' ^6 c .
cit-Z-
Encyclopaedia Britannica.
L I E
L I E
^iege‘ 1" IEGE, a bifhoprii of Germany, in the circle of
“_'v 1. a Weftphalia j bounded to the north by Brabant, to
the fouth by Champagne and Luxemburg, to the eaft by
Limburg and Juliers, and to the well by Brabant,
Namur, and Hainault. It is very unequal both in
length and breadth j the former being in fome places
above go miles, in others not half fo much ; and the
latter in fome places 45, in others hardly 25. The
air here is very temperate 5 and the foil fruitful in
corn, v/ine, wood, and pallure. Here alfo are mines
of lead and iron, pits of coal, quarries of marble and
done, and fome celebrated mineral waters, as thofe
of Spa and Chau-fontaine. "I he principal rivers are,
the Maes and Sambre. The manufactures and com¬
modities of the country are chiedy beer, arms, nails,
ierge, leather, with the produCls we have juft men¬
tioned. The ftates of the bilhopric are compofed of
three bodies : the firft is the chapter of Liege j the
feccnd, the nobility of the country 5 and the third, the
deputies of the capital and the other towns. The
three eftates are feldom called together, except to
raife taxes for the fervice of the province, or upon
fome particular emergency ; but there is a committee
of the dates, who meet thrice a-week, and in time of
war daily. They are always about the prince-bilhop,
to make remonilrances, and demand the redrefs of
grievances. The bilhop is fpiritual and temporal lord
of the whole country ; but, as bilhop, is fuftragan to
the archbilhop of Cologne. He ftyles himfelf, by the
grace of God, hi/hop and prince of Liege, duke of Bouil¬
lon, marquis of Franchimont, count of Look, Hoorn, &c.
His arms for Liege are, a pillar argent, on a pedeftal
of the fame, with a crown or, in a field ruby. In the
matricula he was formerly rated at 50 horfe and 170
foot; or j 280 florins monthly, in lieu of them, but
now only at 826. An abatement of one-third has alfo
been granted of the ancient afleffment to the chamber-
court, which was 360 rix-dollars 624- kruitzers for each
term. Here are feveral colleges which fit at Liege, for
the government of the country, and the deciiion of
caules, civil, criminal, fpiritual, and feudal, and of
Inch aKo as relate to the finances. The chapter con-
fills of 60 perfons, who mull either prove their nobility
for four generations, both by father and mother, be¬
fore they can be admitted : or if they cannot do that,
rnufi at leaft have been doftors or licentiates of divi¬
nity for feven years, or, of lawT, for five years, in fome
famous univerlity. Ihe bifhopric is very populous
Voin. XII. Part I.
and extenfive, containing 1500 parifhes, in which are Liege,
24 walled towns, befides others, 52 baronies, befides' v--’
counties and feigniories, 17 abbeys for men, who
muft be all gentlemen, and 11 for ladies, exclufive of
others.
Liege, the capital of the bifhopric of the fame
name, Hands upon the Maes, in a fine valley, fur-
rounded with woods and hills, being a free imperial
city, and one of the largeft and mofl eminent in Europe.
Though it is 100 miles from the fea by water, the
Maes is navigable up to it. The city has 16 gates j
17 bridges, fome of them very handfome ; 154 ilreets,
many of them ftraight and broad ; a fine epifcopal
palace ; a very large {lately cathedral, in which, be¬
fides five great filver coffers full of relics, are feveral
filver ftatues of faints, and a St George on horfeback
of malfy gold, prefented to the cathedral by Charles
the Bold, by way of atonement for ufing the inhabit¬
ants cruelly in the year 1468. Of the other churches,
that of St Paul is the moil remarkable, both for its
ftructure and fine ornaments in painting and marble.
The city is well fortified, and there are alfo two
caftles on the mountain of the Holy Walburg for its
defence. Befides a great number of other convents of
both fexes, here is a college of Englifh'Jefuits, found¬
ed in the year 1616, and a fine nunnery of Engliih
ladies. Indeed, churches, convents, and other reli¬
gious foundations, take up the greater part of it.
The reader, therefore, no doubt, will take it for
granted, that it is a moft bleffed, holy, and happy
city. But however it may fare with the profane, un¬
hallowed laity, it is certainly the paradife of priefts,
as it is exprefsly called, by way of eminence. It is
divided into the old and new, or the upper and lower;
and the latter again into the ifland, and the quarter
beyond the Maes. The houfes are high, and built
of bluifh marble. In the town and fuburbs are 12
public places or fquares, 10 hofpitals, a beguin-houfe,
and two fine quays, planted with feveral rows of trees,
for the burghers to take the air j but a great part of
that within the walls is taken up with orchards and
vineyards. The manufadtures of this city are arms,
nails, leather, ferge, and beer. In St William’s
convent, without the city, is the tomb of the famous
Englilh traveller Sir John Mandeville, with an infcrip-
tion in barbarous French, requefting thofe who read it
to pray for his foul. Near it are kept the faddle,
fpurs, and knife, that he made ufe of in his travels.
A After
LIE [2
After having feen inoft of the cities of any note in the
world, he made choice of this to fpend the eve of his
life in. A little way from the city, on the other fide
of the Maes, ftands the epifcopal palace of Seraing, in
which the bifhops generally refide during the fummer.
The latitude of this city is 50. 36. N. and the longitude
5. 40. E. .
Some difturbances took place here in the year 1789,
in confequence of certain difputes that had arifen be¬
tween the prince-biihop and the inhabitants. The lat¬
ter having demanded certain privileges, which he did
not think proper to grant, they took up arms, and com¬
pelled him and his chapter to comply with their re-
queft. The prince, together with many of the clergy,
nobility, and citizens, alarmed by this commotion, and
dreading the confequences of popular fury, which when
once roufed feldom knows any bounds, fought fafety by
a voluntary exile. They then appealed to the imperial
chamber j and this tribunal, inftead of afting the part
of arbiter*, dee*ided as a fovereign, and ordered the cir¬
cles of the Lower Rhine and Weftphalia to execute the
fentence.
The king of Prufiia, at whole court one of the chiefs
of the infurre&ion had refided, and who wilhed to gain
a party at Liege, became mediator *, and feemed to fa¬
vour the Liegoife, many of w'hofe claims were juft,
though they attempted to enforce them by violence
and the moft illegal fteps. Intoxicated with this pro-
te&ion, the people of Liege treated the remonftrances
of their bilhop, the decrees of the imperial chamber,
and the refolutions of the dire&ory of the two circles,
with the utmoft contempt; and proceeded fo far as
even to dethrone their prince, by appointing a regent
in the perfon of a French prelate. The ele&oral col¬
lege having deliberated on the belt means of putting
an end to thefe difturbances, its propofitions, though
modified by M. Dohm the Pruflian plenipotentiary,
made the infurgents break out into open fedition. De¬
luded by their leaders, they gave themfelves up every
day to new exceffes $ the effe&s of the citizens were
expofed to pillage, and their perfons to infult. The
king of Pruflia, who was defirous to bring matters to
an accommodation, and not to inftigate the Liegoife to
become independent, finding that the efforts of his
minifter were not attended with the defired fuccefs,
feemed unwilling to interfere an^ farther in an affair
which might have led him into a quarrel with the em¬
pire. The executive troops, at the fame time, re¬
mained almoft in a ftate of inactivity •, and feemed ra¬
ther to guard the frontiers of this petty ftate, than to
make any attempt to reduce it to obedience. Neither
this conduCt, however, nor the exhortations of Pruflia,
added to the moral certainty of their being foon com¬
pelled to lay down their arms, made any change in the
conduCt of the malecontents. They declared openly,
in the face of all Europe, that they would either con¬
quer or die 5 and they perfifted in this refolution, w’hile
commerce, manufactures, and the public revenues,
were going daily to decay.
Having at length openly attacked the executive
forces without the territories of their city, the emperor
could no longer remain an indifferent fpeftator. It
was now full time to put a period to that madnefs to
which the people had abandoned themfelves $ and to
accomplifh this in . an effeCLial. manner, the imperial
] LIE
chamber at Wetzlar requefted the emperor, as a mem-
ber of the ancient circle of Burgundy, to execute its Lienter
orders refpeCling this objeCt. In confequence of this
meafure, Baron Alvinzi, who commanded a body of
Auftrians cantoned in Limburg and the confines of
Brabant, notified, by order of Marfhal Bender, to
the ftates and municipality of Liege, that the em¬
peror intended to fend troops into their city and terri¬
tories, for the purpofe of reftoring tranquillity and
good order. The ftates had already been informed of
this refolution by their agent at Wetzlar. They there¬
fore wrote to Marftial Bender, to affure him of the
refpeClful confidence which they placed in the juftice
and magnanimity of the emperor, and to requeft that
the Auftrian troops might enter alone, without thofe of
the eleftors j and that they might be confined to occu¬
py the gates and the fuburbs only. To this letter,
which was carried to Bruffels by a deputation of the
ftates, Marlhal Bender returned a very fatisfaClory an-
fwer, relating to the difpofition of the electoral troops :
but Baron Alvinzi, in a note which he w’rote to the
ftates, infifted among other articles, that all the citi¬
zens fhould throw down their arms ; that proper accom¬
modations fhould be prepared for the officers and men j
that the warlike ftores, collected for making refiftance,
fhould be removed \ and that cockades, and every other
diftinCtive mark of the like kind, ftiould be laid afide
before the arrival of the imperial troops. However
humiliating thefe preliminaries might be, efpecially
that of a general difarming, the ftates and municipali¬
ties acquiefced w’ithout the leaft referve •, and their fub-
miffion, as hidden as complete, was communicated to
the people, with an exhortation to follow' their ex¬
ample.
Notwithftanding this pacific appearance, two days
before the entrance of the imperial troops, the muni¬
cipal council of Liege, flattering themfelves, perhaps,
with the hopes of affiftance from Pruflia, affured the
inhabitants that they would remain unfhaken in their
poft, and that they had fworn never to defert the caufe
in which they were engaged. This, however, did not
prevent the Auftrian troops, to the number of 6000,
from penetrating, without oppofition, into the heart
of the city } where they occupied every poft j made
the citizens lay afide their arms, uniforms, and cock¬
ades ; and in a Angle hour, dethroned fo many fove-
reigns of a year. The greater part of the municipal
officers, who two days before had folemnly promifed
fuch great things, betook themfelves to flight, and re¬
tired either to France or Wefel *, while the ancient
magiftracy, which had been expelled in the month of
Auguft 1789, was provifionally reinftated by the di-
re&orial commiflioners.—The decrees of the imperial
chamber at Wetzlar have fince been executed in their
utmoft extent. The ancient magiftracy and the privy
council of the prince-bifhop have been reftored j and
the prince himfelf having returned, peace and good
order have been re-eftablifhed. The French took this
city in 1792, and eflfe&ed another revolution ; but be¬
ing driven from it in 1793, the citizens w'ere once more
obliged to fubmit.
LIENTERY, a flux of the belly, in which' the
aliments are difcharged as they are fwallowed, or very
little altered either in colour or fubftance. See Medi¬
cine Index*
LIEVENS,
LIE f
Lievens, LI EVENS, John or Jan, a celebrated painter, was
Kieou ^>orn at Eeyden in 1607. He difeovered an early in-
‘ 1 olination for the arts, and was the difciple firll: of Jon's
van Schooten, and afterwards of Peter Laftman. He
excelled principally in painting portraits 5 but he alfo
executed feveral hiftorical fubjefts with great fuccefs.
He came over to England, where he refided three
years, and painted the portraits of Charles I. the queen,
the prince of Wales, and feveral of the nobility ; after
which he returned to Antwerp, where he met with
full employment for his pencil. We have feveral etch¬
ings by this mafter, which are performed in a flight,
but mafterly manner. The chiaro feuro is very fkil-
fully managed in them, fo as to produce a moft power¬
ful effedt. His ftyle of etching bears feme refemblance
to that of Rembrandt j but it is coarfer in general, and
lefs finifhed.
LIEOU-KIEOU, the name of certain iflands of
Afia, fubjedf to China j but hitherto little known to
geographers, who have been fatisfied with marking
their exiflence and latitude in their charts. They,
however, form a powerful and extenfive empire, the
inhabitants of which are civilized, and ought not to
be confounded with other favage nations difperfed
throughout the iflands of Afia. Father Gabil, a Je-
fuit, has furnifhed us with fome interefting details re-
fpedling thefe iflanders, which he extradled from a
Chinefe relation, publifhed in 1721, at the end of a
voyage that was undertaken on the follownng account.
The emperor Kang-hi having refolved in 1719, to
fend an ambaflador to the king of Lieou-kieou, chofe
for this purpofe one of the great dodlors of the em¬
pire, named Supao-Koang. This learned man depart¬
ed from China in 1719, and returned to Peking in
1720, where, in the year following, he caufed a rela¬
tion of his voyage to be publiflied in two volumes. It
is in the firft of thefe that he gives an accurate and
particular defeription of the ifles of Lieou-Kieou ; and
what he relates appears to be worthy of the greater cre¬
dit, becaufe, being on the fpot, he examined, as he
himfelf fays, according to the orders of the emperor,
whatever he found curious or interefting, refpefting
the number, fituation, and produ&ions of thefe ifles ;
as alfo the hiftory, religion, manners, and cuftoms of
the people who inhabit them.
Thefe ifles, fituated between Corea, Formofa, and
Japan, are in number 36. The principal and largeft
is called Lieou-Kieou; the reft have each a particular
denomination. The largeft ifland extends from north
to fouth almoft 440 lys, and I 20 or 130 from eaft to
weft ; but on the fouth fide, the extent from eaft to
weft is not 100 lys. The fouth-eaft part of the ifland,
where the court refides, is called Cheou-li; and it is
there that Kint-ching, the capital city, is fituated. The
king’s palace, which is reckoned to be four leagues in
circumference, is built on a neighbouring mountain. It
has four gates, which correfpond to the four cardinal
points j and that which fronts the weft forms the grand
entry. The view which this palace commands is moft
extenfive and delightful j it reaches as far as the port of
Napa-kiang, at the diftance of ten lys, to the city of
Kint ching, and to a great number of other cities,
towns, villages, palaces, temples, monafteries, gardens,
pleafure houfes. It ftands in longitude 146° 26' eaft
and in latitude 26* 2' north.
3 1 L I E
I! we believe thefe iflanders, the origin of their em- Uicra-
pire is loft in the remoteft antiquity. They reckon up . Kieou-
25 fucceffive dynafties, the duration of which forms a
period of more than 18,000 years. It would be ufe-
lefs to employ a ftngle moment in pointing out the ab-
furdity of thefe pretenfions. It is, however, certain,
that the exiftence of the country called Lieou-hieou was
not known in China before the year 605 of the Chrif-
tian era. It was in the courfe of that year, that one
of the emperors of the dynafty of Soui, having heard
of thefe ifles, was defirous of knowing their fituation.
This prince at firft fent fome Chinefe thither but
their expedition proved fruitlefs, as the want of inter¬
preters prevented them from acquiring that knowledge
which was the objeft of their voyage. They only
brought fome of the iflanders with them to Sigan-fou,
the capital of the province of Chen-fi, which was the
ufual refidence of the emperors of the dynafty of S.*-;.
It fortunately happened, that an embaflador of the
king of Japan was then at court. This embaffador
and his attendants immediately knew the ftrangers to
be natives of Lieou-kieou : but they fpoke of thefe
illes as of a miferable and wretched country, the in¬
habitants of which had never been civilized. The em¬
peror of China afterwards learned, that the principal
iiland lay to the eaft of a city called at prefent Fbu-
tcheou-fou, which is the capital of the province of
Fo-kien ; and that, in a paffage of five days, one
might reach the large ifland where the king kept his
court.
On this information, the emperor Yang-ti fent fldl-
ful men, accompanied by interpreters, to fummon the
prince to do homage to the emperor of China, and to
pay him tribute. This propofal was very ill received.
The king of Lieou-kieou fent back the Chinefe, tell¬
ing them fternly, that he acknowledged no prince to
be his fuperior. This anfwer irritated the emperor,
who, to obtain revenge, caufed a fleet to be immediate¬
ly equipped in Fo-kien, in which he embarked x0,000
men. Lhis fleet fet fail, and arrived in fafety at the
port of Napa-kiang. Fhe army, in fpite of every effort
made by the natives, landed on the ifland 5 and the
king, who had put himfelf at the head of his troops to
oppofe the enemy, having fallen in battle, the Chinefe
pillaged, facked, and burnt the royal city, made more
than 5000 Haves, and returned to China.
The emperors of the dynafty of Tang, thofe of the
ftiort dynafties that followed, and thofe of the dynafty
of Song, although they were fully informed of every
thing refpefting the Lieou-kieou ifles, made no at¬
tempts to render them tributary. In 1291, Chi-tfou,
emperor of the dynafty of Yven, was defirous of reviv¬
ing the pretenfions of his predeceffors. He fitted out a
fleet to fubdue thefe iflands; but fchemes of conqueft
had become difagreeable to the Chinefe, fince the dif-
after that befel their army in an expedition againft Ja¬
pan. The fleet of Chi-tfou went no farther than the
ifles of Pong-hou, and the weftern coaft of Formofa,
from whence, under divers pretences, they returned to
the ports of Fo-kien.
It was only in 1372, under the reign of Hong-vou,
founder of the dynafty of Ming, that thefe iflands fub-
mitted voluntarily to the Chinefe government. Hong-
vou had fent one of the grandees of his court to Tfay-
tou, who was then reigning at Lieou-kieou, to inform
A 2 him
Lieou-
Kieou.
LIE [
liira of his acceffion to the throne. The Chinefe noble-
^ man had received particular inftrudions refpefting this
commiffion, and he acquitted himfelf of it with all the
prudence and add refs of an able minifter. In a private
audience which he had with Tfay-tou, he exhorted
this prince to declare himfelf a tributary of the empire,
and laid before him the advantages he would derive
from this Hep. His reafoning, fupported by the power
of his natural eloquence, made fo much impreflion on
the mind of Tfay-tou, that he embraced the propofal
made him, and fent immediately to the emperor to de¬
mand the inveftiture of his Hates. *
Hong-vou received his envoys in a magnificent man¬
ner, and loaded them with prefents. He folemnly de¬
clared Tfay-tou a vaffal of the empire •, and, after hav¬
ing received his firfl tribute (which conliHed in valuable
horfes, aromatic wood, fulphur, copper, tin, &c. he
lent to this prince a golden feal, and confirmed the
choice he had made of one of his fons for fuc. f .'for.
The emperor afterwards fent 36 families, almoft all
from the province of Fo kien to Lieou-kieou. Tfay-
tou received them, afiigned them lands near the port
of Napa-kiang, and appointed certain revenues for their
ufe, at the fame time that Hong-vou made them con-
liderable icmittances. Thefe families firfl; introduced
into Lieou-kieou the learned language of the Chinele,
the ule of their charaflers, and the ceremonies praclifed
in China in honour of Confucius. On the other hand,
the fons of feveral of the grandees of the court of Tfay-
tou were fent to Nan-king, to ftudy Chinefe in the im¬
perial college, where they were treated with ditlimflion,
and maintained at the emperor’s expences.
The iiles of Lieou-kieou had neither iron nor porce¬
lain. Hong-vou fupplied this want 5 he caufed a great
number of utenlils of iron and inftruments to be made,
which he fent thither, together with a quantity of por¬
celain veiTels. Commerce, navigation, and the arts
foon began to flourilh. Thefe iflanders learned to call
bells for their temples, to manufafture paper and the
fineft fluffs, and to make porcelain, with which they
had been fupplied before from Japan.
The celebrated revolution which placed the Tartars
en the imperial throne of China, produced no change
in the conduft of the kings of Lieou-kieou. Chang-
tcbc, who was then reigning, fent ambaffadors to ac¬
knowledge Chun-tchi, and received a feal from him, on
which were engraven feme Tartar chara&ers. It was
then fettled, that the king of Lieou-kieou fhould pay
his tribute only every two years, and that the number
of perfons in the train of his envoys fhould not exceed
15°;
The emperor Kang-hi feemed to pay more atten¬
tion to theie ifles than any of his predeceffors. He
eaufed a fuperb palace to be erefted in honour of Con¬
fucius, and a college where he maintained mafters to
teach the fciences and the Chinefe charafters. He alfo
inflituted examinations for the different degrees of the
literati. He ordained, that the king of Lieou-kieou
fhould never fend in tribute rofe-wood, cloves, or any
other production which was not really of the growth of
the country ; but that he ihould fend a fixed quantity of
fulphur, copper, tin, fhells, and mother of pearl, which
is remarkably pretty in thefe iflands. He permitted,
that, befides the uiual tribute, he might prefent him
horfe-furniture, piftol-cafes, and other things of the
4 ] LIE
fame kind, which thefe iflanders are faid to manufa&ure
with great tafle and neatnefs.
It is more than 900 years fmee the bonzes of China
introduced at Lieou kieou the vvorftiip of Fo, and the
principal books belonging to their fed!. This worftiip
is at prefent the eftablifhed religion both of the gran¬
dees and of the people. There is ftill to be feen in the
royal city a magnificent temple, ere£ted in honour of
another idol borrowed from the Chinefe, named Tein -fcy,
which fignifies cc/cjlial queen or lady.
Thefe iflanders do not make promifes or fwear be¬
fore their idols. When they have occafion to do this,
they burn perfumes, prefent fruits, and Hand refpecl-
fully before fome ftone, which they call to witnels the
folemnity of their engagements. Numbers of ftones
are to be feen in the courts of their temples, in molt
public places, and upon their mountains, which are en¬
tirely appropriated to this purpofe. They have alfo
among them women confecrated for the worfliip of
fpirits, -who are fuppofed to have great influence over
thefe beings. They vifit the fick, diftribute medicines,
and recite prayers for their recovery.
They refpeft the dead as much as the Chinefe, and
they are no lefs ceremonious in wearing mourning j
but their funerals are neither fo pompous, nor attended
with fo much expence. Their coffins, which are of an
hexagonal or odlagonal figure, are three or four feet
high. They burn the fiefh of the bodies of their dead,
and preferve only the bones. They never offer pro-
vifions to them ; they are contented with placing lamps
round them, and burning perfumes.
Different families are diflinguilhed in Lieou-kieou by
furnames, as in China j but a man and a woman of the
fame furname cannot be united in marriage. The king
is not permitted to marry but in the three grand fami¬
lies, which always enjoy the higheft offices. There is
a fourth, of equal diiiinftion to the three former ; but
neither the king nor the princes contract any alliances
with this family 5 for it is doubtful whether it be not
fprung from the fame ftem as the royal line.
A plurality of wives is allowed in thefe ifles. Young
men and young women enjoy the liberty of feeing one
another, and of converfing together j and their union
is always in confequence of their own choice. The wo¬
men are very referved 5 they never ufe paint, and wear
no pendants in their ears \ they colieft their hair on the
top of their heads in the form of a curl, and fix it in
that manner by means of long pins made of gold or
lilver.
Befides the vaft domains which the king poffeffes, he
receives the produce of all the fulphur, copper, and tin
mines, and of the fait pits, together with what arifes-
from taxes. From thefe revenues he pays the falaries
of the mandarins and officers of his court. Thefe fala¬
ries are eftimated at a certain number of facks of rice $
but under this name is comprehended whatever the
king gives in grain, rice, filk, cloth, &c. The
whole is valued according to the price of the facks of
rice.
There are here, as in China, nine orders of manda¬
rins, who are diftinguiffied by the colour of their caps,
or by their girdles and cufliions. The greater part of
the titles of thefe mandarins are hereditary in their
families ; but there are fome which are only beftowed
upon merit. In the royal city there are tribunals efta-
blithed
Licou-
Kieou.
lie r
Lieutaud, bliflied for managing the revenue and affairs of the prln-
Lieutenant. cjpa^ ifland, and of all the others which are dependent
' on it. ' The latter have agents, who refide at court.
There are alfo particular tribunals for civil and criminal
matters ; for whatever concerns the families of the gran¬
dees and princes •, for the affairs of religion ; for in-
fpe&ing the public granaries, king’s revenues, duties j
for commerce, manufa&ures, civil ceremonies, and for
navigation, public edifices, literature, and war.
The veffels that are built in this country are greatly
valued by the people of China and Japan. In thefe
the natives go not only from one illand to another, but
alfo to China, Tong-king, Cochin-China, Corea, Nanga-
za-ki, Satfuma, the neighbouring ifles, and to Formofa,
where they difpofe of their different commodities. Be-
fides thofe articles of commerce which their manufac¬
tures of filk, cotton, paper, arms, copper utenfils, &c.
furnuh them, they alfo export mother-of-pearl, tortoife
and other (hells, coral and whetftones, which are in
great requeft both in China and Japan.
LIEUTAUD, Dr Joseph, counfellor of (late and
firft phylician at the court of France, was born at Aix
In Provence, and refided principally there till he took
the degree of doctor of medicine. After this he profe-
cuted his ftudies for fome years at Montpelier. , He
returned to Aix, where he foon acquired extenfive
practice, and became eminent for literary abilities. He
refided there till the year 1750, when he was invited
to a6t as phyfician to the royal infirmary at Ver-
failles. There he practifed with fuch reputation and
fuccefs, that he foon arrived at the head of his pro-
feffion $ and in tlie year 1774, upon the death of M.
Senac, he was appointed archiater. His extenfive en¬
gagements in practice did not prevent him from culti¬
vating the fcience of medicine in all its branches, and
from freely communicating to others the refult of his
own ftudies. He publifhed many valuable works 5 a-
mongft which the following may be accounted the moft
remarkable. Element a Vhijsiologice. 2. Precis de la
Medicine. 3. Pratique Precis de la Matiere Medicals.
4. E/Jais Anatomiques. 5. Synopjis Univerfce Praxeos
Medicines. 6. Hijioria Anatomico-Medica. He died at
Verfailles in 1780, aged 78 years.
LIEUTENANT, an officer who fupplies the place
and difeharges the office of a fuperior in his abfenefe.
Of thefe, fome are civil, as the lords-lieutenants of
kingdoms, and the lords-lieutenants of counties j and
others are military, as the lieutenant-general, lieutenant-
colonel, &c.
Lord-LiEUTENANT of Ireland, is properly a viceroy ;
and has all the ftate and grandeur of a king of Eng¬
land, except being ferved upon the knee. He has the
power of making war and peace, of beftowing all the
offices under the government, of dubbing knights, and
of pardoning all crimes except high treafon *, he alfo
calls and prorogues the parliament, but no bill can pafs
without the royal affent. He is affifted in his govern¬
ment by a privy council j and, on his leaving the king¬
dom, he appoints the lords of the regency, who govern
in his abfence.
Lords-LiEVTENANTs of Counties, are officers, who
upon any invafion or rebellion, have power to raife
the militia, and to give commiflions to colonels and
other officers, to arm and form them into regiments,
troops, and companies. Under the lords-lieutenants,
; 1 lie
are deputy-lieutenants, who have the fame power; Lieute
thefe are chofen by the lords-lieutenants, out of the
principal gentlemen of each county, Slid prefented to
the king for his approbation. ,
LiEUTENANT-Colonel. See Colonel.
LiEu^ENANT-General. See General.
Lieutenant, in the land fervice, is the fecond
commiffioned officer in every company of both foot
and horfe, and next to the captain, and who takes the
command upon the death or abfence of the captain.
Lieutenant of Artillery. Each company of ar¬
tillery hath four; 1 firft and 3 fecond lieutenants.
The firft lieutenant hath the fame detail of duty v;ith
the captain, becaufe in his abfence he commands the
company : he is to fee that the foldiers are clean and
neat; that their clothes, arms, and accoutrements, are
in good and ferviceable order; and to wTatch over every
thing elfe which may contribute to their health. He
muft give attention to their being taught the exercife,
fee them pun&ually paid, their meffes regularly kept,
and to vifit them in the hofpitals when fick. He muft:
aflift at all parades, &c. He ought to underhand the
do&rine of proje&iles and the fcience of artillery, with
the various eft'e<fts of gunpowder, however managed
or dire&ed j to enable him to conftruft and difpofe.
his batteries to the beft advantage; to plant his can¬
non, mortars, and howitzers, (b as to produce the
greateft annoyance to an enemy. He is to be well
(killed in the attack and defence of fortified places j
and to be converfant in arithmetic, mathematics, me¬
chanics, &c.
Second Lieutenant in the Artillery, is the fame as
an enfign in an infantry regiment, being the youngeft
commulioned officer in the company, and muft affift
the firft lieutenant in the detail of the company’s duty.
His other qualifications (hould be equal with thofe of
the firft lieutenant.
Lieutenant of a Ship of War, the officer next in
rank and power to the captain, in whofe abfence he is
accordingly charged with the command of the (hip, as
alfo the execution of whatever orders he may have re ¬
ceived from the commander relating to the king’s fer¬
vice.
The lieutenant who commands the watch at fea,
keeps a lift of all the officers and men thereto belong¬
ing, in order to mufter them when he judges it expe¬
dient, and report to the captain the names of thofe
who are abfent from their duty. During the night
watch, he occafionally vifi^s the lower decks, or fends
thither a careful officer, to fee that the proper centinels
are at their duty, and that there is no diforder amongft
the men •, no tobacco fmoked between decks, nor any
fire or candles burning there, except the lights which
are in lanthorns, under the care of a proper watch, on
particular occafions. He is expetled to be always up¬
on deck in his watch, as well to give the neceffary or¬
ders with regard to trimming the fails and fuperintend-
ing the navigation, as to prevent any noife or con-
fufion j but he is never to change the fhip’s courfe with¬
out the captain’s diredlions, unlefs to avoid an im¬
mediate danger.
The lieutenant, in time of battle, is particularly to
fee that all the men are prefent at their quarters
where they have been previoufly ftationed according
to the, regulations made by the captain. He orders
and
L I F [6
and exhorts them everywhere to perform their duty,
and acquaints the captain at all other times of the mif-
behaviour of any perlon in the fhip, and of whatever
elfe concerns the fervice or difcipline.
The youngeft lieutenant in the fhip, who is alfo
ft'yled lieutenant at arms, befides his common duty, is
particularly ordered, by his inftruftions, to train the
feamen to the ufe of fmall arms, and frequently to ex-
ercife and dilcipline them therein. Accordingly his
office, in time of battle, is chiefly to direft and attend
them ^ and at all other times to have a due regard to
the prefervation of the fmall arms, that they be not loft
or embezzled, and that they are kept clean and in good
condition for fervice.
LiEUTENANV-Reformed, he whofe company or troop
is broke or difbanded, but continued in whole or half
pay, and ftill preferves his right of feniority and rank
in the army.
LIFE, is peculiarly ufed to denote the animated
ftate of living creatures, or the time that the union of
their foul and body lafts.
The Prolongation of Life is made by Lord Bacon one
of the three branches of medicine •, the other two re¬
lating to the prefervation of health, and the cure of
difeafes. See Medicine.
The theory of prolonging life he numbers among the
defiderata. Some means or indications that feem to
lead to it, he lays down as follow :
Things are preferved in two manners; either in their
identity, or by reparation. In their identity; as a fly or
ant in amber ; a flower, or fruit, or wood, in a con-
fervatory of fnow; a dead carcafe in balfams. By
reparation; as a flame, or a mechanical engine, &c. To
attain to the prolongation of life, both thefe methods
muft be ufed. And hence, according to him, arife
three intentions for the prolongation of life ; Retarda¬
tion of confumption, proper reparation, and renovation
of what begins to grow old.
Confumption is occafioned by two kinds of depreda¬
tion ; a depredation of the innate fpirit, and a depre¬
dation of the ambient air. Thefe may be each pre¬
vented two ways; either by rendering thofe agents lefs
predatory, or by rendering the paffive parts (viz. the
juices of the body), lefs liable to be preyed on. The
fpirit -will be rendered lefs predatory, if either its fub-
ftance be condenfed, as by the ufe of opiates, grief,
&c.; or its quantity diminifhed, as in fpare and mo-
naftic diets; or its motion calmed, as in idlenefs and
tranquillity. The ambient air becomes lefs predatory,
if it be either lefs heated by the rays of the fun, as in
cold climates, in caves, mountains, and anchorets cells;
or be kept off from the body, as by a denfe fkin, the
feathers of birds, and the ufe of oils and unguents with¬
out aromatics. The juices of the body are rendered
lefs liable to be preyed on, either by making them
harder or more moift and oily; harder, as by a coarfe
fharp diet, living in the cold, robuft exercifes, and fome
mineral baths : nioifter, as by the ufe of fweet foods,
&c. abftaining from falts and acids; and efpecially by
fhch a mixture of drink as conflfts wholly of fine fub-
tile particles, without any acrimony or acidity.
Reparation is performed by means of aliment; and
alimentation is promoted four ways: By the concoftion
of the vifcera, fo as to extrude the aliment: By exciting
the exterior parts to the attra&ion of the aliment; as
] L I F
in proper exercifes and frications, and fome unflions
and baths; By the preparation of the food itfelf, fo
as it may more eafily infinuate itfelf, and in fome mea-
fure anticipate the digeftion ; as in various ways of
dreffing meats, mixing driilks, fermenting breads, and
reducing the virtues of thefe three into one : By pro¬
moting the aft of affimilation itfelf, as in feafonable
fleep, fome external application, &c.
The renovation of what begins to grow' old, is per¬
formed tw7o ways : By the inteneration of the habit of
the body ; as in the ufe of emollients, emplafters, unc¬
tions, &c. of fuch a nature, as do not extraft but im-
prefs: Or by purging off the old juices, and fubftitut-
ing freffi ones; as in feafonable evacuations, attenuat¬
ing diets, &c.
The fame author adds thefe three axioms : That the
prolongation of life is to be expefted, rather from fome
ftated diets, than either from any ordinary regimen or
any extraordinary medicines; more from operating on
the fpirits, and mollifying the parts, than from the
manner of feeding ; and this mollifying of the parts
wdthout is to be performed by fubftantials, impriments,
and occludents. See Longevity.
Life Boat, a moft important invention, confifting in
an improvement of the ordinary conftruftion of a boat,
by which it cannot be funk in the rougheft fea; fo that
it is peculiarly fitted for bringing off mariners from
wrecks during a ftorm, and thus faving many valuable
lives. The life-boat was firft conceived at South Shields,
in the county of Durham. A committee of the inha¬
bitants of that town, who had often been the fad wit-
neffes of many melancholy (hipwrecks in w'hich by the
ordinary means no relief could be given, in a public ad-
vertifement requefted information on this fubjeft, with
models of boats which would be moft proper for the
purpofe of faving perfons from fliipwreck. The com¬
mittee it would appear, employed Mr Greathead, a
boat-builder in South Shields, who had with others
prefented the model of a boat for this purpofe, to build
the firft boat, which upon trial was found fully to an-
fwer the purpofe. Two claimants have fince appeared
for the honour of the invention, which according to
Mr Fades, the chairman of the committee, in his letter
to Mr Hails the fupporter of one claim, belongs to two
of the members themfelves, namely Mr Fades himfelf
and Mr Rockwood. The claimants above alluded to
are Mr Greathead, and a Mr Wouldhave a painter in
South Shields, and a very ingenious man, who alfo pre¬
fented a model to the committee. The claim of the latter
is keenly fupported by Mr Hails, in a pamphlet publilhed
in 1806, two years after Mr Greathead’s pamphlet con¬
taining the hiftory and progrefs of the invention, and of
the boats which he had built for the purpofe, his applica¬
tion to parliament, and the premium of 1200I. which he
received for the invention, &c. and four years after this
application to parliament. It is true that in 1802,
Mr Wouldhave and his friends afferted his claim in the
Monthly Magazine and in fome provincial newfpapers;
but ftill this was one year after Mr Greathead’s appli¬
cation for reward was made to parliament. But, with¬
out being at all underftood to decide to whom the
merit of the invention is due, we (hall leave it to
our readers to examine the evidence for themfelves, and
fhall now proceed to give an account of the conftruc-
tion of the life-boat, of which 31 have been built by
Mr
L 1 f r :
Life-Boat. Mr Greathead, and fent to different parts of Britain,
' tind the north of Europe. The following conltrudHon
is according to Mr Greathead’s plan :
“ The length thirty feet; the breadth ten feet j the
depth, from the top of the gunwale to the lower part
of the keel in midlhips, three feet four inches j from the
gunwale to the platform (within) two feet four inches *,
from the top of the Hems (both ends being fimilar) to
the bottom of the keel, five feet nine inches. The keel
is a plank of three inches thick, of a proportionate
breadth in midlhips, narrowing gradually toward the
ends, to the breadth of the Items at the bottom, and
forming a great convexity downward ; the Hems are
fegments of a circle with confiderable rakes; the bot¬
tom fedtion, to the floor heads, is a curve fore and aft
with the fwTeep of the keel j the floor timber has a fmall
rife curving from the keel to the floor heads 5 a bilge
plank is wrought in on each fide next the floor heads,
with a double rabbit or groove of a fimilar thicknefs
with the keel, and on the outfide of this are fixed two
bilge-trees correfponding nearly with the level of the
keel 5 the ends of the bottom fe&ion form that fine
kind of entrance obfervable in the lower part of the
bow of the fifhing boat called a coble, much ufed in the
north •, from this part to the top of the- ftem, it is more
elliptical, forming a confiderable projection ; the fides
from the floor heads to the top of the gunwale, flaunch
off on each fide, in proportion to about half the breadth
of the floor ; the breadth is continued far forward to¬
ward the ends, leaving a fufficient length of ftraight
fide at the top ; the ftieer is regular along the ftraight
fide, and more elevated toward the ends j the gunwale
fixed on the outfide is three inches thick j the fides,
from the under part of the gunwale along the whole
length of the regular ftieer, extending twrenty-one feet
fix inches, are cafed with layers of cork, to the depth
of 16 inches downward •, and the thicknefs of this cafing
of cork being four inches, it proje&s at the top a little
without the gunwale ; the cork on the outfide is fecured
with thin plates or flips of copper, and the boat is fa-
ftened with copper nails ; the thwarts (or feats) are five
in number, double banked, confequently the boat may
be rowed with ten oars; the thwarts are firmly ftan-
chioned ; the fide oars are ftiort (a), with iron tholes,
and rope grommets, fo that the rower can pull either
w^ay. The boat is fleered with an oar at each end ; and
the fleering oar is one-third longer than the rowing
oar ; the platform placed at the bottom within the boat,
is horizontal the length of the midfhips, and elevated at
the ends, for the convenience of the fteerman, to give
him a greater power with the oar. The internal part
of the boat next the fides, from the under part of the
thwarts down to the platform, is cafed with cork ; the
whole quantity of which, affixed to the life-boat, is
nearly feven hundred weight ; the cork indifputably
contributes much to the buoyancy of the boat when
full of water, is a good defence when going alongfide a
veffel, and is of principal ufe in keeping the boat in an
ere£l pofition in the fea, or rather of giving her a very
] LIE
lively and quick difpofition to recover from any fudden Life-
cant or lurch which fhe may receive from the ftroke of '
a heavy wave : but, exclufive of the cork, the admi¬
rable conftru£lion of this boat gives it a decided pre¬
eminence. The ends being fimilar, the boat can be
rowed either w7ay,- and. this peculiarity of form allevi¬
ates her in rifing over the waves ; the curvature of the
keel and bottom facilitates her movement in turning,
and contributes to the eafe of the fteerage, as a Angle
ftroke of the fleering oar has an immediate effedl, the
boat moving as it were upon a centre ; the fine en¬
trance below is of ufe in dividing the waves, when
rowing againft them ; and combined with the convexi¬
ty of the bottom and the elliptical form of the ftem,
admits her to rife with wonderful buoyancy in a high
fea, and to launch forward with rapidity, without (hip¬
ping any water, when a common boat would be in dan¬
ger of being filled. The flaunching or fpreading form
of the boat, from the floor heads to the gunwale, gives
her a confiderable bearing; and the continuation of the
breadth w'ell forward, is a great fupport to her in the
fea ; and it has been found by experience that boats of
this conllrudlion are the beft fea boats for rowing a-
gainft the turbulent waves. The internal (hallownefs
of the boat from the gunwale down to the platform, the
convexity of the form, and the bulk of cork within,
leave a very diminiflied fpace for the water to occupy ;
fo that the life boat, when filled with water, contains
a confiderably lefs quantity than the common boat, and
is in no danger either of finking or overturning.
It may be prefumed by fome, that in cafes of high
wind, agitated fea, and broken weaves, a boat of fuch
a bulk could not prevail againft them by the force of
the oars; but the life-boat, from her peculiar form,
may be rowed a head, when the attempt in other boats
would fail (b). Boats of the common form, adapted
for fpeed, are of courfe put in motion with a fmall
pow7er; but for want of buoyancy and bearing, are
overrun by the waves and funk, wThen impelled againft
them : and boats conftrufted for burthen, meet with
too much refiftance from the wind and fca, when oppo-
fed to them, and cannot in fuch cafes be rowed from
the (hore to a (hip in diftrefs. An idea has been enter¬
tained that the fuperior advantages of the life-boat are
to be aferibed folely to the quantity of cork affixed;
but this is a very erroneous opinion, and I trufl has ,
been amply refuted by the preceding obfervations on .
the conftru&ion of this boat. It muft be admitted that
the application of cork to common boats would add to
their buoyancy and fecurity y and it might be a ufeful
expedient, if there was a quantity of cork; on board of .
