are
very generous in making prefents, from the principles
mentioned above.
When the exchange is completed, and the traders
depart, regret is commonly mutual; the one and the
other are forry that the fuperfluities of the country fall
fhort. A return is promifed by the traders, and aflu-
rances are given by the natives of a better provifion
another time.
What are the firft confequences of this revolution ?
It is evident, that, in order to fupply an equivalent
for this new want, more hands muft be fet to work,
than formerly. And it is evident alfo, that this aug¬
mentation of induftry will not eflentially increafe num¬
bers : Why ? Becaufe the produce of the induftry is,
in this cafe, intended to be exported. But, if we can
find out any additional confumption at home, even im¬
plied by this new trade, it will have the effedt of aug¬
menting numbers. An example will make this plain-
Let us fuppofe the fuperfluity of this country to be
the fkins of wild beafts, not proper for food ; the ma¬
nufacture fought for, brandy. The brandy is fold for
furs. He who has furs, or he who can fpare time to
hunt for them, will drink brandy in proportion ; but
there is no reafon to conclude from this Ample opera¬
tion, that one man more in the country muft neceffa-
rily be fed, or that any augmentation of agriculture
muft of confequence enfue from this new traffic.
But let us throw in a circumftance which may im¬
ply an additional confumption at home, and then exa¬
mine the confequences.
A poor creature who has no equivalent to offer for
food, who is miferable, and ready to periffi for want
of fubfiftence, goes a hunting, and kills a wolf j he
comes to a farmer with the Ikin, and fays, You are
well fed, but you have no brandy ; if you will give
me a loaf, I will give you this Ikin, which the ftran-
gers are fo fond of, and they will give you brandy.
But, fays the farmer, I have no more bread than what
is fufficient for my own family. As for that, replies
E R C E. 317
the other, I will come and dig in your ground, and Princ>ples-
you and I will fettle our account as to the fmall quan-
tity I defire of you. The bargain is made $ the poor
fellow gets his loaf, and lives at leaft ; perhaps he
marries, and the farmer gets a dram. But had it not
been for this dram, that is, this new want, which was
purchafed by the induftry of this poor fellow, by what
argument could he have induced the farmer to part
with a loaf ?
Here the fentiment of charity is excluded. This
alone is a principle of multiplication 5 but as true it is,
on the other hand, that could the poor fellow have got
bread by begging, he would not probably have gone
a hunting.
Here then it appears, that the very dawning of
trade, in the moft unpolilhed countries, implies a mul¬
tiplication. This is fufficient to point out the firft ftep,
and to connedl the fubjeft of our prefent inquiries
with what has been already difcuffed in relation to
other circumftances.
So foon as all the furs are difpofed of, and a tafte
for fuperfluity is introduced, both the traders and the
natives will be equally interefted in the advancement
of induftry in this country. Many new objects of pro¬
fit for the firft will be difcovered, which the proper em¬
ployment of the inhabitants, in reaping the natural ad¬
vantages of their foil and climate, will make effe&ual.
The traders will therefore endeavour to fet on foot
many branches of induttry among the favages, and the
allurements of brandy, arms, and clothing, will ani¬
mate thefe in the purfuit of them.
When once this revolution is brought about; when
thofe who formerly lived in fimplicity become induftri-*
ous $ matters put on a new face.
That is to fay, we now find two trading nations
inftead of one, with this difference, however, that as
hitherto we have fuppofed the merchants all in one
intereft, the compound demand, that is, the competi¬
tion of the buyers, has been, and muft ftill continue on
the fide of the natives. This is a great prejudice to
their intereft : but as it is not fuppofed fufficient to
check their induftry, nor to reftrain their confumption
of the manufa&ures, let us here examine a little more
particularly the confequences of the principle of de¬
mand in fuch a fituation $ for although we allow, that
it can never change fides, yet it may admit of different
modifications, and produce different effe£ls, as we ffiall
prefently perceive.
The merchants we fuppofe all in one intereft, con-
fequently there can be no competition among them 5.
no check can be put upon their raifing their prices, as
long as the prices they demand are complied with. So
foon as they are raifed to the full extent of the abili¬
ties of the natives, or of their inclination to buy, the
merchants have the choice of three things, which are-
all perfedlly in their option j and the preference to be
given to the one or the other, depends entirely upon
themfelves, and upon the circumftances we are going
to point out.
Firft, they may fupport their high demand ; that
is, not lower their price, which wall preferve a high
eftimation of the manufactures in the opinion of the
inhabitants, and render the profits upon their trade,
the greateft poffible. This part they may poffibly
take, if they perceive the natives doubling their dili-
1 gence,
3l8 comm
Principles, gence, in order to become able, in time, to purchafe
  confiderable cargoes at a high value ; from which fup-
pofition is inferred a ftrong difpofition in the people to
become luxurious, fince nothing but want of ability
prevents them from complying with the higheft de¬
mand : but ftill another circumftance muft concur, to
engage the merchants not to lower their price. . The
great proportion of the goods they leek for in re¬
turn, muft be found in the hands of a few. This will
be the cafe if flavery be eftabliftred •, for then there
muft be many poor and few rich •, and they are com¬
monly the rich confumers who proportion the price
they offer, rather to their defires, than to the value o
the thing.
The lecond thing which may be done is, to encou¬
rage a great demand ; that is, to lower their prices.
This will fink the value of the manufa&ures in the opi¬
nion of the inhabitants, and render profits lefs in pro¬
portion, although indeed, upon the voyage, the profits
may be greater. . , .
This part they will take, if they perceive the in¬
habitants do not incline to confume great quantities of
the merchandife at a high value, either for want of
abilities or inclination-, and alfo, if the profits upon
the trade depend upon a large confumption, as is the
cafe in merchandife of a low value, and fuited chiefly to
the occafions of the lower fort. Such motives of expe¬
diency will be fufficient to make them relinquifti a high
demand, and prefer a great one and the more, when
there is a likelihood that the confumption of low-priced
goods in the beginning may beget a tafte for others of
a higher value, and thus extend in general the tafte of
fuperfluity. . „ ... ,
A third part to be taken is the leaft politic, and
perhaps the moft familiar. It is to profit by the com¬
petition between the buyers, and encourage, the n-
fing of demand as long as poflible ; when this comes
to a ttop, to make a kind of auftion, by firft bringing
down the prices to the level of the higheft bidders,
and fo to defcend by degrees, in proportion as de¬
mand finks. Thus we may fay with propriety, that
demand commonly becomes great, in proportion as
prices fink. By this operation, the traders will profit
as much as poflible, and fell off as much of their goods
as the profits will permit.
But this plan, in a new difcovered country, is not po¬
litic, as it both difcovers a covetoufnefs and a want of
faith in the merchants, and alfo throws open the fecrets
of their trade to thofe who ought to be kept ignorant
of them. .
Let us next fuppofe, that the large profits or our
merchants (hall be difcovered by others, who arrive at
the fame ports in a feparate intereft, and who enter into
no combination which might prevent the natural effeas
of competition. . r
Let the ftates of demand among the natives be iup-
pofed the fame as formerly, both as to height and great-
nefs, in confequence of the operation ot the different
principles, which might have induced our merchants
to follow one or other of the plans we have been de-
fcribing : we muft, however, ftill fuppofe, that they
have been careful to preferve confiderable profits upon
every branch. . r j •
If we fuppofe the inhabitants to have mcreafed m
numbers, wealth, and tafte for funerfluity, fmce the
l
R
E,
laft voyage, demand will be found rather on the ri- Principle?,
fing hand. Upon the arrival of the merchants in com- "V
petition with the former, both will offer to fale j but
if both ftand to the fame prices, it is very natural to
fuppofe, that the former dealers will obtain a prefer¬
ence 5 as cceteris paribus it is always an advantage to
know and to be known. The laft comers, therefore,
have no other way left to counterbalance this advan¬
tage, but to lower their prices.
This is a new phenomenon : here the fall of price?
is not voluntary as formerly, nor confented to from
expediency j not owing to a failure of demand, but
to the influence of a new principle of commerce, to
wit, a double competition, which we (hall now ex¬
amine.
$ 5. Of double Competition.
When competition is much (Longer on one fide
of the contrail than on the other, it is called fmple.
This is the fpecies of competition which is implied in
the term b\gh demand) or when it is faid that demand
raifes prices. m .
Double competition is, when, in a certain degree, it
takes place on both Tides of the contra# at once., or
vibrates alternately from one to the other. This is
what reftrains prices to the adequate value of mer¬
chandife.
The great difficulty i§ to diftinguifli clearly between
the principles of demand^ thofe of competition : here
then follow the principal differences between the two,
relatively to the effe#s they produce feverally in the
mercantile contra# of buying and felling, which we
here exprefs (hortly by the word contrad.
Simple demand is what brings the quantity of a
commodity to market. Many demand,.who do not
buy j many offer, who do not fell. This demand is
called great ox fmall} it is faid to increafe, to augment,
to fwell j and is expreffed by thefe and. other fynony-
mous terms, which mark an augmentation or diminu¬
tion of quantity. In this fpecies, two people never
demand the fame thing, but a part of the fame thing,
or things quite alike. . .
Compound demand is the principle which r.aifes prices,
and can never make them fink j becaufe in this cafe
more than one demands the very fame thing. It. is
folely applicable to the buyers, in relation to the price
they offer. This demand is called high or low, and is
faid to rife, to fall, to mount, to fink, and is expreffed
by thefe and other fynonymous terms. .
Simple competition, when between, buyers, is the fame
as compound or high demand; but differs from it in. (o
far, as this may equally take place among fellers, which
compound demand cannot j and then it works a con¬
trary effe# : it makes prices fink, and is fynonymous
with low demand j it is this competition which over¬
turns the balance of work and demand.
Double competition is what is underftood. to take
place in almoft every operation of trade j it is this
which prevents their exceflive rife of prices • it is this
which prevents their exceflive fall. While double
competition prevails, the balance is perfe#, trade and
induftry flourifli. , „ , .
The capital diftin#ion, therefore, between the terms
demandcompetition is, that demands conftantly rela¬
tive to the buyers > and when money is not the price,
3S
COMM
Principles, as in barter, then it is relative to that fide upon which
the greateft competition is found.
We therefore fay, with regard to prices, demand is
high or low. With regard to the quantity of merchandife,
demand is great or /mail. With regard to competition) it
is always called or /mail, f rang or weak.
Competition is, with equal propriety, applicable to
both parties in the contraft. A competition among
buyers is a proper expreflion ; a competition among fel¬
lers, who have the merchandife, is fully aseafily under-
ftood, though it be not quite fo ftriking, for reafons
which an example will make plain.
You come to a fair, where you find a great variety
of every kind of merchandife, in the poffeffion of dif¬
ferent merchants. Thefe by offering their goods to
fale, conflitute a tacit competition ; every one of them
wifhes to fell in preference to another, and at the fame
time with the beft advantage to himfelf.
The buyer begins, by cheapening at every (hop.
The firft price afked marks the covetoufnefs of the
feller j the firft price offered, the avarice of the buyer.
From this operation competition begins to work its
effects on both fides, and fo becomes double. The
principles which influence this operation are now to be
deduced.
It is impoffible to fuppofe the fame degree of eager-
nefs, either to buy or fell, among feveral merchants j
becaufe the degree of eagernefs is exaftly in propor¬
tion to their views of profit j and as thefe muft neceffari-
ly be influenced and regulated by different circumftan-
ces, that buyer, who has the beft profpeft of felling
again with profit, obliges him, whofe profpeft is not fo
good, to content himfelf with lefs $ and that feller, who
has bought to the beft advantage, obliges him, who
has paid dearer for the merchandife, to moderate his
defire of gain.
It is from thefe principles that competition among
buyers and fellers muft originate. This is what con¬
fines the fluftuation of prices within limits which are
compatible with the reafonable profits of both buyers
and fellers •, for we muft conftantly fuppofe the whole
operation of buying and felling to be performed by
merchants •, the buyer cannot be fuppofed to give fo
high a price as that which he expedts to receive when
he diftributes to the confumers, nor can the feller be
fuppofed to accept of a lower than that which he paid
to the manufaflurer. This competition is properly
called double, becaufe of the difficulty to determine
upon which fide it ftands 5 the fame merchant may
have it in his favour upon certain articles, and againft
him upon others ; it is continually in vibration, and
the arrival of every poft may lefs or more pull down
the heavy fcale.
In every tranfa&ion between merchants, the profit
refulting from the fale muft be exaftly diftinguiffied
from the value of the merchandife. The firft may
vary, the laft never can. It is this profit alone which
can be influenced by competition 5 and it is for that
reafon we find fuch uniformity everywhere in the prices
of goods of the fame quality.
The competition between fellers does not appear
fo ftriking as that between buyers ; becaufe he who
offers to fale, appears only paffive in the firft opera¬
tion j whereas the buyers prefent themfelves one af¬
ter another^ they make a demand when the mer-
E R C E. 319
chandife is refufed to one at a certain price ; a fecond Principles,
either offers more, or does not offer at all $ but fo foon
as another feller finds his account in accepting the price
the firft had refufed, then the firft enters into compe¬
tition, providing his profits will admit his lowering the
firft price ; and thus competition takes place among the
fellers, until the profits upon their trade prevent prices
from falling low’er.
In all markets this competition is varying, though
infenfibly, on many occafions; but in others the vi¬
brations are very perceptible. Sometimes it is found
ftrongeft on the fide of the buyers $ and in proportion
as this grows, the competition between the fellers di-
miniffies. When the competition between the former
has raifed prices to a certain ftandard, it comes to a
flop ; then the competition changes fides, and takes
place among the fellers, eager to profit by the higheft:
price. This makes prices fall; and according as they
fall, the competition among the buyers diminifhes.
They ftill wait for the loweft period. At laft it comes,
and then perhaps feme new circumftance, by giving
the balance a kick, difappoints their hopes. If there¬
fore it ever happens, that there is- but one intereft up¬
on one fide of the contradl, as in the example in the
former feftion, where we fuppofed the fellers united,
you perceive, that the rife of the price, occafioned by
the competition of the buyers, and even its coming to
a flop, could not poffibly have the effedl of producing
any competition on the other fide 5 and therefore, if
prices come afterwards to fink, the fall muft have pro¬
ceeded from the prudential confiderations of adapting
the price to the faculties of thofe who, from the height
of it, had withdrawn their demand.
From thefe principles of competition, the foreftalling
of markets is made a crime, becaufe it diminiffies the
competition which ought to take place between dif¬
ferent people, who have the fame merchandife to of¬
fer to fale. The foreftaller buys all up, wdth an inten¬
tion to fell wdth more profit, as he has by that means
taken other competitors out of his way, and appears
with a fingle intereft on one fide of the contract, in the
face of many competitors on the other. This perfon
is puniffied by the ftate, becaufe he has prevented the
price of the merchandife from becoming juftly propor¬
tioned to the real value 5 he has robbed the public and
enriched himfelf 5 and in the puniftiment he makes re-
ftitution. Here occur two queftions to be refolved, for
the fake of illuftration.
Can competition among buyers poffibly take place,
when the provifion made is more than fufficient to
fupply the quantity demanded ? On the other hand,
can competition take place among the fellers, when
the quantity demanded exceeds the total provifion made
for it ?
We think it may in both cafes; becaufe in the one
and the other, there is a competition implied on one
fide of the contract, and the very nature of this com¬
petition prefuppofes a poffibility of its coming on the
other, provided feparate interefts be found upon both
fides. But to be more particular :
1. Experience (hows, that how’ever juftly the pro¬
portion between the demand and the fupply may be
determined in fa£l, it is ftill next to impoffible to dif-
cover it exaflly, and therefore the buyers can only re¬
gulate the prices they offer, by what they may reafon-
ably
COMM
Principles, ably expert to fell for gain. The fellers, on the other
1 " v hand, can only regulate the prices they expert, by what
the merchandife has coft them when brought to mar¬
ket. We have already fltown, how, under fuch cir-
cumftances, the feveral interefts of individuals affeft
each other, and make the balance vibrate.
2. The proportion between the fupply and the de¬
mand is feldom other than relative among merchants,
who are fuppofed to buy and fell, not from neceflity,
but from a view to profit. What we mean by relative
is, that their demand is great or fmall according to
prices; there may be a great demand for grain at 35s.
per quarter, and no demand at all for it at 40s } that
is, among merchants.
It is effential to attend to the fmalleft circumftance
in matters of this kind. I he circumftance we mean,
is the difference we find in the effea of competition,
when it takes place purely among merchants on both
fides of the contraft, and when it happens, that either
the confumers mingle themfelves with the merchant-
buyers, or the manufacturers, that is, the furnifhers,
mingle themfelves with the merchant-fellers. This
combination we (hall illuftrate by the folution of ano¬
ther queftion, and then conclude with a few reflections
upon the whole. . .
Can there be no cafe formed where the competition
upon one fide may fubfift, without a poffibility of its
taking place on the other, although there fhould oe fe-
parate interefts upon both ?
The cafe is hardly fuppofable among merchants, who
buy and fell with a view to profit j but it is abfolutely
i'uppofable, and that is all, when the direft confumers
are the buyers; when the circumftances of one of the
parties is perfectly known ; and when the competition
is fo ftrong upon one fide, as to prevent a poffibility of
its becoming double, before the whole provifion is fold
off, or the demand fatisfied. Let us have recourfe to
examples. 4
Grain arriving in a fmall quantity, at a port where
the inhabitants are ftarving, producing fo great a com¬
petition among the confumers who are the buyers,
that their neceffity becomes evident j all the grain is
generally bought up before prices can rife fo high as
to come to a flop } becaufe nothing but want of mo¬
ney, that is, an impoffibility of complying with the
prices demanded by the merchants, can reflrain them.
but if you fuppofe, even here, that prices come natu¬
rally to a flopj or that, after fome time, they fall
lower, from prudential confiderations *, then there is
a poffibility of a competition taking place among the
fellers, from the principles above deduced. If, on the
contrary, the flop is not natural, but occafioned by the
interpofition of the magidrate, from humanity, or the
like, there will be no competition, becaufe then the
principles of commerce are fulpended } the fellers are
reflrained on one fide, and they reflrain the buyers on
the other. Or rather indeed, it is the magiflrate, or
compaffion, who in a manner fixes the price, and per¬
forms the office of both buyer and feller. _
A better example Hill may be found, in a competi¬
tion among fellers, where it may be fo ftrong as to
render a commodity in a manner of no value at all, as
in the cafe of an uncommon and unexpefted draught
of fiffi, in a place of fmall confumption, when no pre¬
parations have been made for falling them* Ihere
E R
E.
can be then no competition among the buyers, be- Principles,
caufe the market cannot laft, and they find themfelves
entirely mafters, to give what price they pleaie, be¬
ing fure the fellers muft accept of it, or lofe their mer¬
chandife. In the firrt example, humanity commonly
flops the aclivity of the principle of competition 5 in
the other, it is flopped by a certain degree ot fair deal¬
ing, which forbids the accepting of a merchandne for
nothing.
In proportion therefore as the rifing of prices can
flop demand, or the finking of prices can increase it,
in the fame proportion will competition prevent either
the rife or the fall from being carried beyond a certain
length ; and if fuch a cafe can be put, where the rifing
of prices cannot flop demand, nor the lowering of
prices augment it, in fuch cafes double competition has
no effedl; becaufe thefe circumftances unite the moll
feparate interefts of buyers and lellers in the mer¬
cantile contra£l} and when upon one fide there is
no feparate intereft, there can then be no competi¬
tion.
From what has been faid, we may form a judgment
of the various degrees of competition. A book not
worth a (hilling, a fiffi of a few pounds weight, are
often fold for confiderable fums. The buyers here are
not merchants. When an ambaffador leaves a court in
a hurry, things are fold for lefs than the half of their
value ; he is no merchant, and his fituation is known.
When, at a public market, there are found confumers,
who make their provifion, or manufa£turers, who dif-
pofe of their goods for prefent fubfiftence j the mer¬
chants, who are refpedlively upon the oppofite fide of
the contrail to thefe, profit of their competition ; and
thofe who are refpe£lively upon the fame fide with
them, (land by with patience until they have finiftied
their bufinefs. Then matters come to be carried on
between merchant and merchant, and then profits may
rife and fall in the proportion of quantity to demand $
that is to fay, if the provilion is lefs than the demand,
the competition among the demanders, or the rife of
the price, will be in the compound proportion of the
falling ffiort of the commodity, and of the profpeft of
felling again with profit. It is this combination which
regulates the competition, and keeps it within bounds.
It can affe£l but the profits upon the tranfaflion ; the
intrinfic value of the commodity Hands immoveable j
nothing is ever fold below the real value \ nothing is
ever bought for more than it may probably bring.
We mean in general. Whereas, fo foon as confumers
and needy manufadlurers mingle in the operation, all
proportion is loft. The competition between them is
too ftrong for the merchants j the balance vibrates by
jerks. In fuch markets merchants feldom appear j the
principal objefts there, are the fruits and produaions
of the earth, and articles of the firft neceffity for life,
not manufactures ftriaiy fo called. A poor fellow
often fells to purchafe bread to eat j not to pay what
he did eat while he was employed in the work he dd-
pofes of. The confumer often meafures the value ot
what he is about to purchafe, by the weight of his
purfe, and his defire to conlume.
§ 6. Of what is called Expence, Profit, and Lofis.
The term expence, when fimply expreffed, without
any particular relation, is always underftood to be
COMM
Pririciples. lative to money. 1 His kind is diftinguilked undci tlie
* v three heads of private, public, and national.
x. Private expence is what a private perfon, or pri¬
vate fociety, lays out, either to provide articles^ of cort-
fumption, or fornething more permanent, which may
be conducive to their eafe, convenience, or advantage.
Thus v/e fay, a large domejlic expence, relative to one
who (pends a great income. We fay, a merchant has
been at great expence for magazines, for living, for
clerks, &c. but never that he has been at any in buy-
ing goods. In the fame way a manufafturer may ex¬
pend for building, machines, hoiles, and carriages, but
never for the matter he manufa(flares. When a thing
is bought in order to be iold again, the fum employ¬
ed is called money advanced; when it is bought not to
be fold, it may be (aid to be expended.
2. Public expence is the employment of that money
which has been contributed by individuals for the cur¬
rent fervice of the (late. The contribution, or gather¬
ing it together, reprefents the etledls of many articles
of Private expence ; the laying it out w’hen collected is
public expence.
2. National expence is what is expended out of the
country 5 this is what diminilhes national wealth. I he
principal diftindlion to be heie attended to is between
public expence, or the laying out or public money, and
national expence, which is the alienating the nation s
wealth in favour of ftrangers. Thus the greateft pub¬
lic expence imaginable may be no national cxpence
becaufe the money may remain at home. On the
other hand, the fmalleft public, or even private expence,
may be a national expence } becaufe the money may
go abroad.
Projit and lofs is divided into pofitive, relative, and
compound. Pojitive profit implies no lofs to^ any body ;
it refults from an augmentation of labour, induftry, or
ingenuity, and has the effect of fwelling or augment¬
ing the public good.
. Pofitlve lofs implies no profit to any body ; it is what
rcfairs from the ceffation of the former, or of the effeds
refulting from it, and may be faid to dirainilh the pub¬
lic good.
Relative profit is what implies a lofs to iomebody j
it marks a vibration of the balance of weaitn between
parties, but implies no addition to the general (lock.
Relative lofs is what, on the contrary, implies a pro¬
fit to fomebody ; it alfo marks a vibration of the ba¬
lance, but takes nothing from the general (lock.
The compound is eafily underifood j it is that fpecies
of profit and lofs which is partly relative and partly po¬
ll live.
§ 7. The general confiequences refill ting to a trading
Nation, upon the opening of an atlive foreign Com¬
merce.
A nation which remains paffive in her commerce
is at the mercy of thofe who are aftive, and muil be
greatly favoured indeed by natural advantages, or by
a confiant (lux of gold and filver from her mines, to
be able to fupport a correfpondence not entirely hurt¬
ful to the augmentation of her w ealth.
When we look upon the wide field which here opens
to our viewr, we are perplexed with too .great a variety
Vot. VI. Part I.
E R C E. 321
of objefts. In one part, we fee a decent and comely Principles,
beginning of induilry ^ wealth flowing gently in to re- ^
compenfe ingenuity ; numbers both augmenting, and
every one becoming daily more ufelul to another •, agri¬
culture proportionally extending itlelf j no violent re¬
volutions } no exorbitant profits ; no infolence among
the rich ; no exceffive mifery among the poor •, multi¬
tudes employed in producing } great economy upon
conlumption 5 and all the inttruments of luxury, daily
produced by the hands of the diligent, going out of
the country for the fervice of flrangers ; not remaining
at home for the gratification of fenfuality. At laft
the augmentations come infenfibly to a flop. I hen
thefe rivers of wealth, which were in bulk circulation
through the whole world, and which returned to this
trading nation as blood returns to the heart, only to
be thrown out again by new’ pulfations, begin to be
obftru&ed in their courfe •, and flowing abroad more
flowly than before, come to form flagnations at home.
Thefe, impatient of reftraint, foon burft out into do-
mettic circulation. Upon this cities (well in magni¬
ficence of buildings •, the face of the country is adorn¬
ed with palaces, and becomes covered with groves j
luxury ftrines triumphant in every part; inequality be¬
comes more ftriking to the eye \ and want and mifery
appear more de(orme.d from the contra A $ even for¬
tune grows more whimfical in her inconftancy } the
beggar of the other day now rides in his coach 5 and
he who was born in a bed of ftate, is feen to die in a
gaol, or in an alms-houfe. Such are the effefts of
great domeftic circulation.
The ftatefman looks about with amazement } he
who was wont to confider himfelf as the firft man in
the fociety in every refpeft, perceives himfelf, per¬
haps, eclipfed by the luftre of private wealth, which
avoids his grafp when he attempts to feize it. This
makes his government more complex and more diffi¬
cult to be carried on ; he mufi now avail himfelf of
art and addrefs, as well as of power and force. . By
the help of cajoling and intrigues he gets a little into
debt 5 this lays a foundation for public credit, which,
growing by degrees, and in its progrefs afiuming many
new forms, becomes, from the moft tender begin¬
nings, a moft formidable monfter, ftriking terror into
thole who cheriflied it in its infancy. Upon this, as
upon a triumphant war-horie, the ftatefman gets a-
ftride ; he then appears formidable anew ; his head
turns giddy •, he is choaked with the duft he has rail¬
ed •, and at the moment he is ready to fall, to his ut¬
ter aftonifhment and furprife, he finds a llrong mo-^
nied intereft of his own creating, which, inftead of
fwallowing him up, as he apprehended, flies to his
fupport. Through this he gets the better of all oppo-
fition, he eftablifties taxes, multiplies them, mortgages
his fund of fubfiftence ; either becomes a bankrupt,
and rifes again from his a(hes } or if he be lefs auda¬
cious, he (lands trembling and tottering for a while on
the brink of the political precipice. From the one or the
other of thefe perilous fituations, he begins to difcover
an endlefs path, which after a multitude ol windings,
ftill returns into itfelf, and continues an equal courfe
through this vaft labyrinth.
It is now fuil time to leave off rhapfody, and re¬
turn to reafoning and cool inquiry, concerning the
S f more
322 COMM
Principles, more Immediate and more general effe&s and revolu¬
tions produced by the opening of a foreign trade in a
nation of induftry.
The firft and moft fenfible alteration will be an in-
creafe of demand for manufa6turers, becaufe by fup-
plying the wants of ftrangers, the number of confu-
mers will now be confiderably augmented. What
again will follow upon this, muft depend upon circum-
flances.
If this revolution in the ftate of demand fhould
prove too violent, the confequence of it will be to
raife demand j if it (hould prove gradual, it will in-
creafe it. This diftinflion is well underftood, and the
confequence appears juft ; for, if the fupply do not
increafe in proportion to the demand, a competition
will enfue among the demanders ; which is the com¬
mon effeft of fuch hidden revolutions. If, on the
other hand, a gentle increafe of demand fhould be ac¬
companied with a proportional fupply, the whole in-
duftrious fociety will grow in vigour, and in whole-
fome ftature, without being fenfible of any great ad¬
vantage or inconveniency •, the change of their circum-
ftances will even be imperceptible.
The immediate effefls of the violent revolution
will, in this example, be flattering to fome and dif-
agreeable to others. W'ealth will be found daily to
augment, from the rifing of prices, in many branches
of induftry. This will encourage the induftrious claf-
fes, and the idle confumers at home will complain.
Wre have already dwelt abundantly long upon the ef-
feft refulting from this to the lower claftes of the
people, in providing them with a certain means of
fubfiftence. Let us now examine in what refpeft even
the higher claffes will be made likewife to feel the
good effefts of this general change, although at firft
they may fuffer a temporary inconvenience from it.
Farmers, as has been obferved, will have a greater
difficulty in finding fervants, who, inftead of labouring
the ground, will choofe to turn themfelves to manufac¬
tures. This we have confidered in the light of pur¬
ging the lands of fuperfluous mouths ; but every con¬
fequence in this great chain of politics draws other
confequences after it j and as they follow one another,
things put on different faces, which affe£l claffes dif-
ferently. The purging of the land is but one of the
firft ; here follows another.
The defertion of the hands employed in a trifling
agriculture will at firft, no doubt, embarrafs the farm¬
ers ; but in a little time every thing becomes balanced
in a trading nation, becaufe here every induftrious man
muft advance in profperity, in fpite of all general com¬
binations of circumftances.
In the cafe before us, the relative profits upon farm¬
ing muft foon become greater than formerly, becaufe
of this additional expence which muft affect the whole
clafs of farmers ; confequently, this additional expence,
inftead of turning out to be a lofs to either landlord
or farmer, will, after fome little time, turn out to the
advantage of both, becaufe the produce of the ground,
being indifpenfably neceffary to every body, muft in
every article increafe in its value. Thus, in a Ihort
time accounts will be nearly balanced on all hands ;
that is to fay, the fame proportion of wealth will,
cceteris paribus, continue the fame among the induf¬
trious. We fay among the induftrious j for thofe
E R C E.
who are either idle, or even negligent, will be great Principle*
lofers. v—y——■»
A proprietor of land, inattentive to the caufes of his
farmer’s additional expence, may very imprudently
fuffer his rents to fall, inftead of affifting him on a pro¬
per occafion, in order to make them afterwards rife the
higher.
Thofe who live upon a determined income in mo¬
ney, and who are nowife employed in traffic, nor in
any fcheme of induftry, will, by the augmentation of
prices, be found in worfe circumftances than before.
In a trading nation every man muft turn his talents
to account, or he will undoubtedly be left behind in
this univerfal emulation, in which the moft induftrious,
the moft ingenious, and the moft frugal, will conftantly
carry off the prize.
This confideration ought to be a fpur to every
man. The richeft men in a trading nation have no
fecurity againft poverty 5 we mean proportional po¬
verty j for though they diminiffi nothing of their in¬
come, yet, by not increafing it in proportion to others,
they lofe their rank in wealth, and from the firft clafs
in which they flood they will Aide infenfibly down to
a lower.
There is one confequence of an additional beneficial
trade, which raifes demand and increafes wealth j but
if we fuppofe no proportional augmentation of fupply,
it will prove at beft but an airy dream which lafts for
a moment j and when the gilded fcene is paffed away,
numberlefs are the inconveniences which are feen to
follow.
We (hall now point out the natural confequences of
this augmentation of wealth drawn from foreign nations,
when the ftatefman remains inattentive to increafe the
fupply both of food and manufaftures, in proportion
to the augmentation of mouths, and of the demand for
the produce of induftry.
In fuch a fituation profits will daily fwell, and every
fcheme for reducing them within the bounds of mo¬
deration, will be looked upon as a hurtful and unpo¬
pular meafure : be it fo 5 but let us examine the confe¬
quences.
We have faid, that the rife of demand for manu¬
factures naturally increafes the value of work: now
we muft add, that under fuch circumftances, the aug¬
mentation of riches in a country, either not capable
of improvement as to the foil, or where precautions
have not been taken for facilitating a multiplication
of inhabitants, by the importation of fubfiftence, will
be productive of the moft calamitous confequences.
On one fide, this wrealth will effectually diminifli
the mafs of the food before produced ; and on the
other, will increafe the number of ufelefs confumers.
The firft of thefe circumftances will raife the demand
for food ; and the fecond will diminifti the number
of ufeful free hands, and confequently raife the price
of manufactures : here are ftiortly the outlines of this
progrefs.
The more rich and luxurious a people are, the more
delicate they become in their manner of living •, if
they fed on bread formerly, they will now feed on
meat; if they fed on meat, they will now feed on
fowl. The fame ground which feeds a hundred with
bread, and a propottional quantity of animal-food,
will not maintain an equal number of delicate livers.
Food
COMM
Principles. Food muft then become more fcarce *, demand for it
Su.—y-— 1 jifej . t}je rich are always the ftrongeft in the market;
they confume the food, and the poor are forced to
ftarve. Here the wide door to modern diftrefs opens ;
to wit, a hurtful competition for fubfiltence. Farther,
when a people become rich, they think lefs of economy j
a number of ufelefs fervants are hired, to become an
additional dead weight on confumption •, and when their
ftarving countrymen cannot fupply the extravagance
of the rich fo cheaply as other nations, they either im¬
port inftruments of foreign luxury, or feek to enjoy
them out of their own country, and thereby make re-
ftitution of their gains.
Is it not therefore evident, that if, before things
come to this pafs, additional fubfiftence be not provided
"by one method or other, the number of inhabitants
muft diminifh j although riches may daily increafe by
a balance of additional matter fuppofed to be brought
into the country in confequence of the hitherto bene-
ticial foreign trade ? This is not all. We fay further,
that the beneficial trade will laft for a time only. For
the infallible confequences of the rife of prices at home
will be, thatthofe nations which at firft confumed your
manufaftures, perceiving the gradual increafe of their
price, will begin to wrork for themfelves 5 or finding
out your rivals w?ho can fupply them cheaper, will
open their doors to them. Thefe again, perceiving
the great advantages gained by your traders, will be¬
gin to fupply the market; and fince every thing mull;
be cheaper in countries where wre do not fuppofe the
concurrence of all the circumftances mentioned above,
thefe nations will fupplant you, and be enriched in their
turn.
Here comes a new7 revolution. Trade is at a {land :
what then becomes of all the hands which were form¬
erly employed in fupplying the foreign demands ?
Were revolutions fo hidden as we are obliged to rc-
prefent them, all would go to wrreck ; in proportion as
they happen by quicker or flower degrees, the incon¬
veniences are greater or fmaller.
Prices, we have faid, are made to rife by compe¬
tition. If the competition of the ftrangers was what
raifed them, the diftrefs upon the manufafturers will
be in proportion to the fuddennefs of their deferting
the market. If the competition was divided between
the ftrangers and the home-confumers, the inconve¬
niences which enfue will be lefs ; becaufe the defer-
tion of the ftrangers will be in fome meafure made up
by an increafe of home-confumption w’hich will follow
upon the fall of prices. And if, in the third cafe, the
natives have been fo imprudent, as not only to fup-
port a competition wnth the ftrangers, and thereby
difguft them from coming any more to market, but
even to continue the competition between themfelves,
the whole lofs fuftained by the revolution will be na¬
tional. Wealth will ceafe to augment ; but the incon¬
veniences, in place of being felt by the manufacturers,
will only affeCl the ftate ; thefe will continue in afflu¬
ence, extolling the generofity of their countrymen, and
■defpifing the poverty of the ftrangers who had enrich¬
ed them.
Domeftic luxury will here prove an expedient for
preferving from ruin the induftrious part of a people,
who in fubfifting themfelves had enriched their country.
No change will follow in their condition j they will go
E R C E. 323
on with a painful afliduity to labour; and if the confe- Princip!e6-
quences of it become now hurtful to one part of the
ftate, they muft at leaft be allow’ed to be effentially
neceflary for the fupport of another.
But that luxury is no neceffary concomitant of fo¬
reign trade, in a nation where the true principles of it
arc underftood, will appear very plain, from a contraft
we are now going to point out, in the example of a
modern ftate, renowned for its commerce and frugality.
The country is Holland.
A fet of induftrious and frugal people were aflem-
bled in a country by nature fubjeCt to many inconve¬
niences, the removing of which neceffarily employed
abundance of hands. Their fituation upon the conti¬
nent, the powTer of their former mafters, and the am¬
bition of their neighbours, obliged them to keep great
bodies of troops. Thefe two articles added to the
numbers of the community, without either enriching
the ftate by their labour exported, or producing food
for themfelves or countrymen.
The fcheme of a commonw'ealth was calculated to
draw together the induftrious j but it has been ftili
more ufeful in fubfifting them : the republican form
of government being there greatly fubdivided, veils
authority fufficient in every part of it, to make fuitable
provifion for their own fubfiftence j and the tie whicu
unites them, regards only matters of public concern.
Had the whole been governed by one fovereign, or by
one council, this important matter never could have
been effefted.
It would be impoflible for the moft able minifter
that ever lived, to provide nouriihment for a country
fo extended as France, or even as England, fuppofing
thefe as fully peopled as Holland is j even although
it ihould be admitted that a fufficient quantity of food
might be found in other countries for their fubfiftence.
The enterprife would be too great, abuies would mul¬
tiply $ the confequence umuld be, thrt the inhabitants
would die for want. But in Holland, the cafe is dif¬
ferent : every little town takes care of its own inha¬
bitants ; and this care being the object of application
and profit to fo many perfons, is accomplifhed with
fuccefs.
When once it is laid down as a maxim in a coun¬
try, that food muft of neceflity be got from abroad in
order to feed the inhabitants at home, the corn-trade
becomes confiderable, and at the fame time certain, re¬
gular, and permanent. This was the cafe in Holland ;
as the inhabitants were induftrious, the neceflary con¬
fequence has been, a very extraordinary multiplica¬
tion ; and at the fame time fuch an abundance of
grain, that, inftead of being in want themfelves, they
often fupply their neighbours. There are many ex¬
amples of England’s being fupplied with grain from
thence ; and, which is ftili more extraordinary, from
the re-exportation of the very produce of its own fruit¬
ful foil.
It is therefore evident, that the only wTay to fup¬
port induftry, is to provide a fupply of fubfiftence,
conftantly proportional to the demand that may be
made for it. This is a precaution indilpenfably. ne¬
ceflary for preventing hurtful competition. This is
the particular care of the Dutch : lo long as it can be
effedlual, their ftate can fear no decline j but when¬
ever they come to be diftreflfed in the markets, upon
S f 2 which
324 COMM
Principles, which they depend for fubfiftence, they will link into
' v~~~~ ruin. It is by mere dint of frugality, cheap and par-
fimonious living, that the navigation of this induftri-
ous-people is iupported. Conftant employment, and
an accumulation of almoll imperceptible gains, till
their coffers with wealth, in fpite of the large outgo¬
ings, to which their own proper nourifhment yearly
forces them. The large profits upon induftry in other
countries, which are no proof of generofity, but a fa¬
tal effedl of a fcanty fubfifience, is far from dazzling
their eyes. They feldom are found in the lift of
competitors at any foreign port ; if they have their
cargo to difpofe of, they wait with pleafure in their
own veflels, confuming their own provifions, and at
laft accept of what others have left. It may be laid,
that many other circumftances concur in favour of the
Dutch, befides the article of fubfiftence. Without dii-
puting this matter, it may be obferved, that if a com¬
putation be made of the hands employed in providing
fubfiftence, and of thofe who are feverally taken up
in fupplying every other want, their numbers will be
found nearly to balance one another in the moft luxu¬
rious countries. From this w'e may conclude, that
E R C E.
the article of food, among the lower claffes, muft bear Principles
a very high proportion to all the other articles of their '" J
confumption 5 and therefore a diminution upon the
price of lubfiftence, muft be of infinite confequence to
manufaefurers who are obliged to buy it. From this
confideration, let us judge of the confequence of luch
augmentations upon the price of grain as are familiar
to us j 30 or 4c per cent, feems nothing. Now7 this
augmentation operates upon two-thirds, at leaft, of the
whole expence of a labouring man : let any one who
lives in tolerable affluence make the application of this
to himfelf, and examine how he would manage his
affairs, if, by accidents of rains or winds, his expences
were to rife 30 per cent, without a poflibility of re-
ftraining them ; for this is unfortunately the cale with
all the lower claffes. From whence it may be con¬
cluded, that the keeping food cheap, and ftill more the
prelerving it at all times at an equal ftandard, is the
fountain of the wealth of Holland •, and that any hurt¬
ful competition in this article muft beget a diforder
wFich will affeft the whole of the manufacturers of a
ftate.
COM
Commercy COMMERCY, a handfome town of France in the
|| duchy of Bar, with the title of a principality, and a
Commina- magnificent caftle. It is feated on the river Meule, in
. tory' E. Long. 5. 24. N. Lat. 48- 20.
COMMERSONJA. See Botany Index.
COMMINATION, an office in the liturgy of the
church of England, appointed to be read on Affi-
Wednefday, or the firff day of Lent. It is fubftitu-
ted in the room of that godly dtfcipline in the primitive
church, by which (as the introduction to the office
expreffes it), “ fuch perfohs, as flood convifted of no¬
torious fins, w'ere put to open penance, and puniffied
in this world, that their fouls might be laved in the
day of the Lord ; and that others, admoniffied by
their example, might be the more afraid to offend.”
This difeipline, in after ages, degenerated, in the
church of Rome, into a formal confeffion of fins upon
Affi Wednefday, and the empty ceremony of Iprink-
ling allies upon the heads of the people. Our reform¬
ers wifely rejeded this ceremony, as mere thadow
and ffiovv ; and fubftituted this office in its room, which
is A denunciation of God's anger and judgment againjl
finners, that the people, being appriied of God’s wrath
and indignation againft fin, may not, through want of
difeipline in the church, be encouraged to follow and
purfue them j but rather be moved to fupply that dif¬
eipline to themfelves, and fo as to avoid being judged
and condemned at the tribunal of God.
COMMIN ATORY, an appellation given to wffiat-
ever threatens punilhment, or fome penalty. Thus,
in France, when an exile is enjoined not to return un¬
der pain of death, it is deemed a comminatory penalty;
fince, if he do return, it is not ftriftly executed ;
but a fecond injunftion is laid on him, which is more
C O M
than comminatory, and, from the day of the date Comminges
thereof, imports death without remedy. )|
GOMMINGES, a province of France, 45 miles in Commif-
length, and 15 in breadth ; bounded on the north by , ,
Gaicony, on the fouth by Catalonia, on the call by
Coufferans, and on the w7eft by Bigorre. Its princi¬
pal trade confifts in cattle, mules, and corn. St Ber¬
trand is the capital town.
COMMINUTION, denotes the breaking, or rather
grinding, a body to very fmall particles.
COMMIRE, John, a celebrated Latin poet, born
at Amboife in 1625, entered into the fociety of the
Jefuits, and taught polite literature and divinity. He
died at Paris in 1702. We have a volume of his
Latin poems, and a colleftion of his pofthumous
works. His odes and fables are more particularly ad¬
mired.
COMMISSARY, in the ecclefiaftical law, an offi¬
cer of the biffiop, who exercifes fpiritual jurifdiftion in
places of a diocefe fo far from the epilcopal lee, that
the chancellor cannot call the people to the biihop’s
principal confiftory court, without giving them too
much inconveniency.
C omm 1 ss art-Court, in Scotland, a court originally
conftituted by the bifhops for executing in their name
an ufurped junfdidlion ; and w’as anciently called the
hi/hop's court, curia Chriftianitatis, or confjlorial court.
This court was modelled by Queen Mary at the Refor¬
mation, and continues to this day.
Commissary, in a military fenfe, is of different
forts.
Commissary-General of the Mufers, an officer ap¬
pointed to mufter the army, as often as the general
thinks proper, in order to know the ftrength of each
regiment
COM [ 32
Commif- regiment and company, to receive and infpeft the
fary, multer-rolls, and to keep an exa6t date of the ftrength
Commif. ofthe
army.
i10" Commissary of Horfes, an officer in the artillery,
v appointed to have the inlpeftion ofthe artillery-hoiles,
to lee them muftered, and to fend fuch orders as he
receives from the commanding officer of the artillery,
by fome of the conduflors of horfes, of which he has
a certain number for his affiftants.
Commissary of Provifions, an officer who has the
cha ue of turniffiing the army with provifions.
Commissary of Stores, an officer in the artillery who
has tne charge of all the (lores, for which he is ac¬
countable to the office of ordnance.
COMMISSION, in common law, the warrant or
letters patent, which all perfons exerciling jurifdiclion
have to empower them to hear or determine any caufe
or fait; as the commiffion of the judges, &c.
Commission of Bankruptcy, is the comnnffion that
iffues from the lord chancellor, on a perkm’s becom¬
ing a bankrupt w’ithin any of the (latutes, directed to
certain commiflioners appointed to examine into it,
and to fecure the bankrupt’s lands and effedls for the
faiisfadlion of his creditors. See the article Bank¬
rupt.
The proceedings on a commiffion of bankruptcy
may be divided, 1. Into thofe which affe£l the bank¬
rupt himfelf. 2. Into thofe which affeft his property.
Blackft. 1. As to thofe of the former kind, there mull, in
Comment. the place, be a petition to the lord chancellor by
one creditor to the amount of tool, or by two to
the amount of 150I. or by three or more to the
amount of 2001. upon which he grants a commi!-
lion to fuch difcreet perfons as to him {hall feem good,
who are then ftylcd commiffioners of bankrupt. The
petitioners, to prevent malicious applications, mull be
bound in a fecurity of 200I. to make the party
amends, in cafe they do not prove him a bankrupt.
And if, on the other hand, they receive any money or
effcfts from the bankrupt, as a recompenfe for fuing
out the commiffion, fo as to receive more than their
rateable dividends of the bankrupt’s edate, they forfeit
not only what they lhall have fo received, but their
wmole debt. When the commiffion is awarded and if-
fued, the commiffioners are to meet at their own ex¬
pence, and to take an oath for the due execution of
their commiffion, and to be allowed a fum not exceed¬
ing 20s. per diem each, at every fitting. And nocom-
miffion of bankruptcy (hall abate or be void on any
demife on the crown.
When the commiffioners have received their com¬
miffion, they are fitft to receive proof of the perfon’s
being a trader, and having committed fome aft of
bankruptcy 5 and then to declare him bankrupt, if pro¬
ved fo 5 and to give notice thereof in the gazette, and
at the fame rime to appoint three meetings. At one
of thefe meetings an election muft be made of af-
fignees, or perfons to whom the bankrupt’s edate (hall
be affigned, and in wdiom it (hall be veded for the be¬
nefit of the creditors ; which affignees are chofen by
the major part, in value, of the creditors who diall
then have proved their debts } but may be originally
appo nted by the commiffioners, and afterwards ap¬
proved or rejected by the creditors ; but no creditors
(hall be admitted to vote in the choice of affignees,
5 ] COM
whofe debt, on the balance of accounts, does not Comnni-
amount to 10I. And at the third meeting at far-,
thed, which mull be on the 42d day after the adver-
tifement in the gazette, the bankrupt, upon notice al-
fo perionally ferved upon him, or left at his ufual
place of abode, mud furrender himfelf perfonally to
the commiffioners, and mud thenceforth in all refpects
conform to the direflions of the (latutes of bankrupt¬
cy •, or, in default thereof, (hall be guilty of (elony
without benefit of clergy, and diall fufter death, and
his goods and eilate (hall be divided among his credi¬
tors.
In cafe the bankrupt abfconds, or is likely to run
away between the time of the commiffion iffued and
the lad day of furrender, he may, by Warrant from any
judge or juitice of the peace, be apprehended and com¬
mitted to the county gaol, in order to be forthcom¬
ing to the commiffioners, who are alfo empQwered
immediately to grant a warrant for feizing his goods
and papers.
When the bankrupt appears, the commiffioners are to
examine him touching all matters relating to his trade
and eftedls. They may alfo fummon before them, and
examine, the bankrupt’s wife, and any other peifon
whatfoever, as to all matters relating to the bankrupt’s
affairs : And in cafe any of them (hall refufe to anlwer,
or diall not anfwer fully, to any lawful queftion, or (hall
refufe to fubfcribe fuch their examination, the commif¬
lioners may commit them to prifon without bail, till
they make and (ign a full anfwer; the commiffioners
fpecifying in their warrant of commitment the quedion
fo refufed to be anfwered. And any gaoler, permit¬
ting fuch perfon to efcape or go out of prifon, (hall
forfeit 1500I. to the creditors.
The bankrupt, upon this examination, is bound, up¬
on pain of death, to make a full dilcovery of all his
edate and effects as well in expeclancy as poffeffion,
and how he has difpofed of the fame ; together with
all books and writings relating thereto : and is to de¬
liver up all in his pow’er to the commiffioners (ex¬
cept the neceffary apparel of himfelf, his wife, and
his children) or, in cafe he conceals or embezzles
any effefts to the amount of 20I. or withholds any
bpok or writings, with intent to defraud his credi¬
tors, he (hall be guilty of felony wfithout benefit of
clergy.
After the time allowed the bankrupt for fuch difco-
very is expired, any other perfon voluntarily difco-
vering any part of his edate before unknown to the
affignees, diall be entitled to five per cent, out of the
effefts fo difcovered, and fuch farther reward as the
afiignees and commiffioners lhall think proper. And
any trudee wilfully concealing the edate of any bank¬
rupt, after the expiration ol 42 days,, ihall forfeit tool,
and double the value of the edate concealed, to the
creditors.
Hitherto every thing is in favour of the creditors;
and the law feems to be pretty rigid and (evere againit
the bankrupt 5 but, in cafe he proves honed, it makes
him full amends for all this rigour and feverity. For,
if the bankrupt hath made an ingenuous difcovery,.
hath conformed to the dire&ions of the law, and hath
a£ted in all points to the fatisfadlion of his creditors;
and if they, or four parts in five of them in number
and value (but none of them creditors for lefs than.
20L.
COM [ 326 ] COM
Commif. 20I. will fign a certificate to that purport; the com-
fion- miffioners are then to authenticate fuch certificate
v~' under their hands and Teals, and to tranfmit it to the
lord chancellor : and he, or two judges whom he lhall
appoint, on oath made by the bankrupt that fuch cer¬
tificate was obtained without fraud, may allow the
fame •, or difallow it, upon caufe Ihown by any of the
creditors of the bankrupt.
If no caufe be Ihown to the contrary, the certifi¬
cate is allowed of courfe 5 and then the bankrupt is
entitled to a decent and reafonable allowance out of
his effe&s, for his future fupport and maintenance,
and to put him in a way of honeft induflry. This al¬
lowance is alfo in proportion to his former good be¬
haviour, in the early difcovery of the decline of his
affairs, and thereby giving his creditors a large di¬
vidend. For if his effects will not pay one half of his
debts, or 10s. in the pound, he is left to the difcretion
of the commiffioners and affignees, to have a compe¬
tent fum allowed him, not exceeding 3 per cent. $ but
if they pay 10s. in the pound, he is to be allowed
5 per cent, j if 12s. 6d. then 7^- per cent, j and if
15s. in the pound, then the bankrupt {hall be allow¬
ed 10 per cent, j provided that fuch allowance do not
in the firft cafe exceed 200I. in the fecond 250I. and in
the third 300I.
Befides this allowance, he has alfo an indemnity
granted him, of being free and difcharged for ever
from all debts owing by him at the time he became a
bankrupt j even though judgment (hall have been ob¬
tained againft him, and he lies in prifon upon execution
for fuch debts ; and, for that among other purpofes,
all proceedings on commiflion of bankrupt, are, on pe¬
tition, to be entered on record, as a perpetual bar
againft aftions to be commenced upon this account:
though, in general, the produ&ion of the certificate
properly allowed fhall be fufficient evidence of all pre¬
vious proceedings. Thus the bankrupt becomes a
clear man again ; and, by the afliftance of his allow¬
ance and his own induftry, may become an ufeful mem¬
ber of the commonwealth *, which is the rather to be
expefted, as he cannot be entitled to thefe benefits,
but by the teftimony of his creditors themfelves of his
honeft and ingenuous difpofition •, and unlefs his failures
have been owing to misfortunes, rather than to mif-
condufl and extravagance.
2. As to the proceedings which affefi: the bankrupt’s
property.
Bv virtue of the ftatutes before mentioned, all the
perfonal eftate and effedls of the bankrupt are con-
fidered as vefted, by the aft of bankruptcy, in the fu¬
ture affignees of his commiflioners, whether they be
goods in aftual poffefiion, or debts, contrafts, and other
chofes in aftion ; and the commiffioners by their war¬
rant may caufe any houfe or tenement of the bankrupt
to be broken open, in order to enter upon and feize the
fame. And when the affignees are chofen or approved
by the creditors, the commiffioners are to affign every
thing over to them ; and the property of every part of
the ettate is thereby as fully veiled in them as it was
in the bankrupt themfelf, and they have the fame re¬
medies to recover it.
The property vefted in the affignees is the whole
that the bankrupt had in himfelf. at the time he com¬
mitted the firll aft of bankruptcy, or that has been
1
vefted in him fince, before his debts are fatisfied or Commif-
agreed for. Therefore it is ufually faid, that once a ^on-
bankrupt, and always a bankrupt : by which is meant,
that a plain direfl aft of bankruptcy once committed,
cannot be purged, or explained away, by any fubfe-
quent conduft, as a dubious equivocal aft may be; but
that, if a commiffim is afterward awarded, the com-
miffion and the property of the affignees fhall have a re¬
lation, or reference, back to the firft and original aft of
bankruptcy. Infomuch that all tranfactions of the
bankrupt are from that time abfolutely null and void,
either with regard to the alienation of his propertv, or
the receipt of his debts from fuch as are privy to his
bunkruptcy ; for they are no longer his property, or
his debts, but thofe of the future affignees. And if an
execution be fued out, but not ferved and executed
on the bankrupt’s effefts till after the aft of bank¬
ruptcy, it is void, as againft the affignees. But the
king is not bound by this fiftitious relation, nor is
within the ftatutes of bankrupts ; for if, after the aft
of bankruptcy committed, and before the affignment
of his effefts, an extent iffues for the debt of the
crown, the goods are bound thereby. In France this
doftrine of relation is carried to a very great length :
for there, every aft of a merchant, for ten days prece¬
dent to the aft of bankruptcy, is prefumed to be frau¬
dulent, and is therefore void. But with us the law
Hands upon a more reafonable footing ; for as thefc
afts of bankruptcy may fometimes be fecret to all but
a few, and it would be prejudicial to trade to carry
this notion to its utmoft length, it is provided by flat.
19 Geo. II. c. 32. that no money paid by a bankrupt
to a bone fide, or real, creditor, in a courfe of trade,
even after an aft of bankruptcy done, fhall be liable
to be refunded. Nor by flat. 1 Jac. I. c. 15. fhall any
debtor of a bankrupt that pays him his debt without
knowing of his bankruptcy, be liable to account for it
again. The intention of this relative power being
only to reach fraudulent tranfaftions, and not to dif-
trefs the fair trader.
The affignees may purfue any legal method of re¬
covering this property fo vefted in them by their owrn
authority ; but cannot commence a fuit in equity, nor
compound any debts owing to the bankrupt, nor refer
any matters to arbitration, without the confent of the
creditors, or the major part of them in value, at a
meeting to be held in purfuance of notice in the ga¬
zette.
When they have got in all the effeffs they can rea-
fonably hope for, and reduced them to ready money,
the affignees muft, within x 2 months after the com-
miffion iffued, give 21 days notice to the creditors of
a meeting for a dividend or diftribution ; at which
time they muft produce their accounts, and verify
them upon oath, if required. And then the commif¬
fioners fhall direff a dividend to be made, at fo much
in the pound, to all creditors who have before proved,
or ihall then prove, their debts. This dividend muft
be made equally, and in a rateable proportion, to all
the creditors, according to the quantity of their debts ;
no regard being had to the quality of them. Mort¬
gages, indeed, for which the creditor has a real fecu-
rity in his owm hands, are entirely fafe ; for the com-
mi'ffion of bankrupt reaches only the equity of re¬
demption. So are all perfonal debts, where the cre¬
ditor
t
COM [3
Comrmf- ditor has a chattel in his hands, or a pledge or pawn,
Son. for payment, or has taken the debtor’s lands or
“ ’ goods in execution. And, upon the equity of the
flat. 8 An. c. 14. (which direfts, that upon all execu¬
tions of goods being on any premifes demifed to a te¬
nant, one year’s rent and no more fliall, if due, be
paid to the landlord) it hath alfo been held, that under
a commiflion of bankrupt, which is in the nature of a
ftatute execution, the landlord fliall be allowed his ar¬
rears of rent to the fame amount, in preference to o-
ther creditors, even though he hath negledled to dif-
trein while the goods remained on the premiffes j
which he is otherwife entitled to do for his entire
rent, be the quantum what it may. But otherwife
judgments and recognizes (both which are debts
of record, and therefore at other times have a pri¬
ority), and alfo bonds and obligations by deed or fpe-
cial inftrument (which are called deeds by fpecialty,
and are ufually the next in order), thefe are all put on
a level with debts by mere Ample contrail, and all
paid pari pajfu. Nay, fo far is this matter carried,
that, by the exprefs proviflon of the ftatutes, debts
not due at the time of the dividend made, as bonds
or notes of hand, payable at a future day, fhall be
paid equally with the reft, allowing a difcount or
drawback in proportion. And infurances, and obli¬
gations upon bottomry or refpondentia, bona jlde,
made by the bankrupt, though forfeited after the
commifliop is awarded, fliall be looked upon in the
fame light as debts contracted before any aCt of bank¬
ruptcy.
Within 18 months after the commiffion iflued, a
fecond and Anal dividend fliall be made, unlefs all the
effeCts were exhaufted by the flrft. And if any furplus
remains, after paying every creditor his full debt, it
ftiall be reftored to the bankrupt. This is a cafe
which fometimes happens to men in trade, who invo¬
luntarily, or at leaft unwarily, commit aCts of bank¬
ruptcy, by abfconding and the like, while their effeCts
are more than fufficient to pay their creditors. And
if any fufpicious or malevolent creditor will take the
advantage of fuch aCts, and fue out a commiflion, the
bankrupt has no remedy, but muft quietly fubmit to
the effefts of his own imprudence : except that, upon
fatisfaCfion made to all the creditors, the commiflion
may be fuperfeded. This cafe may alfo happen when
a knave is deflrous of defrauding his creditors, and is
compelled, by a commiffion, to do them that juftice
which otherwife he wanted to evade. And there¬
fore, though the ufual rule is, that all intereft on debts
carrying intereft: (hall ceafe from the time of iffuing
the commiftion, yet in cafe of a furplus left after pay¬
ment of every debt, fuch intereft (hall again revive,
and be chargeable on the bankrupt or his reprefenta-
tives.
CommiJJion of Lunacy, iffues out of the court of
chancery, whether a perfon reprefented to be a luna¬
tic, be fo or not. See Lunacy.
Commission ofTeinds, a court at Edinburgh, which
came in place of a committee of the Scottifh parlia¬
ment, for ere&ing new parifties, and valuing teinds
for the fupport of the clergy. It is vefted in the lords
of feflion. See Law Index.
CoMMissioN-qfficers. See Officers.
Commission, in Commerce. See Factorage.
7 ] COM
COMMISSIONER, a perfon authorized by com- Commif
miflion, letters patent, or other lawfful warrant, to iejl|ier
examine any matters, or execute any lawful commif- commix
Aon. tion.
Commissioner in the General Affemhly of the church '■
of Scotland. See Assembly [General).
Commissioners of the Cujloms. See Customs.
Commissioners of Excife. See Excise.
Commissioners of the Navy. See Navy.
Lords Commissioners of the Treafury. See Trea¬
sury and Exchequer.
COMMISSURE, a term ufed by fome authors
for the fmall metufes or interftices of bodies j or the
little clefts between the particles : efpecially when
thofe particles are broadilh and flat, and lie contigu¬
ous to one another, like thin plates and lamellae. The
word literally Agnifies a joining or conne£!ing of one
thing to another.
Commissure, in ArchiteBure, &c. denotes the
joint of two ftones, or the application of the furface of
the one to that of the other. See Masonry.
Among anatomifts, commiffure is fometimes alfo ufed
far a future of the cranium or (kull. See Suture.
COMMITMENT, in criminal lawT, is the fending
to prifon a perfon who hath been guilty of any crime.
This takes place where the offence is not bailable, or
the party cannot And bail ; muft be by proper war¬
rant, containing the caufe of the commitment •, and
continues till put an end to by the courfe of law
(fee Trial) ; imprifonment being intended only for
fafe cuftody, and not for punifliment (See Arrest¬
ment and Bail). In this dubious interval between
the commitment and trial, a prifoner ought to be ufed
rvith the utmoft humanity *, and neither be loaded
with needlefs fetters, nor fubjeifted to other hardlhips
than fuch as are abfolutely requiflte for the purpofe of
confinement only : though what are fo requifite muft:
too often be left to the difcretion of the gaolers; who
are frequently a mercilefs race of men, and, by being
converfant in fcenes of mifery, fteeled againft any ten¬
der fenfation.
COMMITTEE, one or more perfons to whom the
conAderation or ordering of a matter is referred,
either by fome court, or by the confent of parties to
whom it belongs.
Committee of Parliament, a certain number of mem¬
bers appointed by the houfe for the examination of a
bill, making a report of an inquiry, procefs of the houfe,
&c. See Parliament.
Sometimes the whole houfe is refolved into a com¬
mittee } on which occaAon each perfon has a right to
fpeak and reply as much and as often as he pleafes : an
expedient they ufually have recourfe to in extraordinary
cafes, and where any thing is to be thoroughly can-
vaffed. When the houfe is not in a committee, each
gives his opinion regularly, and is only allow’ed to (peak
once, unlefs to explain himfelf.
The (landing committees, appointed by every new
parliament, are thofe of privileges and elefticns, of
religion, of grievances, of courts of juftice, and of
trade ; though only the former aft.
COMMIXTION, in Scots law, is a method of ac¬
quiring property, by mixing or blending together dif¬
ferent fubftances belonging to different proprietors.
See Law Index.
COMMODATE.
Commo¬
date
COM [ 32
COMMODATE, Commodatum, in the civil ju-
rifprudence, the loan or free conceflion of any thing
Common nioveable or immoveable, for a certain time, on con-
^ — dition of reftoring again the fame individual after a
certain term. The commodate is a kind of loan ;
there is this difference, however, between a loan and
a commodate, that the latter is gratis, and does not
transfer the property : the thing muff be returned in
effence, and without impairment; fo that things which
confume by ufe or time cannot be objefls of a com¬
modate, but of a loan ", in regard they may be return¬
ed in kind, though not in identity. See Law In¬
dex.
COMMODIANUS, Gazeus, a Chriftian author
in the 4th century, who wrote a work in Latin veife,
entitled Inftruftions } the moral of which is excellent,
but the verfe extremely heavy. M. Davies publifhed
a fine edition of it in 1711, at the end ol Minucius
Felix.
COMMODITY, in a general fenfe, denotes all
forts of wares and merchandifes whatfoever that a per-
fon deals or trades in.
Stafi/e Commodities, fuch wares and merchandifes
as are commonly and readily fold in a market, or ex¬
ported abroad ^ being for the moft part the pioper
produce or manufaiffure of the country.
-COMMODORE, a general officer in the Britiffi
marine, invefted with the command of a detachment of
ffiips of war deftined on any particular enterprife,
during which time he bears the rank of brigadier-
general in the army, and is diftinguiflied from the in¬
ferior {hips of his fquadron by a broad red pendant
tapering towards the outer end, and fometimes fork¬
ed. The word is corrupted from the Spanifh, comen-
dador.
Commodore is alfo a name give to fome feleft Hup
in a fleet of merchantmen, who leads the van in time
of wrar, and carries a light in his top to conduct the reft,
ttnd keep them together. He is always the oldeft cap¬
tain in the fleet he commands.
COMMODUS, L. Aurelius Antoninus, fon of
M. Antoninus, lucceeded his father in the Roman
empire. He was naturally cruel and fond of indul¬
ging his licentious propenfities. He wflffied to be call¬
ed Hercules ; and like that hero, he adorned his
{boulders with a lion’s {kin, and armed his hand witli
a knotted club. He publicly fought with the gladi¬
ators, and boafted of his dexterity in killing.the wild
beafts in the amphitheatre. He required divine ho¬
nours from the fenate, .and they were granted. He
■was wont to put fuch an immenfe quantity of gold
dufl in his hair, that when he appeared bare-headed.in
the funfhine, his head glittered as if furrounded with
fun-beams. Martia, one of his concubines, whofe
death he had prepared, poifoned him ; but as the poi-
fon did not quickly operate, he was ftrangled by a
wreftler. He died in the 31ft year of his age, and
.the 1 3th of bis reign. It has been obferved, that he
never trufted himfelf to a barber j but always burnt
.his beard, in imitation of the tyrant Dionyflus.
A. D. 192.
COMMON, Communis, fomething that belongs to
8 ] COM
all alike j is owned or allowed by all; and not confined Common,
to this more than that. In this fenfe, common ftands ——v"”*”
oppofed to proper, peculiar, &c. Thus, the earth is
faid to be our common mother ; in the firft or golden
age all things were in cotnmon, as well as the fun and
elements: the name animal is common to man and heart;
that of fubftance to body and fpirit.
Common, Communia, (b e. quod ad omnes pertmet'), in
law, flgnifies that foil, the ufe whereof is common to a
particular town or lordfhip; or it is a profit that a man
hath in the land of another perfon, ufually in common
with others; or a right which a perfon hath to put his
cattle to pafture into ground that is not his own.
And there is not only common of pafture, but alfo
common of pifcary, common of eftovers, common of
turbary, &c. And in all cafes of common, the law
much refpedls the cuftom of the place ; for there
the rule is, confuetudo loci ejl obfervanda. See Com-
monty.
Common Council. See Council.
Common Law, that body of law received as rules
in parliament to alter the fame. See Law, Part II.
N° 36. .
CoMMON-Place Book, is a regifter of what things
occur, worthy to be noted, in the courfe of a man’s
thinking or ftudy, fo difpofed as that among a num¬
ber of fubjefts any one may be eafily found. The ad¬
vantages of making a common-place book are many :
it not only makes a man read with accuracy and at¬
tention, but induces him infenfibly to think for him¬
felf, provided he confiders it not fo much as a regifter
of fentiments that ftrike him in the courfe of reading,
but as a regifter of his own thoughts upon various fub-
je&s. Many valuable thoughts occur even to men of
no extraordinary genius. Thefe, without the affift-
ance of a common-place book, are generally loft;
both to himfelf and others. There are various me¬
thods of arranging common-place books ; that of Mr
Locke is as good as any that have hitherto been con¬
trived.
The firft: page of the book you intend to take down
their common-place in, is to ferve as a kind of index
to the whole, and to contain references to every place
or matter therein : in the commodious contrivance of
which index, fo as it may admit of a fufticent copia or
variety of materials, without any confufion, all the fe-
cret of the method confifts.
In order to this, the firft page, as already mention¬
ed, or, for more room, the two firft pages that front
each other, are to be divided by parallel lines into
25 equal parts; whereof every fifth line is to be diftin-
guiffied by its colour or other circumftance. Thefe
lines are to be cut perpendicularly by others, drawn
from top to bottom : and in the feveral fpaces thereof,
the feveral letters of the alphabet, both capital and mi-
-nufcle, are to be duly written.
The form of the lines and divifions, both horizontal
and perpendicular, with the manner of writing the let¬
ters therein, will be conceived from the following fpe-
cimen ; wherein, what is to be done in the book for
all the letters of the alphabet, is here ffiown in the
firft four, dl, B, C, and D.
A
COM
[ 329 ]
COM
Common.
The index to the common-place book thus formed,
matters are ready for the taking down any thing
therein.
In order to this, confider to what head the thing
you would enter is moft naturally referred •, and un¬
der which one would be led to look for fuch a thing j
in this head, or w'ord, regard is had to the initial let¬
ter, and the firft vowel that follows it; which are the
chara&erirtic letters w'hereon all the ufe of the index
depends.
Suppofe (e. gr.) I wTould enter down a paflage that
refers to the head beauty. B, I confider, is the initial
letter, and e the firlt vowel: then, looking upon the
index for the partition B, and therein the line e
(which is the place for all words whofe firft letter is b,
and firft vowel e; as beauty, beneficence, bread, breed¬
ing, blcmifhes), and finding no numbers already down
to direct me to any page of the book where words of
this chara&eriftic have been entered, I turn forward
to the firft blank page I find (which, in a frefh book,
as this is fuppofed to be, will be page 2d), and here
write what I have occafion for on the head beauty;
beginning the head in the margin, and indenting all
the other fubfervient lines, that the head may ftand
out and Ihow itfelf; this done, I enter the page where
it is written, viz. 2, in the index in the fpace Be; from
which time the clafs be becomes wholly in pofleflion
of the 2d and 3d pages, which are configned to letters
of this charafteriftic.
Had I found any page or number already entered
in the fpace Be, \ muft have turned to the page, and
have written my matter in what room wras left therein:
fo, if after entering the paflage on beauty, I fhould
have occafion for benevolence, or the like, finding the
number 2 already poflefled of the fpace of this cha-
ra&eriftic, I begin the paflage on benevolence in the
remainder of the page} which not containing the w-hole,
I carry it on to page 3d, which is alfo for be; and add
the number 3 in the index.
Common Pleas is one of the king’s courts now held
conftantly in Weftminfter-hall, but in former times was
moveable.
All civil caufes, as well real as perfonal, are, or
were formerly, tried in this court, according to the
ftridl law of the land. In perfonal and mixed adtions
it has a concurrent jurifdiftion with the king’s bench,
but has no cognizance of pleas of the crown. The
adfions belonging to the court of common-pleas come
t-hither by original, as arrefts and outlawries j or by
privilege, or attachment for or.againft privileged per-
Jbnsj or out of inferior courts, not of record, by /)°ne}
Vol. VI. Part L
recordari, accedas adcuriatn, writ of falfe judgment, &c.
The chief judge of this court is called lord chief jufiice
of the common pleas, who is affifted by three other judges.
The other officers of the court are the cufios brevium,
who is the chief clerk ; three prothonotaries, and their
fecondaries } the clerk of the warrants, clerk of the
eflbins, 14 filazers, 4 exigentors, a clerk of the juries*
the chirographer, the clerk of the king’s filver, clerk
of the treafury, clerk of the feal, clerk of the outlaw¬
ries, clerk of the inrolment of fines and recoveries, and
clerk of the errors.
CoMMON-Prayer is the liturgy in the church of Eng¬
land : (See Liturgy.) Clergymen are to ufe the public
form of prayers preferibed by the Book of Common
Prayer: and refufing to do fo, or ufing any other pub¬
lic prayers, are punilhable by flat. 1. Eliz. c. ii.
Common, in Grammar, denotes the gender of nouns
which are equally applicable to both fexesj Ciius, parens
“ a parent,” is of the common gender.
Common, in Geometry, is applied to an angle, line,
or the like, which belongs equally to two figures.
Common Divifor, a quantity or number which exactly
divides twm or more other quantities or numbers, with¬
out leaving any remainder.
COMMONALTY, the lower of the two divifions
of the civil ftate. See CiriL State.
The commonalty, like the nobility, are divided inta
feveral degrees: and as the lords, though different in
rank, yet all of them are peers in refpedt of their no¬
bility } fo the commoners, though fome are greatly
fuperior to others, yet all are in law commonalty, in
refpeft of their want of nobility.
1. The firft name of dignity next beneath a peer
was anciently that of vidames, vice-domini, or valva-
fiors: who are mentioned by our ancient lawyers as
viri magnee dignitatis; and Sir Edward Coke fpeaks
highly of them. Yet they are now quite out of ufe;
and our legal antiquarians are not agreed upon even
their original or ancient office.
2. Now, therefore, the firft perfonal dignity after the
nobility is a knight of the order of St George, or of
the garter, firft inftituted by Edw. III. A. D. 1344.
3. Next (but not till after certain official dignities,
as privy-counfellors, the chancellors of the exchequer
and duchy of Lancafter, the chief juftice of the king’s
bench, the mafter of the rolls, and the other Englilh
judges), follows a knight banneret; who indeed, by
ftatutes 5 Richard II. flat. 2. c. 4. and 14 Richard II.
c. ii. is ranked next after barons*, and his precedence
before the younger fons of vifeounts wras confirmed tu
him by order of King James I. in the tenth year of his
T t reign.
Common*
Common¬
alty.
 y-—«
COM [
Common- reign. But in order to entitle Inm to tins rank,
alty. rnuft have been created by the king in peifon, in tne
1—“v-— field, under the royal banners, in time of open war ;
elfe he ranks after . . . , . .
4. Baronets; who are the next m order: which title
is a dignity of inheritance, created by letters patent,
and ufually defcendible to the iffue-male. See Baro-
N\'. Next follow knights of the Bath. See Bath.
6. The laft of thefe inferior nobility are knights ba¬
chelors; the moft ancient, though the lowed, order oi
knighthood amongft us. See Bachelor.
7. The above, with thofe enumerated under the ar¬
ticle Nobility, Sir Edward Coke fays, are all the
names’of dignity in this kingdom j efquires mA gentle¬
men being only names of worfhip. But before theie
laft the heralds rank all colonels, ferjeants at law, and
doctors in the three learned profeflions.
8. Efquires and gentlemen are confounded together
by Sir Edward Coke ; who obferves, that every ef-
nuire is a gentleman, and a geritleman is defined to
be one qui arma gerit, “who bears coat-armour-,” the
grant of which adds gentility to a man’s family : in
like manner as civil nobility among the Romans was
founded in the jus irnaginum, or having the image of
one anceftor at leaft who had borne fome curule of-
fice. It is indeed a matter fomewhat unfettled what
conftitutes the diftin&ion, or who is a real efquire;
for it is not an eftate, however large, that confers tins
rank upon its owner. Camden, who was himfel-^ a
herald, diftinguifhes them the moft accurately; arid he
reckons up four foils of them: ift, The eldeft fons of
knights, and their cldeft fons, in perpetual fucceflion.
idly, The eldeft fons of younger fons of peers, and
their’ eldeft fons, in like perpetual fucceflion : both
which fpecies of efquires Sir Henry Spclman entitles
drmigeri natalitii, jdly, Efquires created by the king’s
letters patent, or other inveftiture •, and their eldeft
fons. 4thly, Efquires by virtue of their office : as
iuftices of the peace and others who bear any office
of truft under the crown. To thefe may be added the
efquires of the knights of the bath, each of whom con¬
ftitutes three at his inftallation *, and all foreign, nay,
Iriffi peers-, for not only thefe, but the eldeft fons of
peers of Great Britain, though frequently titular lords,
are only efquires in the law, and muft be fo named in
all legal proceedings. _
9. As for gentlemen, fays Sir Thomas Smith, they
be made good cheap in this kingdom : for whofoever
ftudieth the laws of the realm, who ftudieth in the
univerfities, who profeffeth literal fciences, and (to be
fhort) who can live idly and without manual labour,
and will bear the part, charge, and countenance of a
gentleman, he ftiall be called mafter, and fliall be taken
for a gentleman.
10. A yeoman is he that hath free land of 40s. .by
the year j who is thereby qualified to ferve on juries,
vote for knights of the' (hire, and do any other a (ft
where the law requires one that is probus et legahs
homo. , .
11. The reft of the commonalty are tradejmen,
artificers, •d\\& labourers ; who (as well as all others)
muft, in purfuance of the ftatute 1 Henry V. c. 5.
be ftyled by the name and addition of their eftate,
33° 1 COM
he degree, or myftery, in all aftions and other legal pro- Commoner,
Commons.
ceedmgs. . .
COMMONER, or Gentleman-Commoner, in ^
the univerfities, a ftudent entered in a certain rank.
COMMONS, or House of Commons, a denomina¬
tion given to the lower houfe of parliament. See I ar-
liament.
The commons confift of all fuch men. of any pro¬
perty in the kingdom as have not feats in the houie
of lords, every one of whom has a voice in parlia¬
ment, either perfonally or by his repielentatices.
In a free ftate, every man, who is fuppofed a free
a^ent, ought to be in fome meafure his own gover¬
nor 5 ’and therefore a branch at leaft of the legifla-
tive power ftiould refide in the whole body of the
people. And this power, when the territories of the
ftate are fmall and its citizens eafily known, fliould be
exercifed by the people in their aggregate or collec¬
tive capacity, as was wifely ordained in the petty re¬
publics of Greece, and the firft rudiments of the Ro¬
man ftate. But this will be highly inconvenient wdien
the public territory is extended to any confiderable
degree, and the number of citizens is increafed. Thus
when, after the Social war, all the burghers of Italy
w-ere admitted free citizens of Rome, and each had a
vote in the public affemblies, it became impoffible to
diftinguith the (purious from the real voter, and from
that time all eleftions and popular deliberations grew
tumultuous and diforderly j which paved the wav for
Marius and Sylla, Pompey and Cmfar, to trample on
the liberties of their country, and at laft to difiolve
the commonwealth. In fo large a ftate as ours, there¬
fore, it is very wifely contrived, that the people ffiould
do that by their reprefentatives which it is impiac-
ticable to perform in perfon : reprefentatives chofen
by a number of minute and feparate diftrifts, w here¬
in all the voters are or may be eafily diftinguiffied.
The counties are therefore reprefented by knights,
elefted by the proprietors of lands; the cities.and bo¬
roughs are reprefented by citizens and burgeffes, cho¬
fen‘by the mercantile or fuppofed trading intereft of
the nation j much in the fame manner as the burghers
in the diet of Sweden are chofen by the corporate
towns, Stockholm fending tour, as London does with
us, other cities two, and fome only one. The num¬
ber of Englilh reprefentatives is 513, of Scots 45; in
all 558-, and every member, though chofen by one
particular diftria, when eleefted and returned, lerves
for the whole realm 5 for the end of his coming thi¬
ther is not particular, but general j not barely to ad¬
vantage his conftituents, but the commonwealth j to
advife his majefty, as appears from the writ of fum-
mons, “ de communi confilio (uper negotus qmbui-
dam arduis,et urgentibus, regem, ftatum, et deienfio-
nem reo-ni Anglise et ecclefiae Anglicanse concer-
nentibus.” And therefore he is not bound, like a de¬
puty in the United Provinces, to confult with, or take
the advice of, his conftituents upon any particular
point, unlefs he himfelf thinks it proper or prudent io
t0 The peculiar laws and cuftoms of the houfe of com¬
mons relate principally to the raifing of taxes, and the
eleftions of members to ferve in parliament, bee
Taxes and Elections.
COM [ 331
’Commonty DoElors Commons. See College of Civilians.
Il . Proflor of the Commons. See Proctor.
Communi- COMMONTY, in Scots Law, fometimes fignifies
on • « *
i lands belonging to two or more common proprie¬
tors j fometimes a heath or muir, though it Ihould be¬
long in property to one, if there has been a promiicu-
ous poffeffion upon it by pafturage •, and the adf 1695
mentions commonties belonging in property to the
king and to royal boroughs. See La_w Index.
COMMONWEALTH. See Republic.
COMMOTE, an ancient term in Wales, denoting
half a cantred, or hundred j containing 50 villages. See
Hundred. Wales was anciently divided into three
provinces j each of thefe fubdivided into cantreds, and
every cantred into two commotes or hundreds. Sil-
vefter Girald, however, tells us in his itinerary, that a
commote is but a quarter of a hundred.
COMMUNIS, in Botany, the name of a clals in
Linnaeus’s Methodus Calycina, confiding ol two plants
which, like teazel and dandelion, have a calyx or
flower-cup common to many flowers or florets. 'I hefe
are the aggregate or compound flowers of other fy-
ftems.
COMMUNIBUS LOCIS, a Latin term, in frequent
ufe among philosophical, &c. writers; implying iome
medium, or mean relation, between feveral places. Dr
Keil fuppofes the ocean to be one quarter of a mile
deep, commumbus locis, q. d. at a medium, or taking
one place with another.
Communibus Anms, has the fame import with re¬
gard to years that communibus locis has with regard
to places. Mr Derham obferves that the depth of
rain, communibus annis, or one year with another, were
it to ftagnate on the earth, would amount in 1 ownley
in Lancaflrire, to 424 inches ; at Upminfter in Eflex,
to 194 ; at Zurich, 32^5 at Pifa, 4345 and at Paris
to 19 inches.
COMMUNICATING, in Theology, the aft of re¬
ceiving the facrament of the eucharilf. Thofe of the
reformed, and of the Greek church, communicate under
both kinds; thofe of the Romilh, under only one. The
oriental communicants receive the fpecies of wine by a
fpoon, and anciently they fucked it through a pipe, as
has been obferved by Beat. Rheanus on 1 ertullian.
COMMUNICATION, in a general fenfe, the a£l
of imparting fomething to another.
Communication, is alfo uled for the conneflion of
one thing with another, or the paflage from one place
to another; thus a gallery is a communication between
two apartments.
Communication of motion, the a£t whereby a
body at reft is put into motion by a moving body; or,
it is the acceleration of motion in a body already
moving.
Lines of Communication, in military matters,
trenches made to continue and preferve a fafe corre-
fpondence between two forts or polls; or at a liege,
Between two approaches, that they may relieve one
another.
Canal of Communication. See Canal.
COMMUNION, in matters of religion, the being
united in doflrine and difcipline ; in which fenfe of
the word, different churches are faid to hold commu¬
nion with each other.
] COM
In the primitive Chriftian church, every bilhop was Communi'
obliged, after his ordination, to fend circular letters ^ 1
to foreign churches, to fignify that he was in commu¬
nion with them. The three grand communions into
which the Chriftian church is at prefent divided, is
that of the church of Rome, the Greek church, and
the Proteftant church : but originally all Chriftians
were in communion with each other, having one com¬
mon faith and difcipline.
Communion is alio ufed for the a£f of communi¬
cating the facrament of the eucharift, or the Lord’s
fupper.
The fourth council of Lateran decrees, that every
believer lhall receive the communion, at lead, at Eafter;
which feems to import a tacit defire, that they Ihould
do it oftener; as, in effe£f, they did it much oftener
in the primitive days. Gratian, and the mailer of the
fentences, preferibe it as a rule for the laity, to com¬
municate three times a-year, at Eafter, Whitfuntide,
and Chriftmas. But in the 13th century, the pradice
was adopted, never to approach the eucharift, ex¬
cept at Eafier ; and the council thought fit to enjoin
it then by a law, left their coldneis and remiffnefs
ftiould go farther Hill. And the council of Trent re¬
newed the fame injundlion, and recommended frequent
communion without enforcing it by an exprefs decree.
In the ninth century, the communion was ftill re¬
ceived by the laity in both kinds ; or, rather, the fpe¬
cies of bread rvas dipped in the wine, as is owned by
the Roimmifts themfelves. ( Adla S3. Benedift. Saec.
III.) M. de Marca obferves, that they received it at
firlt in their hands, Hill, de Bearn, and believes the
communion under one kind alone to have had its rile in
the Weft under Pope Urban II. in 1096, at the time
of the conqueft of the Holy Land. And it was more
folemnly enjoined by the council of Conftance in 1414*
The twenty-eighth canon of the council of Clermont
enjoins the communion to be received under botti
kinds, diftin£tly ; adding, however, two exceptions}
the one of neceffity, the other of caution, nifi per necef-
ftatem et cautdam ; the firft in favour of the fick, the
fecond of the abftemious, or thofe who had an averfion
for wine.
It was formerly a kind of canonical punifhment, for
clerks guilty of any crime, to be reduced to lay commu¬
nion, i. e. only to receive' it as the laity did, viz. under
one kind.
They had another punifhment of the fame nature,
though under a different name, called foreign commu¬
nion; to which the canons frequently condemned their
bifhops and other clerks. I his punifhment was not
any excommunication, or depofition ; but a kind ot
fufpenfion from the funflion of the order, and a de¬
gradation from the rank they held in the church.
It had its name becaufe the communion was only
granted to the criminal on the foot of a foreign clerk,
i. e. being reduced to the loweft of his order, he took
place after all thofe of his rank, as all clerks, &c. did
in the churches to which they did not belong. The
fecond council of Agda orders every clerk that abfents
hitnfelf from the church to be reduced to foreign com¬
munion.
Communion Service, in the liturgy of the church of
England, the office for the adminiftration of the holy
T t 2 facrament,
COM [ 332 ] COM
Community facrament, extra&ed from feveral ancient liturgies, as
^ II ^ thofe of St Baiil, St Ambrofe, &c.
. ' By the laft rubric, part of this fervice is appointed
to be read every Sunday and holyday, after the morn¬
ing prayer, even though there be no communicants.
COMMUNITY, denotes a fociety of men living in
the fame place, under the fame laws, the fame regula¬
tions, and the fame cuftoms.
COMMUTATION, in Law, the change of a pe¬
nalty or punilhment from a greater to a lefs; as when
death is commuted for baniihment, &c.
COMNENA, Ann, daughter of Alexius Comne-
Tius emperor of the Ealt 5 memorable for her great
learning and virtue, and for her hiftory of the life and
actions of her father, which is highly efteemed. She
flourifhed about the year 1117. The hiftory, which
is in 15 books, was firft publilhed very imperfe£tly by
Hefchelius in j6io •, and afterwards printed in the col-
leflion of the Byzantine hiftorians, with a diffiile and
incorre£f Latin verfion by the Jefuit Poftimus, but
with excellent notes by the learned Du Frefne.
COMO, a ftiongand populous town of Italy, in the
duchy of Milan, and in the Comafco, with a bhhop’s
fee. It was taken by the Imperialifts in 1706, and is
feated on a lake of the fame name, in E. Long. 8. 57.
N. Lat. 45. 45.
Como, the lake fo called, is the largeft in Italy. It
is fituated in the duchy of Milan in the Comafco, on
the confines of Switzerland and the Grifons. It is 88
miles in circumference, yet is not above 6 miles over
in any part.
COMOR A iflands, lie betw-een the north end of the
ifland of Madagafcar and the coaft of Zanguebar,
from 10 to 15 degrees fouth latitude. Authors differ
greatly with regard to their number, fome fpeaking
of three, others of five, and fome of eight of thefe
iflands. They all abound in horned cattle, fheep, hogs,
and a variety of fruits common in warm countries.
They are faid alfo to produce a kind of rice which
turns of a violet colour when boiled. The moft re¬
markable of them, and w-hich the Europeans are beft
acquainted with, is the ifland of Johanna. See that
article.
COMORIN, or Cape Comorin, the moft fouth-
erly promontory of the Hither India, lying north-weft
of the ifland of Ceylon.
COMOR R A, a handfome and large town of Lower
Hungary, and capital of a territory of the fame
name. It is fo well fortified, that the Turks could
never take it. The greatelt part of the inhabitants
are Hungarians or Ruffians, who are very rich, and
are of the Greek religion. It is feated on the river
Danube, in the ifland of Silbut. E. Long. 18. 5.
N. Lat. 47 46.
COMOS/E, in Botany, from Coma; an order of
plants in the former edition of Linnaeus’s Fragments
of a Natural Method, confiding of the fpiked wfillow
or fpiraea frutex, dropwort, and greater meadowr-
fweet. Thefe, though formerly diftimft genera, are
by Linnaeus collected into one, under the name of [pi-
ran. The flowers growing in a head, refemble a bufh,
or tuft of hair, which probably gave rife to the epithet
Comofce.
COMPACT, in Philofophy, is faid of bodies which
are of a clofe, denfe, and heavy texture, with few Compacft,
pores, and thofe very fmall. Companion.
Compact, in a legal fenfe, fignifies an agreement or ^ _J"
contract ftipulated between feveral parties.
COMPANION, one with whom a man frequently
converfes.
As the human mind cannot always be on the
ftretch, nor the hands always employed in labour, re¬
creation becomes both agreeable and neceffary. Of
all recreations, that of the company of a few chofen
companions mult be allowed to be the moft manly and
moft improving : but as in thofe hours of recreation
we are moft in danger of being milled, being general¬
ly at fuch feafons more off our guard than ufual, the
greateft care fliould be taken in making choice of
whom to affociate with ; for according to our choice
of them, both our chara£ter and dilpofition will re¬
ceive a tinflure, as waters palling through minerals
partake of their tafte and efficacy. This is a truth fo
univerfally received, that it is become a proverb both
in the natural and moral world, That a man is known
by his company. As by chemiftry we learn, that dif-
cordant mixtures produce nothing but broil and fer¬
mentation till one of them gets the afcendency of the
reft •, fo from Scripture we learn, that two cannot walk
together except they be agreed. From which w7e
may fee, how impoflible it is for any one to be thought
a perfon of real goodnefs and integrity, whilft he
choofes for his companions the abandoned and licen¬
tious.
By affociating with fuch, he will not only lofe his
chara£ler, but his virtue 5 for whatever fallacious di-
ftinftion he may be pleafed to make between the men
and their vices, in the end the firft generally qualifies
the laft •, and by ceafing to hate them he will foon learn
both to love and pra£tife them. In fhort, the fociety
of fenfual men is peculiarly enfnaring. The malignity
of their contagion doth not appear all at once. Their
frolics firft appear harmlefs j then, when partaken of,
they leave a longing relifh behind them j and one ap¬
pointment makes W'ay for another, one expence leads
on to a fecond ; and fo time and fortune are wafted
away to very bad purpoie. Then one appetite craves,
and another muft be gratified^, till all become too im¬
portunate to be defiled ; which verifies what the wifeft
of men long fince faid, “ That the beginning of fin is
like the breaking forth of waters, w’hich when it once
makes an entrance, carrieth all before it with rufhing
impetuofity.” Some pangs of remorfe may be felt by
the infatuated creature on his firft degeneracy, and
fome faint refolutions againft being feduced any more j
which will no fooner be difeovered by thofe leaders to
deftru£lion, than all arts tvill be ufed to allure him
back to bear them company in the broad beaten path
to ruin. Of all which methods, none is more to be
dreaded than raillery ; for this is generally exercifed
with all its force, and too often proves fatal. Ano¬
ther method ufed to miflead the young novice not
yet hackneyed in vice, and no lefs dangerous than the
other, is to call evil good, and good evil. Luft and
fenfuality muft pafs for love and gallantry ; revenge
and malice, for heroifm. But fteadinefs flrould be
flrown, by holding fuch pefts of fociety in derifion, and .
looking on them with contempt y by appearing unma?
C O M
[ 333 1
C O M
Company, ved by tbelr ill-founded banters, and unftung by their
Y impious jells.
Upon the whole, in order to efcape the danger
which attends the keeping of evil company, let thofe
you affbciate with be perfons as carefully educated
and as honeftly difpofed as yourfelf; of a good moral
charaCfer, not given to any known vice ; whofe lives
are temperate, and whofe expences are moderate : with
fuch company as thefe, you will neither get difcredit,
nor degenerate into excefs. You will be a mutual
check to each other •, and your reputation will be fo
elfablilbed, that it will be the ambition of others to be
admitted members of your fociety. Sele61 thofe for
your companions who are men of good fenfe and un-
derftanding ; and, if poflible, who excel in fome art,
faience, or accomplilhment j that fo, in the courfe of
your acquaintance, your very hours of amufement may
contribute to your improvement j and for the moll
part fuch are open and communicative, and take as
much pleafure in being heard as you to be informed.
By purfuing fuch a condudt, you will be an ornament
and ufeful member of fociety.
COMPANY, a colledlive term, underftood of feve-
ral perfons affembled together in the fame place, or
with the fame defign. The wrord is formed of the
French compagnie, and that of companio, or companies,
which Chifflet obferves, are found in the Salic law,
tit. 66. and are proper military words, underftood of
foldiers, who, according to the modern phrafe, are
comrades or mefs-mates, i. e. lodge together, eat toge¬
ther, &c.of the Latin cum, “ with,” andpanis, “ bread.”
It may be added, that in fome Greek authors under
the weftern empire, the word x.v[s.7rcinot occurs in the
fenfe of fociety.
Company, in a familiar or fafhionable fenfe, is ufed
for an aflemblage of perfons met for the purpofe of con-
verfation, paftime, or feftivity.
The love of company and of focial pleafures is na¬
tural, and attended with fome of the fweeteft fatisfac-
tions of human life •, but, like every other love, when
it proceeds beyond the limits of moderation, it ceafes
to produce its natural eflfeft, and terminates in difguft-
ful fatiety. The foundation-ftone and the pillar on
which we build the fabric of our felicity, mull be laid
in our own hearts. Amufement, mirth, agreeable va¬
riety, and even improvement, may be fometimes fought
in the gaiety of mixed company, and in the ufual di-
verftons of the world ; but if we found our general
happinefs on thefe, we fh ill do little more tl|an raife
caftles in the air, or build houfes on the fand.
To derive the proper pleafure and improvement from
company, it ought to be fele61, and to confift of per¬
fons of charaifler, refpeflable both for their morals and
thf ir underftandings. Mixed and undiftinguifhed fo¬
ciety tends only to diftipate our ideas, and induce a
laxity of principles and practice. The pleafure it af¬
fords is of a coarfe, mixed, noily, and rude kind. In¬
deed, it commonly ends in wearinefs and difguft, as
even they are ready to confefs who yet conftantly
purfue it, as if their chief good confifted in living in a
crowd.
Among thofe, indeed, who are exempted by their
circumftances from profeflional and official employ¬
ments, and who profefledly devote themfelves to a life
of pleafure, little elfe feems to conftitute the idea of it,
but an unceafing fucceffion of company, public or pri- Company’,
vate. The drefs, and other circumftances preparatory 'v '
to the enjoyment of this pleafure, fcarcely leave a mo¬
ment for refleffion. Day after day is fpent in the fame
toilfome round, till a habit is formed, which renders
diffipation neceftary to exiftence. One week 'without
it would probably induce a lownefs of fpirits, which
might terminate in defpair and fuicide. When the
mind has no anchor, it will fuffer a kind of fliipwreck j
it will fink in whirlpools, and be dallied on rockst.
What, indeed, is life or its enjoyments without fettled
principles, laudable purpofes, mental exertions, and
internal comfort ? It is merely a vapour, or, to drop
the language of figure on fo ferious a fubjeft, it is a
ftate worfe than non-entity, fince it pofitfles a reftlefs
power of aftion, produdlive of nothing but mifery.
It is recommended, therefore, to all who wilh to
enjoy their exiftence (and who entertains not that
wifti ?) that they fhould acquire a power not only of
bearing, but of taking a pleafure in, temporary foli-
tude. Every one muft, indeed, fometimes be alone.
Let him not repine when he is alone, but learn to let
a value on the golden moments. It is then that he is
enabled to ftudy himlelf and the world around him.
It is then that he has an opportunity of leeing things
as they are, and of removing the deceitful veil, which
almoft every thing affusnes in the bufy fcene of worldly
employments. The foul is enabled to retire into her-
fell, and to exert thofe energies which are always at¬
tended with fublime pleafure. She is enabled to fee the
dependent, frail, and wretched ftate of man as the
child of nature ; and incited by her difcovery, to im¬
plore grace and protection from the Lord of the uni-
verfe. They, indeed, who fly from folitude, can fel-
dom be religious j for religion requires meditation.
They may be faid to “ live without God in the world j
not, it is true, from atheiftical principles, but from a
careleflhefs of difpofition ; a truly deplorable ftatc, the
confcioufnefs of which could not fail to cloud the gaie¬
ty of thofe halcyon beings who fport in the funfhine of
unremitted pleafure.
There is no doubt that man is made for aCtion,
and that his duties and plcafures are often moft nume¬
rous and moft important amidft the bufy hum of men.
Many vices, and many corrupt difpofitions, have been
foftered in a folitary life. Monkery is not favourable
to human nature or human happinefs ; but neither is
unlimited diffipation.
In ffiort, let there be a fweet interchange of retire¬
ment and affociation, of repofe ami adivity. A few
hours fpent every day by the votaries of pleafure in fe¬
rious meditation, would render their pleafure pure, and
more unmixed with mifery. It would give them know¬
ledge, fo that they would fee how far they might ad¬
vance in their purfuit without danger ; and refolutioh,
fo that they might retreat when danger approached.
It would teach them how to live,, a knowledge which'
indeed they think they pofiefs already ; and it would,
alfo teach them, what they are often too little felici¬
tous to learn, how to die.
Company, in a commercial fenfe, is a fociety of
merchants, mechanics, or other traders, joined toge¬
ther in one common intereft.
When there are only two or three joined in this-
manner, it is. called a partnerfhip} the term company,
being
COM [ 234 ]
/;ompan^ bein? reft rained to focieties confifting of a confiderable member
^ number of members, aflbciated together by a charter
obtained from the prince.
'I he mechanics of all corporations, or towns incor¬
porated, are thiis erefted into companies, which have
charters of privileges and large immunities.
Company feems more particularly appropriated to
thole grand aflbciations fet on foot for the commerce
of the remote parts of the world, and vefted by char¬
ter with peculiar privileges.
When companies do not trade upon a joint flock,
but are obliged to admit any perfon, properly quali¬
fied, upon paying a certain fine and agreeing to fub-
mit to the regulations of the company, each member
trading upon his own ftoclc and at his own rilk, they
are called Regulated Companies. When they trade up¬
on a joint ftock, each member (haring in the common
profit or lofs in proportion to his (hare in this ftock,
they are called "Joint-Jloch Companies. Such compa¬
nies, whether regulated or joint-ftock, fometimes have,
and fometimes have not, exclulive privileges.
However injurious companies with joint-ftock, and
incorporated with exclufive privileges, may at this time
be reckoned to the nation in general, it is yet certain
that they were the general parent of all our foreign
commerce ; private traders being difcouraged from ha¬
zarding their fortunes in foreign countries, until the
method of traffib had been firft fettled by joint-ftock
companies. But fince the trade of this kingdom and
the number of traders have increafed, and the methods
or affurance of (hipping and merchandife, and the na¬
vigation to all parts of the known world have become
familiar to us, thefe companies, in the opinion of mod
men, have been looked upon in the light of monopo¬
lies ; their privileges have therefore been leffened from
time to time, in order to favour a free and general
trade 5 and experience has (hown, that the trade of
the nation has advanced in proportion as monopolies
have been difcouraged. In (hort, as all reftri&ions of
trade are found to be hurtful, nothing can be more
evident, than that no company whatfoever, whether
they trade in a joint ftock or only under regulation,
can be for the public good, except it may be°eafy for
all or any of his majefty’s fubjedfts to' be admitted into
all or any of the (aid companies, at any time, and for
a very inconfiderable fine.
I. Regulated Companies referable, in every re-
(peef, the corporations of trades, fo common in the ci¬
ties and towns of all the different countries of Europe 5
and are a fort of enlarged monopolies of the fame kind.
,A.s no inhabitant oi a town can exercife an incorpo¬
rated trade, without firft obtaining his freedom in
the corporation j fo in mod cafes no fubjeft of the
(late can lawfully carry on any branch of foreign trade,
tor which a regulated company is eftablifhed/ without
firft becoming a member of that company. The mo¬
nopoly is more or lefs ftria: according as the terms of
admiflion are more or lefs difficult •, and according as
the direftors of the company have more or lefs autho¬
rity, or1 have it more or lefs in their power to manage
in iuch a manner as to confine the greater part of the
trade to themfelves and their particular friends. In
the mod ancient regulated companies the privileges of
apprenticefhip were the fame as in other corporations j
and entitled the perfon who had ferved his time to a
1
COM
of the company, to become himfelf a mem-
ber, either without paying any fine, or upon paying a
much (mailer one than what was exa&ed of other
people. The ufual corporation fpirit, wherever the
law does not reftrain it, prevails in all regulated com¬
panies. When they have been allowed to aa accord¬
ing to their natural genius, they have always, in or¬
der to confine the competition to as (mall a number of
perfens as poffible, endeavoured to fubjed the trade to
many burdenfome regulations. When the law has re-
ftrained them from doing this, they have become alto¬
gether ufelefs and infignificant.
The regulated companies for foreign commerce,
which at prefent fubfift in Great Britain, are, The
Hamburgh Company, the Rulfia Company, the Eaft-
land Company, the Turkey Company, and the African
Company.
1. The Hamburgh Company is the oldeft trading efta-
blifhment in the kingdom ^ though not always known
b} that name, nor reftrained to thofe narrow^ bounds
under which it is now confined. It wms firft called
the Company of Merchants trading to Calais, Holland,
Zealand, Brabant, and Flanders : then it acquired the
general title of Merchant-adventurers of England: as
being compofed of all the Englifh merchants who trad¬
ed to the Low Countries, the Baltic, and the German
ocean. Laftly, it was called the Company of Mer¬
chant-adventurers of England trading to Hamburgh.
This company w^as firft incorporated by Edward I.
in 1296 j and eftablilhed again, by charter, in 1406,
under the reign of King Henry IV. It was afterwards
confirmed, and augmented with divers privileges, by
many of his fucceffors. Before the charter of Henry
IV. all the Englifh merchants who trafficked out of
the realm, were left to their own diferetion, and ma¬
naged their aftairs with foreigners as might be moft for
their refpe&ive interefts, without any regard to the
general commerce of the nation. Henry, obferving
this diforder, endeavoured to remedy it, by uniting all
the merchants in his dominions into one body ; where¬
in, without lofing the liberty of trading each for him¬
felf, they might be governed by a company ("till fub-
fifting •, and be fubjeft to regulations, which (hould fe-
cure the general intereft of the national commerce,
without prejudice to the intereft of particulars. With
this view, he granted all the merchants of his dates,
particularly thofe of Calais, then in his hands, a power
of affociating themfelves into a body politic, with di-
re&ors and governors, both in England and abroad 5
to hold affemblies, both for the dirtdlion of bufinefs
and the deciding of controverfies among merchants ;
make laws ; punifti delinquents; and impofe moderate
duties and taxes on merchandifes, and merchants, to
be employed in the fervice of the corporation. Thefe
few articles of the charter of Henry IV. rvere after¬
wards much augmented by Henry VII. who firft gave
them the title of Merchant-adventurers to Calais, Hol¬
land, &c. gave them a power of proclaiming and con¬
tinuing free fairs at Calais -, and ordered, that to be
reputed a member of the fociety, each perfon pay 20
marks fterling ; and that the feveral members fliould
attend the general meetings, or courts, appointed
by the direflors, whether at London, Calais, or elfe-
where.
A petition being made to Queen Elizabeth, in 1564,
for
Company.
COM [ 33J 1
Company, for an explanation of certain articles in tne charter of
* v—Henry VII. and a confirmation of the reft granted by
other kings •, that princefs, by a charter ot the fame
year, declares that, to end all difputes, they fhall be
incorporated anew, under the title of the Company of
Merchant adventurers of England; that all who were
members of the former company fhould, if they de-
fired it, be admitted members of this; that they (hould
have a common leal ; that they {hould admit into their
fociety what other perfons, and on what terms, they
pleafed, and expel them again on milbehayiour ; that
the city of Hamburgh and neighbouring cities fhouH
be reputed within their grant, together with thofe of
the Low Countries, 8ic. in that of the former compa-
ny ; that no member fhould marry out of the kingdom,
nor purchafe lands, &c. in any city beyond lea ; and
that thofe who do, {hall be, ipfofaBo, excluded for
ever. Twenty tw'o years after this firft charter, Queen
Elizabeth granted them a fecond ; confirming the for¬
mer, and further granting them a privilege of exclu-
fion ; with a power of eredling in each city within their
grant a ftanding council.
The i evolutions which happened in the Low Coun¬
tries towards the end of the fixteenth century, and
wThich laid the foundation of the republic of Holland,
having hindered the company from continuing their
commerce w’ith their ancient freedom ; it was obliged
to turn it almoft wholly to the fide of Hamburgh, and
the cities on the German ocean ; from which change,
fome people took occafion to change its name to
that of the Hamburgh Company ; though the ancient
title of Merchant-adventurers is ftill retained in all their
writings.
About the middle of the laft century, the fine for
admiffion was fifty, and at one time one hundred
pounds, and the conduit of the company was faid to
be extremely oppreflive. In 1643, in 1645, and in
r-66i, the clothiers and free traders of the weft of
England complained of them to parliament, as of mo-
nopolifts who confined the trade and oppreffed the ma¬
nufactures of the country. Though thofe complaints
produced no aCt of parliament, they had probably in¬
timidated the company fo far, as to oblige them to re¬
form their conduft. The terms of admilhon are now
faid to be quite eafy ; and the directors either have it
not in their power to fubjeCt the trade to any burden-
fome reftraint or regulations, or at leaft have not of
late exercifed that power.
2. The Rujfia Company was firft projected towards
the end of the reign of King Edward VI. executed in
the firft and fecond years of Philip and Mary ; but had
not its perfe&ion till its charter was confirmed by aft
of parliament, under Queen Elizabeth, in 1566. It
had its rife from certain adventurers, who were fent in
three veffels on the difcovery of new countries; and to
find out a north-eaft paffage to China : thefe, falling
into the White fea, and making up to the port of
Archangel, were exceedingly' w’ell received by the Mut-
covites ; and, at their return, folicited letters patent
to fecure to themfelves the commerce of Ruflia, for
which they had formed an affbciation.
By their charter, the afiociation w'as declared a bo¬
dy politic, under the name of the Company of Mer¬
chant-adventurers of England, for the difcovery of lands,
territories, if ands, &.c. unknown, or unfrequented.
COM
Their privileges were, to have a governor, four con- Cotr!P;iliy»
fuls, and 24 afliftants, for their commerce ; for their v
policy, to make laws, inflift penalties, fend out ftiips
to make difcoveries, take poffeflion ol them in the
king’s name, fet up the banner royal of England,
plant them ; and laftly, the exclufive privilege of tra¬
ding to Archangel, and other ports of Mufcovy, not
yet frequented by the Engliih.
This charter not being fufticiently guarded, was
confirmed by parliament in the eighth year of Queen
Elizabeth ; wherein it was enafted, that in regard the
former name was too long, they fhould now be called
Company of Englijh Merchants for difcovering new
trades; under which name, they fhould be capable of
acquiring and holding all kind of lands, manors, rents,
&c. not exceeding 100 marks, per annum, and not
held of her majefty ; that no part of the continent,
ifland, harbour, &c. not known or frequented before
the firft enterprife of the merchants of their company,
fituated to the north, or north-weft, or north-eaft of
London ; nor any part of the continent, iflands, &c.
under the obedience of the emperor of Ruflia, or in the
countries of Armenia, hdedia, Hyrcania, Perfia, or
the Cafpian fea, {hould be vifited by any fubjefts of
England, to exercife any commerce, without the cou-
fent of the faid company, on pain of confifcation. The
faid company fhall ufe no fhips in her new commerce
but thofe of the nation ; nor tranfport any cloths,
ferges, or other woollen fluffs, till they have been dyed
and preffed. That in cafe the company difeontinue of
itfelf to unload commodities :n the road of the abbey
of S. Nicolas, in Ruflia, or fome other port, on the
north coafts of Ruflia, for the fpace of three years, the
other fubjefts of England fhall be allowed to traffic to
Narva, while the faid company difeontinues its com¬
merce into Ruflia, only ufing Englifh veffels.
This company fubfifted with reputation almoft a
whole century, till the time of the civil wars. It is faid,
the czar then reigning, hearing of the murder of King
Charles I. ordered all the Engliih in his ftates to be ex¬
pelled ; which the Dutch taking the advantage of, fet¬
tled in their room. After the reftoration, the remains
of the company re-eftabliffied part of their commerce
at Archangel, but never with the fame fuccefs as be¬
fore ; the Ruffians being now well accuftomed to the
Dutch merchants and merchandife.
This company fubfifts ftill, under the direftfon of a
governor, four confuls, and affiftants. By the 10th
and 1 ith of William III. c. 6. the fine for admiffion
w'as reduced to 5I.
3. The Eaf land Company incorporated by Queen
Elizabeth. Its charter is dated in the year 1579. By
the firft article the company is erefted into a body po¬
litic, under the title of the Company of Merchants of
the Eajl; to confift of Englifhmen, all real merchants
who have exercifed the bufinefs thereof, and trafficked
through the Sound, before the year 1568, into Nor¬
way, Sweden, Poland, Livonia, Pruflia, Pomerania,.
&c. as alfo Revel, Coninglherg, Dantzick, Copenha¬
gen, &c. excepting Narva, Mufcovy, and its depen¬
dencies! Mo ft of the following articles grant them
the ufn$l prerogatives of fnch companies as a feal, go¬
vernor, courts, laws, &cc.
The privileges peculiar to this company are, that
none lhall be admitted a member who is already a
member
COM
Company, member of any other company •, nor any retail-dealer
at all. That no merchant qualified be admitted with¬
out paying fix pounds thirteen fhillings and fixpence.
That a member of another company, defiring to re¬
nounce the privileges thereof, and to be received into
that of the Eafi (hall be admitted gratis ; provided he
procures the fame favour for a merchant of the Eaft
willing to fill his place. That the merchant-adventu¬
rers who never dealt in the Eaft, in the places expref-
fed in the charter, may be received as members of the
company on paying 40 marks ; that, notwithftanding
this union of the Adventurers of England with the
company of the Eaft, each fhall retain its rights and
privileges. That they fhall export no cloths but what
are dyed and preffed, except a hundred pieces per an¬
num, which are allowed them gratis. This charter
was confirmed by Charles II. in 16291 with this addi¬
tion, that no perfon, of what quality foever, living in
London, ftiould be admitted a member, unlefs he were
free of the city. This company was complained of as
a monopoly, and firft curtailed by legal authority in
1672 ; and fince the declaration of rights in 1689, ex-
ift only in name ; but ftill continue to eleft their
annual officers, who are a governor, a deputy, and
twenty-four affiftants.
7. The Turkey cr Levant Company, had its rife under
Queen Elizabeth, in 1581. James I. confirmed its
charter in 1605, adding new privileges. During the
civil wars, there happened fome innovations in the go¬
vernment of the company •, many perfons having been
admitted members, not qualified by the charters of
Queen Elizabeth and King James, or that did not con¬
form to the regulations preferibed. Charles II. upon
his reftoration, endeavoured to fet it upon its ancient
bafis *, to which end, he gave them a charter, contain¬
ing not only a confirmation of their old one, but alfo
feveral nerv articles of reformation. By this, the com¬
pany is erefted into a body politic, capable of making
laws, &c. under the title of the Company of Merchants
o f England trading to the Jeas of the Levant. The
number of members is not limited, but is ordinarily
about three hundred. The principal qualification re¬
quired is, that the candidate be a freeman of London,
and a wholefale merchant, either by family or by ferv-
ing an apprenticelhip of feven years. Thofe under 25
years of age pay 25I. fterling at their admiflion \ thofe
above, twice as much. This fine was reduced by aft
of parliament, in 1753, to 20I. and the privilege of
admiflion extended to every Britifh iubjeft. Each
makes oath at his entrance not to fend any merchan-
difes to the Levant but on his own account; and not
to confign them to any but the company’s agents or
faftors. This reftriftion is likewife enlarged by the
above-mentioned ftatute.
The company has a court or board at London,
which is compofed of a governor, deputy-governor,
and fifteen direftors or affiftants, who are all aftually
to live in London or the fuburbs. They have alfo a
deputy-governor in every city and port, where there
are any members of the company. The affembly at
London fends out the veffels, regulates the tariff for
the p ice at which the European merchandifes fent to
the Levant are to be fold, and for the quality of thofe
returned. It raifes taxes on merchandiles, to defray
Jpnpofitions, and the common expences of the compa-
3
336 1 COM
ny ; prefents the ambaffador which the king is to keep Company,
at the Porte, eledts two confuls for Smyrna and Con- —v——J
ftantinople, &c.
One of the beft regulations of the company is, not
to leave the confuls, or even ambaffador, to fix the im-
pofition on veffels for defraying the common expencea
(a thing fatal to the companies of moft other nations) •,
but to allow a penfion to the ambaffador and coiduls,
and even to the chief officers, as fecretary, chaplain,
interpreters, and janizaries, that there may not be any
pretence for their railing any fum at all on the mer¬
chants or merchandifes.
In extraordinary cafes, the confuls, and even the
ambaffador, have recourfe to two deputies of the com¬
pany, refiding in the Levant ; or, if the affair be very
important, they affemble the whole body. Here are
regulated the prefents to be given, the voyages to be
made, and every thing to be deliberated $ and on the
refolutions here taken, the deputies appoint the treafu-
rer to furnifh the moneys, Sec. required.
The ordinary commerce of this company employs
from 20 to 25 veffels, carrying from 25 to 30 pieces
of cannon. The merchandifes exported thither are,
cloths of all kinds and colours, pewter, lead, pepper,
cochineal, and a great deal of filver, which they take
up at Cadiz : the returns are in raw filk, galls, camlets,
wools, cottons, Morocco leather, afhes for making
glafs and foap, and feveral gums and medicinal drugs.
The commerce to Smyrna, Conftantinople, and Scan-
deroon, is not efteemed much lefs confiderable than
that of the Eaft India Company j but is, doubtlefs,
more advantageous to Britain j becaufe it takes off
much more of the Britifti manufaftures than the other,
which is chiefly carried on in money. The places re-
ferved for the commerce of this company are, all the
ftates of Venice, in the gulf of Venice j the ftate of
Ragufa 5 all the ftates of the grand feignior, and the
ports of the Levant and Mediterranean } excepting
Carthagena, Alicant, Barcelona, Valencia, Marftilles,
Toulon, Genoa, Leghorn, Civita Vecchia, Palermo,
Meflina, Malta, Majorca, Minorca, and Corfica ; and
other places on the coafts of France, Spain, and
Italy.
5. The Company of Merchants trading to Africa, efta-
bliftied in 1750. Contrary to the former praftice with
regard to regulated companies, who were reckoned
unfit for fuch fort of fervice, this company was fub-
jefted to the obligation of maintaining forts and garri-
fons. It w’as exprefsly charged at firft with the main¬
tenance of urll the Britifti forts and garrifons that lie
between Cape Blanc and the Cape of Good Hope, and
afterwards with that of thofe only w’hich lie between
Cape Rouge and the Cape of Good Hope. The aft
which eftabliflies this company (the 23d of George II.
c. 31.) feems to have had two diftinft objefts in view 5
firft, to reftrain effeftually the oppreflive and mono¬
polizing fpirit which is natural to the direftors of a
regulated company ; and fecondly, to force them as
much as poffible to give an attention, which is not na¬
tural to them, towards the maintenance of forts and
garrifons.
For the firft of thefe purpofes, the fine for admiffion
is limited to forty {hillings. The company is pro¬
hibited from trading in their corporate capacity, or
upon a joint flock 5 from borrowing money upon com¬
mon
COM [ 337
Company, nicm feal, or from laying any reftraints upon the trade
v'”1" which may be carried on freely from all places, and by
all perfons being Britilh fubjeds, and paying the fine.
The government is in a committee of nine perfons who
meet at London, but who are chofen annually by the
freemen of the company at London, Briftol, and Li¬
verpool ; three from each place. No committee'-man
can be continued in office for more than three years
together. Any committee-man might be removed by
the board of trade and plantations j now by a com¬
mittee of council, after being heard in his own defence.
The committee are forbid to export negroes from
Africa, or to import any African goods into Great
Britain. But, as they are charged with the mainte¬
nance of forts and garrifons, they may for that purpofe
export from Great Britain to Africa goods and ftores
of different kinds. Out of the money which they
(hall receive from the company, they are allowed a fum
not exceeding eight hundred pounds, for the falaries of
their clerks and agents at London, Briftol, and Liver¬
pool j the houfe-rent of their office at London ; and
all other expences of management, commiflion, and
agency, in England. What remains of this fum, after
defraying thofe different expences, they may divide
among themfelves, as compenfation for their trouble,
in what manner they think proper. “ By this confti-
tution, it might have been expe&ed (Dr Smith ob-
ferves), that the fpirit of monopoly would have been
effeftually reftrained^ and the firft of thefe purpofes
fufficiently anfwered. It would feem, however, that
it had not. Though by the 4th of George III. c. 20.
the fort of Senegal, with all its dependencies, had been
vefted in the company of merchants trading to Africa,
yet in the year following (by the 5th of George III.
c. 44.), not only Senegal and its dependencies, but the
whole coaft from the port of Sallee, in South Barbary,
to Cape Rouge, was exempted from the jurifdiftion of
that company, was vefted in the crown, and the trade
to it declared free to all his majefty’s fubje&s. The
company had been fufpe£led of reftraining the trade,
and of eftablifhing fome fort of improper monopoly.
It is not, however, very eafy to conceive how, under
the regulations of the 23d George II. they could do
fo. From the printed debates of the houfe of com¬
mons (not always the moft authentic records of truth),
it appears, however that they have been accufed of
this. The members of the committee of nine being
all merchants, and the governors and factors, in their
different forts and fettlements, being all dependent up¬
on them, it is not unlikely that the latter might have
given peculiar attention to the confignments and com-
miflions of the former, which would eftablilh a real
monopoly.”
For the fecond purpofe mentioned, the maintenance
of the forts and garrifons, an annual fum has been al¬
lotted to them by parliament, generally about 13,000!.
For the proper application of this fum, the committee
is obliged to account annually to the curfitor baron of
exchequer; which account is afterwards to be laid
before parliament. “ But parliament (continues our
author), which gives fo little attention to the applica¬
tion of millions, is not likely to give much to that of
13,000!. a-year j and the curfitor baron of exchequer,
from his profeflion and education, is not likely to be
profoundly {killed in the .proper expence of forts and
Vol. VI. Part I.
] COM
garrifons. The captains of his majefty’s navy, indeed, Company^
or any other commiflioned officers, appointed by the
board of admiralty, may inquire into the condition of
the forts and garrifons, and report their obfervations
to that board. But that board feems to have no di-
reft jurildiftion over the committee, nor any authori¬
ty to corredl thofe whofe conduft it may thus inquire
into-, and the captains of his majefty’s navy, befides,
are not luppofed to be always deeply learned in the
fcience of fortification. Removal from an office, which
can be enjoyed only for the term of three years, and of
which the lawful emoluments, even during that term,
are fo very fmall, feems to be the utmoft puniffunent
to which any committee-man is liable* for any fault,
except direft malverfation, or embezzlement either of
the public money or of that of the company } and the
fear of that puniftiment, can never be a motive of fuftl-
cient weight to force a continual and careful attention,
to a bufinefs to which he has no other intereft to at¬
tend. The committee are accufed of having fent out
bricks and ftones from England for the reparation of
Cape Coaft Caftle on the coaft of Guinea, a bufinefs
for which parliament had feveral times granted an ex¬
traordinary fum of money. Thefe bricks and ftones
too, which had thus been fent upon fo long a voyage,
were faid to have been of fo bad a quality, that it was
neceffary to rebuild from the foundation the walls which
had been repaired with them. The forts and garrifons
which lie north of Cape Rouge are not only maintain¬
ed at the expence of the ftate, but are under the imme¬
diate government of the executive power 5 and why
thofe which lie fouth of that cape, and wdiich too are,
in part at leaft, maintained at the expence of the ftate,
could be under a different government, it feems not
very eafy even to imagine a good reafon.”
The above company fucceeded that called *Ihe Royat
ylfrican Company, which traded upon a joint flock
with an exclufive privilege. Though England began
to trade to Africa as early as the year I53^> an<^ feve*
ral voyages w7ere made to Guinea in 15^^’ anc^ f°m^
following years, for the importation of gold and ele¬
phants teeth, nothing like a company was formed till
the year 1588, when Queen Elizabeth granted a patent
of exclufive privilege to certain perfons for ten years.
In 1618, King James I. eftabliftred a company by char¬
ter, which was foon diffolved. Another company was
erefled by charter of Charles I. in 1631* which met
with HttJ fuccefs ; but the demand for negroes in the
Engliflr American plantations increafing, a third com¬
pany was eftabliftied by a charter granted 1662, in
favour of the duke of York fecuring to him the com¬
merce of all the country , coafts, iflands, &c. belonging
to the crown of England, or not poffeffed by any other
Chriftian prince, from Cape Blanco in 20° N. Lat. to
the Cape of Good Hope, in 340 34' S. Lat. 1 he char¬
ter was foon after returned into the king’s hands by
the duke, and revoked, by confent of the parties af-
fociated with him in the enterprize } in confequence
of which, the fourth and laft exclufive company was
eftabliftied and incorporated by letters patent in 1672,
under the title of the Royal African Company. A ca¬
pital was foon raifed of iii,oool. and this new com¬
pany improved their trade, and increafed their forts 5
but after the revolution in 1689, this trade w-as laid
open. In 1698, all private traders to Africa were
U u obliged
COM [ 338 ] COM
Company, obliged by flat. 9 and I o Will, to pay ten per cent, in
 v   order to aflitl the company in maintaining their forts
and factories. But notwithftanding this heavy tax,
the company were ftill unable to maintain the com¬
petition j their flock and credit gradually declined.
In 1712, their debts had become fo great, that a parti¬
cular a£t of parliament was thought neceflary, both for
their fecurity and for that of their creditors. It was
enadled, that the refolution of two thirds of thefe cre¬
ditors in number and value ftiould bind the reft, both
with regard to the time which fhould be allowed to
the company for the payment of their debts, and
with regard to any other agreement which it might be
thought proper to make with them concerning thofe
debts. In 1730, their affairs were in fo great difor-
der, that they were altogether incapable of maintain¬
ing their forts and garrifons; the foie purpofe and pre¬
text of their inftitution. From that year till their
final diffolution, the parliament judged it neceffary to
allow the annual fum of ten thoufand pounds for that
purpofe. In 1732, after having been for many years
lofers by the trade of carrying negroes to the Weft
Indies, they at laft refolved to give it up altogether $
to fell to the private traders to America the negroes
which they purchafed upon the coaft j and to employ
their fervants in a trade to the inland parts of Africa
for gold duft, elephants teeth, dyeing drugs, &c. But
their fuccefs in this more confined trade was not greater
than in their former extenfive one. Their affairs con¬
tinued to go gradually to decline, till at laft being in
every refpedl a bankrupt company, they were diffolved
by aft of parliament, and their forts and garrifbns veil¬
ed in the prefent Regulated Company of Merchants trad¬
ing, to Africa.
11. Joint-Stock Companies, eftablifhed either by
royal charter or by aft of parliament, differ in feveral
refpefts, not only from regulated companies, but from
private copartneries. 1. In a private copartnery, no
partner, without the confent of the company, can
transfer his fhare to another perfon, or introduce a
new member into the company. Each member, how¬
ever, may, upon proper warning, withdraw from the
copartnery, and demand payment from them of his
fhare of the common flock. In a joint-ftock company,
on the contrary, no member can demand payment of
his (hare from the company ; but each member can,
without their confent, transfer his lhare to another
perfon, and thereby introduce a new member. The
Value of a {hare in a joint-ftock is always the price
which it will bring in the market •, and this may be
either greater or lefs, in any proportion, than the fum
which its owner ftands credited for in the flock of the
company. 2. In a private copartnery, each partner is
bound for the debts contrafted by the company to the
whole extent of his fortune. In a joint-ftock compa¬
ny, on the contrary, each partner is bound only to the
extent of his fhare.
The trade of a joint-flock company is always ma¬
naged by a court of direftors. This court indeed is
frequently fubjeft, in many refpefts, to the controul
of a general court of proprietors. But the greater
part of thofe proprietors feldom pretend to underftand
any thing of the bufinefs of the company ; and when
the fpirit of faftion happens not to prevail among
them, give themfelves no trouble about it, but receive
contentedly fuch half-yearly or yearly dividend as the Compafif,
direftors think proper to make to them. This total1"v" ''
exemption from trouble and from rifk, beyond a limi¬
ted fum, encourages many people to become adven¬
turers in joint-ftock companies, who would upon no
account hazard their fortunes in any private copart¬
nery. Such companies, therefore, commonly draw
to themfelves much greater flocks than any private
copartnery can boaft of. The trading flock of the
South Sea Company, at one time, amounted to upwards
of thirty-three millions eight hundred thoufand pounds.