(hips, to prepare the boats with, in cafes of (htpwreck,
as it might be expeditioufly done in a temporary way,
by means of clamps, or fome other contrivance. The
application of cork to fome of the boats of his majefty’s
(hips (the launches) might be worthy of confideration,
more particularly, as an experiment.might be made at
a little expence, and without injury to the boats,
“ The life-boat is kept in a boat-houfe, and placed
upon
(a) The (hort oar is more manageable, in a, high fea, than the long oar, and its ftroke is more certain.
(b) An extraordinary cafe might certainly happen, when a forcible combination of the wind, the waves, and
the tide, might render it impraflicable to row the life-boat from the (bore,
L I F
upon four low wheels, re^dy to be moved at a mo-
' ment’s notice. Thefe wheels are Convenient in con¬
veying tb6 boat along the fliore to the fea ; but if (lie
had to travel upon them, on a rough road, her frame
would be exceedingly fhaken 5 befides, it has been found
difficult and troublefome to replace her upon thefe
wheels, on her return from fea.
“ Another plan has therefore been adopted : two
wheels of 12 feet diameter, with a moveable arched
axis, and a pole fixed thereto, for a lever, have been
conftrudled. The boat is fufpended, near her centre,
between the wheels, under the axis $ tow ard each ex¬
tremity of which is an iron pin. When the pole is-ele¬
vated perpendicularly^ the upper part of the axis be¬
comes depreffed, and a pair of rope flings, which go
round the boat, being fixed to the iron pins, ffie is
raifed wdth Ihe greatefl facility, by means of the pole,
which is then faftened down to the ftem of the boat.”
Temporary LiFE-Boat,—an invention by the reverend
Mr Bremner minifler of Walls and Flota in Orkney,
by w’hich any ordinary ffiips boat may be converted in¬
to a life-beat, fo that in cafes of Ihipwreck, the crew
may be faved by means of their own boats. Mr Brem¬
ner dates, in deferibing his plan to the Highland So¬
ciety of Scotland, that it had received the approbation
of the Trinity houfes of London and Leith, of the
Royal Humane Society of London, and of many cap¬
tains of merchantmen. An experiment was made in
the poet of Leith under the fuperintendance of Mr
Bremner himfelf, and in prefence of a committee of the
directors of the fociety. This experiment proved fatis-
fa,£!ory to the committee, whofe favourable report to
the diredlors induced them to prefent Mr Bremner
with a piece of plate in teflimony of their approbation
of his fcheme. The following is a general defeription
of the method of preparing a boat for this purpofe.
“ The dimenfions of the (loop’s boat, with which
the experiment was tried, wTere 14 feet in length, 5
feet 4 inches in width, and 2 feet 2 inches in depth.
The only addition or previous preparation of the boat,
was four ring bolts in the infide, and two auger bores or
holes in the outfide of the keel, as points of fecurity
for fixing the neceffary feizing ropes (c). The ring
bolts, within fide the keel, were placed, the one for¬
ward, one-third from the ftem, the other aft, one-third
from the ftern $ the other two, the one diredlly at
the ftem, the other at the ftern. The auger bores,
outfide the keel, being half wTay betwdxt the rings, viz.
the one betwixt the two rings forward, the other be¬
twixt the twro rings aft.
“ Two empty hogffieads w'ere then placed in the
fore part of the boat, parallel and clofe to each other,
and laid lengthw-ays, fore and aft. Thefe w^ere fecured
in their places by palling the feizing ropes round all,
that is. over the gunwales and through the auger bore
in the keel, as alfo from the ring bolt in the flem to
that next it in the keel, taking care in doing this, to
pafs the rope alfo through eyes on the flings of the
calks, which had been previoufly prepared. The fame
procefs w as obferved in the after part of the boat. And
L I F
laftly, a bar of iron about three hundred Weight, was
fixed to the keel, on the infide. A fmall quantity of
cork was allb placed in the ftern, intended chiefly to
raile to a proper height the calks placed above it, but
without which the refult of the experiment would have
been the fame.
“ The quantity of cork neceflary, which will depend
on the fize of the boat, is to be made up into feveral
parcels, but none larger than one perfon can eafily
manage. Each parcel to be properly lecured and num¬
bered, fo as that the whole may fit and .fill up the boat
completely, in the fpaces betwixt the ring bolts, fore
and aft, as above deferibed j and to anfwer the end, it
is material that there ffiould be cork enough to rife
nearly three feet above the gunwales, fo as to form an
arch from gunwale to gunwale. The cork being
thus laid in the boat, it is to be properly fecured, firlt
by palling a ftrong rope round all, over the gunwales,
and through the auger bore, outfide the keel; as alfo
by palling feizing ropes from the ring bolt in the ftem,
to that next it in the keel, taking care to make as
many turns and feizings betwixt thefe ring bolts, as
completely to fecute the cork from flipping out. The
very fame thing to be done as to the rope round the
gunwales, and through the hole outfide the keel, with
feizing ropes from the ring bolts, to be made aft, or in
the ftern of the boat.
“ Where cork cannot be had, or may not be kept
in readinefs on account of its expencc, which, however,
is not very great, calks will anfwer the purpofe, though
it may be doubtful whether there would not be a great¬
er chance that the fury of the waves might unloofe
them, unlefs particular care was taken to have them
properly fixed. In the cafe of calks, two empty ones
are to be placed in the fore part of the boat, parallel
to one another, clofe together, and to be laid length-
wife fore and aft. Two other empty calks to be placed
in the fame w'ay in the ftern, or aft part of the boat,
and the wffiole to be fecured as firmly and compa&ly as
poffible, by ftrong ropes round the boat and calks, and
alfo by feizing ropes in the fame w*ay as deferibed in
the cafe of cork j then two other empty calks, of the
fame dimenfions, one fore, and another aft, to be
placed over and in the middle between the two al¬
ready fixed, and to be firmly fecured, as above-men¬
tioned.
“ As the boat is to be thus prepared on the deck of
the Ihip, wffien danger appears, a piece of fail ffiould
be thrown in below, betwixt, and about the calks, for
the more effe&ually fecuring them, and to prevent the
feizing ropes from fo readily flipping •, it would be
proper alfo to have flings on the calks, with eyes in'
them, through which to pafs the feizing ropes.
“ Laftly, both in the cafe of cork and calks, an iron
bar, of about three hundred weight, for fuch a boat as
above defcribed, Ihould be fecured to the keel on the
infide, in the middle or empty fpace. This middle, or
empty fpace of the boat, is ipr the failors, and in a
(hip’s boat of the common fize may hold eight people,
with room to work a pair of oars. Every thing being
previoufly
[ 8 ]
(t) It is probable, that ring bolts fixed in the gunw ales, might anfwer as well as palling the ropes round the
bottom of the boat and through the auger bores in the keel.
L I G [
Life previoufly ready, it is certain that the neceffary fixing
II of the calks will not take up above ten or twelve mi-
Ligature. ^ nuteSj antl it is obvious the cork can be fixed in a much
Ihorter period. It is alfo completely afcertained, that
a boat fo prepared, though full of water, will not fink,
but on the contrary be extremely buoyant, and will
eafily go a-head : That it would be next to impoffible
the boat fliould overfet •, but, in cafe of this at any time
happening, fire would inftantly return to her proper
pofition on her keel. Though the experiment was
tried only with calks, with but a fmall quantity of
cork, as before ftated, yet it is generally believed, and
and Mr Bremner himfelf is of the fame opinion, that it
might anfwer equally well, and perhaps better, to have
the cork or calks flowed in midfliips, leaving an empty
fpace in each end, by which means the management of
the boat by the helm or rudder would be preferved,
though the other plan feems better, in the view of ufing
oars.
Vegetable Lips. See Plants.
Lirs-Rent, in Scots Law. When the ufe and enjoy¬
ment of a fubjedl is given to a perfon during his life,
it is laid to belong to him in life-rent.
LIGAMENT, in its general fenfe, denotes any
thing that ties or binds one part to another.
Ligament, in Anatomy, a ftrong compadl fubftance,
ferving to join twro bones together. See Anatomy,
N° 7.
LIGARIUS, Quintus, a Roman proconful in
Africa, 49 B. C. Taking part with Pompey, he was
forbid by Julius Csefar to return to Rome : to obtain
his pardon, Cicero made that admired oration in his
defence, which has immortalized the memory of the
client with that of his celebrated advocate.
LIGATURE, in Surgery, is a cord,'band, or
firing j or the binding any part of the body with a
cord, band, fillet, &c. whether of leather, linen, or any
other matter.
Ligatures are ufed to extend or replace bones that
are broken or diflocated j to tie the patients down in
lithotomy and amputations j to tie upon the veins in
phlebotomy, on the arteries in amputations, or in large
wounds; to fecure the fplints that are applied to frac¬
tures ; to tie up the proceffes of the peritonaeum wdth
the fpermatic veflels in caftration; and, laftly, in taking
off w'arts or other excrefcences by ligature.
Ligature, is alfo ufed to fignify a kind of bandage
or fillet, tied round the neck, arm, leg, or other part
of the bodies of men or beafts, to divert or drive off
fome difeafe, accident, &c.
Ligature, is alfo ufed for a ftate of impotency, in
refpedl to venery, pretended to be caufed by fome
charm or witchcraft.
Kasmpfer tells of an uncommon kind of ligature or
knotting, in ufe among the people of Macaffar, Java,
Malacca, Siam, &c. By this charm or fpell, a man
binds up a wroman, and a woman a man, fo as to put
it out of their power to have to do with any other
perfon ; the man being thereby rendered impotent to
any other woman, and all other men impotent with
refpeff to the woman.
Some of their philofophers pretend, that this liga¬
ture may be effefted by the (hutting of a lock, the
drawing of a knot, or the flicking of a knife in the
Vol. XII. Part I.
9 ] L I G
wall, at the point of time wherein the prieft is joining Ligature,
a couple together ; and that a ligature, thus effefted, Light,
may be diffolved, by the fpoufe’s urining through a " y—-
ring. This piece of fuperftition is laid to obtain alfo
among the Chriflians of the Eaff.
The fame author tells us, that during the ceremony
of marriage in Ruflia, he obferved an old fellow lurk¬
ing behind the church-door, and mumbling over a
firing of words j and, at the fame time, cutting a long
rod, which he held under his arm into pieces ; which,
it feems, is a common praftice at the marriages of great
perfons, and done with defign to elude and counter¬
work any other perfon that might pofiibly be inducing
the ligature.
The fecret of inducing a ligature is delivered by the
fame author, as he was taught it on the fpot by one
of their adepts : but it is too abfurd and obfcene to
delerve being tranfcribed here.
M. Marlhal mentions a ridiculous form of ligature,
which he received from a bramin of Indoftan : “ If
(fays he) the little worm in the wood lukerara kara
be cut into two, and the one part ftirs and the other
not, if the flirting part be bruifed, and given with half
a beetle to a man, and the other half to a w’oman, the
charm will keep each from ever having to do with any
other perfon. Phil. Tranf. N° 268.
Ligature, in the Italian mufic, fignifies a tying
or binding together of notes. Hence fyncopes
are often called ligatures, becaufe they are made by
the . ligature of many notes. There is another fort
of ligatures for breves, when there are many of thefe
on different lines, or on different fpaces, to be fung to
one fyllable.
Ligatures, among printers, are types confifting of
two letters or characters joined together j as B, is’, ff,
Jl, Ji. The old editions of Greek authors are extreme¬
ly full of ligatures •, the ligatures of Stephens are by
much the moft beautiful.—Some editions have been
lately printed without any ligatures at all j and there
was a defign to explode them quite out of printing.,
Had this fucceeded, the fineft ancient editions would
in time have grown ufelefs : and the reading of old
manufcripts would have been rendered almofl impracti¬
cable to the learned themfelves.
LIGHT, in the moft common acceptation of the
wTord, fignifies that invifible etherial matter which makes
objeCts perceptible to our fenfe of feeing. Figurative¬
ly, it is alfo ufed for whatever conveys inftruCtion to
our minds, and likewife for that inffruCtion itfelf.
For an account of the chemical properties of light,
fee Chemistry Index ; and for its phylical properties,
fee Optics.
Light independent of Heat. In general, a very con-
fiderable degree of heat is requifite to the emiflion of
light from any body; but there are feveral excep¬
tions to this, efpecially in light proceeding from pu-
trefcent fubftances and phofphorus, together with that
of luminous animals, and other fimilar appearances.
Light proceeding from putrefcent animal and vege¬
table fubftances, as well as from glow-worms, is men¬
tioned by Ariftotle. Thomas Bartholin mentions four ^uce
kinds of luminous infeCls, two with wings, and two an,mfL
without j but in hot climates travellers fay they are p'lS3’2o6'
found in much greater numbers, and of different fpe-*
B cies.
P- 45-
L I G [i
cits. Columna, an induftrious naturaliit, obferves, that
v thdr light is not extinguilhed immediately upon the
death of the animal.
Light frcna The firft diftinft account that we meet with of light
Putt'd IhdP-procecc|jng from putrefcent animal ilefh is that which
fie Vijione, is given by Fabricius ab Aquapendente ; who fays,
that when three Roman youths, refiding at Padua,
had bought a lamb, and had eaten part of it on Ra¬
fter day 1562, feveral pieces of the remainder, which
they kept till the day following, fhone like fo many
dandies when they were cafually viewed in the dark.
Part of this luminous flefh was immediately fent to
Aquapendente, who was profeflbr of anatomy in that
city. He obferved, that both the lean and the fat of
this meat (hone with a whitifh kind of light ; and alfo
took notice, that fome pieces of kid’s flefh, which had
happened to have lain in contaft with it, w’ere luminous,
as well as the fingers and other parts of the bodies of
thofe perfons who touched it. Thofe parts, he ob¬
ferved, fhone the moft which were foft to the touch,
and feemed to be tranfparent in candle light; but
where the flefb was thick and folid, or where a bone
was near the outfide, it did not fhine.
After this appearance, we find no account of any
other firailar to it, before that which was obferved by
Bartholin, and of which he gives a very pompous de-
feription in his ingenious treatife already quoted.
This happened at Montpelier in 1641, when a poor
old woman had bought a piece of flefh in the market,
intending to make ufe of it the day following. But
happening not to be able to fleep well that night, and
her bed and pantry being in the fame room, fhe obferv¬
ed fo much light come from the flefh, as t© illuminate
all the place where it hung. A part of this luminous
flefh was carried as a curiofity to Henry Bourbon,
duke of Conde, the governor of the place, who viewed
it for feveral hours with the greateft aftonifhment.
This light was obferved to be whitifh ; and not to
cover the whole furface of the flefh, but certain parts
only, as if gems of unequal fplendour had been fcattered
over it. This flefh was kept till it began to putrefy,
■when the light vanifhed •, which, as fome religious
people fancied, it did in the form of a crofs.
It is natural to expe6t, that the almoft univerfal ex¬
perimental philof'opher Mr Boyle fhould try the effeft
of his air-pump upon thefe luminous fubftances. Ac¬
cordingly, we find that he did not fail to do it j when
he prefently found that the light of rotten wood was
extinguilhed in vacuo, and revived again on the ad-
miffion of the air, even after a long continuance in
vacuo ; but the extinguifhing of this light was not fo
complete immediately upon exhaufting the receiver, as
fome little time afterwards. He could not perceive, .
however, that the light of rotten wood was increafed
in condenfed air 5 but this, he imagined, might arife
from his not being able to judge very well of the de¬
gree of light, through fo thick and cloudy a glafs
Bird's hijl. veflel as he then made ufe of j but we find that the
light of a fhining fifh, which was put into a condenf-
ing engine before the Royal Society, in 1668, was
rendered more vivid by that means. The principal
of Mr Boyle’s experiments were made in October
1667.
This philofopher attended to a great variety of cir-
cumftances relating to this curious phenomenon. A-
I /orks,
vol. iii.
P- 156-
u. 854.
o ] L I G
mong other things he obferved, that change of air w’as Light
not neceffary to the maintenance of this light j for ft1——y—
continued a long time when a piece of the wood was
put into a very fmall glafs hermetically fealed, and it
made no difference when this tube which contained
the wood was put into an exhaufled receiver. This
he alfo obferved with refpeff to a luminous fifh, which
he put into water, and placed in the fame circum-
ftances. He alfo found, that the light of fhining
fifhes had other properties in common with that of
fhining wood ; but the latter, he fays, was prefently
quenched with water, fpirit of wine, a greater variety
of faline mixtures, and other fluids. Water, however,
did not quench all the light of fome finning veal on
which he tried it, though fpirit of wine deftroyed its
virtue prefently.
Mr Boyle’s obfeivation of light proceeding from
flefh meat was quite cafual. On the 15th of Februa-
ary 1662, one of his fervants was greatly alarmed
with the fhining of fome veal, which had been kept
a few days, but had no bad fmell, and was in a flate
very proper for ufe. The fervant immediately made
his mailer acquainted with this extraordinary appear¬
ance $ and though he was then in bed, he ordered it si,ch iL -
to be immediately brought to him, and he examined 70.
it with the greateft attention. Sufpeiffing that the
ftate of the atmofphere had fome fhare in the produc¬
tion of this phenomenon, he takes notice, after de-
feribing the appearance, that the wind was fouth-wTeft
and bluftering, the air hot for the feafon, the moon
was paft its laft quarter, and the mercury in the baro¬
meter wras at 29 T’oth inches.
Mr Boyle wras often difappointed in his experiments Light from
on fhining fifhes 5 finding that they did not always fifties,
fhine in the very fame circumftances, as far as he could
judge, with others which had fhined before. At one
time that they failed to fhine, according to his expec¬
tations, he obferved that the weather wras variable,
and not without fome days of froft and fnow. In
general he made ufe of whitings, finding them the
fitteft for his purpofe. In a difeourfe, however, up¬
on this fubjedl at the Royal Society in 1681, it was
afferted, that, of all fifhy fubftances, the eggs of lob-
fters, after they had been boiled, fhone the brighteft.
Olig. Jacoboeus obferves, that, upon opening a fea- ^ jfaea
polypus, it was fo luminous as to ftartle feveral per- vol. v.
fons who faw it j and he fays, that the more putrid thep- 282*
fifh was, the more luminous it grew. The nails alfo,
and the fingers of the perfons who touched it, became
luminous j and the black liquor wBich iffued from the
animal, and which is its bile, fhone alfo, but with a
very faint light.
Mr Boyle draws a minute comparifon between the
light of burning coals and that of fhining wood or fifh,
{bowing in what particulars they agree, and in what
they differ. Among other things he obferves, that ex¬
treme cold extinguifhes the light of fhining wood, as
appeared when a piece of it was put into a glafs tube,
and held in a frigorific mixture. He alfo found that
rotten tvood did not wafte itfelf by fhining, and that
the application of a thermometer to it did not difeo-
ver the leaf! degree of heat.
There is a remarkable (hell-fifh called pholas, which Of pre¬
forms for itfelf holes in various kinds of ftone, &c. ^as> a r^-
That this fifh is luminous, wras noticed by Pliny j who lua'iiiiouJ
obferves, fifh.
L I G [ i
iight. obferves, that it (hines in the mouth of the perfon who
eats it, and, if it touch his hands or clothes, makes
them luminous. He alfo fays that the light depends
upon its moiftnre. The light of this filh has furnilhed
matter for various obfervations and experiments to
M. Reaumur, and the Bolognian academicians, efpe-
cially Beccarius, who took fo much pains with the
fubjeft of phofphoreal light.
M. Reaumur obferves, that, whereas other fifties
give light when they tend to putrelcence, this is more
luminous in proportion to its being frefti j that when
they are dried, their light will revive if they be moiften-
ed either with freth or fait water, but that brandy im¬
mediately extinguilhes it. He endeavoured to make
this light permanent, but none of his fchemes fuc-
ceeded.
The attention of the Bolognian academicians was
engaged to this fubjecl by M. F. Marfilius, in I724>
who brought a number of thefe fifties, and the ftones
in which they were enclofed, to Bologna, on purpofe
for their examination.
■€om.Bonon. Beccarius obferved, that though this fifli ceafed to
vol.ii. *32. flfine when it became putrid*, yet that in its moft pu¬
trid ftate, it would ftiine, and make the water in which
it was immerfed luminous, when it was agitated.
Galeatius and Montius found, that wine or vinegar ex-
tinguiftied this light $ that in common oil it continued
fome days ; but in redtified fpirit of wine or urine,
hardly a minute.
In order to obferve in what manner this light was af-
fedled by different degrees of heat, they made ufe of a
Reaumur’s thermometer, and found that water render¬
ed luminous by thefe fifties increafed in light till the
heat arrived to 45 degrees $ but that it then became
fuddenly extindl, and could not be revived.
In the experiments of Beccarius, a folution of fea
fait Increafed the light of the luminous water j a folu¬
tion of nitre did not increafe it quite fo much. Sal
ammoniac diminiftied it a little, oil of tartar per deli-
quium nearly extinguiftied it, and the acids entirely.
This water poured upon frefti calcined gypfum, rock
cryftal, cerufe, or fugar, became more luminous. He
alfo tried the effedfs of it when poured upon various
other fubftances, but there was nothing very remark¬
able in them. Afterwards, ufing luminous milk, he
found that oil of vitriol extinguiftied the light, but
that oil of tartar increafed it.
This gentleman had the curiofity to try how dif¬
ferently coloured fubftances were affedted by this kind
of light j and having, for this purpofe, dipped feveral
ribbons in it, the white came out the brighteft, next
to this was the yellow, and then the green j the other
colours could hardly be perceived. It was not, how¬
ever, any particular colour, but only light that was
perceived in this cafe. He then dipped boards painted
with the different colours, and alfo glafs tubes, filled
with fubftances of different colours, in water rendered
luminous by the fifties. In both thefe cafes the red
was hardly vifible, the yellow was the brighteft, and
the violet the dulleft. But on the boards the blue was
nearly equal to the yellow, and the green more lan¬
guid j whereas in the glaffes, the blue was inferior to
the green.
Of all the liquors into which he put the pholades,
milk was rendered the moft luminous. A fingle pho-
i ] L I G
las made fevefi ounces of milk fo luminous, that the Light,
faces of perfons might be diftinguiftied by it, and it v
looked as if it wras tranfparent.
Air appeared to be neceifary to this light $ for
when Beccarius put the luminous milk into glafs tubes,
no agitation would make it ftiine, unlefs bubbles of
air were mixed with it. Alfo Montius and Galeatius
found, that, in an exhaufted receiver, the pholas loft
its light, but the wTater was fometimes made more lu¬
minous j which they aferibed to the rifing of bubbles
of air through it.
Beccarius, as well as Reaumur, had many fchemes
to render the light of thefe pholades permanent. For
this purpofe he kneaded the juice into a kind of pafte,
with ftour, and found that it would give light when
it was immerfed in wrarm water ; but it anfwered beft
to preferve the fifti in honey. In any other method of
prefervation, the property of becoming luminous would
not continue longer than fix months, but in honey it
had lafted above a year j and then it would, when
plunged in warm water, give as much light as ever it
had done.
Similar, in fome refpefts, to thofe obfervations on Acla Cafa-
the light of the pholas, was that wbich was obferved
to proceed from wood which was moift, but not in a ^
putrid ftate, which w-as very confpicuous in the dark.
That the fea is fometimes luminous, efpecially when Light from
it is put in motion by the daftiing of oars or the ^ea water*
beating of it againft a ftiip, has been obferved with
admiration by a great number of perfons. Mr Boyle,
after reciting all the circumftances of this appearance,
as far as he could colledt them from the accounts of
navigators j as its being extended as far as the eye
could reach, and at other times being vifible only when
the water was dallied againft fome other body j that,
in fome feas, this phenomenon is accompanied by fome
particular winds, but not in others $ and that fome¬
times one part of the fea will be luminous, when an¬
other part, not far from it, will not *be fo 5 concludes
with faying, that he could not help fufpefring that
thefe odd phenomena, belonging to great maffes of wa¬
ter, were in fome meafure owing to fome cofmical law
or cuftom of the terreftrial globe, or at leaft of the
planetary vortex.
Some curious obfervations on the Ihining of fome Beale s
fifties, and the pickle in wriiich they were immerfed, exPen*
were made by Dr Beale, in May 1665 •, and had they °n
been properly attended to and purfued, might have
led to the difeovery of the caufe of this appearance.
Having put fome boiled mackerel into water, together Phil.Tranf.
with fait and fweet herbs ; when the cook was, fome vol‘ ^x"
time after, ftirring it, in order to take out fome of the tJ
fifties, (he obferved, that, at the firft motion, the water
was very luminous ; and that the fifti Ihining through
the water added much to the light which the water
yielded. The water was of itfelf thick and blackifti,
rather than of any other colour j and yet it ftiined on
being ftirred, and at the fame time the fifties appeared
more luminous than the water. Wherever the drops
of this water, after it had been ftirred, fell to the
ground, they ftiined j and the children in the family
diverted themfelves with taking the drops, which were
as broad as a penny, and running with them about the
houfe. The cook obferved, that, when ftie turned up
that fide of the fifti that was loweft, no light came from
B 2 it;
L I G [i
t Iit j and that, when the water had fettled for fome time,
' ‘ it did not ihine at all. The day following, the water
gave but little light, and only after a brilk agitation,
though the fillies continued to Ihine as well from the
infide as the outfide, and efpecially about the throat,
and fuch places as feemed to have been a little broken
in the boiling.
When in the light of the fun, he examined, with a
microfcope, a fmall piece of a fiih which had fhined very
much the night before, he found nothing remarkable
on its furface, except that he thought he perceived
what he calls a Jieam, rather dark than luminous,
arifing like a very fmall dull from the filh, and here
and there a very fmall and almoft imperceptible fparkle.
Of the fparkles he had no doubt; but he thought it
poflible that the fleam might be a deception of the
fight, or fome dull in the air.
Finding the filh to be quite dry, he moiftened it
with his fpittle ; and then obferved that it gave a little
light, though but for a Ihort time. The filh at that
time wTas not fetid, nor yet infipid to the bell difcern-
ing palate. Two of the fillies he kept two or three
- days longer for farther trial : but, the weather being
very hot, they became fetid : and, contrary to his ex-
pedlations, there w7as no more light produced either by
the agitation of the water or in the filh.
Father Father Bourzes, in his voyage to the Indies in
Bourzes’s 1704, took particular notice of the luminous appear-
fuminous0 ance t^e ^ea* ^ was fometimes fo great,
fea water, he could eafily read the title of a book by it,
though he was nine or ten feet from the furface of the
water. Sometimes he could eafily dillinguilh, in the
wake of a Ihip, the particles that were luminous from
thofe that were not j and they appeared not to be all
of the fame figure. Some of them were like points of
light, and others fuch as liars appear to the naked eye.
Some of them were like globes, of a line or two in
diameter; and others as big as one’s head. Sometimes
they formed themfelves into fquares of three or four
inches long, and one or two broad. Sometimes all
thefe different figures were vifible at the fame time ;
and fometimes they were what he calls vortices of light,
which at one particular time appeared and difappeared
immediately like flalhes of lightning.
Nor did only the wake of the Ihip produce this
light, but fifhes alfo, in fwimming, left fo luminous a
track behind them, that both their fize and fpecies
might be diftinguilhed by it. When he took fome of
the water out of the fea, and llirred it ever fo little
with his hand, in the dark, he always faw in it an in¬
finite number of bright particles; and he had the fame
appearance whenever he dipped a piece of linen in the
fea, and wrung it in a dark place, even though it w^as
half dry ; and he obferved, that when the fparkles fell
upon any thing that was folid, it would continue (hining
for fome hours together.
His conjee- After mentioning feveral circumllances which did
lures con- not contribute to this appearance, this father obferves,
eaufe?g ^ t^at 'lt depends very much upon the quality of the water;
and he was pretty fure that this light is the greateft
when the water is fatteft, and fulleft of foam. For in
the main fea, he fays, the water is not everywhere
equally pure 5 and that fometimes, if linen be dipped
in the fea, it is clamny when it is drawn up again :
and he often obferyed, that when the wake of the fhip
2 ] l 1 G
was the brighteff, the water was the moft fat and Light,
glutinous, and that linen moifiened w ith it produced
a great deal of light, if it was ftirred or moved brilkly.
Befides, in fome parts of the fea, he faw a fubitance
like faw duft, fometimes red and fometimes yellow ;
and when he drew up the water in thofe places, it
was always vifeous and glutinous. The failors told
him, that it was the fpawn of whales ; that there are
great quantities of it in the north ; and that fome¬
times, in the night, they appeared all over of a bright
light, without being put in motion by any veffel or fiih
paffing by them.
As a confirmation of this conjedlure, that the more
glutinous the fea water is, the more it is difpofed to
become luminous, he obferves, that one day they took a
fifli which was called a bonite, the infide of the mouth of
which w^as fo luminous, that, without any other light,
he could read the fame charafters wrhich he had before
read by the light in the wake of the fliipj and the
mouth of this fiih was full of a vifeous matter, which,
wdien it was rubbed upon a piece of wTood, made it im¬
mediately all over luminous j though, when the moif-
ture w7as dried up, the light was extinguiflied/'
The abbe Nollet was much ftruck with the lumi-Abbe Nol-
noufnefs of the fea when he wras at Venice in 1749; let’s theory*
and, after taking a great deal of pains to afeertain the
circumftances of it, concluded that it wras occaiioned
by a ihining infedi; and having examined the wTater
very often, he at length did find a fmall infedi:, which
he particularly deferibes, and to which he attributes
the light. The fame hypothefis had alfo occurred to
M. Vianelli, profeffor of medicine in Chioggia near
Venice y. and both he and M. Grizellini, a phyfician in
Venice, have given drawings of the infedts from which
they imagined this light to proceed.
The abbe was the more confirmed in his hypothefis,
by obferving, fome time after, the motion of fome lumi¬
nous particles in the fea. For, going into the water,
and keeping his head juft above the furface, he faw
them dart from the bottom, which was covered with
weeds, to the top, in a manner which he thought
very much refembled the motions of infedts ; though,
when he endeavoured to catch them, he only found
fome luminous fpots upon his handkerchief, which
were enlarged when he preffed them with his finger.
M. le Roi, making a voyage on the Mediterranean, obferva-
prefently after the abbe Nollet made his obfervationstions of M.
at Venice, took notice, that in the day time, the prow*6
of the ihip in motion threw up many fmall particles,
which, falling upon the water, rolled upon the furface Memoires
of the fea for a few feconds before they mixed with Prefer^tes,
it j and in the night the fame particles, as he con-voh ih-144=
eluded, had the appearance of fire. Taking a quan¬
tity of the water, the fame fmall fparks appeared
whenever it was agitated j but, as was obfervsd with
refpedl to Dr Beale’s experiments, every fucceflive agi¬
tation produced a lefs effedt than the preceding, except
after being fuffered to reft a while j for then a freih
agitation would make it almoft as luminous as the firft.
This water, he obferved, would retain its property of
ihining by agitation a day or two j but it difappeared
immediately on being fet on the fire, though it was
not made to boil.
This gentleman, after giving much attention to this
phenomenon, concludes, that it is not occafioned by
any
L I G- [ ]
L I G
Light.
Experi¬
ments by
M. Ant.
Martin.
Swed.
Abhand.
vol. xxiii.
p. 225.
By Mr
Canton.
any ilnnmg infers, as the abbe Nollet imagined j efpe-
J cially as, after carefully examining fome of the lumi¬
nous points, which he caught upon an handkerchief,
he found them to be round like large pins heads, but
with nothing of the appearance of any animal, though
he viewed them with a microfcope. He alfo found,
that the mixture of a little fpirit of wine with water
juft drawn from the fea, would give the appearance of
a great number of little fparks, which would continue
vifible longer than thofe in the ocean. All the acids,
and various other liquors, produced the fame efiefl,
though not quite fo confpicuoufly ; but no frelh agi¬
tation would make them luminous again. M. le Roi
is far from afferting that there are no luminous infe&s
in the fea. He even fuppofes that the abbe Nollet
and M. Vianelli had found them. But he was fatif-
fied that the fea is luminous chiefly on fome other ac¬
count, though he does not fo much as advance a con-
je&ure about what it is.
M. Ant. Martin made many experiments on the
light of fifties, with a view to difcover the caufe of the
light of the fea. He thought that he had reafon to
conclude, from a great variety of experiments, that all
fea fifties have this property *, but that it is not to be
found in any that are produced in frefti water. No¬
thing depended upon the colour of the fifties, except
that he thought that the white ones, and efpecially
thofe that had white fcales, were a little more lumi¬
nous than others. This light, he found, was increafed
by a fmall quantity of fait 5 and alfo by a fmall degree
of warmth, though a greater degree extinguifhed it.
This agrees with another obfervation of his, that it
depends entirely upon a kind of moifture which they
had about them, and which a fmall degree of heat
would expel, when an oilinefs remained which did not
give this light, but would burn in the fire. Light from
the flefti of birds or beafts is not fo bright, he fays, as
that which proceeds from fi(h. Human bodies, he fays,
have fometimes emitted light about the time that they
began to putrefy, and the walls and roof of a place
in which dead bodies had often been expofed, had a
kind of dew or cla itninefs upon it, which was fome¬
times luminous *, and he imagined that the lights which
are faid to be feen in burying-grounds may be owing
to this caufe.
From fome experiments made by Mr Canton, he
concludes, that the luminoufnefs of fea water is owfing
to the flimy and other putrefcent fubftances it con¬
tains. On the evening of the 14th of June Ij68, he
put a fmall frefti whiting into a gallon of fea water, in
a pan which was about 14 inches in diameter, and
took notice that neither the whiting nor the wmter,
when agitated, gave any light. A Fahrenheit’s ther¬
mometer, in the cellar where the pan was placed, flood
at 540. The 15th, at night, that part of the fifti
which was even with the furface of the water was lu¬
minous, but the water itfelf was dark. He drew the
end of a flick through it, from one fide of the pan to
the other ; and the water appeared luminous behind
the flick all the way, but gave light only where it
was difturbed. When all the water was ftirred, the
whole became luminous, and appeared like milk, giv¬
ing a confiderable degree of light to the fides of the
pan *, and it continued to do fo for fome time after it
was at reft. The water was moft luminous when the
fifti had been in it about 28 hours 5 but would not give Light,
any light by being ftirred, after it had been in it three ‘■'-’""v*—
days.
Fie then put a gallon of frefli water into one pan,
and an equal quantity of fea water into another •, and
into each pan he put a frefli herring of about three
ounces. The next night the whole furface of the fea
water was luminous without being ftirred j but it was
much more fo wrhen it was put in motion ; and the
upper part of the herring, which was confiderably be¬
low the furface of the water, was alfo very bright;
while at the fame time the frelh water, and the fifti
that was in it, were quite dark. There were feveral
very bright luminous fpots on different parts of the
furface of the fea water 5 and the whole, when viewed
by the light of a candle, feemed covered with a greafy
fcum. The third night, the light of the fea water
while at reft, was very little, if at all lefs than before j
but when ftirred, its light wras fo great as to difcover
the time by a w7atch, and the fifti in it appeared as a
dark fubftance. After this, its light w^as evidently
decreafing, but was not quite gene before the yth night.
The frefti w-ater and the fifti in it were perfe&ly dark
during the whole time. The thermometer was gene¬
rally above 6o°.
The preceding experiments were made with fea
rvater : but he now made ufe of other water, into wftiich
he put common or fea fait, till he found, by an hydro¬
meter, that it was of the fame fpecific gravity with the
fea water 5 and, at the fame time, in another gallon of
water, he diffolved two pounds of fait 5 and into each
of thefe waters he put a fmall frefti herring. The next
evening the whole furface of the artificial fea water
was luminous without being ftirred j but gave much
more light when it was difturbed. It appeared exadlly
like the real fea water in the preceding experiment;
its light lafted about the fame time, and went off in
the fame manner : while the other water, which was
almoft as fait as it could be made, never gave any
light. The herring which was taken out of it the
feventh night, and w7aftied from its fait, was found firm
and fweet ", but the other herring was very foft and
putrid, much more fo than that which had been kept
as long in frefti water. If a herring, in warm weather,
be put into 10 gallons of artificial fea water, inftead
of one, the water, he fays, w'ill ftill become luminous,
but its light wall not be fo ftrong.
It appeared by fome of the firft obfervations on
this fubjedt, that heat extinguilhes the light of putref¬
cent fubftances. Mr Canton alfo attended to this cir-
cumftance •, and obferves, that though the greateft
fummer heat is well known to promote putrefaftion,
yet 20 degrees more than that of the human blood
feems to hinder it. For putting a fmall piece of a
luminous fifti into a thin glafs ball, he found, that
water of the heat of n 8 degrees would extinguifti its
light in lefs than half a minute ; but that, on taking
it out of the water, it would begin to recover its light
in about 10 feconds; but it was . never afterw’ards-fa
bright as before.
Mr Canton made the fame obfervation that Mr Ant.
Martin had done, viz. that feveral kinds of river fifti
could not be made to give light, in the fame circum-
ftances in which any fea fifti became luminous. He
fays, however, that a piece of carp made the water very
luminous,
Light.
The ocean
luminous
from in¬
fects.
L I G [ i
luminous, though the outfide, or fcaly part of it, did
^ not fhine at all.
For the fake of thofe perfons who may choofe to re¬
peat his experiments, he obferves, that artificial fea wa¬
ter may be made without the ufe of an hydrometer, by
the proportion of four ounces avoirdupois of fait to feven
'piints of water, wine meafure.
A very elaborate paper on the fubjedt by Dr Hulme
appeared in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions for 1800, to
which we refer our readers, and to Chemistry, p. 451.
From undoubted obfervations, however, it appears,
that in many places of the ocean it is covered with lumi¬
nous infects to a very confiderable extent. M. Dagelet,
a French aftronomer ivho returned from the Terra Au-
ftralis in the year I774> brought with him feveral kinds
of worms which ftiine in water when it is fet in motion •,
and M. Rigaud, in a paper inferted (if we are not mif-
taken) in the Journal des S^avans for the month of
March 1770, affirms, that the luminous furface of the
fea, from the port of Breft to the Antilles, contains an
immenfe quantity of little, round, ffiining polypufes of
about a quarter of a line in diameter. Other learned
men, who acknowledge the exillence of thefe luminous
animals, cannot, however, be perfuaded to conlider
them as the caufe of all that light and fcintillation that
appear on the furface of the ocean : they think that
fome fubftance of the phofphorus kind, ariiing from pu-
trefadlion, mull be admitted as one of the caufes of this
phenomenon. M. Godehoue has publiffied curious ob¬
fervations on a kind of fiffi called in French bonite, al¬
ready mentioned ; and though he has obferved, and ac¬
curately defcribed, feveral of the luminous infers that
are found in fea water, he is, neverthelefs, of opinion,
that the fcintillation and flaming light of the fea pro¬
ceed from the oily and greafy fubftances with which it
is impregnated.
The abbe Nollet was long of opinion, that the light
of the fea proceeded from eledtricity (aJ) j though he
afterwards feemed inclined to think, that this pheno¬
menon was caufed by fmall animals, either by their lu¬
minous afpedt, or at leaft by fome liquor or effluvia
which they emitted. He did not, however, exclude
other caufes j among thefe, the fpawn or fry of fifli de-
ferves to be noticed. M. Dagelet, failing into the bay
of Antongil, in the ifland of Madagafcar, obferved a
prodigious quantity of fry which covered the furface
of the fea above a mile in length, and wffiich he at firft
took for banks of fand on account of their colour ; they
•xhaled a difagreeable odour, and the fea had appear¬
ed with uncommon fplendor fome days before. The
fame accurate obferver, perceiving the fea remarkably
luminous in the road of the Cape of Good Hope during
a perfedl calm, remarked, that the oars of the canoes
produced a wfflitilh and pearly kind of luftre j when he
took in his hand the water which contained this phof¬
phorus, he difcerned in it, for fome minutes, globules
of light as large as the heads of pins. When he prefled
thefe globules, they appeared to his touch like a foft
and thin pulp 5 and fome days after the fea was covered
4 ] L I G
near the coafts with wffiole banks of thefe little fiili in Light,
innumerable multitudes. ' v**-
To putrefaftion, alfo, fome are willing to attribute
that luminous appearance which goes by the name of
ignUfatuus, to which the credulous vulgar afcribe very hnisf<*~
extraordinary and efpeciaily mifchievous powers, ittum'
is moil frequently obferved in boggy places and near
rivers, though fometimes alfo in dry places. By its
appearance benighted travellers are faid to have been
fometimes milled into marfliy places, taking the light
which they faw before them for a candle at a diftance \
from which feemingly mifchievous property it has been
thought by the vulgar to be a fpirit of a malignant na¬
ture, and been named accordingly Will with a wifjt>, or
Jack with a Ian thorn ; for the lame reafon alfo it pro¬
bably had its Latin name ignis fatuus.