The direftors of fuch companies, however, being the
managers rather of other people’s money than of their
orvn, it cannot well be expefted that they fhould watch
over it with the fame anxious vigilance with which the
partners in a private copartnery frequently watch over
their own. Like the ftewards of a rich man, they are.
apt to confider attention to fmall matters as not for
their mailer’s honour, and very eafily give themfelves
a difpenfation from having it. Negligence and pro-
fufion, therefore, mull always prevail, more or lefs, in
the management of the affairs of fuch a company. It
is upon this account that joint-ftock companies for fo¬
reign trade have feldom been able to maintain the com¬
petition again!! private adventurers. They have, ac¬
cordingly, very feldom fucceeded without an exclufive
privilege ; and frequently have not fucceeded with one.
Without an exclufive privilege they have commonly
mifmanaged the trade. With an exclufive privilege
they have both mifmanaged and confined it.
The principal joint-ftock companies prefently fub-
fifling in Great Britain are, the South Sea and the
Eajl India companies j to which may be added,
though of very inferior magnitude, the Hudfon's Bay
Company.
1. The South-Sea Company. During the long war
with France in the reign of Queen Anne, the payment
of the failors of the royal navy being neglefted, they re¬
ceived tickets inflead of money, and were frequently
obliged, by their neceflities, to fell thefe tickets to ava¬
ricious men at a difcount of 40 and fometimes $0 per
cent. By this and other means, the debts of the na¬
tion unprovided for by parliament, and which amount¬
ed to 9,471,321!. fell into the hands of thefe ufurers.
On which Mr Harley, at that time chancellor of the
exchequer, and afterwards earl of Oxford, propofed a
fcheme to allow the proprietors of thefe debts and de¬
ficiencies 6 per cent, per annum, and to incorporate
them for the purpofe of carrying on a trade to the
South Sea ; and they were accordingly incorporated un¬
der the title of “ the Governor and Company of Mer¬
chants of Great Britain trading to the South Seas, and
other parts of America, and for encouraging the Fifh-
ery,” &c.
Though this company feemed formed for the fake of
commerce, the miniftry never thought ferioufly, during
the courfe of the war, about making any fettlement on
the coart of South America, which was what flattered
the expeftations of the people ; nor was it ever carried
into execution by this company.
Some other fums were lent to the government in
the reign of Queen Anne at 6 per cent. In the third
of George I. the intereft of the whole was reduced to
5 per cent, and the company advanced two millions
more to the government at the fame intereft. By the
ilatute
COM
[ 339 1
COM
Company, ftatute of the 6th of George I. it was declared, that
they might redeem all or any of the redeemable na¬
tional debts •, in confideration of which, the company
were empowered to augment their capital according
to the fums they Ihould difcharge : and for enabling
them to raife fuch fums for purchafing annuities, ex¬
changing for ready money new exchequer bills, car¬
rying on their trade, &c. they might, by fuch means
as they fliould think proper, raife fuch fums of money
as in a general court of the company fhould be judged
necelfary. The company were alfo empowered to raife
money on the contrafts, bonds, or obligations under
their common feal, on the credit of their capital flock.
But if the fub governor, deputy governor, or other
members of the company, ftiould purchafe lands or
revenues of the crown upon account of the corporation,
or lend money by loan or anticipation on any branch
of the revenue, other than fuch part only on which a
credit of loan was granted by parliament, fuch fub-
governor, or other member of the company, fliould
forfeit treble the value of the money fo lent.
The fatal South Sea fcheme, tranfa&ed in the year
1720, was executed upon the laft mentioned ftatute.
The company had at firft fet out with good fuccefs,
and the value of their flock, for the firft five years, had
rifen fafter than that of any other company $ and his
majefty, after purchafing io,oool. flock, had conde-
fcended to be their governor. Things were in this fi-
tuation, when, taking advantage of the above ftatute,
the South Sea bubble was projefted. The pretence
was, to raife a fund for carrying on a trade to the
South Sea, and purchafing annuities, &c. paid to the
other companies : and propofals were printed and di-
ftributed, ftiowing the advantages of this defign. The
fum neceffary for carrying it on, together with the
profits that were to arife from it, were divided into a
certain number of (hares, or fubfcriptions, to be purcha-
fed by perfons difpofed to adventure therein. And the
better to carry on the deception, the diredlors enga¬
ged to make very large dividends : and aftually de¬
clared that every 100I. original flock would yield 50I.
per annum: which occafioned fo great a rife of their
flock, that a (hare of look was fold for upwards of
800I. This was in the month of July 5 but before
the end of September it fell to 150!. by which multi¬
tudes were ruined, and fuch a fcene of diftrefs occa¬
fioned, as is fcarcely to be conceived. But the con-
fequences of this infamous fcheme are too well known $
moft of the dire&ors were feverely fined, to the lofs
of nearly all their property 5 fome of them had no
hand in the deception, nor gained a farthing by it ;
but it was agreed, they ought to have oppofed and
prevented it.
The South Sea company never had any forts or
garrifons to maintain, and therefore were entirely ex¬
empted from one great expence, to which other joint-
flock companies for foreign trade are fubjeft. But
they had an immenfe capital divided among an im-
menfe number of proprietors. It was naturally to be
expe&ed, therefore, that folly, negligence, and pro-
fufion, fhould prevail in the whole management of their
affairs.
Their flock-jobbing fpeculations were fucceeded by
mercantile proje&s, which, Dr Smith obferves, were
Hot much better conduced. The firft trade which
they engaged in, was that of fupplying the Spanifh Catr.pariy^
Weft Indies with negroes, of which (in confequence v
of what was called the Affiento contract granted them
by the treaty of Utrecht) they had the exclufive pri¬
vilege. But as it was not expe&ed that much profit
could be made by this trade, both the Portuguefe and
French companies, who had enjoyed it upon the fame
terms before them, having been ruined by it, they
were allowed, as compeniation, to fend annually a
(hip of a certain burden to trade dire&ly to the Spa¬
nifh Weft Indies. Of the ten voyages which this an¬
nual (hip was allowed to make, they are faid to have
gained confiderably by one, that of the Royal Caro¬
line in 1731, and to have been lofers, more or lefs, by
almoft all the reft. Their ill fuccefs was imputed, by
their faftors and agents, to the extortion and oppref-
fion of the Spanifh government; but was, perhaps,
principally owing to the profufion and depredations
of thofe very faftors and agents *, fome of whom are
faid to have acquired great fortunes even in one year.
In 1734, the company petitioned the king, that they
might be allowed to difpofe of the trade and tonnage
of their annual (hip, on account of the little profit
which they made by it, and to accept of fuch equiva¬
lent as they could obtain from the king of Spain.
In 1724, this company had undertaken the whale-
fifhery. Of this, indeed, they had no monopoly ; but
as long as they carried it on, no other Britifh fubjects
appear to have engaged in it. Of the eight voyages
which their fhips made to Greenland, they were gain¬
ers by one, and lofers by all the reft. After their
eighth and laft voyage, when they had fold their (hips,
(lores, and utenfils, they found that their whole lofs,
upon this branch, capital and intereft included, amount¬
ed to upwards of 237,000!.
In 1722, this company petitioned the parliament to
be allowed to divide their immenfe capital of more
than 33,800,000!. the whole of which had been
lent to government, into two equal parts : The one-
half, or upwards of 16,900,000!. to be put upon the
fame footing with other government annuities, and
not to be fubjeft to the debts contrafted, or Ioffes in¬
curred, by the direftors of the company, in the pro-
fecution of their mercantile projefts ; the other half
to remain, as before, a trading flock, and to be fub-
je£l to thofe debts and Ioffes. The petition was too
reafonable not to be granted. In 1733, they again
petitioned the parliament, that three-fourths of their
trading (lock might be turned into annuity (lock, and
only one-fourth remain as trading (lock, or expofed
to the hazards arifing from the bad management of
their diredlors. Both their annuity and trading (locks
had by this time, been reduced more than 2,ooo,oool.
each, by feveral different payments from government ;
fo that this fourth amounted only to 3,662,784!.
8s. 6d. In 1748, all the demands of the company
upon the king of Spain, in confequence of the Af¬
fiento contrafl, were by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapel!e,
given up for what was fuppofed an equivalent. An
end was put to their trade with the Spanilh Weft In¬
dies, the remainder of their trading flock was turned
into an annuity (lock, and the company ceafed in every
refpefl to be a trading company.
This company is under the direflion of a governor, fub-
governor, deputy-governor, and 21 directors ^ but no per-
U u 2 foil
/
COM [ 340 ]
Company, fbn is qualified to be governor, his majefiy excepted, un- Engliili market
v lefs fuch governor has in his own name and right, 5000I.
in the trading flock-, the fub-governor is to have 4000I.
the deputy-governor 3000I. and a direftor 2000I.
in the fame flock. In every general court, every
member having in his own name and right 500I. in
trading flock, has one vote 5 if 2000I. two votes; if
3000I. three votes ; and if 5000I. four votes.
2. The Kq/l India Company. The firfl, or as it is
called the Old Eqft India Company, was eftabliflied by
a charter from Queen Elizabeth in 1600 ; but for
fome time the partners feem to have traded with fe-
parate flocks, though only .in the fliips belonging to
the whole company. In 1612, they joined their flocks
into one common capital : and though their charter
was not as yet confirmed by aft of parliament, it was
looked upon in that early period to be fufficiently va¬
lid, and no body ventured to interfere with their
trade. At this time their capital amounted to about
740,000!. and the fhares were as low as 50I : their
trade was in general fuccefsful, notwithftanding fome
heavy Ioffes, chiefly fuftained through the malice of the
Dutch Eaft India Company. In procefs of time,
however, it came to be underftood that a royal char¬
ter could not by itfelf convey an exclufive privilege to
traders, and the company was reduced to diftrefs by
reafon of the multitude of interlopers who carried off
the moft of their trade. This continued during the
latter part of the reign of Charles II. the whole of
that of James II. and part of William III. when in
1698 a propofal was made to parliament for advancing
the fum of 2,ooo,oool. to government, on condition
of erefting the fubfcribers into a new company with ex¬
clufive privileges. The old company endeavoured to
prevent the appearance of fuch a formidable rival, by
offering government 700,000!. nearly the amount of
their capital at that time } but fuch were the exigen¬
cies of the ftate at that time, that the larger fum, though
at eight per cent, intereft, was preferred to the fmaller
at one half the expence.
Thus were two Eaft India Companies erefted in
the fame kingdom, which could not but be very pre¬
judicial to each other. Through the negligence of
thofe who prepared the aft of parliament alfo, the
new company were not obliged to unite in a joint-flock.
The confequence of this was, that a few private traders,
vvhofe fubfcriptions fcarce exceeded 7200I. infifted on
a right of trading feparately at their own rifle. Thus a
kind of third company was eftablifhed ; and by their
mutual contentions with one another, all the three were
brought to the brink of ruin. Upon a fubfequent occa-
lion, in 1730, a propofal was made to parliament for
putting the trade under the management of a regula¬
ted company, and thus laying it in fome meafure open.
This, however, was oppofed by the company, w'ho re-
prefented in ftrong terms the mifehiefs likely to arife
from fuch a proceeding. “ In India (they faid), it
raifed the price of goods fo high, that they were not
worth the buying \ and in England, by overftocking
the market, it funk the price to fuch a degree that
no profit could be made of them.” Here Dr Smith
remarks, that by a more plentiful fupply, to the great
advantage and conveniency of the public, it muft have
^reduced very ‘much the price of India goods in the
G O M
cannot well be doubted j
Smith's
Wealth of
Nations,
vol. iii.
P- 134-
but that it Company,
ftiould have raifed very much their price in the Indian —v—~
market, feems not very probable, as all the extraordi¬
nary demand which that competition could occafion,
muft have been but as a drop of water in the immenfe
ocean of Indian commerce. The increafe of demand,
adds he, though in the beginning it may fometimes
raife the price of goods, never fails to lower it in the
iffue. It encourages produftion, and thereby in-
creafes the competition of the producers, who, in or¬
der to underfell one another, have recourfe to new- di~
vifions of labour and new improvements of art, which
might never otherwife have been thought of. The
miferable effefts of which the company complained,,
were the cheapnefs of confumption and the encourage¬
ment given to produftion, precifely the two effefts
w-hich it is the bufinefs of political economy to promote^
The competition, however, of which they gave this
doleful account, had not been allowed to continue,
long. In 1702 the two companies were, in fome
meafure, united by an indenture tripartite, to which
the queen was the third party; and in 1708, they
were, by aft of parliament, perfeftly confolidated into
one company by their prefent name of “ The United
Company of Merchants trading to the Eaft Indies.”
Into this aft it was thought worthy to infert a claufe
allowing the feparate traders to continue their traffic
til! Michaelmas 1711, but at the fame time empower¬
ing the direftors, upon three years notice, to redeem
their capital of 7200I. and thereby convert the wholo
capital of the company into a joint-flock. By ths
fame aft, the capital of the company, in confequence.
of a new loan to government, was augmented from.
2,ooo,oool. to 3,200,0001. In 1743, another mil¬
lion was advanced to government. But this being
raifed, not by a call upon the proprietors, but by
felling annuities and contrafting bond-debts, it did
not augment the flock upon which the proprietors
could claim a dividend. Thus, however, their trading
flock was augmented ; it being equally liable with the
other 3,200,000!. to the Ioffes fuftained, and debts-
contrafted, by the company in the profecution of
their mercantile projefts. From 1708, or at leaft:
from 1711, this company being freed from all com¬
petitors, and fully eftablifhed in the monopoly of the
Englifh commerce to the Eaft Indies, carried on a
fuccefsful trade ; and from their profits made annually
a moderate dividend to their proprietors. Unhappily,,
however, in a flrort time, an inclination for war and
conqueft began to take place among their fervants;.
which, though it put them in poffeffion of extenfive
territories and vaft nominal revenues, yet embarraffed
their affairs in fuch a manner, that they have not to
this day been able to recover themfelves. The parti¬
culars of thefe wars are given under the articles Bri¬
tain, and Indostan. Here it will be fufficient to
obferve, that they originated during the war in 1741
through the ambition of M. Dupleix the French go¬
vernor of Pondicherry, who involved the company in
the politics and difputes of the Indian princes. Af¬
ter carrying on hoftilities for fome time with various
fuccefs, they at laft loft Madras, at that time the prin¬
cipal fettlement in the Eaft Indies, but it was reftored
by the treaty of Aix-la-Chaptlle. During the war
of
1
COM [ 34
of 1755* they acquired the revenues of a rich and ex-
' tenfive territory, amounting, as was then laid, to near
!t,ooo,oool. per annum. .
For feveral years they remained in quiet poileihon
of the revenue arifing from this territory, though it
certainly never anfwered the expeclations that had
been formed concerning it. But in 1767 the Britifh
miniftry laid claim to the territorial poffeliions o. the
company, and the revenue ariling from them, as ot
riaht belonging to the crown j and the company, ra¬
ther than yield up their territories in this manner,
agreed to pay government a yearly fum oi 400,0001.
They had before this gradually augmented their di¬
vidend from about fix to ten per cent, j that is, on
their capital of 3,200,000!. they had railed it from
lQ2,oool. to 320000I. a-year. About this time al-
fo they were attempting to raife it ftill further, viz.
from 10 to 124: per cent.", but from this they were pre¬
vented by two fucceflive afts of parliament, the defign
of which was to enable them to make a more fpeedy
payment of their debts, at this time efiimated at more
than fix or feven millions Sterling. In 1769 they re¬
newed their agreement with government for five years
more, ftipulating, that during the courfe of that pe-
riod they (hould be allowed gradually to augment their
dividend to 124 percent.; never increafing it, however,
more than one per cent, annually. Thus their annual
payments could only be augmented by 6o8,o^ol. be¬
yond what they had been before their late territorial
acquifitions. By accounts from India in the year
1768, this revenue, clear of all dedudHonsand military
charges, was ftated at 2,048,747!. At the fame
time they were faid to poflels another revenue, arifing
partly from lands, but chiefly from the cuftoms efta-
bliflied at their different fettlements, _ amounting to
about 439,000!. The profits of their trade, too,
according to the evidence of their chairman before the
houfe of commons,- amounted to at leaft 400,000!.
per annum ; their accountant made it 500.000I. ; and
the lowed: account ftated it at leaft equal to the high-
eft dividend paid to their proprietors. Notwithftand-
ing this apparent wTealth, however, the affairs of the
company from this time fell into diforder ; infomuch
that in 1773 their debts were augmented by an arrear
to the treafury in the payment of the 400,000!. fti-
pulated ; by another to the cuftomhoufe for duties un¬
paid ; by a large fum borrowed from the bank ; and
by bills drawn upon them from India to the amount
of more than 1,200,000!. Thus they were not on¬
ly obliged to reduce their dividend all at once to fix
per cent, but to apply to government for affiftance. A
particular account of this tranfaftion is given under the
article Britain. Here it may be mentioned in general,
that the event proved very unfavourable to the com¬
pany, as they were now fubjefled to an interference
of government altogether unknown before. Several
important alterations w7ere made in their conftitution
both at home and abroad. T he fettlements of Madras,
Bombay, and Calcutta, which had hitherto been entire¬
ly independent of one another, were fubjedfted to a go¬
vernor-general, affifted by a council of four affeffors.
The nomination of the firft governor and council, who
were to refide at Calcutta, was affumed by parliament;
the power of the court of Calcutta, which had gradual-
T ] COM
ly extended its jurifdiaion over the reft, was now re- Company,
duced and confined to the trial of mercantile caufes, t re
purpofe for which it was originally inftituted. ln-
ftead of it a new fupreme court of judicature was efta-
blilhed, confifting of a chief juftice and three judges
to be appointed by the crown. Befides thefe altera¬
tions, the ftock neceffary to entitle any proprietor to
vote at the general courts was raifed from 50_oh
1000I. To vote on this qualification, too, it was
neceffary that he fhould have poffeffed it, if acquired
by his own purchafe and not by inheritance, lor at
leaft one year, inftead of fix months, the term requi-
fite formerly. The court of 24 dire&ors had before
been chofen annually *, but it was now enafted, that
each director {hould for the future be chofen for four
years ; fix of them, however, to go out of office by
rotation every year, and not to be capable of being re-
chofen at the eleftion of the fix new direaors for the
enfuing year. It was expefted that, in confequence
of thefe alterations, the courts both' of the proprie¬
tors and direaors would be likely to aa with more
dignity and fteadinefs than formerly. But this was
far from being the cafe. The company and its fer-
vants ffiorved the utmoft indifference about the happi-
nefs or milery of the people w’ho had the misfortune
to be fubjeaed to their juriidiaion. This indifference,
too, was more likely to be increafed than diminiffied
by fome of the new regulations. I he houfe of com¬
mons, for inftance, had refolved, that when the
l ,6oo,oool. lent to the company by government ffiould
be paid, and their bond debts reduced to 1,500,000!.
they might then, and not till then, divide eight, per
cent, upon their capital ; and that whatever remained
of their revenues and nett profits at home ffiould be
divided into four parts; three of them to be paid into
the exchequer for the ufe of the public, and the iouith
to be referved as a fund, either for the further reduc¬
tion of their bond-debts, or for the difcharge of other
contingent exigencies which the company might la¬
bour under. But it could fcarce be expefted that, it
the company were bad ftewards and bad foveieigns
when the whole of their nett revenue and profits be¬
longed to themfelves, they would be better when three-
fourths of thefe belonged to other people. The regu¬
lations of I773> therefore, did not put an. end to the
troubles of the company. Among other inftitutions,
it had been at this time enafted, that the prefidency
of Bengal ffiould have a fuperiority over the other pre-
fidencies in the country ; the falary of the chief juftice
was fixed at 8000I. per annum, and thofe of the. othei
judges at 6000I. each. In confequence of this aft,
Sir Elijah Impey, who was created a baronet on the
occafion, fet fail, with three other judges, for India
in the vear 1774* ^ Pow^r® with which they were
invefted were very extraordinary. They had the title
of His Majefty’s Supreme Court of Judicature in In¬
dia. Civil law, common law, ecclefiaftical, criminal,
and admiralty jurifdi&ion, belonged of right to them.
They wrere empowered to try Europeans on perfonal
aftions, and to affefs damages, without a juiy. Every
native, either diredfly orindire£lly in the fervice of the
company, or in their territories, was made fubjea tc*
their jurifdiaion, with a view to prevent the Euro¬
peans from eluding juftice under the pretence of em-
ploymgi
1
COM
[ 342 ]
COM
Company, ploying natives in the commiffion of their crimes $ fo
r that in faft they were absolute lords and fovereigns of
the whole country.
Such exceffive and unlimited powers conferred on
any fmall number of men, could not but be extremely
di(agreeable to the Europeans, who had been accuftom-
ed to enjoy a liberty almoft equally unbounded before j
nor was it to be fuppol'ed that the judges, thus fud-
denly raifed from the rank of fubje&s to the height of
defpotifm, would always ufe their power in an unexcep¬
tionable manner. The delign of the eftablilhment was
to preferve the commerce and revenues of the company
from depredation, by fubjefting its fervants to the con-
troul of the court ; to relieve the fubjeft from oppref-
iion by facilitating the means of redrefs •, and to fix a
regular courfe of juftice for the fecurity of liberty and
property. Inftead of confidering the circumftances of
the country, however, or the manners and cuftoms of
the natives, the judges now precipitately introduced
the Britilh laws in their full extent, without the lead
modification to render them agreeable to the Afiatics,
who had been accuftomed to others of a quite differ¬
ent nature •, nor did they even pay the leaft regard to
the religious inftitutions or habits to which the Indians
are fo obftinately attached, that they would fooner
part with life itfelf than break through an article of
them.
Befides this it was faid, that, on the firft arrival of the
judges, they endeavoured to extend their authority be¬
yond even what the Britiili legiflature had allowed them.
Hence they were frequently at variance with the coun¬
cil y and complaints of their conduct were repeatedly
fent to England by the fervants of the company. Thefe
produced a letter in 1777 from the directors to Lord
Weymouth, fecretary of ftate for the fouthern depart¬
ment. In this they ftated, that the fupreme court of
India had extended its jurifdidHon to thofewhom it did
not appear to have been the intention of the king or
parliament to fubjeft to its authority. It had alfo taken
cognizance of matters which, they apprehended, be¬
longed properly to other courts. That the judges con-
fidered the criminal law of England as in force, and
binding on the natives of Bengal, though utterly re¬
pugnant to the laws and cufioms by which they had
hitherto been governed j and that the jurifdiftion ex-
ercifed by the fupreme court was incompatible with
the powers given by parliament to the governor-gene¬
ral and council, obftrufted the adminiftration of go¬
vernment, and tended to alienate the minds of the na¬
tives ; all which they feared would prevent the efta¬
blilhment of the government of India upon any fettled
or permanent foundation.
This letter not having produced any effeft, the dif-
contents of India, both in the Europeans and natives^
continued and increafed. The decifions of the judges
were fuch as by no means did them honour. A num¬
ber of adventurers had alfo emigrated along with them,
in hopes of enriching themfelves under the new con-
flitution. Some of thefe were of the loweft fort of
people, who had rendered it in a manner impoflible
for them to remain in England on account of their
vices or extravagance. Many fuch perfons had en¬
rolled themfelves among the domeftics of the judges,
or had become their immediate dependents; and
fome of thefe were permitted to affume the charac-
2
ters of attorneys, court-officers, under-fheriffs, and Compawf.
bailiffs. It may eafily be fuppoled, that people of
fuch charafters would find it for their intereft to pro¬
mote fuits in the fupreme court: and in this fome of
them employed themfelves with great fuccefs. The
confequence of all this was, that on the 4th of De¬
cember 1780, a petition was prefented againft the fu¬
preme court by a great number of Britifh inhabitants
in the kingdoms of Bengal, Bahar, and Orixa. In
this, complaint was made of the indifcriminate man¬
ner in which the judges of the fupreme court attempt¬
ed to exercife the Englilh laws in that country, at the
fame time that they refufed the undoubted right of
every Britilh fubjeft, viz. that of trial by jury. They
intreated the houfe “ to refleft on the innumerable
hardftiips which muft enfue, and the univerfal confu-
fion which muft be occafioned, by giving to the volu¬
minous laws of England a boundlefs retrofpe&ive pow¬
er in the mid ft of Afia, and by an application of thofe
laws made for the freeft and moft enlightened people
on earth, the principle of whofe conftitution was found¬
ed on virtue and liberty, to tranfaftions with the na¬
tives of India, who had, from time immemorial, lived
under a defpotic government, founded on fear and re-
ftraint. What muft be the terrors of individuals to
find their titles to property, and their tranfa&ions with
the natives previous to the eftablilhment of this court
of judicature, tried by the ftandard of the Englifh
law, and by men educated under its forms, and una¬
voidably imbibing its prejudices, when no fuch laws
could be known to or praftifed by natives or Euro¬
peans then refiding in the country, and that at a time
when there were few perfons of legal knowledge in
the country to advife or aflift them ? No tyranny could
be more fatal in its confequences, than that a court,
inverted with all the authority of one of the firft courts
in England, Ihould alfo poffefs undefined powers and
jurifditlion, of which its judges were the foie interpre¬
ters, and at fuch an immenfe diftance from the mother
country. This was in truth the fituation of the Bri¬
tilh fubje&s in India at that time ; for the judges of
the fupreme court could at pleafure determine on the
denomination of a civil jury, the degree of guilt in¬
curred by any offence, the ftatute by which it Ihould
be tried, what penalties Ihould be infli&ed, as well as
who were and who were not amenable to the jurifdic-
tion of the court.
“ Befides their other powers alfo, the judges of the
fupreme court were allowed to fit as a court of chancery,
and in that capacity to revife, correft, refcind, or con¬
firm the decifions parted by themfelves as a court of
law } and, by another part of their conftitution, they
were allowed to flop execution in criminal cafes until
his majefty’s pleafure was known. 1 he petitioners
conceived, that there muft be fome fundamental error
in that conftitution, which required a more than ordi¬
nary degree of temper, integrity, and ability, to carry
its purpofes into execution j and they did not hefitate
to declare, that to adminifter the powers appertaining
to the inftitution of the fupreme court, without com¬
mitting flagrant a&s of injuftice, and doing great de¬
triment to the public, required more equity, modera¬
tion, difcernment, and enlightened abilities, than they
could hope to find in any fet of men.” They con¬
cluded with earneftly foliciting parliament, that a trial
W
COM
[ 343 I
COM
Cbmpany. by jury might be granted to the Britilb fubjefta in
»    Bengal, in all cafes where it was eftabhflied by law in
England that the retrofpe£live powers of the fu-
preme court might be limited to the time of its efta-
blhhment in Bengal; that it Ihould be defined beyond
the power of difcretional diftindion who the perfons
were that properly came under the jurifditlion of the
court, and who did not j that it fhould be exprefsly
declared what ftatutes Ihould, and what (hould not, be
in force in Bengal j that diftindt and feparate judges
for the law and equity fides of the court Ihould be ap¬
pointed } and that a power of delaying executions in
criminal cafes until his majefty’s pleafure was known,
fhould be lodged in the governor and council.
This petition was foon followed by another figned
by Warren Haftings, Efq. governor-general,
Francis and Edward Wheeler, Efqs. counfellors for the
government and prefidency of Fort-William in Ben¬
gal *, in which they reprefented, “ that, though theju-
rifdi&ion of the fupreme court of judicature at Cal¬
cutta, as well as the powers granted to the governor-
general and council, were clearly limited by parlia¬
ment and the king’s letters patent, yet the chief
iuftice and judges of that court had exercifed authori¬
ty over perfons not legally within their juriidiftion,-
and had illegally and improperly advifed and admitted
fuits againft the governor-general and council : that
they had attempted to execute their writs upon natives
of high rank in the kingdom of Bengal, who were not
within their jurifdi&ion : the governor and council
therefore had found themfelves under a neceflity of
oppofing them, and of affording proteftion to the
country and people, who were placed under their own
immediate infpeflion, and freeing them from the terrors
of a new and ufurped dominion. They had even been
obliged to make ufe of a military force, in order to re-
fift the proceedings of the judges and their officers .
And they declared, that no other conduft could have
faved thofe provinces and the interetts of the company,
or of the Britiffi nation itfelf,.from the ruin with which
they were threatened. They alfo declared themfelves
to be of opinion, that the attempt to extend, to the
inhabitants of thefe provinces, the jurifdiaion of the
fupreme court of judicature, and the authority of the
Engliffi law, which were ftill more intolerable than
the law itfelf, would be fuch a reflraint on the minds
of the people of thofe provinces, by the difference of
fuch laws and forms front their laws, that they might
at laft inflame them, notwithftanding their known mild-
nefs and patience, into an open rebellion.” The pe¬
tition was' concluded, by foliciting an indemnity from
the legal confequences of the refiftance they had been
obliged to make to that court. .
While the Britifh were thus expreffing their dif-
pleafure againft the conduft of thefe judges, the na¬
tives were thrown into the utmoft conflernation and
defpair by the ads of oppreffion and violence com¬
mitted by them. A profecution for forgery had been
commenced againft Nundcomar, a bramin of the firft
rank in Bengal. The crime was not capital by the
laws of Indoftan, and had been committed many
years before ; yet with the utmoft cruelty and in-
juftice was this man condemned and executed on the
Britifh ftatute, by which forgery is made capital: a fta-
tute which, at the commiffion of the crime, he had
never heard of, nor could ever dream that he would be Company.
fubjefted to its power. What rendered this execution
the more remarkable was, that, at the very time when
charge of forgery was brought againft him, Nund¬
comar had been employed in exhibiting an accufation
againft Mr Haftings. This, together with the hur¬
ry in which the court were to have him put to death
(for the court refufed to allow him a refpite till his
majefty’s pleafure was known,) made the natives con¬
clude, that he w’as executed, not on account of the
forgery, but for having ventured to prefer an accufa¬
tion againft an Engliffi governor. In other refpe£ts
they were terrified to fuch a degree, that many of them
ran into the river on feeing a bramin put to death
with fuch circumftances of ignominy.
The alarm excited by the execution of Nundcomar
was kept up by frefh decifions of the fupreme couit.
Among thofe the Patna caufe, as it is commonly
called, was one of the moft remarkable. An adven¬
turer, named Shahaz Beg Gawn, had come from Ca-
bul in Perfia to Bengal, where he entered himfelf in
the fervice of the company, and was preferred to the
command of a body of horfe. Having gained a com¬
petent fortune, and obtained from the Mogul a grant
of lands called an Ultumghaw in the province of Ba-
har^ he retired from the army, and fettled in Patna.
About this time, when advanced in years, he married
a w’oman of low rank, named Nadar a Begum, by whom
he had no children. His brother, _ Allum Beg, came
likewife to Patna 5 and on his leaving the place fome
time after, committed the care of one of his fons,
named Behader Beg, to his brother Shahaz Beg Cawn.
On the death of the latter in 1776, a difpute enfued
concerning the inheritance betwixt the wddow and
Behader Beg. The widow having taken poffeffion
of the whole property of Shahaz, the nephewr, ^as
adopted fon and heir, gave in a petition to the provincial
council at Patna, on the 2d of January 1777, fetting
forth his claim. In this petition he ftated, that the
widow was removing and fecreting the effedfs of the
deceafed $ and concluded with a prayer, that orders
ffiould be given to prevent their removal} to recover
fuch as had already been carried away ; and that the
cadi or Indian judge ffiould be diredled to afeertain
his right. As the parties were Mahometans, the
council of courfe referred the caufe to the cadi and
two mufties, the proper officers for determining it ac¬
cording to the eftabliffied laws of the country.- Thefe
having inquired into the matter, reported, that the
title-deeds, on which the widow pretended to found
her right, appeared to be forged j and that, even if
they had appeared in the life-time of Shahaz, they
were ftill informal, on account of a point of the Ma¬
hometan law, which requires, that to make deeds of
gift valid, poffeflion ffiould be entered into at the time
of executing or delivering them over \ but that, as no
poffeffion of this kind had been given, the eftate ought
to be divided according to the Mahometan law •, viz.
one-fourth to the wife, and three-fourths to the ne¬
phew, as the reprefentative of his father Allum Beg,
who was confidered as the more immediate heir of the
deceafed. This decifion w7as confirmed by the coun¬
cil of Patna, with the following exception in favour of
the widow, that the heir-at-law ffiould pay her one-
fourth of the rents of the ultumghawyor royal grant,
for
COM t 344 ] COM
Company, for her fupport during life. The widow, however,
refufed to fubmit to the decifion, or to deliver up the
effefts of her hulband ; in confequence of which com-
pulfatory methods were ufed ; when, by the advice of
Ibme Englilhlawyers, an aftion of trefpafs was brought,
according to the law of England, againfl: the cadi and
two mufties for their proceedings againft her, laying
the damages at about 66,ooOl. fterling. This procefs
being brought before the fupreme court, was by them
conduced in fuch a manner as muft entail everlafting
infamy on the a&ors. They began with obliging the
cadi and mufties to find bail in no lefs than 40,000
pounds for their appearance, w’hich was immediately
•given by the council at Patna. The fupreme court
then having entered into the merits of the caufe, and
decided the matter in the moft rigorous manner, ac¬
cording to all the forms of Englifh law, affefled the
cadi and mufties in damages no lefs than 30,000!.
-fterling. Their houfes and effefls were feized by the
Iheriff’s officers, and publicly put up to fale ; the cadi,
who was upwards of 60 years of age, and had been in
office for many years with great applaufe, died on his
way to the common gaol at Calcutta, to which the
nephew and two mufties were conveyed, being a di-
ilance of no lefs than 40O miles from their former re*
fidence at Patna. A fuit, however, was commenced
againft; the widow, on account of having forged the
■title-deeds by which fhe claimed her hulband’s eftate j
but it was fuppreffed on account of fome informality.
Another decifion, by which the fupreme court like-
>Tvife incurred much cenfure, was that againft Jagger-
-naut, the principal public officer of a Mahometan
court at Dacca. The aftion was brought at the mitiga¬
tion of an Englilh attorney, in behalf of one Khyne, a
fervant or meffenger, wffio had been fined and imprifoned
for a mifdemeanor, in which Jaggernaut had concur*
red in virtue of his office as judge of the Nizamut
(the name of the Mahometan court juft mentioned).
The Iheriff-officers attempted to arreft the judge as
he fat on the tribunal •, which could not fail to produce
much difturbance. Jaggernaut, with his officers, de¬
nied the authority of the fupreme court over the Niza¬
mut, and refufed to comply with the writ. The Eng-
lifti (heriff-officers proceeded to force *, and a violent
fcuffle enfuing, Jaggemaut’s father was wounded in
the head with a fword by one of the under-ftieriff’s at¬
tendants, while his brother-in-law was very danger-
oully wounded with a piftol bullet by the under-ffieriff
himfelf. The immediate confequence of this was an
abfolute refufal of the judge to take cognizance of any
criminal matters *, and this w;as intimated in a letter
from the council at Dacca to the Engliffi governor
and council of India •, wherein they declared that all
criminal juftice wTas at a Hand.
The fupreme court, having proceeded in this arbi¬
trary and oppieffive manner for fome time, at length
attempted to extend their jurifdiftion over the heredi¬
tary zemindars of Bengal. Thefe are a kind of tri¬
butary lords, or great landholders, who are anfwerable
to the company for the revenues or rents of the di-
ftri£ls ; and excepting the circumftance of remitting
their revenues to the company, have not the leaft con¬
nexion wuth the Englilh in any refpeft. At the time
we fpeak of, however, a writ upon an aXion of debt
.was iffued out to arreft one of thefe zemindars in his
palace. Timely notice, however, was given, by one Company,,
of the company’s colleXors, of this attempt to the
governor and council, and application made to proteX
a man of fuch quality from the diigrace of an arreft.
They being unanimoufly of opinion that the zemin¬
dar wras not within the jurifdiXion of the court of
Calcutta, defired him to pay no;regard to the writ.
The court, however, determined to enforce their pro¬
cefs by a writ of fequeftration ; upon which the na¬
tives, wffio are fuperftitioufiy attached to their zemin¬
dars, role in his defence, and infulted the iheriff’s of¬
ficers. The latter having obtained a reinforcement,
the zemindar’s palace wTas entered by 86 men armed
with bludgeons, cutlaffes, and muikets ; the apartment
of his women, always held inviolably facred by the
Afiatics, was broken open j his temple profaned ; and
the image, which was the objeX of his worftiip, put in¬
to a bafket, and carried off with fome common lum¬
ber. This roufed the attention of the governor and
council } who, from a full conviXion of the ruinous
tendency of thefe proceedings, determined at laft to
oppofe it force by force. They accordingly fent a par¬
ty of military to apprehend the ffieriff’s people, and
they w’ere all conduXed prifoners to Calcutta. The
judges ordered attachments againft the officer who
commanded the troops, and againft two other fervants
of the company ; while the governor and council en¬
deavoured to juftify their proceedings, by writing to
England as already mentioned.
Befides all this, the natives themfelves teftified their
difapprobation of the conduX of the fupreme court in
very ftrong terms. A petition to his Britannic ma-
jefty was fent by the natives of Patna •, in which are
the following remarkable paffages : “ When the ordi¬
nances of this court of judicature were iffued, as they
were all contrary to the cuftoms, modes, ufages, and
inftitutions, of this country, they occafioned terror in
us •, and day by day, as the powers of this court have
become more eftabliffied, our ruin, uneafinefs, diffio-
nour, and difcredit, have accumulated 5 till at laft we
are reduced to fuch a fituation, that we confider death
to us as infinitely preferable to the dread wTe entertain
of the court : for from this court no credit, no charac¬
ter is left to us, and we are now7 driven to the laft ex¬
tremity. Several who poffeffed means and ability
deeming flight as their only fecurity, have baniffied
themfelves from the country } but bound as w7e are by
poverty and inability, and fettered by the deareft ties
of confanguinity, we do not all of us poffefs the means
of flight, nor have we power to abide the oppreffion of
this court.”—If, which God forbid ! it ffiould fo
happen, that this our petition ffiould not be accepted,
and ffiould be rejeXed at the chamber of audience,
thofe amongft us who have power and ability, difcard-
ing all affeXion for our families, will fly to any quar¬
ter w7e can •, whilft the remainder, who have no means
or ability, giving themfelves up w-ith pious refignation
to their fate, will fit down in expeXation of death.”
Thefe repeated complaints could not but be taken
notice of in parliament. On the 12th of February
1781, General Smith made a motion in the houfe of
commons, that the petition from the Britiih inhabi¬
tants of Bengal, Bahar, and Oriffa, ffiould be taken
into confideration by a feleX committee, confifting of
ij perfons, chofen by ballot. In the introduXion to
COM
f 345 1
COM
Company, his motion, he ftated briefly the bad conduct of tne
' v—' fupreme court in the particulars already related ; and
concluded, that the affairs of Bengal required the im¬
mediate attention and confideration of parliament. 1 he
matter was accordingly debated ; when, after various
propofals, a motion was at length made by General
Smith, for leave to bring in a bill “ to explain and
amend fo much of an a6t palled in the I3^1 yeal of his
prefent majefty, for the better regulation of the Eaft
India company, as related to the adminiftration of ju-
ftice in Bengal •, and alfo to indemnify the governor
and council of Bengal for having refilled by force of
arms the execution of an order of the fupreme court of
judicature in that kingdom.” Leave was according¬
ly given to bring in the bill. T he houfe having refol-
ved itfelf into a committee, Lord North obferved, “ that
it had been much his with that an agreement for the
renewal of the company’s charter had been made in
an amicable manner j and that voluntary propofitions
fhould have come from themfelves, offering terms for
the benefit of the exclufive trade and the territorial ac-
quifitions. No fuch terms, how'ever, had been pro-
pofed, nor any agreement made. A negociation had
indeed taken place between him and the chairman and
deputy-chairman •, but the propofitions made by them
were neither fuch as the public might expeft, nor had
the company any right to them. With regard to the
territorial poffeflfions, he was clearly of opinion, that
they of right belonged to the public ; though how far
it might be proper to allow the revenue of them to re¬
main in the poffeflion of the company was quite ano¬
ther matter. In his opinion, it would be proper to
allow it to remain in their hands as long as they pof-
feffed an exclufive trade, but he never would confent
to forego the claim of the public. He made a mo¬
tion, therefore, “ that it was the opinion of the com¬
mittee, that three-fourths of the furplus of the nett pro¬
fits of the Eaft India Company, ever fince the compa¬
ny’s bond debt was reduced to 1,500,000!. and the
company’s dividends had been eight per cent, per an¬
num, belong to the public ; and that 6oo,oool. in lieu
thereof, and in difcharge of all claims on the part of the
public, be paid into his majefty’s exchequer by inftal-
ments, in fuch manner and at fuch times, as (hall be
agreed on.” This propofal was vehemently oppofed by
the minority. Mr Burke called it the daring effort of
a minifter determined on rapine and plunder, without
regard to truth, honour, or juftice. Mr Huffey re¬
probated the idea of taking 6oo,oool. from the com¬
pany in their circumftances at that time. Pie produ¬
ced a paper full of arithmetical calculations, which he
read to the houfe ; afferting that they contained an ex-
aft ftate of the amount of the company’s exports and
imports, the expences of their trade at home, and the
balance of profit of each year, for many years paft, di-
ftinguifliing the territorial from the commercial income
and expences. From thefe he lhowTed, that the com¬
mercial and territorial revenues of the company had,
upon an average for 16 years, conftituted a fum equi¬
valent to a proportion of 16 per cent. ; that 9 per cent,
of this had arifen from the commercial profits accruing
to the company *, and therefore, that there had not
been 8 per cent, divided upon that part of the profits to
which the public had any claim or pretenfion. The
acceflion of territorial poffeflions, he obferved, had
Vol. VI. Part I.
brought along with it additional expences j and the Company^
public had already received a very large (hare of the
company’s profits. He declared it to be his opinion,
that the company fhould always make it a rule to give
as ample and full relief to the public burdens as their
fituation would allow7 j and if they did this, he faw no
reafon why the minifter ftiould expeft any more. Mr
Dempfter reminded the houfe of the conlequences of
violating the American charters ; and added, that to
tear from the company by force what was not ftipula-
ted in any aft of parliament, would be a breach of
public faith difgraceful to the nation, and fuch as
would damp the fpirit of enterprife and adventure
which had been produftive of fuch happy effefts.—
Notwithftanding thefe remonftrances, however, the bill
was at laft paffed into a law •, only with this mitigation,
that the company fhould pay only 400,000k inftead
of 6oo,oool. demanded originally by the minifter.—
Another bill was alfo paffed the fame year, in confe-
quence of the motion made by General Smith. This
aft declared, that the governor-general and council of
Bengal were not fubjeft to the jurifdiftion of the fu¬
preme court, and indemnified the former for the re¬
finance they had made to the orders of that court. It
enafted alfo, that no perfon fhould be fubjeft to the
jurifdiftion of that court on account of his being a
landholder or farmer of land in the provinces of Ben¬
gal, Bahar, or Oriffa ; that no judicial officers in the
country courts fhould be liable to aftions in the fu¬
preme court for their decifions ; and the two mufties,
with Behader Beg, who were then in prifon, in con-
fequence of the decifion of that court in the Patna
caufe, were ordered to be fet at liberty.
The debates on this fubjeft were attended with the
moft violent charges againft the minifter, and affeitions
the moft humiliating and difgraceful to the Britifh na¬
tion. Mr Townfhend affirmed, that it rvas from the
miniftei’s fcreening the delinquents who came from In¬
dia that all the evils in that quarter had originated ;
and if matters w'ere fuffered to go on in that country
as they had done for fome time paft, the conduft of
the Britifh in the Eaft Indies muft be viewed in a light
ftill more deteftable than that of the Spaniards in A-
merica. It was reported, that the nabob of Arcot had
feveral menjbers in the houfe of commons ! If it w7ere
true, that by fending over a fum of money to Eng¬
land he could feat eight or ten members in that houfe,
then Mr Townfhend declared, that in his opinion they
were the moft abjeft and contemptible beings in the
world.—The bill for regulating the powers of the
fupreme court, alfo, though fo evidently founded in
reafon and juftice, did not pafs without oppofition,
particularly from Mr Dunning •, who was thought on
this occafion to have allowed his regard for his friend
Sir Elijah Impey, the chief juftice, to bias him too
much.
The regulations juft mentioned did not yet put an
end to the troubles of the Eaft India company, nor
allay the ferment which had been fo effeftually excited.
Their affairs were ftill a fubjeft of parliamentary dif-
cuflion ; and in the month of April 1782, a motion was
made by Mr Dundas, then lord advocate of Scotland,
for taking into confideration the feveral reports concern¬
ing affairs, which had been made by the fecret commit¬
tee appointed to inquire into them during the laft and
X x prefent
COM [ 346 ] COM
Cortipany. prefent feffion of parliament. In his fpeech on this oc-
1 v 11 cafion, he remarked, that the opinion of Lord Clive
had been againft keeping too extenlive a territory in
that country. Inftead of this, he had reftored Sujah
Dowlah to the pofieflion of his country ; confidering
the Britilh territories in Hindoftan, with thofe on the
coafls of Coromandel and Bombay, as fufficient for all
the purpofes by which this country could be benefited ;
but inftead of adhering to the maxims of found policy
laid down by his lordfhip, they had become fo ambi¬
tious of extending their territories, that they had in¬
volved themfelves in a wTar with almoft all India. He
then confidered the finances of the company. The re¬
venue of Bombay, he faid, fell ftiort of the neceflary civil
and military eftablifhment by 200,000!. a-year, which
was annually drawm from Bengal. With regard to that
of Madras, it appeared, on an average of 12 years,
from 1767 to 1779, that there had been eight years
of war and only four of peace •, and that, during the
whole time of wrar, the revenue had not been able to
fupport the civil and military eftablifhments; though,
in time of peace, it was able to do nearly one-half
more. Bengal, however, was the moft lucrative of all
the Eaft India fettlements; but fuch had been the ex-
pences of the Mahratta war, that the governor-general
had been obliged to contraft a very large debt, info-
much that it was doubtful whether the inveftments for
England (hould be -wholly or partially fufpended. Mr
Haftings, he faid, had in many inftances proved him-
felf a very meritorious fervant : but he wifhed that
every one of their fervants would confider himfelf as
bound in the firft place to prove a faithful fteward to
the company ; not to fancy that he wras an Alexander
or Aurengzebe, and prefer frantic military exploits to
the improvement of the trade and commerce of his
country.—General Smith obferved, that by the evi¬
dence produced to the committee, it appeared that
there had been a variety of great abufes in India. Sir
Elijah Impey, his majefty’s chief juftice in that coun¬
try, had fo far derogated from the charafter of a judge,
as to accept of a place from the company ; by which
means he wTas brought under their controul, and con-
fequently allowed himfelf to be deprived of that inde¬
pendency which he ought to poffefs as a judge. Ju¬
ftice had been fo partially adminiftered, that feveral
worthy and refpeftable perfons had been imprifoned,
fome had been ruined, and others died in jail. From
all which confiderations he moved, that the affairs of
the company ought to be taken into confideration by
a committee of the whole houfe. Some hints were
thrown out by Mr Dundas, that the territorial pof-
ieftions in the Eaft ought to be taken from the com¬
pany entirely, and put under the dire&ion of the
crown; but this was oppofed by Mr Fox, as furnifti-
ing minifters with fuch ample means of corruption and
undue influence, as might overthrow the conftitution
entirely. For this reafon, he thought it would be
more prudent to leave the appointment of its owTn fer¬
vants to the company ; but at the fame time to keep
a watchful eye over them, in order to be able to pu-
nifh and remove thofe who Ihould be found delin¬
quent.
The houfe having refolved itfelf into a committee,
a motion was made by General Smith, “ That Warren
Haftings, Efqj governor-general of Bengal, and Sir
Elijah Impey, the chief juftice, appear to have been
concerned, the one in giving, the other in receiving,
an office not agreeable to the late aft for regulating
the company’s affairs; which unjuffifiable tranfaftion
was attended with circumftances of evil tendency and
example.” Refolutions were alfo paffed for afeertain-
ing more diftinftly the powers of the governor-general
and council of Bengal 5 and votes of cenfure againft
Laurence Sullivan, Efq. chairman of the Eaft India
Company, for having neglefted to tranfmit to India an
aft for explaining and amending the aft for regulating
the affairs of the company, and for the relief of certain
perfons imprifoned at Calcutta. Among the number
of this gentleman’s tranfgreffions, alfo, was his impo-
fing an oath of fecrecy on Mr Wilkes, one of the
company’s clerks ; and efpecially his reftraining him
from giving information to a feleft committee of the
houfe of commons.
Mr Dundas having made feveral motions tending
to criminate Sir Thomas Rumbold, formerly govern¬
or of Bengal, a bill was brought in, and paffed in¬
to a law, for reftraining him and Peter Perring, Efq.
from going out of the kingdom for the fpace of one
year, for difeovering their eftates, &c. An addrefs
was alfo prefented to the king, requefting him to re-
cal Sir Elijah Impey from India, in order to anfwer
for high crimes and mifdemeanors. A number of
other refolutions were now paffed by the houfe, in
confequence of motions by Mr Dundas, and which
were founded on the reports of the fecret committee.
Among thefe it was refolved, “ That the orders of
the court of direftors of the Eaft India Company,
which have conveyed to their fervants abroad a prohi¬
bitory condemnation of all fchemes of conqueft and
enlargement of dominion, by preferibing certain rules
and boundaries foi: the operation of their military
force, were founded no lefs in wifdom and policy than
in juftice and moderation. That every tranfgreffion
of thefe orders, wdthout evident neceffity, by any of
the feveral governments in India, has been highly
reprehenfible, and tended in a great degree to weaken
the force and influence, and to diminiffi the influence
of the company in thofe parts. That every interfer¬
ence of the company as a party in the domeftic or na¬
tional quarrels of the country powders, and all new
engagements with them in offenfive alliance, have
been wifely and providentially forbidden by the com¬
pany in their commands to their adminiftrations in In¬
dia. That every unneceffary deviation from thefe
rules ffiould be feverely reproved and punifhed. That
the maintenance of an inviolable charafter for modera¬
tion, good faith, and fcrupulous regard to treaty,
ought to have been the fimple grounds on which the
Britifh government ffiould have endeavoured to efta-
blifti an extenfive influence, fuperior to that of other
Europeans ; and that the danger and diferedit arifing
from the forfeiture of this pre-eminence, could not,be
compenfated by the temporary fuccefs of any plan of
violence and injuftice. That ftiould any relaxation take
place, without fufficient caufe, in thofe principles of
good government on the part of the direftors themfelves,
it would bring upon them, in a heavier degree, the re-
fentment of the legiflative pow7er of their country.
That the conduft of the company, and their fervants
in India, in various inftances fpecified, was contrary
COM [ 347
Company, to policy and good faith ; the company’s fervants, in it
'"■■’■"'v their prefidency of Bombay, had been guilty of notori¬
ous inltances of difobedience to the orders of their em¬
ployers, particularly in forming an alliance with Ra-
gobah, or Ragonaut Row : that they had undertaken,
without any adequate military force, or certainty of a
fufficient revenue, and without proper communication
with the fuperior government upon which they were
to depend for fanilion and fupport, to reinllate the
ufurper above mentioned, and thereby to involve them-
felves in a war with the ruling minifters of the Mahrat-
ta date, w'hile Ragobah himfelf was not in the mean
time able to give the company any fecure poffeflion of
the grants he had made to them for the purchafe of
their afliftance. That it was the opinion of the houfe,
that all the difafters in which the Britiih empire in the
Eall was involved had proceeded from the unjuftifi-
able manner in which the Mahrattas had been treated,
and the conduft of the Madras prefidency in other re-
fpefts fpecified. That it is the opinion of this houfe,
that it mull be reckoned among the additional mif-
chiefs arifing chiefly from the improvident war with
the Mahrattas, that the military force of the Carnatic
had been weakened by reinforcements fent to the Ma¬
labar coafl: that the Bengal government had been un¬
der a neceffity of fupporting, on their confines, the ar¬
ray of a power confederated againft them (a) : that
they had been under the neceflity of fuing for the me¬
diation of the fame power 5 and fubmitted to a refu-
ial, and purchafed at laft an uncertain, becaufe appa¬
rently an unauthorifed, treaty, on moft extravagant and
dilhonourable conditions, with Chimnagee the rai’ah
of Berar’s fon : and, finally, that being burdened wdth
the expences of a variety of diftant expeditions, while
their allies were in diftrefs, and their tributaries under
oppreflion, there was alfo an alarming deficiency in the
refources of revenue and commerce, by the accumula¬
tion of their debt, and the reduction of their infeft-
ment. That it was the opinion of the houfe, that an
attempt made by the governor-general, in the be¬
ginning of January 1781, to form an engagement of
alliance, offenfive and defenfive, with the Dutch Eaft
India Company, in the manner Hated by the proceed¬
ings of their council, was unwarranted, impolitic, ex¬
travagant, and unjuft.
Thefe fevere cenfures extended even to the directors
themfelves, whofe conduit on fome occafions wTas de¬
clared to be indefenfible, as well as that of their fer¬
vants and agents. It was alfo refolved, “ That War¬
ren Haftings, Efq. governor-general of Bengal, and
William Hornfby, Efq. prefident of the council of
Bombay, having in fundry inftances ailed in a man¬
ner repugnant to the honour and policy of this nation,
and thereby brought great calamities on India, and
enormous expences on the India company, it was the
duty of the direitors to purfue all legal and effeitual
means for the removal of the faid governor-general
and prefident from their offices, and to recal them to
Britain.”
The commons having thus ferioufly entered into a
confideration of Ealt India affairs, foon found ftill
1 C o M
more abundant reafon for cenfure. It vras difcover- Company*
ed, that corruption, fraud, and injuftice, had pervaded * “
every department. It had become an objeit with the
fervants of the company to cpprefs the natives by every
poffible method. They monopolized every article of
trade, and feemcd to have no other principle of com¬
merce but lawlefs violence : the court of direitors
fent out inftruitions ; but for the moft part without
any effeit. Though the delegated adminillration of
India ought to have preferved the ftrifieft obedience to
that of Britain ; yet, being at fo great a diffance from
the feat of fupreme authority, and being poffeffed of
endlefs means of abufe, it had become corrupt in an
extreme degree. Inftead of being fubfervient to go¬
vernment at home, the adminiffration of India affec¬
ted independence. The maxims of Mr Haftings were
arbitrary 5 and he feemed to have no inclination to
obey. He treated with fovereign contempt the au¬
thority of the court of direitors: and the confufion.
produced by the difputes between them were fofter-
ed by the body of India proprietors, who were dif-
pofed to ait as a check upon the direitors. The
neceffity of new regulations in the government of In¬
dia was univerfally admitted j and a bill for this
purpofe was accordingly brought in by Mr Dun-
das. His propofitions were, that the governor and
council of Bengal ffiould have a controuling power
and jurifdiition over the inferior prefidencies of
India j and he was of opinion that the governor-ge¬
neral Ihould be invefted wdth a power to ait even againfl
the will and opinion of the council, whenever he
ffiould imagine that, by fo doing, he could contribute
to the public good •, though, in thefe cafes, he alone
ffiould be refponfible for the event. With regard to
the inferior governors, though he did not think it pro¬
per that they ffiould be authorifed to ait contrary to
the advice of the council, he wTas of opinion, that they
ought to have a right of negativing every propofition,
until application was made to the governor-general and
council of Bengal. With regard to the zemindaries,
and other tenures of land, he obferved, that when Hin-
doftan had been conquered by the Moguls, a tribute
W'as impofed upon the zemindars ; and while they
continued to pay this tribute, they accounted them¬
felves to be the real proprietors and mafters of the
lands they poffeffed. The people called ryots, to whom
thefe zemindaries wrere let out, confidered themfelves
likewife as fecure in their poffeffions while they per¬
formed the articles of their refpeftive contra&s. Of
late, however, thefe rights had been infringed ; and
the Mogul came to confider himfelf as the abfolute
mailer of all the foil of Indolfan ; which maxim he
was inclined to deftroy, and erett upon it another, that
might fecure the landholders in their property. Ha
propofed to fecure the nabob of Arcot and rajah of
Tanjore in their territories, by making an aft of
parliament in favour of the latter ; but w'as of opi¬
nion, that the debts of thefe princes ought not to be
too nicely inquired into, as the greatell part of them
originated in corruption. He was clearly of opinion,
however, that Governor Hallings ought to be recall-
X x 2 ed s
(a) The power here alluded to was Movdajee Boofla, rajah of Berar
See Indo-stan.
COM [ 343 ] COM
Company. ed ; and that fteps ought to be taken to prevent the
* court of proprietors from prefuming to act in contra¬
diction to parliament. Lord Cornwallis appeared to
be the molt proper fucceffor to Mr Haftings. His
perfonal honour, and that of his anceltors, were pled¬
ges for his good behaviour ; and being independent in
his fortune, he could have no view of repairing his
eltate out of the fpoils of India ; and from his profef-
fion, he could add to the character of governor that of
commander in chief 5 he would not, however, infilt on
his name being filled up in the bill, as that would reft
more properly with government.
Mr Haltings was defended by Governor Johnftone,
who endeavoured to ridicule the arguments and pro-
pofals of Mr Dundas. He obferved, to the honour
of the former, that he had been able to conclude a
peace with the Mahrattas j and while he enlarged on
his talents for negociation, he admired the refources
with which he had fupplied the e.xpences of the war.
It ought to be confidered, that Mr Haflings was in a
fituation the moft difficult, and that no man could have
fuflained it with more fortitude and ability. His ene¬
mies had dealt in infinuation and inveCtive •, but when
the hour of trial came, they would find that their charges
would be refuted with equal eafe. He was defended alfo
by Mr Dempfter, who advifed the houfe ferioufly to
think before they paffed a vote for the removal of Mr
Haflings. His exertions had been extraordinary ; and it
would then be as ridiculous to fuperfede him, as it
would have been to recal General Elliot, when the
Spaniffi batteries were playing againfl Gibraltar. He
was not, however, an advocate for all the meafures of
Mr Haftings ; his errors might be numerous ; but no
cenfure of him ffiould be eftablifhed before they were
pointed out and explained.
Mr Dundas having now obtained leave to bring
in his bill, another was moved for by Sir Henry Flet¬
cher, “ That leave be given to bring in a bill to dif-
charge and indemnify the united company of mer¬
chants trading to the Eaft Indies, from all damages,
intereft, and Ioffes, in refpeft to their not making re¬
gular payment of certain firms due to the public, and
to allow farther time to fuch payment ; to enable the
company alfo to borrow a certain firm of money, and
to make a dividend for the proprietors of four per cent,
at midfummer 1783.” He endeavoured to ffiow,
that the public had derived very confiderable advan¬
tages from the company •, that their dividend had been
81. 4s. annually during the time of peace, and
7I. 15s. per cent, during war j they were by no
means in a llate of infolvency, as fome members had
endeavoured to prove, their prefent application pro¬
ceeding only from a temporary embarraffment. A
new difpute took place concerning Mr Haftings, who
was warmly attacked by Mr Burke, and defended by
Governor Johnftone. The former enlarged on the
bloodffied, ravages, and rapacity, which had taken
place in India. The eftablifhed fyftem of the fervants
of the company, he faid, was rapine, and robbery. The
Mahratta war was occafioned by their refufal to be
robbed 5 the famine at Madras was occafioned by the
inifconduft of the Englifh government in India *, and
he fet forth in ftrong colours the manner in which the
Indian princes and princeffes had been plundered. He
inftanced, that Mr Haftings had raifed 8oo,oool. in
Bengal by private loan j and ufed it as an argument Company,
that the company had ceaied to exirt, and that their * 1
commerce was nothing more than an inftrument for
procuring immenfe fortunes to individuals, totally de-
ftitute of confcience or principle.
All this was excufed by Governor Johnftone. He
regarded the fum of 8co,oool. as merely trifling,
when the number of civil and military fervants on the
Bengal government was confidered. The famine at
Madras was owing to the modes of war which pre¬
vailed in the Eaft 5 as the enemy there marked their
courfe by defolation. He concluded with cenfuring
the manner in which Mr Haftings had been fpoken of;
and infifted that his high reputation ought to have
guarded him from fuch infults. Mr Burke replied by
an intimation of his defign to impeach Mr Haftings on
his return ; whom he called the greateft delinquent
that had ever violated in India the rights of humanity
and juftice.
It was obferved by Lord John Cavendifh, that the
territorial acquifitions of the company were a fruitful
fource of grievance 5 and it would have been more for
their advantage to have confined themfelves to their
original characfter of merchants. However, as the
territorial acquifitions had been obtained, it was proper
to take means for their prefervation ; as otherwife they
would not revert to the natives, but fall into the hands
of our natural enemies the French.
In the houfe of peers the caufe of the company was
ably defended by Earl Fitzwilliam. He maintained,
that their fituation was defperate, and bankruptcy ine¬
vitable, unlefs relief was inftantly afforded. A report
of their being in an infolvent ftate had gone abroad ;
and nothing was better calculated to prelerve and fup-
port their credit than a large dividend fandioned by
ad of parliament. The expenditure on their fettle-
ments had far exceeded their revenue ; of confequence
their fervants had drawn bills, which they were unable
to anfwer without a temporary fupply. Thus the ex-
iftence of the company might be faid to depend on the
bill; and he hoped no objedions could be raifed ftrong
enough to d«ftroy it.
On the 18th of November 1783, Mr Fox propofed
his celebrated Eaft India bill, which for fome time
attraded the attention of the nation at large in a very
confiderable degree. By this it was intended to take
from the India proprietors and diredors the entire ad-
miniftration of their territorial and commercial affairs.