This kind of light is faid to be frequent about bury¬
ing places and dunghills. Some countries are alfo
remarkable for it, as about Bologna in Italy, and fome
parts of Spain and Ethiopia. Its forms are fo un¬
certain and variable that they can fcarce be defcribed,
efpecially as few philofophical obfervers ever had the
good fortune to meet wdth it. Dr Derham, however,
happened one night to perceive one of them, and got
fo near that he could have a very advantageous view
of it. This is by no means eafy to be obtained 5 for,
among other Angularities of the ignis fatuus, it is
obferved to avoid the approach of any perfon, and
fly from place to place as if it was animated. That
wffiich Dr Derham obferved w7as in fome boggy ground
betwdxt twro rocky hills j and the night was dark and
calm ; by which means, probably, he was enabled to
advance within two or three yards of it. It appeared
like a complete body of light without any divifion, fo
that he was fure it could not be occalioned by infefls
as fome have fuppofed j the feparate lights of wffiich
he could not have failed to diftinguilh, had it been
occafloned by them. The light kept dancing about
a dead thiftle, till a very flight motion of the air, oc¬
calioned, as he fuppofed, by his near approach to it,
made it jump to another place; after which it kept
flying before him as he advanced. M. Beccaria endea¬
voured to procure all the intelligence he could concern*
ing this phenomenon, by inquiring of all his acquaint¬
ance who might have had an opportunity of obferving
it. Thus he obtained information that two of thefe
lights appeared in the plains about Bologna, the one to
the north, and the other to the fouth, of that city, and
were to be feen almolt every dark night, efpecially that
to the eaftward, giving a light equal to an ordinary
faggot. The latter appeared to a gentleman of his ac¬
quaintance as he w7as travelling ; moved conftantly be¬
fore him for about a mile $ and gave a better light
than a torch which was carried before him. Both thefe
appearances gave a very ftrong light, and were con-
ftantly in motion, though this various and uncertain.
Sometimes they would rife, fometimes link ; but com¬
monly they would hover about fix feet from the
ground ; they would alfo frequently difappear on a hid¬
den,
CA) This hypothefis wras alfo maintained in a treatife publiftied at Venice in 1746, by an officer in the
Auftrian fervice, under the title, Dell'1 Eletrecifmo.
3
L I G t ]
Light, den, and appear again in fome other place. They dif-
^ fertd alfo in fize and figure, fometimes fpreading pret¬
ty wide, and then centrafting themfelves j fometimes
breaking into two, and then joining again. Sometimes
they would appear like waves, at others they would
feem to drop fparks of fire: they were but little aifiedl:-
ed by the wind } and in wet and rainy weather were
frequently obferved to caft a ftronger light than in dry
weather : they were alfo obferved more frequently
when fnow lay upon the ground, than in the hotteft
fummer 5 but he was affured that there was not a dark
night throughout the whole year in which they were
not to be feen. The ground to the eaftward of Bolog¬
na, where the largeft of thefe appearances was o$ferved,
is a hard chalky foil mixed with clay, which will re¬
tain the moifture for a long time, but breaks and cracks
in hot weather. On the mountains, where the foil is of
a loofer texture, and lefs capable of ^retaining moilture,
the ignes fatui were lefs.
From the beft information which M. Beccaria was
able to procure, he found that thefe lights urere very
frequent about rivers and brooks. He concludes
his narrative with the following Angular account:
“ An intelligent gentleman travelling in the evening,
between eight and nine, in a mountainous road about
ten miles fouth of Bologna, perceived a light which
fhone very ftrangely upon fome flones wdrich lay on the
banks of the river Rioverde. It feemed to be about
two feet above the Hones, and not far from the water.
In fize and figure it had the appearance of a parallele¬
piped, fomewhat more than a foot in length, and half
a foot high, the longeft fide being parallel to the ho¬
rizon. Its light wTas fo ftrong, that he could plainly
difeern by it part of a neighbouring hedge and the
water of the river 5 only in the call corner of it the
light was rather faint, and the fquare figure lefs per-
fe61, as if it was cut off or darkened by the fegment of
a circle. On examining it a little nearer, he w7as fur-
prifed to find that it changed gradually from a bright
red, firft to a yellowifh, and then to a pale colour, in
proportion as he drew nearer; and when he came to
the place itfelf, it quite vanifhed. Upon this he Hep¬
ped back, and not only faw it again, but found that
the farther he wrent from it, the Hronger and brighter
it grew7. When he examined the place of this lumi¬
nous appearance, he could perceive no fmell nor any
other mark of fire.” This account was confirmed by
another gentleman, who informed M. Beccaria, that he
had feen the fame light five or fix different times in
fpring and in autumn ; and that it always appeared of
the fame fiiape, and in the very fame place. One night
m particular, he obferved it come out of a neighbouring
field to fettle in the ufual place.
A very remarkable account of an ignis fatuus is
given by Dr Shaw in his Travels to the Holy Land.
Jt appeared in the valleys of Mount Ephraim, and at¬
tended him and his company for more than an hour.
Sometimes it would appear globular, or in the fhape of
the flame of a candle ; at others it wTould fpread to fuch
a degree as to involve the whole company in a pale in-
offenfive light, then contradl itfelf, and fuddenly dif-
appear ; but in lefs than a minute would appear again j
fometimes running fwiftly along, it w'ould expand itfelf
at certain intervals over more than two or three acres
of the adjacent mountains. The atmofphtre from the
5 1 L 1 G
beginning 'of the evening had been remarkably thick
and hazy ; and the dew, as they felt it on the bridles
of their horfes, was very clammy and un&uous.
Lights refembling the ignis fatuus are fometimes
obferved at fea, fkipping about the mafis and rigging
of fiiips 3 and Dr Shaw informs us, that he has feen
thefe in fuch weather as that juH mentioned when he
faw the ignis fatuus in Paleffine. Similar appearances
have been obferved in various other fituations 3 and we
are told of one which appeared about the bed of a
woman in Milan, furrounding it as w7ell as her body
entirely. This light fled from the hand which ap¬
proached it 3 but was at length entirely difperfed by the
motion of the air. Of the fame kind alfo, mofl pro¬
bably, are thofe fmall luminous appearances which fome¬
times appear in houfes or near them, called in Scot¬
land Elf candles, and which are fuppofed to portend
the death of fome perfon about the houfe. In general
thefe lights are harmlefs, though not always 3 for w7e
have accounts of fome luminous vapours which would
encompafs flacks of hay and corn, and fet them on
fire 3 fo that they became obje&s of great terror and
concern to the country people. Of thefe it was
obferved, that they would avoid a drawn fword, or
fharp-pointed iron inflrument, and that they would
•be driven away by a great noife 3 both which methods
were made ufe of to diflipate them : and it w7as like-
wife obferved, that they came from fome diflance, as it
wrere on purpofe to do mifehief.
Several philofophers have endeavoured to account
for thefe appearances, but hitherto with no great
fuccefs 3 nor indeed does there feem to be fufficient
data for folving all their phenomena. Willoughby,
Ray, and others, have imagined that the light was
occafioned by a number of fhining infefts ; but this
opinion was never fupported in fuch a manner as
to gain much ground. The ignis fatuus feen by Dr
Derham above mentioned, as wrell as all the other in¬
fiances we have related feem to demonflrate the
contrary. Sir Ifaac Newton calls it a vapour finn¬
ing without heat; and fuppofes that there is the fame
difference between the vapour of ignis fatuus and
flame, that there is between the finning or rotten
wood and burning coals. But though this feems gene¬
rally to be the cafe, there are Hill fome exceptions,
as has been inflanced in the vapours which fet fire to
the flacks of corn. Dr Prieftley fuppofes that the light
is of the fame nature with that produced by putref-
cent fubftances 3 and others are of opinion, that the
eledlrical fluid is principally concerned; but none
have attempted to give any-particular folution of the
phenomena.
From the frequent appearance of the ignis fatuus
in marfhes, moift ground, burying places, and dung¬
hills, we are naturally led to conclude^ that putrefaction
is concerned in the prodli£tion of it. This procefs,
we know7, is attended with the emiflion of an aqueous
fleam, together with a quantity of fixed, inflammable,
and azotic airs, all blended together in the form
of vapour. It is likewife attended with fome de¬
gree of heat 3 and we know7 that there are fome va¬
pours, that of fulphur particularly, which become lu--
minous, with a degree of heat much lefs than that fuffi¬
cient to fet fire to combuftible bodies. There is no
inconfiftency, therefore, in fuppofing that the putrid
vapour
L I G [ i
, vapour may be capable of fhining with a ftill fmaller
v degree of heat than that of fulphur, and confequently
become luminous by that which putrefa&ion alone af¬
fords. This wmuld account for the ignis fatuus, were
it only a fteady luminous vapour arifmg from places
where putrid matters are contained j but its extreme
mobility, and flying from one place to another on the
approach of any perfon, cannot be accounted for on this
principle. If one quantity of the putrid vapour be¬
comes luminous by means of heat, all the reft ought
to do fo likewife ; fo that, though we may allow heat
and putrefaction to be concerned, yet of neceffity we
muft have recourfe to fome other agent, wdiich cannot
be any other than eleClricity. Without this, it is im-
poffible to conceive how any body of moveable vapour
Ihould not be carried away by the wind $ but fo far is
this from being the cafe, that the ignes fatui, defcribed
by M. Beccaria, were but little affe&ed by the wind.
It is belides proved by undoubted experiment, that
ele&ricity always is attended with fome degree of heat;
and this, however fmall, may be fufficient to give a lu¬
minous property to any vapour on which it a£ts ftrong-
ly ; not to mention, that the eledtric fluid itfelf is no
other than that of light, and may therefore by its adlion
eafily produce a luminous appearance independent of
, any vapour.
We have a ftrong proof that eledlricity is con¬
cerned, or indeed the principal agent, in producing
the ignis fatuus, from an experiment related by Dr
Prieftley of a flame of this kind being artificially pro¬
duced. A gentleman, who had been making many
ele&rical experiments for a whole afternoon in a fmall
room, on going out of it, obferved a flame following
him at fome little diftance, This, we have no reafon
to doubt, was a true ignis fatuus, and the circumftances
neceffary to produce it were then prefent, viz. an at-
mofphere impregnated with animal vapour, and like¬
wife ftrongly eleftrified. Both thefe circumftances un¬
doubtedly muft have taken place in the prefent cafe ;
for the quantity of perfpiration emitted by a human-
body is by no means inconfiderable j and it, as well as
the eledricity, would be colle&ed by reafon of the
fmallnefs of the room. In this cafe, however, there
feems to have been a confiderable difference between
the artificial ignis fatuus and thofe commonly met with;
for this flame followed the gentleman as he went out
of the room; but the natural ones commonly fly
from thofe who approach them. This may be ac¬
counted for, from a difference between the eledlricity
of the atmofphere in the one room and the other; in
which cafe the flame would naturally be attrafted to¬
wards that place where the ele&ricity was either dif¬
ferent in quality or in quantity; but in the natural
way, where all bodies may be fuppofed equally elec¬
trified for a great way round, a repulfion will as natu¬
rally take place. Still, however, this does not feem to
be always the cafe. In thofe inftances where travellers
have been attended by an ignis fatuus, we cannot fup-
pofe it to have been influenced by any other, power than
what we call attraBion, and which electricity is very
capable of producing. Its keeping at fome diftance is
likewife eafily accounted for ; as we know that bodies
poffeffed of different quantities of eleftricity may be
made to attratt one another for a certain fpace, and
then repel without having ever come into contaft.
i
6 ] L I G
On this principle we may account for the light which Light.
furrounded the woman at Milan, but fled from the' v—-
hand of any other perfon. On the fame principle may
we account for thefe mifchievous vapours which fet
fire to the hay and corn ftacks, but were driven away
by pjefenting to them a pointed iron inftrument, or by
making a noife. Both thefe are known to have a great
effed upon the ele&ric matter ; and by means of either,
even lightning may occafionally be made to fall upon
or to avoid particular places, according to the circum¬
ftances by which the general mafs happens to be affeded
at that time.
On the whole, therefore, it feems moft probable, that
the ignis fatuus is a colledion of vapour of the pu-
trefcent kind, very much affeded by eledricity; ac¬
cording to the degree of which, it will either give a
weak or ftrong light, or even fet fire to certain fub-
ftances difpofed to receive its operation. This opinion
feems greatly to be confirmed from fome luminous ap¬
pearances obferved in privies, where the putrid vapours
have even colleded themfelves into balls, and exploded
violently on the approach of a candle. This laft effed,
however, we cannot fo well afcribe to the eledricity, as
to the accenfion of the inflammable air which frequently
abounds in fuch places.
In the appendix to Dr Prieftley’s third volume of
Experiments and Obfervations on Air, Mr Warltire
gives an account of fome very remarkable ignes fatui,
which he obferved on the road to Bromfgrove, about
five miles from Birmingham. The time of obfervation
wras the 12th of December 1776, before day-light. A
great many ©f thefe lights were playing in an adjacent
field, in different diredions ; from lome of which there
fuddenly fprung up bright branches of light, fomething
refembling. the explofion of a rocket that contained
many brilliant ftars, if the difcharge was upwards, in-
ftead of the ufual diredion ; and the hedge and trees
on each fide of the hedge were illuminated. This ap¬
pearance continued but a few feconds, and then the
jack-a-lanterns played as before. Mr Warltire was not
near enough to obferve if the apparent explofions w'ere
attended with any report.
Cronftedt gives it as his opinion, that ignis fatuust
as well as the meteors called falling Jlars, are owing to
colledions of inflammable air railed to a great height
in the atmofphere. But, with regard to the latter,
the vaft height at which they move evidently ftiows
that they cannot be the effed of any gravitating vapour
whatever; for the lighteft inflammable air is one-twelfth
.of that ol the common atmofphere ; and we have no
reafon to believe, that at the diftance of 40 or 50 miles
from the earth, the latter has near one-twelfth of its
weight at the furface. From the account given by
Mr Warltire, w'e Ihould be apt to conclude, that there
is a ftrong affinity betwixt the ignes fatui and fire balls, -
infomuch that the one might be very eafily converted
into the other. From this then we muft afcribe an
eledrical origin to the one as w^ell as the other. Elec¬
tricity, we know, can affume both thefe appearances, as
is evident in the cafe of points: or even when the at¬
mofphere is violently eledrified, as around the firing
of an eledrical kite, which ahvays wrill appear to be
furrounded with a blue flame in the night, if the elec¬
tricity be very ftrong.
On the whole, it appears, that eledricity ading up¬
on
L I G [i
Light, on a fmall quantity of atmofpherical air, with a certain
1 " v— ' degree of vigour, will produce an appearance refem-
bling an ignis fatuus; with a fuperior force it will pro¬
duce a fire ball; and a hidden increafe of electrical
power might produce thofe fparks and apparent ex-
plofions obferved by Mr Warltire. The only diffi¬
culty therefore is, Why does eleCtricity exert its power
upon one portion of the atmofphere rather than an¬
other, feeing it has an opportunity of diffufing itfelf
equally through the whole ? To this it leetns im-
poffible to give any other reafon than that we fee the
fa£t is lo ; and that in all cafes where there is a quan¬
tity of eleCfrified air or vapour, there will be an accu¬
mulation in one part rather than another. Thus, in
the experiment already related, where the gentleman
perceived a blue flame following him, the whole air
of the room was {leftrified, but the greateft power of
the fluid was exerted on that w'hich gave the luminous
appearance.
With regard to the ufes of the ignes fatui in the
fyftem of nature, we can only fay, that they feem to
be accidental appearances refulting from the motion of
the eleftric fluid, and, no doubt, like other meteors
fubfervient to the prefervation of its equilibrium, and
thus are ufeful in preventing thofe dreadful commo¬
tions which enfue when a proper medium for fo doing
is deficient.
Phofphoric A light in fome refpecls fimilar to thofe above men-
light. tioned has been found to proceed from that celebrated
chemical production called phofphorus, which always
tends to decompofe itfelf, fo as to take fire by the accefs
of air only. Phofphorus, therefore, wdien it emits
light, is properly a body ignited ; though when a very
fmall quantity of it is ufed, as what is left after draw¬
ing it over paper, or what may be diffolved in effential
oil, the heat is not fenfible. But perhaps the matter
which emits the light in what w7e call putrefcent fub-
Jiances may be fimilar to it, though it be generated by
a different procefs, and burn with a lefs degree of heat.
Putrefcence does not feem to be neceflary to the light
of glow-worms or of the pholades*, and yet their light
is fufficiently fimilar to that of fhining wood or flelh.
EleClric light is unquellionably fimilar to that of phof¬
phorus, though the fource of it is apparently very dif¬
ferent.
Kunckel formed his phofphorus into a kind of pills
about the fize of peas, which being moiffened a little,
and fcraped in the dark, yielded a very confiderable
light, but not without fmoke. The light was much
more pleafing when eight or ten of thefe pills were put
into a glafs of water; for being fhaken in the dark,
the whole glafs feemed to be filled with light. Kunc¬
kel alfo reduced his phofphorus into the form of larger
Hones; which being wanned by a perfon’s hand, and
rubbed upon paper, would defcribe letters that were
very legible in the dark.
I he greateft variety of experiments with the light
of phofphorus was made by Dr Slare ; who fays, that
the liquid phofphorus (which is nothing more than the
folid phofphorus diffolved in any of the effential oils)
would not hurt even a lady’s hand ; or that, when the
hands or face were waftied with it, it would not only
make them vifible to other perfons in the dark, but that
the light was fo confiderable as to make other neigh¬
bouring objeCls vifible.
Vog. XII. Part I.
7 ] L I G
When the folid phofphorus is quite immerfed in wa¬
ter, he obferves that it ceafes to ihine ; but that if any
part of it chance to emerge, or get into the air, it will
Ihine though the glafs be hermetically fealed. In a
large glafs he kept it without water for feveral daysj
and yet it continued fhining, with very little diminu¬
tion of its light or weight. If the letters that were writ¬
ten with this phofphorus were warmed by the fire, they
prefently became dark lines, which continued upon the
paper, like ink. To try how much light was given by
a fmall quantity of this phofphorus, he obferved that
it continued to flame in the open air for feven or
eight days ; the light being vifible whenever he ihut
his window.
As air was generally thought to contain the pabu¬
lum of flame, Dr Slare was determined to try this with
refpeCt to phofphorus; and for this purpofe he placed
a large piece of it in a receiver ; but upon exhaufting
it, be perceived that it became more luminous, and
that, upon admitting the air, it returned to its former
ftate. This property of the light of phofphorus, which
is the very reverfe of that of fhining wood and fifties,
was alfo afcertained by feveral very accurate experi¬
ments of Mr Haukfbee’s.
Endeavouring to blow the phofphorus into a flame
with a pair of bellows, Dr Slare found that it was pre-
fently blown out, and that it was a confiderable time
before the light revived again. All liquors would ex-
tinguiifi this light when the phofphorus was put into
them ; nor would it (bine or burn, though it was even
boiled in the moll inflammable liquors, as oil of olives,
fpirit of turpentine, or even fpirit of wine.
In order to keep his phofphorus from confuming,
he ufed to put it in a glafs of water ; and fometimes he
has feen it, when thus immerfed in water, make fuch
bright and vigorous corufcations in the air, as, he fays,
would furprife and frighten thofe who are not ufed to
the phenomenon. This fiery meteor, he fays, is con-
tradled in its paffage through the water, but expands
as foon as it gets above it. If any perfon would make
this experiment to advantage, he informs them that the
glafs muft be deep and cylindrical, and not above three
quarters filled with water. This effedl he perceived in
warm weather only, and never in cold.
The phofphorus of which we have been treating is
prepared from urine ; but in fome cafes the fweat,
which is fimilar to urine, has been obferved to be
phofphoraceous, without any preparation. This once Acla Cafa-
happened to a perfon who ufed to eat great quantities
of fait, and who was a little fubjedl to the gout, after vo1- v*
fweating with violent exercife. Stripping himfelf in P‘ ,334‘
the dark, his fhirt feemed to be all on fire, which fur-
prifed him very much. Upon examination, red fpots
were found upon his fhirt ; and the phyfician who was
prefent perceived an urinous fmell, though it had no¬
thing in it of volatile alkali, but of the muriatic acid:
the fame, he fays, that iffues from cabbage much fail¬
ed, and ftrongly fermented.
The eafieft method of accounting for all thefe kindsAI1 the^
of lights, perhaps, is from elearicity. If light confifts lighttS
in a certain vibration of the elearic fluid *, then it fob from elec”
lows, that in wThatever fubftances fuch a vibration takes trieity.
place, there light muft appear, whether in putrefcent *See
animal fubftances, fea water, phofphorus, or any thing tncity'
elfe. We know that the electric matter pervades all
C terreftrial
L I G [ i
light terrefiiial fubffarices, and is very liable to be fet in mo-
tion from caufes of which we are ignorant. The ac¬
tion of the air by which putrefaction is produced may
be one of thefe caufes ; and it can by no means appear
furpriiing that the ele&ric matter Ihould a£t in the bo¬
dies o'7 living animats in fuch a manner as to produce a
permanent light, when we certainly know it aCts in
feme of them fo powerfully as to produce a fhockfnni-
lar to that of a charged phial. On this fubjeft we
fhali only obferve farther, that whert this vibration be¬
comes to powerful as to penetrate the folid fubftance of
the body itfeif, the luminous body then becomes tranf-
parent, as in the milk mentioned in the former part of
this article ; but when it is only fuperficial, the body,
though it emits light, is itfeif opaque.
Light from Diamonds. Among luminous bodies the
diamond is to be reckoned } as fome diamonds are known
to fhine in the dark. But on account of the feeblenefs
of their fplendour, it is neceffary for the perfon who is
to obferve them, previoudy to ftay in the dark at lealt
a quarter of an hour \ that the pupil of the eye may
be dilated and enlarged, and fo rendered capable of
receiving a large quantity of the rays of light. M. du
Fay has alfo obferved, that the eyes ought to be Ihut
for this time, or at lead: one of them ; and that, in that
cafe, the light of the diamond is afterwards only feen by
that eye which has been (hut. Before the diamond is
brought into the dark room, it mud be expofed to the
funlhine, or at lead to the open daylight, to imbibe
a fufficient quantity of rays j and this is done in one
minute, or even lefs; eight or ten feconds having
been found to furnifh as much light as a done is ca¬
pable of receiving : and when brought into the dark,
its light continues about twelve or thirteen minutes,
weakening all the while; by infenfible degrees. It is
very remarkable, that in bodies fo extremely limilar to
each other as diamonds are, forae Ihould have this pro¬
perty of imbibing the fun’s rays, and Ihining in the
dark, and that others diould not j yet fo it is found
to be by experiment, and the mod nearly refembling
dones lhall be found one to have this property, and
another to be deditute of it j while many of the mod
didimilar have the property in common. There feems
to be no rule, nor even the lead traces of any imper-
feft rule of judging, which diamonds have, and which
have not this property •, their natural brightnefs, their
purity, their fize, or their lhape, contribute nothing to
it: and all that has been yet difeovered of the lead re¬
gularity among them, is, that all yellow diamonds
have this property. This is fuppofed to arife from
their having more fulphur in their compofition, and
therefore illuminating more readily, or emitting a more
vilible flame.
The burning of diamonds is a term ufed among the
jewellers, for putting them into a fierce fire, as they
frequently do, when they are fouled with brown, or
yellow, or the like j this always diverts them of their
colour, without doing them the lead fenfible injury.
M. du Fay, having been informed of this common prac¬
tice, formed a conje&ure, that the difference of dia¬
monds in their diining or not diming in the dark, was
owing to it; and that either all thofe which had been
burnt, or all thofe which had not, were thofe which
alone fhone in the dark. But this was found an erro¬
neous conje&ure j for two diamonds, one lucid in the
8 ] L I G
dark, the other not, were both burnt, and afterwards Light,
both were found to retain the fame properties they tf*—
had before. It is not only the open funfliine, or open
daylight, which gives to thtlc diamonds the power of
Ihining in the dark ; they receive it in the fame manner
even it laid under a glafs, or plunged in water or in
milk.
M. du Fay tried whether it was pofiible to make the
diamond retain, for any longer time, the light it natu¬
rally parts with fo foon : and found, that if the dia¬
mond, after being expofed to the light, be covered with
black wax, it will thine in the dark, as well fix hours
afterwards as at the time it was firtt impregnated with
the light.
The imbibing light, in this manner^ being fo nice
a property as not to be found in feveral diamonds, it
was not to be fuppofed that it would be found in any
other ftones : accordingly, on trial, the ruby, the fap-
phire, and the topaz, wxre found wholly deffitute of
it \ and among a large number of rough emeralds, one
only was found to poffcfs it. Such is the itrange un¬
certainty of thefe accidents.
All the other lefs precious ftones were tried, and
found not to poffefs this property of imbibing light
from the daylight or funftiine, but they all became
luminous by the different means of heating or fri&ion :
with this difference, that fome acquired it by one of
thefe methods, and others by the other ; each being
unaffefted by that which gave the property to the
other. The diamond becomes luminous by all thefe
ways.
Beccarius alfo difeovered, that diamonds have the
property of the Bolognian phofphorus, about the fame
time that it occurred to M. du Fay. Com. Bonon.
vol. ii. p. 276. M. du Fay likewife obferved, that the
common topaz, when calcined, had all the properties of
this phofphorus j and purfuing the difeovery, he found
the fame property, in a great degree, in the belemni-
tes> gyp^m, limeftone, and marble : though he was
obliged to diffolve fome very hard fubftances of this
kind in acids, before calcination could produce this
change in them $ and with fome fubftances he could
not fucceed even thus j efpecially with flint ftones, ri¬
ver fand, jafpers, agates, and rock cryftal.
Light from Plants. In Swreden a very curious phe¬
nomenon has been obferved on certain flowers by M.
Haggern, le&urer in natural hiftory. One evening
he perceived a faint flafh of light repeatedly dart from
a marigold. Surprifed at fuch an uncommon appear¬
ance, he refolved to examine it with attention j and,
to be affured it was no deception of the eye, he placed
a man near him, with orders to make a fignal at the
moment when he obferved the light. They both faw
it conftantly at the fame moment.
The light was moft brilliant on marigolds of an
orange or flame colour j but fcarcely viftble on pale
ones.
The flafti was frequently feen on the fame flower two
or three times in quick fucceflion , but more common¬
ly at intervals of feveral minutes : and when feveral
flowers in the fame place emitted their light together,
it could be obferved at a confiderable diftance.
This phenomenon was remarked in the months of
July and Auguft at funfet, and for half an hour, when
the atmofphere was clear j but after a rainy day, or
when
Light,
Light-
Houfe.
L I G t i
when the air was loaded with vapours, nothing of it
was feen.
The following flowers emitted flaflies, more or lefs
vivid, in this order :
1. The marigold, calendula officinalis.
2. Monk’s-hood, tropceolum majus.
3. The orange lily, lilium bulbiferum.
4. The Indian pink, tagetes patula et erecla.
To difcover whether fome little infedls or phofpho-
ric worms might not be the caufe of it, the flowers
were carefully examined, even with a microfcope, with¬
out any fuch thing being found.
From the rapidity of the flalh, and other circumftan-
ces, it may be conje&ured that there is fomething of
electricity in this phenomenon. It is well known, that
when the piftil of a flower is impregnated, the pollen
burfts away by its elafticity, with which eleCtricity may
be combined. But M. Haggern, after having obferved
the flafli from the orange lily, the antherae of which are
a confiderable fpace diftant from the petals, found that
the light proceeded from the petals only •, whence he
concludes, that this eleClric light is caufed by the pol¬
len, which, in flying off, is fcattered on the petals.
Whatever be the caufe, the effeft is Angular and highly
curious.
Lights, in Painting, are thofe parts of a piece
which are illuminated, or that lie open to the luminary
by whif.i the piece is fuppofed to be enlightened j and
which, for this reafon, are painted in bright vivid co¬
lours.
In this fenfe, light is oppofed to fliadow-.
Different lights have very different effedls on a pic¬
ture, and occafion a difference in the management of
every part. A great deal therefore depends on the
painter’s choofing a proper light for his piece to be
illuminated by 5 and a great deal more, in the conduCt
of the lights and (hadows, when the luminary is pitch¬
ed upon.
The ftrength and relievo of a figure, as well as its
gracefulnefs, depend entirely on the management of
the lights, and the joining of thofe to the lhadovrs.
The light a figure receives is either direft or refleCI-
ed ; to each *f which fpecial regard muff be had. The
doCtrine of lights and ihadows makes that part of
painting called clair-obfcure.
LiGRT-Horfc, an ancient term in our Englifh cuf-
toms, lignifying an ordinary cavalier or horfeman light¬
ly armed, and fo as to enter a corps or regiment ; in
oppofition to the men at arms, who were heavily ac¬
coutred, and armed at all points. See Ligbt-HoRss.
Light-Hou/c, a building ere&ed upon a cape or pro¬
montory on the fea coaft, or upon fome rock in the
fea, and having on its top in the night-time a great
fire, or light formed by candles, which is conflantly
attended by fome careful perfon, fo as to be feen at a
great diftance from the land. It is ufed to direct the
Shipping on the coaft, that might othervvife run afhore,
or fleer an improper courfe, w’hen the darknefs of the
night and the uncertainty of currents, &c. might ren¬
der their fituation with regard to the (bore extremely
doubtful. Lamp-lights are, on many accounts, pre¬
ferable to coal fires or candles ; and the effedt of thefe
may be increafed by placing them either behind glafs
hemifphercs, or before properly difpofed glafs or me-
9 1
L I G
tal reflectors, which laft method is now very generally Lght-
adopted. See Beacons. Room
LiGiir-Rcom, a fmall apartment, enclofed with glafs Liglnfoot.
windows, near the magazine of a (hip of war. It is v—— v ■■■■
ufed to contain the lights by which the gunner and his
afliftants are enabled to fill cartridges with powTder to
be ready for adtion.
LIGHTER, a large, open, flat-bottomed veffel^
generally managed with oars, and employed to carry
goods to or from a (hip when {he is to be laden or de¬
livered.—There are alfo forae lighters furnifhed with
a deck throughout their whole length, in order to con¬
tain thofe merchandifes which would be damaged by
rainy weather : thefe are ufually called clofe lighters.
LIGHTFOOT, John, a moft learned Englilh di¬
vine, w7as the fon of a divine, and born in March
1602, at Stoke upon Trent in Staffordftnre. After
having finiflied his ftudies at a fchool on Morton-green
near Congleton in Cheftiire, he wTas removed in 16
to Cambridge, where he applied himfelf to eloquence,
and fucceeded fo well in it as to be thought the bell;
orator of the under graduates in the univerfity. He
alfo made an extraordinary proficiency in the Latin
and Greek , but neglected the Hebrew, and even loft
that knowledge he brought of it from fchool. His
tafte for the oriental languages was not yet excited ;
and as for logic, the ftudy of it as managed at that
time among the academics, was too quarrelfome and
fierce for his quiet and meek difpofition. As foon as
he had taken the degree of B. A. he left the univer¬
fity, and became afliftant to a fchool at Repton in
Derbyfliire. After he had fupplied this place a year
or two, he entered into orders, and became curate of
Norton under Hales in Shroplhire. This curacy gave
an occafion of awakening his genius for the Hebrew
tongue. Norton lies near Bellaport, then the feat of
Sir Rowland Cotton ; who w’as his conftant hearer,
made him his chaplain, and took him into his houfe.
This gentleman being a perfeft mafter of the Hebrew
language, engaged Lightfoot in that ftudy •, who, by
converfing with his patron, foon became fenfible that
without that knowledge it was impofiible to attain an
accurate underftanding of the feriptures. He there¬
fore applied himfelf to it with extraordinary vigour,
and in a little time made a great progrefs in it : and
his patron removing with his family to refide in Lon¬
don, at the requeft of Sir Alland Cotton his uncle,
who was lord-mayor of that city, he followed his pre¬
ceptor thither. But he did not flay long there : for,
having a mind to improve himfelf by travelling abroad,
he went down into Staffordfliire to take leave of his
father and mother. Faffing through Stone in that
county, he found the place deliitute of a minifler : and
the prefling inflances of the pariftiioners prevailed up¬
on him to undertake that cure. Hereupon, laying
afide his riefign of travelling abroad, he began to turn
his thoughts upon fettling at home. During his refi-
dence at Bellaport, he had fallen into the acquaintance
of a gentlewoman who was daughter of William
Crompton of Stonepark, Efq. and now, being in pof-
feiTion of that living, he manied her in 1628. But
notwithflanding this fettlemcnt, his unquenchable thirft
after rabbinical learning would not fuffer him to con¬
tinue there. Sion-college library at London, he knew,
C 2 was
li I G f 20
Lightfoot. ^ ^vas well Hocked with books of that kind. He there-
' tore quitted his charge at Stone, and removed with his
family to Hornfey, near the city ; where he gave the
public a notable fpecimen of his advancement in thofe
Hudies, by his “ Erubhim, or Mifcellanies Chriftian
and Judaical,” in 1629. He was at this time only
27 years of age 5 and appears to have been well ac¬
quainted with the Latin and the Greek fathers, as well
as the ancient heathen writers. Thefe firil fruits of
lis (Indies were dedicated to Sir Rowland Cotton j
who, in 1631, prefented him to the reflory of Afliley
in Staffordlhire.
^ fie feemed now to be fixed for life : Accordingly,
he built a (ludy in the garden, to be out of the noife
o( tne houfe 5 and applied himfelt with indefatigable
diligence in fearching the feriptures. Thus employ¬
ed, the days palled very agreeably 5 and he continued
quiet and. unmolefted, till the great change which
happened in the public affairs brought him into a (hare
of the adminidration relating to the church j for he
w as. nominated a member of the memorable affembly
of divines for fettling a new form of ecclefiadical po-
hty: This appointment was purely the effe£l of his
didinguidied merit j and he accepted it purely with a
view to ferve his country, as far as lay in his power.
The non-refidence, which this would neceffarily occa-
fion, apparently induced him to refign his re&ory :
and having obtained the prefentation for a younger
biother, he let out for London in 1642. He had now
fatisfied himfelf in clearing up many of the abdrufed
palfages in the Bible, and therein had provided the chief
materials, as well as formed the plan, of his “ Harmo¬
ny and an opportunity of infpetting it at the prefs
was, no doubt, an additional motive for his going to
the capital : where he had not been long before he
vras chofen minider of St Bartholomew’s, behind the
Royal Exchange. 1 he afiembly of divines meeting in
°tir author gave his attendance diligently there,
and made a didinguilhed figure in their debates ; w'here
he tiled great freedom, and gave fignal proofs of his
courage as well as learning, in oppofing many of thofe
tenets which the divines were endeavouring to edablilh.
His learning recommended him to the parliament,
whofe vifitors, having ejedled Ur William Spurdow’
trom the maderfhip of Catharine-hall in Cambridge,
put Lightfqot in his room, this year i6?3 j and he
was aifo prefented to the living of Much-Munden in
Hertford (hire, void by the death of Dr Samuel Ward,
Margaret-profeflbr of divinity in that univerfity, before
the expiration of this year. Meanwhile he had his turn
tvith other favourites in preaching before the houfe of
commons, mod of which fermons were printed •, and in
them we fee him warmly preffing the fpeedy fettlement
of the church in the Prefhyterian form, which he cor¬
dially believed to be according to the pattern in the
Mount. He was all the while employed in preparing
and publifiung the feveral branches of his Harmony • all
which were fo many excellent fpecimens of the ufeful-
nefs of human learning to true religion : and he met
with great difficulties and difeouragements in that work,
chiefly from that antieruditional fpirit which prevailed’
and even threatened the deffruftion of the univerfities!
In 1655 he entered upon the office of vice-chancellor
of Cambridge, to which he u’as chofen that year, hav¬
ing taken the degree of doftor of divinity in 1652.
]
l i d
He performed all the regular exercifes for his degree Ligfitfoot,
with great applaufe, and executed the vice-chancellor’s lighting,
office wuth exemplary diligence and fidelity ; and, par- '
ticularly at the commencement, fupplied the place of
profeflbr of divinity, then undifpofed of, as an aft which
was kept for a doftor’s degree in that profeffion. At
the fame time he was engaged with others in perfecting
the Polyglott Bible, then in the prefs. At the Refto-
ration he offered to refign the mafterflnp of Catharine-
hall : But, as what he had done had been rather in
compliance with the neceffity of the times than from
any zeal or fpirit of oppofition to the king and govern¬
ment, a confirmation w'as granted him from the crown,
both of the place and of his living. Soon after this he
was appointed one of the afliftants at the conference
upon the liturgy, which was held in the beginning of
1661, but attended only once or twice j probably dif-
gufted at the heat with which that conference was ma¬
naged. However, he (luck clofe to his defign of per-
feCling his Harmony : and being of a ftrong and heal¬
thy conftitution, which was affifted by-an exact tem¬
perance, he profecuted his ftudies with unabated vi¬
gour to the laft, and continued .to publifli, notwith-
ftanding the many difficulties he met with from the ex¬
pence of it. However, not long before he died, fome
bookfellers got a promife from him to colleR and me-
thodife his works, in order to print them ; but the exe¬
cution was prevented by his death, which happened
Dec. 6. 1675. The doClor was twice married : his
firit wife, already mentioned, brought him four fons
and. two daughters. His fecond wife was likewife
a widow, and relift of Mr Auftin Brograve, uncle of
Sir Thomas Brograve, Bart of Hertfordihire, a gen¬
tleman well verfed in rabbinical learning, and a parti¬
cular acquaintance of our author. He had no ifllic by
her. She alfo died before him, and was buried in
Munden church ; where the doftor was himfelf like¬
wife interred near both his wives. Dr Lightfoot’s
works were colle&ed and publilhed firft in 1684, in
two volumes folio. The fecond edition was printed at
Amfterdam, 1686, in two volumes folio, containing all
his. Latin writings, with a Latin tranflation of thofe
which he Wrote in Engliffi. At the end of both ’thefe
editions there is a lift of fuch pieces as he left unfiniffi-
ed. It is the chief of thefe, in Latin, which make
up. the third volume, added to the former two, in a
third edition of his works, by John Leufden, at Utrecht,
in 1699, fobo. They were communicated by Mr
Strype, who, in 1700, publiffied anorher collection of
thefe papers, under the title of “ Same genuine re¬
mains of the late pious and learned Dr John Lieht-
foot.”
LIGHTING OF Streets. This invention, which is
generally confidered as of modern date, contributes
greatly to the convenience and fafety of the inhabitants
of large cities, as well as to the ornament ©f their
ftreets. It is not probable that the ftreets of ancient
Rome were lighted, fince the Romans confidered the
ufe of flambeaux and lanterns to be fo necelTary in re¬
turning home from their no&urnal vifits. It appears
that fuch as walked the rtreets without thefe went home
in darknefs j and the return of Gito in the night-time,
of which Petronius makes mention, clearly proves that
the ftreets of Naples were not lighted. Such as have
aferibed a remote antiquity to the lighting of ftreets,
feem
Lighting, feem to have miftaken it for what are called illumina-
*—-'vr—tions, which indeed are of great antiquity. Egyptians,
Jews, Greeks, and Romans, during the celebration of
memorable feftivals, were in the habit of illuminating
their houfes ; but this is entirely different from the prac¬
tice which we are now confidering.
Paris was probably the firft city in modem times, the
ilreels of which were lighted, about the beginning of
the 16th century, as they were very much infeded by
robbers and incendiaries. This occafioned an edift,
iffued in 1524, commanding the inhabitants, whofe
windows fronted the ftreet, to keep lights burning af¬
ter nine o’clock at night. In 1558, falots were placed
at the corners of the tlreets; but when thefe were too
long to receive benefit from the light of one, three were
ereiffed in different parts of it. The city of Paris had
then 91 2 ilreets, and the number of lights rather under
2736 ; but in the fame year thefe were changed for
lanterns, of a fimilar conftruflion with thofe ufed at
prefent.
In 1671, the lanterns were ordered to be lighted
every year from the 20th October to the end of March
the enfuing year. Some time after this a premium was
offered for a differtation on the belt means of improving
the lighting of the ftreets, when a journeyman glazier
obtained a premium of 200 livres, and Meffrs Bailly,
le Roy, and Bourgeois de Chateaublanc, 2000 livres.
The lamps of Paris amounted to 5772 in the year
1721, and in 1771, to 6232. The city of Nantz was
lighted in 1777, and had no fewer than 300 lamps in
the year 1780.
The inhabitants of the city of London were ordered,
in 1688, to hang out lanterns duly at the accuftomed
time, which was renewed in 1690 and in 1716 it was
enabled, that all thofe whofe houfes fronted any ftreet,
lane, or public paffage, fliould hang out one or more
lights, which were to burn from 6 o’clock to 11. But
as the time of lighting them was rertridled to 117
nights in the year, on which account many depreda¬
tions were eafily committed by thieves and robbers, the
lord mayor and council applied for, and obtained an aft
of parliament, empowering them to light the ftreets in
a better manner. In confequence of this aft, the lamps
were increafed from ICOO to 4769, and afterwards to
5000. But as thefe were confined to the city and li¬
berties, about one-fifth of the whole of London, the
number of lamps could not be lefs than 15,000. The
continuance of their burning was alfo increafed from
750 to 5000 hours. In 1744, another aft wyas obtain¬
ed to regulate ftill farther the lighting of the city, and
it was placed on the footing on which it Hands at pre¬
fent. Thefe are nov? fo numerous, that Oxford ftreet
alone is faid to contain more lamps than the whole city
of Paris. Birmingham was lighted for the firft time in
I733> with 700 lamps.
In 1669, Amfterdam was lighted by lanterns 5 the
Hague in 1553 was lighted in a particular manner, but
lamps were not fixed up in all the ftreets till the year
J678. The ftreets of Copenhagen wxre lighted in
1681, the plan of which w’as much improved in T683.
Berlin at prefent has 2354 lamps, kept lighted from
September to May at the expence of the fovereign.
Vienna began to be lighted in 1687, and lamps were
introduced in 1704. In 1776 their number amounted
to 2000, which was increafed to 3000, to be lighted at
] L 1 G
the annual expence of 30,000 florins. Leipzig was Lightning
lighted in 1702, Drefden in 1705, Caffel in 1721, afid H
Gottingen in 1735. A praftice fo beneficial to the. <
fafety and convenience of mankind, has been very lau¬
dably imitated by almoft every city and town in Europe.
Beckman Hi/}, of Invent.