It took from them alfo their houfe in Leadenhall-
ftreet, together with all books, papers, and documents j
veiling the entire management, the appointment of all
officers and fervants, the rights of peace and war, and
the difpofal of the whole revenue, in the hands of cer¬
tain commiffioners. Thefe were, in the firft inftance,
to be appointed by the whole legiflature, but after¬
wards by the crown and were to hold their offices by
the fame tenure as the judges in England, viz. during
their good behaviour ; and could be removed only by
an addrefs from one of the houfes of parliament. They
were required to come to a decifion upon every que-
ftion within a limited time, or to aflign a fpecific rea-
fon for their delay. They were never to vote by bal¬
lot ; and, almoft in every cafe, were to enter the rea-
fon of their vote in their journals. They were alfo to
fubmit, once every fix months, an exad: ftate of their
accounts
COM [ 349 J COM
Company, accounts to the court of proprietors ; and at the be-
v ginning of every feffion, a ftate of their accounts and
eifabliihments to both houfes of parliament. Their
number was limited to feven ; but they were to be af¬
fixed by a board of nine perfons, each of them poflef-
fed of 2000I. company’s Itock ; who, as well as the
commiffioners, were to be appointed in the firit in-
ftance by parliament, and ever afterwards by the court
of proprietors. They were alfo to be removeable at
the pleafure of any five commiffioners, and were dif-
qualified from fitting in the houl’e of commons. The
whole fyftem of government thus propofed, was to con¬
tinue for the fpace of three or five years.
This was accompanied with another bill, the pro-
feffed defign of which was to preclude all arbitrary and
defpotic proceedings from the adminiftration of the
company’s territorial poffeflions. By this the powers
of the governor-general and fupreme council were af-
certained more exaftly than had hitherto been done :
it deprived the governor-general of all power of act¬
ing independent of his council ; profcribed the dele¬
gation of any trufi: ; and declared every Britifh power
in the Eart incompetent to the acquifition or exchange
of any territory in behalf of the company, to the ac¬
ceding to any treaty of partition, the hiring out of
the company’s troops, the appointing to office any
perfon removed for mifdemeanour, or to the hiring
out any property to a civil fervant of the company.
By this alio monopolies were entirely aboliihed j and
illegal prefents recoverable by any perfon for his foie
benefit. The principal part of the bill, however, re¬
lated to the zemindars, or native landholders, who
■were now to be lecured by every pofiible means in the
pofieffion of their refpehtive inheritances, and defend¬
ed in all cafes from oppreffion. Laftly, a mode was
prefented for terminating the difputes between the
nabob of Arcot and the rajah of Tanjore ; difqualify-
ing every perfon in the fervice of the company from
fitting in the houfe of commons during his continu¬
ance in their fervice, and for a certain fpecified time
after his demiflion.
During the courfe of the debates on this bill, Mr
Fox fet forth the affairs of the company as in the moft
defperate fituation. They had alked leave, he faid,
the year before, to borrow 500,000]. upon bonds ;
^ had petitioned for 300,000!. in exchequer bills j and
for the fufpenfion of a demand of 700,000!. due to
government for cuftoms. He took notice alfo, that,
according to an a£l of parliament ffill in force, the
direftors could not, by their own authority, accept
bills to the amount of more than 300,000!. ; under
which circumftances it would no doubt furprife the
houfe to be informed, that bills were now coming
over for acceptance to the amount of 2,000,000!. It
was evidently, therefore, and indifpenfably neceffary,
that government ffiould interfere in the affairs of the
company to fave them from certain bankruptcy. He
llated their ablual debt at no lefs than 1 1,200,000!.
while their flock in hand did not exceed 3,200,000!.
There was therefore a deficiency of 8,ooo,oool. j a
moft alarming fum when compared with the compa¬
ny’s capital. Unlefs fpeedily afiiffed, therefore, they
muff: inevitably be ruined j and the ruin of a company
of merchants fo extenfive in their concerns, and of
fuch importance in the eyes of all Europe, could not
but give a very fevere blow to the national credit. Company.,
On the other hand, the requifite affiffance was a matter
of very extenfive confideration. It would be abfolutely
neceffary to permit the acceptance of the bills to the
above-mentioned amount ; and to do this without re¬
gulating their affairs, and reforming the abufes of their
government, would only be to throw away the public
money.
The conduct of the company’s fervants, and of the
company itfelf, was now arraigned by Mr Fox in the
moft fevere terms; and their mifcondinffs were pointed-
out under their following heads :
1. With regard to Mr Haftings.—The chairman
of the committee had moved in the houfe of com¬
mons, that it was the duty of the company to recal
that gentleman ; to which motion the houfe had a-
greed. In obedience to this refolution, the dire&ors
had agreed that Mr Haflings fhould be recalled ; but
fuppofing this to be a matter rather beyond their ju-
rifdiflion, they had fubmitted their determination to
a court of proprietors, who refcinded the refolution of
the directors; and after this the whole affair came to
be laid before the houfe of commons. In the mean
time every thing was anarchy and confufion in the
Eaft, owing to this unfettled condufl with regard to
the governor ; as the whole continent had been made
acquainted with the refolution of the houfe for recal¬
ling him, while that of the proprietors for continuing
him in his office was kept a fecret. The proprietors
had alfo been guilty of another contradiction in this
refpeCl, as they had voted their thanks to Mr Haft¬
ings for his conduft in India. Hence Mr Fox was
led to comment on the nature of the company’s con¬
nexions with their fervants abroad, as well as on the
character of the company themfelves. Among the
former, he faid, there were a few', who, being pro¬
prietors themfelves, endeavoured to promote the trade
of the company, and increafe its revenues. The views
of the reft w'ere otherwife direCted ; and from the dif¬
ference in {peculation between the two parties, the
former were inclined to fupport that governor who
enabled them to make large dividends; and who, for
that reafon, after having peculated for his own advan¬
tage, wras obliged to do the fame for the benefit of
the proprietors. The latter, therefore, could not bet¬
ter gratify their wiffies, than by fupporting a governor
who had in his pow'er fo many opportunities of pro¬
viding for his friends.
2. The next charge was againft the fervants of the
company, wffiom he accufed of a regular and fvftema-
tic difobedience to the orders of the proprietors. 
The fupreme council of Bengal, he faid, had refoived,
in oppofition to Mr Haftings, to fend two gentlemen,
Mr Fowke and Mr Briftovv, the one to refide wfith
the nabob of Onde, the other at Benares. Mr Haft¬
ings, however, refufed to fend them : the directors
tranfmitted the moft pofitive orders to carry the vote
of the fupreme council into execution ; but ftill Mr
Haftings dilobeyed ; alleging in his defence, that he
could not employ perfons in whom he had no confi¬
dence. Afterwards, how'ever, Mr Haftings feemed to
contradict himfelf in a very curious manner. He
granted Mr Fowke a contraCt, with a commiffion of
15 per cent. ; which, he obferved, was a great fum,
and might operate as a temptation to prolong the w'ar„
“ But
'Company
COM t 35° 1 COM
tt But (added he) the entire confidence I have in the vehemently contefled by the fecretary,
' integrity and honour of Mr Fowke, amounts to a full
and perfeft fecurity on that head.”
To this Mr Fox added fome other inflances of a
fimilar kind ; but though he fupported thefe and the
proie&ed bill with all the argument and eloquence for
which he is fo remarkable, he found it impoffible to
make his fcheme agreeable to the majority of the
houfe. The ftrongeft opponent was Mr William Pitt,
who infilled chiefly on the two following topics. I. Its
infringement, or rather annihilation of the company s
charter ; and, 2. The new and unconftitutional in¬
fluence it tended to create.—Fie owned indeed, that
India flood in need of a reform, but not fuch a one
as broke through every principle of juflice and reafon.
The charter of the company was a fair purchafe from
the public, and an equal compaft for reciprocal advan¬
tages between the proprietors and the nation at large j
but if it was infringed in the manner propofed. by the
bill, what fecurity could other trading companies have
that they fliould not be treated in the fame manner ?
nay, what fecurity could there be for Magna Charta
itfelf ? The bill, he faid, amounted to^ a confifcatiori
of property. It had been fuggefled, indeed, that it
was not a bill of disfranchiiement, becaufe it did not
take from the proprietors their right to an exclufive
trade } but this was not the only franchife of the pro¬
prietors. A freehold might have a franchife annexed
to it, the latter of which might be taken away, and
yet the property of the former remain j in which cafe
it could not be’denied that the freeholders would have
great caufe to complain, d he cale was exaftly pa¬
rallel with the India flock. Perfons poffeffed of this
to a certain amount, were entitled to a vote upon every
important queftion of the company’s affairs; and on
this account the purchafe-money was more confider-
able. But, by the bill in queftion, this privilege was
to be taken away j which plainly amounted to a dif-
franchifement.
The great objeftion to this bill, however, feemed to
be a fufpicion that it was a fcheme of Mr Fox to gis-
tify his own perfonal ambition as a minifter, he being
at that time fecretary of ftate. On this account he
was deferted even by the patriotic members, who, up¬
on former occaftons, had fo ftrenuoully fupported his
caufe. Mr Dundas accufed him of attempting to
create a fourth eftate in the kingdom, the power and
influence of which might overturn the crown and fub-
vert the conftitution of Britain. A petition was pre-
fented from the proprietors, and another from the di-
reftors of the company, reprefenting the bill as lub-
verftve of their charter, and confifcating their pro¬
perty, without either charge of delinquency, trial, or
convidlion. They prayed, therefore, that the a6ls of
delinquency prefumed againft them might be ftated in
writing, and a reafonable time allowed them to deliver
in their anfwer } and that they might be heard by
counfel againft the bill. About the fame time the
directors gave in a ftate of the company’s affairs, dif¬
fering in the moft extraordinary manner from that
given by Mr Fox. In this they reprefented the credi¬
tor fide’of the account as amounting to 14,311,173!.
and they brought themfelves in debtors to the amount
0110,342,6921.; fo that of confequence there was a
balance in their favour of 3,968,481!. This was
who faid he Company,
could bring objedlions to the ftatement of the direc- v
tors to the amount of more than 12,000,cool, fler-
ling. He then entered into a particular difcuffion of
the”articles ftated in the direftors account, and made
good his affertion. Objeftions to his method of cal¬
culation, however, wTere made on the part of the com¬
pany ; fo that nothing could certainly appear to the
public but that the company were at that time much
diftreffed, and would fail entirely unlefs powerfully
fupported by government.
Mr Fox now proceeded to a particular refutatioit
of the arguments brought againft the bill; in which
indeed he difplayed an aftonilhing force of argument
and acutenefs of reafoning. I he objeflion drawn
from the validity of the company’s charter, he fet
afide, by {bowing that the company had abufed their
power, and that it was therefore neceffary to take it
from them. This he faid always had been the cafe,
and muft be the cafe in a free nation ; and he brought
the example of James II. who, on account of the
abufe of his power, had been deprived of it by the na¬
tion at large. The cafe was the fame wdth the com¬
pany. They had made a bad ufe of their power, and
therefore the nation at large ought to deprive them
of it. It had been objefted by the country gentle¬
men, that the bill augmented the influence oi the crown
too much ; and by Mr Dundas, that it reduced it to
nothing. Both thefe objeftions, he faid, were overturn¬
ed by the circumftance of making the comrniflioners
hold their office only during good behaviour. Thus,
when confcious that they were liable to puniftiment it
guilty, but fecure in cafe they faithfully difcharged
their truft, they would be liable to no feduflion, but
would execute their funftions with glory to them¬
felves, and for the common good of their country and
of mankind. He then drew a comparifon betwixt
his own bill and that of Mr Dundas’s already men¬
tioned. The bill of the latter, he faid, had created
a defpotic authority in one man over fome millions of
his fellow-creatures; not indeed in England, wneiethe
remedy againft oppreffion.was always at hand ; but m
the Eaft Indies, wffiere violence, fraud, and mnchiet,
everywhere prevailed. Thus the bill prepofed by Mr
Dundas afforded the moft extenfive latitude for mal-
verfation, while his own guarded againft it with every
poffible care ; as was inftanced in its confiding in no
integrity ; trufting in no chara6ter ; and annexing re-
fponfibility not only to_ every aftion, but even to the
ina&ion of the powers it created. . ,
After having expatiated for a confiderable time, the
fecietary was feconded by Mr Burke, whofe force of
oratory w^as chiefly directed, as indeed it ufually
was when fpeaking of India affairs, _ on the mon-
ftrous abufe of the company’s power in that quarter.
He affirmed that there was not in India a fingm prince,
ftate, or potentate, with whom the company had come
into contaa, whom they had not fold ; that there was
not a fingle treaty they had ever made which they had
not broken ; and that there was not a fingle prince or
ftate that had ever put any confidence in the company
who had not been ruined. With regard to the firft
article, Mr Burke inftanced the fale of the Great Mo¬
gul himfelf; of the Rohillas ; the nabob of Bengal; the
polygars of the Mahratta empire ; Ragobah the pre-
COM [ 35
Company, tender to that empire ■, and the fubah of Decan.—The
v fecond article was proved by a review of the tranfac-
tions from the beginning to the end of the Mahratta
war. With regard to the third, viz. the ruin of fuch
princes as put any confidence in the company or their
fervants, he defired them to look into the hiftory and
fituation of the nabob of Oude.' In the year 1779, this
country had been vifited by a famine } a calamity which
had been known to relax the feverity even of the moft
rigorous government: yet in this fituation the prefi-
dent of Bengal had put an abfolute negative upon the
reprefentation of the prince ; adding, that perhaps ex¬
pedients might be found for affording him a gradual re¬
lief ) but their effe&s muff be diftant. This diftant re¬
lief, however, never arrived, and the country was
ruined.
Our limits will not allow a particular detail of the
charges againft the company on the one hand, or the
defences on the other. In general, it muff appear, that
fuch fevere and heavy charges could not be advanced
without fome foundation, though perhaps they may
have been confiderably exaggerated by the orators who
brought them. The pidlure drawn by Mr Burke on
this occafion indeed was {hocking. “ The Arabs,
Tartars, and Perfians, had conquered Indoftan with
vaft effufion of blood 5 while the conquefts of the Eng-
liih had been acquired by artifice and fraud, rather than
by open force. The Afiatic conquerors, however, had
foon abated of their ferocity 5 and the fhort life of man
had been fufficient to repair the wafte they had occa-
fioned. But with the Englifh the cafe had been en¬
tirely different. Their conquells were ftill in the fame
flate they had been 20 years ago. They had no more
fociety with the people than if they ftill refided in Eng¬
land ; but, with the view of making fortunes, roll¬
ed in one after another, wave after wave j fo that
there was nothing before the eyes of the natives but
an endlefs profpedl of new flights of birds of prey and
paffage, with appetites continually renewing for a food
that was continually wafting. Every rupee gained by
an Englifhman in India was for ever loft to that coun¬
try. With us there were no retributory fuperftitions,
by which a foundation of charity compenfated, for
ages, to the poor, for the injuftice and rapine of a day.
With us no pride eredled {lately monuments, which
repaired the mifchiefs pride had occafioned, and adorn¬
ed a country out of its own fpoils. England had ereft-
ed no churches, no hofpitals, no palaces, no fchools
(the trifling foundation at Calcutta excepted) 5 Eng¬
land had built no bridges, made no high-roads, cut no
navigations, dug no refervoirs. Every other conque¬
ror of every other defcription had left fome monument
either of ftate or beneficence behind him ; but were
we to be driven out of India this day, nothing would
remain to tell that it had been poffeffed, during the in¬
glorious period of our dominion, by any thing better
than the oran-outang or the tiger ?”
All this eloquence, however, was at prefent entire¬
ly ineffeflual, and the bill was finally rejedled : much
confufion and altercation enfued, which terminated in
a change of miniftry and diffblution of parliament. Ou
the 26th of May 1784 a petition from the company
was prefented to the houfe of commons, praying for
fuch relief as the nature of their affairs might feem to
demand. This was followed on the 24th of June by
i ] COM
a bill for allowing the company to divide four per cent. Company,
for the half year, concluding with midfummer 1784. v
This having palled, after fome debate, a new bill was
propofed by Mr Pitt for relieving the company in the
mean time, and regulating their affairs in time to
come. A bill to this purpofe had been brought in
during the laft fefiion of the former parliament by
the fame gentleman, which he wilhed to bring to a
comparifon with that of Mr Fox, of which an ac¬
count has already been given. In this bill he began
with laying it down as a principle, that “ the civil
and military government of India, or, in other words,
the imperial dominion of our territories in the Eaft,
ought to be placed under other controul than that of
the merchants in Leadenhall ftreet; and this controul
could be no other than the executive branch of the
conftitution. The eommerce of the company, how¬
ever, ought to be left as free from reftriflions as pof-
fible ; and, laftly, capricious effefts from the govern¬
ment of India upon the conftitution of Britain were
to be carefully avoided. A controul in the executive
branch of the legiflature over the government of India
had indeed been eftabliftred by the regulation bill
of 1773 j but the former interference of minifters
had not been beneficial, becaufe it had not been
aftive and vigilant. He now propofed, therefore,
that a board ftiould be inftituted exprefsly for the
purpofe. This board was to be appointed by the
king, and to confift of the fecretary of ftate for the
home department, the chancellor of the exchequer,
and a certain number of the privy council. To this
board the difpatches of the company were to be fub-
mitted, and were not to be fent to India until they
were counterfigned by them. To prevent queftions
concerning the commercial and political concerns of
the company, it was propofed, that the difpatches up¬
on the former fubjeft ftiould be fubmitted to the board ;
and that, in cafe of any difference, an appeal fliould
be made to the king in council. Though he (Mr Pitt)
had not thought proper to accept of the propofal of
the company to yield the appointment of foreign
councils to the crown, he was neverthelefs clearly of
opinion, that the commander in chief ought to be ap¬
pointed by the king. He propofed alfo that this
commander ftiould have a vote in council next to the
prefident 5 that the king ftiould be empowered to be¬
llow the reverfion of his office ; that the king might
recal the governor-general, the prefidents, and any
members of their councils. He yielded the appoint¬
ment of all officers, with the fingle exceptions he had
ftated, to the court of diredlors, fubjefl, however, to
the approbation of the king ; and that, in cafe of a
negative, the direftors fhould proceed to a fecond
choice, and fo on. He deprived the court of proprie¬
tors of their privilege of refcinding or altering the
proceedings of the court of diredlors: and with re-
fpe£l to the foreign government, he was of opinion,
that their authority {fiould comprife in it a confideia-
ble difcretion, accompanied with the reftraint of re-
fponfibility. He propofed, that there ftiould be a re-
vifion of the eflabliflnnents in India with a view to
retrenchments; that appointments fhould take place
by gradation ; and that a new and fummary tribunal
ftiould be eredled for the trial of offences committed
in that country. With regard to the zemindaries,
though
COM [35
Company, though he could not help paying a compliment to Mr
L J Fox, on his intention of reftoring them to their proper
owners, he yet thought that a general and indilcri-
minate reftitution was as bad as an indilcriminate
confifcation. He therefore propofed, that an inqui¬
ry Ihould be inftituted for the purpofe of reftoring
fuch as had been irregularly and unjuftly deprived,
and that they fliould in time to come be fecured
Bgainfl; violence.
In the bill of 1784 few alterations were made; and
thefe uniformly tended to enlarge the powers of the
board of controul. They were permitted, in calcs of
emergency, to concert original meafures, as well as to
revife, correct, and alter thofe of the directors. In
matters relative to peace or "war, where fecrecy was a
principal object, they wTere allowed to fend their orders
diredtly to India, without any communication w’ith the
direflors ; to the commander in chief without any
communication w’ith the prefidencies; and the number
of perfons conftituting the different councils of Bengal,
Fort St George, and Bombay, w'as determined.—The
governor-general and council of Bengal were to have
an abfolute pow’er to iffue orders to the inferior
prefidencies, in fuch cafes as did not interfere with the
directions already received from Britain ; adding a
powTer of fufpenfion in cafe of difobedience. I he fu-
preme council were forbidden, unlefs any of the Indian
princes fhould have firft commenced or meditated hol-
tilities, to enter upon war, or form an offenftve treaty,
without orders from home. 1 he inferior councils were
forbidden in all cafes to form alliances; and in cafes of
urgency, wTere commanded to infert a provifional claufe,
rendering the permanency of the alliance dependent on
the confirmation of the governor-general.
Various falutary regulations were propofed concern¬
ing the behaviour of the company’s fervants, againft
whom fo great complaints had been made. Inquiry
was ordered to be made by the different prefidencies
into the expulfions that might have been made of any
of the hereditary farmers, and of the oppreftive rents
and contributions that might have been extorted from
them; and meafures were direfted to be taken for their
relief and future tranquillity. A fimilar examination
was ordered into the different eftablilhments in the
Indian fettlements ; a report of which w'as to be laid
annually before parliament. The company were pro¬
hibited from fending out a greater number of cadets or
writers than what were abfolutely neceffary; and it was
likewife provided, that the age of fuch as were fent
out, ihould not be lefs than 15, nor more than 22 years.
It was likewife provided, that promotions fliould be
made in the order of feniority, unlefs in extraordinary
cafes ; for which the prefidencies fliould make them-
felves fpecifically refponfible. Crimes committed by
Englifh fubjefls in any part of India, were made amen¬
dable to every Britifli court of juftice, in the fame man¬
ner as if they had been committed in Britain. Pre-
fents, unlefs fuch as were abfolutely ceremonial, or given
to a counfellor at law, a phyfician, a furgeon, or a
chaplain, were abfolutely prohibited, under the penalty
of confifcation of the prefent, and an additional fine at
the dilcretion of the court. Difobedience of orders,
unlefs abfolutely neceffary, and pecuniary tranfaftions
prejudicial to the interefts of the company, were de¬
clared to be high crimes and mifdemeanors. I he com-
2 ] COM
pany were forbidden to interfere in favour of any per* fee:
fon legally convifted of any of the above crimes, or to
employ him in their fervice for ever. The governors
of the different prefidencies were alfo permitted to im-
prifon any perfon fufpe&ed of illicit correfpondence,
and were ordered to fend them to England with all
convenient fpeed. Every perfon ferving, or who Ihould
hereafter ferve in India, was alfo required, on his return
to England, to give an exacf account, upon oath, to
the court of exchequer, of his property, within two
months after his arrival; one copy of which was to be
kept in the court of exchequer, and the other at the
India-houfe. The board of controul, the court of di¬
rectors, or any three of the proprietors whole flock
fliould amount together to 1000I. were allowed to
move the court of exchequer to examine the validity
of the account. In cafe of an apparently well-founded
accufation, the court of exchequer were allowed to ex¬
amine the party upon oath, and even to imprilon him
until the interrogatories propofed to him fhould be an-
fwered. The whole property of a perfon who fhould
negleft to give in fuch an account within the time li¬
mited, or who fliould have been guilty of a mnrepre-
fentation in that account to the amount of 2cool. fter-
ling, was ordered to be confifcated ; ten per cent, to
be paid to the accufer, and the remainder to be equally
divided between the public and the company. Every
perfon who had once been employed in India, but had
afterwards refided in Europe for five years, unlefs
fuch refidence had been exprefsly on account of iii*-.*
health, was declared incapable of ever being fent out
to India again.
As a farther curb on the company’s fervants, the
attorney-general or court of direftors was authorized
to file an information in the court of king’s bench a-
gainft any perfon for crimes committed in India. . I hat
court was empow'ered alfo to imprifon or admit the
accufed to bail immediately. It was then ordered,
that within 30 days a certain number of peers fhould
be chofen by the houfe of lords, and of the members
of the houfe of commons by that houfe, to conftitute
a court for the trial of the accufed. The court was
finally to confirt of three judges appointed by the
crown, four peers, and fix members of the houfe of
commons ; and the accufed had a right to a peremp¬
tory challenge. From this court there was no appeal;
and it was empowered to adjudge the party incapable
of ever ferving the company ; to punifti by fine 01 im-
prifonment; and in order to proportion the fine to
the property of the convift, the court of exchequer
might, at the requifition of the attorney-general, or of
the company, examine him upon oath concerning the
fum he was worth. A refufal to anfwer was to be
puniflied with confifcation of property, and impnfon-
ment during pleafure.
With regard to the treatment of delinquents m In¬
dia Mr Pitt obferved, that at that time we had it not
in our power to punifti them. Either a new procefs
muft therefore be inftituted, or offences, equally block¬
ing to humanity, and contrary to eveiy principle of
religion and juftice, muft be permitted to continue un¬
checked. Every perfon therefore who went hereafter,
would know the predicament in which he flood ; and
would underftand, that by fo doing he agreed to give
up fome of the xnoft valuable privileges of an Engbfh-
COM [ 353
Company, tfian: yet in this he would do no more than a very
~v  numerous and honourable body of men, the military,
did daily, without the leaft hefitation, or the imalleft
impeachment of their charadter.
This bill, fo tremendous in its appearance to the
company’s fervants, was vehemently oppofed by the
minority. Mr Francis obferved, that it went upon
two principles, viz. the abufe of power abroad, and
the want of it at home. To remedy thefe, Mr Pitt
0 had propofed to augment the power abroad, and to
diminilh that at home. He condemned the unlimited
power of the commiffioners, and even pretended to
fuppofe that there muft have been fome miftake in the
ftrudhrre of the claufe ; it being impoffible to think
that it was intended to fet afide the diredlors at home
and the government abroad, in order to throw the
whole power into the hands of a military commander.
Though he approved of the claufe by which fchemes
of conqueft and extenfion of territory were condemned,
he remarked, that it was effentially defe&ive in other
refpe&s; as alluding to fa6ts and offences which were
not defcribed, and to criminals whom, fo far from pu-
nilhing, it did not venture to defcribe. With refpedt
to the affair of prefents, he confeffed that his opinion
was rather lingular. He wras for an unlimited pro¬
hibition to men in high ftations; but in the ordinary
tranfadlions of bufinefs, he was of opinion that they
were ufeful, without giving room for any juft appre-
henlions. The government of India, as it was now
conftituted, was a government of favour, and not of
juftice} and nothing would be done for the natives
unlefs the perfons who forwarded their affairs were
gratified. In the mean time, however, the exception
in favour of prefents of ceremony was founded upon
ideas which he knew to be fallacious, and was even
calculated to render the prohibition itfelf ufelefs and
ineffeftual. For the purpofe of receiving prefents of
ceremony, all occafions would be fufilciently folemn.
He warmly cenfured alfo the power of imprifonment
given to the refpe&ive prefidencies, and he condemned
the inftitution of the new court of judicature as unne-
. ceffary, arbitrary, and dangerous.
By Mr Fox the bill was fo highly difapproved of,
that he obje&ed to the houfe going into a committee
upon it. He endeavoured to Ihow, that inftead of
diminilhing, it was calculated to increafe the calamities
of the Eaft •, and inftead of reforming, to perpetuate
the abufes fo much complained of. The board of
controul, he faid, provided for a weak government at
home by a divifion of power; and if there were a re¬
ceipt or a noftrum for making a weak government, it
was by giving the power of contriving meafures to one,
and the nomination of the perfons who were to execute
them to another. The negative given to the com-
miflioners operated as a complete annihilation of the
company, and the chartered rights fo much vaunted of.
The bill was a fcheme of dark and delufive art, and
took away the rights of the company by flow and gra¬
dual fap. The firft ftep was originally to contrive
meafures without the knowledge of the company j and
the next, to convey orders fecretly to India, at the
very time perhaps that the commiflioners were openly
giving countenance to orders of a quite different ten¬
dency fent from the dire£!ors. With regard to the
new tribunal, he confidered it as in truth a fcreen for
Vol. VI, Part L
] COM
delinquents; fince no man was to be tried but on the Company
accufation of the company or of the attorney-general ; ' v
in which cafe he had only to conciliate government in
order to remain in perfedl fecurity.
The oppofition of Mr Fox’s party againft this bill
proved as fruitlefs as their efforts had been in favour
of the other. The houfe divided on the fpeaker’s
leaving the chair ; when the motion was carried by a
majority of 215. Still, however, all parts of the bill
were warmly debated. In the courfe of converfation
upon this fubjefl, Mr Dempfter expreffed a wiflr that
the king could be requefted to fend over one of his
fons to become fovereign of that country. We might
then enter into a federal union, and enjoy all the bene¬
fits that could be derived from the inhabitants of the
Eaft by Europeans, viz. thofe of commerce. The
claufes relative to the native princes and hereditary
farmers were all withdrawn at the motion of Mr Dun-
das j and under the head of prefents, the exception in
favour of thofe of ceremony was withdrawn. That
claufe, which infifted on all perfons returning from
India to give an account of the value of their eftates
upon oath, was feverely cenfured by Mr Dempfter
and Mr Eden j and after fome debate was entirely
withdrawn, as was alfo the idea of making the per-
fon take the oath when required by the board of con¬
troul. Mr Pitt then propofed, that perfons who had
paffed five years in India, and accumulated no more
than 5000I. for that time, or double that fum for the
next five years, Ihould be exempted from all prolecu-
tion on the fcore of their fortunes. But on a fug-
geftion by Mr Atkinfon, that, in cafe of ficknefs, it
might not be practicable for a perfon arriving from
India to give in an account upon oath in the fpace of
two months 5 on which fuggeftion a power was grant¬
ed to the court of exchequer for extending the term
from time to time as they fhould think proper. It
had been the original idea of the chancellor, that this
jurifdiClion fliould take place in twelve months j and
it had been objeCled, that thus perfons would be de¬
prived of the trial by jury, without time being granted
them to choofe whether they would (ubmit to the con¬
dition. Mr Pitt now moved, that no account upon
oath fhould be required of any perfon who fhould ar¬
rive from India before the firft of January 1787. This
amendment was likewife cenfured by oppofition, as
holding out an indemnity to peculators, and a warning
for them to return within the afligned period. It
was remarked by Mr Sheridan, that hy the bill before
the houfe, a perfon who took the oath would be liable
all his lifetime to a profecution for perjury. He could
therefore make no fettlement of his fortune $ he could
not fell or mortgage his eftate, as nobody would have
any thing to do with a property which was ftill liable
to conteft and forfeiture. This reprefentation produ¬
ced another amendment, limiting the commencement
of a profecution to the period of three years. The
claufe prohibiting the return of any perfon to India un¬
der certain conditions, was alfo mitigated by two a-
mendments from the chancellor j one of them exempt¬
ing the officers of the king from its operation j and the
other permitting the reftoration of any perfon with
the confent of the directors, and three-fourths of the
court of proprietors.
With thefe amendments the bill finally paffed the
Y y houfe
COM [ 354 ]
Company, houfe of commons on the 28th of July.
COM
On being
carried up to the houfe of lords, it met with a very vi¬
gorous oppofition 5 the principal fpeakers againfi: it
being Lord Stormont and the earl of Carlifle. The
former animadverted upon the principle of feniority
eflablifhed by it 5 which he faid was particularly ill-
fuited to the critical pofture of affairs and our prefent
fituation in India ; and he afferted, that had fuch a
claufe been in effedf at the time that Lord Clive firft
entered into the company’s fervice, there would not
have been an inch of the territorial pofTeffions at
prefent belonging to this country. It would damp
the ardour of emulation, check the rifing fpirit of
the youth now in Afia, and that at a time when the
mod extraordinary talents were neceffary to raife us
from our inaufpicious and ruined condition. He ob-
jedled alfo to the power of recal in the board of con-
troul ; which, he faid, was by no means a fufficient
check upon the company’s fervants in India. The
diftance of time and place, he faid, were fo great,
that a recal from India could not have the lead effedd.
But thefe remondrances had very little weight with
the houfe : the bill being finally paffed on the 9th of
Auguft.
Some years after this, however, a declaratory law was
found neceffary, in confequence of a controverfy which
had arifen between the board of controul and the com¬
pany. It had been refolved, in the month of October
1787, 'when his majedy had reafon to be alarmed,
and to look with more than common anxiety to the
fafety and prefervation of every part of the Britidr
dominions, to fend out four additional regiments for
the better protection of our Indian poffedions ; nor
was the defign taken up as a temporary, but with a
view to a permanent, edablifhment of his majedy’s
troops in India. At that time, no unwillingnefs to
receive the regiments on board the company’s drips,
and provide for their fupport in India, had been inti¬
mated by the court of direClors ; but, on the con¬
trary, the meafure had been confidered as a rvife one,
and the fuggedion of it had given univerfal fatisfac-
tion. Since, however, the threatening fiorm had been
difperfed, far different fentiments prevailed. Some of
the directors, at lead, were of opinion, that unlefs
they made a requifition to government for further mi¬
litary affidance, they had it in their option to bear, or
to refufe to bear, the expence of any additional regi¬
ments of his majedy’s army which might be fent to
India 5 and this opinion feemed to be, in a great mea¬
fure, grounded on the add of 1781, by which the Ead
India Company wrere bound to pay for fuch of his ma¬
jedy’s troops as had, by their requifition, been fent to
India. This idea had been much agitated without
doors, and the directors had thought proper to con-
fu.lt different counfel of eminence on the fubjedd.
In this bufinefs two quedions naturally arofe:—Fird,
Whether the king had a right to fend his troops to
any part of his dominions ? and, fecondly, If he fent
them to India, who ought to defray the expence ?
That his majedy had an undoubted right, by his royal
prerogative, to direft the didribution of his army, no
one could, with any colour of reafon, difpute. The on¬
ly point, therefore, which offered itlelf for difcufiion
was, whether, if his majedy, by virtue of his preroga¬
tive, thought proper to fend four additional regiments
to India, the expence of fending them, and their fup- Company,
port, ought to be provided for out of the revenues of'~~v~—'
India, which they protected ? It w7as certainly the
opinion of miniders, that by the aft of 1784, the autho¬
rity and power of the court of directors, touching the
military and political concerns of India, and alfo the
collection, management, and application of the revenues
of the territorial poffeffions, was transferred to the
board of controul, which might direCt the appropria¬
tion of thefe revenues in the manner that to them
fhould appear to be mod for the public advantage j
but as doubts had been entertained by others, and the
opinions of counfel, confirming thofe doubts, had been
taken, all of which had gone abroad into the world,
it was confidered as a neceffary meafure to call upon
the different branches of the legillature to remove thofe
doubts in the mod effeClual way by a bill. It wTas
certainly very evident, that, on the prefent occafion,
the four regiments might, on board the company’s
(hips, be fent out to India at a very inconfiderable ex¬
pence } whereas, if tranfports had been fpecially pro¬
vided for that purpofe, the expence mud have been
enormous. To oblige the company, therefore, to pay
the expence out of their Indian revenues, as had al¬
ready been intimated to them by the commiffioners of
controul, the chancellor of the exchequer moved,
on the 5th of February 1788, “ That leave be gi¬
ven to bring in a bill for removing any doubts re-
fpefting the power of the commidioners for the affairs
of India.”
In explanation of this bill, and in anfwer to the re¬
marks of oppofition, Mr Pitt defired to remind the
houfe that he had provoked the difcudion of the bill,
and had earnedly folicited them to bring it to the tell
of the mod fevere and fcrupulous inveffigation. He
found that it would be difputed, vrhether by the aCt
of 1784 the board of controul had any right of fu-
perintendence over the revenue. Would it be contend¬
ed that parliament meant to leave the finances in the
hands of the company, wFo had been declared unfit
to be truded with them ? Was it likely, that, when
they provided for the better management of the poli¬
tical and military concerns, they had paid no atten¬
tion to the circumdance upon w hich thefe concerns in-
feparably depended ? The board of controul had al¬
ready proceeded to reduce the enormous edablilhments
in India} their right of interference in that refpeft
had never been quedioned ; and what indeed would be
the confequence of denying this right? I he court of
dire&ors, if they had it in their power, as the expi¬
ration of their charter drew near, and it was doubt¬
ful whether their monopoly would be renewed, would
certainly make it their fird objeff to fwell the amount
of their imports, and wmuld negledt the care of the
territorial and political date of India, d he duty of
adminidration was to look, fird, to the profperity and
happinefs of the natives 5 lecondly, to the lecurity of
the territorial poffeffions-, thirdly, to the difcharge of
the debts due to the perfons who had advanced their
money, and enabled the company to ftruggle with their
late difficulties; and, in the lad place, to the com¬
mercial benefit of the proprietors. W as it probable
that the court of diredlors wmuld aft upon that leak ?
Could it have been intended to confide in their difere-
tion ? It had been faid, that the powers attributed to
the
COM [
Copipany. the board of controul were the fame in fabftance as
v " - had before been given to the fecretaries of ftate and
the lords of the treafury. But the faft was other-
wife. The court of direftors had been obliged to
communicate their difpatches previous to their going
to India j but there was no obligation upon the fecre-
tary of Hate to give any directions concerning them.
The refponfibility had ordinarily refted, under the for¬
mer government, with the court of directors j under
the prefent it was wholly veiled with the board of con¬
troul.
An objection had been dated, that the declaratory
bill conveyed to the king the power of maintaining
an army without the confent of parliament. No pro-
pofition (Mr Pitt obferved) could be more adverfe to
his intentions than that which was thus imputed to
him. But in reality the troops in quedion had already
been recognifed by parliament when they voted the
eftimate for railing them j and the number of king’s
regiments ferving in India would always be to be
afcertained by the company belonging to each, which
remained in England for the purpofe of recruiting,
and the expence of which would be to be provided for
by parliament.
Mr Pitt acknowledged, that it had been the objeCt
of the aCt of 1784 to alfume the power of fuperinten-
dence and controul, without afluming the power of
patronage. In the prefent bill he declared, that every
thing had been done which his underdanding had fug-
geded for the diminution of patronage. The regi¬
ments in quedion belonged to the crown •, and of courfe
it could not be fuppofed that the fovereign could en¬
tirely depart from his prerogative of naming his own
officers. But the king had aCted with the mod gra¬
cious attention to the company, and to the merits of
the officers who had growm gray in their fervice j ha¬
ving relinquiihed nearly half the patronage of the re¬
giments, and leaving the difpofal of thefe commidions
to the court of directors. The company indeed al-
ledged that they had 600 officers unemployed j but the
king could not forget that he had 2800 officers upon
half-pay, not perhaps more meritorious, but certainly
not lefs fo, than thofe in the company’s fervice, and
many of whom had aCtuaily ferved with didinCtion in
India. Such had been the forbearance he had thought
it proper to exercife upon the fubjeCt of patronage.
But if, by the objection that had been dated, it was
intended to refer to the great political patronage, this
he did not deny that he had at all times intended to
aflume. Men who were refponfible for the govern¬
ment of a country, ought undoubtedly to have the
appointment of thofe wffiom they were to entrud with
the execution of their orders. But it would be ad¬
mitted that the patronage left to the company was
very confiderable, when the great extent of their mi¬
litary edablifhment was properly recolleCted. Mr Pitt
added, that the objections that were dated on this
head would poffibly throw difficulties in the way of the
confolidation of the twTo armies in India ; an objeCt
on many accounts defirable, and which in feme way
or other mud be attempted. If it diould be thought
advifable to make the whole army royal, then undoubt¬
edly the patronage of the crown would be greatly in-
creafed. He believed, however, that the meafure was
recelfary $ and there was fcarcely any thing to which
355 ] - COM
he would not aflent, to remove the apprehendons of Company,
the nation refpeCting the undue ufe of this patronage.
For the bill now before the houfe, Mr Pitt profeded
himfelf ready to propofe claufes that diould annihilate
every fufpicion of danger.
The ipeech of Mr Pitt produced a favourable effed.
upon the country gentlemen; and the claufes which he
had alluded to being moved, were received without any
debate. Thefe provided, That no king’s troops, be¬
yond the number which was now propofed, ffiould be
fent to India under the authority of any exifting law :
That no increafe of falary ffiould be given to any of
the fervants of the company, without the difpatches
for that purpofe being laid before both houfes of par¬
liament thirty days previous to their being fent ; and
that no gratuity diould be given, the propofal for
which did not originate with the court of directors.
A fourth claufe w^as added to thefe by the minider,
which had not precifely the fame objeCt : it direct¬
ed, that an account of the revenues and diffiurfe-
ments of the company diould be laid before parlia¬
ment at a certain affigned period in the courfe of every
year.
The bill w’as carried up to the houfe of lords on
the 14th of March, read a frit time on the following
day, which w'as Saturday, and propofed for a fecond-
reading on the enfuing Monday. This precipitation
was made the fubjeCt of a petition, offered by certain
proprietors, and prefented to the houfe by the duke
of Norfolk, in which they requefted a delay of three
days, till a general meeting could be held of the pro¬
prietors of the Ead: India company. To this fugge-
ftion it was objeCted by Lord Thurlow and Lord
Hawkeffiury, that the ffiips of the Ealt India com¬
pany w7ere now detained in port at the enormous ex¬
pence of three or four hundred pounds per diem. By
Lord Stormont and Lord Loughborough it was re¬
plied, that no expence, however great, ought to weigh
in the confideration of the prefent queftion. The bill
decided upon a matter of private right, and parlia¬
ment could not juftly refufe to hear the petitioners.
The houfe divided upon the queftion, contents 32,
not-contents 75. A motion of Lord Porchtfter was
rejected by a fimilar majority, for referring a queftion
to the twelve judges refpeCting the true meaning and
intent of the aCt of 1784.
The duke of Richmond faid, that he was peculiar¬
ly circumllanced on the prefent occafion, fince he had
never been pleafed with any of the bills for the go¬
vernment of India that had yet been brought into
parliament. He had ever been of opinion, that the
concerns of the Eaft were trufted in the belt hands
when they were veiled in the company itfelf. He had
oppofed the bill of 1783, becaufe it flagrantly violated
the charter of the company, and placed an immenfe
power in the hands of a commiffion, that was not re¬
fponfible, fo far as he could find, either to the king
or the parliament. He had oppofed the aCt of 1784,
becaufe it gave to the crown an enormous addition of
power. But he could not admit that the aCt was in
any degree fo violent and defpotical as the bill which
preceded it. The declaratory mealure now under con¬
fideration muft neceffarily have his complete approba¬
tion. It confifted of two diftinCt parts ; its expofi-
tion of the aCt of 1784, and certain enaCting claufes
Y y -2 containing
G O M
Company, containing checks and reftraints upon the
patronage that the government of the Eaft naturally
gave. To the former part he muft inevitably agree.
That the aft of 1784 gave to the board of controul
complete authority, had always been his opimon. For
that reafon he had oppofed it: but entertaining that
opinion, he muft juftify the prefent bill, which in his
mind was a true declaration of the faft. He could
not but equally approve of the reftraints that were
propofed upon the exercife of patronage. Patronage
was infeparable from power. But when he faw the
induftry with which it was limited, and minifters were
tied down from the abufe of it j when he faw that
it was not to be ufed otherwife than for the good of
the fervice, he could not view the prefent meafure
with the fame jealoufy with which he was accuftomed
to regard propofitions for extending the power of the
crown.
The bill, however, underwent a fevere difcuflion in
this as it had done in the other houfe *, but at length
pafled.
In May following a petition was prefented to the
houfe of commons by the company, ftating certain
pecuniary embarraffments which they apprehended to
take place on the firft of March 1790, owing to the
arrears of the war, to the government claim of
500,000!. to the debt incurred in China, and to
the advances neceflary to be made for the purpofes of
the China trade. In compliance with their petition
Mr Pitt moved on the following day that they
ftiould be empowered to borrow a fum not exceeding
1,200,000!. He at the fame time obferved, that
in all probability the company in 1791 would have up¬
wards of 3,000,000!. fterling more than fufficient to
difcharge their debts. The meafure was carried through
both houfes without oppofition.
3. Hud/on's Bay Company. The vaft countries which
furround Hudfon’s Bay abound wnth animals whofe
furs and {kins are excellent, being far fuperior in quality
to thofe found in lefs northerly regions. In 1670,
a charter was granted to a company, which does not
confift of above nine or ten perfons, for the exclufive
trade to this bay j and they have afted under it ever
fince with great benefit to themfelves. The company
employ four (hips and 130 feamen. They have feve-
ral forts, viz. Prince of Wales’s fort, Churchill river,
Nelfon, New Severn, and Albany, which ftand on the
weft fide of the bay, and are garrifoned by 186 men.
The French, in May 1782, took and deftroyed thefe
forts, and the fettlements, &c. valued at 500,000!.
They export commodities to the value of i6,oool.
and bring home returns to the value of 29,340!.
which yield to the revenue 3734I. This includes the
fifhery in Hudfon’s Bay. This commerce, fmall as it
is, affords immenfe profits to the company, and even
fome advantages to Great Britain in general ; for the
commodities we exchange with the Indians for their
{kins and furs, are all manufaftured in Britain ; and as
the Indians are not very nice in their choice, fuch
things are fent of which we have the greateft plenty,
and which, in the mercantile phrafe, are drugs with
us. Though the workmanftiip too happens to be in
many refpefts fo deficient that no civilized people
would take it off our hands, it may be admired among
the Indians. On the other hand, the {kins and furs
[ 356 ] COM
extenfive we bring from Hudfon’s Bay, enter largely into our Company,
manufaftures, and afford us materials for trading with '—v'-"-1
many nations of Europe to great advantage. Thefe
circumftances tend to prove inconteftably the immenfe
benefit that would redound to Great Britain, by throw¬
ing open the trade to Hudfon’s Bay, fince even in its
prefent reftrained ftate it is fo advantageous. This
company, it is probable, do not find their trade fo ad¬
vantageous now as it was before we got poffefiion of
Canada. The only attempt made to trade with La¬
brador has been direfted towards the fiftiery, the annual
produce of which exceeds 49,000!.
The above are the principal trading companies pre-
fently fubfifting in Great Britain j but to the number
might have been added one of vaft importance, the
Scotch Darien Company, had it not been for the crooked
and pufillanimous policy of the Englifti miniftry at the
time. For an account of which, fee the article Da¬
rien.
Greenland Company.
Banking Companies.
See Greenland.
See Bank.
Of eftabliftiments fimilar to the above in other
countries, the following belonging to the Dutch
and French, may be mentioned as the moft impor¬
tant.
I. Dutch Companies. 1. Their Eaft India com¬
pany had its rife in the midft of the ftruggle which
that people had for their liberty : for the Spaniards
having forbidden all commerce with them, and {hut up
all their ports, neceflity infpired fome Zealanders to
feek a north-eaft paffage to China.
This enterprife proving unfuccefsful to three feve-
ral armaments in 1594, 1595, and 1596, afecond com¬
pany was formed, under the name of the Company of
remote Parts; which, in 1597, took the ordinary route
of the Portuguefe to the Indies, and returned in two
years and a half’s time with little gain but good
hopes.
This company, and a new one juft eftabliflied at Am-
fterdam, being united, equipped other fleets j and thefe
occafioned other companies at Amfterdam, Rotterdam,
in Zealand, &c. infomuch that the ftates foon began
to apprehend they might be prejudicial to each other.
Under this concern, they called all the direftors of the
feveral companies together, who all confented to an
union, the treaty whereof was confirmed by the ftates
in 1602 ', a very remarkable epocha, as being that of
the moft lolid and celebrated eftabliftiment of commerce
that ever was in the world.
Its firft capital was fix million fix hundred thoufand
guilders. It had fixty direftors, divided into feveral
chambers •, twenty in that of Amfterdam, twelve in
that of Zealand, fourteen in that of Delft^and Rot¬
terdam, and a like number in thofe at Sluys and Horn.
As each grant expires, the company is obliged to pro¬
cure a new one, which it has already done five times
fince the firft, paying a confiderable fum each time.
The laft application was in 1773, when the company,
after ftating that its trade had declined, folicited the
ftates-general to grant a diminution of the fum for¬
merly paid for the renewal of the charter. Upon this
reprefentation, their high mightineffes, in order to
have time to inquire into the matter, prolonged the
charter
COM
t 357 ]
COM
charter for three years, upon the old eftablilhment;
and finding, upon examination, that the company had
really fuftained great Ioffes, and its trade confiderably
declined, they afted with the fpirit of a wife commer¬
cial commonwealth, by complying with the company s
requeft. They therefore, in 1776, granted them a
new charter for 30 years, on the fame terms as the
former, on the immediate payment of 2,000,000 ot
florins, inftead of 3,000,000 which they paid before,
and the fum of 360,000 florins yearly which annual
payment they were allowed to make either in money
or merchandife. In confequence of this indulgence,
the flock of the company rofe in a fliort time no le(s
than 19 per cent. . . _ n t j-
Their factories, refidences, &c. in the Eaft Indies,
are very numerous 5 reaching from the Perfian gulf
to the coaft of China : the principal is that of Batavia,
the centre of their commerce ; here refides their gene¬
ral, with the ftate and fplendor of a fovereign prince ;
making war and peace with the eaftern kings and em¬
perors at pleafure.
The other more confiderable faflories are, Taiouam
on the coaft of China, Nangifac in Japan, Malacca,
Surat, Amboyna, Banda, Siam, Moluccas, &c. feveral
on the coaft of Coromandel, and at Ifpahan, Cape of
Good Hope, &c.: in all, they number 40 faftories and
25 fortreffes. They have the whole trade of the fpi-
cery in their own hands.
2. Their Weft India Company was eftabliftied in 1621,
with an exclufive privilege to trade 24 years along the
coafts of Africa, between the tropic of Cancer and the
Cape of Good Hope ; and in America from the fouth
point of Newfoundland, through the ftraits of Magel¬
lan, that of Le Maire, or others, to the ftraits of Ani-
an, both in the North and South fea. I he direftors
are divided into five chambers (as in the Eaft India
company), out of which 19 are chofen for the general
direftion of affairs. In 1647, the company renewed
its grant for 25 years 5 but it was fcarce able to
hold out the term, on account of its great Ioffes and
expences in taking the bay of Todos los Santos, Fer-
nambuc, and the greateft part of Brafil, from the Por-
tuguefe. The weaknefs of this company, which had
feveral times in vain attempted to be joined to that of
the Eaft Indies, occafioned its diffolution at the expira¬
tion of its grant.
In 1674, a new company, compofed of the ancient
proprietors and their creditors, was fettled in the
fame rights and eftablilhment with the former *, and
ftill fubfifts, though confiderably decayed. Their firft
capital was about fix millions of flprins. Its principal
eftablilhments are, one at Cape Verd, another on. the
Gold Coaft of Africa, at Tobago, Curaffao, &c. in
America. .
II. French Companies. 1. Their Eajl India Com¬
pany was eftabliftied in 1664, with an exclufive piivi-
lege to trade for $0 years in all the feas of the Eaft
Indies and South Sea. No adventurer to be ad¬
mitted without 1000 livres in flock } and foreigners
who have 20,000 livres in flock to be reputed regni-
coles.
The patent grants them the ifland of Madagafcar j
and the king to be at one-fifth of the expence of the
three firft armaments, without intereft ; the principal
to be refunded in ten years j or, if the company find
it lofes on the whole, the lofs to fall on the king’s Cwnpary.
fidThe capital fund of the company, which was rnoftly
furniftied by the king, was feven or eight millions of
livres, but was to have been fifteen millions.
In effedf, though no means were wanting to fupport
the company, yet it ftill drooped and ftill ftruggled *
till having fubfifted ten years without any change in
its form, and being no longer able to difcharge its en¬
gagements, there were new regulations concerted, but
to little purpofe. At length, things not being difpo-
fed for a new Eaft India Company, nor much good to
be expedted from the old one, in 1708 the miniftet
allowed the diretlors to treat with the rich traders of
St Malo, and refign to them their privilege under
certain conditions. In the hands of thele laft, the
company began to flourifti. See India Company^ be¬
lts chief fa&ory is at Pondicherry, on the coaft of
Coromandel. This is the refidence of the dire&or-
general. The other faftories are inconfiderable. The
merchandifes which the company brings into France
are, filks, cottons, fpices, coffee, rice, faltpetre j feveral
kinds of gums and drugs, woods, wrax, printed calicoes,
muftins, &c. .
2. Their Weft India Company was eftabhlhed m
166*4. Their charter gave them the property and
feignory of Canada, Acadia, the Antilles iflands, ifle
of Cayenne, and the 1 erra I1 irma of Ameiica, from
the river of the Amazons to that of Oroonoko } with
an exclufive privilege for the commerce of thofe places,
as alfo of Senegal and the coafts of Guinea, for 40
years, only paying half the duties. The Hock of the
company was fo confiderable, that in lefs than fix
months 45 veffels were equipped j wfith which they took
poffeflion of all the places in their grant, and fettled a
commerce: yet this only fubfifted nine years. In
1674, the grant was revoked, and the countries above*,
reunited to the king’s dominions as before : the kmg
reimburfing the adfions of the adventurers. This re¬
vocation was owing partly to the poverty of the com¬
pany, occafioned by its Ioffes in the wars with Eng¬
land, which had neceffitated it to borrow above a mil¬
lion,’ and even to alienate its exclufive privilege for the
coafts of Guinea: and partly to its having in good mea-
fure anfwered its end : which was to recover the com¬
merce of the Weft Indies from the Dutch, wTho had
torn it from them: for the French merchants, being
now accnftomed to traffic to the Antilles, by permiffion
of the company, w7ere fo attached to it, that it w7as not
doubted they would fupport the commerce after the
diffolution of the company.
3. Their Mijftjftppi Company was firft eftabliflied in
1684 in favour of the Chevalier de la Salle ; who ha¬
ving projetted it in 1660, and being appointed gover¬
nor of the fort of Frontignac at the mouth of that ri-
travelled over the country in the year 1683, and
returned to France to folicit the eftabliftiment. I his
obtained, he fet fail for his new colony wfith four vef¬
fels laden with inhabitants, &c. but entering the
gulf of Mexico, he did not, it feems, know the river
that had coft him fo much fatigue, but fettled on ano¬
ther river unknown, where his colony periftied by de¬
grees 5 fo that in 1685 there were not ICO perfons re¬
maining. Making feveral expeditions to find the Mil-
0 fiffippi,
COM [ 35§
fGompany. fiffippi, he was killed in one of them by a party who
v“~"v—mutinied againft him ; whereupon the colony was dil-
perfed and loll. M. Hiberville afterwards fucceeded
better. He found the Midi flip pi, built, a fort, and
fettled a French colony there-, but he being poilbned,
it is faid, by the intrigues of the Spaniards, who feared
fuch a neighbour, 0/1712 M. Crozat had the whole
property of trading to the French territories called
Louijiana granted him for 15 years.
4. Company of the Weft. In 1717, the Sieur Crozat
furrendered his grant and in the fame year a new
company was erebled under the title ol Company of the
Weft: to which, befides every thing granted to the
former company, wTas added the commerce of beaver,
enjoyed by the Canada company trom the year 1706,
but expiring in 1717* this eftablifhment, an equal
view was had to the finances and the commerce ol the
nation j and, accordingly, part of the conditions of its
eftablilhment regarded the lettling a colony, a trade,
&c. the other the vending part of the bills, called bills
of fate, which could no longer fubfift on their prefent
footing. The former are no more than are uiual in
fuch eftablifliments: for the latter, . the a&ions are
fixed at 500 livres, each payable in bills of Hate ; the
a&ions to be efteemed as merchandife, and in that
quality to be bought, fold, and trafficked. The bills of
Hate, which make the fund of the a&ions, to be con¬
verted into yearly revenue. To put the finilhing hand
to the company, in I71? fun<^ was hxed at an hun¬
dred millions of livres j which being filled, the cafh was
fhut up.
5. India Company. The jun&ion of the former com¬
pany with that of Canada was immediately followed
by its union with that of Senegal, both in the year
1718, by an arret of council: which at the iame time
granted the new company the commerce of beavers, and
made it miftrefs of the negro or Guinea trade to the
French colonies in America.
Nothing was now wanting to its perfe&ion but an
union with the Fall India company, and with thofe
of China and St Domingo-, which was effe&ed, with
the two firft in 1719, and with the third in 1720.
This union of the Faff India and China company with
the company of the Weft, occafioned an alteration of
the namej and it was henceforth called the India Corn-
pany.
The reafons of the union were, the inability of the
two former to carry on their commerce ; the immenfe
debts they had contra&ed in the Indies, efpecially the
Fall Company, complaints whereof had been fent to
court by the Indians, which difcredited the company
fo that they durft not appear any longer at Surat;
the little care they took to difcharge their en¬
gagements j and their having transferred their privi¬
lege to the private traders of St Malo, in confidera-
tion of a tenth in the profits of the returns of their
Ihips.
The ancient aftions of the company of the Weft,
which were not at par when this engraftment was pro-
ie&ed, before it was completed, were rifen to 300 per
cent. ; which unexpe&ed fuccefs gave occafion to con¬
clude the new a&ions of the united companies would
not bear lefs credit. The concourfe of fubfcribers was
fo great, that in a month’s time there were above fifty
.millions fubfcribeft for: the firft twenty-five million
j COM
a&ions which were granted to the India company, be- Company,
yond the hundred millions of ftock allowed the com- n
pany of the Weft, being filled as foon as the books
were opened \ to fatisfy the earneftnefs of the fubfcri-
beis, the ftock w^as increafed by feveral arrets to three
hundred millions. Credit ftill increafing, the new.ac¬
tions rofe to 1200 per cent, and thofe of the ancient
company of the Weft to 1900 per cent. -, an exorbitant
price, to which no other company ever rofe. Its con¬
dition was now fo flourifhing, that in 1719 it offered
the king to take a leafe of all his farms for nine years,
at the rate of three millions five hundred thoufand livres
per annum more than had been given before -, and alfo
to lend his majefty twelve hundred millions of livres to
pay the debts of the ftate. Thefe offers w^ere accept¬
ed -, and the king, in confideration hereof, granted
them all the privileges of the feveral grants of the com¬
panies united to that company to the year 1770; on
condition, however, of difcharging all the debts of the
Old Fall India Company, without any dedu&ion at all.
The loan of twelve hundred millions not being fuffi-
cient for the occafion of the ftate, was augmented,
three months afterwards, with three hundred millions
more \ which, with the former loan, and another of
one hundred millions before, made fixteen hundred mil¬
lions, for which the king w-as to pay intereft at the
rate of three per cent.
The duke of Orleans, in February 1720, did the
company the honour to prefide in their affembly, w-here
he made feveral propofals to them on the part of the
king : the principal of thefe w7as, that they ftrould take
on them the charge and adminiftration of the royal
bank. This w-as accepted of : and Mr Law-, comptrol¬
ler-general of the finances, w:as named by the king
infpe&or-general of the India Company and bank
united.
This union, which, it was propofed, ftrould have
been a mutual help to both thofe famous eftabliftr-
ments, proved the fatal point from whence the fall, of
both commenced : from this time, both the bank bills
and the aftions of the company began to fall. In ef-
fe&, the firft perifired abfolutely, and the other had
been drawn along with it but for the prudent precau¬
tions taken for its fupport.
The firft precaution was the revoking the office of
infpe&or-general, and the obliging Mr Law to quit
the kingdom ; the ancient dire&ors were difcarded,
and new ones fubftituted j and, to find the bottom, of
the company’s affairs, it w'as ordered they fhould give
an account of what they had received and dilhuifed,
both on the account of the company and of the bank,
which they had had the management of near a year.
Another precaution to come at the ftate of the compa¬
ny w7as, by endeavouring to diftinguifh the lawful ac-
tionaries from the Miffiffippi extortioners j whofe im¬
menfe riches, as well as their criminal addrefs in rea¬
lizing their a&ions either into fpecie or merchandife,
were become, fb fatal to the ftate ; in order, if poffible,
to fecure the honeft adventurers in their ftock. To
this end, an inquifition was made into their books, &c.
by perfons appointed by the king \ and the new7 direc¬
tors, or, as they were called, began fer.iouf-
ly to look about for their commerce abroad. Their af¬
fairs, however, declined, and at length funk into a
ruined and bankrupt ftate about the year 1769. The
king
COM [ 359 J COM
Company, king immediately fufpended their exclulive privileges,
 v'"J and laid the trade to the Eaft open to all his fubjefts j
configning, at the fame time, the affairs of the compa¬
ny to the care of the miniltry to adjuft and iettle. But
the various fchemes which were then formed for the
reiloration of the old company, and the eftabliihment
of a new one, were accompanied with fuch infur-
mountable difficulties, as to prove wholly ineffectual.
Nor wras the laying open of the trade attended imme¬
diately with the fuccefs that was expeCted •, the mer¬
chants being very flow in engaging in it, though the
king, by way of encouragement, lent them feme of his
owTn {hips to convey their commodities to the Eaft j
and the garrifon and civil eftablidiments continued to
be fupported in their exifting form by the crown. The
meafure, however, proved in time fuccefsful j fo that
for a courfe of years previous to 1785, the annual im¬
portation from India w'as confiderably greater than du¬
ring any former period. But whether it was that
they regarded this profperity as precarious ; or aim¬
ed at a more exteniive fuccefs ; or that they wifhed,
in imitation of Britain, for territorial acquifitions in
that climate, and believed an incorporated fociety
the beff inftrument of obtaining them 5 the French
court w’as induced to liften to propofals for eftablilhing
a new Eaft India Company. Their privilege was for
feven years, with the fpecial provifo, that years of war
which might occur in the interim ftiould be excluded
from the computation.
In the preamble of the aft of the 14th April J/8<f,
by which the fcheme w7as adopted, it wras alledged, “that
the commodities of Europe not having of late years
been regulated by any common ftandard, or propor¬
tioned to the demands of India, had on the one hand
fold at a low price ; while, on the other, the compe¬
tition of the fubjefts of France had railed the price of
the objefts of importation : that, upon their return
home, a want of fyftem and affortment had been univer-
fally complained of, the market being ovevftocked with
one fpecies of goods, and totally deftitute of another ;
that thefe defects muft neceffarily continue as long as
the trade remained in private hands j and that, on their
account, as well as that of the capital required, the
eftabhfhment of a newr company was abfolutely necef-
fary.”