LIGHTNING, a bright and vivid flaftr of fire,
fuddenly appearing in the atmofphere, and commonly
difappearing in an inftant, fometimes attended with
clouds and thunder, and fometimes not. For an ac¬
count of the phenomena of lightning, and of the opi¬
nions concerning it, fee Electricity Index.
Artificial Lightning. Before the difeoveries of
Dr Franklin concerning the identity of eleftricity
and lightning, many contrivances were invented in
order to reprefent this terrifying phenomenon in mi¬
niature : the corufcations of phofphorus in warm rvea-
ther, the accenfion of the vapour of fpirit of wane
evaporated in a clofe place, See. wrere ufed in order to
fupport the hypothefis which at that time prevailed;
namely, that lightning was formed of fome fulphu-
reous, nitrous, or other combuftible vapours, floating
in long trains in the atmofphere, which by fome un¬
accountable means took fire, and produced all the
deftruftive effefts of that phenomenon. Thefe repre-
fentations, however, are now no more exhibited j
and the only true artificial lightning is univerfally ac¬
knowledged to be the difeharge of eleftric matter from
bodies in which it is artificially fet in motion by ma¬
chines.
Lightning was looked upon as facred both by the
Greeks and Romans, and was fuppofed to be fent to
execute vengeance on the earth : Hence perfons kill¬
ed with lightning, being thought hateful to the gods,
were buried apart by themfelves, left the afhes of other
men fhouid receive pollution from them. Some fay
they were interred upon the very fpot where they died j
others will have it that they had no interment, but
were fuffered to rot where they fell, becaufe it was
unlawful for any man to approach the place. For
this reafon the ground vras hedged in, left any perfon
unawares fhouid contraft pollution fiom it. All
places ftruck with lightning were carefully avoided and
fenced round, out of an opinion that Jupiter had ei¬
ther taken offence at them, and fixed upon them the
marks of his difpleafure, or that he had, by this means,
pitched upon them as facred to himfelf. The ground
thus fenced about was called by the Romans bidentul.
Lightning was much obferved in augury, and was a
good or bad omen, according to the circumftances at¬
tending it.
UGNICENCIS terra, in the Materia Aledica,
the name of a fine yellow bole found in many parts of
Germany, particularly about Emeric in the circle of
Weftphalia, and ufed as an aftringent.
LIGNUM viTy®. See Guaiacum, Botany and
Materia Medica Index.
Lignum Aloes. See Excoecaria, Botany Index*
Lignum Nephriticum. See Guilandina, Botany
Index.
Lignum Rhodium, or Rofewood, in the Materia Me¬
dica ; a wood, or root, chiefly brought from the Ca¬
nary iflands.
The talle of this wrood is lightly bitterifh, and fome-
what pungent ) its fmell is very fragrant, refembling
that.
L I L [
Lignum tllat of rofcs: long kept, it fee ins to lofe its fmell ;
Lilburne. !Dut on cutting» or rubbing one piece againft the other,
——it fme'lls as well as at firfl:. Diililled with water, it
yields an odoriferous eflential oil, in very fmall quan¬
tity. Rhodium is at prefent in efteem only upon ac¬
count of its oil, which is employed as a high and a-
greeable perfume.
Lignum Campechenfe. See Hematoxylum, Bo¬
tany Index.
Lignum Co/ubrinum. See Ophiorhiza.
^ LIGULATED, among botanifts, an appellation
given to fuch tlolcules as have a llraight end turned
downwards, with three indentures, but not feparated
into fegments.
•LIGURIA, in Ancient Geography^ a country of
Italy, bounded on the fouth by the Mediterranean fea,
on the north by the Apennine mountains, on the weft
by part of Iranfalpine Gaul, and on the eaft by Etru¬
ria. . There is a great difagreement among authors con¬
cerning the origin of the Ligurians, though moft pro¬
bably they were defeended from the Gauls. Some
carry up their origin as far as the fabulous heroes of
antiquity ; while others trace them from the Ligyes,
a people mentioned by Herodotus as attending Xerxes
‘in his expeditions againft Greece. I hefe Ligyes are
by fome ancient geographers placed in Colchis j by
■others, in Albania.—According to Diodorus Siculus,
the Ligurians led a very wretched life; their country
-being entirely overgrown with woods, which they
were obliged to pull up by the root, in order to cul¬
tivate their land, which was alfo encumbered with
great ftones, and, being naturally barren, made but
very poor returns for all their labour. They were
much addi&ed to hunting; and, by a life of continual
exercife and labour, became fo ftrong, that the weakeft
Ligurian was generally an overmatch for the ftrongeft
and moft robuft among the Gauls. The women are
faid to have been almoft as ftrong as the men, and to
have borne an equal fhare in all laborious enterpriles.
With all their bravery, however, they were not able
to refift the Roman power j but were fubdued by that
warlike nation, about 211 B. C.
LIGUSLICUM, lovage ; a genus of plants be¬
longing to the pentandria clafsj and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 45th order, Vmbellatce. See
Botany Index.
LIGUSTRUM, privet ; a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the diandria clafs ; and in the natural method
ranking under the 44th order, Sepia rice. See Botany
Index.
LILBURNE, John, an enthufiaftic demagogue,
who was tyrannically punilhed by the ftar-chamber
court, being put in the pillory, whipped, lined, and
impnfoned, for importing and publilhing feditious
pamphlets, which he had got printed in Holland ;
they chiefly refleaed on the church of England and
its bilhops; he fullered in 1637, and in prifon was
doubly loaded with irons. In 1641, he was releafed
by the long parliament : and from this time he had
the addrefs to make himfelf formidable to all parties,
by his bold, afpiring genius. He fignalized himfelf
m the parliament army, and was at one time the
fecret friend and confidant of Cromwell, and at ano
ther his avowed enemy and accufer j fo that, in 1650,
Cromwell found it to be his intereft to filence him, by
22 ] Ir I L
a grant of fome forfeited eftates. But after this, he Lilliaceous
grew outrageous againft the protedlor’s government} .11
became chief of the levellers; and was twice tri-d for L f
high treafon, but acquitted by the juries. The laft v :
was for returning from exile (having been banilhed
by the parliament) without a pals. He died in 16 C7
aged 88. ^ h
LILIACEOUS, in Lotany, an appellation given
to filch flowers as referable thole of the lilv.
LILIUM, the LILY } a genus of plants belonging
to the hexandria clafs, and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 10th order, Coronarice. See Botany
Index.
LILLO, George, an excellent dramatic writer,
was born at London in 1693. He was a jeweller by
profeffion, and followed his bulinefs for many years in
that neighbourhood with the faireft reputation. He
was at the fame time ftrongly attached to the mufes,
yet feemed to have laid it down as a maxim, that the
devotion paid to them ought always to tend to the
promotion of virtue, morality, and religion. In pur-
fuance of this aim, Lilly was happy in the choice of
his fubje&s, and Ihowed great power of affe&ing the
heart, by working up the paflions to fuch a height as
to render the diftreffes of common and domeftic life
equally interefting to the audiences as that of kings
and heroes, and the ruin brought on private families
by an indulgence of avarice, lull, &c. as the havock
made in ftates and empires by ambition, cruelty, or
tyranny. His “ George Barnwell,” “ Fatal Curiofi-
ty,” and “ Arden of Eeverftiam,” are all planned on
common and well known ftories ; yet they have per¬
haps more frequently drawn tears from an audience
than the more pompous tragedies of Alexander the
Great, All for Love, &c. In the prologue to “ El-
meric,”. which was not atted till after the author’s
death, it is faid, that when he wrote that play, he
“ was deprelfed by want,” and affiiaed by dileafe;
but in the former particular there appears to be evident¬
ly a miftake, as he died polfeffed of an eftate of 60I. a-
year, befides other effedls to a conliderable value. His
death happened in 1739, in the 47th year of his age.
His works have been collected, and publilhed, with an
account of his life, in 2 vols 1 2mo.
LILLY, John, a dramatic poet, was born in the
Wealds of Kent, about the year 15 $3, and educated in
Magdalen-college, Oxford, where he took the degree
of bachelor of arts in 1573, and that of mafter in
I575* From Oxford he removed to Cambridge } but
how long he continued there, is uncertain. \)n his
arrival in London, he became acquainted with fome of
Queen Elizabeth’s courtiers, by whom he was carefied,
and admired as a poet and a wit} and her majefty*
on particular feftivals, honoured his dramatic pieces
with her prefence. His plays are nine in number.
His firft publication, however, printed in 1580, was a
romance called Euphues, which was univerfally read and
admired. This romance, which Blount, the editor of
fix of his plays, fays introduced a new language, efpe-
cially among the ladies, is, according to Beikenhout,
in fadl a moft contemptible piece of affectation and*
non feme : neveithelefs it (eems very certain, that it
was in high eftimation by the women of fafliion of
thofe times, who, we are told by Whalley, the editor
of Ben Johnfon’s works, had all the phraies by heart}
and
L I L [ 23 ] L I M
Lilly, and thofe who did not fpeak Euphui/m were as little
—V" regarded at court as if they could not fpeak French.
“ He was (fays Oldys) a man of great reading, good
memory, ready faculty of application, and uncommon
eloquence ; but he ran into a vaft excefs of allufion.”
When or where he died is not known. Anthony Wood
fays he was living in 1597, when his laid: comedy was
publifned. After attending the court of Queen Eliza¬
beth 13 years, notwithftanding his reputation as an author,
he was under a necelfity of petitioning the queen for
feme fmall ftipend to fupport him in his old age. His
two letters or petitions to her majefly on this fubjecl
are preferved in manufeript.
Lilly, William, a noted Englilh aftrologer, born
in Leicelterfhire in 1602 } where his father not be¬
ing able to give him more learning than common
writing and arithmetic, he reiolved to feek his for-
tune in London. He arrived in 1620, and lived four
years as a fervant to a mantua-maker in the parifli of
St Clements Danes •, but then moved a ftep higher to
the fervice of Mr Wright, mailer of the Salters com¬
pany in the Strand, who not being able to write, Lilly
among other offices kept his books. In 1627, when
his mailer died, he paid his addrefles to the widow,
whom he married with a fortune of 1000I. Being now
his own mailer, he followed the puritanical preachers *,
and, turning his mind to judicial aftrology, became pu¬
pil to one Evans, a profligate Welffi parfon, in that
pretended art. Getting a MS. of the Ars Notitia of
Corn. Agrippa, with alterations, he drank in the doc¬
trine of the magic circle, and the invocation of fpi-
rits, with great eagernefs. He was the author of the
Merlinus Anglicus junior; The Supernatural Sight; and
The White King’s Prophecy. In him we have an in-
ftance of the general fuperllition and ignorance that
prevailed in the time of the civil war between Cha. I.
and his parliament : for the king confulted this allro-
loger to know in what quarter he ffiould conceal him-
felf, if he could efcape from Hampton court j and Ge¬
neral Fairfax, on the other fide, fent for him to his
army, to alk him if he could tell by his art, whether
God was with them and their caufe ? Lilly, who made
his fortune by favourable predidlions to both parties,
affured the general that God would be with him and
his army. In 1648, he publiffied his Treatife of the
Three Suns feen the preceding winter ; and alfo an
aftrological judgement upon a conjunction of Saturn
and Mars. This year the council of Hate gave him in
money 50I. and a penfion of 100I. per annum, which
he received for two years, and then refigned on fome
dilgult. In June 1660, he was taken into cuftody by
order of the parliament, by whom he was examined
concerning the perfon who cut off the head of King
Charles I. The fame year he fued out his pardon un¬
der the great feal of England. The plague raging in
London, he removed with his family to his eilate at
Heriham j and in Oflober 1666 was examined before
a committee of the houfe of commons concerning the
"fire of London, which happened in September that
year. After his retirement to Herffiam, he applied
himfelf to the Iludy of phyfic, and, by means of his
friend Mr Affimole, obtained from Aichbifkop Shel¬
don a licenfe for the pra£lice of it. A little before his
death he adopted for his fon, by the name of Merlin
junior, one Henry Coley, a taylor by trade 3 and at
the fame time gave him the impreffion of his almanac!-: j Lily
after it had been printed for 36 years. He died in T
1681 of a dead palfy. Mr Aflimole fet a monument .
over his grave in the church of Walton upon Thames.
His “ Obfervations on the Life and Death of Charles
late King of England,” if we overlook the altrological
nonfenfe, may be read with as much fatisfadlion as
more celebrated hillories 3 Lilly being not only very
well informed, but flridlly impartial. This work, with
the Lives of Lilly and Afhmole, written by them-
felves, were publiffied in one vol. 8vo, in 1774, by Mr
Burman. -
LILY. See Lilium, Botany Index.
Lilly of the Valley. See Convallaria, Botany
Index.
LILYByEUM, in Ancient Geography, a city of Si¬
cily, fituated on the molt welterly promontory of the
ifland of Sicily, and faid to have been founded by the
Carthaginians on their expulfion from Motya by Diony-
fius tyrant of Syracufe. It is remarkable for three
fieges it fubfla'ned ; one againfl Dionyfius the tyrant,
another againfl Pyrrhus king of Epirus, and the third
againft the Romans. The two firft failed in their at¬
tempts, but the Romans with great difficulty made
themfelves mailers of it. No remains of this once Ilate-
Iv city are now to be feen, except fome aqueducts and
temples 3 though it was Handing in Strabo’s time.
LILYE, William, the grammarian, was born in
the year 1466 at Oldham in Hampffiire 5 and in i486
was admitted a femi-commoner of Magdalen college
in Oxford. Having taken the degree of bachelor of
arts, he left the univerfity, and travelled to Jerufalem.
Returning from thence, he continued five years in the
ifland of Rhodes, where he Iludied the Greek language,
feveral learned men having retired thither after the ta¬
king of Conllantinople. From Rhodes he travelled to
Rome 3 where he improved himfelf/in the Greek and
Latin languages, under Sulpitius and P. Sabinus. He
then returned to London, where for fome time he-
taught a private grammar-fehool, being the firlt per¬
fon who taught Greek in the metropolis. In 1510,
when Dr Colet founded St Paul’s fchool, Lilye was ap¬
pointed the firlt mailer 3 at which time, it feems, he was
married and had many children. In this employment
he had laboured 12 years, when, being feized by the
plague, which then raged in London, he died in Fe¬
bruary 1523, and was buried in the north yard of St
Paul’s. He had the character of an excellent gram¬
marian, and a fuccefsful teacher of the learned lan¬
guages. His principal work is BreviJJima inJUtutio,
feu ratio grammatices cognofcenduc ; Lond. 1513. Re¬
printed times without number, and commonly called
Lilye's grammar. The Engliffi rudiments were writ¬
ten by Dr Colet, dean of St Paul’s j and the preface
to the firft edition, by Cardinal Wolfey. The Englifh
fyntax was written by Lilyealfo the rules for the
genders of nouns, beginning with propria qiue mari~
bus: and' thofe for the preterperfedl tenfes and fupines,
beginning with As in prefenti. The Latin fyntax was
chiefly the work of Erafmus. See Ward?s-preface to
his edition of Lilye’s Grammar, 173^..
LIMA, the metropolis of Peru, contains 209>fquares
of buildings, which comprile 8222 doors of dwelling
houfes and (hops, and iffiefe are branched oot into 355
ffreets. In order to maintain peace and tranquillity among
th%-
L I M [ 24 ] L I M
the inhabitants, and for the accommodation of the po¬
lice, the city is divided into four quarters, containing
35 diftri&s, over each of which there prefides an alcaid,
who is always elected from among the people of the
molt diftinguiihed rank. The population, according to
eltimates made at different periods, is as follows.
In 1600,
1614,
1700,
1746,
*755,
1781,
1790,
14,262
25,455
37,259
60,000
54,000
60,000
52,627
By this table it appears, that from 1746 to 1755, the
population fullered a diminution of 6oco, which was
owing to an earthquake that happened at the former
period ;—a calamity with w'hich that city is often vi-
fited. Were it not for this circumllance, Lima would
be a perfect paradife, as the adjacent country abounds
with corn, wine, oil, fugar, fruits and flax. Such
abundance of wealth do the inhabitants enjoy, that
when the duke of Palata was lent from Spain as vice¬
roy to Peru, they paved the ftreets through which he
was to pafs with ingots of fllver. Libertinifm and de¬
bauchery are the diftinguilhing chara&eriftics of the
people of Lima, for which even the nuns are as notori¬
ous as the reft of the females, feldom being free from
•venereal complaints.
In the month of March 1543, the emperor Charles V.
eftablilhed an audience at Lima, in confequence of which
the inhabitants w^ere freed from the painful neceflity of
feeking a redrefs of their grievances at fo great a di-
ftance as Panama. Among the excellent inftitutions
by which the Peruvian capital is diftinguiihed we may
rank the provincial councils, which Ihew the conftant
zeal of the fovereigns of Spain for the defence of reli¬
gion and prefervation of dilcipline. The prelates, by
their paftoral vigilance, fpare neither pains nor labour
to promote their views, to accomplilh their facred and
interefting purpofes.
By a decree of the Spajiilh emperor, which reached
Lima in 1553, a univerfity was begun in a central fpot
of the capital, called the univerfity of St Mark, which
is now in a moft flouriftfing condition. Don Francifco
Toledo afligned 20,3 1 2 piaftres as a fund for the main¬
tenance of the profeffors, ariiing from the tributes paid
by the Indians. Two leisures are given daily on
grammar, one on the Indian language, three on philo-
fophy, three on theology, three on law, two on canons,
and twro on medicine. In the year 1790 an amphi¬
theatre was ere&ed for the ufe of the anatomical ftu-
dents.
The college for female orphans wras founded by
Mateo Paftor De Velafco, not at the hour of death,
which often gives to charitable endowments an air of
fufpicion, but when he was in the full polleflion of per¬
fect health. In 1597 a pious philofopher founded a
charitable inftitution for the fupport of fuch helplefs
children as were laid down in the ftreets by their un¬
feeling parts. This building was deftroyed by the
earthquake of 1687, which laid in ruins the greater
part of the city. It was afterwards rebuilt and is at
prefent in a flouriftiing condition. In 1559 an hofpital
was ere&ed for the relief of the unfortunate fick, who
2
might otherwife have periihed for want of medical aid, Limaflbl.
and obtained the name of the felloxvjkip of Charity and —v 
ConipaJJion. A general hofpital lor the poor was be¬
gun about 1758, but not completed till 1770, which
in 1790 afforded a comfortable afylum to 29 poor
people. The afylum for penitent females was founded
in 1669. has been laid that there is not a city in
the world in which fo many alms are diftributed as in
Lima.
In the centre of the great fquare there is a fountain
of bronze, the ornaments of which are conformable to
the rules of the compofite order. It has an elevation
1 5t yards to the helmet of Fame, from which de¬
ducing 14 yards for the height of that figure, the re¬
mainder gives the part to which the water rifes in
order to diftufe itfelf. This produdlicn of art, combin-
ing magificence in every part of it with fine architec¬
tural tafte, is furrounded by 24 pieces of artillery, and
16 iron chains, a narrow fpace being left for accefs to
the inhabitants.
Coffee-houles were not known in Lima till the year
1771, when one was opened in the ftreet of Santo Do-
mingo, and another the year following. A third was
eftablilhed in 1775, a fourth in 1782, and a fifth in
1788, in each of which there is a billiard table for the
amufement of the inhabitants. We are forry to fay
that the barbarous pradlice of cock-fighting obtains in
Lima, for which purpole a building was ereCed in
the year 1762. The tennis court isopen to the public,
and affords the fpedfator an agreeable hour of relaxa¬
tion from more ferious purfuits. Lima is fituated in W.
Long. 76. 44. S. Lat. 12. 1.
LIMASSOL, or Limisso, a town of Cyprus, in MaritVs
the fouth of the illand. Of the ancient city nothing TVrtw/j
but ruins now remains j though it was a celebrated
place, even under the government of the dukes. King ^yPruM
Richard, the conqueror of the laft of thefe vaffals of the
empire, razed it in 1191, and it was never afterwards
rebuilt. This city originally was the fame as Ama-
thus, or Amathonte4 fo famous, as Paufanias tells us,
for its temple ereCed in honour of Venus and Adonis.
Amathus was the refidence of the nine firft kings of
the illand j and, among!! others of Oneliftus, who was
fubje&ed afterwards by the arms of Artabanes, the
Perfian general. This city, eredled into an archbifliop-
ric in the time of the Chriftians, has produced a number
of perfonages celebrated for their knowledge and the
fan&ity of their lives. In the neighbourhood there are
feveral copper mines, which the Turks have been forced
to abandon. The following lines, in the tenth book
of Ovid’s Metamorphofes, prove that they were known
in the time of that poet :
Capta viri forma, non jam Cytherea curat
Littora, non alto repetit Paphon ccquore cinBam,
Pifcofamque Gnidon, gravidamque Amathunta metallis.
The place where the new Limaffol now Hands former¬
ly had the name of Nemojia, from the multitude of
woods by which it was furrounded. Richard king of
England having deftroyed Amathonte, Guy de Lu-
fignan, in the ’. 2th century, laid the foundation of that
new city which the Greeks called Neopolcos. The fa¬
mily of Lufignan, who continued to embellifti and for¬
tify it, built there palaces, and Greek and Latin
churches } and made it the feat of a bilhop. When
the
L I M [ 25 ] L I M
Limax tlie illand was taken by tlie Turks in 1570, the Ot-
II toman army entered this city on the 2d of July, and
Limbat. ravagec[ without mercy. It was then deftroyed by
the dames : and at prefent it is only a wretched place,
in which one can fcarcely diftinguith any remains of its
ancient editices. It is governed by a commiflary and
a cadi: the latter judges cafes only provilionally, before
they are carried to the fuperior tribunal of Nicofia.
The harbour is very commodious j and being (heltered
from impetuous wands, it affords a fafe and calm afy-
lum to veffels wdien overtaken by a ftorm. The carob
tree is here more abundant than anyw’here elfe j and
it is from the port of Limalfol that the greateft quan¬
tity of its fruit is exported. The inhabitants export
alfo fait, procured from a lake near Salines. Cotton,
wheat, barley, and mulberry trees, are both plentiful
and wrell cultivated in this part of the ifland : the
ground alfo produces ail kinds of garden duff. The
bed Cyprus wine is made from the vines that grow on
the hills of Limaffal. All the wines of the country
are collefted in this city to be tranfported to Larnic,
where there are the larged cellars, and which on that
account becomes the natural centre of commerce.
LIMAX, the Slug, or Naked Snail; a genus of
animals belonging to the clafs vermes. See Helmin¬
thology Index.
LIMB, in general, denotes the border or edge of a
thing 5 thus we fay, the limb of a quadrant, of the
fun, of a leaf, &c.
Limb, in Anatomy, an appellation given to the ex¬
tremities of the body, as to the arms and legs.
Limb, Lirrtbus, in the church of Rome, is ufed in
two different ienfes. 1. The limb of the patriarchs is
faid to be the place where the patriarchs waited the
redemption of mankind : in this place they fuppofe
our Saviour’s foul continued from the time of his death
to his refur region. 2. The limb of infants dying
without baptifm, is a place fuppofed to be didinCf
both from heaven and hell ; fince, fay they, children
dying innocent of any a&ual fin, do not deferve hell;
and, by reafon of their original fin, cannot be admitted
into heaven.
LIMBAT, the name of a periodical wind common
in the ifland of Cyprus, and of great fervice in mode¬
rating the heats of the climate, which would otherwife
be intolerable.
According to the abbd Mariti, it begins to blow
at eight in the morning the firft day increafes as the
fun advances till noon j then gradually weakens, and
at three falls entirely. On the fecond day it arifes at
the fame hour; but it does not attain its greateft
ffrength till about one in the afternoon, and ceafes at
four precifely. On the third day it begins as before ;
but it falls an hour later. On the five fucceeding
days, it follows the fame progreffion as on the third ;
but it is remarked, that a little before it ceafes, it be-
cismes extremely violent. At the expiration of five
days it commences a new period like the former. By
narrowly obferving the fea on that fide from w’hich
it is about to blow, a little before it arifes, one may
determine what degree of ftrength it will have during
the day. If the horizon is clear, and entirely iree
from clouds, the wind will be weak, and even almoft
infenfible ; but if it is dark and cloudy, the wind will
be flrong and violent. This limbat wind, notwith-
Vol. XII. Part I.
Handing its utility in moderating the exceflive heat, of- Limborch,
ten becomes the caufe ot fevers, efpecially to Europeans, fiimburgh.
from their being lefs habituated to the climate, and
moie apt than the natives to fuffer thernfelves to be fur-
prifed by the cool air when in a ftate of perfpiration.
This wind, the falling of which happens an hour iboner
or later, is fucceeded by a calm, accompanied by a
certain moifture that renders the air fomewhat heavy.
This moilture difappears in the evening, being diflipa-
ted by a wind which arifes every day at that period.
This wind is confidered as a land breeze by the inha¬
bitants of the fouthern and eafiern parts of the illand ;
but it is called a fea breeze by thole in the northern and
wreftern, who indeed receive it immediately from the
fea. In fummer it blows till four o’clock in the morn¬
ing, and when it ceafes, it leaves a profound calm,
w'hich continues till the hour wdien the limbat com¬
mences. In autumn and winter it never falls till day¬
break, when it is fucceeded by other winds, which
proceed from the irregularity of the feafon. In fpring
it does not continue longer than midnight; and is then
fucceeded by that happy calm, during which thofe re-
frething dews are formed that moiften the earth at fun-
riling. The limbat winds, which arife in the beginning
of fummer, ceafe about the middle of September ; and
this is the period when the moll infupportable heats
commence, becaufe their violence is not moderated by
the fmalleli breeze. They are however, luckily not of
long duration ; and about the latter end of Oftober
they decreafe fenfibly, as the atmolphere begins to be
loaded with watery clouds.
LIMBORCH, Philip, a learned writer among the
remonllrants, born at Amllerdam in 1633. After ha¬
ving made great proficiency in his lluclies, he wras, in
1655, admitted to preach in public, which he did firll
at Haerlem. His fermonshad in them no affedled elo¬
quence ; but were folid, methodical, and edifying. He
was chofen minilter of Goudja ; from whenpe he was
called to Amllerdam, where he had the profefforlhip
of divinity, in which he acquitted himfelf with great
reputation till his death, which happened in 1712.
He had an admirable genius, and a tenacious memory.
He had many friends of dillinftion in foreign parts as
well as in bis own country. Some of his letters to Mr
Locke are printed wdth thofe of that celebrated author.
He had all the qualifications fuitable to the character
of a fincere divine, lived an example of every virtue,
and preferved the vigour of his body and mind to a
confiderable age. He wrote many ivorks, which are
elleemed ; the principal of which are, 1. Arnica col-
latio de veritate religionis ChriJIiance cum erudito Judao,
in 1 2mo. 2. A Complete Body of Divinity, accord¬
ing to the opinions and doftiines of the Remonllrants.
3. A Hiltory of the Inquifition ; which has been tranf-
lated into Englilh by Dr Samuel Chandler. Lim¬
borch alfo publiibed the works of the famous Epifeopi-
us, who was his great-uncle by the mother’s fide.
LIMBURGH duchy, a province of the Aufirian
Netherlands, bounded by the duchy of Juliers on the
north and call, by Luxemburgh on the fonth, and by
the bilhopric of Liege on the well. It is about 30
miles in length, and 25 in breadth ; and.confills of good
arable^ and pallure land, with plenty of wood, and fome
iron mines.
Limburgh, the capital city of the duchy of Lim-
D burgh.
L 1 M
[ 26 ] L I M
Lime, burgh, in the Auftrian Netherlands, is feated on a fteep
Limcnck. rocji uear ^ r;ver VeiTe. 1'his town is (mail, but plea¬
santly Seated on a hill, with (hady woods j and conSxds
chietly of one broad llreet, not very well built. It is
Strong by fituation, and almoft inacceffible j however,
it was taken by the French in 1675, and by the con¬
federates under the duke of Marlborough in 1703, for
the houfe of Auftria, to whom it remains by the trea¬
ties of Rafladt and Baden, after having been dismant¬
led. It is famous for its cheefe, which is exceeding
good. E. Long. 6. 8. N. Lat. 50. 40.
LIME, a peculiar earth. See Chemistry Index.
LiME-Tree. See Citrus, Botany Index.
Lime or LiNDEN-Tree. See Tilia, Botany Index.
LiME-Water. See Pharmacy Index.
Lime, or Lyme. See Lyme.
LIMERICK, a county of Ireland, in the province
of Munfter, is bounded on the eaft by Tipperary, on
the weft by Kerry, on the north by the river Shan¬
non, and on the South by Cork. It is a fruitful and
populous traff, the foil requiring little or no manure
in moft places: beftdes rich pafture for flieep and cows,
it produces rich crops of all kinds of corn and rape,
with Some hemp. It gave title of earl to the family of
Donegal. It contains 375,320 Iriih plantation acres,
about 56 church livings, though a much greater num¬
ber of pariihes, 10 baronies, three boroughs; and
formerly Sent eight members to parliament. It has
Some clays, furze, fern, and mountain lands, and is
famous for good cyder; it has been much benefited
by the Palatines, who Settled there and increafed til¬
lage ; they are a laborious independent people, moftly
employed in their own farms. This county is well
watered by large and Small rivers; the Shannon runs at
the north fide of the county, and fertilizes its banks.
The firing of the inhabitants is chiefly turf, and the
bogs are conveniently fituated. At Loghill in the
weft of the county, there is a mine of coal or culm,
but it is more ufed in kilns than in houfes. There are
few lakes except Lough Gur ; and the principal hills
are Knockgreny, Knockany, Knokfiring and Tory-
hill. The mountains lie weftward, the higheft being
Knockpatrick or St Patrick’s hill. This county is
about 45 miles long and 42 broad.
Limerick, or Lough-Meath, a market town, a bo¬
rough, and a bifhop’s fee, now the metropolis of the
province of Munfter. It is Situated on the river Shan¬
non, 94 miles from Dublin ; and was the ftrongeft
fortrels in the kingdom. Its ancient name was Lun-
neach; and during the firft ages it was much frequented
by foreign merchants, and after the arrival ‘of the
Danes was a place of confiderable commerce until the
1 2th century. It was plundered by Mahon, brother
of Brien Boromh, after the battle of Sulchoid, in 970 ;
and Brien, in a future period, exafted from the Danes
of this city 365 tons of wine as a tribute, which Ihows
the extenfive traflic carried on by thofe people in that
article. About the middle of the 6th century, St
Munchin erecled a church and founded a biihopric
here ; which, however, was deftroyed by the Danes on
their taking pofleffion of this port in 853, and remained
in ruins until their converfion to the Chriftian faith in
the 10th century ; at which period the church of St
Munchin was rebuilt, and the bifhopric eftablilhed.
Donald O’Brien, about the time of tire arrival of the Limerick*
Englfth, founded and endowed the cathedral ; and Do- v
nat O’Brien, bilhop of Limerick, in the 13th century,
contributed much to the opulence of the lee. About
the clofe of the 1 2th century, the biftiopric of Innis-Ca-
thay was united to that of Limerick. It was befieged
by King William III. in the year 1690, and though
there was no army to aflift it, the king was obliged to
raife the fiege. In the year 1691, it w'as again belieged
by the Englilh and Dutch on the 21ft of September ;
and it was obliged to furrender on the 13th of Odlober
following, not without the lofs of abundance of men;
however, the garrifon had very honourable and advan¬
tageous conditions, being permitted to retire where
they thought fit, and the Roman catholics by thefe ar¬
ticles were to be tolerated in the free exercife of their
religion. Within a century this place was reckoned
the fecond city in Ireland ; at prelent it has loft its
rank ; not becaufe it thrives lefs, but becaufe Cork
thrives more. It is compofed of the Irifli and Englilh
town ; the latter Hands on the King’s ifland, formed
by the river Shannon. The town is three miles in
circumference, having weekly markets on Wednefday
and Saturday, and fairs on Eafter Tuefday, ift July,
4th Auguft, and 12th December. There is a privi¬
lege annexed to the fair held on 4th Auguft, that, dur¬
ing 15 days, no perfon can be arrefted in the city or
liberties, on any procefs ifiuing cut of the thollel
court of Limerick. Ardfert and Achadoe, in the
county of Kerry, are united to the biihopric of Li-
meric. This city formerly returned two members to
parliament; and gives title of vifcount to the family of
Hamilton. It is governed by a mayor, ftrerifts, recorder,
aldermen, and burgefles ; there is alfo a barrack and
a military governor and town major : it had feme time
the privilege of coinage; and different parliaments
have been held there. The towm was formerly entire¬
ly walled in ; and in 1760, there were 17 of the city
gates Handing ; but to the great improvement of the
place they are now all demolilhed, except the ivater-
gate of King John’s caflle. The linen, woollen, and
paper manufactures, are carried on here to great extent,
and the export of provifions is very confiderable. Here
are many charitable hofpitals, and handfome public
buildings, befides the cathedral and other churches. A
charter was granted to this city by King John, and
confirmed in fucceeding reigns. Dr Campbell ob-
ferves, that as you approach Limerick, the grounds
grow’ rich and exquifitely beautiful ; the only dif-
agreeable matter is, that the fituation renders the air
moift, and confequently rather unwholefome to ftran-
gers. About fix miles from this is the famous Caitle-
connel fpa. Limerick is 50 miles from Cork, 50
from Galw’ay, and 73 from Waterford. It appears
that Limerick obtained the privilege of having inayors
10 years before that right was allowed to the citizens
of London. It was before governed by provoHs, of
which the firft was John Spafford in 1195 and 1197 ;
during the provoftfliip of Henry Troy a charter was
granted, 9 Richard I. whereby the citizens were allow¬
ed to choofe mayors and kailiffs, Adam Servant, in
1198, being the firft mayor. It continued to be go¬
verned by mayors and bailiffs, until the office of bailiff
was changed into that of Iheriff in 1629.
Limerick.
Limerick
. II.
Limning.
L I M [ 27 ] LIN
Limerick is alfo the name of a fair-town in the
county of Wexford and province of Leinfter ; the fairs
are four in the year. • ir i ^
LIMINGTON, a town of Hampihire in England.
See Lymington.
LIMIT, in a reftrained fenfe, is ufed by mathema¬
ticians for a determined quantity to which a variable
one continually approaches 5 in which fenfe, the circle
may be faid to be the limit of its circumfcribed and
infcribed polygons. In Algebra, the term limit is ap¬
plied to two quantities, one of which is greater and
the other lefs than another quantity ; and in this fenfe
it is ufed in fpeaking of the limits of equations, whereby
their folution is much facilitated.
LIMITED PROBLEM, denotes a problem that has
but one folution, or fome determinate number of folu-
tions; as to defcribe a circle through three given points
that do not lie in a right line, which is limited to one
folution only •, to divide a parallelogram into two equal
parts by a line parallel to one lide, which admits of
two folutions, according as the line is parallel to the
length or breadth of the parallelogram ; or to divide a
triangle in any ratio by a line parallel to one fide,
which is limited to three folutions, as the line may be
parallel to any of the three fides.
LI?JME, a town of Kent, in England, near Hithe,
and four miles from Romney, was formerly a port,
till choked up by the fands *, and though it is thereby
become a poor town, yet it has the horn and mace
and other tokens left of its ancient grandeur, and ufed
to be the place where the lord warden of the cinque
ports was fworn at his entrance upon his office, bhe
Roman road from Canterbury, called btaneJlreet, end¬
ed here \ and from the brow of its hill may be feen
the ruinous Roman walls almoft at the bottom of the
marffies. Here formerly was a caftle, now converted
irito a farm houfe. When or by whom this edifice
was erefted is not known. It has, however, great
marks of antiquity $ as has alfo the adjoining church,
on which are feveral old tombftones with croffes on
them.
LIMNING, the art of painting in water colours,
in contradiflindlion to painting wffiich is done in oil-
colours.
Limning is much the more ancient kind of paint¬
ing. Till a Flemiffi painter, one John van Eyck, bet¬
ter known by the name of 'John of Bruges, found out
the art of painting in oil, the painters all painted in
water and in frefco, both on their walls, on wooden
boards, and elfewhere. When they made ufe of
boards, they ufually glued a fine linen cloth over them,
to prevent their opening j then laid on a ground of
white ; laftly, they mixed up their colours with water
and fize, or with water and yolks of eggs, well beaten
with the branches of a fig tree, the juice whereof thus
mixed with the eggs j and with this mixture they paint¬
ed their pieces.
In limning, all colours are proper enough, except
the wffiite made of lime, which is only tiled in frefco.
The azure and ultramarine mult always be mixed with
fize or gum ; but there are always applied two layers
of hot fize before the fize colours are laid on : the co¬
lours are all ground in water each by itfelf j and, as
they are required in working, are diluted with fize wa¬
ter. When the piece is finilhed, they go over it with
I,inacre.
the white of an egg well beaten 5 and then with varnilh, Limoges
if required.
To limn, or draw a face in colours : Having all the
materials in readinefs, lay the prepared colour on the
card even and thin, free from hairs and fpots, over the
place where the pidture is to be. The ground being
laid, and the party placed in a due pofition, begin the
work, which is to be done at three fittings. At the
firlt you are only to dead-colour the face, which will
require about two hours. At the fecond fitting, go
over the work more curioully, adding its particular
graces or deformities. At the third fitting, finifli the
whole j carefully remarking whatever may conduce to
render the piece perfeft, as the caft of the eyes, moles,
fears, geftures, and the like.
LIMOGES, an ancient town of France, in the late
province of Guienne, and capital of the department of
Upper Vienne, with a biffiop’s fee. It is a trading
place, and its horfes are in great efieem. It is feat-
ed on the river Vienne, in E. Long. 1. 20. N. Lat.
45- 5°-
LIMOSIN, a late province of France, now the de¬
partment of Upper Vienne, bounded on the north by
La Marche, on the eaft by Auvergne, on the fouth
by Quercy, and on the weft by Perigord and Angou-
mois. One part is very cold, but the other more tem¬
perate. It is covered with forefts of chefnut trees 5 and
contains mines of lead, copper, tin, and iron j but the
principal trade confifts in cattle and horfes.
LIMPET, a genus of ftiell-fiffi. See Patella,
Conchology Index.
LIMPURG, a barony of Germany, in the circle
of Franconia, included almoft entirely within Suabia,
and feated to the fouth of Hall in Suabia. It is a-
bout 15 miles long, and eight broad. Gaildorf and
Shonburg, near which is the caftle of Limpurg, are
the principal places.
Limpurg, a town of Germany, in the deflorate
of Triers or Treves, and in Wetteravia, formerly free
and imperial, but now fubjeft to the deflorate of
Treves. It is feated on the river Lhon. E. Long. 8.
13. N Lat. 50. 18.
LINAR I A. See Fringilla, Ornithology Index.
LINACRE, Thomas, phyfician, was born at Can¬
terbury about the year 1460, and there educated under
the learned William Selling : thence he removed to
Oxford, and in 1484 was chofen fellow of All-Soul’s
college. Tilly, alias Selling, his former inftruftor,
being at this time appointed ambaffador from King
Henry VII. to the.court of Rome, Mr Linacre accom¬
panied him to Italy, where he attained the higheft de¬
gree of perfeflion in the Greek and Latin languages.
At Rome, he applied himfdf particularly to the ftudy
of Ariftotle and Galen, in the original. On his return
to Oxford, he was incorporated doflor of phyfic, and
chofen public profeffor in that faculty. But he had not
been long in England, before he was commanded to
court by King Henry Vil. to attend the young prince
Arthur as his tutor and phyfician. He was afterwards
appointed phyfician to the king, and after his dea'h, to
his fucceffor Henry VIII. Dr Linacre founded two
medical leflures at Oxford, and one at Cambridge*, but
that which moft effeflually immortalized his name a-
mong the faculty, is his being the firft founder of the
college of phyficians in London. He beheld with vexa-
D 2 lion
/
I
Lincoln.
LIN [28
tion the wretched date of phyfic in thofe times ; and
by an application to Cardinal Wolfey, obtained a pa¬
tent in 1518, by which the phyficians of London were
incorporated. The intention of this corporation was to
prevent illiterate and ignorant medicarters from prac-
tifmg the art of healing. Dr Linacre was the firlt pre-
fident, and held the office as long as he lived. Their
meetings were in his own houfe in Knight-rider flreet,
which houfe he bequeathed to the college. But our
dodor, when he was about the age of 50, took it into
his head to iludy divinity-, entered into orders ; and
was collated, in 1509, to the redory of Merffiam. In
the fame year he was inftalled prebendary of Wells, in
1518 prebendary of York, and in the following year
was admitted precentor of that cathedral. This, we are
told, he refigned for other preferments. He died of
the Hone in the bladder in Oclober 1524, aged 64 ;
and was buried in St Paul’s. Thirty-three years after
his death, Doctor John Caius caufed a monument to
be ere&ed to his memory, with a Latin infeription,
which contains the outlines of his life and charader.
He was a man of great natural fagacity, a Ikilful phy-
fician, a profound grammarian, and one of the belt
Greek and Latin fcholars of his time. Erafmus in
his e pi Hies fpeaks highly of the Dodor’s tranflations
from Galen, preferring them even to the original
Greek. His works are, 1. De emendata JlruBura La-
tint feryonis, libri fex; London, printed by Pynfon,
J524, 8vo, and by Stephens, 1527, 1532. 2. The
Rudiments of Grammar, for the ufe of the princefs
Mary, printed by Pynfon. Buchanan tranflated it
into Latin ; Paris, 1536. He likewife tranflated in¬
to very elegant Latin feveral of Galen’s works, which
w-ere printed chiefly abroad at different times. Alfo
Frock Diadachi fphevra, tranflated from the Greek ;
Venet. 1499, I500-
LINCOLN, a city of England, and capital of a
county of the fame name, is diftant 132 miles from
London. It Hands on the fide of a hili at the bot¬
tom of which runs the river Witham in three fmall
channels, over which are feveral bridges. The old
Lindum of the Britons, which flood on the top of the
hill, as appears from the veltigeS of a rampart, and
deep ditches flill remaining, was taken and demoliffied
by the Saxons 5 who built a town upon the fouth fide
of the hill down to the river fide, which was feveral
times taken by the Danes, and as often retaken by the
Saxons. In Edward the Confeffor’s time, it appears,
from Doomfday-book, to have been a very confider-
able place and in the time of the Normans, Malmfbury
fays, it was one of the moft populous cities in Eng¬
land. William I. built a caftle upon the fummit of
the hill above the town. The diocefe, though the bi-
fliopric of Ely was taken out of it by Henry II. and
thofe of Peterborough and Oxford by Henry VIII. is
flill vaftly large, containing the counties of Leicefler,
Huntingdon, Bedford, and part of Bucks, making 1 255
parifhes. 1 hough the other churches are mean, the
cathedral or minfler is a moft magnificent piece of Go¬
thic architefture. Here is a prodigious large bell,
called Tom of Lincoln, which is near five ton in weight,
and 23 feet in compafs. The hill on which the church
Bands is fo high, and the church itfelf fo lofty, that
it may be feen 30 miles to the north and 30 to the
fouth. Befides other tombs, it contains one of brafs,
]
LIN
in which are the entrails of Queen Eleanor, wife to Lincoln.
Edward I. It is faid there were anciently 32 churches, —-v—
which are now reduced to 14. Such is the magnifi-
cence and elevation of the cathedral, that the monks
thought the fight of it muft be very mortifying to the
devil ; whence it came to be laid of one who was dif-
plealed, that he holed like the devil over Lincoln. The
declivity on which the city is built being fteep,
the communication betwixt the upper and lower town
is very troublefome, and coaches and horfes are obli¬
ged to make a compafs.
King Edward HI. made this city a ftaple for wool,
leather, lead, &c. It was once burnt; once befieged
by King Stephen, who was here defeated and taken
pnfoner ; and once taken by Henry III. from his re¬
bellious barons. It abounded heretofore with mona-
heries and other religious houfes. There is a great
pool here, formed by the river on the weft fide of it,
called Swan Pool, becaufe of the multitude of fwans
on it. The Roman north gate ftill remains entire, by
the name of Newport Gate. It is one of the nobleft:
of this fort in Britain. It is a vaft femicircle of ftones
of very large dimenfions laid without mortar, conneft-
ed only by their uniform fhape. This magnificent arch
is 16 feet in diameter, the fttmes are four feet thick at
the bottom. It feems to have a joint in the middle
not a keyftone : and on both fides, towards the upper
part, are laid horizontal ftones of great dimenfions
fome 10 or 12 feet long. This arch rifes from an im¬
port of large mouldings, which are not perceivable
now; there are alfo divers fragments of the old Roman
wall. Over againft the caftle is an entrenchment caft
up by King Stephen ; and here are carved the arms of
John of Gaunt duke of Lancafter, who lived here like
a king, and had a mint, hhe city has a communica¬
tion with the Trent, by a canal called the Fofs-dyke.
In the centre of the old ruined caftle there is a hand-
fome modern ftrufture for holding the affizes. Its
walls are almoft entire, and very fubftantial : the keep
or principal tower is fituated on a high and very fteep
mount, which yet continues in its original ftate, but the
remains of the tow^er on it are only five or fix yards
high. The outer walls of the caftle are of very con-
fiderable height, which appear ftill higher than they
really are from their lofty fituation and the moat below
them. The great gateway is ftill entire. This city
is a county of itfelf, and has a vifeountial jurifdiaion,
for 20 miles round, which is a privilege that no other
city in England can equal. It now' confifts principal¬
ly of one ftreet above two miles long, well paved, be¬
fides feveral crois and parallel ftreets well peopled.
Here are fome very handfome modern buildings, but
more antique ones j upon the whole, it has an air of
ancient greatnefs, arifing in a great meafure from the
number of raonaftic remains, moft of which are nowr
converted into ftables, out-houfes, &c. Upon the hill,
in the caftle, are the ruins of the bithop’s palace, and
other ruins of ancient grandeur and magnificence.
The city is fupplied with water by feveral conduits,
among w’hich is a modern one, fomewhat in the pyra-
midical ftyle, enriched with fculpture. It is governed
by a mayor, twelve aldermen, two flieriffs, a recorder,
four chamberlains, a fwordbearer, four coroners, and
above forty common-council men. Here are four cha¬
rity fchools, where 120 poor children are taught by
the
LIN [ 29 ] LIN
Lincoln the widows of clergymen. The neighbouring courfe
!■ is noted for its frequent horfe-races. On the down of
_ Lincoln, towards Bofton, that rare fowl the buftard is
fometimes feen, as well as on Salifbury Plain. Lincoln-
Heath extends above 50 miles, viz. from Sleaford and
Ancaller louth to the Humber north, though it is
but three or four miles over where broadeft Five miles
from Bofton on this extenfive heath, Lord le Defpenfer
built a towrer for the diredtion of Itrangers. It is a lofty
fquare building with a ftaircafe, terminating in a flat
roof, and round the bafe is a fquare court-yard. Great
part ol this extenfive heath has been enclofed. We read
that David king of Scots met King John here, on the
22d of November, in the third year of his reign, and
performed homage to him on a hill without the city,
for his Englifn territories, in prefence of the archbifhops
or Canterbury, York, and Ragufa, 13 bilhops, and a
vaft number of temporal lords and knights. King Hen¬
ry VII. kept his court here at Eafter in i486. The
Jews were once its chief inhabitants, till they were
forced to remove, after having impioufly crucified the
child of one Grantham, and thrown it into a well, to
tnis day called Grantham''s Well. Lincoln has given
the title of earl to the family of Clinton ever fince the
reign of Queen Elizabeth. W. Long. 27. 1. N. Lat.
53-A 6.
Lincoln Shire, a maritime county of England, 77
miles in length and 48 in breadth, is bounded on the
eaft by the German ocean, on the wed by Notting-
hamfhire, on the north by Yorklhire, on the louth by
Rutlandshire, Northamptonfhire, and Cambridgelhire.
It contains 631 panflres, and 31 market towns, and re¬
turns 1 2 members to parliament. The principal rivers
are the Humber, the Trent, the Witham, the Nenn,
the Welland, the Ankham, and the Dun. It is di¬
vided into three parts, Lindfay, Keftoven, and Hol¬
land 5 the air of which lafl is unwholefome and foggy,
on account of the fens and large marflies. The foil of
the north and weft parts is very fertile, and abounds in
corn and paftures. The eaft and fouth parts are not fo
proper for corn ; but then they fupply them w ith filh
and fowl in great plenty, particularly ducks and geefe.
Lincoln is the principal town. By inland navigation,
this county has communication with the rivers Mer-
ley, Dee, Kibble, Oufe, Darwent, Severn, Thames,
Avon, &c. which navigation, including its windings,
extends above 500 miles through different counties.
this county in i8or, contained 41.395 houfes, in¬
habited by 42,629 families ; and the total number of
inhabitants amounted to 208,557.
LINDESFARN, or Landisfarn. See Hoir-
Jjland.
, Sir David, a celebrated Scots poet,
was defcended of an ancient family, and born in the
reign of King James IV. at his father’s feat, called the
5/////“, near Cupar, in Fifefhire. He was educated
at the univerfity of St Andrew’s ; and, after making
the tour of Europe, returned to Scotland in the year
1514. Soon after his arrival, he was appointed gen¬
tleman of the bedchamber to the king, and tutor to
the young prince, afterwards James V. From the
verfes prefixed to his dream, we learn that he enjoyed
feveral other honourable employments at court : but,
in H33> he was deprived of all his places, except that
of Lion king at arms, which he held to the time of
his death. His difgrace was moft probably owing to Lindfey,
his inveftives againft the clergy, which are frequent in Gneus.
all his waitings. After the deceafe of King James V. ' ~ v
Sir David became a favourite of the earl of Arran, re¬
gent of Scotland ; but the abbot of Paifley did not
fuffer him to continue long in favour with the earl.
He then retired to his paternal eftate, and fpent the
remainder of his days in rural tranquillity. He died in
the year 1553. His poetical talents, confidering the
age in which he wrote, were not contemptible ; but
he treats the Romifh clergy with great feverity, and
writes with fome humour : but, whatever merit might
be formerly attributed to him, he takes fuch licentious
liberties with wmrds, ftretching or carving them for
meafure or rhime, that the Scots have a proverb, when
they hear an unufual expreflion, that, There is nae
Jic a word in a’ Davie Lindfay. Mackenzie tells us,
that his comedies were fo facetious, that they afford¬
ed abundance of mirth. Some fragments of thefe co¬
medies are ftill preferved in manufcript. He is faid
to have alfo written feveral tragedies, and to have firfl
introduced dramatic poetry into Scotland. One of his
comedies was played in 1515. Mackenzie fays, he
underftood nothing of the rules of the theatre. He
was cotemporary with John Heywood, the firfl: Eng-
lifh dramatic poet. His poems are printed in one
fmall volume } and fragments of his plays, in manu¬
fcript, are in Mr William Carmichael’s colle&ion.
LINDSEY, the third and largeft divifion of the
county of Lincolnfhire in England. On the eaft and
north it is wafhed by the fea, into which it rr,». out
w ith a large front 5 on the weft it has Yorkfhire and
Nottinghamfhire, from which it is parted by the ri¬
vers Frent and Dun j on the fouth it has Keftevan,
fiom which it is feparated by the river Witham and
the Fofs-dyke, which is feven miles long, and w’as cut
by Henry I. between-the Witham and the Trent, for
the convenience of carriage in thofe parts. It had its
name from Lincoln, tne capital of the county, which
flands in it, and by the Romans called Lindum, by
the Britons Lindcoite, by the Saxons Lindo-col/yne, pro¬
bably from its fituation on a hill, and the lakes or
woods that were anciently thereabouts 3 but the Nor¬
mans called it Nichol. It gives title of earl and mar¬
quis to the duke of Ancafter.
LINDLS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Rhodes,
fituated on a hill on the weft fide of the iiland. It w’as
built by I lepolemus the fon of Hercules, accordino-
to Diodorus Siculus ; by one of the Heliades, grand-
fons of the Sun, named Lindas, according to Strabo.
It was the native place of Cleobulus, one of the wife
men. Here we fee the famous temple of the Lindian
Minerva, which was built by the daughters of Danaus’.
Cadmus enriched this temple wdth many fplendid of¬
ferings. The citizens dedicated and hung up here
the feventh of Pindar’s Olympic odes, written in let¬
ters of gold. The ruins of that fuperb edifice are ftill
to be feen on the top of a high hill wrhich overlooks
the fea. Some remains of the walls, cor.fifting of
ftones of an enormous fize, ftill lhowT it to have been
built in the Egyptian ftyle. The pillars and other
ornaments have been carried off. On the moft ele¬
vated peak of the rock are the ruins of a caftle, which
may have ferved as a fortrefs to the city. Its circum¬
ference is very extenfive, and is filled with rubbilh.
Linda y
LIN [ 30 ] LIN
•Line Lindo, the modern city, ftands at the foot of the
^.11 hill. A bay of conliderable widenefs and depth
a‘ ferves as a harbour to the city. Ships find good an¬
chorage there in twenty fathoms water. They are
fafely fiieltered from the fouth-weft winds, which con-
llantly prevail through the fevereft feafon of the year.
In the beginning of winter, they call anchor off a
finall village named Maffary. Before the building of
Rhodes, Lindus was the harbour which received the
lleets of Egypt and Tyre. It was enriched by com¬
merce. Mr Savary obferves, that a judicious govern¬
ment, by taking advantage of its harbour and happy
fituation, might yet reftore it to a flourilhing ftate.
LINE, in Geometry, a quantity extended in length
only, without any breadth or thicknefs. It is formed
by the flux or motion of a point. See Fluxions,
and Geometry.
Line, in the art of war, is underflood of the dif-
poiition of an army ranged in order of battle, with
the front extended as far as may be, that it may not
be flanked.
Li ne of Battle, is alfo underftood of a difpofition
of the fleet in the day of engagement •, on which oc-
cafion the vefl'els are ufually drawn up as much as pof-
fible in a flraight line, as well to gain and keep the ad¬
vantage of the wind as to run the fame board. See
Naval Tactics.
Horizontal Line, in Geography and Aftronomy, a
line drawn parallel to the horizon of any part of the
earth.
Ectinno&ial Line, in Geography, is a great circle
on the earth’s furface, exactly at the diftance of 90°
from each of the poles, and of confequence bifedting
the earth in that part. From this imaginary line, the
degrees of longitude and latitude are counted.—In
afironomy, the equinoftial line is that circle which the
fun feems to defcribe round the earth on the days of
the equinox in March and September. See Astrono¬
my and Geography.
Meridian Line, is an imaginary circle drawn through
the two poles of the earth and any part of its furface.
See Geography Index.
Ship of the Line, a veffel large enough to be
drawn up in the line, and to have a place in a fea-
fight.
Line, in Genealogy, a feries or fucceffion of rela¬
tions in various degrees, all defcending from the fame
common father. See Descent.
Line, alfo denotes a French meafure containing
the 1 2th part of an inch, or the 144th part of a foot.
Geometricians conceive the line fubdivided into fix
points. The French line anfwers to the Englifh bar¬
ley-corn.
Fijhiing Line. See Fishing Line.
Lines, in Heraldry, the figures ufed in armories to
- divide the fhield into different parts, and to compofe
different figures. Tbefe lines, according to their dif¬
ferent forms and names, give denomination to the
pieces or figures which they form, except the flraight
or plain lines. See HERALDRY.
LINEA alba, in Anatomy, the concourfe of the
tendons of the oblique and tranfverfe mufcles of the
abdomen: dividing the abdomen in turn, in the middle.
It is called linea, line, as being ftraight; and alba, from
its colour, which is white.—The linea alba receives a
I
twig of a nerve from the intercoftals in each of its di- Lineament
gitations or indentings, which are vifible to the eye, .11
in lean perfons efpecially. , ,
LINEAMENT, among painters, is ufed for the
outlines of a face.
LINEAR numbers, in Mathematics, fuch as have
relation to length only ; fuch is a number which repre-
fents one fide of a plain figure. If the plain figure be
a fquare, the linear figure is called a root.
Linear Problem; that wdiich may be folved geo¬
metrically by the interfeflion of two right lines.
This is called a fmple problem, and is capable but of
one folution.
LINEN, in commerce, a wmll known kind of
cloth, chiefly made of flax.— Linen was not worn by
the Jews, Greeks, or Romans, as any part of their
ordinary drefs. Under-tunics of a finer texture fup-
plied the place of fliirts : Hence the occafion for fre¬
quent bathing. Alexander Severus was the firit em¬
peror who wore a fliirt : but the ufe of fo necef-
fary a garment did not become common till long after
him.
The linen manufaflure was probably introduced into
Britain wdth the firrt fettlements of the Romans. The
flax was certainly firit planted by that nation in the
Britifh foil. The plant itfelf indeed appears to have
been originally a native of the eaft. The woollen-
drapery would naturally be prior in its origin to the
linen 5 and the fibrous plants from wLich the threads of
the latter are produced, feem to have been firft noticed
and worked by the inhabitants of Egypt. In Egypt,
indeed, the linen manufafture appears to have been
very early : for even in Jofeph’s time it had rifen to a
confiderable height. From the Egyptians the knowr-
ledge of it proceeded probably to the Greeks, and
from them to the Romans. Even at this day the
flax is imported among us from the eaftern nations j
the weflern kind being merely a degenerate fpecies
of it.
In order to fucceed in the linen manufacture, one
fet of people fhould be confined to the ploughing and
preparing the foil, fowing and covering the leed, to
the weeding, pulling, rippling, and taking care of
the new feed, and watering and drefling the flax till
it is lodged at home : others fliould be concerned in
the drying, breaking, fcutching, and heckling the flax,
to fit it for the fpinners •, and others in fpinning and
reeling it, to fit it for the weaver : others fliould be
concerned in taking due care of the weaving, bleach¬
ing, beetling, and finifliing the cloth for the market.
It is reafonable to believe, that if thefe feveral branches
of the manufaClure were carried on by diftinCl dealers
in Scotland and Ireland, where our home-made linens
are manufactured, the feveral parts would be better ex¬
ecuted, and the whole wrould be afforded cheaper, and
with greater profit.
Staining of Linen. Linen receives a black colour
with much more difficulty than woollen or cotton. The
black ftruck on linen with common vitriol and galls, or
logwood, is very periffiable, and foon w^aflies out.—In-
ftead of the vitriol, a folution of iron in four ffrong beer
is to be made ufe of. This is well known to all the calico-
printers 5 and by the ufe of this, which they call their
iron-liquor, and madder root, are the blacks and pur¬
ples made which we fee on the common printed linens.
LIN [ 31 ] LIN
Linen The method of making this iron-liquor is as follows :
U A quantity of iron is put into the four ftrong beer*,
Linlithgow. an(^ to proroote the diffolution of the metal, the whole
" v is occalionally well itirred, the liquor occafionally drawn
off, and the ruff beat from the iron, after which the li¬
quor is poured on again. A length of time is required
to make the impregnation perfect *, the folution being
reckoned unfit for ufe till it has flood at leaft a twelve-
month. This folution flains the linen of a yellow, and
different lhades of buff-colour; and is the only known
fubflance by which thefe colours can be fixed on linen.
The cloth ftained deep with the iron-liquor, and after¬
wards boiled with madder, without any other addition,
becomes of the dark colour which we fee on printed
linens and cottons \ which, if not a perfebl black, has
a very near refemblance to it. Others are ftained paler
with the fame liquor diluted with wrater, and come out
purple.
Linen may alfo be ftained of a durable purple by
means of folution of gold in aqua regia. The folution
for this purpofe fhould be as fully laturated as poflible *,
it fhould be diluted with three times its quantity of
water and if the colour is required deep, the piece,
when dry, muft be repeatedly moiftened with it. The
colour does not take place till a conftderable time,
fometimes feveral days, after the liquor has been ap¬
plied : to haften its appearance, the fubjett fhould be
expofed to the fun and free air, and occafionally re¬
moved to a moift place, or moiftened wdth water.—
When folution of gold in aqua regia is foaked up in
linen cloths, the metal may be recovered by drying and
burning them.
Linen flowered with Gold-leaf. Dr Lewis mentions a
manufacture eftabliftied in London for embellifhing
linen with flowers and ornaments of gold-leaf. The
linen, he fays, looks whiter than moft of the printed
linens 5 the gold is extremely beautiful, and bears walk¬
ing well. The doClor informs us, that he had feen a
piece which he was credibly informed had been vvaflied
three or four times, with only the fame precautions
which are ufed for the finer printed linens j and on
which the gold continued entire, and of great beauty.
Concerning the procefs ufed in this manufaClure, he
gives us no particulars.
Fofli/e Linen, is a kind of amianthus, which confifts
of flexible, parallel, foft fibres, and which has been ce¬
lebrated for the ufes to which it has been applied, of
being woven, and forming an incombuflible cloth. Paper
alfo, and wicks for lamps, have been made of it. See
Amianthus, Asbestos, and Mineralogy Index.
LING, a fpecies of fiflt belonging to the genus Ga-
dus, which fee in ICHTHYOLOGY Index.
LINGEN, a ftrong town of Germany, in the cir¬
cle of Weftphalia, and capital of a county of the fame
name. It belongs to the king of Pruflia; and is fitu-
ated on the river Embs, in E. Long. 7. 30. N. Lat.
52. 32.
LINIMENT, in Pharmacy, a compofition of a con¬
fidence fomewhat thinner than an unguent, and thicker
than an oil. See Materia Medica Index.
LINLITHGOW, the chief town of Weft Lothian
in Scotland. It is fuppofed to be the Lindum of Ptole¬
my t and to take its name from its fituation on a lake,
which the word Lin or Llyn fignifies.—It is diftant 16
miles from. Edinburgh, and is a royal borough and leat
of a prelhytery. Here is carried on a confiderable trade Linlithgow,
in drefiing of white leather, which is fent abroad to be bmluhgow-
manufadured; and many hands are employ ed in drefling ' ,
of flax ; alfo in wool-combing, the wmol for which is
brought from the borders. Its port was formerly Black-
nefls-, but fince the decline of that fl2.cz, Borrowflounnefs,
about two miles diftant from Linlithgow7. The town
confifts of one open ftreet, from whence lanas are de¬
tached on both fides; the houfes are built of ftone,
tolerably neat and commodious; and the place is a-
dorned wdth feme ftately public edifices. The palace,
built, as Sibbaid fuppofed, on the leat of a Roman 11a-
tion, forms a fquare with totvers at the corners, and
Hands on a gentle eminence, with the beautiful loch be¬
hind it to the weft. It was one of the nobleft of the roy¬
al refidences; and wTas greatly ornamented by James V.
and VI. Within the palace is a handfome fquare j one
fide of which is more modern than the others, having
been built by James VI. and kept in good repair till
1 746, when it was accidentally damaged by the king’s
forces making fires on the hearths, by which means
the joifts were burnt. A ftone ornamented fountain in
the middle of the court was deftroyed at the fame
time. The other fides of the fquare are more ancient.
In one is a room ninety-five feet long, thirty feet fix
inches wide, and thirty-three high. At one end is a
gallery with three arches, perhaps for mufic. Narrow
galleries run quite round the old part, to preferve com¬
munication wdth the rooms *, in one of which the un¬
fortunate Mary Stuart firft faw light. On the north
fide of the high ftreet, on an eminence call of the pa¬
lace, Hands St Michael’s church ; a handfome ftrufture,
where James V. intended to have eredted a throne and
twelve ftalls for the fovereign and knights of the order
of St Andrew. In the market-place is another foun¬
tain of two ftories with eight fpouts, and furmounted
like the former with an imperial crown. In one of the
ftreets is fhown the gallery where the regent Murray
was fhot. Here was a houfe of Carmelites, founded
by the townfpeople in 1 290, deftroyed by the Reformers
1559. The family of Livingfton, who took the title
of earl from this place, were hereditary keepers of this
palace, as alfo bailiffs of the king’s bailifry, and con-
ftables of Blacknefs caftle 5 but by their concern in the
rebellion of 1715 all thefe honours with their eftate
were forfeited to the crown. Sir James Livingfton, fon
of the firft earl by marriage with a daughter of Callen-
dar, was created earl of Callendar by Charles L.1641,
which title funk into the other.
LINLITHGOWSHIRE, or West Lothian,
nearly approaches in form to a parallelogram, about
20 miles long from eait to weft, and from 10 to 13
broad, from north to fouth. It is bounded by the river-
Forth on the north *, by the river Amond on the fouth-
eaft $ by Lanarkfliire on the fouth-weft *, and by the
river Avon on tha w’eft. It is allowed to be one of the
richeft counties in Scotland, the foil in general being a
rich loam, in a high ftate of cultivation and improve¬
ment. Its furface is diverfified by gentle fwells and
fertile plains 3 and the number of elegant feats almoit
everywhere to be met with, gives it both a rich and de¬
lightful appearance. The whole is a compofition of
all that is great and beautiful; towns, villages, feats,
and ancient towers, decorate each bank of that fine
expanfe of water, the frith of Forth. The lofty moun¬
tains .
LIN [3
" ^'ihiif0^' ^a”1S t^‘e -highlands form a diftant, but auguft
Linnaeus. houndary towards the north-weft ; and the eaftern view
«—is enlivened with (hips perpetually appearing or vanifh-
mg, amidft the numerous iflands. Hopetoun-houfe,
Barnbougle-caftle, Calder-houfe, Craigie-hall, and the
feat of General Dundas, are fome of the principal orna¬
ments of this county. It contains two royal boroughs,
Linlithgow and Queensferry, befides the towns of
Borrowitounnefs, Bathgate, and Kirkliftoun. It is
poorly fupplied with running water, the Avon and
Amond being the only ftreams which are deferving of
notice. 'Ihere are many valuable minerals found in it
in abundance, fuch as coal, limeftone, and fome lead
ore. In the reign of James VI. a vein of lead w as dif-
covered, fo rich in iilver, that it was thought wTorthy
of being wrought for the fake of that metal alone.
Almoft every parifh abounds with ironftone, which is
extenfively wrought in the parfth of Bathgate. In many
places there are appearances of whinftone or bafalt, par¬
ticularly at Dundas-hill, in the parifh of Dalmeny,
where there is a folid front of bafaltic rock, exhibiting
in fome places regular columns. The population of
this county in 1801 amounted to 17,844. The fol¬
lowing is the population of the parifhes according to the
Statiftical Hiftory.
2 1
Polar Star,
in 1757
h
Pai'iJJjes.
I Abercorn
Bathgate
Borrowftounnefs
Carriden
5 Dalmeny
Ecclefmachan
Kirkliftoun
Linlithgow
Livingftone
13 Queensferry
Torphichen
Uphall
13 Whitburn
Population
in 11SS-
io37
1594
2668
1164
1103
351
1461
3296
598
45i
I295
690
1121
Population in
179c-—175)8.
870
2309
3*78
1450
907
2I5
I5°4
3221
420
505
1069
600
I322
16,8 29
i7!57o
16,829
Increafe, 741
LINN ALUS, Sir Charles, a celebrated botanift
and natural hiftorian, was born on May 24. 1707, in
a village called Roejhult in Smaland, wrhere his father,
Nicholas Linnaeus, w'as then vicar, but afterwards pre¬
ferred to the curacy of Stenbrohult. We are told, that
on the faim w’here Linnaeus was born, there yet ftands
a large lime tree, from which his anceftors tooL the
furnames of TiHander^ Lindelius, and Lintnvus ; and that
this origin of furnames, taken from natural objecls, is
not uncommon in Swreden.
This eminent man, whofe talents enabled him to re¬
form the whole fcience of natural hiftory, accumulated,
very early in life, fome of the higheft honours that a-
v^ait the moft fuccefsful proficients in medical fcience 5
fmee we find that he was made piofeffor of phyfic and
botany, in the univerfity of Upfal, at the age of 34 5
and fix years afterwards, phyfician to Adolphus king
of Sweden j who in the year 1753 honoured him itill
farther, by creating him knight of the order of the
L 1 N
His honours did not [terminate here : for LlrtiXus,
was ennobled ; and in 1776 the king of1”—
' 1 $ Frcm Dr
Sweden accepted the refignation of his office,, and re-p™.™
warded his declining years by doubling his penfion, and Genera/
by a liberal donation of landed property fettled on him View of the
and his family. ' Life and '
It feems probable, that Linnaeus’s tafte for the ftu- wfitin8s °f
dy of nature w as caught from the example of his fa- Lmneeus-
ther ; who, as he has himfelf informed us, cultivated, as
his fiift amufement, a garden plentifully ftored with
plants. Young Linnaeus foon became acquainted with
thefe, as well as with the indigenous ones of his neigh¬
bourhood. Yet, from the ftraitnefs of his father’s in¬
come, caw young naturalift was on the point of beino-
deftined to a mechanical employment; fortunately',
however, th;s defign was over-ruled. In 1717 he was
fent to fchool at Wexfio; where, as his opportunities
were enlarged, his progrefs in all his favourite purfuits
w-as proportionably extended. At this early period he
paid attention to other branches of natural hiftory, par¬
ticularly to the knowdedge of infects.
The firft part of his academical education Linnseus
received under Profeflbr Stobaeus, at Lund, in Scania,
who favoured his inclinations to the ftudy of natural
hiftory. After a refidence of about a year, he remov¬
ed in 1728 to Upfal. Here he foon contracted a
clofe friendfhip with Artedi, a native of the province
of Angermania, who had already been four years a Itu-
dent in that univerfity, and, like himfelf, had a ftrong
bent to the ftudy of natural hiftory in general, but par¬
ticularly to ichthyology. Soon after his refidence at
Upfal, our author was alfo happy enough to obtain
the favour of feveral gentlemen of eftabliffied character
in literature. He was in a particular manner encou¬
raged in the purfuit of his fiudies by the patronage of
Dr Olaus Celfius, at that time profeflbr of divinity,
and the reftorer of natural hiftory in Sweden ; who,
being (truck with the diligence of Linnseus in deferib-
ing the plants of die Upfal garden, and his extenfive
knowdedge of their names, not only patronized him in
a general w-ay, but admitted him to his houfe, his ta¬
ble, and his library. Under fuch encouragement it is
not ft range that our author made a rapid progrefs,
both in his ftudies and the efteem of the profelfors:
in faCt, we have a very ftriking proof of his merit and
attainments 5 fince we find, that, after only two years
refidence, he was thought fufficiently qualified to give
leCtures occafionally from the botanic chair, in the
room of Profefibr Rudbeck.
In the year 1731, the R.oyal Academy of Sciences at
Upfal having for fome time meditated the defign of
improving the natural hiftory of Sweden, at the in-
ftance particularly of ProfeflTors Celfius and Rudbeck,
deputed Linnaeus to make the tour of Lapland, wdth
the foie view of exploring the natural hiftory of that
arCtic region ; to which undertaking, his reputation,
already high as a naturalift, and the (Length of his
conftitution, equally recommended him. He left Up¬
fal the 13th of May, and took his route to Gevalia or
Gevels, the principal town of Geftricia, 45 miles di¬
ftant from Upfal. Hence he travelled through Hel-
fingland into Medalpadia, where he made an excur-
fion, and afeended a remarkable mountain before he
reached Hudwickfwald, the chief towm of Helfingland.
From hence he w’ent through Angermaniand to Her-
nofand.
LIN [ 33 ] LIN
linnEus. nofand, a fea-port on the Bothnia gulf, 76 miles diftant
—-y——1 from Hudwickfwald. When he had proceeded thus
far, he found it proper to retard his journey, as the
fpring was not fufficiently advanced ; and took this
opportunity of vifiting thofe remarkable caverns on
the fummit of Mount Skula, though at the hazard of
his life.
When Linnmus arrived at Uma, in Wert: Both¬
nia, about 96 miles from Hernofand, he quitted the
public road, and took his courfe through the woods
weftward, in order firft to traverfe the moil fouthern
parts of Lapland. Being novr come to the country
that was taore particularly the obje£t of his inquiries,
equally a ftranger to the language and to the manners
of the people, and without any aflbciate, he committed
himfelf to the hofpitality of the inhabitants, and ne¬
ver failed to experience it fully. He fpeaks in feveral
places, with peculiar fatisfaclion, of the innocence and
fimplicity of their lives, and their freedom from difeafes.
In this excurfion he reached the mountains towards
Norway •, and, after encountering great hardrtiips,
returned into Weft Bothnia, quite exhaufted with
fatigue. Our traveller next vifited Pitha and Lula,
upon the gulf of Bothnia ; from which latter place he
took again a weftern route, by proceeding up the ri¬
ver of that name, and vifited the ruins of the temple of
Jockmock in Lula Lapland or Lap Mark : thence he
traverfed what is called the Lapland Defert, deftitute of
all villages, cultivation, roads, or any conveniences j
inhabited only by a few ftraggling people, originally
defcended from the Finlanders, and who fettled in this
country in remote ages, being entirely a diftindl people
from the Laplanders. In this diftridt he afcended a
noted mountain called Wallevari; in fpeaking of which
he has given us a pleafant relation of his finding a An¬
gular and beautiful new plant (Andromeda tetragona')
when travelling within the arflic circle, with the fun
in his view at midnight, in fearch of a Lapland hut.
From hence he crofted the Lapland Alps into Fin-
mark, and traverfed the ftiores of the North fea as far
as Sallero.
Thefe journeys from Lula and Pitha on the Both-
nian gulf, to the north (hore, were made on foot 5 and
our traveller was attended by two Laplanders, one his
interpreter, and the other his guide. He tells us, that
the vigour and ftrength of thefe two men, both old,
and fufficiently loaded with his baggage, excited his
admiration ; fince they appeared quite unhurt by their
labour, while he himlelf, although young and robuft,
was frequently quite exhaufted. In this journey he
was wont to fleep under the boat with which they ford¬
ed the rivers, as a defence againft rain, and the gnats,
which in the Lapland fummer are not lefs teafing than
in the torrid zones. In defcending one of thefe ri¬
vers, he narrowly efcaped periftiing by the overfetting
of the boat, and loft many of the natural produdlions
which he had collefled.
Linnaeus thus fpent the greater part of the fummer
in examining this ardlic region, and thofe mountains
on which, four years afterwards, the French philofo-
phers fecured immortal fame to Sir Ifaac Newton. At
length, arter having fuffered incredible fatigues and
hardfhips, in climbing precipices, parting rivers in mi-
ferable boats, fullering repeated viciflitudes of extreme
heat and cold, and not uufrequently hunger and thirft.
Vol. XII. Part X.
hs returned to Tornea in September. He did not Lmnseus.
take the fame route from Tornea as when he came
into Lapland, having determined to viftt and examine
the country on the eaftern fide of the Bothnian gulf:
his firft: ftage, therefore, wras to Ula in Eaft Bothnia ;
from thence to Old and New Carlebay, 84 miles iouth
from Ula, He continued his route through Wafa,
Chriftianftadt, and Biorneburgh, to Abo, a Imall uni-
verfity in Finland. Winter was now fetting in apace j
he therefore crofted the gulf by the ifland of Aland,
and arrived at Upfal in November, after having per¬
formed, and that moftly on foot, a journey of ten de¬
grees of latitude in extent, exclufively of thofe devia¬
tions which fuch a defign rendered necefiary.
In 1733 he vifited ai^d examined the feveral mines in
Sweden j and made himfelf fo well acquainted with
mineralogy and the docimaftic art, that we find he was
fufficiently qualified to give leffures on thofe fubjedfs
upon his return to the univerfity. The outlines of his
fyftem on mineralogy appeared in the early editions of
the Syjlema Naturae; but he did not exemplify the w hole
until the year 1768.
In the year 1734 Linnmus was fent by Baron Reu-
terholm, governor of Dalecaria, with feveral other na-
turalifts in that province, to inveftigate the natural pro-
dudlions of that part of the Sw’edilh dominions •, and it
was in this journey that our author firft laid the plan
of an excellent inftitution, which was aftenvards exe¬
cuted, in a certain degree at leaft, by himlelf, with the
afliftance of many of his pupils, and the refult publiffi-
ed under the title of Pan Suecicus, in the fecond volume
of the Amcenitates Academicce.
After the completion of this expedition, it appears
that Linnaeus refided for a time at Fahlun, the princi-^
pal town in Dalecarlia 5 wffiere he tells us, that he
taught mineralogy and the docimaftic art, and prac-
tifed phyfic j and where he w’as very hofpitably treated
by Dr More, the phyfician of the place. It alfo ap- ’
pears, that he contradled at this time an intimacy with
one of that gentleman’s daughters, whom he married
about five years afterwards upon his fettling as a phyfi¬
cian at Stockholm.—In this journey he extended his
travels quite acrofs the Dalecarlian Alps into Norway j
but wre have no particular account of his difcoveries in
that kingdom. In 1735 Linnaeus travelled over many
other parts of Sweden, fome parts of Denmark and
Germany, and fixed in Holland, where he chiefly re¬
fided until his return to Stockholm, about the year
1739. I’1 I735’> ^ie year in which he took the degree
of M. D. he publiffied the firft fketch of his Sujlcma
Nature?, in a very compendious wray, and in the form
of tables only, in 12 pages in folio. By this it appears
that he had at a very early period of his life (certain¬
ly before he was 24 years old), laid the bafis of that
great ftru£lure which he aftenvards railed, not only
to the increafe of his owm fame, but to that of natural
fcience.
In 1736, Linnaeus came into England, and vifited
Dr Dillenius, the . late learned profefibr at Oxford,
whom he juftly confidered as one of the firft botanifts
in Europe. He mentions with particular refpefl the
civilities he received from him, and the privileges
he gave him of infpefting his own and the Sherardian
colle&ions of plants. It is needlefs to fay, that he
vifited Dr Martyn, Mr Rand, and Mr Miller, and
E that
Linr.seu'
<—-'V—
to
LIN [
that he was jn a more lingular manner indebted
the friendlhip of Dr Ifaac Lawfon. He alfo con¬
tracted an intimate friendlhip with Mr Peter Collin-
ijn, which was reciprocally increafed by a multitude
of good offices, and continued to the laft without any
diminution. Dr Boerhaave had furnilhed him with
letters to our great naturalift Sir Hans Sloane ; but, it
is with regret that we mull obferve, they did not pro¬
cure him the reception which the warmth of his re¬
commendation feemed to claim.
One of the moll agreeable circumlfances that hap¬
pened to Linnaeus during his refxdence in Holland,
arofe from the patronage of Mr Clifford, in whofe
houfe he lived a conliderable part of his time, being
now as it were the child of fortune :—Exivi patnd
triginta fex nummis aureis dives—are his own words.
With Mr Clifford, however, he enjoyed pleafures and
privileges fcarcely at that time to be met with elfe-
where in the world $ that of a garden excellently llored
with the fineft exotics, and a library furnilhed with
almolt every botanic author of note. How happy he
found liimlelf in this lituation, tbofe only who have
felt tire fame kind of ardour can conceive. Whilit in
Holland, our author was recommended by Boerhaave
io fill the place then vacant, of phyfician to the
Dutch fettlement at Surinam ; but he declined it on
account of his having been educated in fo oppolke a
climate.
Belides beii g favoured with the particular patron¬
age and friendlhip of Boerhaave and Mr Clifford,
as is above mentioned, our author had alfo the plea-
lure of being contemporary with, and of reckoning
among the number qf his friends, many other learned
perfons who have fmce proved ornaments to their pro-
leffion, and whofe merit has moft defervedly raifed
them to fame and honour. Among thefe we may pro¬
perly mention Dr John Burman, prcfeffor of botany
at Amllerdam, whofe name and family are well known
in the republic of letters, and to whom our author dedi-
i ated his Bibliotheca Botanica, having been greatly af-
iifted in compiling that work by the free accefs he
had to that gentleman’s excellent library ; John Fre¬
derick Gronovius of Leyden, editor of Clayton’s F/o-
ra Virgin lea, and who very early adopted Linnaeus’s
lyftem ; Baron Van Swieten, phyfician to the em-
P e^s queen ; Ifaac Lawfon, before mentioned, after¬
wards one of the phyficians to the Britilh army, who
died much regretted at Oofterhout in the year 1747,
and from whom Linnaeus received lingular and very
important civilities j Kramer, fince well known for
an excellent treatife on the docimaftic art ; Van Royen,
botanic profeffor at Leyden j Lieberkun of Berlin,
iamous for his Ikill in microlcopical inllruments and
experiments, ffio thefe may be added alfo the names
of Albinus and Gaubius, and of others, were it re-
quifite to Ihow that our author’s talents had very early
lender him confpicuous, and gained him the regard
of all thofe who cultivated and patronifed any branch
of medical fcience; and to which, doubtlefs, the An¬
gular notice with which Boerhaave honoured him did
i-iot a little contribute.
Early in the year I73^> after Linnaeus had left
Mr Clifford, and, as it Ihould feem, when he refided
with Van Royen, he had a long and dangerous fit of
ficknefs j and upon his recovery went to Paris, where
34 I LIN
he was properly entertained by the Juffieus, at that Lmnams.
time the firft botanifts in France. The opportunity —v-—» .
tiffs gave him of infpedling the Herbaria of Royen
and Tournefort, and thofe of the above-named gentle¬
men, afforded him great fatisfafllon. He had in¬
tended to have gone from thence into Germany, to
vifit Ludwig and the celebrated Haller, with whom
he was in clofe correfpond^ence; but he w as not able
to complete this part of his intended route, and was
obliged to return without this gratification.
Our author did not fail to avail himfelf of every
advantage that accd's to the feveral mufeums of this
country afforded him, in every branch cf natural hi-
ftory •, and the number and importance of his publi¬
cations, during his abfence from his native country,
fufficiently demonfirate that fund of knowledge which
he muff have imbibed before, and no lefs tdlify his
extraordinary application. Thefe were Svjlema Na¬
ture?, Fundamenta Botanica, Bibliotheca Botanica, and
Genera Plantarum ; the daft of which is juftly confi-
dered as the moft valuable of all the works of this ce¬
lebrated author. What immenfe application had been
befiowed upon it, the reader may eafily conceive, on
being informed, that before the publication of the firft
edition the author had examined the charadlers of
8cco flowers, ffihe laft book of Linnaeus’s compofi-
tion, publiihed during his flay in Holland, w-as the
Clajfes Plantarum, which is a copious illuftration of the
fecond part of the Fundamenta.
About the latter end of the year 1738, or the be¬
ginning of the next, cur author fettled as a phyfician
at Stockholm j where he feems to have met with con-
fiderable oppofition, and was oppreffed with many
difficulties ; but all of thefe at length he overcame, and
got into extenfive pra&ice 5 and loon after his fettle¬
ment married the lady before fpoken of. By the in-
tereft of Count Teffin, who was afterwards his great
patron, and even procured medals to be ftruck in ho¬
nour of him, he obtained the rank of phyfician to the
fleet, and a ftipend from the citizens for giving lec¬
tures in botany. And what at this time efpecially
was highly favourable to the advancement of his cha-
radler and fame, by giving him an opportunity of dif-
playing his abilities, was the eftablifhment of the
Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm •, of which
Linnams was conftituted the firft prefident, and to
which eftabliftiment the king granted leveral privileges,
particularly that of free poftage to all papers direfted
to the fecretary. By the rules of the academy, the
prefident held his place but three months. At the ex¬
piration of that term, Linnatus made his Oratio de sne-
morabilibus in InfeElis, 061. 3. 1739 ; in which he en¬
deavours to excite an attention and inquiry into the
knowledge of infe6ts, by difplaying the many Angular
phenomena that occur in contemplating the nature of
thofe animals’, and by pointing out, in a variety of ia-
ftances, their ufefulnefs to mankind in particular, and
to the economy of nature in general.