Thefe reafonings did not appear altogether fatisfac-
tory to the perfons principally interefted. France has
been fo far enlightened by the difeuffions of the excel¬
lent w-riters (he has produced upon queftions of poli¬
tics and commerce, as not to be prepared to behold
the introduftion of monopolies with a very favourable
eye. By many perfons it wTas remarked, that the ar¬
guments of the preamble did not apply more to the
trade of India than to any other trade j and that, if
they were admitted in their entire force, they were
calculated to give a finifhing blow to the freedom of
commerce. The capital of the new company, which
amounted to 830,000!. wras ridiculed as altogether
inadequate to the magnitude of the undertaking. The
privileges with which it was indulged were treated as
enormous. The monopoly of Eaft India goods im¬
ported into France from any part of Europe, was
granted to them for two years, as well as the mono¬
poly of Eaft India goods imported from the place of
their growth. It was faid, that during that period
they would fit out no adventures for India ; that they ComparTi-
hoped to obtain a prolongation of this injurious indul-' 1 ~v
gence ; and that, of confequence, their incorporation
was in reality a confpiracy to prevent all future com¬
munication between France and the fources of com¬
merce in Afia. A provifion in the aft, direfting that
the prices of Eaft India goods in the iftands of Maurr-
tius and Bourbon ftiould be regulated by a tariff to be
fixed by the court of Verfailles, excited ftill louder ex¬
clamations. In this inftance, it was faid, the firft
principles of commerce were trampled upon in a man¬
ner the moft wanton and abfurd. Inftead of fuffering
it to find its own level by the mutual collifion of the
wants of one party and the labour of another, it was
arbitrarily to be faffiioned by a power whole extreme
diftance muft neceflarily render its decilions ill timed
and inapplicable. The very mode in which the mono¬
poly was introduced was a fubjeft of complaint. It
was determined by a refolution of the king in council ;
a proceeding totally inadequate to the importance of
the fubjeft, and which was to be regarded as clandef-
tine and furreptitious. In all former inftances fuch
meafures affumed the form of edifts, and were regifter-
ed in the parliaments. It was the prerogative of thefe
courts to verify them ; that is, to inquire into the fafts
which had led to their adoption. The injured parties
had an opportunity of being heard before the privilege
affumed the form of a law ; not privately by the mini-
fters of the fovereign, but publicly by the moft confi-
derable bodies in the kingdom, and in the face of the
nation.
The aft of council eftablilhing a new Eaft India
Company, was followed on the tenth of June by ano¬
ther declaration, intended ftill farther to promote their
intereft j by which it was exprefsly forbidden to im¬
port cottons, printed linens, and muflins, except through
the medium of the company. The arret proceeds up¬
on the fame principles of monopoly as in the former
inftance. It fets out indeed wdth a declaration, “ that
nothing can appear more defirable to the king, or bet¬
ter accord wuth the fentiments of his heart, than a ge¬
neral liberty, that freeing at once the circulation of
commodities from every fpecies of reftraint, fhould
feem to make of all the people of the world but ona
nation with refpeft to commerce.” But it adds, “ that
the period of this liberty is not yet arrived : that it
muft either be, with refpeft- to the nations of Eu¬
rope, unlimited and reciprocal, or that it cannot be
admitted : that the revocation of the former indul¬
gence refpefting cottons and linens was become necef-
fary on account of the opportunities it created for con¬
traband trade ; and becaufe the competition of the Eaft
India Company and private traders would occafion a
furplus in the market, and the admiffion of foreign
manufaftures wmuld decreafe and annihilate the na¬
tional induftry.”
The provifions that were made for carrying this law
into efftft were confidered as unjuft and fevere. The
merchants poffeffing any of the prohibited commodi¬
ties were alkwed twelve months to difpofe of them ;
but upon the exprefs condition, that the commodities
were to bear a ftamp, importing that they were ven¬
dible only to a certain period j a circumftance that muft
neceffarily depreciate their value. It w^as alfo enabled,
that the houfe of any trader might be entered by day-
ox:
Compari
fon.
COM [ 360
Company or by night, at the felicitation of the directors, to
fearch for prohibited goods, which were to be confif-
cated to the ufe of the company. Thefe kinds of vi-
fits of the officers of revenue, hitherto unauthorized in
France, were reprefented as peculiarly obnoxious, when
they were made for the foie benefit of a privileged mo¬
nopoly.
Company, in military affairs, a fmall body of foot,
commanded by a captain, who has under him a lieute¬
nant and enfign.
The number of fentinels or private foldiers in a com¬
pany is from 50 to 100 j and a battalion or regiment
confifts of 9, 10, or II, fuch companies, one of
which is always grenadiers, and polled on the right j
next them Hands the colonel’s company, and on the
left the light infantry company. Companies not incor¬
porated into regiments are called irregulars^ or inde¬
pendent companies.
Artillery Company. See Artillery.
Company of Ships, a fleet of merchantmen, w ho make
a charter-party among themfelves 5 the principal con¬
ditions wffiereof ufually are, that certain veflels ffiall be
acknowledged admiral, vice-admiral, and rear-admiral 5
that fuch and fuch fignals ffiall be obferved; that thofe
which bear no guns fliall pay lo much per cent, of their
cargo } and in cafe they be attacked, that what da¬
mages are fuftained ffiall be reimburfed by the compa¬
ny in general. In the Mediterranean, fuch companies
are called conferves.
COMPARATIVE anatomy, is that branch of
anatomy wffiich confiders the fecondary objefts, or the
bodies of other animals j ferving for the more accurate
diftinaions of feveral parts, and fupplying the defea
of human fubjeas.
It is otherwife called the anatomy of beajls, and fome-
times ‘zootomy ; and Hands in contradiftinaion to hu¬
man anatomy, or that branch of the art which conli-
ders the human body the primary objea of anatomy.
See Anatomy.
Comparative Degree, among grammarians, that be¬
tween the pofitive and fuperlative degrees, expreffive
of any particular quality above or below the level of
another.
COMPARISON, in a general fenfe, the confidera-
tion of the relation between two perfons or things,
when oppofed to each other, by which we judge of
their agreement or difference.
Comparison of Ideas, an aft of the mind, whereby
it compares its ideas one with another, in refpeft of
extent, degree, time, place, or any other circumftan-
ces. See Idea.
Brutes feem not to have this faculty in any great
degree : they have, probably, feveral ideas diftinft
enough *, but cannot compare them farther than as to
fome fenfible circumftances annexed to the objefts
themfelves ; the power of comparing general ideas,
which we obferve in men, we may probably conjefture
they have not at all.
Comparison, in Grammar, the infleftion of the
comparative degree. See Grammar.
Comparison, in Rhetoric, is a figure whereby two
things are confidered with regard to fome third, which
is common to them both.
] COM
Inftruftion is the principal, but not the only end of Compan-
comparilon. It may be employed with fuccefs in put-, 1 ^11' t
ting a fubjeft in a ftrong point of view'. A lively idea
is formed of a man’s courage by likening it to that of
a lion ; and eloquence is exalted in our imagination
comparing it to a river overflowing its banks, and in¬
volving all in its impetuous courfe. The fame effeft
is produced by contrail : a man in profperity becomes
more fenfible of his happinefs, by comparing his con¬
dition with that of a perfon in want of bread. Thus
comparifon is fubfervient to poetry as well as to philo-
fophy.
Comparifons ferve two purpofes: wffien addreffed to
the underftanding, their purpofe is to inftruft ; when
to the heart, their purpofe is to pleafe. Various means
contribute to the latter : ill, The fuggefting fome un-
ufual refemblance or contrail * *, 2d, The fetting an * See the
objeft in the ftrongeft light; 3d, The affociating an
objeft with others that are agreeable 5 4^ ,The ele'
vating an objeft j and, 5th, The deprefling it. AndaWjD^wj
that comparifons may give pleafure by thefe various Utudt.
means, will be made evident by examples which ffiall
be given, after premifing fome general obfervations.
Objefts of different fenfes cannot be compared to¬
gether ; for fuch objefts are totally feparated from
each other, and have no circumftance in common to
admit either reiemblance or contrail. Objefts of hear¬
ing may be compared together, as alio of tafte, of
fmell, and of touch 5 but the chief fund of companion
are objefts of fight ^ becaufe in writing or fpeaking,
things can only be compared in idea, and the ideas of
fight are more diftinft and lively than thofe of any
other fenfe.
When a nation emerging out of barbarity begins to
think of the fine arts, the beauties of language cannot
long lie concealed ; and when difeovered, they are
generally, by the force of novelty, carried beyond all
bounds of moderation. Thus, in the earlieft poems
of every nation, we find metaphors and fimiles found¬
ed on the flighteft and moll diftant refemblances,
which, lofing their grace with their novelty, wear
gradually out of repute 5 and now, by the improve¬
ment of tafte, no metaphor nor fimile is admitted into
any polite compofition but of the moll linking kind.
To illuftrate this obfervation, a fpecimen ffiall be given
afterward of fuch metaphors as we have been deferib-
ing : with refpeft to fimiles take the following fpeci¬
men
“ Behold, thou art fair, my love : thy hair is as
“ a flock of goats that appear from Mount Gilead :
“ thy teeth are like a flock of ffieep from the waffi-
“ ing, every one bearing twins ’. thy lips are like
“ a thread of fcarlet: thy neck like the tower of
“ David built for an armoury, whereon hang a
“ thoufand Ihields of mighty men : thy two breafts
“ like two young roes that are twins, which feed
“ among the lilies: thy eyes like the fiffi-pools in
“ Heffion, by the gate of Bath-rabbim : thy nofc
“ like the tower of Lebanon, looking toward Da-
“ mafeus.” SonS' °f Solomon.
“ Thou art like fnow on the heath ; thy hair like
« the mill of Cromla, when it curls on the rocks
t( and ffiines to the beam of the weft: thy breafts
“ are
COM [ 36
Compart- (( are like two fmooth rocks feen from Branno of
fQn- “ the llreams : thy arms like two white pillars in
'' v ' “ the hall of the mighty Fingal.” YingaL
It has no good effeft to compare things by wray of
fimile that are of the fame kind ; nor to contrail things
of different kinds. The reafon is given in the article
above cited on the margin, and {hall be here illuflra-
ted by examples. The firft is a companion built upon
a refemblance fo obvious as to make little or no im-
preflion. Speaking of the fallen angels fearching for
mines of gold:
A numerous brigade haflen’d : as when bands
Of pioneers with fpade and pickaxe arm’d,
Forerun the royal camp to trench a field
Or caft a rampart. Milton.
The next is of things contrafted that are of different
kinds.
Queen. What, is my Richard both in fhape and
mind
Transform’d and weak ? Hath Bolingbroke depos’d
Thine intelleft ? Hath he been in thy heart ?
The lion, dying, thrufleth forth his paw,
And wounds the earth, if nothing elfe, with rage
To be o’erpower’d : and wilt thou, pupil like,
Take thy correflion mildly, kifs the rod,
And fawn on rage with bale humility ?
Richard 11. Aft v. fc. I.
This comparifon has fcarce any force : a man and a
lion are of different fpecies, and therefore are proper
fubjefts for a fimile 5 but there is no fuch refemblance
between them in general, as to produce any flrong
effeft by contrafling particular attributes or circum-
ftances.
A third general obfervation is, That abftraft terms
can never be the fubjeft of comparifon, otherwife than
by being perfonified. Shakefpeare compares adverfity
to a toad, and flander to the bite of a crocodile ; but
in fuch comparifons thefe abftraft terms muft be ima¬
gined fenfible beings.
To have a juft notion of comparifons, they muft be
diftinguifhed into two kinds ; one common and fami¬
liar, as where a man is compared to a lion in courage,
or to a horfe in fpeed j the other more diftant and re¬
fined, where two things that have in themfelves no
refemblance or oppofition, are compared with refpeft
to their effefts. There is no refemblance between a
flower-pot and a cheerful fong *, and yet they may be
compared with refpeft to their effefts, the emotions
they produce in the mind being extremely fimilar.
There is as little refemblance between fraternal concord
and precious ointment} and yet obferve how fuccefs-
fully they are compared with refpeft to the impreflions
they make.
“ Behold, how good and how pleafant it is for
“ brethren to dwell together in unity. It is like
“ the precious ointment upon the head, that ran
“ down upon Aaron’s beard, and defeended to the
“ fkirts of his garment.” Pfalm 133.
For illuftrating this fort of comparifon, we fhall add
fome more examples;
Vox.. VI. Part L
1 ] COM
“ Delightful is thy prefence, O Fingal! it is like C°^Pari*
“ the fun on Cromla, when the hunter mourns his ^ <
“ abfence for a feafon, and fees him between the
clouds.
“ Did not Offian hear a voice ? or is it the found
<< of days that are no more ? Often, like the evening
“ fun, comes the memory of former times on my
“ foul.
“ His countenance is fettled from vrar; and is
calm as the evening-beam, that from the cloud of
“ the weft looks on Cona’s filent vale.” Fingal.
W'e now proceed to illuftrate, by particular inftances,
the different means by which comparifons, whether of
the one fort or the other, can afford pleafure j and, in
the order above eftablifhed, we fhall begin with fuch
inftances as are agreeable, by fuggefting fome unufual
refemblance or contraft.
Sweet are the ufes of Adverfity,
Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous,
Wears yet a precious jewel in her head.
As you like it, Aft ii. fc. I.
See, how the morning opes her golden gates,
And takes her farewel of the glorious fun $
How well refembles it the prime of youth,
Trimm’d like a yonker prancing to his love.^
Second Part Henry VI. Aft ii. fc. I.
Thus they their doubtful confultations dark
Ended, rejoicing in their matchlefs chief:
As when from mountain tops, the dufky clouds
Afcending, while the North-wind fleeps, o’erfpread
Heav’ns cheerful face, the lowering element
Scowls o’er the darken’d landfcape, fnow, and
fhower j
If chance the radiant fun with farewel fweet
Extends his ev’ning-beam, the fields revive,
The birds their notes renew, and bleating herds
Atteft their joy, that hill and valley rings.
Paradife Lojl, Book ii.
None of the foregoing fimiles tend to illuftrate the
principal fubjeft, and therefore the chief pleafure they
afford muft; arife from fuggefting refemblances that are
not obvious j for undoubtedly a beautiful fubjeft intro¬
duced to form the fimile affords a feparate pleafure,
which is felt in the fimiles mentioned, particularly in
that cited from Milton.
The next effeft of a comparifon in the order men¬
tioned, is to place an objeft in a ftrong point of view' j
which effeft is remarkable in the following fimiles.
As when two feales are charg’d with doubtful loads,
From fide to fide the trembling balance nods,
(While fome laborious matron, juft and poor.
With nice exaftnefs weighs her wholly ftore),
Till pois’d aloft, the refting beam fufpends
Each equal weight ; nor this nor that defeends j
So flood the war, till Heftor’s matchlefs might,
With fates prevailing, turn’d the fcale of fight.
Fierce as a whirlwind up the wall he flies,
And fires his hoft with loud repeated cries.
Iliad, Book xii. 521.
 She never told her love ;
But let concealment, like a worm i’ th’ bud,
Z z
Feed
Compari-
fon.
COM [362
Feed on her damafk cheek : (he pin d in thought j
And with a green and yellow melancholy,
She fat like Patience on a monument,
Smiling at grief. twelfth Night, Act ii. fc. 6.
“ There is a joy in grief when peace dwells with
“ the forrowful. But they are wafted with mourn-
“ ing, O daughter of Tofcar, and their days are
« few. They fall away like the flower on which
“ the fun looks in his ftrength, after the mildew
“ has pafled over it, and its head is heavy with the
“ drops of night.” Fingal.
Out, out, brief candle !
Life’s but a walking (hadow, a poor player,
That ft ruts and frets his hour upon the ftage,
And then is heard no more.
Macbeth, Ad v. fc. 5.
O thou goddefs,
Thou divine nature ! how thyfelf thou blazon ft
In thefe two princely boys ! they are as gentle
As zephyrs blowing below the violet,
Not wag§in§ fweet head and yet as rough
(Their royal blood inchaf’d) as the rudelt wind,
That by the top doth take the mountain-pine,
And make him ftoop to the vale. ^
Cymbehne, Aa iv. fc. 4*
<t Why did not I pafs away in fecret, like the
“ flower of the rock that lifts its fair head unfeen,
“ and ftrows its withered leaves on the blaft ?”
Fingat.
As words convey but a faint and obfcure notion of
great numbers, a poet, to give a lively notion of the
Obiea he defcribes with regard to number, does well
to compare it to what is familiar and commonly known.
Thus Homer compares the Grecian army in point of
number to a fwarm of bees; in another paffage he
compares it to that profufion of leaves and flowers
xvhich appear in the fpring, or of infe&s in a fummer s
evening : And Milton,
  As when the potent rod
Of Amram’s fon in Egypt’s evil day
Wav’d round the coaft, up call’d a pitchy cloud
Of locufts, warping on the eaftern wind,
That o’er the realm of impious Pharaoh hung
Like night, and darken’d all the land of Nile j
So numberlefs were thofe bad angels feen,
Hov’ring on wing under the cope of hell,
’Twixt upper, nether, and furrounding fires.
Paradife Loft, Book 1.
Such comparifons have, by fome writers, been con¬
demned for the lownefs of the images introduced, but
furely without reafon ; for, with regard to numbers,
they put the principal fubjeft in a ftrong light.
The foregoing comparifons operate by refemblance;
others have the fame effeft by contraft.
Tori. I am the laft of noble Edward’s fons,
Of whom thy father, prince of Wales, was firft 5
In war, was never lion rag’d more fierce 5
In peace, was never gentle lamb more mild,
Than was that young and princely gentleman.
His face thou haft, for even fo look’d he,
Accooiplilh’d with the number of thy hours.
] COM
But when he frown’d, it was.againft the French,
And not againft his friends. His noble hand u
Did win what he did fpend and fpent not that
Which his triumphant father’s hand had won.
His hands were guilty of no kindred’s blood,
But bloody with the enemies of his kin.
Oh Richard, York is too far gone with grief,
Or elfe he never would compare between.
Richard, II. Aft ii. fc. 3*
Milton has a peculiar talent in embelliftiing the prin¬
cipal fubjeft, by affociating it with others that_ are
agreeable j which is the third end of a comparifon.
Similes of this kind have, befide, a Separate effeft :
they diverfify the narration by new images that are
not ftriftly neceffary to the comparifon 5 they are
fliort epifodes, which, without drawing us from the
principal fubjeft, afford great delight by their beauty
and variety.
He fcarce had ceas’d, when the fuperior fiend
Was moving toward the ftiore j his pond’rous flueld.
Ethereal temper, maffy, large, and round,
Behind him call : the broad circumference
Hung on his (boulders like the moon, whofe orb
Through optic glafs the Tufcan artift views
At evening from the top of Fefole.
Or in Valdarno, to defcry new lands.
Rivers, or mountains, in her fpotty globe. .
Milton, Book
Compari.
fon.
-Thus far thefe beyond
Compare of mortal prowefs, yet obferv’d
Their dread commander. He, above the reft,
In (hape and ftature proudly eminent.
Stood like a tow’r $ his form had not yet loft
All her original brightnefs, nor appear’d
Lefs than archangel ruin’d, and th’ excefs
Of glory obfcur’d : as when the fun new-rifen
Looks through the horizontal mifty air
Shorn of his beams; or, from behind the moon,
In dim eclipfe, difaftrous twilight (beds
On half the nations, and with fear of change
Perplexes monarchs. Milton, Book i«
As when a vulture on Imaus bred,
Whofe fnowy ridge the roving 1'artar bounds,
Diflodging from a region fcarce of prey
To gorge the flefti of lambs, or yeanling kids, .
On hills where flocks are fed, flies toward the fprings
Of Ganges or Hydafpes, Indian dreams,
But in his way lights on the barren plains,
Of Sericana, where Chinefes drive
With fails and wind their cany waggons light:
So on this windy fea of land, the fiend.
Walk’d up and down alone, bent on his prey. ^
Milton, Book iik
Next of comparifons that aggrandife or elevate*-
Thefe affeft us more than any other fort j the reafon
of which will be evident from the following in-
ftances :
As when a flame the winding valley fills,
And runs on crackling (limbs between the hills.
Then o’er the ftubble up the mountain flies,
Fires the high woods, and blazes to the (kies,
Tins*
/
Compari-
fon.
COM [ 363 ]
C O M
This way and that, the fpreading torrent roars j
So fweeps the hero through the wafted ftiores.
Around him wide, immenfe deftru&ion pours,
And earth is delug’d with the ^anguine ftiow’rs.
Iliad, xx. 569.
Methinks, King Richard and myfelf fhould meet
With no lefs terror than the elements
Of fire and water, when their thund’ring {hock,
At meeting, tears the cloudy cheeks of heav’n.
Richard II. A6f iii. fc. 5.
In general, when by any animating paflion, whether
pleafant or painful, an impulfe is given to the imagi¬
nation j we are in that condition difpofed to every
fort of figurative expreffxon, and in particular to com-
parifons. This in a great meafure is evident from
the comparifons already mentioned ; and lhall be fur¬
ther illuftrated by other inftances. Love, for example,
in its infancy, roufing the imagination, prompts the
heart to difplay itfelf in figurative language, and in
fimiles :
Compfcri-
fon.
“ As ruftieth a foamy ftream from the dark fhady
44 fteep of Cromla, when thunder is rolling above, and
“ dark brown night refts on the hill: fo fierce, fo
“ vaft, fo terrible, ruih forward the fons of Erin. The
“ chief, like a whale of ocean followed by all its bil-
“ lows, pours valour forth as a ftream, rolling its might
“ along the ftiore.” Fingal, Book i.
“ As roll a thoufand waves to a rock, fo Swaran’s
u hoft came on •, as meets a rock a thouiand waves, fo
“ Inisfail met Swaran.” Ibid.
The laft article mentioned, is that of lelfening or
depreffing a hated or difagreeable object; which is ef-
feftually done by refembling it to any thing low or def-
picable.
Thus Milton, in his defcription of the rout of the re¬
bel-angels, happily expreffes their terror and difmay in
the following fimile:
 As a herd
Of goats or timorous flock together throng’d,
Drove them before him thunder-ftruck, purfu’d
With terrors and with furies to the bounds
And cryftal wall of heav’n, which op’ning wide,
Roll’d inward, and a fpacious gap difclos’d
Into the wafteful deep j the monftrous fight
Struck them with horror backward, but far worfe
Urg’d them behind; headlong themfelves they threw
Down from the verge of heav’n.
Milton, Book vi.
By this time the different purpofes of comparifon,
and the various impreflions it makes on the mind, are
fufficiently illufirated by proper examples. This was
an eafy work. It is more difficult to lay down rules
about the propriety or impropriety of comparifons j
in what circumftances they may be introduced, and in
what circumftances they are out of place. It is evi¬
dent, that a comparifon is not proper upon every oc-
cafion ; a man in his cool and fedate moments is not
difpofed to poetical flights, nor to facrifice truth and
reality to the delufive operations of the imagination ;
far lefs is he fo difpofed, when opprefled with care,
or interefted in fome important tranfaftion that occu¬
pies him totally. On the other hand, it is obferved,
that a man, when elevated or animated by any paf-
fion, is difpofed to elevate or animate all his fubje&s j
he avoids familiar names, exalts obje&s by circumlo¬
cution and metaphor, and gives even life and voluntary
a£Iion to inanimate beings. In this warmth of mind,
the higheft poetical flights are indulged, and the
boldeft fimiles and metaphors relifhed. But without
ioaring io high, the mind is frequently in a tone to
relifli chafte and moderate ornament ; fuch as com¬
parifons that fet the principal objedl in a ftrong point
of view, or that embellifti and diverfify the narration.
Troilus. Tell me, Apollo, for thy Daphne’s love.
What Creffid is, what Pandar, and what we ?
Her bed is India, there (he lies a pearl'?
Between our Ilium, and where fhe refidips,
Let it be call’d the wild and wandering flood j
Ourfelf the merchant, and this failing Pandar
Our doubtful hope, our convoy, and our bark.
Troi/us and CreJJida, Aft i. fc. I ,
Again :
Come, gentle night j come, loving black-brow’d
night!
Give me my Romeo: and, when he fhall die,
Take him and cut him out in little ftars,
And he will make the face of heav’n fo fine,
That all the world (hall be in love with night,
And pay no worftiip to the garifh fun.
Romeo and Juliet, Aft. iii. fc. 4.
But it will be a better illuftration of the prefent
head, to give examples where comparifons are impro¬
perly introduced. Similes are not the language of a
man in his ordinary ftate of mind, difpatching his
daily and ufual wrork : for that reafon, the following
fpeech of a gardener to his fervant is extremely im¬
proper :
Go bind thou up yon dangling apricots,
Which, like unruly children, make their fire
Stoop with oppreflion of their prodigal weight :
Give fome fupportances to the bending twigs.
Go thou, and, like an executioner,
Cut off the heads of too faft growing fprays,
That look too lofty in our commonwealth :
All muft be even in our government.
Richard II. Aft iii. fc. 7.
The fertility of Shakefpeare’s vein betrays him fre¬
quently into this error.
Rooted grief, deep anguifti, terror, remorfe, de-
fpair, and all the fevere difpiriting paflions, are decla¬
red enemies, perhaps not to figurative language in ge¬
neral, but undoubtedly to the pomp and folemnity of
comparifon. Upon \ s account, the fimile pronoun¬
ced by young Rutland, under terror of death from an
inveterate enemy, and praying mercy, is unnatural;
So looks the pent-up lion o’er the wretch
That trembles under his devouring paws j
And fo he walks infulting o’er his prey,
And fo he comes to rend his limbs afunder.
Ah, gentle Clifford, kill me with thy fword,
And not with fuch a cruel threat’ning look.
Third Part Henry VI. Aft i. fc. y.
A man fpent and difpirited after lofing a battle, is
not difpofed to heighten or illuftrate his difeourfe by
ftmiles.
Z z 2
Tori.
COM
Compan¬
ion.
York. With this we charg’d again : but out! alas,
We bodg’d again ; as I have feen a fwan
With bootlefs labour fvvim againft the tide,
And fpend her firength with over-matching waves.
Ah ! hark, the fatal followers do purfue,
And I am faint and cannot fly their fury.
The fands are number’d that make up my life ;
Here muft I flay, and here my life muft end;
Third Part Henry VI. Aft i. fc. 6.
Similes thus unfeafonably introduced are finely ri¬
diculed in the Rehearfal.
« Bayes. Now here Are muft make a fimile.
“ Smith. Where’s the neceflity of that, Mr Bayes?
“ Bayes. Becaufe (lie’s furprifed that’s a gene-
« ral rule ; you muft ever make a fimile when you
“ are furprifed 5 ’tis a new way of writing ’
A comparifon is not always faultlefs, even where it
is properly introduced. A comparifon, like other hu¬
man produftions, may fall fliort of its end ; of which
defeft inftances are not rare even among good writers:
and to complete the prefent fubjeft, it will be necef-
fary to make fome obfervations upon fuch faulty com-
parifons. Nothing can be more erroneous than to in-
ftitute a comparifon too faint: a diftant refemblance
or contraft fatigues the mind with its obfcurity, inftead
of amufing it *, and tends not to fulfil any one end of
a comparifon. The following fimiles feem to labour
under this defeft.
K. Rich. Give me the crown.—Here, coufin, no
feize the crown,
Here on this fide, my hand ; on that fide, thine.
Now is this golden crown like a deep well,
That owes two buckets, filling one another }
The emptier ever dancing in the air,
The other down, unfeen, and full of water j
That bucket down, and full of tears, am I,
Drinking my griefs, whilft you mount up on high.
Richard II. Aft iv. fc. 3.
K. ‘John. Oh ! coufin, thou art come to fet mine
eye •,
The tackle of my heart is crack’d and burnt •,
And all the (hrouds wherewith my life ftiould fail.
Are turned to one thread, one little hair :
My heart hath one poor firing to flay it by,
Which holds but till thy news be uttered..
King John, Aft iv. fc. 10.
York. My uncles both are flain in refcuing me :
And all my followers to the eager foe
Turn back, and fly like (hips before the wind,
Or lambs purfu’d by hunger-ftarved wolves.
Third Part Henry VI. Aft i. fc. 6.
The latter of the two fimiles is good : the former,
fcecaufe of the faintnefs of the refemblance, produces
no good effedb, and crouds the narration with an ufe-
lefs image. . t f r „
In an epic poem, or in any ekvated iubjeft, a. wri¬
ter ought to avoid railing a fimile upon a low image,
which never fails to bring down the principal fubjeft.
In general, it is a rule, that a grand objeft ought ne¬
ver to be refembled to one that is diminutive, how¬
ever delicate the refemblance may be : for it is the pe-
[ 364 ] COM
culiar charafter of a grand objeft to fix the attention, Compari*
and fwell the mind ; in which ftate, it is difagreeable (on.
to contraft the mind to a minute objeft, however ele- ^
gant. The refembling an objeft to one that is greater,
has, on the contrary, a good effeft, by raifing or fwelling
the mind j for one paffes with fatisfaftion from a fmall
to a great objeft ; but cannot be drawn down, without
reluftance, from great to fmall. Hence the following
fimiles are faulty.
Meanwhile the troops beneath Patroclus’ care.
Invade the Trojans, and commence the war.
As wafps, provok’d by children in their play,
Pour from their manfions by the broad highway.
In fwarms the guiltlefs traveller engage,
Whet all their flings, and call forth all their rage ,
All rife in arms, and with a general cry
Affert their waxen domes and buzzing progeny:
Thus from the tents the fervent legion fwarms,
So loud their clamours, and fo keen their arms.
Iliad, xv i. 312*.
So burns the vengeful hornet (foul all o’er)
Repuls’d in vain, and thirfty ftill of gore j
(Bold fon of air and heat) on angry wings
Untam’d, untir’d, he turns, attacks, and ftings-
Tir’d with like ardour, fierce Atrides flew,
And fent his foul with every lance he threw.
Iliad, xvii. 642=,
An error oppofite to the former,, is the introducing
refembling image, fo elevated or great as to. bear
1 proportion to the principal fubjeft. Their re¬
markable difparity, being the moft.ftriking circum-
ftance, feizes the mind, and never fails to deprefs the
principal fubjeft by contraft, inftead of raifing it by
refemblance : and if the difparity be exceeding great,
the fimile takes on an air of burlefque *, nothing being
more ridiculous than to force an objeft out of its pro¬
per rank in nature, by equalling it with one greatly
fuperior or greatly inferior. This will be evident from,
the following comparifon.
Loud as a bull makes hill and valley ring,.
So roar’d the lock when it releas’d the fpring.
Odyjey, xxi. 51..
Such a fimile upon the fimpleft of all aftions, that of
opening a lock, is pure burlefque..
A writer of delicacy will avoid drawing his compa-
rifons from any image that is naufeous, ugly, or re¬
markably difagreeable*, for however ftrong the refem¬
blance may be, more will be loft than gained by fuch
comparifon. Therefore we cannot help condemning^
though with fome reluftancy,. the following fimile, or>
rather metaphor.
O thou fond many 1 with what loud applaufe
* Didft thou beat heav’n with blefling Bolingbroke
Before he was what thou would’ft have him be ?
And now being trimm’d up in thine own defires,.
Thou, beaftly feeder, are fo full of him,
That thou provok’d thyfelf to caft him up.
And fo, thou common dog, didft thou difgorge
Thy glutton bofom of the royal Richard,
And now thou would’ft eat thy dead vomit up,.
And howl’ll to find it. r *
Second Part Henry IV. Aft 1. ic. o..
The
COM [365
The ftrongefl: obje&ion that can lie againft a com-
parifon is, that it confifts in words only, not 111 fenle.
Such falfe coin, or baftard-wit, does extremely well in
burlefque •, but it is far below the dignity of the epic,
or of any ferious compofition.
The noble filler of Poplicola,
The moon of Rome ; challe as the icicle
That’s curdl’d by the froll from pureft fnow,
And hangs on Dian’s temple.
Conolanus, Aft v. fc. 3.
There is evidently no refemblance between an icicle
and a woman, chafte or uncbafte but chartity is cold
in a metaphorical fenfe, and an icicle is cold in a pro¬
per fenfe 5 and this verbal refemblance, in the hurry
and glow of comportng, has been thought a fufficient
foundation for the fimile. Such phantom fimiles are
mere witticifms, which ought to have no quarter, ex¬
cept where purpofely introduced to provoke laughter.
Lucian, in His differtation upon hiftory, talking of a
certain author, makes the following companion, which
is verbal merely.
tt This author’s defcriptions are fo cold, that they
“ furpafs the Cafpian fnow, and all the ice of the
“ north.”
1
COM
-But for their fpirits and fouls
This word rebellion had froze them up
As filh are in a pond.
Second Part Henry IV. Aft 1.
Pope has feveral limiles of the fame ftamp.
And hence one mailer paflion in the breall,
Like Aaron’s ferpent, fwallows up the reft.
Epijl. ii
And again, talking of this fame ruling or mailer paf-
fion y
Nature its mother, habit is its nurle ;
Wit, fpirit, faculties, but make it worfe 5
Reafon itfelf but gives it edge and pow’r *,
As heav’n’s bleft beam turns vinegar more four.
Ibid. 145.
fc. 3.
i3T*
Where the fubjeft is burlefque or ludicrous, fuch
fimiles are far from being improper. Horace lays
pleafantly,
Quanquam tu levior cortice. Lib- iii. od. 9.
And Shakelpeare.
In breaking oaths he’s ftronger than Hercules.
And this leads to obferve, that befides the forego¬
ing comparifons, which are all ferious, there is a fpe-
cies, the end and purpofe of which is to excite gaiety
or mirth. Take the following examples.
Falftaff fpeaking to his page :
“ I do here walk before thee, like a fow that
“ hath overwhelmed all her litter but one.”.
Second Part Henry IV. Aft i. fc. 10.
“ I think he is not a pick-purfe, nor a horfe-
u Healer j but for his verity in love, I do think him
“ as concave as a covered goblet, or a worm-eaten
nut.” As you like itr Aft iii. fc. 10.
This fword a dagger had his page,
That was but little for his age *,
And therefore waited on him fo,
As dwarfs upon knight-errants do. ''" "
HudibraSy canto 1.
“ Books, like men, their authors, have but one way
“ of coming into the world ; but there are ten thou-
“ fand to go out-of it, and return no more.
b Eale of a Tub.
“ The moll accomplilhed way of ufing books at pre-
“ fent is, to ferve them as fome do lords, learn their
“ titlesy and then brag of their acquaintance.”
“ He does not confider, that fmcerity in love is as
“ much out of falhion as fweet fnuff j nobody takes it
« now ” Carelefs Hujband.
COMPARTITION, in ArchiteBure, denotes the
ufeful and graceful difpofition of the whole ground-
plot of an edifice, into rooms of office, and of recep¬
tion or entertainment.
COMPARTMENT, in general, is a defign com¬
ported of rteveral different figures, difpofed with iymme-
try, to adorn a parterre, a ceiling, &x.
A compartment of tiles or bricks, is an arrangement
of them, of different colours, and varmffied, tor the
decoration of a building. Compartments m garden-
ing, are an affemblage of beds, plots, borders, walks,
&c. difpofed in the moft advantageous manner that
the ground will admit of. Compartments in heraldry,
are otherwife called partitions. .
COMPASS, or Mariner's Steering Compass, is an
inftrument ufed at fea by pilots to direft and afcertain
the courfe of their ffiips. It confifts.of a circular brats
box, which contains a paper card with the 32 points
of the comparts, fixed on a magnetic needle that always
turns to the north, excepting a fmall declination va¬
riable at different places. See Variation. .
The needle with the card turns on an upright pit*
fixed in the centre of the box. In the centre of the
needle is fixed a brafs conical focket or cap, whereby
the card hanging on the pin turns freely round the
The top of the box is covered with a glarts that the
card’s motion may not be difturbed by the wind. The
whole is enclofed in another box of wood, where it is
furtpended by brarts hoops or gimbals, to prerterve the
card horizontal.' The comparts-box is to be fo placed
in the ffiip, that the middle leftion of the box, parallel
to its fides, may be parallel to the middle ieftion of
the ffiip along its keel.
The comparts being of the utmoft confequence to
navigation, it is reartonable to expeft that the greateft:
attention ffiould be paid to its conftruftion, and every
attempt to improve it carefully examined, and, 11 pro¬
per, adopted. But fo carelefs are the generality of
commanders of this moll uieful inftrument, that almoft
all the compafles ufed on board merchant-ffiips have
their needles formed of two pieces of ft eel-wire, each
of which is bent in the middle, fo as to form an ob-
turte angle 5 and their ends, being applied together,
make an acute one j fo that the whole reprefents the
form of a lozenge •, in the centre of which, and of
the card,, is placed the brarts cap. Now, if we exa-
T r - mine
Comparti-
tion
Compafs.
COM
Compafs. mine a number of thefe cards, we (ball rarely, if ever,
find them all in the fame direction, but they will all
vary more or lefs, not only with regard to the true
direflion, but from one another.
Thefe irregularities are owing to the ftru&ure of
the needle ; for the wires of which it is compofed are
only hardened at the ends ; now, if thefe ends are not
equally hard, or if one end be hardened up higher
than the other, when they come to be put together,
in fixing them to the card, that end which is hardeft
will deftroy much of the virtue of the other 5 by which
means the hardeft end will have the moft power in
direfting the card, and confequently make it vary to¬
ward its own dire£lion : and, as the wires are difpo-
fed in the form of a lozenge, thefe cards can have but
little force, fo that they will often, when drawn afide,
ftand at the diftance of feveral degrees on either fide
the point from whence they are drawn : for all mag-
netical bodies receive an additional ftrength by being
placed in the direftion of the earth’s magnetifm, and
aft proportionably lefs vigoroufly when turned out of
it ; wherefore, when thefe kind of needles are drawn
afide from their true point, two of the parallel fides
of the lozenge will confpire, more direftly than be¬
fore, with the earth’s magnetifm j and the other two
will be lefs in that direftion ; by which means the
two fides will very much impede its return j and
the twro latter will have that impediment to over¬
come, as well as the friftion, by their own force
alone.
To remove thefe inconveniences, fome needles are
made of one piece of fteel of a fpring temper, and
broad towards the ends, but tapering towards the
middle, where a hole is made to receive the cap. At
the ends they terminate in an angle, greater or lefs
according to the (kill or fancy of the workman. Thefe
needles, though infinitely preferable to the other, are,
however, far from being perfeft ; for every needle
of this form hath fix poles inftead of two, one at each
end, two where it becomes tapering, and twro at the
hole in the middle : this is owing to their (hape ; for
the middle part being very (lender, it has not fub-
ftance enough to conduft the magnetic dream quite
through, from one end to the other : all thefe poles
appear very diftinftly, when examined with a glals
that is fprinkled over wTith magnetic fand. This cir-
cumftance, however, does not hinder the needle from
pointing true j but as it has lefs force to move the card
than when the magnetic ftream moves in large curves
from one end to the other, it is certainly an imper-
feftion.
Thefe inconveniences induced the ingenious Dr
Knight to contrive a new fea-compafs, wThich came in¬
to ufe on board all the (hips of war. The needle in
this inftrument is quite ftraight, and fquare at the
ends j and confequently has only twm poles, though
about the hole in the middle the curves are a little
confufed. Needles of this conftruftion, after vibra¬
ting a long time, will always point exaftly in the
fame direftion $ and if drawn ever fo little on one
fide, will return to it again, without any fenfible dif¬
ference. We may therefore conclude, that a regular
parallelepiped is the beft form for a needle, as well as
the fimpieft, the holes for the caps being as fmall as
pofiible.
COM
And as the weight (hould be removed to the great- Compafs.
eft diftance from the centre of motion, a circle of ''—■'v—-
brafs, of the fame diameter of the card, may be ad¬
ded, which will ferve alfo to fupport the card, which
may then be made of thin paper, without any thing
to ftiffen it. This ring being fixed below the card,
and the needle above it, the centre of gravity is pla¬
ced low enough to admit of the cap being put under
the needle, whereby the hole in the needle becomes
unneceffary.
The above obfervations will be eafily underftood
from viewing the feveral parts of the inftrument as
reprefented on Plate CL where fig. 6. is the card
with the needle KL, and its cap M, fixed upon it,
being one-third of the diameter of the real card. Fig. 8.
is a perfpeftive view of the backfide of the card, where
AB reprefents the turning down of the brafs edge, C
the under part of the cap, D and E two Aiding weights
to balance the card, and F, G, two ferews that fix
the brafs edge, &x. to the needle. Fig. 7. is the j?e-
deftal that fupports the card, containing a ferewing
needle, fixed in two fmall grooves to receive it, by
means of the collet C, in the manner of a port-crayon.
D, the ftem, is filed into an oftagon, that it may be
the more eafily unferew^ed. For its further illuftration
and application to ufe, fee Navigation.
The invention of the compafs is ufually aferibed to
Flavio da Melfi, or Flavio Gioia, a Neapolitan, about
the year 1302 5 and hence it it is, that the territory of
Principato, wdrich makes part of the kingdom of Na¬
ples, where he was born, has a compafs for its arms.
Others fay that Marcus Paulus, a Venetian, making
a journey to China, brought back the invention with
him in 1260. What confirms this conjefture is, that
at firft they ufed the compafs in the fame manner as
the Chinefe dill do; i. e. they let it float on a little
piece of cork, inftead of fufpending it on a pivot. It
is added, that their emperor Chiningus, a celebrated
aftrologer, had a knowledge of it 1120 years before
Chrift. The Chinefe only divide their compafs into 24
points. Fauchette relates fome verfes of Guoyot de
Provence, who lived in France about the year 1200,
which feem to make mention of the compafs under the
name of maritiette, or mariner's Jlone ; which lliow it to
have been ufed in France near 100 years before either
the Melfite or Venetian. The French even lay claim
to the invention, from the jleiir de lys wherewith all
nations ftill diftinguifti the north point of the card.
With as much reafon Dr Wallis aferibes it to the
Englifh, from its name compafs, by w'hich name moft
nations call it, and which he obferves is ufed in many
parts of England to fignify a circle.
Though the mariner’s compafs has been long in ufe,
the beft conftruftion of it was attended with many
inconveniences, till the improvements^ which it re¬
ceived from the invention and experiments of Dr
Knight, and the farther emendation of Mr Smea-
ton.
The compafs is fometimes obferved to be difturb-
ed by the eleftricity of its glafs cover \ and this
from fo flight an application of the finger as was
barelv neceflary to wipe off a little duft. The fanm
glafs," rubbed a little more with the finger, a bit of
muflin, or paper, would attraft either end of the needle
fo as to hold it to the glafs for feveral minutes, far out
[ 366 ]
COM [ 3^7 ] COM
Compafs. of the due direddion, according to that part of the
' glafs which was moft excited. And when the needle,
after adhering to the glafs, has dropped loofe, and
made vibrations, thofe would not be bifedded as ufual
by that point where the needle fliould reft, but would
either be made all on one fide, or be very unequally
divided, by means of feme remains of eleftrical virtue
in that part of the glafs which had attradfted the needle,
until at length, after 15 minutes or more, all the elec¬
tricity being difeharged, the magnetical power took
place. The remedy for this inconvenience is to moi-
ften the furface of the glafs 5 a wet finger wfill do it im¬
mediately and effeddually. The mariner’s compafs with
a chart is much lefs dangeroully moved than the com¬
mon compafs with a bare needle ; and the deeper, or
farther diftant, the needle hangs below the glafs, the
lefs difturbance it is likely to receive.
Improved fea-compaffes have lately been conftruc-
ted by Mr M‘Culloch of London, for which he ob¬
tained a patent. The particulars are as follows.
Fig. 1. is a feflion of the fleering compafs. a a a aa
The common wooden-box, with its lid. b b, The brafs
compafs-box. cc, The glafs cover to ditto, dd, The
hollow conical bottom, e, The prop upon which the
compafs is fupported inftead of gimbals ; the fpherical
top of which is finely polilhed, and the apex of the hol¬
low' cone is fitted in a peculiar manner to receive it.
ff A quantity of lead run round the bottom and cone
of the compafs-box, to balance and keep it fteadily
horizontal, g g, The card and the magnetical needle,
bent in fuch a manner that the point of the conical
pivot on which it moves and is fupported, may be
brought very near to the centre of gravity, as well as
to the centre of motion, h h, Tw'o guards, which by
means of twro pins 1 /, affixed to the compafs-box, pre¬
vents it from turning round and deceiving the fteerf-
man.
Plate
CLI.
Fig. 2. a perfpe£Hve view of the fleering compafs,
■with the lid off and the front laid open, h b, The
guards. b} The compafs-box. et The prop, &.c. as
in fig. r.
Fig. 3. a view of the azimuth compafs. b, The
compafs-box. h, One of the guards, e, The prop,
as in fig. 1. and 2. w’ith this difference, that in an azi¬
muth compafs, inftead of being fcrew'ed to the bottom
of the wmod-box, it Hands in a brafs focket, and may be
turned round at pleafure. 1. A brafs bar upon which
the fight-vanes are fixed. 2. A dark |glafs, which
moves up and down on 3. the fight-vane. 4. A mag-
nifying glafs, which is alfo moveable on the other vane.
5. The nonius or vernier. 6. A Hide for moving the
vernier fo as to flop the card in taking the azimuth.
7. A double convex glafs, by which the divifions on
the vernier may be read with accuracy.
Fig. 4. is a fetftion reprefenting another application
of the magnetic needle and card, conftrufted by Mr
M‘Culloch. a a a a, The common wmod-box. b b,
The brafs compafs-box c c, The brafs fupport for the
circle and pendulum, d, The pendulum, e. The agate.
ff, The magnetic needle and card, gg. The brafs
circle, h h, The glafs cover and brafs ring. /, The
lead weight. N. B. All the centres of motion are in
the fame plane.
“ In one particular this patent compafs is confidered
as an improvement on the common compaffes, in as far
as the needle is both longer and broader ; hence its
magnetifm muft be ftronger, and of courfe the line of
its magnetic direftion correlpondent wfith the card. In
another particular, in order to prevent the motions of
the veffel from affedling the needle, w’hich is the moft
defirable objedt, the patent compafs-box, inftead of
fwfinging in gimbals at right angles to each other, is
fupported in its very centre upon a prop 5 and what¬
ever motion the other parts of the box may have, this
centre being in the vertex of the hollow cone, may be
confidered as relatively at reft •, and therefore gives
little or no difturbance to the needle. Again, the pi¬
vot or centre upon which the needle turns, is fo con¬
trived as to ftand ahvays perpendicular over the centre
of the compafs-box, or apex of the hollow cone, as
upon a fixed point ; and is therefore ftill lefs affedled
by the motions of the veffel. Thus the centres of
motion, gravity, and of magnetifm, are brought almoft
all to the lame point 5 the advantages of which will be
readily perceived by any perfon acquainted with me¬
chanical principles.” McCulloch's Account.
The following is a defeription of Dr Knight’s azi¬
muth compafs, with the improvements of Mr Smeaton.
Plate CLI. fig. 6. is a perfpedlive view of the com¬
pafs, when in order for obfervation j the point of
view being the centre of the card, and the diftance
of the eye two feet. A B is the wooden box. C and
D are two milled nuts ; by means whereof the axes of
the inner box and ring are taken from their edges on
which they move, and the fri61ion increafed, when
neceflary. EF is the ring that fupports the inner box.
GH is the inner box ; and I is one of its axes, by
which it is fufpended on the ring EF. The magnet
or needle appears palling through the centre together
with a fmall brace of ivory, that confines the cap to its
place. The card is a fingle varnilhed paper, reaching
as far as the outer circle of figures, w'hich is a circle of
thin brafs j the edge whereof is turned down at right
angles to the plane of the card, to make it grow ftiff.
O is a catgut line, drawn down the infide of the
box, for determining the degree upon a brafs edge.
PQRS is the index bar, wfith its twm ftiles and cat¬
gut threads } which being taken off from the top of
the box, is placed in two pieces, T and V, notched
properly to receive it. W is a place cut out in the
wood, ferving as a handle.
The ufe of the azimuth compafs is for finding the
fun’s magnetical azimuth, or amplitude ; and thence the
variation of the compafs. If the obfervation be for an
amplitude at fun-rifing, or for an azimuth before noon,,
apply the centre of the index on the weft point of the
card, within the box ; fo that the four lines on the
edge of the card, and thofe on the infide of the box,,
may meet. If the obfervation be for the fun’s am¬
plitude fetting, or an azimuth in the afternoon, turn
the centre of the index right againft the eaft point of
the card, and make the lines wfithin the box concur
with thofe on the card : the inftrument thus fitted
for obfervation, turn the index be towards the fun, till
the lhadow of the thread a e fall diredlly on the flit of
the fight, and on the line that is along the middle of
the index : then will the inner edge of the index cut
the degree and minute of the fun’s magnetical azimuth
from the north or fouth. But note, that if, v'hen the
compafs is thus placed, the azimuth is lefs- than 540
1 from
Compafs.
COM
[ 368 ]
COM
Compafc. from the fouth, and the index turned towards the fun,
■■’v it will pafs oft the divifions of the limb: the inftrument
therefore in this cafe muft be turned juft a quarter of
the compafs, i. e. the centre of the index muft be
placed on the north or fouth point of the card, accord¬
ing as the fun is from you •, and then the edge will
cut the degree of the magnetic azimuth, or the fun’s
azimuth from the north, as before.
The fun’s magnetical amplitude thus found, the va¬
riation of the needle is thus determined. Being out
at fea the 15th of May 1717, in 450 north latitude,
the tables gave me the fun’s latitude I9g north, and
his eaft amplitude 27° 25' north j by the azimuth com-
.pafs, I find the fun’s magnetical amplitude at his n-
fing and fetting ; and find he rifes, e. gr. between tne
6zd and 63d degree, reckoning from the north towards
the eaft point of the compafs, i. e. between the 27th
and 28th degree, reckoning from the eaft. The mag¬
netical amplitude, therefore, being here equal to the
true one, the needle has no variation ; but if the fun
at his rifing fhould have appeared between the 52d and
53d degree from the north towards the eaft ; his mag¬
netical amplitude would then have been between 37
and 38 degrees, i. e. about ten degrees greater than
the true amplitude : therefore the needle would vary
about 10 degrees north-eafterly. If the magnetical
eaft amplitude found by the inftrument ftiould be lefs
than the true amplitude, their difference would flrow
the variation of the needle eafterly. If the true eaft
amplitude be fouthward, as alfo the magnetical ampli¬
tude, and this laft be the greater •, the variation of the
needle will be north-weft ; and vice verfa.
What has been faid of north-eaft amplitudes holds
alfo of fouth-weft ; and what of fouth-eaft amplitudes
holds of north-weft. Laftly, if amplitudes be found
of different denominations, e. gr. if the true ampli¬
tude be fix degrees north, and the magnetical ampli¬
tude be fix degrees fouth •, the variation, which in
this cafe is north-weft, will be equal to the fum of
the magnetical and true amplitudes j underftand the
fame for weft amplitudes.
The variation may likewife be found from the. azi¬
muth : but in that cafe the fun’s declination, latitude
• of the place, and his altitude muft be given, that his
true azimuth may be found.
This inftrument is alfo ufeful in fettling the ftnp’s
wake, in order to find the leeway j and alfo to find
the bearings of head-lands and other objetfts.
Experience evinces, that the needle of a compafs,
like every other magnet, whether natural or artificial,
continually lofes fomething of its magnetic powers,
which frequently produces a difference of more than a
point; and we may venture to affert, that the great
errors in ftiips reckonings more commonly originate
from the incorrettnefs of the compafs than from any
other caufe.
Steel cannot be too highly tempered for the needle
of a fea-compafs, as the more it is hardened, the more
permanent is the magnetifm it receives 5 but to pre-
ferve the magnetifm, and of courfe the polarity of the
needle, it ftiould be cafed with thin, well-poliftied, foft
iron. It has been found by repeated experiments, that
the cafed needle preferves its magnetifm in a more
perfeft degree than a needle not cafed 5 and perhaps
the magnetic power of the cafed needle may increafe, Compafs.
while that of the uncafed needle lofes of its polarity. T
This is not an opinion haftily adopted, but the refult
of a fair and judicious trial, as the gentleman from
whom the above obfervations were in fubftance taken,
placed a cafed and uncafed needle in a room for three
months, having at firft exactly the fame dire£tion, and
about the fame degree of force. At the end of this
period it was found that the cafed needle had not in
the leaft changed its direftion, while the uncafed had
varied two degrees, and its magnetic power was con-
fiderably diminiftied.
Thefe remarks have the air of novelty, and may per¬
haps contribute to the improvement of the compafs.
But the defefts of this inftrument are not confined to
the needle. The heavieft brafs compaffes are not to
be implicitly trufted in a hollow or high lea, as they
have the box hanging in two brafs rings, thus allow¬
ing it to have only two motions, both vertical and at
right angles with each other j by which confinement
of the box, upon any fuccuffion, particularly fudden
ones, the card is always too much agitated, and before
it can recover itfelf, another jerk prevents it from
pointing to the pole. It is even not uncommon to fee
the card unihipped by the violence of the ftup’s pitch-
mg. . .
All thefe defefts are abundantly fupplied by giving
the box a vertical motion at every degree and minute
of the circle, and combining thefe motions wuth a ho¬
rizontal one of the box as well as of the card. By
this difpofition of the box, the effeas of the jerks on
the card are avoided, and it wTill alwrays with fteadmefs
point to the pole. Mr Bernard Romans found by ex¬
perience, that the card not only is not in the fmalleft
degree affe£ted by the hollow fea, but that, in all the
violent (hocks and whirlings which it is poflible for
the box to receive, the card lies as ftill as in a room
unaffeaed by the leaft motion.
A compafs was recently invented.and made m Hol¬
land having all thefe motions. It is about the fize of
the brafs compafs commonly ufed. The bottom of
the brafs box, inftead of being, ftiaped like a bowl,
muft be a hollow cone refembling the bottom of a
common glafs bottle j the vertex of it muft be raffed
fo high as to leave only one inch between the card
and the glafs j the box muft be of the ufual depth,
and a quantity of lead muft be poured in the bottom of
the box, round the bafe of the cone, which fecures it
on the ftile whereon it traverfes.
This ftile is firmly fixed in the centre of a fquare
wooden box, like the common compafs, but with a
thicker bottom. The ftile is made of brafs, about fix
inches long, round, and one-third of an inch thick,
having its head blunt like that of a fewing thimble,
and of a fine polifh, and placed, perpendicular. The
inner vertex of the cone muft likewife be well P°hfh-
ed. The vertical part of the cone ought, to be fufh-
ciently thick to allow a well-poliftied cavity for hold¬
ing a ftiort ftile, proceeding from the centre of the
card on which it traverfes. “ The compafs I faw,
(fays Mr Romans), was fo conftruaed ; but I fee no
reafon why the ftile might not proceed from the centre
of the vertex of the cone, and fo be received by the
card the common way. The needle muft be a mag-
netic
x
COM
[ 369 1
COM
Gompafe. netlc bar, blunt at each end •, the glafs and cover are
 put on in the common way.”
The above gentleman informs us that a fimilar com-
pafs was fubmitted to his inlpe&ion by the captain of
a Hoop of war, who declared that during a hard gale
of fome days continuance, he had no other compals
that was of the fmalleft ufe. In the opinion of Mr
Romans the account was not exaggerated, in which
conclufion we are difpofed to join iffue with him.
Yet Mr Nicholfon in his interefting journal is of an
oppofite fentiment, who believes that the compafs is
very little difturbed by tilting the box on one fide, but
very much by hidden changes of place in a horizontal
direction •, that provifion made againft the latter in a
fqientific manner is the chief requifite in a well con-
ftru&ed inftrument of this nature j and that no other
provifion is neceffary than good workmanlhip agree¬
ably to the common conftruftion, and properly adjul -
ing the weight retpefting the centres and axes of fu-
fpenfion. He conceives it will improve the compafs
very much to make the needle flat and thin, and to
fufpend it, not in the common way, with its flat fide,
but with its edge uppermoft ; for as it is known that
hard fteel retains its magnetifm longer than foft, it
follows that, except both fides of a needle be equally
hard, the magnetic virtue will incline towards the
harder fide in procefs of time.
The Chinefe compafs has fome advantages over
the European, from which it differs in the length of
the needle, and the manner of its fufpenfion. The
needle of the Chinefe feldom exceeds an inch in length,
and is fcarcely a line in thicknefs. It is poifed with
great nicety, and is remarkably fenfible. This is
effeiffed by the following contrivance.
A piece of thin copper is ftrapped round the centre
of the needle, this copper is rivetted by its edges to
the upper part of a fmall hemifpherical cup of the fame
metal, turned downwards, the cup thus inverted
ferves as a focket to receive a fteel pivot rifing from a
cavity made in a round piece of light wrood or cork,
which forms the compafs-box. . The furfaces of the
focket arid pivot, intended to coincide, are highl) po-
liihed, to prevent friftion as much as poffible. I he
cup has a proportionably broad margin, which not
only adds to its weight, but from its horizontal pofi-
tion tends to keep the centre of gravity in eveiy fitua-
tion of the compafs, nearly coinciding with the centre
of fufpenfion. The cavity in which the needle is fu-
fp.ended, is circular, and little more than capable to
remove the needle, cup and pivot. A thin piece of
tranfparent talc is placed over the cavity, which hin¬
ders the needle from being affe&ed by the motion of
the external air ; but allows the apparent motion of
the former to be eafily obferved. The fmall flioit
needle of the Chinefe has a fingular advantage over
thofe commonly ufed in Europe,_ in refpea of the dip
towards the horizon 5 w7hich, in the latter, requires
that cue extremity of the needle fliould be made fo
much heavier than the other as will fufficiently counter-
aft the magnetic attraftion. I his being different in
differents parts of the wrorld, the needle can only be
accurately true at the place for which it has been con-
Ifrufted. But in ftiort and light needles, fulpended
after the Chinefe manner, the weight below the point
of fufpenfion is more than fufficient to overcome the
Vql. VI. Part I.
Compafs.
magnetic dip in all fituations of the globe and con.c-
quently luch needles will never deviate from tneir ho¬
rizontal polition. .
Compass is alfo an inftiument of confiuerable ule in
furveying land, dialing, &c.
Its ftrufture, in the main, is the fame with that of
the mariner’s compals j confifting like that of a box
and needle : the principal difference confifts in this,
that inftead of the needle’s being fitted into the card,
and playing with it on a pivot, it here plays alope ;
the card being drawn on the bottom of the box, and a
circle divided into 360 degrees on the limb. See fig. 5. plate CL.
This inftrument is of obvious ufe to travellers, to di-
reft them in their road ; and to miners, to Ihow tnem
what way to dig, with other confiderable ufes.
1. To take the declination of a 'wail by the Compafs.
Apply that fide of the compafs whereon the north is
marked along the fide of the wall; the number of de¬
grees over which the north end of the needle fixes
will be the declination of the wall, and on that fide ^
e. gr. if the north point of the needle tends towards
the north, that wall may be (hone on by the fun at
noon 5 if it fix over fifty degrees, counting from the
north towards the eaft, the declination is fo many de¬
grees from north towards eaft.
But fince the needle itfelf declines from the north
towards the weft, with us, 130 ; it muft be noted,
that to retrieve the irregularity, 13° are always to be
added to the degrees fhown by the needle, when the
declination of the wall is tow’ards the eaft j on the con¬
trary, when the declination is towards the weft, the de¬
clination of the needle is to be fubtrafted.
2. To take an angle with the Compafs. Suppofe the
angle required be DAE, fig.. 4. apply that fide of the
compafs whereon the north is maiked to one oi the
lines AD ; when the needle refts, obferve the degrees
at which its north point ftands, which fuppofe 80 : fo
many degrees does the line decline from the meridian.
In the fame manner take the declination of the line
AE, which fuppofe 215° j fubtraft 80 from 215 ,
the remainder is 135° > which fubtrafted fiom 180 ,
there will remain 450 j the quantity of the angle re¬
quired. But.if the difference between the declination
of the two lines exceed 1800 j in that cafe, 180 muft
be fubtrafted from that difference ; the remainder then
is the angle required.
In meafuring angles by the compafs, there needs
not any regard be had to the variation j that being iup-
pofed the fame in all the lines of the angles.
3. To take a plot of a field by the Compafs. Suppofe
the field A, B, C, D, E, fig. 10. for the greater ac¬
curacy let there be two fights fitted to the meridian
line of the compafs; place it horizontally, and through
the fights look along the fide AB, or a line parallel.to
it ; applying the eye to the fight at the fouth point
of the compafs. Draw a rough fketch of the field by
the eye, and on the correfponding line enter down the
degree to which the needle points, which fuppofe 900.;
meafure the length of the fide, and enter that too,
which fuppofe 10 chains.
In this manner proceed with all the reft of the Tides
and angles of the field ; the fides, which fuppofe 7°»
65, 70, 44, 50 fathom ; and the angles, which fup¬
pofe 30, IOO, 130, 240, 300 degrees. To protraft
the field, fet down the feveral angles obierved, one
3 A
COM [ 37° ] COM
Compaft, after another, and fubtraa the leffer front th n aW a ft,g bearing three ^
fX UdT^h Tth liTS inJud/S! bolt o^he other two He rive,ted tL fltding dove
t'o”,: tlWhtgW the figure taken together, the beaL The d^ve-tai.s having a ntotion every way
tnuft make twice as Effia„y right Ingles ; abating two by turning about the long branch, go backwards and
if no miftake has been committed.
A'z.itniith Compass. See Azimuth. .
CoMPASS-Dials, are fmall horizontal dials, fitted in
brafs or filver boxes, for the pocket, to {how the hour
of the day, by the dire&ion of a needle that indicates
how to place them right, by turning the dial about till
the cock or ftyle flands direftly over the needle j but
thefe can never be very exaft, becaufe of the variation
of the needle itfelf. See Compass and Dialing.
COMPASSES, or Pair of Compasses, a mathe¬
matical inftrument for deferibing circles, meafuring
^The*common compaffes confift of two {harp-pointed
branches or legs of iron, fteel, brafs, or other metal,
joined together at the top by a rivet, whereon they
move as on a centre. Thofe compaffes are ot. the
bell fort in which the pin or axle on which the joint
turns, and alfo half the joint itfelf, is made of fieel, as
the oppofite metals wear more equably. 1 he pei tec-
tion of them may be known by the eafy and uniform
opening and {hutting of their legs-, one of which is
fometimes made to take in and out, in order to make
room for two other^points to defenbe with ink, black-
lead or other materials. .