During all this time, however, Linnaeus appears to
have had his eye upon the botanic and medical chair
at Upfid, at this time occupied by Rudbeck, who
was far advanced in life. We learn indeed that he
was fo intent on purfuing and perfedling his great de-
figns in the advancement of his favourite ftudy of na-.
ture, that he had determujed, if he failed in procuring
the
LIN [ 35 ]
Linnxus. the profefforftiip at Upfal, to accept the offer that and of varieties
  v-—1 had been made to him by Haller of filling the botanic
chair at Gottingen. However, in courfe of time, he
obtained his wifti. In the year 1741, upon the re-
fignation of Roberg, he was conftituted joint profef-
for of phyfic, and phyfician to the king, with Rofen,
who had been appointed in the preceding year on the
death of Rudbeck. Thefe two colleagues agreed to
divide the medical departments between them ; and
their choice was confirmed by the univerfity. Rofen
took anatomy, phyfiology, pathology, and the the¬
rapeutic part j Linnaeus^ natural hiftory, botany, ma¬
teria medica, the dietetic part, and the diagnofis mor-
borum.
During the interval of his removal from Stock¬
holm to Upfal in confequence of this appointment,
our profeffor was deputed by the Hates of the king¬
dom to make a tour to the iflands of Oeland and Goth¬
land in the Baltic, attended by fix of the pupils, com-
mifiioned to make fuch inquiries as might tend to
improve agriculture and arts in the kingdom, to
which the Swediih nation had for feme time paid a
particular attention. The refult of this journey was
very fuccefsful, and proved fully fatisfactory to the
Hates, and was afterwards communicated to the pub¬
lic. On his return he entered upon the profeffor-
fhip, and pronounced before the univerfity his oration
de Feregrinationum intra Patriam necejfilate, October 17.
1741 ; in which he forcibly dilplays the ufefulnefs of
fuch excurfions, by pointing out to the fludents that
vafi field of obje&s which their country held out to
their cultivation, whether in geography, phyfics, mi¬
neralogy, botany, zoology, or economics, and by ihow-
ing the benefit that mull accrue to themfelves and their
country as rewards to their diligence. That animated
fpirit which runs through the whole of this compofition,
renders it one of the moH pleafing and infirudlive of all
our author’s produ£Hcns.
Linnaeus was now fixed in the fituation that wTas
the befi adapted to his chara&er, his tafte, and abili¬
ties ; and which feems to have been the objeft of his
ambition and centre of his hopes. Soon after his efia-
bliOrment, he laboured to get the academical garden,
which had been founded in 1657, put on a better foot¬
ing and very foon effefted it; procuring alfo a houfe to
be built for the refidence of the profeffor. The whole
had been in ruins ever fince the fire in 1702; and at
the time Linnaeus was appointed profeffor of botany,
the garden did not contain above fifty plants that were
exotic. His correfpondence with the firfl botanifis in
Europe foon fupplied him with great variety. He
received Indian plants from Jufiieu of Paris, and from
Van Royen of Leyden ; European plants from Haller
and Ludwig; American plants from the late Mr Col-
linfon, Mr Catefby, and others j and variety of annuals
from Dillenius: in fiiort, how much the garden owed
to his diligence and care in a few years, may be feen by
the catalogue publilhed under the title of Hortus Upfa-
/ienjis, exhibens Plantas exoticas horto Upfahenjis slca-
demice a ffe (Linrueo) illalas ah anno 1742, in annum
1748, additts differ cut us fynonymis, habit aiiombus, hof-
pitus, rariorunique defcripiionibus, in gratiam Jludiofce
juventutis ; Holm. 1748, 8vo. pp. 306. tab. 3. By
this catalogue it appears, that the profeffor had intro¬
duced 1100 fpecies, exclufively of all the Swedifh plants
L I N
which latter, in ordinary gardens, a-
mount not unfrequently to one-third of the whole num¬
ber. The preface contains a curious hiflory of the cli¬
mate at Upfal, and the progrefs of the feafons through¬
out the whole year.
From the time that Linnaeus and Rofen were ap¬
pointed profeffors at Upfal, it Hiould feem that the
credit of that univerfity, as a fchool of phyfic, had
been increafing : numbers of Hudents reforted thither
from Germany, attrafted by the character of thefe two
able men 5 and in Sweden itfelf many young men were
invited to the fludy of phyfic by the excellent manner
in which it was taught, who otherwife would have en¬
gaged in different purfuits.
WhilH Linnaeus was meditating one of his capital
performances, which had long been expedled and great¬
ly wiffied for, he was interrupted by a tedious and
painful fit of the gout, which left him in a very w'eak
and difpirited Hate j and, according to the intelligence
that his friends gave of him, nothing was thought to
have contributed more to the refloration of his fpirits
than the feafonable acquifition, at this juncture, of a
colleflion of rare and undefcribed plants.
The fame which our author had noxv acquired by
his Hysterna Natune, of which a fixth edition, much en¬
larged, had been publifhed at Stockholm in 1748 in
8vo, pp. 232, with eight tables explanatory of the
claffes and orders (and which was alfo republifhed
by Gronovius at Leyden), had brought, as it were, a
conflux of every thing rare and valuable in every branch
of nature, from all parts of the globe, into Sweden.
The king and queen of Sweden had their feparatc col-
leftions of rarities j the former at Ulrickfdahl •, the
latter, very rich in exotic infefts and fliells, procured
at a great expence, at the palace of Drottningholm :
both of which our author was employed in arranging
and defcribing. Befides thefe, the mufeum of the
Royal Academy of Upfal had been augmented by a
confiderable donation from the king, whilff hereditary
prince, in 17465 by another from Count Gyllenborg
the year before 5 by a third from M. Grill, an opulent
citizen of Stockholm.
From this time sve fee the profeffor in a more
elevated rank and fituation in life. His reputation
had already procured him honours from almoH all the
royal focieties in Europe 5 and his own fovereign,
truly fenfible of his merit, and greatly effeeming
his charadler and abilities, favoured him with a mark,
of his diffin£lion and regard, by creating him a
knight of the Polar Star. It was no longer haudatur et
a/get. His emoluments kept pace with his fame and
honours : his pradlice in his profeflion became lucra¬
tive 5 and we find him foon after poffeffed of his coun¬
try houfe and gardens at Hammarby, about five miles
from Upfal. He had moreover received one of the
moff flattering teffimonies of the extent and magnitude
of his fame that perhaps was ever fhown to any lite¬
rary charafter, the Hate of the nation which conferred
it, with all its circumflances, duly confidered. This
was an invitation to Madrid from the king of Spain,
there to prefide as a naturaliH, with the offer of an an¬
nual penfion for life of 2000 piffoles, letters or nobi¬
lity, and the perfeft free exercife of his own religion :
But, after the moff perfetff acknowledgements of
the Angular honour done him, he returned for anfwer,
E 2 ‘ that
Linnajus
Linnaeus. 4
LIN [
th-:t If he had any merits, they were due to his own
country.’
In the year 1755, the Royal Academy of Sciences
at Stockholm honoured our profelfor with one of the
firft premiums, agreeably to the will of Count Sparree,
who had decreed two gold medals, of ten ducats value
each, to be annually given by the academy to the au¬
thors of fuch papers, in the preceding year’s Stock¬
holm A61s, as Ihould be adjudged moll ufeful in pro-
moting agriculture particularly, and all branches of ru¬
ral economy. This medal bore on one fide the arms
of the count, with this motto, Superjles m ficientus amor
Frederici Sparree. Linnaeus obtained it in confequence
of a paper De P/antis qius Alpium Suecicarum indigence,
magno rei ceconoinicce et medicce emolumento fieripojfint ;
and the ultimate intention w’as to recommend thefe
plants as adapted to culture in Lapland. This paper
was inferted in the Stockholm A£ls for 1754, vol. xv.
Linnaeus alfo obtained the preemiutn centum aureorum,
propofed by the Imperial Academy of Sciences at Pe-
terfburgh, for the bell paper written to ellablilh or dif-
prove, by new arguments, the dodlrine of the fexes of
plants. It was, il polfible, an additional glory to Lin¬
naeus to have merited this premium from the Peterf-
burgh academy ; inafmuch as a profellbr of that fo-
ciety, a few years before, had with more than common
zeal, although with a futility like that of the other
antagonills of cur author, endeavoured to overturn the
whole Linnaean fyfiem of botany, by attempting to
Ihow that the dodlrine of the fexes of plants had no
foundation in nature, and wras unfupported by fadls
and experiments.
It appears that Linnaeus upon the whole, enjoyed
a good conllitution j but that he w>as fometimes fe-
verely afflidled with a hemicrania, and was not exempt¬
ed from the gout. About the clofe of 1776, he was
fieized with an apoplexy, which left him paralytic 5 and
at the beginning of the year 1777, he fuffered another
llroke, which very much impaired his mental powers.
Put the difeafe fuppofed to have been the more im¬
mediate caufe of his death, was an ulceration of the
urinary bladder ; of which, after a tedious indifpofition,
he died, January 11. 1778, in the 7 ill year of his age,
—His principal other works, befide thofe already men¬
tioned, are, The Iter Qelandicum et Gotlandicum, Iter
Scanicum, Flora Suecica, Fauna Suecica, Materia Me¬
dico, Philofioplua Botamca, Genera Morborum, different
papers in the Ada Upfialienfia, and the Amanitates Aca-
demicce. The lall of this great man’s treatifes was the
MantiJJa Altera, publilhed in 1771 ; but before his
death he had finilhed the greatelt part of the Mandfia
Tertia, afterwards completed and publilhed by his
fon.
To the lovers of fcience it will not appear llrange,
nor will it be unpleafant to hear, that uncommon re-
fpe£l was Ihorvn to the memory of this great man. We
are told, “ that on his death a general mourning took
place at Upfal, and that his funeral procelfion was at¬
tended by the whole univerfity, as well profeffors as
liudents, and the pall fupported by fixteen dodlors of
phyfic, all of whom had been his pupils.” The king
of Sweden, after the death of Linnaeus, ordered a me¬
dal to be ffruck, of which one fide exhibits Linnaeus’s
bull and name, and the other Cybele, in a dejedled at¬
titude, holding in her left hand a key, and furrounded
36 ] LIN
with animals and growing plants j with this legend, Linnaeus-
Beam Indus angit amifii; and beneath, Pofi Obitum Up- ' v~—
fallen, die x.^an. M.DCC.LXXVUI. Rege jubente.—The
fame generous monarch not only honoured the Royal
Academy of Sciences with his prefence when Linnteus’s
commemoration was held at Stockholm, but, as a Hill
higher tribute, in his fpeech from the throne to the af-
fembly of the Hates, he lamented Sweden’s lofs by his
death. Nor was Linnaeus honoured only in his own
country. The late wrorthy profeffor of botany at
Edinburgh, Dr Hope, not only pronounced an eulo-
gium in honour of him before his lludents at the open¬
ing of his ledlures in the fpring 1778, but alfo laid
the foundation Hone of a monument (which he after-
ivards eredled) to his memory, in the botanic garden
there ; which, while it perpetuates the name and me¬
rits of Linnaeus, will do honour to the founder, and, it
may be hoped, prove the means of railing an emulation
favourable to that fcience which this illulirious Swede
fo highly dignified and improved.
As to the private and perfonal charadler of this il¬
lulirious philofopher : His llature w?as diminutive and
puny 5 his head large, and its hinder part very high j
his look was ardent, piercing, and apt to daunt the be¬
holder ; his ear not fenfible to mufic j his temper quick,
but eafily appealed.
Nature had, in an eminent manner, been liberal in
tbe endowments of his mind. He feems to have been
poffefled of a lively imagination, corredled however by
a llrong judgement, and guided by the laws of fyltem.
Add to thefe, the moll retentive memory, an unremit¬
ting indullry, and the greatell perfeverance in all his
purfuits } as is evident from that continued vigour with
which he profecuted the defign, that he appears to have
formed lo early in life, of totally reforming and fa¬
bricating anew the whole fcience of natural hiilory j
and this fabric he raifed, and gave to it a degree of
perfection unknown before j and had moreover uie un¬
common felicity of living to fee his own llruClure rife
above all others, notwithllanding every difeourage-
ment its author at firlt laboured under, and the oppoli-
tion it afterwards met with. Neither has any writer
more cautioufly avoided that common error of building
his own fame on the ruin of another man’s. He every¬
where acknowledged the feveral merits of each author’s
fyllem ; and no man appears to have been more fenfible
ol the partial defedls of his own. Thofe anomalies
which had principally been the objedls of criticifm, he
well knew every artificial arrangement mull abound
with j and having laid it down as a firm maxim, that
every fyllem muff finally reft on its intrinfic merit, he
willingly commits his owm to the judgement of pofte-
rity. Perhaps there is no circumftance of Linnmus’s
life which fhows him in a more dignified light than his
conduCl towards his opponents. Difavowing controver-
fy, and juftly confidering it as an unimportant and
fruitlefs facrifice of time, he never replied to any, nu¬
merous as they wTere at one feafon.
To all who fee the aid this extraordinary man has
brought to natural fcience, his talents mull appear in
a very illuftrious point of view 5 but more efpecially to
thofe who, from fimilarity of taftes, are qualified to’ fee
more diftinclly the vaft extent of his original defign,
the greatnefs of his labour, and the elaborate execution
he has given to the whole. He had a happy com¬
mand
LIN [ 37 ] LIN
Lmnjeus mand of the Latin tongue, which is alone the language
II of fcience ; and no man ever applied it more fuccefsful-
Linfeed. purpofes, or gave to del'cription fuch copiouf-
nefs, united with that precifion and concifenefs which
fo eminently chara&erize his writings.
The ardour of Linneeus’s inclinations to the fludy of
nature, from his earlieft years, and that uncommon ap¬
plication which he beftowed upon it, gave him a moft
comprehenfive view both of its pleafures and ufefulnefs,
at the fame time that it opened to him a wide field
hitherto but little cultivated, efpecially in his own
country. Hence he was early led to regre-t, that the
fludy of natural hiflory, as a public institution, had
not made its wray into the univerfities ; in many of
which, logical deputations and metaphyfical theories
had too long prevailed, to the exclufion of more ufeful
fcience. Availing himfelf therefore of the advantages
which he derived from a large {hare of eloquence, and
an animated ftyle, he never failed to difplay, in a lively
and convincing manner, the relation this ftudy hath
to the public good •, to incite the great to countenance
and protect it 5 to encourage and allure youth into
its purfuits, by opening its manifold fources of plea-
lure to their view, and fhowing them horv greatly this
agreeable employment rvould add, in a variety of in-
ttances, both to their comfort and emolument. His
extenfive view7 of natural hiltory, as connected with al-
moft all the arts of life, did not allow7 him to confine
thefe motives and incitements to thofe only who were
defigned for the practice of phyfic. He alfo laboured
to infpire the great and opulent wdth a tafte for this
ftudy ; and wfifhed particularly that fuch as w7ere de¬
voted to an ecclefiaftic life Ihould fhare a portion of na¬
tural fcience ; not only as a means of fvveetening their
rural fituation, confined, as many are, perpetually to a
country refidence, but as w7hat would almoft inevitably
lead, in a variety of inftances, to difcoveries which on¬
ly fuch fituations could give rife to, and which the
learned in great cities could have no opportunities to
make. Not to add, that the mutual communication
and enlargement of this kind of knowdedge among
people of equal rank in a country fituation, muft prove
one of the ilrongeft bonds of union and friendihip,
and contribute, in a much higher degree than the ufual
perifhing amufements of the age, to the pleafures and
advantage of fociety.
Linnams lived to enjoy the fruit of his own labour
in an uncommon degree. Natural hiitory raifed it-
felf in Sweden, under his culture to a flate of per*
fedlion unknown elfewhere ; and was from thence dif-
feminated through all Europe. His pupils difperfed
themfelves all over the globe j and, with their mafter’s
fame, extended both fcience and their ow7n. More
than this he lived to fee the fovereigns of Europe
eilablifh feveral public inflitutions in favour of this
ftudy; and even profefforfhips eftablifhed in divers
univerfities for the lame purpofe, w'hich do honour to
their founders and patrons, and which have excited a
curiofity for the fcience, and a fenfe of its worth, that
cannot fail to further its progrefs, and in time raife it
to that rank which it is entitled to hold among the
purfuits of mankind.
LINNET. See Fringilla, Ornithology In¬
dex.
LINSEED, the feed of the plant linum.—Linfeed
fleeped and bruifed in water gives it very foon a thick Lint
mucilaginous nature, and communicates much of its 1^
emollient virtue to it. See Linum. v ‘ '
LINT. See Flax ; Linen j and Linum, Botany
Index.
Lint, in Surgery, is the fcrapings of fine linen,
ufed by furgeons in dreffing wmunds. It is made into
various forms, which acquire different names accord¬
ing to the difference of the figures.—Lint made up in
an oval or orbicular form is called a pledgit; if in a
cylindrical form, or in ftiape of a date, or olive-ftone,
it is called a dqffil.
Thefe different forms of lint are required for many
purpofes; as, r. To flop blood in frefti wrnunds, by
filling them up with dry lint before the application of
a bandage : though, if fcraped lint be not at hand, a
piece of fine linen may be torn into fmall rags, and ap¬
plied in the fame manner. In very large haemorrhages
the lint or rags fliould be firil dipped in fome flyptic
liquor, as alcohol, or oil of turpentine ; or fprinkled
w7ith fome ftyptic powTder. 2. To agglutinate or heal
wmunds \ to which end lint is very ferviceable, if fpread
with fome digeftive ointment, balfam, or vulnerary
liquor. 3. In drying up wmunds and ulcers, and for¬
warding the formation of a cicatrix. 4. In keeping
the lips of wmunds at a proper difiance, that they
may not hattily unite before the bottom is well di-
gefted and healed. 5. They are highly neceflary to
preferve wounds from the injuries of the air.—Bur¬
geons of former ages formed compreffes of fponge,
wmol, feathers, or cotton ; linen being fcarce : but
lint is far preferable to all thefe, and is at prefent uni-
verfally ufed.
LINTERNUM, or Literum, in Ancient Geogra¬
phy, a city of Campania, fituated at the mouth of the
Clanius, which is alfo called Liturnus, between Cumae
and Vulturnum. It received a Roman colony at the
fame time with Puteoli and Vulturnum •, was improved
and enlarged by Auguftus •, afterwards forfeited its
right of colonyfiiip, and became a prefedture. Hither
Scipio Africanus the Elder retired from the mean envy
of his ungrateful countrymen ; and here he died, and
was buried t though this laft is uncertain, he having a
monument both here and at Rome. No vefiige of the
place now remains.
LINT STOCK, in military affairs, a wooden ftaff
about three feet long, having a (harp point in one
end and a fort of fork or crotch on the other; the
latter of which ferves to contain a lighted match, find
by the former the lintftock is occafionally ftuck in the
ground, or in the deck of a (hip during an engage¬
ment. ft is very frequently ufed in fmall veffels,
where there is commonly one fixed between every two
guns, by which the match is always kept dry, and ready
for firing.
LINTZ, a very handfome town of Germany, and
capital of Upper Aufiria, with two fortified cafiles ;
the one upon a hill, the other below it. Here is a
hall in which the fiates affemble, a bridge over the
Danube, a manufadlure of gunpowder, and feveral
other articles. It was taken by the French in 1741,
but the Auftrians retook it in the following year. E.
Long. 14. 33. N. Lat. 48. 16.
Lintz, a town of Germany, in the circle of the
Lower Rhine, and deflorate of Cologne, fubjefl to
that.
L I O [ 38 ] LIP
Lirrum tliat ele&or. It Is feated on the river Rhine, in E.
Liotard Long- 7* * • N. Lat. 50. 3 I.
. LINUM, FLAX ; a genus or plants belonging to
the pentandria clafs ; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 14th order, Gruina/es. See Botany
Index.
LINUS, in claflical hiftory, a native of Colchis,
cotemporary with Orpheus, and one of the moil an¬
cient poets .and muficians of Greece. It is impoflible,
at this didance of time, to difcover whether Linus
was the difciple of Orpheus, or Orpheus of Linus.
The majority, however, feem to decide this queftion
in favour of Linus. According to Archbiihop Uiher,
he dourifhed about 1280 B. C. and he is mentioned by
.Eufebius among the poets who wrote before the time
of Mofes. Diodorus Siculus tells us, from Dionyfius of
Mitylene the hiftorian, who was cotemporary with Ci¬
cero, that Linus was the fird among the Greeks who in¬
vented verfes and mufic, as Cadmus fird taught them
the ufe of letters. The fame writer likewife attributes
to him an account of the exploits of the fird Bac¬
chus, and a treatife upon Greek mythology, written
in Peiafgian charadlers, which were alfo thofe ufed by
Orpheus, and by Pronapides the preceptor of Homer.
Diodorus fays that he added the firing lichanos to the
Mercurian lyre; and afcribes to him the invention of
rhime and melody ; which Suidas, who regards him
as the mod ancient of lyric poets, confirms. Mr
Marpurg tells us, that Linas invented cat-gut drings
for the ufe of the lyre, wrhich, before his time, was
only drung with thongs of leather, or with different
threads of flax drung together. He is faid by many
writers to have had feveral difciples of great renown ;
among whom were Hercules, Thamyris, and, accord¬
ing to fame, Orpheus.—Hercules, fays Diodorus, in
learning from Linus to play upon the lyre, being ex¬
tremely dull and obflinate, provoked his mailer to
flrike him ; which fo enraged the young hero, that,
inftantly feizing the lyre of the mufician, he beat out
his brains with his own indrument.
LION, in Zoo/ogrj. See Felis, Mammalia Index.
LIONCELLES, in Heraldry, a term ufed for feve¬
ral lions borne in the fame coat of arms.
LIOTARD, called the Turk, an eminent painter,
was born at Geneva in 1702, and by his father wras
defigned for a merchant ; but, by the perfuafion of his
friends, wdio obferved the genius of the young man, he
was permitted to give himfelf up to the art of painting.
He went to Paris in 1725, and in 1738 accompanied
the marquis de Puifieux to Rome, who wras going am-
baffador to Naples. At Rome he was taken notice of
by the earls of Sandwich and Befborough, then Lord
Duncannon, who engaged Liotard to go with them
on a voyage to Conflantinople. There he became ac¬
quainted with the late Lord Edgecumbc, and Sir Eve-
rard hawkener, our ambaflador, who perfuaded him
to come to England, where he flaid two years. In
his journey to the Levant he had adopted the eaflern
habit, and wore it here with a very long beard. It
contributed much to the portraits ot himfelf, and fome
thought to draw cuflomers •, but he was really a paint¬
er of uncommon merit. After his return to the conti¬
nent, he married a young wife, and facrificed his beard
to Hymen. He came again to England in 1772, and
brought a colleflion of pidlures of different makers,
3
which he fold by auclion, and fotne pieces of glafs Lip
painted by himfelf, writh furprifing effecl of light and .11
lhade, but a mere curiofity, as it was neceifary to. Ll^anf
darken the room before they could be feen to advan¬
tage j he affixed, too, as u'ual, extravagant prices to
them. He flaid here about two years, as in his former
journey. He has engraved fome Turkifh portraits,
one of the emprefs queen and the eldefl archduchefs
in Turkifh habits, and the heads of the emperor and
emprefs. He painted admirably well in miniature j
and finely in enamel, though he feldom praflifed it.
But he is beft known by his works in crayons. His
likenclfes were as exadl as poffible, and too like to
pleafe thofe who fat to him ; thus he had great bufi-
nefs the firfl year, and very little the fecond. Devoid
of imagination, and one would think of memory, he
could render nothing but what he faw before his eyes.
Freckles, marks of the fmallpox, every thing found its
place ; not fo much from fidelity, as becaufe he could
not conceive the abfence of any thing that appeared
to him. Truth prevailed in all his works, grace in
very few or none. Nor wras there any eafe in his
outline j but the fliffnefs of a buft in all his por¬
traits. Walpole.
LIP, in Anatomy. See there, N° 102.
HjRF.-Lip, a diforder in which the upper lip is in a
manner flit or divided, fo as to refemble the upper
lip of a hare, whence the name. See Surgery.
LIPARA, in Ancient Geography, the principal of
the iflands called JEolia, fituated between Sicily and
Italy, with a cognominal town, fo powerful as to have
a fleet, and the other iflands in fubjeftion to it. Ac¬
cording to Diodorus Siculus, it was famous for excel¬
lent harbours and medicinal waters. He informs us
alfo, that it fuddenly emerged from the fea abdtat the
time of Hannibal’s death. The name is Punic, ac¬
cording to Bochart : and given it, becaufe, being a
volcano, it flione in the night. It is now called Li-
pari, and gives name to nine others in its neighbour¬
hood ; viz. Stromboli, Pare, Rotto, Panaria, Saline,
Volcano, Fenicufa, Alicor, and Ulrica. Thefe are
called, in general, the Lipari Ijlands. Some of thefe
are adlive volcanoes at prefent, though Lipari is not.
It is about 15 miles in circumference; and abounds in
corn, figs and grapes, bitumen, fulphur, alum, and
mineral waters.
LIPARI, an ancient and very ffrong town, and
capital of an ifland of the fame name in the Medi¬
terranean, wuth a bifhop’s fee. It was ruined by
Barbarofia in 1544, who carried aw'ay all the in¬
habitants into flavery, and demolifhed the place 4 but
it was rebuilt by Charles V. E. Long. 15. 30. N. Lat.
38- 35-
Lipari, properly, is the general name of a duller of
iflands. Thefe, according to Mr Houel, are principally
ten in number, the reft being only uninhabitable rocks
of narrow extent. The largeft and the moil populous
of them, that above mentioned, communicates its name
to the reft. Volcano is a defert but habitable ifland, ly¬
ing fouth from the large ifland of Lipari. Salines,
which lies weft-north-weft from the fame ifland ; Fe-
licudi, nearly in the fame diredlion, but 20 miles farther
diftant ; and Alicudi, IO miles fouth-weft of Felicudi ;
are inhabited. Pannari is eaft of Lipari, the famous
Stromboh north-eaft, and both of them are inhabited.
The
LIP [ 39 ] LIP
Llpari. The reft are In a defert ftate ; fuch as which
~”~v—■,""1 was formerly inhabited j Attalo, which might be inha¬
bited •, and DExambianca, on which fome remains of
ancient dwellings are ftill to be found. L'Efcanera is
nothing but a bare rock.
The Fermico/i, a word fignifying arts, are a chain
of fimill black cliffs which run to the north-eaft of
Lipari, till within a little way of Exambianca and Ef-
canera, riling more or lefs above the water, according
as the fea is more or lefs agitated.
Ancient authors are not agreed with refpeift to the
number of the Lipari illands. Few of thofe by whom
they are mentioned appear to have feen them ; and in
places fuch as thefe, where fubterraneous fires burft
open the earth and raife the ocean from its bed, ter¬
rible changes muft fometimes take place. Volcanello
and Volcano were once feparated by a ftrait fo as to
form two iflands. The lava and alhes have filled up
the intervening ftrait; and they are now united into
one illand, and have by this change become much more
habitable.
The cafile of Lip&ri Hands upon a rock on the eaft
quarter of the ifland. The way to it from the city
leads up a gentle declivity. There are feveral roads
to it. This caftle makes a part of the city; and on
the fummit of the rock is the citadel, in which the
governor and the garrifon refide. The cathedral Hands
in the fame fituation. Here the ancients, in con¬
formity to their ufual pratftice, had built the temple
of a tutelary god. This citadel commands the whole
city ; and it is acceffible only at one place. Were an
holtile force to make a defeent on the illand, the inha¬
bitants might retreat hither, and be fecure againft all
but the attacks of famine.
The ancient inhabitants had alfo fortified this place.
Confiderable portions of the ancient walls are ftill
Handing in different places, particularly towards the
fouth : Their ftrudlure is Grecian •, and the Hones are
exceedingly large, and very well cut. The layers are
three feet high, which lhowrs them to have been raifed
in fome very remote period. Thefe remains are fur-
rounded wdth modern buildings. The remains of walls,
which are ftill to be feen here, have belonged not only
to temples, but to all the different forts of buildings
which the ancients ufed to ereft. The vaults, which
are in a better ftate of prefervation than any of the
other parts of thefe monuments, are now converted to
the purpofes of a prifon.
In the city of Lipari there are convents of monks
of two different orders; but there are no convents for
women, that is to lay, no cloifters in which women are
confined ; thofe, however, whofe heads and hearts
move them to embrace a ftate of pious celibacy, are at
liberty to engage in a monaftic life, with the concur-
lence of their confeffors. They put on the facred ha¬
bit, and vow perpetual virginity, but continue to live
with their father and mother, and mix in fociety like
other women. The vow and the habit even enlarge
their liberty. This cuftom wall, no doubt, M. Houel
obferves, appear very ftrange to a French woman ; but
this w7as the wTay in which the virgins of the primitive
church lived. The idea of (hutting them up together
did not occur till the fifth century. The life of thefe
religious ladies is lefs gloomy than that which thofe un¬
der the fame vows lead in other countries. They wear
clothes of particular colours, according as they belong
to this or that order. Their drefs gives them a right to
frequent the churches at any hours \ and the voice of
cenfure, wdiich takes particular pleafure in directing
her attacks againft pious ladies, goes fo far as to afiert,
that fome young women affume the habit with no
other views but that they may enjoy greater free¬
dom.
In this illand oxen of a remarkably beautiful fpecies
are employed in ploughing the ground. The ancient
plough is ftill in uie here. The mode of agriculture
praftifed here is very expeditious. One man traces
a furrowq and another follows to fow in it grain and
pulfe. The ploughman, in cutting the next furrow,
covers up that in which the feed has been fown : and
thus the field is both ploughed and 1'own at once. Na¬
ture feems to be here uncommonly vigorous and fertile.
Vegetation is here more luxuriant, and animals gayer
and more healthful, than almoft anywhere elfe.
Near the city of Lipari, the traveller enters deep
narrow roads, of g very lingular appearance. The
whole ifland is nothing but an affemblage of moun¬
tains, all of them conlifting of alhes or lava difeharged
from the depths of the volcano by which it wTas at
firft produced. The particles of this puzzolana, or
allies, are not very hard ; the adlion of the rain w’ater
has accordingly cut out trenches among the moun¬
tains ; and thefe trenches being perhaps lefs uneven
than the reft of the furface, have of ccnfequence been
ufed as roads by the inhabitants, and have been ren¬
dered much deeper by being worn for fo many ages
by the feet of men and other animals. Thefe roads
are more than five or fix fathoms deep, and not more
than feven or eight feet wide. They are very crooked,
and have echoes in feveral places. You w'ould think
that you were walking through narrow ftreets with¬
out doors or windows. Their depth and windings
Ihelter the traveller from the fun while he is palTing
through them ; and he finds them delicioully cool.
'I he firft volcanic eruption in the Lipan iilands
mentioned in hiftory, is that of w hich Callias takes no¬
tice in his hiftory of the w'ars in Sicily. Callias was
contemporary with Agathocles. That eruption con¬
tinued without interval for feveral days and nights ;
and threw' out great ftones, wEich fell at more than -
a mile’s diftance. The fea boiled all around the illand.
I he works of Callias are loft, and we know not whe¬
ther he defeended to a detail of particulars concerning
the ravages produced by this eruptioa. Under the
confullhip of ^Emilius Lepidus and L. Aurelius O-
reftes, I 26 years before the Chriftian era, thefe illands
were aftefted with a dreadful earthquake. The burn¬
ing of iEtna was the firft caufe of that. Around Lipari
and the adjacent illands, the air was all on fire. Ve¬
getation was withered ; animals died; and fufible bo¬
dies, fuch as w'ax and refin, became liquid. If the inha¬
bitants of Lipari, from whom cur author received thefe
fafts, and the waiters who have handed down an ac¬
count of them, have not exaggerated the truth, we
muft believe that the fea then boiled around the
ifland 5 the earth became fo hot as to burn the cables
by which veffels were fixed to the Ihore, and confumed
the planks, the oars, and even the fmall boats.
Pliny, the naturalift *, fpeaks of another fimilar * Lib. ij,
event which happened 30 or 40 years afterwards, in cap. ig6..
the
LIP [ 4° ]
lijj'an. tlie time of the war of the allied flates of Italy againft built
Rome. One of the iEolian iflands, fays he, was all
on fire as well as the fea j and that prodigy continued
to appear, till the fenate appealed, by a deputation, the
Wrath of the gods. From the time of that war, which
happened 86 years before the birth of our Saviour,
till the year 144 of our era, we have no account of
any eruption of thefe volcanoes : and from that period
again-, till the year 1444* we hear of no explofion
from them, that is, for the fpace of 1300 years. But,
at that time, both Sicily and the iEolian ifles were agi¬
tated by dreadful fhocks of earthquakes: the volcano
of thefe illes poured forth ftreams of lava with an aw¬
ful violence, and emitted a volume of flame and fmoke
which rofe to an amazing height. After that it dif-
charged enormous ftones which fell at the diftance of
more than fix miles.
A century later, in the year 1550, the fury of
this volcano was again renewed. The allies and Hones
difcharged from the crater filled up the llrait between
Volcano and Volcanello.
About two Centuries after that, in the year 1739,
there was a fixth eruption. The burftings of the vol¬
canic fire were attended with a noife fo dreadful, that
it was heard as far as Melazzo in Sicily.
Father Leandro Alberti fays, that on one of thofe
dreadful occafions, the women of Lipari, after im¬
ploring in vain all the faints, vowed to drink no
more wine if the volcano flioud fpare them. Their
giving up this fmall gratification was doubtlefs of
great fervice 5 yet the eruptions Hill continue, and
have even become more frequent fince that time.
Only 36 years intervened between this eruption and
that wdiich happened in the year 1775. The whole
ifland was then lhaken ; fubterraneous thunder was
heard ; and confiderable ftreams of flame, with fmoke,
ftones, and vitreous lava, iflued from the crater. Li¬
pari was covered over with alhes; and part of thefe
was conveyed by the wfinds all the way into Sicily.
Five years after, however, in the month of April 1780,
there iflued a new explofion from Volcano j the fmoke
was thick, the Ihocks conftant, and the fubterraneous
noife very frequent. So great wTas the confternation
among the inhabitants of Lipari on this occafion, that
the commander Deodati Dolomieu, who vifited thefe
illands not long after that event, informs us, that the
inhabitants in general, but elpecially the wmmen, de¬
voted themfelves as Haves to the fervice of the blefled
virgin ; and wore on their arms, as tokens of their fer-
vitude, fmall iron chains, which they ftill continue to
wear.
1 his a£l: of piety, however, was not fo efficacious
as the deputrytion of the fenate had been. For after
that deputation, more than 200 years paflfed before the
yEolian iiles were affliiled by any other eruption, at
leaft by any confiderable one : Whereas, in three years
after the ladies devoted themfelves in fo fubmiffive a
manner to the fervice of the virgin, the ifles of Li¬
pari were agitated anew' by that fatal earthquake
which ravaged Calabria, and part of Sicilly, on the
5th of February 1783.
The dry baths of St Calogero, in the ifland of Li¬
pari, are ftoves, where fulphureous exhalations, known
to be of a falutary nature, afcend out of the earth
by holes or fpiracles. A range of apartments are
L 1 p
around the place where the exhalations arife.
The heat is communicated through thofe apartments,
in fuch a way, that when entering at one end, you ad¬
vance towards the other, the heat ftill increafes upon
you till you gain the middle apartment, and again di-
miniflies in the fame manner as you proceed from the
middle to the other end of the range of chambers. In
confequence of this difpofition of thefe apartments,
the fick perfon can make choice of that temperature
which beft fuits the nature of his difeafe. There are a
few miferable huts and a fmall chapel for the accommo¬
dation of the people who repair to thefe baths. The
people of the place are ready to attend them. Phyfi-
cians likewife follow their patients thither, when the
difeafe is of fuch a nature as to render their attendance
requifite, and the patient rich enough to afford them
handfome fees : but there is no phyfician fettled in the
place. Befides thefe dry baths, there are baths of hot
w-ater diftinguifhed by the name of St Calogero's baths.
There are around them buildings fufficient to lodge a
confiderable number of fick people with their neceffary
attendants. At prefent, however, thofe buildings are
but in a bad Condition.
The baths confift of two halls*, one fquare, the other
round. The former is antique ; it has been built by
the Romans j it is arched with a cupola, and 12 feet
in diameter j it has been repairer^: The other is like¬
wife arched with a cupola both within and without.
The water comes very hot into the firft. It gufhes
up from among pieces of lava, which compofe a part
of the mountain at the foot of which thefe baths are
built. Thofe ftones remain in their natural ftate. All
that has been done is the railing of a fquare building
enclofing them. Within that building the fick per-
fons either fit down on the ftones, or immerfe them¬
felves in the intervening cavities which are filled with
water. They continue there for a certain time, and
approach nearer to, or remain at a farther diftance
from the fpring, according as their phyfician direfts.
The place ferves alfo as a ftove. The hot vapours
arifing from the water communicate to the furround¬
ing atmofphere a confiderable degree of heat. It is
indeed not inferior to that of the hot baths of Ter¬
mini, which owe their heat -to a fimilar caufe. In
thefe baths, therefore, a perfon can have the benefit
either of bathing in the hot water, or of expofing him-
felf to the vapour, the heat of which is more mode¬
rate. The bath before mentioned, under the appella¬
tion of dry bath, is alfo a ftove *, but the hot vapour
with which it is filled iflues diredtly from the vol¬
cano. The place of the bath is, however, at fuch a
diftance from the volcanic focus, that the heat is not
at all intolerable.
The mountain at the foot of which thefe baths are
fituated is round, and terminates at the fummit in a
rock of petrified afhes, which are very hard and of a
very fine grain. This petrification confifts of pretty
regular ftrata, and appears to have been greatly prior
in its origin to the adjacent rocks; which confift like¬
wife of aibes, but affies that have been depofited at a
much later period. From this rock there proceeds
likewife a ftream of hot water, by which fome mills in
the neighbourhood are moved.
It cannot but appear furprifing, that nature has
placed nearly on the fummit of a volcanic mountain
LIP [ 41 1 LIP
Lipari. fprings which fupply fo confiderable a quantity of wa-
v ter# r0 account foi* fuch a phenomenon would be
well worthy of fome ingenious naturalift. Nor are
thefe hot fprings all •, proceeding around the fame hill,
at about a mile’s ditlance, we find a fpring of cold
water rifing from the fummit of the fame rock, which
on the north-weft produces three hot fprings. The cold
water is very pleafant to drink, and much ufed both
by men and cattle.
Among thefe mountains there are many enormous
loofe maffes of lava, the appearance of which, M.
Houel informs us, naturally leads the obferver to take
notice, that the lava of the volcano of Lipari is of a
much greater diverfity of colours, and thofe richer
and more lively, than the lava of Vefuvius and ./Etna.
The lava of Lipari is in fome places, for feveral miles,
of a beautiful red colour. It contains likewife in great
abundance fmall black cryftallized fcoriae, as well as
the fmall white grains which are commonly found in
lava.
Among the eminences which overlook the city of
Lipari, there are fome rocks of a fpecies which is very
rare in Europe. Thefe are large mafles of vitrified
matter, which rife fix or eight feet above the furface
of the ground, and appear to extend to a great depth
under it. They exift, through that range of moun¬
tains, in enormous maffes, mixed with lavas of every
different colour, and always (landing detached and in-
fulated. Were they cut and followed under ground,
they ivould probably be found to exift in immenfe
quarries in the bowels of the earth. The glafs of
which they confift might be employed with great ad¬
vantage in manufactures. It is ready made, and might
be eafily purified. It is green, compact, and tranf-
parent.
The cultivation of the ground is the chief employ¬
ment of the inhabitants of Lipari. The poffeflion of
a fewr acres of land here gives a man great importance.
Parents, wdien they fettle their children, rather give
them money than any part of their lands.
More than two-thirds of the ifland is planted with
vines: three-fourths of the grapes which thefe produce
are dried, and fent moftly to London under the name
of paflbla. There are different forts of paffola : one
of thefe, called the black pajfolina, is prepared from a
particular kind of grape, of which the berries are un¬
commonly fmall ; and fold to Marfeilles, Holland, and
Triefte. The vines are in fmall arbours, wThich rife
only to the height of twro feet and a half above the
ground. Under thofe arbours there grow beans, gourds,
and other leguminous vegetables. In fb hot a climate,
the ftiade of the vines does not injure ' but proteft the
vegetables growing under it : they would otherwife
be withered by the heat of the fun.
The method of preparing paffola and paffolina is
curious enough : They firft make a lixivium of com¬
mon aftres ; after boiling this, they pafs it through a
cloth or a fieve*, they then put it again on the fire*, and
when it is obferved to boil hard, fuddenly immerfe the
grapes, but inftantly bring them out again, and ex*
pofe them to the fun to dry on broad frames of cane.
When fufliciently dry, the raifins are put into calks
and barrels to be fold and exported. The number of
cafks of different forts of mfins annually exported from
Lipari are ellimated at ic,oco.