There are now ufed compaffes of vanous kinas and
contrivances, accommodated to the various ufes they
are intended for; as, i n ^ rr
Compass ess of three Legs, or Triangular Competes,
are, fetting afide the excels of a leg, of the fame ftruc-
ture with the common ones 5 their ufe being to taiie
three points at once, and fo to form triangles 5 to
lay down three pofitions of a map, to be copied at
Beam-CoMPASSES confift of a long branch, or beam,
made of brafs or wood, carrying two brafs curlors,
the one fixed at one end, the other Aiding along the
beam, with a ferew to faften it occafionally. To the
curfors may be ferewed points of any kind whether
fteel for pencils, or the like. It is ufed to draw large
circles, to take great extents, &c. To the fixed curler
is fometimes applied an adjuftmg or micrometer ferew,
by ivhich an extent is obtained to extreme nicety.
Mr Jones of Holborn has made beam-compafies to ad-
juft to the Toroodth of an inch.
Caliber Compasses. See Caliber.
Chckmaher's Compasses are joined like the com¬
mon compafies, with a quadrant, or bow, like the fprmg
compaffes j only of different ufe, ferving here to keep
the inftrument firm at any opening. They are made
very ftrong, with the points of their legs of well tem¬
pered fteel, as being ufed to draw lines on pafteboard
Cylindrical and Spherical Compasses, confift of four
branches, joined in a centre, two of which are circular,
and two flat, a little bent on the ends : their ufe is to
take the diameter, thicknefs, or caliber of round or
cylindric bodies} fuch as cannons, pipes, &.c.
CL. Elip.ic CoMMSSES Their ufe is to d“*w *l,pfes>
fig- p* or ovals of any kind ; they confift ot a be^m AB
forwards along the crofs; fo that when the beam has
gone half-way about, one of thefe will have moved the
whole length of one of the branches j and when the
beam has got quite round, the fame dove-tail has got
back the whole length of the branch. Underftand the
fame of the other dove-tail.
Note. The diftance between the two Aiding dove¬
tails is the diftance between the two foci of the elipfis
fo that by changing that diftance, the elipfis will be
rounded or Aenderer. Under the ends of the branches
of the crofs are placed four fteel points to keep it fall.
The ufe of this compafs is eafy by turning round
the long branch, the ink, pencil, or other point, will
draw the elipfis required. Its figure {hows both its
ufe and conftrudlion.
German Compasses have their legs a little bent out¬
wards, towards the top j fo that when ftnit, the points
only meet.
Hair Compasses are fo contrived within fide by a
fmall adjufting ferew to one of the legs, as to take an
extent to a hair’s breadth.
Lapidary's Compasses are a piece of wood, in form
of the ftiaft of a plane, cleft at top, as far as half its
length with this they meafure the angles, &c. of
jevvels and precious ftones, as they cut them. There
is in the cleft a little brafs rule, fattened there at one
end by a pin but fo that it may be moved in the man¬
ner of a brafs level: with this kind of fquare they take
the angles of the ftones, laying them on the ftiaft as
they cut them. .
Proportional Compasses are thole whole joint lies
between the points terminating each leg : they are
either Ample or compound. In the former fort the
centre is fixed, fo that one pair of theie lerves only for
one proportion.
Compound proportional Compasses confift of two parts Plate CLL
or Aides of brafs, which lie upon each other fo nicely fig- 6-
as to appear but one when they are fliut. Thefe Aides
eafily open, and move about a centre, which is itfelf
moveable in a hollow canal cut through the greateft
part of their length. To this centre on each fide is
affixed a Aiding piece A of a fmall length, with a fine
line drawn on it ferving as an index, to be fet againfl
other lines or divifions placed upon the compaffes on
both Aides. Thefe lines are 1. A line of lines. 2. A
line of fuperficies, areas, or planes. 3. A line of folids.
4. A line of circles, or rather of polygons to be in-
feribed in circles. Thefe lines are all unequally di¬
vided } the thre^ firft from 1 to 20, the laft from 6 to
20. Their ufes are as follow :
By the line of lines you divide a given line into any
number of equal parts 5 for by placing the index A
againll I, and ferewing it fall, if you open the com¬
paffes then the diftance between the points at each end
will be equal. If you place the index againft 2, and
open the compaffes, the diftance between the points of
the longer legs B B, will be twice the dift^ce be¬
tween the fhorter ones C C* and thus a line is biietfed,
or divided into two equal parts. If the index be placed
againit
<' O isi PA. S S.
mate CLI.
' '/S.'ff// /t _ //1//.\ ;,y,//iS,',' />yy/.
COM
Compares, againft 3, and the compaffes opened, the diftances be-
tween the points will be as 3 to 1, and To a line is di¬
vided into 3 equal parts $ and fo you proceed for any
other number of parts under 10.
The numbers of the line of planes anfwer to the
fquares of thofe in the line of lines ; for becaufe fuper-
ficies or planes are to each other as the fquares of their
like fides ; therefore, if the index be placed againft
2 in the line of planes, the diftance between the
[ 371 1
C O M
fmall points will be the fide of a plane whofe area is
one ; but the diftance of the larger points will be the
like fide of a plane whofe area is two j or twice as
large. If the index be placed at 3, and the compafles
opened, the diftances between the points at each end
will be the like fide of planes whofe areas are as 1 to 3 j
and fo of others.
The numbers of the line of folids anfw'er to the
cubes of thofe of the line of lines ; becaufe all folids
are to each other as the cubes of their fides or diame¬
ters: therefore, if the index be placed to number 2, 3, 4,
&cc. in the line of folids, the diftance between the leffer
and larger points will be the like fides of folids, which
are to each other as 1 to 2, 1 to 3, 1 to 4, &c. For
example ; If the index be placed at xo, and the com¬
pafles be opened fo that the fmall points may take the
diameter of a bullet whofe weight is one ounce, the
diftance between the large points will be the diameter
of a bullet or globe of 10 ounces, or which is 10 times
as large.
Laftly, The numbers in the line of circles are the
fides of polygons to be infcribed in a given circle, or
by which a qircle may be divided into the equal parts,
from 6 to 20. Thus, if the index be placed at 6.
the points of the compafles at either end, when opened
to the radius of a given circle, will contain the fide
of a hexagon, or divide the circle into fix equal
parts. If the index be placed againft 7, and the com¬
pafles opened fo that the larger points may take in the
radius of the circle, then the ftiorter points will divide
the circle into feven equal parts^for infcribing a hep¬
tagon. Again, placing the index to 8, and opening
the compafles, the larger points will contain the radius,
and the lefler points divide the circle into eight equal
parts for infcribing an oftagon or fquare. And thus
you may proceed for others.
Proportional Compasses with the feBor lines. The
ftru&ure of thefe is fo like that of the common propor¬
tional compaffes, only a little nicer, that it needs no
particular defcription. The lines on the firft face are
the line of lines, marked lines ; it is divided into 100
equal parts, every tenth numbered : and the line of
chords, which goes to 6o°, is marked chords. On the
other face are a line of fines to 90°, and a line of
tangents to 450. On one fide are
45° t0 71° 34; 5 on the other,
7°° S0'-
For the ufe of thefe compafles : 1. To divide a line
into any number of equal parts lefs than 10c : divide
IOO by the number of parts required^ flip the curfor till
the line on the Aiding dove-tail be againft the quotient
on the line of lines: then, the whole line being taken
between the points of the compafles moft remote from
the centre,, the aperture of the other will flaow7 the di-
vifion required. 2. A right line given, fuppofed to be
divided into 100 parts, to take any number of thofe
the tangents
fecants from o
from
to
parts *, flip the line on the Aiding dove-tail to the num- Compafie*.
ber of parts required : the whole line being taken be- 1 't" 11
tween the points fartheft from the centre, the aperture
of the other two will include the number of divifions
required. 3. The radius being given, to find the
chord of any arch under 6o° ; flip the line on the Aid¬
ing dove-tail to the degrees required on the line of
chords : the radius being taken between the points far-
theft from the centre of the curfor j the aperture of
the other line will be the chord required, provided the
number of degrees be greater than 29 : if it be lefs,
the aperture taken from the radius will leave the chord
required. 4. If the chord of an arch under 6o° be
given, and the radius required 5 flip the line on the
dove-tail to the degrees given on the line of chords :
the given chord being taken between the two points
next the curfor, the aperture of the other will be the
radius required. 5. The radius being given, to find
the fine of any number of degrees j flip the line on
the dove-tail to the degree on the line of fines whofe
fine is required : the radius taken between the points
furtheft from the curfor, the aperture of the other will
give the fine of the angle required. But if the fine
fought be lefs than 30°, the difference of the apertures
of the oppofite points will be the fine required. 6. The
radius being given, to find the tangent of any number
of degrees under 71 : if the tangent required be under
26° 30', then flip the line on the dove-tail to the de¬
gree propofed on the tangent line ; the radius taken
between the points fartheft from the curfor, the aper¬
ture of the others will be the tangent of the degrees
required ; if the tangent required be above 26° 30'
but under 450, the line on the curfor muft be flipped
to the degrees given on the tangent line; then the ra¬
dius being taken between the points furtheft from the
curfor, the aperture of the others will be the tangent.
If the tangent required be greater than 45°, but lefs
than 56° 20', flip the notch on the tangent fide of the
turned-cheek to the degree o in the tangent line on
the fide of the compafs \ the radius taken between the
points furtheft from the curfor ; the difference between
the aperture of the other and thefe, added together,
will be the tangent required. Thus, for the tangents
of the degrees under 71. After the like manner
may the fecant of any number of degrees under 71 be
found.
Mr Heath, a mathematical inftrument-maker in
London, conftru&ed a pair of proportional compaffes,
in 1746, with a curious and ufeful contrivance for pre¬
venting the fhorter legs from changing their pofition,
when thefe compafles were ufed. It confifted of a
fmall beam foldered to a fcrew, and running parallel to
the leg of the compaffes, nearly of the length of the
groove ; in this beam a flit was made, which admitted
of a fliding-nut, the other end of which fell into a hole
in the bottom of the fcrew, belonging to the great nut
of the compaffes. The fcrew-pin of the beam paffed
through an adjufter, by means of which the mark on
the Aider might be brought exactly to any divifion. But
the proportional compaffes have been much out of ufe
fince the invention of the feftor.
Spring Compasses, or dividers ; thofe with an
arched head, which by its fpring opens the legs ; the
opening being diredted by a circular fcrew faftened to
one of the legs, and let through the other, worked
3 -A- * with
Compaffes with a nut
Jl . fteel.
Competi
C O M [ 37
Thefe compaffes are made of hardened
tion.
Trife&ing Compasses confift of two central rules,
and an arch of circles of 120 degrees, immoveable,
with its radius, which is faftened with one of the
central rules like the two legs of a (e£lor, that the cen¬
tral rule may be carried through all the points of the
circumference or the arch. 1 he radius and rule fhould
be as thin as poflible 5 and the rule faftened to the ra¬
dius (hould be hammered cold, to attain the greater
elafticity ; and the breadth of the central rule (hould
be triple that of the radius; there mult alfo be a groove
in this rule, with a dove-tail faftened on it for its mo¬
tion, and a hole in the centre of eacli rule. 1 he ule of
this inftrument is to facilitate the trifedlion of angles
geometrically ; and it is faid to have been invented by
M. Targen for that purpofe.
Turn-up Compasses. The body of this inftrument
is like the common compaffes ; but towards the bot¬
tom of the legs, without-fide, are added two other
points befides the ufual ones ; the one whereof carries
a drawing-pen point, and the other a port-crayon, both
adjufled fo as to turn round, and be in the way of ule,
or out of it, as occalion requires. Thefe compafies
have been contrived to fave the trouble of changing
the points.
COMPASSION, or Commiseration, in Ethics, a
mixed paftion compounded of love and forrow, and
excited by the fight or recital of diftrefs. Hobbes
makes this a merely lelfifh paffion, and defines, it., as
being fear for ourfelves 5 Hutchefon refolves it into
inftinct ; but Dr Butler much more properly confiders
compaflion as an original, diftindl, particular afieclion
in human nature.
COMPATIBLE, fomething that may fuit or con¬
fift with another. See Incompatible.
COMPEIGNE, a handfome town of France, in
the department of Oife, with a palace, or caftle,
where the king often refided. The maid of Orleans
was taken prifoner here in I43°* ft 's featecl on tbe
river Oife, near a large foreft. E. Long. 2. 55. N.
Lat. 49. 25. It Hands about 45 miles north-eaft of
Paris.
COMPENDIUM, in matters of literature, denotes
much the fame as epitome or abridgment. See A-
BRIDG MENT.
COMPENSATION, in a general fenfe,.an aaion
whereby any thing is admitted as an equivalent to
another.
Compensation, in Law. When the fame per.on is
debtor and creditor to another, the mutual obligations,
if they are for equal fums, are extinguiihed by com-
penfation ; if for unequal, the lefler obligation is ex-
tinguifhed, and the greater diminifhed, as far as the
contourfe of debt and credit goes.
COMPETENCE, or Competency, in a general
fenfe, fuch a quantity of any thing as is fufficient,
Competency, in Law, the right or authority of a
judge, whereby he takes cognizance of any thing.
COMPETENTES, an order of catechumens, in
the primitive Chriftian church, being the immediate
candidates for baptifrn. See Catechumen.
COMPETITION, in a general fenfe, is the fame
with rivallhip, or when two or more perfons contend
for the fame thing.
2 ] COM
Competition, in Scots Law. In efcheats, fee Law ,
Part III. N® clxvi. 17, &c. In confirmations by the
fuperior, in relignations, and in perfonal rights of compiex,
lands, ibid, clxvii’i. 5—9. In inhibitions, in adjudica-   v 
tion, amongft aflignees, arrefters, and poinders, ibid.
clxxi. 6. clxxii. 3. clxxvii. 2. clxxviii. 8, 9, 10. A-
mongft creditors of a defunct, clxxxi. 19.
COMPITALIA, or Compitalita, feafts held
among the ancients in honour of the lares. T he wor d
comes from the Latin compitum, a crofs-way } becauie
the feaft was held in the meeting of feveral roads.
The compitalia are more ancient than the building of
Rome. Dionyfius Halicarnaffeus, and Pliny, indeed,
fay, they were inftituted by Servius Tullius; but this
only fig'nifies that they were then introduced into
Rome. The feaft being moveable, the day whereon
it was to be obferved was proclaimed every year. It
was ordinarily held on the 4-h td the nones of Te-
bruary, i. e. on the 2d of that month. Macrobius
obferves, that they were held not only in honour
of the lares, but alio of mania, madnels. 1 he priehs
who officiated at them were Haves and bherti, and
the facrifice a fow. They w-ere re-eftabliflied, after
a long negledl, by I arquin the Proud, on occafion
of an anlw’er of the oracle, that they Jhould facrifice
heads for heads ; i. e. that for the health and proipe-
rity of each family, children were to be facrificed :
but Brutus, after expelling the kings, in lieu of thole
barbarous viftims lubftituted the heads of garlic and
poppy; thus fatisfying the oracle wdiich had enjoined
capita, heads. During the celebration of this feaft,
each family placed at the door of their houle the
ftatue of the goddefs Mama: they alio hung up at
their doors figures of wool, repreienting men and wo¬
men ; accompanying them with fupplications that the
lares and mania would be contented with thole figures,
and fpare the people of the houfe.
COMPLEMENT, in Geometry, is what remains
of the quadrant of a circle, or 90°, after any certain
arch has been taken away from it. Thus, if the arch
taken away be 40°, its complement is 50 ; becaufe
50-1-40=90. The fine of the complement of an
arch is called the cofme, and that of the tangent the
cotangent, &c. .
COMPLETUS flos, in Botany. A flower is faid
to be complete, which is provided with both the co¬
vers, viz. the calyx or fiow-er-cup, and the petals. I.he
term was invented by Vaillant, and is fynonymous w ith
calyculatus flos in Linnaeus. Berkenhout erroneoufly
confounds it with the audlus and calyculatus calyx of the
fame author.
COMPLEX, in a more general fenfe, a term lyno-
nymous with compound; though in ftridtnefs of ipeech
there is fome difference.
Complex is properly applied where a thing contains
many others, or confifts of different parts not really di-
ftincT from each other, but only imaginarily, or in
our conceptions. In this fenfe the foul may be laid
to be complex, in refpedf of the underftanding and
will, which are two things that our reafon alone diftin-
guifhes in it. . r
Complex Term or Idea, is a term compounded of le-
veral fimple or incomplex ones. This in the propofi-
tion, A jufl God cannot leave crimes unpunijhed; the
fuffieft of this propofiticm, viz. a jufl God, is a com-
J pley.
/
Complex¬
ion.
COM [ 373
plex term, or ftands for a complex idea compofed of
two fimple or incomplex ones, viz. God jujf.
COMPLEXION, among phyficians, the tempera¬
ment, habitude, and natural dilpofition, oi the body j
but more often the colour of the face and {kin.
Few queftions in philofophy have engaged the at¬
tention of naturalifts more than the diverfities among
the human fpecies, among which that of colour is the
mod remarkable. I he great differences in this refpect
have given occalion to feveral authors to aflert, that
the whole human race have not fprung from one origi¬
nal; but that as many different fpecies of men were at
firff created as there are now different colours to be
found among them. Under the article America, N 8l
 xoo, we have fhown that all the arguments which
can be brought for fpecitic differences among man¬
kind, whether drawn from a difference of colour, fta-
ture, or difpofition, mull neceffarily be inconclufive.
It remains, however, a matter of no fmall difficulty to
account for the remarkable variations of colour that
are to be found among different nations. On this lub-
jecl Dr Hunter has publifhed a thefis, in which he
confiders the matter more accurately than has com¬
monly be.en done, and determines abfolutely againft any
fpecific difference among mankind. He introduces his
fubjedf by obferving, that when the queftion has been
agitated, whether all the human race conflituted only
one fpecies or not, much confufion has arifen from the
fenfe in which the term fpecies has been adopted. He
therefore thinks it neceffary to fet out with a defini¬
tion of the term. He includes under the fame fpecies
all thofe animals which produce iffue capable of pro¬
pagating others refembling the original flock from
whence they fprung. This definition he illuflrates by
having recourfe to the human fpecies as an example.
And in this fenfe of the term he concludes, that all of
them are to be confidered as belonging to the fame
fpecies. And as, in the cafe of plants, one fpecies
comprehends feveral varieties depending upon climate,
foil, culture, and fimilar accidents; fo he confiders the
diverfities of the human race to be merely vaiieties of
the fame fpecies, produced by natural caufes. Of the
different colours obfervable among mankind, he gives
the following view:
] COM
Brownish. Turks, and likewife the Samoiedes and Compta-
Laplanders.
White. Moft of the European nations ; as
Swedes,
Danes,
Engliffi,
Germans,
Poles, &c.
Kubardinlki,
Georgians,
Inhabitants of the illands in the Pacific
ocean.
Black. Africans under the line.
Inhabitants of New Guinea.
Inhabitants of New Holland.
Swarthy. The ?Toors in the northern parts of
Africa.
The Hottentots in the fouthem parts
of it.
Copper coloured. The Eafl Indians.
Red colour d The Americans.
Brown-coloured. Tartars.
Perfians.
Arabs.
Africans on the coaff of the
Mediterranean.
Chinefe.
Brownish. The inhabitants of the fouthern parts
of Europe ; as Sicilians, and Spa¬
niards ; as well as the Abyffinians
in Africa.
Is attempting to inveftigate the caufes of thefe dif¬
ferences, our author obferves, that there can be no
difpute of the feat of colour being placed in the {kin ;
that it is not even extended over the whole of this,
but confined to that part named the cuticle, confifting
of the epidermis and reticulum; and that it chiefly
occupies the latter of thefe. The cuticle is much
thicker and harder in black people than in white ones ;
the reticulum in the latter being a thin mucus, in the
former a thick membrane. He concludes that this
feat of colour in whites is tranfparent, and either to¬
tally deprived of veffels, or only furnifhed with very
few ; as the yellow colour appearing in jaundice va-
niihes on the caufe of the difeafe being removed ;
which is not the cafe with ftains in the cuticle from
gunpowder, or fimilar caufes. He next points out
three caufes deflroying the pellucidity of the cuticle,
giving it a brown colour,^ and rendering it thicker.
Thefe are, accefs of air, nalfinefs, and the heat of the
fun. The influence of each of thefe he proves by
many examples; and from thefe he is inclined to con-
fider the lalt as by much the moft powerful. If, how¬
ever, it be admitted that thefe caufes have this effeft,
he thinks that all the diverfity of colour which is to
be obferved among mankind, may be thus accounted
for. Fie remarks, that all the inhabitants of the tor¬
rid zone incline more or lefs to a black colour. When
we obferve the differences which occur among them,
we muft at the fame time remember, that a black co¬
lour is not referred to heat alone, but to the other
caufes alfo : and when we attend to the diverfity of
temperature that occurs even in the torrid zone, the
exiftence of a white nation there would by no means
deftrov the argument. He is farther of opinion, that
the exiftence of a brown colour, and of confiderable
varieties from wdnte, in the northern and coldeft parts
of Europe, may very eafiiy be explained. 1 his he ac¬
counts for from the manner of life of the inhabitants, by
by which they are either expofed to the inclemency of
the air, or to conftant naflinefs from fmoky houfes.
Having thus attempted to account, from natural
caufes, for the varieties which occur among mankind
with refpect to colour, our author obferves, that, to all
this reafoning, an objection will naturally be made,
from confidering that infants bring thefe marks into
the world along with them, before they can be expo-
fed to any fuch caufes. Dr Hunter imagines, how¬
ever, that this may readily be explained upon the
fuppofition that many peculiarities acquired by parents
are tranfmitted to their pofterity ; and of this, tie
thinks, no one can entertain the leaft doubt who at-
COM
[ 374 ]
COM
Complex- tends to hereditary difeafes. Thus, gout, fcrophula,
i0"! mania, and many other affe&ions, although at firft in-
~v" duced by particular accidents, will continue to affedl
families for many generations. In the fame manner,
a parent expofed to caufes deftroying the natural
whitenefs of his completion, will beget fwarthy chil¬
dren ; and the fame caufes continuing to operate upon
the fon, the blacknefs will be increafed. Thus all the
different (hades may have been at firft induced, and af¬
terwards continued.
The obje&ion here obviated, however, might have
been (hortly anfwered by denying the faft j for it is
now generally known, that the children of the black-
eft negroes are abfolutely born white, as will be after¬
wards noticed.
This fubjedt of complexion has been very well illuf-
trated by Mr Clarkfon, in a differtation introduced in
his Effay on the commerce and (lavery of the human
fpecies. The firft point that occurs to be afeertained,
is, ‘ What part of the (kin is the feat of colour ?’ The
old anatomifts ufually divided the (kin into twTo parts or
laminae j the exterior and thinned, called by the Greeks
epidermis, by the Romans cuticula, and hence by us
cuticle; and the interior, called by the former derma,
and by the latter cutis, or true Jhtn. Hence they mult
neceffarily have fuppofed, that, as the true (kin v’as
in every refpedt the fame in all human fubjedts, how¬
ever various their external hue, fo the feat of colour
muft have exifted in the cuticle or upper furface.
Malpighi, an eminent Italian phyfician of the laft
century, was the firft perfon who diicovered that the
Ikin was divided into three laminae or parts ; the cu¬
ticle, the true (kin, and a certain coagulated fubftance
fituated between both, which he diftinguiftied by the
title of rete mucofum; which coagulated fubftance ad¬
hered fo firmly to the cuticle, as, in all former anato¬
mical preparations, to have come off with it *, and,
from this circumftance, to have led the ancient ana¬
tomifts to believe, that there were but two laminae, or
divifible portions in the human (kin. See Anatomy
Index.
This difeovery was fufficient to afeertain the point
in queftion ; for it appeared afterwards that the cu¬
ticle, when divided according to this difeovery from
the other lamina, was femitranfparent j that the cu¬
ticle of the blacked negro was 'of the fame, tranfpa-
rency and colour as that of the pureft white 5 and
hence the true (kins of both being invariably the fame,
that the rete mucofum was the feat of colour.
This has been farther confirmed by all fubfequent
anatomical experiments; by which it appears, that,
whatever is the colour of this intermediate coagulated
fubftance, nearly the fame is the apparent colour of
the upper furface of the (kin. Neither can it be o-
therwife ; for the cuticle, from its tranfparency, muft
neceffarily tranfmit the colour of the fubftance be¬
neath it, in the fame manner, though not in the fame
degree, as the cornea tranfmits the colour of the iris
of1 the eye. This tranfparency is a matter of ocular
demonftration in white people. It is confpicuous in
every blulh; for no one can imagine that the cuticle
becomes red as often as this happens: nor is it lefs dif-
coverable in the veins, which are fo eafy to be dif-
cerned ; for no one can fuppofe that the blue (freaks,
which he conftantly fees in the faireft complexions, are
I
painted, as it were, on the furface of the upper fkin. Complex-
From thefe, and a variety of other obfervations, no .
maxim is more true in phyfiology, than that on the
rete mucofum depends the colour of the human bo¬
dy } or in other words, that the rete mucofum being
of a different colour in different inhabitants of the
globe, and appearing through the cuticle or upper
furface of the (kin, gives them that various appearance
which (trikes us fo forcibly in contemplating the hu¬
man race.
As this can be introvertibly afeertained, it is e-
vident, that whatever caufes co-operate in producing
this different appearance, they produce it by a&i.ng
upon the rete mucofum j which from the almoft in¬
credible manner in which the cuticle is perforated, is
as acceffible as the cuticle itfelf. Thefe caufes are pro¬
bably thofe various qualities of things, which, com¬
bined with the influence of the fun, contribute to form
what we call climate. For when any perfon confiders,
that the mucous fubftance before mentioned is found to
vary in its colour, as the climates vary from the equa¬
tor to the poles, his mind muft be inftantly (truck with
the hypothefis, and he muft adopt it without any he-
(itation, as the genuine caufe of the phenomenon.
This fadt, of the variation of the mucous fubftance,
according to the fituation of the place, has been clear¬
ly afeertained in the numerous anatomical experiments
that have been made in which fubjedts of all nations
have come under confideration. The natives of many
of the kingdoms and ides of Afia are found to have
their rete mucofum black : thofe of Africa, fituated
near the line, of the fame colour 5 thofe of the mari¬
time parts of the fame continent, of a dufley brown,
nearly approaching to it j and the colour becomes
lighter or darker in proportion as the diftance from
the equator is either greater or lefs. 1 he Europeans
are the faireft inhabitants of the world. Thofe fitua¬
ted in the moft fouthern regions of Europe, have i.n
their rete mucofum a tinge of the dark hue of theii
African neighbours: hence the epidemic complexion
prevalent among them, is nearly of the colour of the
pickled SpanKh olive •, while in this country, and thofe
fituated nearer the north pole, it appears to be nearly,
if not abfolutely, white.
Thefe are fadts which anatomy has eftabliflied ; and
we acknowdedge them to be (uch, that we cannot di¬
ved ourfelves of the idea, that climate has a confider-
able (hare in producing a difference of colour.
The only objedlion of any confequence that has ever
been made to the hypothefis of climate, is this, that
people under the fame parallels are not exadfly of the
fame colour. But this is no objedlion in fadl 5 for it
does not follow that thofe countries which are at an
equal diftance from the equator,, (hould have their
climates the fame. Indeed nothing is more contrary
to experience than this. Climate depends upon a va¬
riety of accidents. High mountains in the neighbour¬
hood of a place make it cooler,, by chilling the air that
is carried over them by the winds. Large fpreading
fucculent plants, if among the produdlions of the foil,
have the fame effedt j they afford agreeable cooling
(hades, and a moift atmofphere from their continual
exhalations, by which the ardour of the fun is confi-
derably abated. While the foil, on the other hand,
if of a fandy nature, retains the heat in an uncommon
degree,
Complex¬
ion.
COM [ 375
and makes the fmnmers confiderably hotter
COM
degree,     - . . i r' i •
than thofe which are found to exift in the ianie lati
tude where the foil is different. To this proximity of
what may be termed burning funds, and to the fulphu-
reous and metallic particles which are continually ex¬
haling from the bowels of the earth, is afcribed the
different degree of blachnefs by which feme African
nations are diftinguilhed from each other, though
under the fame parallels. To thefe obfervations we
may add, that though the inhabitants of the fame pa¬
rallel are not exaftly of the fame hue, yet they differ
only by {hades of the fame colour j or, to {peak with
more precifion, that there are no two people, in fuch
a fituation, one of whom is white and the other black.
To fum up the whole Suppofe we were to take a
common globe 5 to begin at the equator 5 to paint
every country along the meridian line in fucceilion from
thence to the poles} and to paint them with the fame
colour which prevails in the refpeclive inhabitants of
each, we (hould fee the black, with which we had
been obliged to begin, infenlibly changing to an olive,
and the olive, through as many intermediate colours,
to a white j and if, on the other hand, we (hould
complete any one of the parallels according to the
fame plan, we fhould fee a difference perhaps in the
appearance of fome of the countries through which it
ran, though the difference would confift wholly in
fhades of the fame colour. .
The argument, therefore, which is brought againfl
the hvpothefis, is fo far from being an objection, that
it may be confidered as one of the firft arguments in its
favour j for if climate has really an influence on the
mucous fubfiance of the body, it is evident, that we
mull not only expedl to fee a gradation of colour in
the inhabitants from the equator to the poles, but al-
fo different (hades of the fame colour in the inhabi¬
tants of the fame parallel.
To this argument may be added one that is incon¬
trovertible, which is, that when the black inhabitants
of Africa are tranfplanted to colder, or the white in¬
habitants of Europe to hotter climates, their children,
born there, are of a different colour from themfelves 5
that is, lighter in the firft, and darker in the fecond
inftance.
As a proof of the firft, we (hall give the words of
the Abbe Raynal, in his admired publication. “ The
children,” fays he, “ which they (the Africans) pro¬
create in America, are not fo black as their parents
were. After each generation the difference beomes
more palpable. It is poffible, that after a numerous
fucceffion of generations, the men come from Africa
would not be diftinguiflied from thofe of the country
into which they may have been tranfplanted.”
This circumftance we have had the pleafure of hear¬
ing confirmed by a variety of perfons who have been
witneffes of the faft ; but particularly by many intel¬
ligent Africans, who have been parents themfelves in
America, and who have declared, that the difference
is fo palpable in the northern provinces, that not only
they themfelves have conftantly obferved it, but that
they have heard it obferved by others.
Neither is this variation in the children from the
colour of the parents improbable. 1 he children of
the blacked: Africans are born white. In this ftate
they continue for about a month, when they change
to a pale yellow. In procefs of time they become
brown. Their (kin ftill continues to increafe in dark-
nefs with their age, till it becomes of a dirty fallow
black ; and at length, after a certain period of years,
gloffy and (hining. Now, if climate has any influence
on the mucous fubftance of the body, this variation in
the children from the colour of their parents is an e-
vent which muft be reafonably expelled ; for being
born white, and not having equally powerful caufes
to a£t upon them in colder, as their parents had in
the hotter climates which they left, it muft necef-
farily follow, that the fame effefl cannot poffibly be
produced.
Hence alfo, if the hypothefis be admitted, may be
deduced the reafon why even thofe children who have
been brought from their country at an early age into
colder regions, have been obferved to be of a lighter
colour than thofe who have remained at home till they
arrived at a ftate of manhood. For having undergone
fome of the changes which we mentioned to have at¬
tended their countrymen from infancy to a certain
age, and having been taken away before the reft could
be completed, thefe farther changes, which would
have taken place had they remained at home, feem
either to have been checked in their progrefs, or
weakened in their degree, by a colder climate.
We come now to the fccond and oppofite cafe ; for
a proof of which we Avail appeal to the words of Dr
Mitchell in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, N° 476.
fe£l. 4. “ The Spaniards who have inhabited Ameri¬
ca under the torrid zone for any time, are become as.
dark coloured as our native Indians of Virginia, of
which I myfelf have been a witnefs ; and were they
not to intermarry with the Europeans, but lead the
fame rude and barbarous lives with the Indians, it is
very probable, that, in a fucceflion of many genera¬
tions, they would become as dark in complexion.”
To this inftance we (hall add one, which is men¬
tioned by a late writer, who, deferibing the African
coaft and the European fettlements there, has the fol¬
lowing paffage. “ There are feveral other fmall Por-
tuguefe fettlements, and one of fome note at Mitom-
ba, a river in Sierra Leone. The people here called
Portuguefe are principally perfons bred from a mixture
of the firft Portuguefe difeoverers with the natives, and
now become, in their complexion and woolly quality
of their hair, perfeft negroes, retaining, however, a
{mattering of the Portuguefe language.”
Thefe fafts with refpedl to the colonifts of the Eu¬
ropeans are of the higheft importance in the prefent
cafe, and deferve a ferious attention. For wdien w^e
know to a certainty from whom they are defeended j
wdien we know that they were, at the time of their
tranfplantation, of the fame colour as thofe from whom
they feverally fprung j and when, on the other hand,
w:e- are credibly informed that they have changed it for
the native colour of the place w'hich they now inhabit:
the evidence in fupport of thefe fadls is as great as if a
perfon, on the removal of two or three families into-
another climate, had determined to afeertain the cir¬
cumftance $ as if he had gone with them and w’atched
their children 5 as if he had communicated his obferva¬
tions at his death to a fuccellorr as if his lucceffor had
profecuted
Complex¬
ion.
COM
[ 376 1
COM
Complex- profecuted the plan ; and thus an uninterrupted chain
ion- of evidence had been kept up from their firtl removal
v to any determined period of iucceeding time.
But though thefe fafts feem fufficient of themfelves
to confirm our ppinion, they are not the only lacls
which can be adduced in its fupport. It can be lliown,
that the members of the very fame family, when divi¬
ded from each other, and removed into different coun¬
tries, have not only changed their family complexion,
but that they have changed it to as many difterent co¬
lours as they have gone into different regions of the
world. We cannot have, perhaps, a more linking jn-
ftance of this than in the Jews. Thefe people are Icat-
tered over the face of the whole earth. 1 hey have
preferved themfelves diftinft from the reft of the world
bv their religion ; and as they never intermarry with
any but thofe of their own fe6t, lo they have no mix¬
ture of blood in their veins that they fhould differ from
each other ; and yet nothing is more true, than that
the Englifh Jew is white, the Portuguefe fwarthy, the
Armenian olive, and the Arabian copper •, in Ihort,^
that there appear to be as many different fpecies ol
Jews as there are countries in which they refide.
‘ To thefe fafts we fhall add the following obferva-
tion, that if we can give credit to the ancient hiilori-
ans in general, a change from the darkeft black to the
pure ft white muff have adually been accomplifhed. One
inflance, perhaps, may be thought fufficient. Herodo¬
tus relates, that the Colchi were black, and that they
had crifped hair. Thefe people were a detachment of
the ^Ethiopian army under Sefoflris, who followed him
in his expedition, and fettled in that part of the v\orld
where Colchis is ufually reprefented to have been fitua-
ted. Had not the fame author informed us of this
circumffance, we fhould have thought it ftrange that
a people of this defection fhould have been found in
fuch a latitude. Now as they were undoubtedly fettled
there, and as they wrere neither fo totally deftroyed,
cor made any fuch rapid conquefts, as that hiftory
fhould notice the event, there is great reafon to pre-
fiime that their defeendants continued in the fame, or
fettled in the adjacent, country ; from whence it will
follow, that they muff have changed their complexion
to that which is obferved in the inhabitants of this par¬
ticular region at the prefent day •, or, in other words,
that the black inhabitants of Colchis muff have been
changed into the fair Circaffian. Suppofe, without
the knowledge of any hiftorian, they had made iuch
confiderable conquefts as to have fettled themfelves at
the diftance of 1000 miles in any one direction from
Colchis, ftill they muff have changed their colour: For
had they gone in an eaftern or weftern direiftion, they
muff have been of the fame colour as the Circaflians;
if to the north, whiter; if to the fouth, of a copper
colour. There are no people within that diftance of
Colchis who are black.
From the whole of the preceding obfervations
on the fubjedl, we may conclude, that as all the
inhabitants of the earth cannot be otherwife than
the children of the fame parents, and as the difference
of their appearance muff have of courfe pioceeded frona
incidental caufes, thefe caufes are a combination of
thofe qualities which we call climate: that the blacknefs
of the Africans is fo far engrafted in their conffitu-
tjon in a courfe of many generations, that their chil-
2
dren wholly inhetit it, if brought up in the fame fpot j Complex,
but that it is not fo wholly interwoven in their nature, lon-
that it cannot be removed if they are born and fettled *
in another.
The lame principles with the above we find adopted
and further illuftrated by Profeffor Zimmerman of
Brunfwick, in his celebrated work The Geographical
Hiftory of Man, &c. He there proves in the moft fa-
tisfaftory manner, That the complexion of the human
fpecies is uniformly correfpendent with the degree of
heat or cold to which they are habitually expofed. In
maintaining this pofition, he makes a very proper di-
ftimftion with regard to climate. By climates w^e are
to underftand, not limply or folely thofe diftinguilhed
by the geographical divifions of the globe, to the ex-
clulion of what he terms phyfical climate, or that which
depends on the changes produced in any given lati¬
tude by fuch adventitious circumftances as the lower
or more elevated fituations of a country, its being en-
compaffed by water or large trads of land, overfpread
or furrounded with forefts, placed in an extenfive plain,
or environed by lofty mountains. Peculiarities of the
like kind, as has been already noticed, frequently pre¬
vent the phyfical climate from correfponding entirely
with the geographical, as a country influenced by them
is often much warmer or colder than other regions pla¬
ced under the fame degree of latitude. The influence
of thefe fecondary or modifying circumftances has been
already adverted to, and need not be further enlarged
upon : we fhall here only obferve, that the erroneous
reafoning of Lord Karnes on this fubjed feems to have
been owdng to this inattention to the difference above
mentioned. At Senegal, and in the adjacent lands,
the thermometer is often at 112 or 1x7 degrees in the
fhade; and here we find the inhabitants jet black, wdth
woolly hair. The heat is equally great in Congo and
Loango, and thefe countries are inhabited by negroes
only ; whereas in Morocco, to the north of thefe re¬
gions, and at the Cape of Good Hope, to tne fouth,
the heat is not fo intenfe, nor are the inhabitants of fo
deep a hue. Lord Karnes afks, Wherefore are not the
Abyflinians and the inhabitants of Zaara of as dark a
complexion as the Moors on the coaft of Guinea ?
M. Zimmerman anfwers, that “ thefe countries are
much cooler. The defert is not only farther from the
equator, but the winds blowing over the Atlas moun¬
tains, which like the Alps are covered with fnow, and
the wefterly wind coming from the fea, muff confider-
ably mitigate the heat. Nor is Abyflinia fo warm as
either Monomotapa or Guinea. The north-eaft winds
from the fide of Perfia and Arabia are cooled by their
paffage over the Red Sea : the northern winds from
Egypt lofe much of their heat on the chain of moun¬
tains that is extended between the countries ; the
w inds from the fouth and the weft are fea-winds. I bus,
the only quarter from which they can derive excefiive
heat is from the w’eft, as the air on this fide muff Paf>
over trails of heated lands.” For a fimilar reafon it is
that negroes are not found either in Afia. or South A-
rcerica under the equator. The fituations of thefe
countries, our author obferves, expofe them to fea-
breezes and cooling winds from the continent. He
confirms this hypothefis by obferving, that the moun¬
taineers of warm climates, as in Barbary and Ceylon,
are much fairer than the inhabitants of the valleys:
that
' Compan¬
ion
II
•Compline.
COM [
that the Saracens and Moors, who conquered
north-eaft part of Africa in 1700, from being brown,
are become like the'negroes near the equator: that
the Portuguefe, who fettled at Senegal in 1400, be¬
came blacks •, and Tudela the Jew afferts, that his
countrymen in Abyflinia acquired the dark complexion
of the original natives.
Upon the whole : Colour and figure may be ftyled
habits of the body. Like other habits, they are cre¬
ated, not by great and fudden impreflions, but by con¬
tinual and almoft imperceptible touches. Of habits
both of mind and body, nations are fufceptible as well
as individuals. They are tranfmitted to offspring, and
augmented by inheritance. Long in growing to ma¬
turity, national features, like national manners, become
fixed only after a fucceffion of ages. They become,
however, fixed at laft ; and if w’e can afcertain any ef¬
fect produced by a given ftate of weather or of cli¬
mate, it requires only repetition during a fufficient
length of time to augment and imprefs it with a per¬
manent charafter. The fanguine countenance will,
for this reafon, be perpetual in the higheff latitudes of
the temperate zone 5 and we flrall for ever find the
fwarthy, the olive, the tawrny, and the black, as we
defcend to the fouth.
The uniformity of the effeft in the fame climate,
^and on men in a fimilar ftate of fociety, proves the
power and certainty of the caufe. If the advocates of
different human fpecies fuppofe that the beneficent
Deity hath created the inhabitants of the earth of dif¬
ferent colours, becaufe thefe colours are belt adapted
to their refpeftive zones 5 it furely places his benevo¬
lence in a more advantageous light to fay, he has given
to human nature the power of accommodating itfelf to
every zone. This pliancy of nature is favourable to
the union of the moft diftant nations, and facilitates
the acquifition and the extenfion of fcience, which
would otherwife be confined to few objects and to a
very limited range. It opens the way particularly to
the knowledge of the globe which wTe inhabit ; a fub-
je£l fo important and interefting to man. It is veri¬
fied by experience. Mankind are for ever changing
their habitations by conquefts or by commerce ; and
we find them in all climates, not only able to endure
the change, but fo affimilated by time, that we cannot
fay writh certainty whofe anceftor was the native of the
clime, and wrhofe the intruding foreigner.
All the foregoing obfervations have been well reca¬
pitulated, illuftrated by new fa&s, and enforced by
additional reafoning founded on experience, by the
Reverend Dr S. S. Smith, profeffor of moral philofo-
' phy in the college of New Jerfey, in his EJfay on the
Caufes of the variety of Complexion and Figure in the Hu¬
man fpecies ; to which the reader who withes for further
fatisfaftion on the fubjeft is referred.
COMPLE.XUS; and Complexus Minor, or Trahe-
lo-mafoidceus ; two mufcles in the pofterior part of the
trunk. See Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles.
COMPLICATION, in general, denotes the blend¬
ing, or rather interweaving, of feveral different things
together : thus, a perfon afflidled with feveral diforders
at the fame time, is faid to labour under a complica¬
tion of diforders.
COMPLINE, the laft divifion of the Romifh bre¬
viary. It was inftituted to implore God’s protection
Vol. VI. Part I.
377 ] CO M
the during the night, as the prime is for the day.
It IsComphrlen
recited after funfet; and is fo called, becaufe it com¬
pletes the office for the 34 hours.
COMPLUTENSIAN BIBLE. See Bible {Greek.)
COMPONE, or Componed, or Gobony, in He- 1
raldry. A bordure compone is that formed or com-
pofed of a row of angular parts, or chequers of two co¬
lours.
COMPONED, or Composed, is alfo ufed in ge¬
neral for a bordure, a pale, or a fefs, compofed of two
different colours or metals difpofed alternately, fepa-
rated and divided by fillets, excepting at the corners ;
where the junftures are made in form of a goat’s
foot.
COMPOSITE, in general, denotes fomething com¬
pounded, or made up of feveral others united together j
thus,
Composite Numbers, are fuch as can be meafured
exaftly by a number exceeding unity ; as 6 by 2 or 3,
or 10 by 5, &c. fo that 4 is the loweft compofite num
ber. Compofite numbers, between themfelves, are
thofe which have fome common meafure befides unity }
as 12 and 15, as being both meafured by 3.
Composite Order, in ArchiteBure, the laft of the
five orders of columns 5 fo called becaufe its capital is
compofed out of thofe of the other columns, borrow¬
ing a quarter round from the Tufcan and Doric, a row
of leaves from the Corinthian, and volutes from the
Ionic. Its corniche has fimple modillions, or dentils.
It is alfo called the Roman or Italic order, as having
been invented by the Romans. By moft authors it is
ranked after the Corinthian, either as being the next
richeft, or the laft invented. See Architecture,
N° 48.
COMPOSITION, in a general fenfe, the uniting
or putting together feveral things, fo as to form one
whole, called a compound.
Composition of Ideas, an a£t of the mind, whereby
it unites feveral fimple ideas into one conception or
complex idea.
When we are provided with a fufficient flock of fim¬
ple ideas, and have by habit and ufe rendered them fa¬
miliar to our minds, they become the component parts
of other ideas ftill more complicated, and form w hat
we may call a fecond order of compound notions. This
procefs may be continued to any degree of compofition
we pleafe, mounting from one ftage to another, and
enlarging the number of combinations.
Composition, in Grammar, the joining of twm wmrds
together j or prefixing a particle to another word, to
augment, diminifti, or change its fignification.
Composition, in Logic, a method of reafoning
whereby we proceed from fome general felf-evident
truth to other particular and fingular ones.
In difpofing and putting together our thoughts, there
are two ways of proceeding equally within our choice j
for we may fo fuppofe the truths, relating to any part
of knowledge, as they prefented themielves to the
mind in the manner of inveftigation : carrying on the
feries of proofs in a reverfe order, till they at laft ter¬
minate in firft principles : or beginning with thefe
principles, we may take the contrary way ; and from
them deduce, by a dire£I train of reafoning, all the fe¬
veral propofitions we wTant to eftablifh.
This diverfity in the manner of arranging our
v ‘ 3 B thoughts
fian
II
Compofi¬
tion.
Sompofi-
tion.
COM [ 378
thoughts gives rife to the twofold divifion of method ber
eftablifhed among logicians j the one called analytic
method, or the method of refutation, inafmuch as it
traces things back to their fource, and refolves know¬
ledge into its firft and original principles. This me¬
thod ftands in contradiftin&ion to the method of com-
pofition } or, as it is otherwife called, the fynthetic
method •, for here we proceed by gathering together
the feveral fcattered parts of knowledge, and combin¬
ing them into one fyftem, in fuch a manner as that the
underftanding is enabled diftin&ly to follow truth
through all the different ftages of gradation.
Composition, in Mufc, is the art of inventing and
writing airs , of accompanying them with a fuitable
harmony 5 in fhort, of forming a complete piece of mu-
lie in all its parts.
The knowledge of melody, harmony, and its rules,
is the foundation of compofition. Without doubt,
it is neceffary to know in what manner choids Ihould
be filled, how to prepare and refolve dilfonances, how
to find the fundamental bafs, and how to put in prac¬
tice all the other minutiae of elementary knowledge j
but with the mechanical rules of harmony alone, one
is bv no means better qualified to underiland the art,
and operate in the pra&ice of compofition, than to form
himfelf for eloquence upon all the rhetorical precepts
exhibited in grammar. We need not fay, that befides
this, it is neceffary to underfiand the genius and com-
pafs of voices and inftruments ; to judge what airs may
be of eafy, and what of difficult, execution j to ob-
ferve what will, and what will not, be produ&ive of
any effeft ; to feel the charafter of different move¬
ments, as well as that of different modulations, that
both may be always fuitably applied ; to know the dif¬
ferent rules eftablifhed by convention, by talfe, by ca¬
price, or by pedantry, as fugues, imitations, or in pie¬
ces where the fubjeft is confined to uniform laws in its
harmony, melody, rythmus, See. All thefe acquifi-
tions are ftill no more than preparatives for compofi¬
tion : but the compofer muff find in his own genius
the fources of beautiful melody, of fublime harmony,
the pidlurefque, and the expreffive in mufic j he muff,
in fiiort, be capable of perceiving, and of forming, the
order of the whole piece ; to follow the relations and
aptitudes of which it is fufceptible in every kind ; to
inflame his foul with the fpirit and enthufiafm of the
poet, rather than childifhly amufe himfelf with pun¬
ning in harmony, or adapting the mufic to each parti¬
cular word. It is with reafon that our muficians have
given the name of xvords to the poems which they fet
to mufic. It appears evident from their manner of ex-
preffing them, that, in their apprehenfion, they feem-
ed words, and words alone. One would be tempted
to imagine, particularly during fome of thefe lafi years,
that the rules for the formation and fucceffion of choids
have caufed all the reft to be neglefted or forgotten ;
and that harmony has made no acquifitions but at the
expence of what is general and eflential in the mufical
art. All our artifts know how to fill a chord with its
conftituent founds, or a piece of harmony with its con-
ftituent parts j but not a foul amongft them feels a ray
of compofition. As to what remains, though the fun¬
damental rules of counterpoint, or mufic in parts, con¬
tinues ftill the fame, they are more or lefs rigorous and
inflexible in proportion as the parts increafe in n.um-
1
COM
 7 for according as the parts are multiplied, the
difficulty of compofition is heightened, and the rules
are lefs fevere. Compofitions in two parts are called
duettos when the two performers fing equally that is
to fay, when the fubjeft is no further extended, but
divided between them; but if the fubjeft is in one
part alone, and the fubordinate harmony no more than
an accompanyment, the firft part is then either called
a recitative or a folo ; and the other an accompanyment,
or continued bafs, if it is a bafs. It is the fame cafe
with the trio, with compofitions in three, in four, or
in five parts.
The name of compofition is likewife given to fuch
pieces of mufic themlelves as are formed according to
the rules of the art. For this reafon the duetts, trios,
quartettos, which have juft been mentioned, are called
compofitions,
Compofitions are either formed for the voice alone,
or for inftruments, or for voices and inftruments join¬
ed. Full chorufes and fongs are the only compofitions
principally intended for the voice, though fometimes
inftruments are joined with it to lupport it. Compo¬
fitions for inftruments are intended to be executed by
a band in the orcheftra, and then they are called
fymphonies, concertos; or for fome particular fpecies
of inftruments, and then they are called pieces or fo-
natas.
Such compofitions as are deftined both for voices
and inftruments, have been generally divided into
two capital fpecies, viz. the facred and the fecular.
The compofitions deftined for the church, whether
pfalms, hymns, anthems, or refponfives, are in gene¬
ral diftinguiftied by the name of chttrch-mufic, and
charafterized by their intention to be fung with words.
Secular mufic in general may likewife be divided into
two kinds ; theatrical and chamber mufic.. .Of the firft
kind is that ufed in the operas; the fubdivifions of the
fecond are endlefs.^ Solos, concertos, cantatas, fongs,
and airs, almoft of every kind, which are not adapted
to the church or the ftage, may be included in the idea
of chamber-mufic.
In general, it is thought, that facred mufic requires
deeper fcience, and a more accurate obiervation of
rules} the fecular fpecies gives more indulgence to ge¬
nius and fubfifts in greater variety.
But we muft here obferve, that the ecclefiaftical
mufic now ufed, or rather profaned and murdered,
amongft us, though regular in its harmony, is Ample
in its compofition, and demands not that profound
knowledge in the art, either to form or comprehend
it, which Rouffeau, whom till now we have iollowed
in this article, feems to imagine. His affertion can
only be applicable to the church-mufic of Italv. I hat
which is now eftablifhed amongft us leems not. to be
indigenous, but transferred with the Calviniftical li¬
turgy from Geneva \ and as it is intended for popular
ufe, it can by no means be efteemed a high exertion
of the mufical art; yet, however fi.mple, it is pleafing j
and, when properly performed, might elevate the foul
to a degree of devotion, and even of rapture, which
at prefent we are fo far from feeling, that we rather
feem to fleep or to howl, than to fing the praife of
God. Perhaps our clergy may find more advantage m
cultivating their farms ; but they would furely feel a
higher and diviner pleafurein cultivating the taftes and
“ voices
Compofi¬
tion.
COM
Compofi- voices of their people. The one, however, is not in¬
ti011- compatible with the other. An hour of relaxation in
a winter evening might ferve for the accomplilhment
of this pious purpofe 5 and one fliould imagine, that,
independent of religious confiderations, the fpirit of
the craft might dictate fuch a meafure as calculated to
produce popular entertainment and gain popular af-
fe£lion.
In compofition, the author either confines himfelf,
Os a fubjeft, to the mere mechanical modulations and
arrangements of found j and, as his end, to the plea-
fure of the ear alone j or otherwile he foars a nobler
height ; he afpires to imitative mufic ; he endeavours
to render the hearts and fouls of his auditors duftile by
his art, and thus to produce the nobleft emotions and
moft falutary effects. In the firlf view, it is only
necelfary that he fhould look for beautiful founds and
agreeable chords; but in the fecond he ought to con-
fider mufic in its conformity with the accents of the
human voice, and in the expreflive powers of notes
harmonically combined to fignify or paint fuch objects
as are fufceptible of imitation. In Roulfeau’s article
opera, fome ideas may be found by which the art may
be ennobled and elevated, by forming mufic into a
language more powerful and pathetic than eloquence
itfelf. See Opera.
Composition, in literature, the art of forming and
arranging fentiments, and clothing them with lan¬
guage fuitable to the nature of the fubjeft or difcourfe.
See the articles Language, Oratory, Poetry, Dia¬
logue, Epistle, and History.
Composition, in ChemiJIry, is the union and com¬
bination of feveral fubftances of different natures, from
which a compound body refults. From this union of
bodies of different natures, a body is formed, of a mix¬
ed nature, which Becker and Stahl have called a mix~
ture, and which may be called a combination, or che¬
mical compojition, to avoid the equivocal fenfe of the
word mixture. By this laft, we underfland only a
mere appofition of parts j and wLich would therefore
give a very falfe idea of chemical compofition, in
which a mutual adhefion takes place between the com¬
bined fubftances.
Composition, in Painting, includes the invention
4s wrell as difpofition of the figures, the choice of atti¬
tudes, &c.
Compofition, therefore, confifts of tw-o parts one
of which finds out, by means of hiftory, proper ob¬
jects for a picture j and the other difpofes them to ad¬
vantage. See Painting. ’
Composition, in Pharmacy, the art or aft of mix¬
ing divers ingredients together into a medicine, fo as
they may affift each other’s virtues, fupply each other’s
defefts, or correft any ill qualities thereof. See Ph ar-
M \CY.
Composition, in Commerce, a contraft between
an infolvent debtor and his creditors, whereby the
latter accept of a part of the debt in compofition for
the wdiole, and give a general acquittance accord-
Composition, in Printing, commonly termed com-
pojing, the arranging of feveral types or letters in the
'compofing-ftick, in order to form a line; and of fe¬
deral lines ranged in order, in the galley, to make a
[ 379 1 COM
feveral pages to make a form.
page ; and of
Printing.
COMPOSIT7E, in Botany. The name of a clafs w
in Hermannus and Royen ; as likewife of an order in
Linnaeus’s fragments of a natural method, confifting
in general of the plants which have the charafters
enumerated in the following article. A particular
defeription of this order is given under the article
Syngenesia, which includes all the compound
flowers.
COMPOSITUS flos, in Botany, an aggregate
flower, compofed of many Jlofcuh fejjiles, on a common
entire receptaculum, with a common perianthium, and
whofe anthene being five in number unite in the form
of a cylinder ; the flofeuli are monopetalous, and under
each of them is a monofpermous germen. Compound
flowers are either ligulati, tubuloji, or radiati.
COMPOST, in Agriculture, denotes a certain kind
of mixture defigned to aflift the foil in the way of ve¬
getation, inftead of dung. The requifites for a com-
poft are, 1. That it ought to be cheaper than the
quantity of dung required for an equal extent of foil.
2. It ought to be lefs bulky ; and, 3. It ought to pro¬
duce equal effefts.
Under the article Agriculture, we have endea¬
voured to {how, that the true vegetable food confifts
in reality of the putrid effluvia proceeding from de¬
cayed animal and vegetable fubftances. If this theory
is admitted, the hope of making compoft as a fucce-
daneum for dung is but very fmall, unlefs they are
made of putrefied animal and vegetable fubftances ; ii*
which cafe, unlefs in very lingular circumftances, they
will prove much dearer than dung itfelf. Several at¬
tempts, however, have been made by thofe who had
other views concerning the nature of the true vege¬
table food. An oil compoft is recommended in the
Georgical Efiays, upon a fuppofition that the food of
vegetables is of an oily nature. It is made as follows:
“ Take of North American potafli 1 2 lb. Break the
fait into fmall pieces, and put it into a convenient vef-
fel with four gallons of wrater. Let the mixture ftand
48 hours: then add coarfe train oil 14 gallons. In %
few days the fait will be diffolved, and the mixture,
upon ftirring, will become nearly uniform. Take 14
bufiiels of fand, or 20 of dry mould : upon thefe pour
the above liquid ingredients. Turn this compofitiou
frequently over, and in fix months it will be fit for ufe.
When the liquid ingredients are put to one or two
hogfheads of water, a liquid compoft will be formed,
which muft be ufed with a water cart.”
This compoft, however, the inventor himfelf owns
to be inferior to rotten dung, as indeed may very na¬
turally be fuppofed ; yet in fome cafes it feems ca¬
pable of doing fervice, as will appear from fome of
the following experiments which we extraft from the
efiays above mentioned.
Exp. I. By the author of the eflays. “ I took four
pots, N° 1, 2, 3, 4. N° 1. contained 12 lb. of barren
fand, with 1 oz. of the fand oil-compoft. N° 2. con¬
tained 12 lb. of fand without any mixture. N° 3. had
12 lb. of fand with half an ounce of flaked lime. N°4.
had 12 lb. of fand with 4 oz. of the fand oil-compoft.
In the month of March I put fix grains of wheat in¬
to each pot, and during the fummer, I occafionally
3 B 2 watered
See CornpofitH!
It
Compoft,
Compoft.
COM [38
watered the plants with filtrated water. All the time
the plants were confuming the farina, I could obferve
very little difference in their appearance. But after
one month’s growth, I remarked that N° 1. was the
beft *, N° 2. the next ; N° 3. the next ; and N° 4.
much the worft.” The fame differences were obfer-
ved in Auguft, when N° 1. the beft, had five fmall
ears, which contained a few poor grains of wheat.
Exp. II. By the fame. “ In the month of June,
I felefted four lands of equal goodnefs in a field in¬
tended for turnips. The foil was a light fand, with a
tolerable quantity of vegetable earth amongft it. It
wras ploughed out of fward in November, and had not
borne a crop for many years. I fhall diftinguifh my
experimental lands by N° 1, 2, 3, 4. N° 1. was ma¬
nured with rotten dung; N° 2. with oil-compoft ; Nc 3.
with lime ; N° 4. was left without any drefling. On
the 20th of June they were all fown with turnip-feed
broadcaft, and during the courfe of the feafon were
twice hoed. In November I viewed the field, and made
the following remarks. N° 1. the beft ; N° 2. the next;
N° 3. the worft ; N° 4. better than N° 3.” Here the
oil-compoft appears in a favourable light ; but other
trials, made with equal accuracy, feem rather to prove,
that it is not proper for turnips, barley, or quick¬
growing vegetables. It requires being meliorated by
the atmofphere, and therefore is better adapted for
winter crops.
Exp. III. By the fame. “ In the month of May,
I planted 12 alleys that lay between my afparagus beds
with cauliflower plants. Each alley took up about
30 plants. One of the alleys I fet apart for an experi¬
ment with the oil-compoft, prepared according to the
diredlions already given. About an handful of the
compoft was put to the root of each cauliflower plant.
In all other refpeiEls the alley was managed like the
reft. The plants in general flowered very well; but
thofe to which I applied the compoft fprung up hafti-
ly with fmall ftalks, and produced very poor flowers.
I imputed this unfavourable appearance to the frefh-
nefs of the compoft, which was only a few weeks old.
In the September following this unfuccefsful expe¬
riment, I planted the fame alleys with early cab¬
bages. The neceflity of meliorating the compoft was
in this trial fully confirmed. For the cabbages that
grew upon the alley, which in May had received the
compoft, were larger and in all refpedts finer than the
others.”
Exp. IV. by James Stovin, Efq. of Doncafter.
“ In the year, 1769, I made the followung trial with
the oil-compoft, prepared as above direfted. One acre
fown with barley and manured with oil-compoft at
18s. produced five quarters five bufhels. An acre
adjoining, fown with barley, and manured with 12
loads of rotten dung at 3I. produced four quarters
three bulhels and two pecks. The compoft-barley
was bolder and better corn than the other. In the
year 1770, the dunged acre produced of rye, three
quarters. The compoft acre of ditto, two quarters
fix buftrels. In the year 1771, the fame lands w'ere
£own with oats, and the produce was greatly in fa¬
vour of the dunged acre. Thefe experimental lands
were in a common field that had been long under the
plough.”
Exp. V. by Richard Townley, Efq; of Belfield.
d ] COM
“ In the fpring 1770, I prepared a piece of ground Compoflf
for onions. It was laid out into fix beds of the fame ' - " v
fize, and which were all fown at the fame time. Over
two of them, the oil-compoft was fcattered in a very
moderate quantity. Over other two, pigeons dung :
and over the remaining twTo, fome of my weed-compq/l
(formed of putrefied vegetables), which I efteem one
of the beft manures, for moft vegetables, that can be
made. The onions came up very well in all the beds ;
but in about fix weeks, thofe that were fed with the
oil-compoft, plainly difcovered the advantage they had
over the reft by their luxuriancy and colour, and at
the end of the fummer perfedled the fineft crop I had
ever feen, being greatly fuperior to the others both in
quantity and fize. The fame fpring I made an expe¬
riment upon four rows of cabbages, fet at the diftance
of four feet every way. Twto wrere manured with oil-
compoft, and two with my owm. All the plants w'ere
unluckily damaged, juft before they began to form, by
fome turkeys getting into the field and plucking oft
the greateft part of the leaves. However, they fo far
recovered, in the September following, from 22 to
2 81b. a-piece. The rows proved fo equal in goodnefs,
that I could not determine which had the advantage.
The fame year, one part of a field of wheat expofed to
the north-eaft winds, which that fpring, continued to
blow for a month or five weeks, appeared very poor
and languid at the time of tillering. Over it I order¬
ed fome of the oil-compoft to be fown with the hand ;
which not only recovered, but alfo pufhed forwards
the wheat plants in that part of the field, fo as to
make them little inferior, if any, to the reft. The fame
fpring, I made a comparative experiment, upon four
contiguous lands of oats, between the oil-compoft
and my own weed-compoft. The latter had manifeft-
ly the advantage, though the other produced a very
large and fine crop. I alfo tried the oil-compoft up¬
on carrots, and it anfwered exceedingly well. I
did the fame this year (1771) both upon them and
my onions, and have the fineft crops of thefe vege¬
tables I ever faw anywhere upon the fame compafs of
ground.”
Exp.'Vl. by Mr J. Broadbent of Berwick, in El-
met near Leeds. —“ On the firft of Oflober I77J»
I fowed two acres of a light channelly foil with wheat,
and harrowed in the compoft with the grain. Being
at a confiderable diftance from a large town, we find
it very difficult and expenfive to procure rotten dung
in fufficient quantity for our tillage lands, for which
reafon we have recourfe to land-dreffings both for our
winter and fpring corn. Rape-duft and foot are prin¬
cipally ufed ; but the prefent price of both thefc ar¬
ticles is a heavy tax upon the farmer. 1 o obviate that
inconvenience, I refolved to make trial of the oil-
compoft ; and from what I have obferved in this one
experiment, I am encouraged to make a more exten-
five ufe of it the next year. Being well acquainted
with the nature and efficacy of foot, I am fatisfied,
that the above twTo acres produced as good a crop of
wheat as if they had been dreffed with that excellent
manure.”
On the fuppofition that vegetables are fupported by
matters of a faline nature, comports formed of diffe¬
rent forts of fals have been contrived, but with lefs
fuccefs than the one above treated of. A famous com-
pofition
COM [38
Compoft. portion of this kind was lately fold by patent, under
-V""-' the name of Baron Van Hank's Compoji. The follow¬
ing experiment is mentioned in the Georgical Effays,
as made with a view to determine the virtues of it
compared with the oil-compoft and foot mixed with
afhes.—“ In the beginning of April 1773, an acre of
land was fowm with early oats. I pitched upon one
land in the middle of the piece, which I efteemed bet¬
ter than any of the reft, and upon this I fcattered Ba¬
ron Van Haak’s compoft, in the quantity direfted in
his inftruftions. On one fide I manured a land with
the oil-compoft, but rather with a lefs quantity than
directed 5 and on the other fide, I manured two lands
with dry coal-alhes fifted fine, and an equal quantity
of foot. The lands upon which this experiment was
made, were much worn out with a long fucceflion of
crops. The lands which had the benefit of the allies
and foot, produced an exceeding fine crop j the oil-
compoft produced a tolerable good one j but that
which had only the aftiftance of the baron’s com¬
poft, produced a very poor one. It could not have
been worfe had it been left deftitute of every aflift-
ance.”
Compofts, made with putrefied animal fubftances
will no doubt anfwrer much better, in moft cafes, than
any other kind of manure, but they are difficult to be
procured. The follownng is recommended to Dr Hun¬
ter of York.—“ Take a fufficient quantity of faw-
duft, incorporate it with the blood and offal of a
ffaughter-houfe, putting a layer of one and a layer of
the other till the whole becomes a moift and fetid com-
pofition. Tivo loads of this compoft, mixed with
three loads of earth, will be fufficient for an acre of
wheat or Ipring-corn. Being a kind of top-dreffing,
it Ihould be put on at the time of fow'ing, and har¬
rowed in with the grain. The prefent year I have a
field of wheat manured in this manner, and have the
pleafure to fay, that it is extremely clean, and has all
the appearance of turning out an excellent crop. As
this kind of compoft lies in a fmall compafs, it feems
well adapted for the ufe of fuch farmers as are obliged
to bring their manures from a diftance. It is befides
extremely rich, and will probably continue in the land
much longer than fold-yard or ftable-dung. I appre¬
hend that it is capable of reftoring worn-out land to
its original frelhnefs •, and I am induced to be of that
opinion, from the appearance of the above crop, which
is now growing upon land much impoverilhed by bad
management.”
Another compoft, prepared from whales flelh, is
recommended by Mr Charles Chaloner.—“ I have a
particular pleafure (fays he) in defcribing and ma¬
king public the beft method of forming a compoft
from whales flelh, as recommended to me by Dr Hun¬
ter. Having marked out the length and breadth of
your intended dung-hill, make the firft layer of earth
"about a foot in thicknefs. Moor-earth, or fuch as is
taken from ant-hills, is the beft for this purpofe. O-
ver the earth lay one layer of long litter, from the
fold-yard or liable, about 12 inches in thicknefs,
then a layer of whale-flelh, and over that another layer
of dung. Repeat the operations till the heap be rai¬
led about fix feet, then give it a thick covering of
earth, and coat the heap with fods. In this manner
each layer of flelh will be placed between twolayersof
1 ] COM
dung. In about a month turn the whole in the ulual Compoft
manner, which will occafion a ftrong degree of heat ^
and fermentation. When turned, coat rvith earth as < _
before, with a view to confine the putrid fteam which
would otherwife efcape. In a month or two the heap
will be found to be confiderably fallen, when it Ihould
have a fccond turning as before. The operation of
turning muft be repeated at proper intervals, till the
whole becomes an uniformly putrid mafs. The whale-
flelh is of different degrees of firmnefs, fome of it be¬
ing almoft liquid j and, in proportion to its firmnefs,
the heap will become fooner or later fit tor ufe. In
general, the compoft Ihould not be ufed till 12 months
old ; but that depends upon circumftances. Guard the
heap from dogs, pigs, badgers, and vermin, as thefe
animals are remarkably fond of whale-flelh. This ani¬
mal compoft may with great advantage be applied to
all purpofes wrhere good rotten dung is required. I
have ufed it with great fuccefs for cabbages, and find
it an excellent dreffing for meadow-ground. Accord¬
ing to the beft computation, one hoglhead of whale
refufe, will make eight loads of dung 5 which when we
confider the great facility with which this bafis of our
dung-hill may be carried, is a momentous concern to
fuch farmers as lie remote from a large town.” See
Manure.
Compost, in gardening, is a mixture of feveral
earths, earthy fubftances, and dungs, either for the
improvement of the general foil of a garden, or for
that of fome particular plants. Almoft every plant de¬
lights in fome peculiar mixture of foils or compoft,
in which it will thrive better than in others. The
moft remarkable and generally ufeful of thefe, are
taken notice of under the defcription of the feveral bo¬
tanical articles, as they occur in the order of the alpha¬
bet.
COMPOSTELLA, a celebrated town of Spain,
and capital of G .licia, with an archbifhop’s fee, and ‘
an univerfity. The public fquares, and the churches,
particularly the metropolitan church, are very magni¬
ficent. It has a . great number of monafteries, for
both fexes, and about 2000 houfes. It is pretended
that the body of St James was buried here, which
draws a great number of pilgrims from moft parts of
Chriftendom. They walk in proceflion to the church,
and vifit his wooden image, which ftands on the great
altar, and is illuminated with 40 or 50 wax-candles.
They kifs it three times with a very refpe&ful devo¬
tion, and then put their hats on its head. In the
church there are 30 filver lamps always lighted, and
fix chandeliers of filver, five feet high. The poor pil¬
grims are received into an hofpital, built for that pur¬
pofe, which ftands near the church ; and round it are
galleries of free-ftone, fupported by large pillars. The
archbifhop is one of the richeft prelates in Spain, ha¬
ving 70,000 crowns a-year. From this town the mi¬
litary order of St Jago, or St James, had its original.
It is feated in a peninfula, formed by the rivers Tam-
bra and Ulla, in a pleafant plain, 265 miles north-weft
of Madrid. W. Long. 8. 17- N. Lat. 42. 52.
Nevo Compostella, a town of North America, in
Newr Spain, and province of Xalifco, built in X531*
It is feated near the South fea. . Long. 109. 42
N. Lat. 21. 20.
COMPOUND, in a general fenfe, an appellation
given
COM [38
Compound given to whatever is corapofed or made up of diffe-
f ii f rent things j thus we fay, a compound word, com-
0)ionL " Pouncf found, compound taile, &c.—Compound differs
»—-t- - ■ from complex, and ftands oppofed toJimple. See Com¬
plex and Simple.
CoMPOiMip Flower. See CbMPosirut Flos.
Compound Interejl, called alfo interejl upon interejl,
is that which is reckoned not only upon the principal,
but upon the intereft itfelf forborne \ which hereby
becomes a fort of fecondary principal. See Inte¬
rest.
Compound Motion, that motion which is effefted by
feveral confpiring powers. Powers are faid to conlpire
if the direction of the one be not quite oppofite to
that of the other, as when the radius of a circle is
conceived to revolve about a centre, and at the fame
time a point to move ftraight along it.
Compound Numbers, thofe which may be divided
by fome other number befides unity, without leaving
any remainder ; fuch are 18, 20, &c. the fir ft being
nreafured by the numbers 2, 6, 9 j and the fecond by
the numbers 2, 4, 5, 10.
Compound Quantities. See Algebra.
Compound Ratio, is that which the produft of the
antecedents of twm or more ratios has to the product
of their confequents. Thus, 6 to 72 is in a ratio com¬
pounded of 2 to 6, and of 3 to 12.
Compound (fubftantive), the refult or effeft of a
compofition of different things j or a mafs formed by
the union of many ingredients.
COMPREHENSION, in Englifh church-hiftory,
denotes a fcheme propofed by Sir Orlando Bridgman
in 1667-8, for relaxing the terms of conformity in
behalf of Proteftant diffenters, and admitting them
into the communion of the church. A bill for this
purpofe was drawn up by Lord Chief-Baron Hale, but
difallowed. The attempt W’as renewed by Tillotfon
znd-Stillingfleet in 1674, and the terms were fettled
to the fatisfaftion of the nonconformifts j but the bi-
fhops refufed their affent. This fentence was likewife
revived again immediately after the Revolution the
king and queen expreffed their defire of an union :
however, the defign failed after twT> attempts 5 and the
aft of toleration was obtained.
Comprehension, in Metaphyjbcs, is that aft of the
mind whereby it apprehends or knows any objeft that
is prefented to it, on all the fides w'hereon it is capable
of being apprehended or known. To comprehend a
thing is defined by the fchoolmen, rem aliquant totam
tt totaliter cognofcere.
Comprehension, in Rhetoric, a trope or figure
whereby the name of a whole is put for a part j or
that of a part for a whole ; or a definite number of
any thing for an indefinite.
COMPRESS, in Surgery, a bolfter of foft linen
cloth, folded in feveral doubles, frequently applied to
cover a plafter, in order not only to preferve the part
from the external air, but alfo the better to retain the
dreffings or medicines.
COMPRESSION, the aft of preffing or fqueezing
fome matter together, fo as to fet its parts nearer to
each other, and make it poffefs lefs fpace. Compref-
Jion properly differs from condenfatwn, in that the lat¬
ter is performed by the aftion of cold, the former by
.fame external violence.
2 ] COM
COMPROMISE, a treaty or contraft, whereby two
contending parties eftablilh one or more arbitrators to
judge of and terminate their difference in an amicable
manner.
COMPTON, Henry, biihop of London, was the
youngeft fon of Spencer earl of Northampton, and
born in 1632. After the reftoration of Charles II. he
became cornet of a regiment of horfe but foon after
quitting the army for the church, he was made bifbop
of Oxford in 1674 *, and about a year after tranflated
to the fee of London. He was entrufted with the
education of the twm princeffes Mary and Anne, whom
he alfo afterwards married to the princes of Orange
and Denmark j and their firmnefs in the Proteftant
religion was in a great meafure owing to their tutor,
to whom when Popery began to prevail at court, it
was imputed as an unpardonable crime. He was fuf-
pended from his ecclefiaftical funftion by James II.
but was reftored by him again on the prince of Orange’s
invalion. He and the biffrop of Briftol made the ma¬
jority for filling the vacant throne with a king : he
performed the ceremony of the coronation 5 was ap¬
pointed one of the commiflioners for raifing the litur¬
gy ; and laboured w ith much zeal to reconcile diffen¬
ters to the church. His fpirit of moderation made
him unpopular with the clergy, and in all probability
checked his further promotion. He died in 1713;
but living in bufy times, did not leave many writings
behind him.
COMPTROLLER. See Controller.
COMPULSOR, an officer under the Roman em¬
perors defpatched from court into the provinces, to
compel the payment of taxes, &c. not paid with¬
in the time preferibed. ft he word is formed of th«
verb compellere, 44 to oblige, conftrain.” Phele weie
charged with fo many exaftions, under colour of
their office, that HonoriuS calhiered them by a law
in 412.
The laws of the Vifigoths mention military com-
pulfors; which were officers among the Goths, whofe
bufinefs was to oblige the tardy foldiers to go into the
fight, or to run to an attack, &c.
Caffian mentions a kind of monaftic compulfors,
whofe bufinefs was to declare the hours of canonical
office, and to take care the monks went to church at
thofe hours.
COMPUNCTION, in Theology, an inward grief
in the mind for having offended God. ft he word comes
from compungere, oipungere, “to prick.’ —— FheRoman-
ifts own their confeffion infignificant unlefs attended
with compunftion or pricking of heart.
Among fpiritualifts, compunftion bears a more ex-
tenfive fignification ; and implies not only a grief lor
having offended God, but alfo a pious fenfatiqn of grief,
forrow, and difpleafure, on other motives.—Thus, the
miferies of life, the danger of being loft in the world,
the blindnefs of the wicked, &c. are to pious people
motives of compunftion.
COMPURGATOR, one that, by oath, juftifies an¬
other perfon’s innocence. Compurgators were intro¬
duced as evidences in the jurifprudence of the middle
ages. Their number varied according to the import¬
ance of the fubjeft in difpute, or the nature of the
crime with which a perfon was charged.
COMPUft'ATION, in a general fenfe, the man-
Ctimprsi*
mile
11
Computa¬
tion.
2
Comum
ti
Conca.
CON [ 3S3 ] CON
ner of eftimating time, weights, meafure, moneys, or Monte CalTino, where he was to paint a chapel in fref- Conca^
quantities of any kind.—The word is fometimes alfo co *, and there made Conca acquainted with every thing
ufed among mathematicians in the like fenfe as calcula- relative to that manner of painting. At his return to
tion.
COMUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Orobii, of an ancient ftanding, and formerly powerful,
daring to difpute with the Romans : Comenfes, the peo¬
ple •, Comenfis Ager, the epithet. It became afterwards
no inconfiderable municipium, to which Julius Caefar
added 5000 new colonifts (Strabo); whence it was ge¬
nerally called Ao-wco/ra?/#/, and the people
But in time it recovered its ancient name, Comum ; Pli¬
ny the younger, a native of that place, calling it by
no other name. Now Como, in the duchy of Milan,
at the fouth end of the lake of that name. E. Long.
9. 37. N. Lat. 46. It is about 80 miles N. E. of
Turin.
COM US, in Mythology, the god of jollity or fefti-
vity. There is great reafon to believe he rvas the
Chamos of the Moabites ; Beel-Phegor, Baal-Peor,
Priapus, and Bacchus. He is reprefented under the
appearance of a young man, with an inflamed red
countenance, his head inclined, and crowned with
flowers; his air drowfy; leaning on a huntfman’s
fpear in his left hand, and holding an inverted torch
in his right. His flatue vras placed at the chamber
doors of new married perfons ; his pedeltal crowned
with flowers.
CON, or Cond. See Cond.
CONANT, Dr John, a learned Englith divine,
born in 1608. He took his degrees at Exeter College
Oxford ; was, by the parliament, conftituted one of
the aflembly of divines, though he feldom, if ever, fat
with them; and in 1657 was admitted vice-chancellor
of the univerfity. On the reftoration he wTas one of
the commiflioners, and aflifted at the conferences in
the Savoy ; but was deprived by the a6t of uniformi¬
ty ; after eight years he was confirmed, and was made
archdeacon of Norwich, and prebendary of Worcefler.
In 1686 he loft his fight; and died in 1693 ; leaving
a number of admired fermons, afterwards publifhed in
fix volumes. "
CONARION, orCoNOiDEs, a name for the pineal
gland. See Anatomy Index.
CONATUS, a term frequently ufed in philofophy
and mathematics, defined by fome to be a quantity of
motion, not capable of being expreffed by any time
or length ; as the conatus recedendi ah axe motus, is
the endeavour which a body, moved circularly, makes
to recede, or fly off from the centre or axis of its mo¬
tion.
CONCA, Sebastian, called Cavalier, a celebrated
hiftory and portrait painter, was born at Gaeta in
1679, and placed as a difciple with Erancefco Solime-
na, an incomparable mailer. Under his diredlion
Conca exerted his utmoft induftry to obtain a proper
knowledge of the true principles, of the art of paint¬
ing ; nor did he permit any kind of amufement to
withdraw his attention from his ftudies. Solimena
foon perceived in his difciple fuch talents, and Inch a
difpofition, as would qualify him to make a very great
progrefs ; and on that account he conceived fo ftrong
an aft'etftion for him, that he not only afforded him the
beft inftruftions, but often employed him to iketch af¬
ter his own defigns; took him along with him to
Naples with Solimena, he was, if poffible, ftill more
affiduous to improve himfelf to the utmoft; and en¬
tered on a project that might at once advance his in¬
come, and add to his expertnefs in his profeffion. That
projedft was, to paint portraits in a fmall fize and at a
low rate ; by which fcheme all ranks of perfons crowd¬
ed to him ; and befide the pecuniary advantages refult-
ing from it, he acquired an extraordinary freedom of
hand in penciling and colouring ; a good habit of imi¬
tating nature with an elegant choice ; and likewife
great diverfity of airs of h^ds, which were of extra¬
ordinary ufe to him in his future beautiful compofitions.
As he had a great defire to fee Rome, he obtained
permiflion from Solimena to indulge his inclination ;
and although he w7as near thirty years of age when he
vifited that city, yet he fpent eight years in conftant
ftudy after the antiques, after Buonaroti, Raphael,
and the Carracci, and perfecled himfelf in every part
of his profeffion. The fame of his w’orks foon fpread
throughout Rome, and procured him the patronage of
Cardinal Ottobuoni, who w7as a princely encourager
of artifts ; and Conca having ffiown an elegant proof
of his abilities in a compofition reprefenting Herod
inquiring of the wdfe men the place of the birth of
the Mefliah, the figures being as large as life, the Car¬
dinal thought it fo excellent a performance, that he
rewarded him in a munificent manner, entertained him
in his own palace, and introduced him to Pope Cle¬
ment XI. who apointed Conca to paint the piflure of
the prophet Jeremiah in the church of St John Late-
ran ; which he executed with univerfal applaufe. Orr
that occafion the pope was defirous to give him fome
particular mark of his efteem ; and therefore, in a ge¬
neral affembly of the academicians of St Luke, he
conferred on him the order of knighthood, and the
cardinal prefented him with a rich diamond crofs,
which Conca, out of refpedf to his patron, always
wore at his bofom. From that time he w7as inceffant-
ly employed, and his w7orks were folicited by molt of
the princes of Europe. The churches and chapels efi
every part of Italy are enriched with fome of his com¬
pofitions ; of which he painted an incredible number,
as he lived to a very advanced age, and never difeon-
tinned his labours. He was earneftly invited by Phi¬
lip V. of Spain to vifit his court, but he could not be
prevailed on to leave Rome. He painted two admi¬
rable pieces for the king of Poland, with figures as
large as life ; in one was reprefented Alexander pre-
fenting Bucephalus to Philip, after he had managed
him ;- a grand compofition, with a multitude of fi¬
gures, corre&ly defigned, and charmingly grouped
and difpofed ; the whole being adorned with molt ele¬
gant archite&ure, in true and beautiful perfpeftive.
The other was the marriage of Alexander with Rox¬
ana, the daughter of Darius, which was in every re-
fpe<ft equal to the former. He was as laft fo ftrong-
ly preffed to go to Naples, that he undertook the
journey; and was received in that kingdom with all
the refpeef and honour due to his merit ; and there he
finifhed feveral noble defigns, as alfo at Gaeta his na¬
tive city. While he continued at Naples, he received
in the royal prefence a fnuff-box of very great value*
prefented.
Concep
tion.
CON
Concale prefcnted to him in the kifig’s name by the marquis of
Tanucci, at that time prime minifter •, and in the year
1757, the king was pleafed to ennoble him and all his
defcendants. At that time he was 78, and it is confi¬
dently faid, that he died in 1761 aged 82, which is
very probable, though not pofitively certain. He un-
derftood perfpe&ive and architedlure thoroughly, and
added to it a fine underftanding of the chiaro-fcuro.
His ftyle of compofition is grand and elegant ; his de-
fign very correft ; his difpofition ingenious •, his atti¬
tudes and expreffion full of truth, nature, and variety ;
and his colouring is excellent. The hillory of Diana
and Attain, by Conca, is in the poffeffion of the earl
of Pembroke at Wilton.
CONCALE bay, is on the coaft of France in Brit¬
tany, where the Britifh forces landed in June 175^*
in order to go to St Maloes which they did, and
burnt all the {hips in that harbour, which were above
IOO, of all forts. Concale is the town which gives
name to the bay, and is famous for oyfters. It is 18
miles eaft of St Maloes, and 197 weft of Paris. W.
Long. 1. 47. N. Lat. 48. 41.
CONCARNEAU, a town of France, in the de¬
partment of Finifterre, with a harbour and a caftle.
E. Long. 4. 2. N. Lat. 47. 46.
CONCATENATION, a term chieflyufed in fpeak-
ing of the mutual dependence of fecond caufes upon
each other.
CONCAVE, an appellation ufed in fpeaking of the
inner furface of hollow bodies, but more efpeciully of
fpherical ones.
Concave GlaJJes, fuch as are ground hollow, and
are ufually of a fpherical figure, though they may be
of any other, as parabolical, &c. All objedls feen
through concave glaffes appear ereft and diminilhed.
CONCENTRATION, in general, fignifies _ the
bringing things nearer a centre. Hence the particles
of fait, in fea-water, are faid to be concentrated *, that
is, brought nearer each other, by evaporating the wa¬
tery part.
CONCENTRIC, in Mathematics, fomething that
has the fame common centre with another : it Hands
in oppofition to excentric.
CONCEPTION, in Logic, the fimple apprehenfion
or perception which we have of any thing,^ w ithout
proceeding to affirm or deny any thing about it. Some
writers, as Lord Karnes, diftinguifh between concep¬
tion and perception *, making the latter to denote the
confcioufnefs of an objedl w’hen prefent, or to include
the reality of its obje£t", whereas conception expreflfes
the forming an idea of an objeft whether prefent or
abfent, or without any convi&ion of its reality.
Conception, in Medicine, denotes the firft forma¬
tion of the embryo, or fetus, in the womb.
Conception is no other than fuch a concourfe and
commixture of the prolific feed of the male with that
of the female, in the cavity of the uterus, as immedi¬
ately produces an embryo.
The fymptoms of conception or pregnancy are,
when, in a few days after the conjugal aft, a fmall
pain is perceived about the navel, and is attended with
fome gentle commotions in the bottom of the abdo¬
men •, and within, one, two, three, or even, fom,
months, the tmnfes ceafe to flow, or prove in lefs
quantity than ufual. Upon the firft failure of this
I
c o
384 1 CON
kind, the woman begins to count the feries of her
weeks, without taking any notice of the time before
elapfed ; after this, or between the fecond or third
months, but generally about the third, the motions of
the embryo become perceiveable to the mother ; w'ho
hereupon becomes troubled with a naufea, \omitmg,
loathing, longing, &c. About this time the breafts
begin to fwell, grow hard and painful, and contain a
little milk ; the'nipples alfo become larger, firmer, and
darker coloured, a livid circle appearing round them ;
the eyes feem funk and hollow'. During the two firft
months of pregnancy, the wmman grows thinner and
flenderer •, the abdomen being alfo depreffed ; though
it afterwards diftends, and grows gradually larger.
The manner wherein conception is effedled is. thus
laid down'by the modern writers: In the.fuperficies of
the ovaries of w7omen, there are found little pellucid
fpherules, confiding of two concentric membranes fill¬
ed with a lymphatic humour, and connefted to the
furface of the ovaria, underneath the tegument, by a
thick calyx, contiguous to the extremities of the mi¬
nute ramifications of the Fallopian tubes.
Thefe fpherules, by the ufe of venery, grow, fwell,
raife and dilate the membrane of the ovary into the
form of papillae ; till, the head propending from the
ftalk, it is at length feparated from it ; leaving be¬
hind it a hollow cicatrix in the broken membrane of
the ovary ; which, however, foon grows up again.
Now, in thefe fpherules, while ftill adhering to the
ovary, fetufes have been frequently found j whence it
appears, that thefe are a kind of ova, or eggs, deriving
their ftrufture from the veffels of the ovary, and their
liquor from the humours prepared therein.
Hence alfo it appears, that the Fallopian tubes be¬
ing fwelled and ftiffened by the aa of venery, with
their mufcular fimbriae, like fingers, may embrace the
ovaries, comprefs them, and by that compreffion ex¬
pand their owm mouths : and thus the eggs, now ma¬
ture, and detached as before, may be forced into their
cavities, and thence conveyed into the cavity of the
uterus j where they may either be cheriflied and re¬
tained, as when they meet with the male feed : or, it
they want that, again expelled. #
Hence the phenomena of falfe conceptions, abor¬
tions, fetufes found in the cavity of the abdomen, the
Fallopian tubes, &c. For in coition, the male feed,
abounding with living animalcules, agitated with a
great force, a brifk heat, and probably with a great
quantity of animal fpirits, is violently impelled through
the mouth of the uterus, which on tins occafion is
opener, and through the valves of the neck of the ute¬
rus which on this occafion are laxer than ordinary,
into the uterus itfelf; which now7, in like manner, be¬
comes more aftive, turgid, hot, inflamed, and mont-
ened with the flux of its lymph and fpirits, by means
of the titillation excited in the nervous papillae by the
attrition againft the rugae of the vagina. . ,
The femen thus difpofed in the uterus, is retained,
heated, and agitated, by the convulfive conftr.aion of
the uterus itfelf 5 till meeting with the ova the fineft
and moft animated part enters through the dilated
pores of the membranula of the ovum, now become
glandulous ; is there retained, nounftied, dilated^
grows to its umbilicus, or navel } ftifles the lels
livelv animalcules j and thus is conception effefed.
/
CON [ 385 ] CON
Goneep- Hence it appears, that conception may happen in
ti°n. any part where the femen meets with an ovum : thus
'* * whether it be carried through the Fallopian tube to
the ovary, and there call upon the ovum ; or whether
it meet with it in (bme recefs of the tube itfelf j or,
laftly, whether it join it in the cavity of the uterus, it
may ftill have the fame effeft, as it appears from obfer-
vation a&ually to have had. But it is probable, that
conception is then moft perfeft when the two, viz. the
femen and ovum, are carried at the fame time into the
uterus, and there mixed, &c.
According to other phyfiologifts the male feed is
taken up, before it arrives in the uterus, by the veins
which open into the vagina, &c. and thus mixed with
the blood ; by which, in the courfe of circulation, it is
carried, duly prepared, into the ovary, to impregnate
the eggs.
It has been advanced by feveral writers, that women
may poflibly conceive in their deep, and be with child
without any knowledge of the occafion of it. As ri¬
diculous and abfurd as this do&rine may appear to the
generality of the world, no lefs an author than Gen-
fili has thought it worthy a particular diflertation.
Conception, Immaculate, of the Holy Virgin, is a
feaft ellablilhed in honour of the holy virgin, particu¬
larly with regard to her having been conceived and
born immaculate, i. e. without original fin, held in the
Romifh church on the 8th of December. The imma¬
culate conception is the great head of controverfy be¬
tween the Scotifts and Thomifts j the former main¬
taining, and the latter impugning it. In the three
Spanilh military orders, of St James of the fword, Ca-
latrava, and Alcantara, the knights take a vow at
their admiffion to defend the immaculate conception.
This refolution wras firft taken 1652. Peter d’Alva
has publilhed 48 huge volumes in folio on the myfte-
ries of the conception.
Conception, an epifcopal town of Chili in South
America. It is fituated in W. Long. 72. 50. S. Lat.
36. 40 ; and is the oldeft European fettlement in Chi¬
li, and the fecond in point of dignity. On their firft
fettlement here, the Spaniards were repeatedly driven
off by the Indians, fo that they were obliged to take
up their refidence at St Jago. Since that time both
the cities of Conception and St Jago have been fre¬
quently deftroyed by earthquakes. In the year 1751
both of them were laid in ruins by a dreadful (hock,
the firft concuflions of which were attended with an un-
ufual fwelling of the fea, that overturned the few houfes
which had efcaped the ravages of the earthquake.
The harbour is good and pretty much frequented j on
which account the city is regarded as a place of con-
fequence. The king allows annually 350,000 pieces
of eight for the fupport of a garrifon of 3500 men j a
CONCH
introduc- TS that department of natural hiftory which treats of
tion. X teftaceous animals. In the Linnaean arrangement
it conftitutes the third order of the clafs of Vermes.
This is the order tellacea, of which we propofe to lay
Vo 1.. VI. Part L
corps that is feldom complete. None of the fortifica- Concep¬
tions are confiderable $ but thofe towards the land are tl^n
wretched. The Spaniards now live in tolerable fecu-
rity with refpeft to the Indians, and have no notion u—y—«
of any attack from the land fide. It is faid indeed,
that not only this but all the fettlements in Chili and
Peru would fall an eafy prey to the attacks of a foreign
enemy j the fortifications being in ruins, and the gav-
rifons fcarce half the number required by the king :
owing to the avarice, ignorance, and fupine negligence
of the governors, who ftudy nothing but to enrich
themfelves.
Conception, a town of North America, in Nevv
Spain, and in the audience of Guatimala. It is feated
near the fea-coaft, 100 miles weft of Porto-bello, and
a fmall river that runs into the fea. W. Long. 81. 45.
N. Lat. 10. o.
CONCERT, or Concerto, in Mujic, a number
or company of muficians, playing or finging the fame
piece of mufic or fong at the fame time.
CONCERTATO intimates the piece of mufic to be
compofed in fuch a manner, as that all the parts may
have their recitatives, be it for two, three, four, or
more voices or inftruments.
CONCERTO gross 1, the grand chorus of a con¬
cert, or thofe places where all the feveral parts per¬
form or play together.
CONCESSION, in general, fignifies either the adt
of granting or yielding any thing, or the thing itfelf
which is fo granted or yielded.
Concession, in Rhetoric, a figure, whereby fome-
thing is freely allowed, that yet might bear difpute,
to obtain fomething that one would have granted to
him, and which he thinks cannot fairly be denied, as
in the following conceflion of Dido, in Virgil:
“ The nuptials he difclaims, I urge no more $
“ Let him purfue the promis’d Latian ftiore.
“ A flrort delay is all I alk him now j
“ A paufe of grief, an interval from wo.”
CONCHA, in Zoology, a fynonyme of the Myti-
LUS, Solen, and other ftiell-fiih.
CONCHES, a town of Normandy, with a Bene-
di&ine abbey, which carries on a confiderable trade.
It is feated on the top of a mountain, in the territory
of Ouche, 45 miles north-weft of Paris. E. Long,
o. 51. N. Lat. 48. 58.
CONCHITES marmor, a name given by the an¬
cients to a fpecies of marble dng near Megara, and
remarkable for containing a great number of fea-lhells,
and other marine bodies, immerfed in it.
CONCHOID, in Geometry, the name of a curve,
given to it by its inventor Nicomedes. Sec
Fluxions.
O L O G Y,
before our readers a pretty full view in the prefent
treatife. The peculiarity and extent of this order o£
animals have induced us to confider it in a feparate
treatife, by which means we (hall avoid fwelling out to
3 C an
386 CONCH
Hiftory. an inconvenient magnitude, the clafs of Vermes which
' v will be treated of in its proper place in the courfe of
2 the work.
Importance The fine polifii, fplendid colours, and elegant form
of concho. 0f {heliSj have been long admired, and have procured for
them a confpicuous place in the cabinets of the curious.
Indeed in this refpeft, mankind have difcovered no
fmall degree of folly and extravagance, in the high
price tvhich has been given for rare and beautiful fhells,
and often only on account of their rarity. But the ftudy
of conchology acquires a higher degree of importance
and utility in another view. In many parts of the
world, different kinds of teftaceous animals are em¬
ployed as an excellent and nutritious food 5 and fome
tribes fupply the table with a delicate luxury. Dif¬
ferent fhells furnifh employment to ingenuity and art,
in the manufa&ure of mother-of-pearl for various pur-
pofes j and the pearl itfelf, fo much fought after as an
ornament of drefs, and often the rival of the richefl
O L O G Y.
Chap. I.
gems, in the eflimation of mankind, is the production
of teftaceous animals. Its nature and mode of formation,
therefore, cannot fail to be objeCts of curious invefti-
gation. But teftaceous animals and their productions,
are not only beneficial and ornamental j fome are found
to be highly pernicious. The fnail ravages the garden
and the field, and marks its progrefs with the deftruCtion
of fome of the faireft of the vegetable tribes j while
the fhip-worm is juftly the dread of the mariner ; fe-
cure, as it were, in its infignificance, humbles the
glory and pride of man •, and labouring in fecret, de-
molifhes the nobleft efforts of ingenuity. In thefe
views, then, the economy and habits of teftaceous ani¬
mals, which at firft fight might appear a barren and
ufelefs purfuit, become an important and beneficial
fubjeCt of inveftigation. The following chapters, there¬
fore, fliall be occupied in the claflification and natural
hiftory of this tribe of animals.
Hiitory.
CHAP. I. HISTORY OF CONCHOLOGY.
Cultivated THE few fcattered fragments concerning the natu-
by the an- ral hiftory of fhells, or teftaceous animals, which are
dents. t0 foun(} Jn the writings of the ancients, when com¬
pared with the more extended and fyftematic labours
of the moderns, are fo unimportant and inaccurate,
that it would be altogether fuperfluous to trouble our
readers with an account of the information which they
contain. It appears, however, from the works of A-
riftotle and Pliny, the great naturalifts of Greece and
Rome, that the ftudy of conchology was not entirely
negledfed in their time. It appears too, that admirers
and collectors of fhells were not then wanting. Scipio
and Laelius, we are informed, found a relaxation from
the toils and cares of war and government, by indul-
4 ging in this elegant amufement (a).
By the mo- Nor will it be attended with much advantage, to
derns. gjve a particular account of the works of the earlier
writers on this fubjeCl, among the moderns. Thefe
are Gefner, Johnfton, Rondeletius, Aldrovandus, Bel-
lonius, Wormius, and fome other authors, who culti¬
vated this department of natural hiftory, and accompa¬
nied their defcriptions with figures, illuftrative of the
objefts which they defcribed.
The firft author who attempted a fyftematic divifion
of fhells, according to their external form and charac¬
ters, was John Daniel Major, profeffor of medicine in
the univerfity of Kiel in Holftein. His method is pub-
iifhed at the end of his curious and interefting remarks
on the treatife concerning the purpura of Fabius Co-
lumna, printed at Kiel in 1675. The fyftem of the
German naturalift wras followed by that of our coun¬
tryman Dr Lifter, on a more extended and improved
plan, which was publifhed ten years after. Succeeding
naturalifts turned their attention to the ftudy of concho-
logy, and to the improvement of the claflification of
the numerous objeCts of this department of natural hi¬
ftory. Such were Buonanni, Rumfius, Langius, Brey-
nius, Tournefort, Gualtieri, D’Argenville, Klein, Lin¬
naeus, Adanfon, Geoffrey, and Muller.
We fhall here exhibit fome of the moft celebrated
fyfttms of conchology which have been propofed by
writers on this fubjeCt. This, w7e truft, W’ill not be
unacceptable to our readers, and particularly as the
works of thefe authors are in few hands, and there¬
fore become lefs acceflible.
S
I. The firft general arrangement of fhells is thatSyftemof
publilhed by Dr Lifter in a work with the following Gfter.
title. Martini Lifter, M. D. HijlorieeJive Synopjis me-
thodicce Concbyliorum libri quatuor, continentes 1057 Ji-
guras cere nitidiftime infculptas, a Sufanna et Anna Li¬
fter depifias. Londini, 1685—1688, folio. A fecond
edition of the fame work was publifhed at Oxford in
1770, with additional figures.
SYSTEM of LISTER.
Lib. I. De Coch/eis Terreftnbus.
Pars I. De Buccinis et Turbinibus terreftribus.
SeCL 1. De Buccinis terreftribus a finiftra dextrorfum
tortilibus, laevibus, edentulis.
Seft. 2. De Buccinis terreftribus a finiftra dextrorfum
tortilibus, edentulis, ftriatis.
Se£L 3. De Buccinis terreftribus a finiftra dextrorfum
tortilibus, apertura dentata.
Se£l. 4. De Buccinis terreftribus a dextra finiftrorfum
tortilibus, apertura plana.
Se6t. 5. De Buccinis terreftribus a dextra fmiftrorfum
tortilibus, apertura dentata.
Se<Sf. 6. De Turbinibus terreftribus cochleaeformibus,
id eft compaftiore figura.
Se£L
legere confueffe, et ad omnem
(a) Laflium et Scipionem conchas et umbilicos ad Cajetam et ad Laurentum
imimi remiflionem ludumque defeendere. Cic. de Oral. lib. ii.
Chap. I. CONCH
Hiftory. Se61:. 7. Trochilus.
v—\   Seft. 8. De Turbinibus terreftribus, compreflis eden-
tulis, ipfo ambitu acuto.
Se£l. 9. De Turbinibus compreflis, ambitu obtufiore,
apertura edentula.
Se6h 10. De Turbinibus terreftribus compreflis, a ft-
niftra dextrorfum tortilibus, apertura dentata.
Se<5t. 11. De Turbinibus terreftribus compreflis, aper¬
tura dentata, a dextra finiftrorfum tortilibus apice
inverlo ex ipfa aperturae parte.
Pars II. Cochleae nudae terreftres, limaces quibufdam
di&ue.
Lib. II. De Turbinibus et Bivalvibus aquce dulcis.
Pars I. De Turbinibus.
Se£l. I. De Buccinis fluviatilibus.
Seft. 2. De Cochleis fluviatilibus.
Seft. 3. De Cochleis fluviatilibus compreflis.
Pars II. De Teftaceis bivalvibus fluviatilibus.
Seft. I. De Mufculis fluviatilibus, cardine dentato.
Sett. 2. De Mufculis fluviatilibus, cardine laevi.
Sedt. 3. De Pedlunculis fluviatilibus.
Lib. III. De Tejlaceis bivalvibus mar inis.
Pars I. De Teftaceis bivalvibus, imparibus teftis.
Seft. 1. Cap. 1. De Pedlinibus ex utraque parte aequa-
liter auritis, ftriatis. Cap. 2. De Pedlinibus aequa-
liter auritis, laevibus. Cap. 3. De Peftinibus inae-
qualiter auritis, non dentatis. Cap. 4. De Pedlini-
bus inaequaliter auritis, dentatis.
Se£t. 2. Cap. 1. De Oftreis apophyft plana longa re-
curva, angulo acuto definente. Cap. 2. De Oftreis
apophyfi brevi, fubter et quaft in occulto polita.
Sedl. 3. De Spondylis.
Pars II. De Teftaceis bivalvibus, paribus teftis.
Sedf. 1. Cap. t. De Pedlinibus margaritiferis. Cap. 2.
De Pedtinibus, binis apophyfibus longis conjundlis.
Cap. 3. De Pedlinibus margaritiferis polyginglymis.
Sedt. 2/Cap. 1. De Pedlunculis polyleptoginglymis,
margine ex altera parte produdtiore. Cap. 2. De
Pedlunculis polyleptoginglymis, margine rotunda,
ftriatis. Cap. 3. De Pedlunculis polyleptogingly¬
mis, margine rotunda, laevibus.
Sedl. 3. Cap. 1. De Pedlunculis laevibus, triquetris
fere, cervice anguftiore. Cap. 2. De Pedlunculis
Irevibus, triquetris, cervice latiore. Cap. 3. De
Pedlunculis hevibus, roftro recurvo.
Sedl. 4. Cap. 1. De Pedlunculis fafciatis, lunula nota-
tis margine ftriata. Cap. 2. De Pedlunculis fafcia¬
tis, lunula quadam notatis, margine laevi. Cap. 3.
De Pedlunculis fafciatis, ad roftrum integris.
Sedl. 5. Cap. 1. De Pedlunculis ftriatis produdli-
oribus, ftriis a roftro ad medium ufque dorfum
concurrentibus. Cap. 2. De Pedlunculis ftriatis di-
Verfimode exaratus, five diflimilibus. Cap. 3. De
Pedlunculis ftriatis, llriis fimilibus, dorfo ad alte-
rum latus paululum eminente. Cap. 4. De Pedlun¬
culis ftriatis, dorfo in aciem compreffo. Cap. 5. De
Pedlunculis ftriatis, muricatis afperifve. Cap. 6.
De Pedlunculis ftriatis, ftriis a roftro tantum deduc-
tis laevibus. Cap. 7. De Pedlunculis cancellatis.
O L O G Y.
Cap. 8. De Pedlunculis ftriatis, ex latere multo ma-
gis diffufis, latioribus. Cap. 9. De Pedlunculis ftri¬
atis, ex latere diffufis anguftioribus. Cap. 10. De
Pedlunculis ftriatis imbricatis.
Sedl. 6. Cap. 1. De Mufculis marinis, cardine loevi
minimeque dentato. Cap. 2. De Mufculis marinis
polyleptoginglymis.
Sedl. 7. Cap. 1. De Pinnis, margine velut praecifa ob-
tufave. Cap. 2. De Pinnis, margine produdta et
audliore.
Sedl. 8. Cap. 1. De Tellinis, id eft conchis fere cunei-
formibus, ambitu ferrato. Cap. 2. De T ellinis qui-
bus ambitus ex interna parte laevis eft.
Sedl. 9. De Solenis, id eft conchis tenuibus longifll-
mifque ab utraque parte naturaliter hiantibus.
Sedl. 10. Cap. 1. De Chamis, ab altero tantum latere
fere naturaliter hiantibus. Cap. 2. De Chamis pho-
ladibus.
387
Hiftory,
Pars II. De Teftaceis multivalvibus.
Sedl. I. Cap. 1. De Pholadibus triumve teftarum con¬
chis, cardinibus loculis quibufdam quafi perforatis.
Cap. 2. De Pholadibus, cardine integro.
Sedl. 2. De Conchis quinque teftarum anatiferis ple-
rifque didlis.
Sedl. 3. De Balanis, id eft, duodecim teftarum con¬
chis praeter operculum mitratum.
Sedl. 4. Sive appendix ad librum tertium de conchitis
iifve lapidibus, qui quandam fimilitudinem cum con¬
chis marinis habeant.
Lib. IV. De Buccinis marinis, quibus etiam vermiculi
dentalia et patella’, numerantur.
Sedl. I. Cap. 1. De Patellis, vertice perforate. Cap. 2.
De Patellis, vertice integro, laevibus. Cap. 3. De
Patellis, vertice integro, ftriatis, margine quafi ra-
diata. Cap. 4. De Patellis, vertice adunco, mar¬
gine aequali. Cap. 5. De Patellis, vertice adunco,
margine obliqua. Cap. 6. De Patellis, vertice a-
dunco, quibus ex interna parte cavitas qusedam quafi
arcuata, longis compreflis. Cap. 7. De Patellis,
vertice acuto, ftilo quodam interno donatis.
Sedl. 2. De Dentalibus.
Sedl. 3. De Vermiculis.
Sedl. 4. Cap. 1. De Nautilis caudatis, five e plurimis
tabulatis confedlis. Cap. 2. De Nautilis vacuis, five
non tabulatis.
Sedl. 5. Cap. I. De Cochleis marinis, apice brevi,
umbilicatis, finu aurito. Cap. 2. De Cochleis ma¬
rinis, apice brevi, umbilico fimplici. Cap. 3. De
Cochleis marinis, apice brevi, centre minime finua-
to. Cap. 4. De Cochleis marinis, ball brevi, apice
ad oris initium parum elato. Cap. 5. De Cochleis
marinis, apice mediocriter produdlo, ore dentato.
Cap. 6. De Cochleis marines, apice mediocriter pro-
du<ffo, ore edentulo, laevibus. Cap. 7. De Coch¬
leis marinis, apice mediocriter produdlo, ftriatis.
Cap. 8. De Cochleis marinis, clavicula tenui et
longiflima, ftriatis. Cap. 9. De Cochleis marinis,
clavicula tenui et longiflima, laevibus.
Sedl. 6. Cap. 1. De Neritis dentatis, clavicula paulu¬
lum prominente. Cap. 2. De Neritis dentatis, cla¬
vicula compreffa, ftriatis. Cap. 3. De Neritis den¬
tatis, clavicula compreffa, laevibus. Cap. 4. De
Neritis ad columellam dentatis, labio produdliore
3 C 2 edentulo.
388
Hi (lory. edentulo. Cap. 5. De Neritis edentulis laevibus.
-v—Cap. 6. De Neritis edentulis muricatis.
Se£t. 7. De Auribus marinis.
Sedl. 8. Cap. 1. De Trochis pyramidalibus, apertura
five bafi leviter tumida. Cap. 2. De Trochis pyra¬
midalibus, bafi paululum cava five finuata. Cap. 3.
De Trochis, apertura five bafi plana. Cap. 4. De
Trochis brevioribus, umbilicatis, dentatis. Cap. 5.
De Trochis cochleaeformibus, umbilicatis, edentu¬
lis. Cap. 6. De Trochis clavicula breviore, colu¬
mella paulo ereftiore integra. Cap. 7. De Trochis,
bafi media leviter tumida, quafi altera clavicula.
Cap. 8. De Trochis, unico deute ad columellam
acuto.
Seft. 9. Cap. 1. De Conchis venereis unicoloribus.
Cap. 2. De Conchis veuereis, lineis nigris fecundum
longitudinem depiflis. Cap. 3* De Conchis unda-
tim depiftis. Cap. 4. De Conchis venereis fafcia-
tis, immaculatis ; et de conchis venereis fafciatis et
maculatis, aut alias cum fafciis variegatis. Cap. 5.
De Conchis venereis, pun&is nigris diftinftis. Cap. 6.
De Conchis venereis, maculis albis nigrifve inter-
fperfis infignitis ; et de conchis venereis maculis al¬
bis quafi reticulatim depiftis. Cap. 7. De Conchis
venereis, ftriis eminentibus confpicuis. Cap. 8. De
Conchis venereis, pun&is elatis exafperatis, nodifve
inaequalibus. Cap. 9. De Conchis venereis, aper¬
tura non dentata, bafi integra. Cap. 10. De Con¬
chis venereis, bafi umbilicata cochleata.
Seft. 10. Cap. 1. De Rhombis cylindraceis columella
dentata, craffis, unius coloris. Cap. 2. De Rhom¬
bis cylindraceis dentatis, maculofis. Cap. 3. De
Rhombis cylindraceis dentatis, fafciatis. Cap. 4. De
Rhombis cylindraceis dentatis, undatis. Cap. 5.
De Rhombis cylindraceis dentatis, dorfo gibbofo.
Cap. 6. De Rhombis cylindraceis eduntulis, ore
ftrictiore. Cap. 7. De Rhombis edentulis tenuibus,
ore patulo, clavicula paululum exferta. Cap. 8. De
Rhombis edentulis, ore patulo, clavicula compreffa.
Pars II. Cap. 1. De Rhombis cylindrico-pyramidali-
bus, unius coloris. Cap. 2. De Rhombis cylindri-
co-pyramidalibus, quibus line* maculatae circum in-
jiciuntur. Cap. 3. De Rhombis cylindrico-pyrami-
dalibus, ftriatis. Cap. 4. De Rhombis cylindrico-
pyramidalibus, undatis. Cap. 5. De Rhombis cy-
lindrico-pyramidalibus, fafciatis. Cap. 6. De Rhom¬
bis cylindrico-pyramidalibus, reticulatis. Cap. 7. De
Rhombis cylindrico-pyraimdalibus, dentatis.
Se£l. 11. Cap. I. De Buccinis perficis di&is. Cap, 2.
De Buccinis muficis diftis. Cap. 3. De Buccinis
columella dentata, clavicula longiffima et tenuif-
fima.
Sett. 12. Cap. 1. De Buccinis bilinguibus, Isevibus.
Cap. 2. De Buccinis bilinguibus, ftriatis. Cap. 3.
De Buccinis bilinguibqs, afperfis et muricatis. Cap. 4.
De Buccinis bilinguibus, digitalis.
Sett. 13. Cap. 1. De Buccinis ampullaceis laevibus,
aut certe minus afperis. Cap. 2. De Buccinis am¬
pullaceis, muricatis. Cap. 3. De Buccinis ampul¬
laceis, ad finiftram convolutis.
Sett. 14. Cap. I. De Buccinis utrinque produftioribus,
l£evibus. Cap. 2. De Buccinis utrinque produttiori-
bus, ftriis denfis et tenuioribus exafperatis. Cap. 3.
De Buccinis utrinque produttioribus, ftriis pauciori-
Chap. I.
bus donatis, labro fimplici. Cap. 4. De Budcinis Hiftory.
utrinque produttioribus, ftriis paucioribus, labro du- »
plicato donatis. Cap. 5. De Buccinis utrinque pro¬
duttioribus, muricatis.
Sett. 15. Cap. 1. De Buccinis breviroftris, nodofis.
Cap. 2. De Buccinis breviroftris, ftriatis. Cap. 3.
De Buccinis breviroftris, Isevibus, fere clavicula
produttiore. Cap. 4. De Buccinis breviroftris, labro
repando, tenuibus. Cap. 5. De Buccinis breviroftris,
labro repando, craflis. Cap. 6. De Buccinis brevi¬
roftris, compreffis. Cap. 7. De Buccinis auritis,
five roftro recurvo donatis, ventriculofis. Cap. 8.
De Buccinis breviroftris, finu reflexo, laevibus. Cap. 9.
De Buccinis breviroftris, roftro reflexo, clavicula
produttiore.
Sett. 16. Seu appendix de buccinitis, iifve lapidibus que
buccina omnigena valde referant.
6
II. In 1722, Langius prefented to the world the fol-Of Langtus,
lowing work on conchology. Caroh Nicolai Langn
Lucernen. Helvet. Phil, et Med. &c. Methodus nova,
et facilis tejlacea marina plceraque, quce hue ufque nobis
nota Jint, in fuas debitas et diftinElas cIoffes, genera,
et fpecies, diflribuendi, nominibufque fuis proprus, Jlruc-
turce potiffmum accommodatis nuncupandi, is’e. Lu-
cernce, 1722. 410. p. 102-
SYSTEM OF LANGIUS.
Pars Prima. Tejlacea marina univalvia non tur-
binata.
Classis Prima. Teftacea marina univalvia non tur-
binata, et in fe non contorta.
Sett. 1. Teftacea marina univalvia non turbinata, et
in fe non contorta nullo modo, vel folummodo in
fummo apice tantillum incurvata. Gen. 1. Patellae.
Gen. 2. Balanh
Sett. 2. Tubuli marini, feu teftacea marina univalvia,
non turbinata, et in fe non contorta, elongata tubuli
inftar concava. Gen. 1. Penicilla. Gen. 2. Den-
tales. Gen. 3. Tubuli radiciformes. Gen. 4. Tu¬
buli vermiculares.
Classis Secunda. Teftacea marina univalvia, non
turbinata, fed ita in fe contorta, ut eorum fpirae non
promineant.
Sett. 1. Teftacea marina univalvia ita in fe tranfverfinv,
vel oblique fecundum longitudinem contorta, ut eo¬
rum circumvolutiones vix appareant. Gen. 1. Nau¬
tili. Gen. 2. Nuces marinae.
Sett. 2. Porcellanse, feu teftacea marina univalvia non
turbinata. Gen. 1. Porcellanae vulgares. Gen. 2.
Porcellanae fimbriatae. Gen. 3. Porcellanae ipirales.
Gen. 4. Porcellanae thoracic*. Gen. 5. Porcellanae
minores integrae. .
Sett. 3. Divif. 1. Cornua ammonis, quae funt teftacea
marina univalvia non turbinata, et ferpentum in
modum in fe contorta, ut eorum circumvolutiones
nulla ex parte promineant, et tamen ex utioque la¬
tere omnes appareant. Gen. 1. Cornua ammonis
unita. Gen. 2. Cornua ammonis anomala. Divif. 2.
Gen. 1. Cornua ammonis fimpliciter divifa. Gen. 2.
Cornua ammonis integre divifa.-
CONCHOLOGY.
Pars
Chap. I. CONCH
Hiftory.
1 v~ " ' Pars Secunda. Cochlece marince, feu tejlacea marina
univalvia turbinata, qiuv unica tantum conflant valva
et figure fua cochlearum in modum intorta funt, ita at
intima eorum fpira aliquo faltem tnodo promineat et
producatur.
Classis Prima. Cochleae marinse longae, {eu coch¬
leae marinae ore admodum elongate et fuperius a-
perto.
Sefl. i. Cochleae marinae longae ore labiis re£Hs.
Gen. i. Cochleae pyramidales. Gen. 2. Cochleae
cylindroideae.
Se&. 2. Cochleae longae pyriformes, feu cochleae ma-
rinae longae ore labiis leviter incurvatis, ideoque
etiam leviter ventricofis. Divif. 1. Cochleae longae
pyriformes minores. Gen. 1. Cochleae longae pyri¬
formes minores, vulgares. Gen. 2. Cochleae longae
pyriformes minores intortae integrae. Gen. 3. Coch¬
leae longae pyriformes minores intortae et infulcatae.
Divif. 2. Cochleae longae pyriformes majores. Gen. r.
Cochleae longae pyriformes majores vulgares. Gen. 2.
Cochleae longae pyriformes majores, intortae integrae.
Gen. 3. Cochleae longae pyriformes majores intortae
cylindroideae.
Classis Secunda. Cochleae canaliculatae, feu coch¬
leae marinae ore elongate et fuperius in canaliculum
abeunte.
Seft. 1. Cochleae marinae canalicula re&a. Gen. r.
Cochleae canaliculatae reftae tenuiores. Gen. 2.
Cochleae canaliculatae re&ae crafliores. Gen. 3. Pur-
purae reftiroftrae.
Se£l. 2. Cochleae marinas canaliculatae incurvatae. Gem
1. Cochleae canaliculatae introrfum incurvatae. Gen.
2. Cochlete canaliculatae extrorfum incurvatte. Gen.
3. Murcius. Gen. 4. Cochleae muriciformes in-
figniter incrifpatae. Gen. 5. Purpurae curviroftrae.
Gen. 6. Cochleae caflidiformes umbilicatae. Gen. 7.
Caflidas.
Classis Tertia. Buccina funt cochleae marinae ore
et mucrone limul elongatis, primaque fpira notabi-
liter ventricofa.
Seft. 1. Buccina parva mucrone mediocriter elongato
et tenuiter acuminato. Gen. 1. Buccina parva pruni-
formia acuminata. Gen . 2. Buccina parva pruni-
formia canaliculata* Gen. 3. Buccina parva curvi-
roftra. Gen. 4. Buccina parva fulcata. Gen. 5.
Buccina parva fulcata et eanaliculata. Gen. 6. Buc¬
cina parva Integra ore perpendiculari. Gen. 7. Buc¬
cina parva integra ore obliquo.
Se£h 2. Buccina majora, quae funt buccina mucronc
admodum elongato et acuminato. Gen. 1. Buccina
majora canaliculata roftrata, ore fimplici. Gen. 2.
Buccina majora canaliculata, ore labiofo. Gen. 3.
Buccina majora canaliculata roftrata, ore labiofo,
fimbriata. Gen. 4. Buccina majora canaliculata et
fulcata.
Classis Quarta. Strombi, qui funt cochleae ma¬
rinae ore et mucrone fimul infigniter elongatis, et
prima fpira notabiliter anguftiore quam in buccinis.
Se£h r. Strombi ore fuperius aperto. Gen. 1. Strombi
O L O G Y. 389
canaliculati acuminati. Gen. 2. Strombi canalicu- Hiftory.
lati roftrati, ore fimplici. Gen. 3. Strombi canali- '"■■■“v"" '
culati roftrati, ore angulofo. Gen. 4. Strombi cana¬
liculati roftrati, ore labiofo. Gen. 5. Strombi fulcati
vulgares. Gen. 6. Strombi fulcati, ore labiofo.
Se<ft. 2. Strombi integri, ore fuperius claufo, feu inte-
gro. Gen. 1. Strombi integri vulgares, ore fimplici.
Gen. 2. Strombi integri, ore labiofo. Gen. 3. Strombi
integri, ore fimbriato et dentato,
Classis Quinta. Cochleae marinae, ore admodum
brevi feu parvo, mucrone vero infigniter elongato.
Seft. I. Turbines aperti, feu cochleae marinae ore ad¬
modum brevi feu parvo fuperius aperto, mucrone
longiffimo. Gen. 1. Turbines apertilati. Gen. 2.
Turbines., aperti acuminati. Gen. 3. Turbines aper¬
ti canaliculati re£le roftri. Gen. 4. Turbines aperti
canaliculati oblique incurvati. Gen. 5. Turbines
aperti fulcati.
Seft. 2. Turbines integri, ore fuperius claufo feu inte-
gro. Gen. t. Turbines integri vulgares. Gen. 2.
Turbines integri acuminati. Gen. 3. Turbines in¬
tegri fimbriati.
Sedl. 3. Trochi feu cochleae marinae ore admodunt
brevi, feu parvo e bafi lata et quafi plana in mucro-
nem quafi redlilineam conoideum infigniter elonga-
tum abeuntes. Gen. 1. Trochi ore angufto et hori-
foutaliter compreflb. Gen. 2-. Trochi ore ampliore
et fubrotundo.
Classis Sexta. Cochleae marinae breviores, feu
cochleae marinae ore et mucrone breviore magifque
contrafto.
Se&. 1. Cochleae breviores proportionatae. Gen. 1.
Cochleae trochiformes breviores proportionatae et
mucronatae. Gen. 2. Cochleae marinae terreftri-
formes breviores proportionatae. Gen. 3. Cochleae
depreflae.
Se6h 2. Cochleae marinae breviores perpendiculariter
anomalae. Gen. 1. Neritae. Gen. 2. Cochleae um¬
bilicatae foramine fpirarum femicirculari. Gen. 3.
Cochleae umbilicatae foramine fpirarum rotundo.
Seft. 3. Cochleae marinae breviores horifontaliter ano¬
malae. Gen. r. Cochleae planae. Gen. 2. Aures
marinae.
Seft. 4. Varia hucufque enarratarum cochlearum oper-
cula quae aut propter ufum aut propter fingularem.
ftrufturam, magis nota funt. Gen. 1. Opercula
cochlearum marinarum fubrotunda. Gen. 2. Un¬
gues marini, feu opercula cochlearum marinarum
oblonga.
Pars Tertia. Conchce manner^ id efi tefiacea marina
bivahia qux duabus confiant valvis in car dine t arti-
culatione quadam inter fe conjunbiis, at commode
claudi et apenri queant.
Sedft. 1. Conchae marinae notabiliter umbonatae et rec¬
ta incurvatae. Gen. 1. Conchae marinae valvis se-
qualibus sequilaterae. Gen. 2. Conchae cordiformes
umbone cardinum dedu&o. Gen. 3. Conchae ma¬
rinae cordiformes aequilaterae, umbone cardinum unito.
Seft. 2. Conchae marinae valvis tequalibus aequilaterae
leviter umbonatae. Gen. 1. Conchae craflae. Gen. 2.
Peftines
I
39° CONCH
HlftQry- Pedlnes tenues. Gen. 3. Peflunculi. Gen. 4. Con-
v clue pe£liniformes aequilaterse fubrotundae. Gen. 5.
Conchae peftiniformes aequilaterae.
Seft. 3. Concbse marinae valvis aequalibus aequilaterae,
notabiliter umbonatae et oblique incurvatae. Gen. 1.
Conchae marinae incurvatae fubrotundae vulgares.
Gen. 2. Chamce aequilaterae.
Sett. 4. Conchge marinae, valvis aequalibus aequilaterae
leviter umbonatas et oblique incurvatae. Gen. 1.
Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus fubrotundae. Gen.
2. Tellinae aequilaterae.
Se£l. 5. Pinnae, feu conchae marinae valvis aequalibus
aequilaterae, cardine umbone dellituto. Gen. 1. Pin¬
nae reflae. Gen. 2. Pinnae incurvatae.
Classis Secunda. Conchae inaequilaterae, feu conchae
marinae valvis aequalibus ex utroque cardinis latere
inaequaliter effulae.
Se&. I. Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus inaequilaterae
notabiliter umbonatae, et redla incurvatae. Gen. 1.
Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus inaequilaterae fub¬
rotundae. Gen. 2. Conchae marirae cordiformes in¬
aequilaterae, umbone cardine dedufto. Gen. 3. Con-
chae marinae cordiformes inaequilaterae, umbone car-
dinum unito.
Sedl. 2. Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus inaequilaterae,
leviter umbonatae et reftae incurvatae. Gen. 1. Con¬
chae marinae leviter umbonatae et re£ta incurvatae fub¬
rotundae.
Sed. 3. Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus inaequilaterae,
notabiliter umbonatae et oblique incurvatae, fubro¬
tundae vulgares. Gen. t. Chamae inaequilaterae. Gen.
2. Conchae rhomboidales.
Se£f. 4. Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus inaequilaterae
leviter umbonatae et oblique incurvatae. Gen. 1.
Conchae marinae, &c. fubrotundae. Gen. 2. Conchae
peftiniformes inaequilaterae triangulares. Gen. 3.
Tellinae inaequilaterae. Gen. 4. Conchae tellinaefor-
mes. Gen. 5. Mufculi. Gen. 6. Conchae longae
rugofae. Gen. 7. Conchae foleniformes. Gen. 8.
Mytili.
Se£f. 5. Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus inaequilaterae,
leviter umbona ae et oblique incurvatae, ftru£tura et
flriis peculiaribus. Gen. 1. Conchae imbricatae. Gen.
2. Pholades. Gen. 3. Da&yli. Gen. 4. Hyftero-
conchae. Gen. 5. Conchae alaeformes. Gen. 6.