Vot. XII. Part I.
This iiland likewife produces figs. There is fbmetdpotliymia
white malmfey and a little red wine exported from it. .11 .
About 60 or 80 years fince, fulphur was one of the , ^ ,
articles with which the inhabitants of this ifland fup-
plied foreign merchants. But that trade has been gi¬
ven up; from an idea which the Liparefe entertain,
that fulphur infedls the air fo as to iniure the fertility
of the vines. The fame prejudice prevails in Sicily,
but it feems to be ill founded.
There are courts of juftice in Lipari of the fame
powders and charadler with thofe in the cities of Sicily.
Caufes of more than ordinary importance are carried to
Palermo.
The ifland is entirely free from every kind of im-
pofition. The king receives nothing from it; becaufe
Count Roger anciently beftowmd on its bilhop all his
rights of royalty over Lipari. The bifhop there re¬
ceived annually from the inhabitants a tenth part of
the produtts of their lands. They afterwards, to pre¬
vent fraud, eftimated the value of that tithe for one
year 5 and on the condition of their paying in future a
fum of money equal to what that year’s tithe was va¬
lued at, he not only gave up his right to the tithe, but
alfo ceded to them a confiderable extent of land which
belonged to him.
In the archiepifcopal palace, and in the palace of
the Baron de Monizzio, there are fome noble pieces of
painting by Sicilian painters :—A St Peter, a St Ro-
falia, Jefus difputing with the jewiih debtors, the adul¬
terous woman, the incredulity of St Thomas.
LIPOTHYMIA, FAINTING, may arife from feve¬
ral caufes 5 as too violent exercife, fuppreflion of the v
menfes or other accuitomed evacuations, &c. See Me¬
dicine Index.
LIPPA, a town of Hungary, with a caftle. It
was taken by the Turks in 1 5^2; by the Imperialifts
in 1688 j and by the Turks again in 1691 *, who aban¬
doned it in 1675 ; after having demolhhed the fortifi¬
cations. It is feated on a mountain, in E. Long. 21.
55. N. Lat. 36. 3. _
LIPPE, the capital of a county of the fame name
in Germany, and the circle of Weftphalia. It is feat¬
ed on a river of the fame name, and was former'y the
refidence of the principal branch of the houfe of Lippe.
It is now* in the poffeffion of the king of Prulfia, and
carries on a good trade in preparing timber for build¬
ing veffels on the Rhine, with which it has a commu¬
nication by the river Lippe. The country round it is
unwholefome and marfliy. E. Long. 8. 12. N. Lat.
51* 43*
LIPPI, Lorenzo, a painter ofhiftoryand portraits,
was born in 1606, and learned the principles of paint¬
ing from Matteo Rofelli. He had an exquifite genius
for mufic and poetry, as wrell as for painting, and in
the latter his proficiency was lo great, that fome of
his compofitions in the hiftorical ftyle were taken for
thofe of Rofelli. However, growing at laft diffatisfied
with the manner of that mailer, he chofe the manner
of Santi di Titi, who was excellent both in defign and
invention, and appeared to have more of fimple nature
and truth in his compofitions than any other artift of
that time. At Florence Lippi painted many grand
defigns for the chapels and convents, by which he en¬
larged his reputation *, and at the court of Infpruck,
he painted a great number of portraits of the firft no-
F bility,
LIP [ 42 ] ' LIS
Xipllus bility, wbicb were defervedly admired. Yet, although
j J he was fond of imitating fimple nature without any em-
__ bellithments from invention, his wmrks are held in the
higheft efteem for the graceful airs of the heads, for
the correflnefs of his outline, and for the elegant dif-
pohtion of the figures. He died in 1664.
LIPSIUS, Justus, a learned critic, was born at
Ifch, a fmall village near Bruffels, in 1547. After
having diftinguilhed himfelf in polite literature, he be¬
came fecretary to Cardinal de Granvellan at Rome,
where the bell libraries were open to him ; and he
fpent much labour in collating the MSS. of ancient
authors. He lived 13 years at Leyden •, during which
he compofed and publilhed what he efieeins his bell
works; but fettled at Louvain, where he taught polite
literature with great reputation. He was remarkable
for unlleadinefs in religion, fiu£luating often between
the Protellants and Papifis; but he became finally a
bigotted catholic. He died at Louvain in 1606; and
his works are collefted in fix volumes folio.
LIQUEFACTION, an operation by which a folid
body is reduced into a liquid by the action of heat. See
Fluidity, Chemistry Index.
LIQUID, a body which has the property of fluidi¬
ty, as water, mercury, &c. See Fluid.
Liquid, among grammarians, is a name applied to
certain confonants oppofed to mutes. Thus 1, m, n,
and r, are liquids.
LIQUIDAMBAR, sweet-gum-tree, a genus of
plants, belonging to the monoecia clafs; and in the na¬
tural method ranking with thofe of which the order is
doubtful. See Botany Index.
LIQUOR, a name for any fluid fubflance of the
aqueous or fpirituous kind.
The principal beverage amongll the Jews, as well as
the Greeks and Romans, in their early flate, was wTa-
ter, milk, and the juices of various plants infufed
therein. For a long time, under the commonwealth
of Rome, wine was fo fcarce, that in their faerifices
to the gods the libations were made with milk only.
Wine did not become common there till A. U. C. 600,
when vines began to be planted.
Liquor of Flints. See Chemistry, N° 1450.
Smoking Liquor of Libavius. See Chemistry,
N° 1809.
Mineral Mnodyne Liquor of Hoffman. This is a
compofition of highly reflified fpirit of wine, vitriolic
ether, and a little of the dulcified oil of vitriol. See
Chemistry, N° 849.
LIQUORICE. See Glycyrrhiza, Botany and
Materia Medica Lndex.
LIRIODENDRON, the tulip tree, a genus of
plants belonging to the polyandria clafs, and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 5 2d order, Coadunatce.
See Botany Index.
LIS or Lys, John Vander, painter of hiftory,
landicapes, and converfations, was born at Oldenburgh
in 1570, but went to Haerlem to place himfelf as a
difciple under Henry Goltzius ; and as he was endowed
with great natural talents, he foon dillinguifhed him¬
felf in that fchool, and imitated the manner of his ma¬
iler with great fuccefs. He adhered to the fame ftyle
till he went to Italy ; where, having vifited Venice
and Rome, he ftudied the works of Titian, Tintoretto,
Paolo Veronefe, and Domenico Fetti, fo effe&ually,
that he improved his tafte and judgement, and altered tls,
his manner entirely. He foon received marks of public LUtxm.
approbation ; and his compofitions became univerfally v
admired for their good expreflion, for their lively and
natural colouring, and the fweetnefs and delicacy of
his pencil : although it mull be acknowledged, that he
could never totally divert himfelf of the ideas and tafte
peculiar to the Flemings. His fubjecrts ufually were
hiftories taken from the facred writings, or the repre-
fentations of rural fports, marriages, balls, and villagers
dancing, dreffed in Venetian habits ; all which lubje£ls
he painted in a fmall as well as a large fize, with a
number of figures, well defigned, and touched with a
great deal of delicacy. He was likewife accounted to
paint naked figures admirably, with natural and elegant
attitudes, and a very agreeable turn of the limbs.
A capital pidrture of this mailer is, Adam and Eve
lamenting the death of Abel; which is extremely ad¬
mired, not only for the expreflion, but alfo for the
beauty of the landfcape : and in the church of St Ni¬
cholas at Venice is another of his paintings, reprefent-
ing St Jerome in the defert, with a pen in his hand, and
his head turned to look at an angel, who is fuppoled
to be founding the laft trumpet. The colouring of
this picture is rather too red ; but it is defigned in a
fine ftyle, and charmingly penciled. The paintings of
this mafter are very rarely to be purchafed. He died
in 1629.
Ims, John Vander, of Breda, hiftorical painter, was
born at Breda about the year 1601, and became a dif¬
ciple of Cornelius Polemburg, whofe manner he imitated
with extraordinary exafhrefs, in the tint of his colouring,
his neatnefs of penci’fng, and the choice of his fubjefts.
There are fome paintings of this mailer’s hand, which,
though they appear to have fomewhat lefs freedom and
lightnefs of touch, are nearly equal to thofe of Polem¬
burg, and are frequently taken to be his. At Rotterdam,
in the pofieflion of Mr Biffchop, there is a delicate
painting reprefenting Diana in the bath, attended by~
her nymphs ; and his moft capital performance, in
England, is faid to be in the pofleflion of the vifcount
Middleton. The portrait of Vander Lis, painted by
himfelf, is in the pofleflion of Horace Walpole, Efq.
which is defcribed by that ingenious gentleman, as be¬
ing worked up equal to the fmoothnefs of enamel.
LISBON, the capital of the kingdom of Portugal,
fituated in the province of Eilremadura, on the banks
of the river Tagus, in W. Long. 9. 25. N. Lat. 38. 25.
It was anciently called Olifpo, Olijipfio^ and Ulyffpo,
which are fuppofed to be derived from the Phenician
Ulifubbo or Ohjippo, fignifying in that tongue a pleafant
bay, fuch as that on which this city Hands. It firli be¬
came confiderable in the reign of King Emmanuel; from
that time it has been the capital of the kingdom, the
refidence of its monarchs, the feat of the chief tribu¬
nals, and offices of the metropolitans, a noble univerfity,
and the receptacle of the richeft merchandife of the
Eaft and Weft Indies. Its air is excellent; being re-
freffied by the delightful fea breezes, and thofe of the
Tagus. The city extends for about two miles along
the Tagus; but its breadth is inconfiderable. Like old
Rome, it Hands on feven hills : but the ftreets in gene¬
ral are narrow and dirty, and fome of them are very
fteep: neither are they lighted at night. The churches,
in general, are very fine ; but the magnificence of the
chapel
.LIS [ 43 ] LIS
chapel royal is amazing. Here is one of the finefi:
harbours in the world ; and there were a great number
not only of fine churches and convents here, but alfo
of other public buildings, and particularly of royal pa¬
laces, and others belonging to the grandees j but the
greateft part of them, and of the city, were dellroyed
by a moft dreadful earthquake, on Nov. I. 1755. from
which it will require a long time to recover. The
inhabitants, before the earthquake, did not at moll
exceed 150,000. The government of it is lodged in
a council, confiding of a prefident, fix counfellors, and
other inferior officers. The harbour has water enough
for the larged diips, and room enough for 10,000 fail
without being crowded. For its fecurity, there is a
fort at the mouth of the river, on each fide, and a bar
that runs acrofs it, and is very dangerous to pafs with¬
out pilots. Higher up, at a place where the river is
confiderably contrafted, there is a fort called Torre de
Belem, or the Tower oj Belem, under whofe guns all
drips mud pafs in their way to the city ; and on the
other fide are feveral more forts. Before the earth¬
quake, mod of the private houfes were old and un¬
lightly, with lattice windows j and the number of con¬
vents and colleges amounted to 50, namely, 32 for
monks, and 18 for nuns. The king’s principal palace
dands on the river, and is large and commodious. Of
the hofpitals, that called the Great is obliged to re¬
ceive all perfons, of w’hat degree, nation, or religion
foever, without exception. At the village of Belem,
near Lilbon, is a noble hofpital for decayed gentlemen
who have ferved the king, and have not wherewithal
to maintain themfelves. That called the Houfe of Mercy
is alfo a noble charity. In the centre of the city,
upon one of the highell hills, is the cadle, wffiich com¬
mands the whole, being large and ancient, and having
always a garrifon of four regiments of foot. The
cathedral is a vad edifice of the Gothic kind, but
heavy and clumfy : it contains, however, great riches j
and is finely adorned within. The fquare called RoJJio is
large, and furrounded writh magnificent buildings.
The whole city is under the ecclefiadical jurifdidlion
of the patriarch, who was appointed in the year 17x7.
Here is alfo an archbidiop, who has, or at lead had,
before the ereftion of the patriarchate, a revenue of
40,000 crufadoes, or 6oocl. The univerfity, which
wras removed for fome time to Coimbra, but afterwards
redored to its ancient feat, makes a confiderable figure,
though much inferior to that of Coimbra.
LISBURN, a town of Ireland, in tha county of
Antrim and province of Ulder, 73 miles from Dublin.
It was burnt down about 50 years ago ; but is now
rebuilt in a neat and handfome manner, and has a large
linen manufasflory. It is feated on the river Laggan,
in W. Long. 6. 20. N. Lat. 54. 31. It gives title
of earl to the family of Vaughan, and formerly return¬
ed two members to parliament.
LISIEUX, a confiderable town of France, in Up¬
per Normandy, with a bidiop’s fee. The churches and
religious houfes, and the biffiop’s palace, are all very
handfome druftures. It is a trading place ; and is feat¬
ed at the confluence of the rivers Arbeck and Gaffi, in
E. Long. o. 20. N. Lat. 49. 11.
LISLE, a large, rich, handfome, and ftrong town
of French Flanders, of which it is the capital, with a
flrong caltle, and a citadel built by Vauban, and faid
to be the fined in Europe, as well as the bed; fortified, tfile.
The larged fquare, and the public buildings, are very *
handfome ; and they have manufactures of filks, cam¬
brics, and camblets, as well as other duffs,’ wdnch
have been brought to great perfection. It w’as taken
by the duke of Marlborough, after three months
fiege and the lofs of many thoufands of men, in 1708,
but reflored to the French by the treaty of Utrecht,
in confideration of their demoliffiing the fortifications,
of Dunkirk. It was befieged by the Audrians in 1792,
who on the 29th of September began a heavy cannon¬
ading ugainfl it, which continued inceffant till the 6th
of OClobtr, when they w-ere obliged to raife the fiege,
after having thrown into the city about 30,000 red-hot
balls, befides 6 00 bombs. It is feated on the river
Duele, 14 miles wed of Tournay, 32 fouth-w^ed of
Ghent, 37 north-wed of Mons, and 130 north of Paris.
E. Long. 3. 9. N. Lat. 50. 83.
Lisle, Jofeph Nicholas de, an eminent adrono-
mer and geographer, was born at Paris in the year
1668. His father having taught him the principles of
grammar, he afterwards attended leClures in the Maza¬
rine college, where he delivered his rhetorical exercifes
in 1706. A total eclipfe of the fun having taken
place on the 1 2th of March that year, his tafie for
mathematics was thus difeovered, and he wras accord-
ingly placed under a proper tutor, who taught him the
elements of geometry, fortification and mechanics j but
his favourite dudy was the fcience of adronomy.
In 1707 he was offered the place of an engineer at
Martinico, which made him acquainted with the art of
drawing, an acquifition which proved highly ufeful to
him in his geographical labours, and alfo in the dudy^
of adronomy. His father having got a copy of An
Account of a Voyage to the South fea from his foil’s
mafler, young de Lille was excited by the perufal of it
to the dudy of natural hiflory, and he began to make
colle&ions of infe&s, and Iketch their varieties j but
being afterwards perfuaded that fo extenfive a dudy,
requiring fuch immenfe colle£lions to be made as he
found in Aldrovandus, was wholly incompatible with
that unremitting attention which his favourite fcience
required, he relinquiffied it accordingly. The atten¬
tion he paid to aflronomical refearches was fo great,
that he was confidered as meriting the correfpondence
of fome of the ablefl adronomers of Europe at the early
age of 21. In 1709 he made a wooden quadrant,
which he divided with the utmod accuracy, and which
anfwered the intended purpofe in his early obfervations.
He likewife condrufted a table for M. Caffini, of the
right afeenfions and declinations, adapted to all the de¬
grees of latitude and longitude of the planets, and the
obliquity of the ecliptic ; this table was made ufe of by
M. Caffini in foretelling the occultations of the dars by
the moon.
De Lille being informed by Caffini in 1710 of .his
method of reprefenting an eclipfe of the fun, by the
projection of a terredrial parallel on a plane $ he in-
dantly conceived the idea of applying it to every part
of the earth, by means of a globe mounted and pre¬
pared for that purpofe- Such adronomers as he made
acquainted with his projeCl, conceived it to be imprac¬
ticable •, but when the machine was completed, they
bedowed the highefi encomiums on the noble invention.
The fird memorable obfervation made by de Lifle was
F 2 that
LIS [ 44 ] LIS
til at of the moon, on the 23d of January I 7 1 2, after
'”~v~ which his labours experienced fome interruption from
bodily indifpoiition. About this time the fit nation of
his father’s numerous family rendered it neceffary that
he fiiould provide for himfelf, fo that he was obliged to
make his aftronomical knowledge fubfervient to the ab-
furdities of afirology, receiving pecuniary prefents from
the regent for his fervices. He received alfo in 1715 the
grant of a penfion of 600 livres, on which occafion he
calculated tables of the m@on according to the Newto¬
nian theory, prior to Halley’s communications to him,
which were printed in 1719. De Lille was chofen a
member of the Academy of Sciences in 1714, on which
account his exertions were redoubled.
' In 1 7 20 he delivered a propofal to the academy for
afcertaining in France the figure of the earth, a defign
which was carried into execution fome years afterwards.
In 1723 he delivered to the fame academy a memoir
on the tranfits of Mercury, wherein a method of calcu¬
lating them was propofed by fciim, the way in which
they were to be obferved, and the inferences to be de¬
duced from thefe obfervations. Fie propofed the ufe
of the quadrant in obferving the tranfits of Venus and
Mercury, which has been found fuperior to any other
inftrument for that important purpofe, and is fanc-
tioned fince his day by the prafiice of the ableft aftro-
nomers.
Our dilfinguilhed philofopher came over to England
in the year 1724, where he became acquainted with
Newton and Halley, and had the honour of obtaining
their approbation. Newton made him a prefcnt of his
own portrait, and Halley gave him a copy of the tables
which he had publilhed in 1719. He was alfo created
a member of the Royal Society, and he enjoyed fimilar
honours from every literary fociety in Europe before
his death. In 1721 he received an invitation from
Peter the Great to go to Peterfhurgh, to fill the chair
of aftronomer in the Imperial Academy of Sciences.
On the death of that emperor, his fucceffor Catharine
renewed the invitation, offering him a confiderable pen¬
fion, of which he accepted, and, in 1726, fet out for
Peterfburgh, accompanied by his brother Lewis and M.
Vignon, who were to aft as his affiflants. He reached
Peterfburgh in the month of Oftober, and was efta-
blilhed in the obfervatory erefted by Peter the Great,
which he occupied for 21 years. It was in every
refpeft commodious, but extremely deficient in aftrono-
mical apparatus, which his own ingenuity and indefati¬
gable application in a great meafure fupplied.
A tranfit of Mercury over the fun’s difc was expeft-
ed in the year 1740, which would not be vifible in
Europe, and therefore de Lifle undertook a journey to
the diftant regions of Afia; but after travelling through
the inhofpitable wilds of Siberia, the cloudinefs of the
atmofphere prevented him from obferving the tranfit,—
a mortification which he endeavoured to fupport by his
geographical and phyfical remarks, and in drawing up
a defcription of the country. He conftrufted an in-
terefting map of Ruffia, affifted by his brother Lewis,
who was appointed to make obfervations in the moft
dillant parts of that immenfe empire. He was occafion-
ally employed for the long period of forty years, in
making meteorological obfervations, which he executed
with an accuracy almoft incredible.
4fter a number of difcouragements and difficulties,
and the irregular payment of his penfion, had been long Lifle.
experienced by dc Lifie at Peterfburgh, he returned
difgufted to his native place, and was chofen profeffor
of mathematics at the college-royal, where lie did the
molt effential fervice to the fciences, by the important
inflruftions which he gave to his numerous pupils,
many of whom became afterwards the molt diilinguuh-
ed charafters, fuch as M. M. de la Laude and Mef-
fier.
When the tranfit of Mercury over the fun was ea¬
gerly expefted in 1753 by the greateft aftronomers, de
Lifle publifhed an intereffing map of the world, repre-
fenting the effeft of Mercury’s parallaxes in different
countries, that fuch places might be known as were
proper for making thole obfervations on the tranfit as
might determine the diflance of the fun. As the ap¬
parent orbit of the planet traverfed nearly the centre of
the fun, de Lifle made ufe of this circumftance to de¬
termine the diameter of that luminary. The lait work
of our author which was inferted in the volumes of the
Lrench academy, was a memoir on the comet which
appeared in the year 1758, difeovered by a peafant in
the vicinity of Drefden.
It may perhaps be afferted with juflice, that the moft
important fervice which this great man rendered to af¬
tronomers was, his correftion of the double error of
Halley refpefting the tranfit of Venus, looked for in
the year 1761, as by this means he prevented many
learned men from undertaking long voyages in order
to obferve it. About the year 1754, de Lille was ap¬
pointed by the king of France, aftronomical geogra¬
pher to the marine, in which capacity he wTas to colleft
plans and journals of naval captains, to arrange them
methodically, and to make extrafts from them of what¬
ever might be beneficial to the fervice. About the
year 1758 he withdrew into quiet retirement at the ab¬
bey of St Genevieve, where much of his time was fpent
in devotional exercifes, and in afts of charity and bene¬
ficence. Still, however, he continued to profecute thofe
ftudies which had been fo dear to him during the earlier
part of his life; but in 1768 he wTas feized with a
fcorbutic complaint, of which he was cured by his me¬
dical friends ; but in the month of September the fame
year he was feized with a fpecies of apoplexy, which
carried him off on the nth day of that month, in the
81ft year of his age.
His extraordinary merit as a man of fcience may in
in fome meafure be gathered from this concife account
of his life; and as a citizen of the world his piety was
unaffefted, his morals pure, his integrity undeviatisg,
his fpirit generous and difinterefted, and his whole
manners highly amiable. The only publication of our
author’s, befides thofe already mentioned, confifted of
“ Memoirs illuftrative of the Hiftory of Aftronomy,”
in two volumes 4to.
Lisle, Sir John, a brave loyalift in the time of
the civil wars, was the fon of a bookfeller in London,
and received his education in the Netherlands. He
fignalized himfelf upon many occafions in the civil war,
particularly in the laft battle of Newbury ; where, in
the dufk of the evening, he led his men to the charge in
his fhirt, that his perlon might be more confpicuous.
The king, who w^as an eye-witnefs of his bravery,
knighted him on the field of battle. In 1648, he rofe
for his majefty in Effex; and was one of the royalifts.
who
LIS [ 45 ] LIS
Xifmore. who fo obftinately defended Colchefter, and who died
 v ' for the defence of it. This brave^ man having ten¬
derly embraced the corpfe of Sir Charles Lucas, his
departed friend, immediately presented himfelf to the
foldiers who flood ready for his execution. Thinking
that they flood at too great a diftance, he deliied chena
to come nearer : one of them faid, “ I warrant you,
Sir, we (hall hit you.” He replied with a Anile,
“ Friends, I have been nearer you when you have milled
me.” He was executed Auguft 28. 1648.
LISMORE, one of the Weftern iflands of Scot¬
land, feated at the mouth of Loch Linnne, an arm of
the fea in Argylelhire, navigable for the largeft (hips
to Fort William, which is in the country called Locha-
ber. This ifland is 10 miles in length by one in breadth j
and contains above icoo inhabitants. It abounds in
limeftone, wdiich forms a fine loamy and very fertile
foil, yielding rich crops of barley. I his Aland was for¬
merly the relidence of the bilhop of Argyle, from
which he was frequently named Epifcopus Lifmorenjis,
Great part of the cathedral yet remains, and part of
it is ftill employed as the parith church. 1 he bAhop’s
caftle (lands four miles from the cathedral; the walls
are yet pretty entire. There are fome veftiges of for¬
tified camps, and an old caftle with a ditch and draw¬
bridge, which, it is faid, were erected by the Danes.
Lismore, a borough town of Ireland, in the county
of Waterford, and province of Munfter, 100 miles
from Dublin ; N. Lit. 52. 5. W. Long. j. 50. It was
anciently called Lejfmore or Lios-more, i. e. the great
enclofure, or habitation ; it is now a bilhopric, and
formerly had an univerfity. St Carthagh or Mochuda,
in the beginning of the feventh century, founded an
abbey and fchool in this place, which in a (hort time
wras much reforted to, not only by the natives, but
alfo by the Rritons and Saxons, during the middle
ages. According to an ancient writer of the life of
St Carthagh, Lifmore was in general inhabited by
monks, half of it being an afylum into which no wo¬
man dared enter $ confifting entirely of cells and mo-
nafteries, the ruins of which, with feven churches, are
yet vifible. A caftle was built here by King John.
The file of Lifmore was in early ages denominated
magh /ha, or the “ chofen fhield,” being the fituation
of a dun or fort of the ancient chieftans of the Decies,
one of whom granted it to St Carthagh on his expul-
fion from the ahbey of Ratheny in Weftmeath. On
becoming an univerfity, Math Sgiath obtained the
name of Dunfginne, or the “ fort of the Salons,”
from the number of Saxons who reforted thereto : but
foon after, it was called Lios-more or Lefs-more, and
now Lifmore; the biftiopric of which was united to
that of Waterford in 1363, being 730 years after its
foundation. The public road to' Cork was formerly
through this place, and at that time it had a better
face of bufinefs. St Carthagh, who retired to this
place with fome of his religious in 636, to avoid the
fury of the then Iriflr monarch, tied his dilciples to a
moft ftridl rule of life ; they never were allowed the
ufe of flefti, fi(h, or fowl •, only the vegetables that
the ground produced at the expence of their own la¬
bour. Father Daniel, in his Hijioire Monajlique, men¬
tions one on the fame foundation in France, The
caftle here, which, as we have formerly mentioned, u7as
built by King John, was erefted in 1195 on the ruins
of the abbey of St Carthagh : it belonged to the duke Lifmore
of Devonihire, and gave birth to the great philofopher ^ |
Robert Boyle. In 1189 it was demoliftied by the 1 .1
IrAh, who took it by furprife. Being afterwards re-
edified, it was for many years an epifcopal refidence,
till Myler Magrath, archbhhop of Caftiel, and bfthop
of this fee, granted the manor of Lifmore to that not¬
ed fcholar and foldier Sir Walter Raleigh, in the reign
of Queen Elizabeth, at the yearly rent of 13I. 6s. 8d. *,
but that eftate was lopped oft' with his head in the
reign of King James I. After which it fell into the
hands of Sir Richard Boyle, who purchafed all Sir
Walter’s lands j he beautified the whole, and added
many buildings to it, moft of which w7ere burned down
in the IrAh rebellion ; at the breaking out of wdiich,
it was clofely befieged by 5000 Irifti commanded by
Sir Richard Beling, and was well defended by the
young Lord Broghill, third fon of the earl of Cork,
who obliged them to raife the fiege. The caftle is bold¬
ly feated on the verge of a rocky hill, rifing almoft per¬
pendicularly to a confiderable height over the river
Blackwater. The entrance is by an ancient and ve¬
nerable avenue of trees. Over the gate are the vener¬
able arms of the firft earl of Cork. Oppofite to the en¬
trance is a modern portico of Bath done, of the Doric
order, defigned by Inigo Jones. Moft of the buildings
have remained in ruins fince the era of the rebellion ;
but the feveral offices that make up twTo fides of the
fquare are kept in repair. At each angle is a tower,
the chief remains of its former magnificence. In O6I0-
ber 1783, the late duke of Rutland, then lord lieuten¬
ant of Ireland, whilll on a tour in Munfter, held a
council in, and iflued proclamations from this caftle.
The cathedral is ftill pretty well kept in repair. Here
is a fine bridge over the river Blackwater, eredled at a
very great expence by the duke of Devonftiire : this
bridge is remarkable for the extent of the principal
arch, the fpan of it being 102 feet. Below the town
is a rich fiftiery for falmon, which is the greateft branch
of trade here. Though this place is at prefent much
reduced, yet Cambrenfis informs us, that, not many
years after the conqueft, this w7as a very rich city, and
held out fome time againft the Englifti, who took it at
laft by ftorm, and gained rich plunder here, enough to
load 16 fail of (hips.
LISSA, an Aland in the gulf of Venice, on the coafl
of Dalmatia, belonging to the Venetians, where they
have a fiftiery of fardines and anchovies. It produces
excellent wine, and is 70 miles weft of Ragufa. E.
Long. 17. o. N. Lat. 43. 22.
Lissa, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Pofna,
of which it is the capital. E. Long. 16. o. N. Lat.
32* I5*
Lissa, a village of Shelia, 16 miles from Rreflau, re¬
markable for a battle fought between the Pruffians and
the Auftrians on the 15th of December 1757, when
the latter were entirely defeated.
LISSUS, in Ancient Geography, the laft town of
Illyricum, towards Macedonia, lituated on the Dtilo.
It had a capacious port, the work of Dionyfius the
Tyrant, who led the colony thither, enlarged and wall¬
ed it round, (Diodorus Siculus.) Now called AleJJio,
in Albania, on the Drino, near the gulf of Venice. E.
Long. 20. N. Lat. 42.
LIST, in commerce, the border of cloth or fluffy
fer.vinu
Lift.
Hlackjl.
Comment.
* See Re-
'Oenue.
L I S • [. 46 ] LIT
ferving not only to {how their quality, but to preferve
them from being torn in the operations of fulling, dying,
&r.— Lift is ufed on various occaftons; but chiefly by
gardeners for fecuring their wall-trees.
List, in ArchiteBure, a little fquare moulding, other-
wife called zfillet, /iftel, &c. See Architecture.
List, is alfo ufed, to lignify the enclofed field or
ground wherein the ancient knights held their iufts
and combats. It was fo called, as being hemmed
round with pales, barriers, or ftakes, as with a lift.
Some of thefe were double, one for each cavalier;
which kept them apart, fo that they could not come
nearer each other than a fpear’s length. See Just,
Tournament, Duel, &c.
Civil List, in the Britifh polity. The expences
defrayed by the civil lift are thofe that in any ftiape re¬
late to civil government; as, the expences of the houfe-
hold ; all falaries to^ofEcers of ftate, to the judges, and
every one of the king’s fervants, the appointments to
foreign ambaftadors ; the maintenance of the queen and
royal family; the king’s private expences, or privy-
purfe *, and other very numerous outgoings, as fecret-
fervice money, penfions, and other bounties: which
fometimes have fo far exceeded the revenues appointed
for that purpofe, that application has been made to
parliament to difcharge the debts contrafled on the ci¬
vil lift j as particularly in 1724, when one million was
granted for that purpofe by th« ftatute 11 Geo. I. c. 17.
and, in 1769, when half a million was appropriated to
the like ufes by the ftatute 9 Geo. III. c. 34.
The civil lift is indeed properly the whole of the
king’s revenue in his own diftinft capacity •, the reft
being rather the revenue of the public, or its creditors,
though collefted and diftributed again in the name
and by the officers of the crown : it now {landing in
the fame place, as the hereditary income did formerly j
and as that has gradually diminiftied, the parliamen¬
tary appointments have increafed. The whole revenue
of Queen Elizabeth did not amount to more than
6oo,oool. a-year: that of King Charles I. was 8oo,ocol.
and the revenue voted for King Charles II. was
i,zoo,oool. though complaints were made (in the firft
years at leaft) that it did not amount to fo much. But
it mufi: be obferved, that under thefe fums were includ¬
ed all manner of public expences 5 among which Lord
Clarendon, in his fpeech to the parliament, computed
that the charge of the navy and land forces amounted
annually to 8oo,oool. which was ten times more than
before the former troubles. The fame revenue, fubjefl
to the fame charges, was fettled on King James II. :
but by the increafe of trade, and more frugal manage¬
ment, it amounted on an average to 1,500,000k per
annum, (befides other additional cuftoms granted by
parliament, which produced an annual revenue of
400,000!.), out of which his fleet and army were main¬
tained at the yearly expence of 1,100,000k After
the Revolution, when the parliament took into its own
hands the annual fupport of the forces both maritime
and military, a civil lift revenue was fettled on the new
king and queen, amounting, with the hereditary du¬
ties, to 700,000k per annum ; and the fame was con¬
tinued to Queen Anne and King George I. That of
King George II. wras nominally augmented to 800,cool*,
and in fait was confiderably more : but that of his pre-
fent majefty is exprefsly limited to that fum $ though
2
loo.ocoh hath been flnce added. And upon the whole,
it is doubtlefs much better for the crown, and alfo for
the people, to have the revenue fettled upon the mo¬
dern footing rather than the ancient. Tor the crown,
becaufe it is more certain, and collected with greater
eafe 5 for the people, becaufe they are now delivered
from (the feudal hardftiips, and other odious branches
of the prerogative. And though complaints have iome-
times been made of the increafe of the civil lift, vet if
wre confider the fums that have been formerly granted,
the limited extent under which it is now eftabliihed,
the revenues and prerogatives given up in lieu of it by
the crown, the numerous branches of the prefent royal
familyq and (above all) the diminution of the value of
money compared with what it was worth in the laft
century, we muft acknowledge thefe complaints to be
void of any rational foundation j and that it is impof-
fible to fupport that dignity, which a king of Great
Britain ftiould maintain, with an income in any degree
lefs than what is now eftabliflied by parliament. See
Revenue.
Lift
Litana
Silva.
To List or Enli/l Soldiers, to retain and enroll
men as foldiers, either as volunteers, or by a kind of
compulflon. Perfons lifted muft be carried within four
days, but not fooner than 24 hours after, before the
nextjuftice of peace of any county, riding, city, or
place, or chief magiftrate of any city or town corporate
(not being an officer in the army) ; and if before fuch
juftice or magiftrate they diflent from fuch enlifting, and
return the enlifting money, and alfo 2© {hillings in lieu
of all charges expended on them, they are to be dif-
charged. But perfons refuftng or negledling to return
and pay fuch money wdthin 24 hours, {hall be deemed
as duly lifted as if they had affented thereto before the
proper magiftrate ; and they {hall, in that cafe, be
obliged to take the oath, or, upon refufal, they {hall
be confined by the officer who lifted them till they do
take it.
LISTER, Dr Martin, an eminent Englilh phyT-
fician and naturalift, was born in 1638, and educated
at Cambridge. He afterwards travelled into France 5
and at his return pra£tifed phyfic at York, and after¬
wards at London. In 1683 he was created doftor of
phyfic, and became fellow of the College of Phyftcians
in London. In 1698, he attended the earl of Port¬
land in his embafly from King William III. to the court
of France; of which journey he publifhed an account
at his return, and was afterwards phyfician to Queen
Anne. He alfo publiftied, 1. Hi/loria animalium Aft-
glia, qViarto. 2. Concbyliorum fynopfis, folio. 3. Cock¬
le arum et limachum exercitatio anatomica, 4 vols. 8vo.
4. Many pieces in the Philofophical Tranfaclions j and
other w'orks.
LlSTOWEL, a parifti, alfo a poll and fair town,
of Ireland, in the county of Kerry and province of
Munfter, 131 miles from Dublin, anciently Lis Tua-
thal, i. e. “ the fort of Tuathal,” who w'as exiled in the
ift century, but returned 5 and his life forms a brilliant
era in Irifh hiftory. Near this are the ruins of a
caftle, pleafantly fituatcd on the river Feale : it wras
taken in November i6co, by Sir Charles Wilmot, be¬
ing then held out for Lord Kerry againft Queen Eliza¬
beth. Five miles beyond Liftowel are the ruins of a
church. The fairs are three in the year.
I.IT ANA Silva, in Ancient Geography, a wood
of
\ ^
LIT [ 47 1 LIT
Lita.ny, t^c T^on, in G«iliia Togata, or Ciipadana, where
Li: Sfeld. the Romans, under L. Pofthurnius Albinus (whofe
' v“ the Boii cut off, and carried in triumph into their
mod: facred temple), had a great defeat ; of twenty-
five thoufanl fcarcely ten efcaping (Livy). Hol-
ffenius conjedures, that this happened above the
fprings of the Scultenna, in a part of the Appen-
nine, between Cerlinianum and Mutina. Now Selva
di Lugo.
LITANY, a folemn form of fupplication to God,
in which tfe prieft utters fome things fit to be prayed
for, and the people join in their interceflion, faying, we
befeech thee to hear us, good Lord, &c. rl he word
comes from the Greek “ fupphcation j” of
\t}einvv, “ I befeech.”
At firff the ufe of litanies was not fixed to any dat¬
ed time, but were only employed as exigencies re¬
quired. They were obferved, in imitation of the Ni-
nevites, with ardent fupplications and fadings, to avert
the threatening judgements ot fire, earthquakes, inun¬
dations, or hoftile invafions. About the year 400, li¬
tanies began to be ufed in proceffions, the people
walking barefoot, and repeating them with great de¬
votion ; and it is pretended, that by this means feveral
counti es were delivered from great calamities. I he
days on which thefe were ufed were called rogation
days: thefe were appointed by the canons of different
councils, till it was decreed by the council of Toledo,
that they Ihould be ufed every month throughout the
year 5 and thus by degrees they came to be ufed week¬
ly on Wednefdays and Fridays, the ancient ftationary
days for falling. To thefe days the rubric of our
church has added Sundays, as being the greatel! days
for affembling at divine fervice. Before the laff review
of the common prayer, tha litany was a diftindt fervice
by itfelf, and ufed fome time after the morning prayer
was over •, at prefent it is made one office with the
morning fervice, being ordered to be read after the
third colledl: for grace, inftead of the interceffional
prayers in the daily fervice.
LITCHFIELD, a city of Staffordlhire, in Eng¬
land, 1 1 7 miles from London. It Hands low, about
three miles from the Trent : and its ancient name is
faid to have been Licidjicld, fignifying, “ a field of
carcaffes,” from a great number of Chriftians having,
as it is pretended, fuffered martyrdom here in the per-
fccution under Dioclefian. In the Saxons time, it
was a biffioprick for a ffiort fpace ; and is now, toge¬
ther with Coventry, a bilhoprick. It is divided into
two parts by a rivulet and a kind of lhallowr lake, over
which are two caufeways wuth lluices. It is a long
ftraggling place •, but has feme very handlome houfes,
and well paved clean ftreets. That part on the fouth
fide of the rivulet is called the city, and the other the
clofe. The city is much the largeft, and contains feve¬
ral public llrudiures. It was incorporated by Edw. VI.
with the name of bailiffs and burgeffes; and is both a
town and county, governed by 2 bailiffs chofen yearly
out of 24 burgeffes, a recorder, a fheriff, a fteward, and
other officers. The city has power of life and death
within their jurifdi&ion, a court of record, and a pie¬
powder court. Here is a gaol both for debtors and
felons, a free fchool, and a pretty large well endowed
hofpital, for a mafter and 12 brethren. The county
of the city is 10 or 1 2 miles in compafs, which the
fheriff rides yearly on the 8th of September, and then
feafts the corporation and neighbouring gentry. The
clofe is fo called from its being encloied with a wail
and a deep dry ditch on all fides except towards the
city, where it is defended by a gre?.t lake or marTh
formed by its brook. The cathedral, which Hands in
the clofe, w'as originally built by Ofwius king of Nor¬
thumberland about 300. It was rebuilt and enlarged
by Offa king of Mercia in 766. In 1148 was rebuilt,
and greatly enlarged in 1296. At the reformation,
Coventry was divided from it. In the civil wars its
fpire was deflroyed, and it converted to a liable. In
1776 a beautiful painted window, by the benefa&ion
of Dr Adenbrook, has been fet up at the wellern end
of the cathedral. In the civil wars it was feveral times
taken and retaken, and thereby fuffered much 5 but
was fo repaired after the reftoration, at the expence of
2o,oool. that it was one of the faireft and nobleft
ftruefures of the kind in England. It is walled in like
a caftle, and Hands fo high as to be feen 10 miles round.
It is 430 feet long, of which the choir is no, and the
breadth in the broadeH place 80. Its portico is hard -
ly to be paralleled in England. There were, till lately,
26 flataes of the prophet', apoffles, kings of Judah,
and fome kings of this land, in a row above it, as big
as the life ; and on the top, at each corner of the por¬
tico, is a Hately fpire, befides a fine high ffeeple on the
middle of the church. The choir is paved in great
part with alabaffer and cannel coal, in imitation ot
black and white marble. In 1789 it underwent a
general repair, when the maffive groined arch betwixt
tbe well end of the church and the tranfept, which
had forced the fide wall out of its perpendicular, was
removed. The prebendaries Halls, which are thought
to be the beff in England, were moff of them re-ere61-
ed at the charge of the country gentlemen, whofe
names and arms are painted at the top of the Halls.
The north door is extremely rich in fculpture, but
much injured by time. The body which is fupported
by pillars formed of numbers of llender columns, has
lately had its decayed leaden roof replaced by a neat
Hated covering. The choir merits attention on ac¬
count of the elegant fculpture about the windows,
and the embattled gallery that runs beneath them ; to
which the altarpiece of Grecian architefture but ill
correfponds; behind which is Mary’s chapel, divided
from it by a moft elegant Hone Ikreen of beautiful work-
manfhip. Here Hood St Chad’s ffirine, wffiich coft
2000I. The charter houfe is an octagon room. In
the fame clofe are the palaces of the biffiop and dean,
and the prebendaries houfes in a court on the hill.
Here are three other churches j one of which, St Mi¬
chael’s, has a churchyard of 6 or 7 acres. There was
a caffle here, long fince deffroyed : and ancient camps
have been difeovered in its environs. In the neigh¬
bourhood are frequent horfe races. The markets there
are on Tuefday and Friday, and fix fairs in the year.
By the late inland navigation, this place has commu¬
nication with the rivers Merfey, Dee, Kibble, Oufe,
Trent, Darwent, Severn, Humber, Thames, Avon,
&c. which navigation, including its windings, extends
above 500 miles in the counties of Lincoln, Notting¬
ham, York, Lancaffer, Weffmoreland, Cheffer, War¬
wick,
Litchfield.