Conchae quadratae.
Se61. 6. Conchae inaequilaterae non umbonatae, feu con¬
chae marinae valvis aequalibus inaequilaterae, cardine
umbonae diilituto. Gen. 1. Solenes. Gen. 2. Con¬
chae marinae, &c. ftru&ura peculiari.
Classis Tertia. Conchae anomalae, feu conchae ma-
rime valvis inaequalibus.
Se£h I. Conchae marinae momalae umbonatae et auritae.
Gen. J. Peftines anomali. Gen. 2. Spondyli.
Se£l. 2. Oftreae, feu conchae marinae anomalae omnino
non vel irregulariter tantum umbonatae ruyofae.
Gen. I. Oftrea vulgaris. Gen. 2. Oftrea denticu-
lata. Gen. 3. Oltrea roftrata. Gen. 4. Oftrea pe-
culiaris.
7
Of Brey- III. A different fyftem was propofed for the claflifica-
ciius. tj0n 0f teftaceous animals by Breynius, in the follow¬
ing work, which was publiftied in the year 1732.
1
O L O G Y. Chap. T.
Joannis Philippi Breynii differtatio phyfica de polythala- Hiftory.
mus, nova tejlaceorum claffe, cni qucedam pra-mitluntur ——v—
de methodo tejlacea in claffes et genera dijlribuendi'. huic
adjicitur commentatiuncula debclemnitis prufficis, tandem-
que fchediafma de Echinis methodice difponendis ; Gedani,
J732, qto.
SYSTEM or BREYNIUS.
In this fyftem the author has divided (hells into the
eight following claffes, viz. i.Tubulus. 2. Cochlidium.
3. Polythalamium. 4. Lepas. 5. Concha. 6. Con-
choides. 7. Balanus. 8. Echinus.
1. Tubulus, eft tefta tubulofa monothalamia, vel in
lineam re£tam extenfa, vel incurva, vel contorta, vel
aliquando ad fpiram, fed irregulariter, accedens. Huic
pertinent dentalia, entalia, folenes univalvi, &c.
2. Cochlidium, eft tefta tubulofa, monothalamia, co-
nica, infpirans conftanter regularem, convoluta ali¬
quando opercula praedita, fepius vero eo deftituta. Ad
hanc claffem fpedtant nautili tenues five vacui vulgo
difti *, aures marinae, neritae, cochleae, buccina, muri-
ces, caflides, cylindri, volutae, porcellanae, et omnes
teftae turbinatae, exceptis nautilo et anomia, ad claffem
tertiam referendis.
Polythalamium, eft tefta tubulofa polythalamia, co-
nica, redta, vel in fpiram regularem convoluta, cum
fyphunculo thalamos tranfeunte: huic reducendi nautili,
anomia, litui, et orthocerata.
3. Lepas, eft tefta vafculofa, fimplex, referens vaf-
culum magis minufve cavum, orificio multum patenta,
ut patellae fimilefque.
5. Concha, eft tefta vafculofa compofita, bivalvis, id eft
quae ex duabus componitur valvis, five vafculis magis
minufve concavus in cardine articulatione quadam in¬
ter fe jundlis ut aperiri et claudi queant 5 ut chamae,
mytili, tellinae, pinnae, oftreae, peclines anomiae.
6. Conchoides, eft tefta vafculofa compofita bivalvis,
fed quae praeterea et aliquot minoribus portiunculis tef-
taceis componitur, ut pholades anatiferae.
7. Balanus, eft tefta vafculofa compofita, quae pre¬
fer unicam teftam majorem alias portiones minores
habet ex quibus componitur, ut balanus vulgo didlus.
8. Echinus, eft tefta vafculola compofita undique
claufa 5 magis minufve concava, duobus tantum fora*
minibus feu aperturis pro ore et ano perforata, externe
aculeis vel claviculis mobilibus teftaceis armata.
g
IV. The fyftem of Tournefort appeared for the firft of Tourne*
time, and w'as publilhed from the author’s manufcript fort,
in the treatife on conchology by Gualtieri. In this
fyftem ftiells are divided into three claffes, viz. Mono-
toma, Ditoma, and Polytoma.
SYSTEM of TOURNEFORT.
Teftacea dicuntur quorundam animalium integu-
menta, quae teftae feu lateris duritiem habent, et in
quibus tantum, in tefta animalia vivant.
Teftacea autem omnia quae hucufque in mufseis cu-
rioforum adverfari et congeri folent, ad tres claffes fa¬
cile revocari poffunt. Hasc enim vel monotoma funt,
vel ditoma, vel polytoma.
Monotoma teftacea appellantur ea quorum tefta in-
divifa eft 3 ditoma quae geminis conftant teftis ad car-
dinem
Chap. I. CONCH
Hiftory. dinem connixis; polytoma vero quse ex pluribus fimul
adnexis compinguntur.
Classis Prima. Qux teftacea monotoma com-
pleftitur. Teftacea monotoma quorum^ tefta^ indi-
vifa eft, in tres lamilias abeant : alia enim univalvia
funt, alia fpiralia, alia fiftulofa.
Familia I. 'Tejiacearum univalvmm. Monotoma u-
nivalvia dicimus quorum tefta limplex eft in os amplius
eftufa. Gen. I. Lepas. Gen. 2. Eiuca.
Familia II. Tejlaceorum fpirahum. Monotoma fpi¬
ralia dicimus teftacea quorum pars inferior in fpiram
contorquetur : horum autem fpira: feu helices exterius
patent, et fimpliciter fpiralia dicuntur, vel eorum fpira
intus reconditur, et convoluta dicuntur..
Divis. i. Teftacea monotoma fimpliciter fpiralia, feu
quorum fpira exterior eft. Gen. I. Murex. Gen 2.
Murex alatus. Gen. 3. Murex aporrhais. Gen. 4.
Murex venereus. Gen. 5. Murex pyramidalis. Gen. 6.
Buccinum. Gen. 7. Buccino-murex. Gen. 8. Purpu¬
ra. Gen. 9. Buccino-purpura. Gen. 10. Peribolus.
Gen. 11. Turbo. Gen. 12. Verticillus. Gen. 13.
Cochlea. Gen. 14. Cochlea terreftris. Gen. 15. Ce-
ratites. Gen. 16. Cochlea marina. Gen. 17. Nerita.
Gen. 18. Auris marina.
Divis. 2. Teftacea monotoma fpiralia convoluta, quse
cochleam interiorem habent vix foris confpicuam.
Gen. 1. Concha venerea. Gen. 2. Concha perftca.
Gen. 3. Nautilus. Gen. 4. Conchilium.
Familia III. Tejlaceorum JJlu/oforum. Teftacea
monotoma fiftulofa feu tubulofa, ut ex nomine patet, fif-
tulse in modum tenuantur. Gen. 1. Dentale. Gen. 2.
Entale. Gen. 3. Tubuli marini.
Classis Secunda, quse teftacea ditoma continet.
Teftacea ditoma Temper ex duabus teftis ad cardinem arti-
culatis compinguntur, et vel arfte undique claudun-
tur, vel utrinque hiant ; unde in duas familias dividi
poffunt.
Familia. I. Teftaceorum ditomorum quse ar&e clau-
duntur. Gen. 1. Concha, Gen. 2. Conchula. Gen. 3.
Oftreum. Gen. 4. Mytilus. Gen. 5. Pinna. Gen. 6.
Perna. Gen. 7. Pholas. Gen. 8. Pedten. Gen 9.
Pedlunculus.
Familia. II. Teftaceorum ditomorum quse femper
hiant. Gen. 1. Chamse. Gen. 2. Solen.
ClassisTertia, quse teftacea polytoma continet. Po¬
lytoma teftacea dicuntur quorum teftse ex pluribus parti-
bus vel articulatis, vel per cartilaginem connexis com¬
pinguntur j unde in duas familias abeunt.
Familia. I. Eorum quorum partes articulantur.
Gen. 1. Echinus.
Familia II. Eorum quorum partes per cartilaginem
connedluntur. Gen. 1. Balanus.
9 V. M.D’Argenvillein 1742,publiftiedat Paris a trea-
0efD^r‘ tife on Conchology with 33 plates. A fecond edition
^env C of the fame work appeared at Paris in 1757* t^is
edition the number of the plates was increafed to 41.
A more fplendid edition was publifhed after the death
of the author, by M M. de Favanne de Montcerville
father and fon. This edition is extended to 3 volumes,
two of which confift of letter prefs, and the 3d contains
o L o G Y. 391
the engravings, which are 80 in number, and are exe- _ <
cuted with great accuracy and elegance. But the de-
fcriptions of the genera and fpecies only reach the 19th
plate j fo that the work which was publilhed in 1780
is ftill unfiniftied.
SYSTEM of D’ARGENVILLE.
In this fyftem ftrells are divided into four parts. I.
Sea-fhells. II. Frelh-water-fhells. III. Land-ftiells.
IV. Foflil-lhells.
Part I. Sea-ftiells are divided into 3 Claffes. 1. Uni¬
valves. 2. Bivalves. 3. Multivalves.
Clafs I. contains 15 families j viz. 1. Lepas. 2. Oreil-
les de mer. 3. Tuyaux et Vermifleaux de mer. 4.
Nautiles. 5. Limagons a bouche ronde. 6. Lima-
50ns a bouche demi-ronde. 7. Limagons a bouche a-
platie. 8. Cornets ou Volutes. 9. Olives ou Cylin-
dres. 10. Rochers ou Murex. 11. Tonnes. 12.
Porcelaines. 13. Buccins. 14. Pourpres. 15.
Vis.
Clafs II. contains 7 families, viz. 1. Huitres. 2 Ca¬
rnes. 3. Tellines. 4. MouleS. 5. Coeurs. 6. Peignes.
7. Manches de couteaux.
Clafs III. confifts of 7 families, viz. 1. Ofcabrions,
ou lepas a huit pieces. 2. Ourfins. 3. Glands de
mer. 4. Pouffe pieds. 5. Conques anatiferes. 6.
Pholades. 7. Tuyaux de mer multivalves.
Part II. Freflr water-fhells are divided into 2 Claffes.
1. Univalves. 2. Bivalves.
Clafs I. contains 8 families, viz. 1. Lepas. 2. Nauti¬
les ou cornes d’ammon. 3. Limagons a bouche
ronde. 4. Limagons a bouche demi-ronde. 5. Li¬
magons a bouche triangulaire. 6. Tonnes. 7. Buc¬
cins. 8. Vis.
Clafs II. is compofed of two families. 1. Games. 2.
Tellines.
Part. III. Land-ftiells, conftituting a fingle clafs. viz.
Univalves, which contains 6 families^ viz. 1. Lepas.
2. Limagons a bouche ronde. 3. Limagons a bouche
demi-ronde. 4. Limagons & bouche aplatie. 5. Buc¬
cins. 6. Vis.
Part IV. Foffil (hells, which confift of 3 claffes.
Univalves. 2. Bivalves. 3. Multivalves.
Clafs I. is compofed of 15 families, having the fame
names as the firft clafs of fea-ftiells.
Clafs II. contains 7 families fimilar to the 2d clafs of
fea-lhells.
Clafs III. confifts of 5 families, viz. 1. Ourfins. 2.
Glands de mer. 3. Pouffe-pieds. 4. Pholades. 5.
Tuyaux multivalves.
10
VI. A fyftem of Conchology was publiihed by Klein Of Kiein.
in 1753, and illuftrated with engravings. In the fame
work the author enters into an inveftigation concern¬
ing the formation, increafe, and colours ol (hells. The
following is an abridged view of this arrangement.
. SYSTEM
392
Hiftory.
CONCH
SYSTEM of KLEIN.
In this fyftem, fhells are divided into 6 parts.
Part I. which is entitled Cochlis, is divided into 2
fe&ions, viz. Cochlis iimplex, and Cochlis Com-
pofita.
Seft. I. confifts of 8 claffes, viz. i. Cochlis plana, con¬
taining 4 genera. 2. Cochlis convexa, 6 genera.
3. Cochlis fornicata, 5 genera. 4. Cochlis elliptica,
6 genera. 5. Cona-cochlis, 16 genera. 6. Cochlea,
8 genera. 7. Buccinum, 5 genera. 8. Turbo, 14
genera.
Sedl. II. Confifts of five clafles, viz. 1. Cochlis roftra-
ta, 7 genera. 2. Voluta longa, 15 genera. 3. Vo-
luta ovata, 8 genera. 4. Alata, 6 genera. 5. Mu-
rex, 2 genera.
Part. II. Concha is alfo divided into 2 feftions, viz.
Monoconchae and Diconchae aequales.
Sett. I. contains 2 clafles, viz. I. Patella, 2 genera.
2. Anfata, 4 genera.
Se£l. II. confifts of three fubdivifions, viz. I. Diconchae
conniventes. 2. Diconchae interruptae. 3. Diconchae
inaequales.
Subdiv. 1. is compofed of 6 clafles, viz. 1. Diconchae
figuratae, 4 genera. 2. Oftreum, 6 genera. 3.
Mufculus, 3 genera. 4. Cyclas. 5. Diconcha au-
rita, 9 genera. 6. Diconchae cordiformes, 3 ge¬
nera.
Subdiv. 2. confifts of 5 clafles, viz. I. Diconcha fulca-
ta. 2. Diconchae umbilicatae, 3 genera. 3. Diconchae
finu profundo, feu chaxnae, 3 genera. 4. Diconchae
ftnu prominulo, feu tellime, 6 genera. 5. Pyloris,
9 genera.
Subdiv. 3. Diconchae inaequales, 7 genera.
Part III. Polyconchae confifts only of one genus.
Part IV. Niduli Teftacei comprehends one clafs, vhv
Balanus, which includes 4 genera.
Part V. Echinus marinus, feu echinodermata, is di¬
vided into 3 fe&ions, viz. 1. Anocyfti. 2. Cato-
cyfti. 3. Pleurocyfti.
Sefr. 1. contains 2 clafles, viz. 1. Cidaris, 9 genera. 2.
Clipeus, I genus.
Seft. 2. is compofed of four claflfes. viz. 1. Fibula, 2
genera. 2. Claflis, 2 genera. 3. Scutum, 2 genera.
4. Placenta, 3 genera.
Se£l. III. confifts of 3 clafles, viz. I. Arachnoides, I
genus. 2. Cor marinum, 2 genera. 3. Ovum ma-
rinum, 2 genera.
Part VI. Tubulus marinus is compofed of 11 genera.
In the fyftems of Conchology which we have now
exhibited, the chara&ers are taken from the (hells. In
the three following, the marks of difcrimination are
derived from the animal as wTell as from the (hell. The
iirft by M. Adanfon was publiftied in 1757.
SYSTEM of AD ANSON.
This fyftem confifts of 3 clafles, viz, 1. Lima$ons. 2.
Les conques. 3. Les conques multivalves.
Class 1. Limagons. Se£t. I. Limagons^univalves.
Se<ft. II Limacons opercules.
o l o G Y.
Se£l. I. Famille. 1. Les limagons univalves qui n’ont ni Hiftory.
yeux ni cornes. Gen. 1. La gondole, cymbium,
Famille 2. Les limagons univalves qui ont deux
cornes, et les yeux places a leur racine et (ur leur
c6te interne. Gen. 2. Le bulin, bulinus. Gen. 3.
Le coret, coretus. Gen. 4. Le pietin, pedipes.
Famille 3. Les limagons univalves qui ont quatres
cornes, dont les deux exterieures portent les yeux
fur leur fommet. Gen. 5. Le limagon, cochlea.
Gen. 6. L’ormier, hahotis. Famille 4. Les li¬
magons univalves qui ont deux cornes, et les yeux
places a leurs racines, et fur le c6te externe, ou par
derriere. Gen. 7. Le lepas, /epas. Gen. 8. L’yet
yetus. Gen. 9. La vis, terebra. Famille 5. Les
limagons univalves qui ont deux cornes et les yeux
poses un peu au-deflus de leur racine, et fur leur
cote externe. Gen. 10. La porcellaine, porcellana.
Gen. xi. Le pucelage, cyprcca. Gen. 12. Le man¬
telet, peribolus.
Se£L 2. Famille 1. Limagons opercules qui ont deux
cornes, avec un renflement, et qui portent les yeux
ordinairement au-deflus de leur racine, et a leur c6te
externe. Gen. x. Le rouleau, Jlrombus. Gen. 2.
La pourpre, purpura. Gen. 3. Le buccin, buc¬
cinum. Gen. 4. Le cerite, cerithium. Famille 2.
Limagons opercules, qui ont deux cornes fans ren¬
flement, et les yeux places 'a leur racine, et fur leur
cote externe. Gen. 5. Le vermet, vermetus. Gen.
6. La toupie, trochus. Gen. 7. La natice, natica.
Famille 3. Les limagons opercules, qui ont quatre
cornes, dont les deux exterieures portent les yeux
fur leur fommet. Gen. 8. Le fabot, turbo. Gen. 9.
La nerite, nerita.
Class II. Les conques. Seft. I. Les conques bi¬
valves. Famille 1. Les conques bivalves, qui ont
les deux lobes du manteau fepares, dans tout leur
contour. Gen. 1. L’huitre, ojireum. Famille. 2.
Les conques bivalves dont les deux lobes du manteau
forment trois ouvertures fans aucun tuyau. Gen. 2.
Le jataron, jataronus. Gen. 3. Le jambonneau,
perna. Famille 3. Les conques bivalves dont les
deux lobes du manteau forment trois ouvertures dont
deux prennent la figure d’un tuyau aflez long. Gen.
4. La came, chama. Gen. 5. La telline, tellina.
Gen. 6. Le pe&oncle,x. Gen. 7. Le folen,
folen.
Class III. Les conques multivalves. Famille 1. Les
conques multivalves, dont aucune des pieces de la
coquille ne prend la forme d’un tuyau. Gen. 1.
La pholade,Famille 2. Les conques multival¬
ves, dont une des pieces de la coquille prend la
forme d’un tuyau qui enveloppe entierement toutes les
autres. Gen. 2. Le taret, teredo. I3
VIII. The method of Geoffrey,formed on fimilar prin- Of Geof-
ciples with the laft, was publiftied at Paris in 1767, W*
in a work entitled “ A Summary Treatife on the tefta-
ceous Animals found in the vicinity of Paris.” The
following is a view of this method.
SYSTEM of GEOFFROY.
Sect. I. Coquilles univalves.
Gen. 1. Le Umax, cw/6/etf. Quatre tentacules, dont
deux plus grands portent des yeux a leur extremite.
Coquille univalve en fpirale.
Gen,
Chap. I. CONCH
Hiftory. Gen. 2. Le buccin, buccinutn. Deux tentacules
¥ ' plats en formes d’orellles. Les yeux places a la bafe
des tentacules du cote interieur. Coquille uni¬
valve en fpirale et conique.
Gen. 3. Planorbe, planorbis. Deux tentacules fili-
formes. Les yeux places a la bafe des tentacules du
cdie interieur. Coquille univalve en fpirale, et or-
dinairement applatie.
Gen. - 4. La nerite, nerita. Deux tentacules. Les
yeux places a la bafe des tentacules du cote exterieur.
Opercsle a la coquille. Coquille univalve en fpirale
et prefque conique.
Gen. 5. Ancile, ancylus. Deux tentacules. Les
yeux places a la bafe des tentacules du cote infe-
rieur. Coquille univalve concave et unie.
Sect. II. Coquilles univalves.
Gen. 1. La came, chama. Deux fiphons limples
et alongees. Charniere de la coquille dentelle. Co¬
quille arrondee.
Gen. 2. La moule, mytilus. Deux fiphons courts et
franges. Charniere de la coquille membraneufe
et fans dents. Coquille alongee.
OfMuller. IX. The fyflem of Muller firft publilbed in 1773, and
afterwards extended in a different work which appear¬
ed in 1776, arranges teftaceous animals into three fa¬
milies. The following is a view of this arrangement
taken from the latter work on the zoology of Denmark
and Norway.
SYSTEM o* MULLER.
/
Fam ilia I. Tejiacea Umvalvia.
Sect. I. Teftacea univalvia, tefta pervia.
Gen. 1. Echinus. Tefta cruftacea, ano verticali,
tentaculis fimplicibus.
Gen. 2. Spatagus. Tefta cruftacea, ano infero, tentacu¬
lis penicillatis.
Gen. 3. Dentalium. Tefta calcarea, tefta rudi, tentacu¬
lis nullis.
Sect. II. Teftacea univalvia, tefta patula.
Gen. 4. Akera. Apertura effufa, tentaculis nullis.
Gen. 5. Argonauta. Apertura profunda, tentaculis
binis.
Gen. 6. Bulla. Apertura repanda, tentaculis binis
fetaceis, colliculo extrinfecus oculatis.
Gen. 7. Buccinum. Apertura ovata, tentacul bi¬
nis triangularibus, angulo intrinfeco oculatis.
Gen. 8. Carychium. Apertura ovata, tentaculis bi¬
nis truncatis confpicuis, angulo intrinfeco oculatis.
Gen. 9. Vertigo. Apertura fubquadrata, tentaculis
binis fublinearibus, apice oculatis.
Gen. TO. Turbo. Apertura orbicular!, tentaculis
binis fetaceis, confpicuis, angulo extrinfeco oculatis,
Gen. 11. Helix. Apertura lunari, tentaculis quatuor
linearibus, apice oculatis.
Gen. 12. Planorbis. Apertura femilunari, tentaculis
binis fetaceis, angulo intrinfeco oculatis.
Gen. 13. Ancylus. Apertura totali tentaculis binis
truncatis, occultis, angulo extrinfeco oculatis.
Gen. 14. Patella. Apertura totali, tentaculis binis
fetaceis, occulto angulo, extrinfeco oculatis.
Vol. VI. Part I.
O L O G X. 393
Gen. 15. Haliotis. Apertura repanda, poris pertufa. Hiftory.
Sect. III. Teftacea univalvia, tefta operculata.
Gen. 16. Tritonium. Libera, apertura canaliculata,
tentaculis duobus linearibus, angulo extrinfeco ocu¬
latis.
Gen. 17. Trochus. Libera, apertura fub-tetragona,
tentaculis duobus fetaceis, colliculo extrinfeco ocula¬
tis.
Gen. 18. Nerita. Libera, apertura lunari, tentaculis
duobus fetaceis, angulo extrinfeco oculatis.
Gen. 19. Valvata. Libera, apertura circinnata, ten¬
taculis duobus fetaceis, angulo poftico oculatis.
Gen. 20. Serpula. Adnata, apertura orbicular!, ten¬
taculis pinnatis.
Fam ilia II. Tejlacea Bivalvia.
Sect. I. Teftacea bivalvia cardine dentata.
Gen. 1. Mya. Tefta altera extremitate hiante j car¬
dine dente craffo folitario.
Gen. 2. Solen. Tefta utraque extremitate hiante ;
cardine dente reflexo, fagpe gemino.
Gen. 3. Tellina. Siphone duplici murico j cardinc
dentibus utrinque tribus alternis.
Gen. 4. Cardium. Siphone duplici, cirrato, pedeque
falciformi; cardine dentibus mediis alternis, remotis
penetralibus.
Gen. 5. Venus. Siphone duplici, cirrata, pedeque
laminaeformi 5 cardine dentibus tribus approximatis,
lateralibus divergentibus.
Gen. 6. MaBra. Cardine dente medio complicato,
adjacente foveola.
Gen. 7. Donax. Cardine dentibus duobus, lateralique
folitario,
Gen. 8. Area. Cardine dentibus numerofis, alternis,
penetrantibus.
Gen. 9. Terebratula. Branchiis circinnatis \ cardine
dentibus alterius uncinatis, valvula fuperiore deorfum
perforata.
Sect. II. Teftacea bivalvia, cardine edentulo.
Gen 10. Anomia. Branchiis fimplicibus j valvula in-
feriore perforata.
Gen. 11. O/lrea. Branchiis fimplicibus, pede nullo $
cardines folfula cava.
Gen. 12. PeElen. Branchiis cirratis, pede juxta auri-
culam cardine foffula ovata, byflum emittens.
Gen. 13. Mytilus. Siphone duplici brevi j foffula
lineari, byflum emittens.
Fam ilia III. Tejlacea Multivalvia.
Gen. 1. Chiton. Valvulae dorfales, tentacula nulla.
Gen. 2. Lepas. Valvulae ere&ae, tentacula bipartita.
Gen. 3. Pholas. Valvulae ad cardinem minores.
X. To this account of the different methods of ar-DaCofta;,
ranging {hells we {hall only add the fyftem propofed by
Da Cofta in his Elements of Conchology. In this fyfi.
tern the author adopts the ufual general divifion into
Univalves, Bivalves, and Multivalves.
T Univalves are diftributed into 16 families wTich
are divided into four orders.
Order I. Simple ; confifts of four families. 1. Pa¬
tella. 2. Haliotis. 3. Vermiculi. 4. Dentalia. Order II.
includes only one family. 5. Polythalamia. Order III.
Revolved. Fam. 6. Turbinata involuta. Order IV.Tur-
3 ^ binated
394 CONCH
Animals binsted. Fam. 7. Cymblum. Fam. 8. Auris cochlea, g.
which inha-Cyijncjrj# Fam. I o. Voluta. Fam. xi.Globofa. Fam. 1 2.
,bit Iheils. 0afl'u|cs> Fam. 13. Trochi. Fam. 14. Cochleae. Fam.
15. Buccina. Fam. 16. Murex.
II. Bivalves compofed of 3 orders.
Order I. With unequal valves, and fhut clofe.
Fam. 1. Pe61en. Fam. 2. Spondylus. Fam. 3. Oftre-
Fam. 4. Anomia. Ord. II. With equal valves,
um.
0 L O G Y. Chap. II.
and fliut clofe, is divided into three fe^lions. Se£f.I.Mult- Animals
articulate. Fam. 5. Pedlinoides. Fam. 6. Pe(aunculi.vv’hlCJ)1"|la■
Fam. 7. Area. Seft. 2. Articulate. Fam. 8. Peftun-,,'1
cuius. Fam. 9. Tellina. Fam. 10. Placenta. Se£h 3.
Inarticulate. Fam. 11. Margaritifera. Fam. 12. Mui-
culus. Ord. III. With valves that never Ihut clofe.
Fam. 13. Chama, Gapers.
III. Multivalves contains one order. Fam. 14.
Pholas. Fam. 15. Anatiferae. Fam. 16. Balani.
CHAP II. OF THE ANIMALS WHICH INHABIT SHELLS.
15
Generic BEFORE we proceed to the claflification of (hells,
Cfaraf£ceS we flia11 here Sive a dercriPtion of the animals
ousanimals.which inhabit them. Of thefe, however, a minute and
accurate anatomical defeription is not to be expected j
for little more is known of the ftrufture of thefe ani¬
mals than what has been given by naturalifts concern¬
ing their external chara&ers.
Some of the animals, which inhabit (hells, are alfo
found in the mollufca (late j that is, without any tefta-
ceous covering. Such, for inftance, is the Umax, or
fn ail.
The animals which have been found inhabiting
(hells, are the following j viz. Doris, Triton, Afcidia,
Tethys, Limax, Spio, Amphitrite, Terebella, Ne¬
reis.
Doris.—The body is creeping, oblong, and Hat be¬
neath 5 the mouth is placed below, on the forepart;
vent behind on the back, and furrounded by a fringe.
Feelers two or four, fituated on the upper part of the
body in front, and retraftile within their proper re¬
ceptacles.
The animal which inhabits the chiton belongs to
this genus.
Triton.—The body is oblong, and the mouth is fur-
nilhed with an involute fpiral probofeis: tentacula or
arms l 2, fix on each fide, divided nearly to the bafe.
The hind ones cheliforous.
The triton inhabits different fpecies of lepas.
Afcidia. The body is fixed, roundifii, and apparent¬
ly iffuing from a (heath •, apertures two, generally
placed near the upper end, one beneath the other. The
animals are found in the fea, and adhere by their bafe
to rocks, (hells, and other fubmarine fubfiances : they
are more or lefs gelatinous. The only powers of
motion which they polfefs feem to be that of contraft-
ing and dilating themfelves alternately ; by which
means they are enabled to throw out the water which
they take in with confiderable force.
This animal inhabits the pholas, folen, fome fpecies of
the mva, maftra, and other bivalves.
Tethys.—The body is detached, rather oblong,
flefhy, without peduncles : the mouth is furnilhed
with a terminal cylindrical probofeis, under an ex¬
panded membrane or lip : apertures two, on the left
fide of the neck.
The tethys inhabits a great proportion of bivalve
(hells, as many fpecies of tellina, cardium, maflra, Ve¬
nus, oftrea, and others.
Limax.—The body is oblong, creeping, with a flefhy
kind of (hieId above, and a longitudinal flat dife be¬
neath : aperture placed on the right fide within the
(hield : feelers 4, fituated above the mouth, with an
eye at the tip of each of the larger ones.
The animals belonging to this genus inhabit the
turbinated univalve (hells \ but it appears that all the
animals which inhabit thefe (hells do not exaftly cor-
refpond wdth the above generic charafters.
Spio.—The body projecting from a tube, jointed
and furni(lied with dorfal fibres j peduncles or feet rough
with bullies, and placed towards the back j leelers 2 5
long, fimple \ eyes 2 ; long-
This animal inhabits fome fpecies of fabella.
Amphitrite.—Body projecting from a tube, and annu¬
late ; peduncles or feet (mall, numerous, with lateral
fafciculi, and branchiae j feelers 2, approximate, fea¬
thered 5 no eyes.
The amphitrite inhabits fome fpecies of fabella and
ferpula.
Terehellc.—Body oblong, creeping, naked, furmfh-
ed with lateral fafciculi, or tufts, and branchiae j
mouth placed before, furniflied with lips, without teeth,
and protruding a clavated probofeis 5 feelers numerous,
ciliated, capillary, and placed round the mouth.
This animal is an inhabitant of many fpecies of den-
talium, ferpula and iabella.
Nereis.—Body long, creeping, with numerous late¬
ral peduncles or feet on each fide 5 feelers fimple, rare¬
ly none j eyes 2 or 4, rarely none. According to
fome naturalifts, the nereis inhabits fome fpecies of
fabella. _ _ .
Sepia.—Body fielhy, receiving the bread in a (heath,
with a tubular aperture at its bafe •, arms 8, befet
with numerous warts or fuckers, and in mod fpecies 2
pedunculated tentacula j head (hort 5 eyes large , mouth
refembling a parrot’s beak.
The animal which inhabits the argonauts is confi-
dered by naturalids as belonging to this genus.
Clio.—Body oblong, natant, generally (heathed and
furnifhed with two dilated membranaceous arms or
wing-like proceffes j tentacula 3, befides 2 in the mouth.
According to fome naturaliils, it is an animal be¬
longing to this genus, which inhabits the argonauta.
CHAP.
CONCHOLOGY.
Chap. III.
Terms em¬
ployed in
defcribing
Shells.
CHAP III. OF THE TERMS WHICH ARE EMPLOYED IN DESCRIBING
SHELLS.
395
Terms em¬
ployed in
defcribing
Shells.
16
Terms ex- AS it will tend to facilitate our progrefs in the ftu-
plained, jy 0f Conchology, clearly to underif and the terms which
are employed in defcribing Ihells, and the names by
which the different parts have been diltinguithed by
naturalifts *, we lhall here give a few definitions of the
principal terms. And that thefe definitions may be
eafily confulted, we (hall obferve the fame order as in
the claffification which is to be adopted. They may
be conveniently arranged, therefore, into the three di-
vifions of multivalves, bivalves, and univalves.
I. Explanation of the Terms of Multivalve Shells.
17 Multivalte (hells are compofed of more than two
Multi-
. pieces.
valves. r
Articulated (teftae articulatae), when the different pieces
of which the {hell is compofed are fo ftrongly united
that they feem to form one {hell.
JErjuivalve /hells (teftae aequivalves), when the valves
of the two fides have the fame form, fize, and pofi-
tion.
A (hell is faid to adhere (tefta adherens), when it is
attached to folid bodies by fome of the pieces of
which it is compofed : It is faid to be loofe (tefta
libera), when it is not attached by any point.
Pedunculated (tefta pedunculata), when all the pieces
of which it is compofed, are fupported by a tendi¬
nous peduncle which is fixed to folid bodies.
Tubular (tefta tubulofa), when the greateft part of the
(hell is formed of a cylindrical tube.
Bafe of the /hell ( bafis teftae), that part on which it
is fupported.
Ligament (ligamentum), is a membranous or tendi¬
nous fubrtance which connefts the valves together,
and fometimes lines the cavity of the {hells. Of
this there are feveral varietes.
•  fcaly (ligamentum fquamatum), when the
furface is covered with fmall granular icales.
  prickly (ligamentum aculeatum), when the
furface is furnifhed with fmall rough points.
—     fmooth (ligamentum laeve), when the furface
has neither points, fcales, nor tubercles.
"■ — pumffated (ligamentum punftatum), when the'
furface is marked with fmall cavities.
Lid (operculum), is the name given to four fmall tri¬
angular valves articulated in the form of a crofs,
which (hut up the fuperior orifice of fome fpecies of
multivalve {hells.
Peduncle (pedunculus) is the tendinous fubftance which
fupports fome of the multivalve {hells. It is flexi¬
ble while the animal is alive, and is fmooth or
fcaly.
Rays (radii); thefe are impreflions on the external fur¬
face of fome {hells ; they are of a conical form,
having the vertex turned towards the bafe of the
(hell. They are only diftinftly feen in adult
fnells.
 filiform (radii filiformes) are long and narrow.
fmooth (radii leves.) 
———- ftriated (radii tranfverfim ftriati.)———
Valves (valvuhe) are the different pieces of which mul¬
tivalve (hells are compofed.
2. Explanation of the Terms applied to Bivalve Shellsm lg
A bivalve (hell is faid to adhere (tefta adherens), Bivalves,
when it is fixed by any part of one of its valves to
a folid body.
It is faid to have ears (tefta aurita), when it forms
at its bafe, one or two compreffed angles.
Gaping (tefta hians), when the valves do not {hut
clofe.
Bearded (tefta barbata), covered externally with an
epidermis conipofed of ftrong hair or briftles.
Compreffed (tefta compreffa), when the valves are flat,
forming a {mall cavity.
Heart-fbaped (tefta cordata), having the form of a
heart ; (fubcordata) approaching to that form.
Toothlefs (edentula), without teeth at the hinge.
Equilateral (tefta aequilatera) when the anterior and
pofterior part of the (hell is equal in form and
figure.
Equivalve (equivalvis), when the two valves are fi-
milar in form and convexity.
Irregular (tefta irregularis), when the form varies in
the individuals of the fpecies.
Lenticular (lenticularis), when the valves are round,
and little elevated in the middle, and diminifti gra¬
dually in thicknefs towards the edges.
Linear (tefta linearis), when the length confiderably
exceeds the breadth, but without a cylindrical
form.
Tongue-fhaped (linguasformis), flat and oblong, hav¬
ing the two extremities round and obtufe.
Boat-Jhaped (navicularis) refembling the figure of a
boat.
PeBmated (peftinata), when the valves being furnifh-
ed with longitudinal ribs, have on their anterior fur¬
face ribs nearly tranfverfe which form by their uni¬
on with the firft acute angles.
Radiated (radiata), when it is marked on the external
furface with rays, ribs, or elevated ftriae, which pro¬
ceed from the extremity of the fummits, and termi¬
nate in the circumference of the valves.
Beaked (roftrata), when one of its furfaces, either an¬
terior or pofterior, being contrafted and elongated,
terminates in form of a beak.
Bafe (bafis). The fituation in which Linnaeus has de-
fcribed and confidered bivalve {hells, ccnfifts in
placing the beaks of the (hell turned downwards,
in fuch a way that the ligament of the valves may
be feen, fo that the bafe of the (hell is the region of
its beaks.
Margin of the {hell (margo teftse) fignifies the whole
circumference of the {hell, parallel to the edge of
the valves. It is divided into anterior, pofteiior, and
fuperior.
  anterior (margo anterior), when the fhell is
placed on the beak of the valves, commences at
the fide of the ligament, on the fore-part of the
3 D 2 beaks,
396 CONCH
Terms em- mits, and extends to one third of the whole circum-
defcribin1 ference of the valves,
Shells. Margin pofterior (margo pofterior), extends to one-
u——y—— third of the circumference from the beaks of the
valves behind.
   fuperior (margo fuperior), includes the upper
part of the circumference of the valves comprehend¬
ed between the fuperior extremity of the anterior
margin, and the fuperior extremity of the pofterior
margin. Hence the whole circumference of the
fhell is divided into 3 equal part?.
Margins of the valves (margines valvularum), fignify
the whole interior circumference of the valves, in¬
cluding about the breadth of a line of the outer
edge. They are divided into
  furrowed (margines canaliculati), having on
fome part of the anterior circumference, a fmall gut¬
ter parallel to it.
  notched (margines crenulati), furniftted inte¬
riorly with rounded notches.
   toothed (margines dentati), provided with
pointed teeth.
  folded (margines plicati), furnifhed with folds
which reciprocally correfpond wuth thofe of the op-
pofite valve.
   Ample (margines ftmplices) having neither
folds, teeth, nor notches.
   ftriated (margines ftriati), having longitudinal
ftriae.
Hinge. The hinge of a fhell is the moft folid and thick-
eft part of the circumference of the valves, confti-
tuting their bafe. It is almoft always furnifhed with
teeth of different proportions, which ferve to fix the
valves together. The hinge is
. .compreffed (cardo depreffus), formed of one
compreffed tooth.
 - lateral (cardo lateralis), when it is placed at
one of the fides of the fhell.
oblong (cardo oblongus), wdien it occupies
the whole bafe of the fhell.
  reflefted (cardo reflexus), when its edges are
folded back externally towards the convexity of the
valves.
   terminal (cardo terminalis), fituated at the
inferior extremity of the fhell.
   truncated (cardo truncatus), when the bafe
of the fhell terminates tranfverfely and fuddenly, and
the teeth of the hinge are fixed in this part.
Teeth (dentes), are folid protuberances, commonly
pointed, with which the hinge of fhells is ufually
furnifhed, and which are deftined to fix the two
valves together. They are divided into.
  alternate (dentes alternati) when they are
placed in a line parallel to the edges of the hinge j
and when the teeth of one valve are received into
the interfaces of the teeth of the other valve.
  - articulated (dens infertus), when it is receiv¬
ed in a correfponding cavity at the oppofite
valve.
.  forked (dens duplicatus feu bifidus,) having
the point divided into two.
,  cardinal (dens primarius feu cardinalis), is the
tooth which is placed immediately oppofite.
  compreffed (dens depreffus), which is very-
much flattened.
O L O G Y. . Chap. in.
Teeth ereft (dens ere&us), when the valve is laid on Terms em-
the convex fide, the tooth rifes perpendicularly. ployed in
  — longitudinal (dens longitudinalis), when it ex- shells”^
tends like a rib on the bafe of the valves. ■ ^ ?
The di/h (difcus), fignifies the convex centre of the
valves, which is ufually fituated between the belly
of the fhell and its limb.
Limb (limbus) is the circumference of the valves from
the difk to their edges.
Belly of the fhell (teftae umbo), is the moft inflated
part of the valves.
It is vaulted (umbo fornicatus) when in the interior of
the valves it exhibits a cavity feparated from the
hinge by a vertical membrane.
Nates fignify two protuberances of a conical figure,
fomewhat fpiral, which accompany the external bafe
of moft bivalve fhells. They are
• flattened (nates depreffae), wrhen the furface
is fenfibly compreffed.
 approximate (nates approximate) meeting to¬
gether, when the fhell is fhut.
   horned (nates corniformes), when the angles
being' confiderable, and their direftion waved or fpi¬
ral, they refemble a horn.
 — bent (nates incurvate), when the curvature of
the one is direfted towards that of the other.
■ — feparated (nates diftantes), when they are
feparated from each other, at leaf! the diftance of
a line.
- , — diftant (nates remotiflimae), when the interval
is very great.
.. refle&ed (nates recurvae), when the curva¬
ture is diredled towards the pofterior furface of the
fhell.
—  — wrinkled (nates rugofse), when the furface is
marked with unequal lines.
 fpiral (nates fpirales), when the curvature ex¬
hibits more than one circumvolution.
Vulva, is fituated at the lower part of the anterior mar¬
gin of the valves. It is divided into
  hollowed (excifa, feu canaliculata), when it
is marked wdth a groove during its whole length.
 diftinft (diftin&a), marked by a perceptible
difference of colour.
 lettered (fcripta feu literata), when the fur¬
face is marked with lines refembling written cha-
rafters.
 infle&ed (inflexa), wdien the edge of the lips
is bent towards the inner furface of the valves.
Anus, fignifies an impreflion ufually hollow, placed at
the lower part of the pofterior furface. It is divid¬
ed into.
■    bordered (marginatus), when it is circum-
fcribed by a diftinft elevation.
. , — heart-fhaped (cordatus), exhibiting the form
of a heart.
  toothed (dentatus), furnifhed with teeth or
notches. .
- lanceolated (lanceolatus), when the length is
greater than the breadth, and the extremities are
pointed.
 open (patulus feu hians), forming by the fe-
paration of its edges, a confiderable opening, which
penetrates into the interior of the fhell.
.1 oval (ovatus), of an elliptical figure.
ValveSf
Chap. III. CONCH
Ttiins em. Valves, of bivalve /hells, are divided into right and
ploye.I in ieftj equal and unequal, equilateral and inequilateral,
Shells1^ fuperior and inferior.
. ^ — right valve (dextra), is diftingui/hed from the
left, by placing the {hell on its bale, having the car¬
dinal ligament before, and the anus behind. In this
pofition the right valve of the /hell correfponds to
the left of the obferver, and the left valve (/iniftra)
to the right of the obferver.
  equal (equales), when the right valve corre-
fpoflds with the left in form, fize, and other external
charafters.
■ . — fuperior (valvula fuperior). In an irregular
/hell, fuch as the oyfter, one of the valves is attach¬
ed to folid bodies ; the other in this cafe is fuperior.
. This valve is fometimes called by Linnaeus, the lid
(operculum) : in fome fpecies it is flat and fmall,
and in others more convex than the inferior valve.
   keel-(haped (valvulae carinatae), when one
part of their convexity prefents a (harp edge.
—    chambered (concameratae), when they exhi¬
bit in their cavity teftaceous plates, detached and
raifed.
    fpinous (fpinofae), when the whole furface is
furni/hed with fpines.
  banded (fafciatae), exhibiting large coloured
tranfverfe ftripes or bands.
  - lamellated (lamellofse), when the furface is
furni/hed with plates more or lefs feparated.
-■ —« radiated (radiatre), exhibiting divergent or
coloured rays.
—  - finuated (lacunofae), when one of the valves
has a fenfible depreflion at the middle of its mar¬
gin, and a correfponding elevation of the oppofite
valve.
 ftriated (ftriatae) when the furface is marked
with ftria:.
• tranfverfe, when the ftriae are parallel to the
margin of the valves.
■■ ■  longitudinal, when they run from the bafe to
the circumference.
Mufcular imprejjions (impreffiones), are marks on the
interior furface of the valves, where the mufcles of
the animal are attached.
■ folitary (folitarise), when the inner furface of
each valve has qnly one.
■ .. ■ double (duplicatae), two on the inner furface
of each valve.
—   triple or temate (ternatae), three in each
valve.
Ligament (ligamentum ), is a horny fubftance, of little
flexibility, which unites the two valves near their
bafe, and which in almort all bivalve (hells is placed
at the lower part of their anterior furface. It is di¬
vided into.
  gaping (hians), when its upper extremity is
divided into two.
—  -double (duplex), when under the external li¬
gament there appears a fecond, in a particular hol¬
low of the hinge, which does not appear externally.
— internal (internal), when it unites the valves
without appearing externally.
  profound (retradfum feu intraflum) when it
is fo deep in the future as fcarcely to be feen when
the valves are (hut.
O L O G Y. 397
truncated (truncatum) when fliorter than its Termsem-
future. _ deSil11
Furrows (fslci), are thofe impreflions or inter/lices shells,
between the ribs or rays on the furface of the
valves.
 fquare (quadrati), when the bottom is flat.
 - lamellated (lamellofi), when the bottom is
marked with fmall tranfverfe fcales.
  punctated (excavato punftati), when the whole
furface is marked with fmall cavities or dots.
3. Explanation of Terms applied to Univalve Shells.
The bafe, (balls) is the mod elevated part of the Univalves,
(hell, oppofite to the fpire. It is divided into
-  - notched (emarginata), when it is accompanied
with a deep notch.
——— tubular (tubulofa feu cordata), when it is form¬
ed by a tube.
  Ample or entire (fimplex aut Integra), without
notch or tube.
Summit (vertex) fignifies the top of fome patellae, and
from its pofition is central, marginal, or fubmar-
ginal.
The /hell (tefta) is divided with regard to its poli-
tion into fuperior and inferior.
The anterior part (pars antica), is that which forms the
fpire of the (hell ; and it is alfo the fuperior part.
The form of (hells is
   bordered (marginata), when the two fides of
the opening are broader and thicker than the reft of
the diameter.
  — chambered (polythalamia), when it is inter¬
nally divided by different partitions parallel to the
opening.
 convoluted (convoluta), when the fpires turn
round a lengthened cone, nearly vertical to each
other.
—rooted (radicata), when it is attached to a fo¬
lid body by a ligament proceeding from its bafe.
 interrupted (interrupta), when the fucceflive
additions to the (hell are marked with diftinft
rings.
 umbilicated (umbilicata), when the axis round
which the fphere turns, being empty, forms a cavi¬
ty at the bafe of the (hell, whofe diameter is at lead
a fixth part of that of the (hell.
 imperforated (imperforata feu exumbilicata),
when its inferior axis has neither hole nor umbili*
cus.
 oval or elliptic (ovales), the longitudinal dia¬
meter exceeding the tranfverfe, and the two extre¬
mities equal and a little contrafted.
 egg-fliaped (ovata), the longitudinal diameter
exceeding the tranfverfe, and the extremities termi¬
nated by the fegment of a circle.
 beaked (roftrata), when the two extremities,
fometimes tubular, form a projedlion in form of a
beak.
-     imbricated (imbricata), when the furface is co¬
vered with parallel fcales, fo arranged as to cover
each other.
   turbinated (turbinata), when the belly of the
(hell is large in proportion to the fpires, which feem
to proceed from its center.
Opening
398 CONCH
Terms em- Opening or mouth (apertura), is that part of the ca-
ployed in vjty 0f tJie (hell which is vifible. It is
desheil'ng   angular (angulata), when its circumference
’ v 1 has feveral angles.
    gaping (dehifcens), when one of the extremi¬
ties is wider than the other.
    bimarginated (bimarginata), when the right
lip forms a double margin.
  — comprefled (coardlata), when it is dillinftly
flattened.
    femicircular (femiorbiculata), when it forms
half a circle.
  linear (linearis), when it is narrow, and the
length confiderably exceeds the breadth.
  longitudinal (longitudinalis), when the length
is greater than the breadth, and the greateft dimen-
fion is parallel to the axis of the (hell.
 orbicular (orbicularis), forming an entire
circle.
 ftriated (ftriata), when the cavity is marked
with ftriae, parallel to the direftion of the convolu¬
tions.
 tranfverfe (tranfverfa), when the breadth is
greater than the length.
Pillar (columella), is that part of the (hell fituated
within the opening, near its axis, round which the
fpires turn. It is brought into view by dividing the
(hell its whole length. It is
   flattened (plana), when the fur face is flat and
fmooth.
 caudated (caudata), when it is lengthened be¬
yond the bafe of the (hell.
 folded (plicata), marked with tranfverfe and
diftinft folds.
   fpiral (fpiralis), proceeding from the bafe, and
forming a fmall, twilled elongation.
 truncated (truncata), cut tranfverfely at the
bafe.
Convolutions (anfraftus), are the turnings of the fpire
round the pillar, from the opening to the bafe of
the (hell. They are
 bifid (bifidi), when each is divided into two
equal parts by a furrow or fpiral line.
 grooved (canaliculati), when the fuperior edge
is marked with a groove.
  keel-draped (carinati), when the outer turn of
the (hell is marked with an angle more or lefs
acute.
  crowned (coronati), when the upper furface is
bordered at a little diftance from the futures, with a
Angle row of tubercles or fpinous fcales.
    dextral (dextri), turning from the left to the
ri^t'
  liniftral (finiftri), turning from the right to
the left.
 — lettered (fcripti), marked with chara£lers.
   fpinous (fpinofi), having (hort fpines on the
furface.
   entire (fimplices), without furrows or tuber¬
cles.
r_ banded (fafciati), when the furface is marked
with broad coloured ftripes. T
r—  lamellated (lamellati), the furface marked
with longitudinal or tranfverfe excrefcenccs, and la¬
minated like membranes.
O L O G Y. Chap. III.
 lineated (lineati), marked with coloured lines. Terms em-
   radiated (fpinofo-radiati), having the circum-
ference bordered with ftraight (pines, feparating and shells,
divergent. ,j
 feparated (disjumfli), having an interval be¬
tween each convolution.
 furrowed (fulcati), having the furface marked
with furrow's, which are always broader than ftriae.
 decuffated (decuflati), when the (trite crofs
each other at right angles.
Spire (fpira), (ignifies all the convolutions taken to¬
gether. It is
  — pointed (acuta), when the convolutions join¬
ed together form an acute angle.
    flattened (depreffa), forming a flat furface.
    convex (convexa), when it is rounded, and
the point of the bafe has little elevation.
    convex (convexo-acuta), rounded at the outer
edge, but elevated into an acute angle.
—    convex and elevated (convexo-exferta), round¬
ed at the outer edge, and elevated without forming
an acute angle.
 convex and pointed (convexo-mucronata), ob-
tufe and almoft rounded at the outer edge, and ter¬
minated at the center with a pointed elevation.
   crowned (coronata), when the outer edges of
each convolution are accompanied with a row of
fpines or tubercles.
 capitate (capitata), the convolutions united,
forming a fwelling refembling a head.
 obtufe (obtufa), the convolutions united, form¬
ing an obtufe angle.
—   plano-concave (plano-concava), the convolu¬
tions forming no elevation, but are (lightly grooved.
   pyramidal (pyramidata), of a conical form.
Sutures (futurae), fignify the place of junflion of the
different convolutions, forming a fpiral line. They
are
  grooved (canaliculatae), when they are fo deep
as to form a fmall canal.
  notched (crenulatae), when the points of con¬
tact are marked with notches.
   double (duplicatae), accompanied with twTo
ftriae, which run parallel.
  effaced (obfoletae), when the place of jun&ion
is not perceptible.
Siphon (fipho), is a fmall canal fituated in the inter¬
nal part of the (hell of the nautili, which penetrates
into the divifions of w'hich it is compofed. It is
  central (centralis), when it is fituated in the
middle of the divifions.
    lateral (lateralis), fituated at one fide.
  oblique (obliquus), cutting the axis of the di¬
vifions obliquely.
Veins (varices) are elevations or ribs, running in the
direftion of the length of the (hell, formed by the
jun&ion of the different additions w’hich the (hell
has received. They cut the convolutions of the
fpire tranfverfely. They are
  continued (continuatae), proceeding from the
bafe of the fpire to the convolution at the opening,
without interruption.
  fpinous (fpinofae), furniftied with ftrong fpines.
——— interrupted (decuffatae), not correfponding with
the different convolutions.
2
CHAP.
CONCHOLOGY.
Chap. IV.
Claffifica-
tion of
Shells.
CHAP. IV. CLASSIFICATION OF SHELLS.
399
Claffifica-
tion of
Shells.
Claffifica- SHELLS are divided by Linnaeus into multivalve,
tlon' bivalve, and univalve. In the following claffification
the fame arrangement will be adopted ; and we fhall
firft exhibit in one view the charafters of each genus,
in the original language of Linnaeus, with a tranflation
oppolite, for the fake of the Englilh reader ; fo that
the genus of any Ihell may be eafily determined. In
defcribing the fpecies, we lhall obferve the utmoll bre¬
vity, giving fuch charafters t>nly as are neceffary to af¬
ford precife marks of diftindlion. In arranging the
fpecies under each genus, the Britifh fpecies will be
diltinguifhed with an afterilk j fo that, with the ad¬
vantage of a general claffification, this will anfwer the
purpoie of a Britiffi conchology.
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
I. MULTIVALVE SHELLS.
Generic 1 • Chiton. Animal doris. Teftae plures, fecun-
charadler dum longitudinem fibi appofitae dorfo incumbentes.
of multi¬
valves. 2> lepas> Animal triton. Telia bafi affixa multi-
valvis : valvis inaequalibus ereflis.
3. Pholas. Animal afcidia. Telia bivalvis divari-
cata, cum minoribus accellbriis difformibus: cardo re-
curvatus cartilagine connexus.
1. C. Animal inhabiting the Ihell a doris. Shell
confilling of feveral fegments or valves difpofed down
the back.
2. L. Animal a triton. Shell affixed at the bafe,
and confining of many unequal ere<5l valves.
3. P. Animal an afcidia. Shell bivalve, divaricate,
differently lhaped j acceffory valves : hinges bent back,
united by a cartilage : beneath the hinge internally, is
an incurved tooth.
\
II. BIVALVE SHELLS.
Of bivalves. 4* My A. Animal afcidia. Teffa bivalvis hians, ut
plurimum, altera extremitate : cardo dente (plerifque
uno) folido, craffo, patulo, vacuo 5 nec inferto tellae
appofitae.
5. Soleh. Animal afcidia. Teffa bivalvis oblon-
ga, utroque latere hians. Cardo dens fubulatus reffex-
us, faepe duplex, non infertus teffae appofitae, margo
lateralis magis obfoletus.
6. Tellina. Animal tethys. Teffa bivalvis, an-
terius hinc ad alterum latus flexa. Cardinis dentes ut
plurimum tres: laterales plani alterius teffse.
7. Cardium. Animal tethys. Teffa bivalvis fub-
sequilatera, aequivalvis plerumque convexa, longitu-
dinaliter coffata, ftriata aut fulcata, margine dentata.
Cardo dentibus mediis binis alternatis : altero ut pluri-
xnum incurvo ; lateralibus remotis infertis.
8. Mactra. Animal tethys. Teffa bivalvis, in-
eequilatera, aequivalvis. Cardo dente medio complica¬
te cum adjedla foveola, lateralibus remotis infertis.
9. Donax. Animal tethys. Telia bivalvis, mar¬
gine faepe crenulato antico obtufiffimo. Cardo denti¬
bus duobus 5 marginalique folitario (rarius duplice,
triplice, aut nullo) fubremoto fub ano.
to. Venus. Animal tethys. Telia bivalvis; la-
biis margine antico incumbentibus. Cardo dentibus
tribus, omnibus approximatis, lateralibus apice diver-
ggntibus.
4. M. Animal an afcidia. Shell bivalve, generally
gaping at one end. Hinge with broad, thick, ftrong
teeth (feldom more than one), and not inferted into
the oppofite valve.
5. S. Animal an afcidia. Shell bivalve, oblong,
open at both ends. Hinge with a fubulate, refledled
tooth, often double, and not inferted in the oppofite*
valve, the lateral margin more effaced.
6. T. Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve, generally
Hoping on one fide, in the fore part of one valve a
convex, of the other a concave fold. Hinge ufually
with three teeth : the lateral ones in one {hell being
fmooth.
7. C. Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve, nearly equi¬
lateral, aequivalve, generally convex, longitudinally
ribbed, ftriated or grooved, with a toothed margin.
Hinge with two teeth near the beak, and a larger re¬
mote lateral one on each fide, each locking into the
oppofite.
8. M. Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve, of unequal
fides, and aequivalve. Middle tooth of the hinge com¬
plicated, with a frnall hollow on each fide, lateral ones
remote and inferted into each other.
9. D. Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve, generally
with a notched margin : the frontal margin very ob-
tufe. Hinge with two teeth, and a fingle marginal
one placed behind (rarely double, triple, or none).
10. V. Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve ; the fron¬
tal margin flattened with incumbent lips. Hinge with
three teeth, all approximate ; the lateral ones divergent
at the tip.
400 CONCH
Claffifica- ii. Spondylus. Animal tethys. Telia inaequi-
tion of Valvis rigida. Cardo dentibus duobus recurvis, cum
. Shells- , foveola intermedia.
I2# Chama. Animal tethys. Telia bivalvis craf-
fior, cardo callo gibbo, oblique inferto foflulse obliquae.
13. Arca. Animal tethys ? Telia bivalvis aequi-
valvis. Cardo dentibus numerofis, acutis alternis in-
fertis.
14. Ostrea. Animal tethys. Telia bivalvis (plu-
rimis inaequivalvis fubaurita. Cardo edentulus, foffu-
la cava, ovata, fulcifque (in plurimis) lateralibus tranf-
verlis.
15. Anomia. Animal corpus ligula emarginata ci-
liata : ciliis valvae fuperiori affixis : brachiis duobus li-
nearibus corpore longioribus conniventibus porreflis,
valvae alternis utrinque ciliatis : ciliis affixis valvge utri-
que : tella insequivalvis, valva altera planiufcula, al¬
tera ball magis gibba : parum altera ball fepe perfora¬
ta. Cardo cicatricula lineari prominente introrfum
dente laterali *, valvae vero planioris in ipfo margine.
Radii duo offei pro ball animalis.
Mytilus. Animal afcidia ? Telia bivalvis,
rudis, fepius affixa byffo, ut plurimum, craffiori. Car¬
do in plurimis edentulus, dillindlus, paucis exceptis, li-
nea fubulata, excavata longitudinali.
17. Pinna. Animal limax. Telia fub-bivalvis fra-
gilis, erefta hians, emittens barbam byffinam. Cardo
edentulus, coalitis in unam valvis.
O L O G Y. Chap. IV,
11. S. Animal a tethys. Shell hard, folid, with Claffifica-
unequal valves. Hinge with two recurved teeth, fepa-
rated by a fmall cavity. , °
12. C. Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve, rather
coarfe. Hinge with a callous protuberance, obliquely
inferted in an oblique hollow.
13. A. Animal a tethys ? Shell bivalve equivalve.
Hinge with numerous lharp teeth, alternately inferted
between each other.
14. O. Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve, generally
with unequal valves, and llightly eared. Hinge with¬
out teeth, but furniffied with an ovate cavity, and in
moil with lateral, tranfverfe furrow’s.
15. A. Animal an emarginate, ciliated, flrap-ffiap-
ed body, with bridles attached to the upper valve f
arms two, linear, longer than the body, projecting
and approaching together, alternate on the valve, and
ciliated on each fide, with briftles affixed to each valve.
Shell inequivalve, one of the valves flattiffi, the other ,
protuberant at the bafe : one of the valves often per¬
forated near the bafe. Hinge with a linear prominent
cicatrix, and a lateral tooth placed within •, hut on the
very margin of the flat valve there are two bony rays
for the bafe of the animal.
16. M. Animal an afcidia ? Shell bivalve, rough,
generally affixed by a byffus or beard of filky filaments.
Hinge moftly without teeth, and in moll cafes with a
fubulate, hollow, longitudinal line.
17. P. Animal a limax. Shell bivalve, brittle,
gaping at one end, and having a byffus or beard.
Hinge without teeth, the valves being united into
one.
III. UNIVALVE SHELLS.
SJnivalves. 18. ArgonAutA. Animal fepia aut clio. Telia
univalvis, fpiralis, involuta, membranacea, unilocularis.
19. Nautilus. Animal? Telia univalvis, illhmis
perforatis concamerata, polythalamia.
* 20. Conus. Animal limax. Telia univalvis con-
voluta, turbinata ; apertura effufa, longitudinalis, line¬
aris, edentula, bafi Integra •, columella levis.
21. Cypraea. Animal limax. Telia univalvis, in¬
voluta, fub-ovata, obtufa, laevis. Apertura utrinque ef¬
fufa, linearis utrinque dentata longitudinalis.
2 2 Bulla. Animal limax. Telia univalvis con-
voluta, inermis. Apertura fub-coarttata, oblonga, lon¬
gitudinalis, ball integerrima. Columella obliqua, lae-
vis.
23. Voluta. Animal limax. Telia unilocularis
fpiralis. Apertuia ecaudata, fub-effufa. Columella
plicata : labio umbilicove (ut plurimum) nullo.
24. Buccinum. Animal limax. Telia univalvis,
fpiralis, gibbofa. Apertura ovata delinens in canalicu-
lum (retufam lacunam) dextrum, cauda retufa. La¬
bium interius explanatum.
25. Strombus. Animal limax. Telia univalvis,
fpiralis, latere arapliata. Apertura labro faepius dila-
tato, delxnens in capalem finiftrum.
26. Mu rex. Animal limax. Telia univalvis, fpi¬
ralis, exafperata futuris membranaceis. Apertura deli-
18. A. Animal a fepia or clio. Shell univalve,
fpiral, involute, membranaceous, one cell,
19. N. Animal ? Shell univalve, divided into feve-
ral chambers communicating with each other.
20. C. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, convolute,
turbinate •, aperture effufe, longitudinal, linear, with¬
out teeth ; entire at the bafe. Pillar fmooth.
21. C. Animal a Hug. Shell univalve, involute,
fubovate, fmooth, obtufe. Aperture effufe at each end,
linear, extending the whole length of the ffiell, and
toothed on each fide.
22. B. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, convolute,
without teeth. Aperture a little narrowed, oblong, lon¬
gitudinal, quite entire at the bafe. Pillar oblique and
fmooth.
23. V. Animal a limax. Shell one cell, fpiral.
Aperture without a beak, and fomewhat effufe. Pillar
twilled or plaited : generally without lips or perfora-
tion.
24. B. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, fpiral, gib¬
bous. Aperture ovate, ending in a ffiort canal, lean¬
ing to the right, with a retufe beak. Internal or pil¬
lar lip expanded.
25. S. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, fpiral, en¬
larged at the fide. Aperture dilated with the lip ex¬
panding. and ending in a groove towards the left.
26 M. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, fpiral,
rough, with membranaceous futures. Aperture oval,
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