LIT [ 48 1 LIT
Literary w;tk, Leiccfter, Oxford, Worcefter, 5cc. Litchfield
Literature, t0 .
——y——> l^iiJLKAKY, any thing belonging to Litera¬
ture.
Literary Property, or Copy Right. See Copy Right.
LITERATI (letrados, “ lettered”), an epithet gi¬
ven to fiich perfons among the Chinefe as are able to
read and write their language. The literati alone are
capable of being made mandarins.
Literati, is alfo the name of a particular fe<51,
either in religion, philofophy, or politics, confiding
principally of the learned men of that country j among
whom it is called i. e. “ learned.”
It had its rife in the year of Chrift 1400, when the
emperor, to awaken the native afie£lion of the people
for knowledge, which had been quite baniflied by the
preceding civil wars among them, and to, ftir up emu¬
lation among the mandarins, chofe out 42 of the ableft
among their doftors, to whom he gave a commiffion to
compofe a body of dodrine agreeable to that of the
ancients, which was then become the rule or ftandard
of the learned. The delegates applied themfelves to
the bufinefs with very great attention : but fome fancied
them rather to have wrefted the dodrine of the ancients,
to make it confift with theirs, than to have built up
theirs on the model of the ancients.
They fpeak of the Deity, as if it were no more than
mere nature or the natural power or virtue that pro¬
duces, difpofes, and preferves, the feveral parts of the
univerfe. It is, fay they, a pure, per fed principle,
_ without beginning or end j it is the fource of all things,
the effence of every being, and that which determines
it to be what it is. They make God the foul of the
world: they fay, he is diffufed through all matter,
and produces all the changes that happen there. In
Ihort, it is not eafy to determine, whether they refolve
God into nature, or lift up nature into God j for
they afcribe to it many of thofe things which we at¬
tribute to God.
This dodrine, in lieu of the idolatry that prevailed
before, introduced a refined kind of atheifm. The
work, being compofed by fo many perfons of learning
and parts, and approved by the emperor himfelf, was
received w ith infinite applaufe by all the people. Many
were pleafed with it, becaufe it feemed to fubvert all
religion ; others approved it, becaufe the little religion
that it left them could not give them much trouble.
And thus was formed the fed of the Literati : which
confifts of the maintainers and adherents to this doc¬
trine.
The court, the mandarins, and the perfons of for¬
tune and quality, &c. are generally retainers to it j but
a great part of the common people ftill hold to their
wrorfhip of idols.
The literati freely tolerate the Mahometans, becaufe'
they adore, with them, the King of heaven, and Au-
t hor of nature ; but they bear a perfed averfion to all
forts of idolaters among them : and it was once re-
folved to extirpate them. But the diforder this w^ould
have occafioned in the empire prevented it 5 they now7
content themfelves with condemning them, in general,
as herefies; which they do folemnly every year at Pe¬
kin.
LITERATURE denotes learning or fkill in let¬
ters.
3
LITERNUM. See Linternum. Litemtua
Til IIANTHRAX, or Pir-Coal, is a black or |l
brown, laminated, bituminous fubftance ; not very ea- ^kho-
fxly inflammable, but, when once inflamed, burns long-, ma'ltia‘ ,
er and more intensely th^n any other fubflance. See v
Mineralogy Index.
LITHARGE, a preparation of lead, ufually in
form of foft flakes, of a yellowilh reddilh colour. If
calcined lead be urged with a hafty fire, it melts into
the appearance of oil, and on cooling concretes into
litharge.. Gieateft part of the litharge met with in
the (hops is produced in the purification of filver from
lead, and the refining of gold and filver by means of
this metal : accor ding to the degree of fire and other
circumftances, ; proves of a pale or deep colour : the
firfl; has been commonly#called litharge of Jilver, the
other litharge of gold. See Lead, Chemistry Index.
LIT HGOW, William, a Scotfman, wdiofe luffer-
ings by imprifonment and torture at Malaga, and
whofe travels, on foot, over Europe, Alia, and Afri¬
ca, feem to raife him almofi. to the rank of a martyr
and a hero, publilhed an account of his peregrinations
and adventures. Though the author deals much in
the marvellous, the horrid account of the ilrange cruel¬
ties of which, he tells us, he was the fubjeft, have,
however, an air of truth. Soon after his arrival in
England from Malaga, he w’as carried to Theobald’s
on a feather-bed, that King James might be an eye-
witnefs of his martyred anatomy, by which he means
his wretched body, mangled and reduced to a fkeleton.
The whole court crowded to fee him ; and his majefty
ordered him to be taken care of, and he was twice
fent to Bath at his expence. By the king’s command
he applied to Gondamor, the Spanifh ambaffador, for
the recovery of the money and other things of value
which the governor of Malaga had taken from him,
and for 1000I. for his fupport. He wras promifed
a full reparation for the damage he bad fuftained : but
the perfidious minifter never performed his promife.
When he was upon the point of leaving England,
Lithgow upbraided him with the breach of his word
in the prefence-chamber, before feveral gentlemen of
the court. This occafioned their fighting upon the
fpot; and the ambaffador, as the traveller oddly ex-
prefles it, had his fiftula (with which diforder he was
affli&ed) contrabanded with his fill. The unfortunate
Lithgow, who was generally condemned for his fpi-
rited behaviour, was fent to the Marftialfea, where he
continued a prifoner nine months. At the conclufion
of the oflavo edition of his Travels he informs us,
that, in his three voyages, “ his painful feet have tra¬
ced over (befides paffages of feas and rivers) 36,000
and odd miles, which draw'eth near to twice the cir¬
cumference of the whole earth.” Here the marvellous
feems to rife to the incredible j and to fet him, in
point of veracity, below Coryat, whom it is neverthe-
lefs certain that he far outwalked. His defcriptiop of
Ireland is whimfical and curious. This, together with
the narrative of his fufferings, is reprinted in Morgan’s
Phoenix Britannicus.
LITHIASIS, or Stone. See Medicine Index.
LITKOMANTIA, in antiquity, a fpecies of di¬
vination performed with Hones. Sometimes the ftone
called f derites was ufed : this they wTafhed in fpring-
w?ater in the night by candle-light j the perfon that
confulted
LIT [ 49 ] ' LIT
Lithontrip- confulted it was to be purified from all manner cf pol-
tics luticn, and to have his face covered : this done, he
, i 1! . repeated divine prayers, and placed certain characters
jn an appointed order j and then the Hone moved of
itfelf, and in a foft gentle murmur, or (as fome fay)
in a voice like that of a child, returned an anfwer.
By a done of this nature, Helenus is reported to have
foretold the dedruclion of Troy.
LITHONTRIPTICS (from Xt6es “ a done,” and
“ to break”) ; an epithet for medicines that
are fuppofed to break the done in the bladder. Though
the different dones that are generated in the human
bladder require different folvents when out of the bo-
dv ; and though art hath not yet afforded a medicine
which, when injedted into the bladder, will, without
injury thereto, diffolve the done therein lodged ; it
cannot thence be concluded, that there are no lithon-
triptic medicines. It may be here obferved, that one
folvent affedls one fubjedl, but hath no effedl on ano¬
ther *, fo a folvent may yet be met with that will de-
llroy the done, and not hurt the human body. The
water into which the boiled white of egg diffolves will
liquefy myrrh, but may be put into the human eye
without cauiing any uneafinefs.
Soap ley taken at fird in fmall dofes in broth that
is freed from all its fat, fucceeds in mod cafes which
require an alkaline folvent. The patient may begin
with 20 drops, and gradually increafe the dofe as he
is able j and by repeating it three times a-day for fix,
eight, or twelve months, the widied-for effedls often
follow.
LITHOPHYTA, the name of Linnaeus’s third
order of vermes. See Helmintholocy In^/ex.
LITHOSPERMUM, CROMWELL, a genus of plants
belonging to the pentandria clafs ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 41ft order, Afpcrifolue. See
Botany Index.
L1TH0STR0T0N, among the Romans, was a
pavement of mofaic work, confifiing of fmall pieces
of cut marble of different kinds and colours, fird ufed
in the time of Sylla, who made one at Praenede in the
temple of Fortune, and afterwards in private houfes 5
and were brought to fuch perfection, that they exhibit¬
ed mod lively reprefentations of nature, with all the ac¬
curacy of the fined painting.
LITHOTOMY, in Surgery, the operation of cut¬
ting for the done. See Surgery Index.
LITHUANIA, an extenfive province of Poland.
By the natives it is called Letwa, and has Great Po¬
land and Rudla on the wed ; part of Mufcovy on the
ead ; Livonia, the Baltic iea, and part of Mufcovy,
on the north ; Red Rudia, Volhinia, and Podolia, on
the fouth; and the Ukraine on the fouth-ead. Its
length is faid to be about 360, and its breadth 340
miles *, but it is much indented both ways. Lithuania
was anciently overrun with wood 5 and there are dill
many foreds in it, which yield a great deal of honey,
wax, pitch, tar, and timber ; and abound with wild
boars, buffaloes, elks, wild horfes, wild affes, uri, and
woodcocks. 'The lakes are alfo numerous, and wTell
dored with fifh : but the air, by reafon of thefe foreds
and lakes, is faid to be thick and foggy. The country
produces a great deal of buck wheat and other corn 5
the padures are luxuriant, and the docks and herds nu-
mnerous : fo that, notwithdanding agriculture is much
VOL. XII. Part I.
neglected, but provifions are exceeding cheap, and money Ltmus,
fo fcarce, that 10 per cent, is the common intered. The ,
principal nobility have large edates, and live in great
pomp and fplendour, generally retaining fome hundreds
of thofe that are poor, in quality of domeftics. The
edablidied religion is Popery ; but Lutherans, Calvi-
nids, Jews, Turks, Greeks, and Socinians, are very
numerous. Lithuania was governed by its own dukes
till it was united to Poland, towards the end of the
14th century, when the great duke Jagello married
Hedwig, the dowager of Louis king of Poland and
Hungary. It had even dukes after that, but they
ivere fubordinate to the king •, and at this day, though
one diet ferves for both countries, yet each has its
peculiar lawrs, cudorcs, dialed!, and privileges. In a
diet held at Lublin in 1569, it was more clofely united
to Poland than it had been before j and it was enadled,
that both countries, for the future, diould form but one
date under the fame prince. As to their courts of juf-
tice, the tenth part of what is adjudged in all roal ac¬
tions goes always to the judge’s box, and is immediate¬
ly paid in court j and in perfonal adlions he claims
half the damages given. A nobleman is only fined for
murder, as in Poland. The dialed! is a language of
the Sclavonic ; and they fpeak here, as in Poland, a
barbarous kind of Latin. Lithuania is divided into
nine palatinates. Another divifion is into Lithuania
properly fo called, and Lithuanian Rudxa. Some alfo
comprehend under it Samogitia and Courland, which is
a fief of Poland.
LITMUS, or Lacmus, in the arts, is a blue pig¬
ment, formed from archil. It is brought from Hol¬
land at a cheap rate $ but may be prepared by adding
quicklime and putrified urine, or fpirit of urine ditli’-
led from lime, to the archil previoufly bruifed by grind¬
ing. The mixture having cooled, and the fluid fuffer-
ed to evaporate, becomes a mafs of the confidence of a
pafte, which is laid on boards to dry in fquare lumps. It
is only ufed in miniature paintings, and cannot be well
depended on, becaufe the leaft approach oi acid changes
it inftantly from blue to red. The heft litmus is very
apt to change and fly.
LIFTER (lediica), a kind of vehicle borne upon
fhafts ; anciently efteemed the rnoft eafy and genteel
way of carriage. Du Cange derives the word from the
barbarous Latin leBeria “ draw or bedding for beafts.”
Others will rather have it come from leBus “ bed
there being ordinarily a quilt and a pillow to a litter in
the fame manner as to a bed.
Pliny calls the litter the traveller's chamber ; it was
much in ufe among the Romans, among whom it was
borne by Oaves kept for that purpofe ; as it ftill conti¬
nues to be in the eaft, where it is called a palanquin—
The Roman leclica, made to be borne hy four men, was
called tetraphorum ; that borne by fix hexaphorum ; and
that borne by eight oSlaphorum.
The invention of litters, according to Cicero, w'as
owing to the kings of Bithynia : in the time of Tiberius
they were become very frequent at Rome, as appears
from Seneca j and even flaves themfelves were borne in
them, though never by more than two perfons, where¬
as men of quality had fix or eight.
Litter alfo denotes a parcel of dry old draw put on
the floor of a horfe’s Hall for him to lie down and reft
upon. When a horfe comes tired into a liable, frefh
G liuer
Litt'Ietrn,
Liturgy.
LIT [5°
litter has the virtue of making him ftale immediately.
I This is known to be a very great advantage to a horfe
' in a tired fiate } and when the litter is old and dirty, it
never has any fuch effect upon him. If the owners knew
how refrefhing it is for a horfe to difeharge his urine
on liis return from labour, they would be more care-
f’ul of giving them all means and occafions of it than
they are. This ftaling after fatigue prevents thofe ob-
ftruflions in the neck of the bladder or urinary paf-
lages which horfes are too fubjefl to.
LITTLETON, Sir Thomas, judge of the com¬
mon pleas, wTas the eldeit Ion of Ihomas \\ etlcote,
Efq. of the county of Devon, by Elizabeth, lole
heirefs of Thomas ’Littleton of Frankley in Wor-
cefterftiire, at whofe requeft he took the name and
arms of that family. He was educated at one of our
univerfities, probably at Cambridge. Thence he re¬
moved to the Inner Temple, where he became one of
the readers; and was afterwards, by Henry VI. made
ifeward or judge of the court of the palace, or mar-
fhalfea of the king’s houfehold. In 1455, the thirty-
third of that reign, he was appointed king’s ferjeant,
and rode the northern circuit as judge of adize. In
J462, the fecond of Edward IV, he obtained a par¬
don from the crown j and, in 1466, w’as appointed
one of the judges of the common pleas, and rode the
Northamptonfhire circuit. In the year 1474 w^s»
with many of the firft nobility, created knight of tne
Bath. He died in 1481 > and was buried in the ca¬
thedral church of Worcefter, where a marble tomb,
with his ftatue upon it, was erefted to his memo¬
ry. As to his charafter as a lawyer, it is fufficient
to inform the reader, that he was the author of the
Treatife upon Tenures, on which Sir Edward Coke
wrote a comment, well known by the title of Coke
upon Littleton.
Littleton, Adam, defeended from an ancient
family in Shropfhire, was born in 16 27, educated at
Wellminfter fchool, and went to Oxford a fludent of
Chrift-church, whence he was ejeaed by the parlia¬
ment vifitors in 1648. Soon after, he became ufher
of Weftminfter fchool, and in 1658 was made fecond
inafler of Weftminfter fchool. After the relloration
he taught a fchool at Chelfea in Middlefex, of which
church he was admitted reaor in the year 1664. In
1670 he accumulated the degrees in divinity, being
then chaplain in ordinary to his majefty. In 1674, he
became prebendary of Weftminfter, of which church
he was afterwards iub-dean. Befide the well-known
Latin and Englijl Diftionary, he publifhed feveral
other works. He died in 1694, and was interred at
Chelfea. He was an univerfal fcholar 5 and extremely
charitable, humane, and eafy of accefs.
LITURGY, denotes all the cerempnies in general
belonging to divine fervice.
The word comes from the Greek “ fervice,
public miniftry}” formed of Tmros “ public,” and sgye»
** work.”
In a more reftrained fignification, liturgy is ufed a-
mong the Romanifts to fignify the mafs ; and among
us the common prayer.
All who have written on liturgies agree, that in the
primitive days divine fervice was exceedingly fimple,
only clogged with a very few ceremonies, and confift-
1kg of but a finall number of prayers ; but, by degrees,
1
L I T
they increafed the number of external deremonies, and Liturgyr
added new prayers, to make the office look more awful Lituu...
and venerable to the people. At length things tvere
carried to fuch a pitch, that a regulation became ne-
ccffary ; and it was found proper to put the fervice,
and the manner of performing it, into writing *, and
this was what they called a liturgy.
Liturgies have been different at different times, and
in different countries. We have the liturgy of St Chry-
foftom, that of St Peter, of St James, the liturgy of
St Baiil, the Armenian liturgy, the liturgy of the
Maronites, of the 'Cophtae, the Roman liturgy, the
Gallican liturgy, the Englifh liturgy, the Ambrofian
liturgy, the Spanifh and African liturgies, &c.
In the more early ages of the church, every biffiop
had a power to form a liturgy for his own diocefe ;
and if he kept to the analogy of faith and dosftrine, all
circumftances were left to his own diferetion. After¬
wards the practice was for the whole province to fol¬
low the metropolitan church, which alfo became the ge¬
neral rule of the church : and this Lindvvood acknow¬
ledges to be the common law of the church ; intimat¬
ing," that the ufe of feveral fervices in the fame pro¬
vince, which was the cafe in England, was not to be
warranted but by long cuftom. The liturgy of the
church of England was compofed in the year 1547,
and eftabliffied in the fecond year of King Edward VI.
flat. 2. and 3. Ed. VI. cap. I.
In the fifth year of this king it was reviewed ; be-
caufe fome things were contained in that, liturgy which
(bowed a compliance with the fuperftition of thofe
times, and fome exceptions were taken ag.ainft it by
feme learned men at home, and by Calvin abroad.
Some alterations were made in it, which confided in
adding the general confeffion and abfolution, and the
communion to begin with the ten commandments. 1 he
ufe of oil in confirmation and extreme undlion was
left out, and alfo prayers for fouls departed, and what
tended to a belief of Chrift’s real prefence in the eu-
charift. This liturgy, fo reformed, was eftabliiffied by
the ad of 5 and 6 Ed. VI. cap. 1. However, it was
abolifhed by (,)ueen Mary, who enaaed, that the ier-
vice (hould (land as it was moft commonly ufed in the
laft year of the reign of King Henry VIII. I he li¬
turgy of 5 and 6 Ed. VI. was re-eftabliffied with fome
few alterations and additions, by I Eiiz. cap. 2. Some
farther alterations wrere introduced, in confequence of
the review of the common-prayer book, by order of
King James, in the firft year of his reign j particular¬
ly in the office of private baptifm, in feveral rubricks
and other paffages, with the addition of five or fix new
prayers and thankfgivings, and all that pait of tne ca-
techifm which contains the doftrine of the facraments.
The book of common-prayer, fo altered, remained in
force from the firft year of King James to the four¬
teenth of Charles II. But the laft review of the li¬
turgy was m the year 1661, and the laft aA of uni¬
formity enjoining the obfervance of it is 13 and 14
Car. II. cap. 4. See CoMMOn-Prayer. Many appli¬
cations have been fince made for a review, but hither¬
to without fuccefs.
LITUUS, among the Romans, was the ftaff made
ufe of by the augurs in quartering the heavens. It
bore a great refemblance to the crofter of a biftiop., .but
was ffiorter. It was crooked at one end, and thickeft
ia
1
L I V [ Si ] L I V
Lituus In the curved part, according to A. Gellius. We fre-
. II quently meet with a reprefentation of it upon medals,
Liver‘ , amongft other pontifical inftruments. It was called
Lituus Quirinalis, from Quirinus, a name of Romulus,
who was Ikilled in all the myfteries of augury.
Lituus, was alfo an inftrument of mufic in ufe in
the Roman army. It was ftraight, excepting that it
had a little bending at the upper end like a lituus or
facred itaff of the augurs $ and from the fimilitude it
derived its nanfe.
LIVADIA, anciently Achaia and Hellas, or Greece
properly fo called ; a province of Turkey in Europe,
bounded on the north by Epirus and Theffaly, from
which it is feparated by Mount Oeta, now Banina, and
by the Euripus, now the flrait of Negropont; on the
eaft, by the Archipelago j on the fouth, by the gulf of
Engia or Egina, the ifthmus of Corinth, and the
gulf of Lepanto •, and on the weft, by the Ionian fea
and part of Epirus. Its extent is about 130 miles
from north-weft to fouth-eaft *, but its greateft breadth
is not above 36 miles. It is in general a mountainous
country j but neither unpleafant nor unfruitful. The
principal mountains are, Mount Oeta in Boeotia, where
is the famous pafs of Thermopylae, not above 25 feet
broad ; and Parnaffus, Helicon, and Cythaeron in Pho-
cis, which were facred to Apollo and the mufes, and
confequently much celebrated by the poets. The ri¬
vers of moft note are, the Sionapro, anciently the
Achelous, the Cephiffus, the Ifmenus, and the Afo-
pus. The province is at prefent divided into Livadia
proper, Stramulippa, and the duchy of Athens. The
principal places are, Lepanto, anciently Naupa&us;
Livadia, anciently Libadia or Lebadia j the celebrated
city of Athens, now Setines ; Thebes, now Stibes ;
Lepfina, anciently Eleufis j Caftri, formerly Delphi 5
and Megara.
Livadia, an ancient town of Turkey in Europe,
and capital of a province of the fame name in Greece.
It is a large and populous place, feated on the gulf of
Lepanto, about 25 miles from the city of that name.
It has now a confiderable trade in woollen fluffs and
rice- Anciently it was celebrated for the oracle of
Trophonius, which was in a cavern in a hill above the
town. E. Long. 23. 29. N. Lat. 38. 40.
LIVER, fee Anatomy, N° 96.—Plato, and others
of the ancients, fix the principle of love in the liver ;
whence the Latin proverb, Cogit amare jecur: and in
this fenfe Horace frequently ufes the ivord, as when he
fays, Si torrere jecur qucerus Idoneum. The Greeks,
from its concave figure, called it >)7ras|, “ vaulted, fuf-
pended the Latins call it jecur, q. d. juxta cor, as
being “ near the heart.” The French call it foye,
Storey foyer, focus, or “ fireplace agreeable to the
doftrine of the ancients, who believed the blood to be
boiled and prepared in it.—Erafiftratus, at firft, called
it parenchyma, i. e. effujion, or mafs of blood; and Hip¬
pocrates, by way of eminence, frequently calls it the
hypochondrium.
Liver of Antimony. See Chemistry Index.
Liver of Arfenic, is a combination of white arfenic
with potafti. See Arsenic, Chemistry Index.
Liver of Sulphur. See Potash, Sulphuret of. Che¬
mistry Index. v
LivER-Wort. See Marchantia and Lichen, ^Bo¬
tany Index
LIVERPOOL, a large, flourilhing, and populous Liverpool,
town of England, in the county of Lancafter, fituated —y——'
at the influx of the river Merfey into the fea. This
town has fo much increafed in trade fince the com¬
mencement of the prefent century, that it is now the
greateft fea-port in England except London, having
exceeded Briftol confiderably of late years, which will
appear by the following account of the cuftom-duties,
received in the feveral ports of London, Liverpool, and
Briftol, in the year 1784, taken from the report of the
commiflioners for infpe&ing the ftate of public ac¬
counts.
London,
Liverpool,
Briftol,
L. 5,187,05 2 9
640,684 2 2§-
334»9°9 *9 3i
Liverpool exceeded Briftol, L.305,774 2 11
The following {hows how much the trade has increafed
fince the above period :
Duties received in the port of Liverpool from July 5th
1785, to Odober 10th 1787, L.298,361 9 io^
The merchants here trade to all parts of the world ex¬
cept Turkey and the Eaft Indies; but the moft bene¬
ficial trade is to Guinea and the Weft Indies, by
which many of them have acquired very large for¬
tunes.
Liverpool, during the laft w'ar, carried on more fo¬
reign trade than any town in England $ and fuch is
the ftate of it at this time, that there are near three
thoufand veffels cleared from that port in one year to
different parts of the world. Here are feveral manu-
fadories for China-ware, and pot-houfes which make
very fine ware, fome falt-works, glafs-houfes, and up¬
wards of 50 breweries, from fome of which large quan¬
tities of malt liquor are fent abroad. Many of the build¬
ings are formed in the moft elegant manner ; but the
old ftreets are narrow 5 which defed will foon be re¬
moved, as the corporation have lately obtained an ad
of parliament for the improvement of the town, which ,
they have already begun to put in force with great fpi
rit, having taken down the principal ftreets in the
centre of the town, and rebuilt them in a fpacious and
moft magnificent manner; fo that in a few years it will
be one of the handfomeft towns in England. This
town contains fixteen churches, namely, St Peter’s, St
Nicholas’s, St George’s, St Thomas’s, St Paul’s,* St
Ann’s, St John’s, Trinity, St James’s, St Catharine’s,
St Mary’s, St Stephen’s, St Matthew’s, St Mark’s)
Chrift Church, and All Saints. There are alfo meet¬
ings for independents, anabaptifts, quakers, methodifts,
and prefbyterians. The exchange is a noble ftrudure,
built of white ftone in the form of a fquare, and round
it are piazzas where the merchants affemble to tranfad
bufmefs. Above it are the mayor’s offices, the feffions
hall, the council-chamber, and two elegant ball-rooms.
The expence of ereding this building amounted to
30,000b The cuftom-houfe is fituated at the head of
the old dock, and is a handfomp and convenient ftruc-
ture. Here are many charitable foundations, among
which is an excellent grammar fchool well endowed,
and many of the youth taught in it have exhibitions in
the univerfities. The infirmary is a large edifice of
G 2 jarick
L I y' [5
Ln erpool. brick and flone, fituated on a hill in a Very pleafant
airy fituation, at one end of the town.
In the town is a charity-fchool fupported by volun-
, tary fubfcriptions and contributions for 50 boys and
12 girls, who are not only clothed and educated, but
alfo provided with food and lodging : likewife feveral
alms-houfes for the widows of feamen j and an ex¬
cellent poor-houfe, fuperior to any in the kingdom,
where upwards of 800 men, women, and children, are
iupported, many of whom are employed in fpinning
cotton and wool. There are five large wet docks,
three dry docks, and feveral graving docks for the re¬
pairing or {hipping j which renders it the moft com¬
modious fea-port in the world. The quays which
bound thefe docks are covered with warehoufes ; which
is. a convenience that enables the merchant to difcharge
nis fh.ip at a very fmall expence. The newprilon late¬
ly finifhed is a noble edifice, being built entirely on the
plan of the great and benevolent Mr Howard, for foli-
tary confinement; and is perhaps the moft convenient,
airy, magnificent building of the kind of Europe } be¬
ing upon a very extenfive fcale.
Liverpool received its charter from King John •, but
it vyas a borough by prefcription long before his reign.
It is under the government of a recorder, mayor, and an
unlimited number of aldermen, two bailiffs, and a com¬
mon council of forty of the principal inhabitants, with
a town-clerk and other proper officers. The town
has a weekly market on Saturday, and is diftant from
London 204 miles. The progreffive rife of popula¬
tion in Liverpool, may be conceived by perufing the
following table:
1660
1680
1700
1720
1740
1760
1780
1787
Year. Chriftened.
3
106
132
410
484
986
1709
2267
Buried.
51
124
293
608
599
I544
Married.
5
35
58
i37
408
606
804
The whole population of Liverpool in the year 1793
was computed to amount to 56,782.
By means of inland navigation, Liverpool has com¬
munication with the rivers Dee, Kibble, Oufe, Trent,
Darwent, Severn, Humber, Thames, Avon, &c. which
navigation, including its windings, extends above 500
xniles, in the counties of Lincoln, Nottingham, York,
Weftmorerand, Chefter, Stafford, Warwick, Leicefter,
Oxford, Worcefter, &c. The Merfey, upon which
the town is fituated, abounds with falraon, cod, floun¬
ders, turbot, plaice, and fmelts 5 and at full fea it is
aoove two miles over. In the neighbourhood are fre¬
quent horfe-races, on a five-mile courfe, the fineft for
tne leng.tn in England. I he foil in and near the
town is dry and fandy, and particularly favourable to
me growth 01 potatoes, on which the farmers often
depend more than on wheat or any other grain. Frefti
water is brought into the town by pipes, from fome
fprings four miles off, purfuant to an ad of parliament
m the reign of Oueen Anne. The dock duties of
2 J L I V
Liverpool in 1760 amounted to 2330b but in 1805 to Livery
33>364b an aftoniihing proof of the rapid increafe of its I]
trade. The difpenfary of this town does honour to hu- _LlV!U5,
man nature, and has been of the moft lingular advan- v
tage to the affncled, fince 172,273 perfons were cured
of every diforder incident to human nature, between
the years 1778 ar|d 1794? being on an average about
10,000 perfbns every year. The Union News Room
was inftituted on the iff of January 1801 j the Lyceum
much about the .fame period, the ere&ion of which cofl:
the fum of x 1,000b and the Commercial New’s Room
in 1803. The inftitution for reftoring drowned per¬
fons is worthy of notice, as more than 400 people have
become ohjeds of it fince it was founded, and more
than one half of that number have been reftored. The
Athenaeum, which comprifes a news room and library,
was projected in 1798, and finilhed before the clofe of
the year. I here are four weekly papers publiflied at
Liverpool. From 1783 to 1793 inclufive the value of
flaves imported into the Weft Indies in Liverpool vef-
fels, amounted to 15,186,850b fterling ; and" the ad¬
vantages which it derives from its inland navigation
are more than can be properly eftimated. Liverpool
fends two members to parliament.
LI v FRY, in matters of drefs and equipage, a
certain colour and form of drefs, by which noblemen
and gentlemen choofe to diftinguifh their fervaats.
Liveries are ufually taken from fancy, or continued
in families by fucceffion. T lie ancient cavaliers, at
their.tournaments, diftinguifhed themfelves by wearing
the liveries of their miftrefies: thus people of quality
make their domeftics wear their livery.
. Father Meneftrier, hi his Treatife of Caroufals, has
given a. very ample account of the mixtures of colours
in liveries. Dion tells us, that Oenomaus was the firit
who invented green and blue colours, for the troops
which, in the circus, were to reprefent land and fea
fights.
The Romifti church has alfo her feveral colours and
liveries white, for confeffors and virgins, and in times
of rejoicing 5 black, for the dead ; red, for the apoftles
and. martyrs 5 blue or violet, for penitents 5 and green,
in times of hope.
Formerly, great men gave liveries to feveral, who
were not of their family or fervants, to engage them
in their quarrels for that year ; but this was prohibited
by the ftatutes t Rich. II. 1 Hen. IV. cap. 27. 2 and
7 Hen. IV. 8 Hen. VI. cap. 4. 8 Ed. IV. cap. 2 j
and no man, of whatever condition, wxis allowed to
give any livery, but to his domeftic officers, and counfel
learned in the law. However, moft of the above fia-
tutes are repealed by 3 Car. I. cap. 4.
Livery of Seiftn, in Law, fignifies delivering the
poffeffion of lands, &c. to him who has a right to
them.
LIVERYMEN of London, are a number of rnen
chofen from among the freemen of each company. Out
of this body the common-council, fheriff, and other
fuperior officers for the government of the citv, are
elected 5 and they alone have the privilege of giving
their votes for members of parliament, from which the-
reft of the citizens are excluded.
LIVIQS, I itus, the heft of the Roman hiftori-
ans, as he is called by Mr Bayle, was born at Patavi-
um, or Padua. Few particulars of his life have beeiv
banded
L I V [ S3 1 L I V
Livin':. Kanded down to us. Coming to Home, lie .acquired
^ the notice and favour of Auguftus, and there he long
redded. Some have fuppoied, (for there is not any
proof of it), that he was known to Auguftus before,
by certain Philofophical Dialogues which he had de¬
dicated to him. Seneca fays nothing of the dedication :
but mentions the dialogues, which he .calls hiftorical
and philofophical j and aifo home books, written pur-
pofely on the fubjeil of philofophy. Be this as it will,
it is probable that he began his hi (lory as loon as he
was fettled at Rome ; and he feems to have devoted
himfelf fo entirely to the great work he had underta¬
ken, as to be perfedftly regardlefs of his own advance¬
ment. The tumults and diftraflions of Rome frequent¬
ly obliged him to retire to Naples ; not only that he
might be lefs interrupted in the purfuit of his deftin-
ed talk., but alfo enjoy that retirement and tranquillity
which he could not have at Rome, and which yet he
feems to have much fought after : for he was greatly
diffatisfied with the manners of his age, and tells us,
that “ he ftiould reap this reward of his labour, in
compofmg the Roman hiftory, that it would take his
attention from the prefent numerous evils, at leaft:
while he was employed upon the firft and earlieft ages.”
He ufed to read parts of this hiftory, while he was
compofing it, to Meccenas and Auguftus •, and the lat¬
ter conceived fo high an opinion of him, that he pitch¬
ed upon him to fuperintend the education of his grand-
fon Claudius, who was afterwards emperor. After the
death of Auguftus, Livy returned to the place of his
birth, where he was received with all imaginable
honour and refpedl : and there he died, in the fourth
year of the reign of Tiberius, aged above feventy.
Some fay, he died on the fame day with Ovid : it is
certain that he died the fame year.
Scarce any man was evermore honoured, alive as
well as dead, than this hiftorian. Pliny the younger
relates, that a native gentleman travelled from Gades,
in the extremeft parts of Spain, to fee Livy: and,
though Rome abounded with more flupendous and cu¬
rious fpetftacles than any city in the world, yet he im¬
mediately returned ; as if, after having feen Livy, no¬
thing Lrther could be worthy of his notice. A mo¬
nument was erefted to this hiftorian in the temple of
Juno, where was afterwards founded the monaftery of
St Juftina. There, in 1413, was difeovered the fol¬
lowing epitaph upon Livy : OJJa Till Livii Patavim,
omnium mortalium judicio chgtu, cujus prope inviBo ca-
lamo invicii populi Romani res gejlce confcriberentur;
that is, “ The bones of Titus Livius of Patavium, a man
worthy to be approved by all mankind, by whofe almoft
invincible pen the acls and exploits of the invincible Ro¬
mans were written.” Thefe bones are faid to be pre-
ferved with high reverence to this day, and are Ihown-
by the Paduans as the moft precious remains. In
1451, Alphonfus, king of Arragon, fent his ambaffa-
dor, Anthony Panormita, to deftre of the citizens of
Padua the bone of that arm with which this their fa¬
mous countryman had written his hirtory ; and, ob¬
taining it, caufed it to be conveyed to Naples with the
greateft ceremony as a moft invaluable relic. He is
faid to have recovered from an ill ftate of health by
the pleafure he found in reading this hiftory : and there¬
fore, out of gratitude, put upon doing extraordinary
honours to the memory of the- writer. Panormita alfo.
who was a native of Palermo in Sicily, arid one of the
ableft men of the 15th century, lold an eftate to pur* v
chafe this hift0rian.
The hiftory of Livy, like other greaif-works of an¬
tiquity, is tranfmitted down to us exceedingly mutilated
and imperfect. Its books were originally a hundred ancl
forty-two, of which are extant only thirty-five. The
epitomes of it, from which we learn their number, all
remain, except thofe of the 136th and 137th books*
Livy’s books have been divided into decades, which
fome will have to have been done by Livy himfelf, be-
caufe there is a preface to every decade ; while others
fuppofe it to be a modern contrivance, fince nothing
about it can be gathered from the ancients. The firit
decade, beginning with the foundation of Rome, is ex¬
tant, and treats of the affairs of 460 years. The fe-
cond decade is loft •, the years of which are feventy-
five. The third decade is extant, and contains the fe*
cond Punic war, including eighteen years. It is re-
koned the moft: excellent part of the hiftory, as giving
an account of a very long and lharp war, in which the
Romans gained fo many advantages, that no arms could
afterwards withftand them. The fourth decade contains
the Macedonian war againft Philip, and the Afiatic
wTar againft Antiochus, which take up the fpace of
about 23 years. The five firft: books of the fifth de¬
cade were found at Worms, by Simon Grynseus, in,
1431, but are .very defective ; and the remainder of
Livy’s hiftory, which reaches to the death of Drufus in
Germany in 746, together with the fecond decade, are .
fupplied by Freinfhemius.
Never man perhaps was furnifhed with greater ad¬
vantages for writing a hiftory than Livy. Befides his
own great genius, which was in every refpedt admi¬
rably formed for the purpofe, he was trained as it were
in a city, at that time the emprefs of the world, and
in the politeft reign that ever was *, having fcarcely had
any other fchool than the court of Auguftus. He had
accefs to the very beft materials, fuch as the Memoirs
of Sylla, Caffar, Labienus, Pollio, Auguftus, and o-
thers, written by themfelves. “ What writers of me¬
morials (fays Lord Bolinbroke), what compilers of the
Materia Hiftorica, were .thefe ! What genius was ne-
ceffary to finifh up the pictures that fuch mafters had
Iketched ! Rome afforded men that were equal to the
talk. Let the remains, the precious remains, of Sal-
luft, of Livy, and of Tacitus, witnefs this truth. 
What a fchool of public and private virtue had been
opened to us at the refurreftion of learning, if the lat¬
ter hiftorians of the Roman commonwealth, and the
firft of the fucceeding monarchy, had come down to us
entire ! The few that are come down, though broken
and imperfeft, compofe the beft body of hiftory that
we have ; nay, the only body of ancient hiftory that
deferves to be an objeft of ftudy. It fails us indeed
moft at that remarkable and fatal period, where our
reafonable curiofity is railed the higheft. Livy em¬
ployed forty-five books to bring his hiftory down to thg
end of the fixth century, and the breaking out of the
third Punic war: but he employed ninety-five to bring
it down from thence to the death of Drufus j that is,
through the courfe of 120 or 130 years. Apffian,
Dion Caffius, and others, nay, even Plutarch included,
make us but poor amends for what is loft of Livy.”
Speaking then of Tally’s orations and letters, as the
I
L I V [ 54 1 L I V
Livius. bed adventitious helps to fupply this Tois, he fays, that
  the age in which Livy flounihed, abounded with
fuch materials as thefe : they were frelh, they were au¬
thentic : it was eafy to procure them •, it was fafe to
employ them. How he did employ them in executing
the fecond part of his defign, we may judge from his
execution of the firid : and, I own, I (hould be glad
to exchange, if it were poffible, what w?e have of this
hiftory for what we have not. Would you not be glad,
my Lord, to fee, in one ftupendous draught, the whole
progrefs of that government from liberty to fervitude j
the whole feries of caufes and effe&s, apparent and real,
public and private ?” &c.
The encomiums bellowed upon Livy, by both an¬
cients and moderns, are great and numerous. He not
only entertains like Herodotus ; he alfo inftrudts and
interells in the deepeft manner. But his great probity,
candour, and impartiality, are what have diftinguilh-
ed Livy above all hiilorians } for neither complaifance
to the times, nor his particular connexions with the
emperor, could reilrain him from fpeaking w'ell of Pom-
pey j lb well, as to make Auguftus call him a Pom¬
peian. This we learn from Cremutius Cordus, in i a-
citus } who relates alfo, much to the emperor’s ho¬
nour, that this gave no interruption to their friend-
Ihip. But whatever elegies Livy may have received
as an hiitorian, he has not efcaped cenfure as a writer.
In the age wherein he lived, Alinius Poliio charged
him with Patavinity 5 which Fatavinity has been vari-
oufly explained by various writers, but is generally fup-
pofed to relate to his tfyle. The moll common is, that
this noble Romdn, accuftomed to the delicacy of the
language fpoken in the court of Auguftus, could not
bear with certain provincial idioms, which Livy, as a
Paduan, ufed in divers places of his hiftory. Pignorius
is of another opinion, and believes that this Patavinity
regarded the orthography of certain words, vdierein Livy
ufed one letter for another, according to the cuftom of
his country, and quofe for Jibi and quaji;
which he attempts to prove by feveral ancient inferip-
tiems. The exprefliom, however, or the orthography
of words, are not loaded with obfeurity, and the per-
fe-il claffic is as familiarly acquainted with thofe fup-
pofed provincialifms as with the pureft Latinity.—Livy
has been cenfured too, and perhaps with juflice, for be¬
ing too credulous, and burdening bis hiftory with vul¬
gar notions and fuperftitious tales. He may difguft
when he mentions that milk and blood were rained from
heaven, or that an ox fpoke or a woman changed her
fex ; yet he candidly confeffes that he recorded only
what made an indelible impreuion upon the minds of a
credulous age.
Is it worth ■while to mention here the capricious and
tyrannic humour of the emperor Caligula, who accufed
Livy of being a negligent and wordy writer, and reiol-
ved therefore to remove bis works and ftatues out of all
libraries, where he knew they were curioufly preierved ?
Or the fame humour in Domitian, another prodigy of
nature, who put to death Metius Pompofianus, becaufe
he made a colleftion of fome orations of kings and ge¬
nerals out of Livy’s hiftory ? Pope Gregory the Great,
alfo, would not fufter Livy in any Chriftian library, he-
caufe of the Pagan fuperftition wherewith he abounded :
but the fame reafon held good again ft all ancient au¬
thors 5 and indeed Gregory’s zeal w^as far from being
3
levelled at Livy in particular, the pontiff having decla¬
red war againft all human learning. . ^
Though we know nothing of Livy’s family, yet we
learn from Quintilian, that he had a fon, to whom he
addrefled fome excellent precepts in rhetoric. An an¬
cient infeription fpeaks alfo of one of his daughters,
named Livia ^uarta : the fame, perhaps, that efpoufed
the orator Lucius Magius, whom Seneca mentions ;
and obferves, that the applaufes he ufually received
from the public in his harangues, were not fo much
on his own account, as for the fake of his father-in-
law.
Our author’s hiftory has been often publiftred with
and without the fupplement of Freimhemius. The
heft editions are, that of Gronovius, cum notis vario-
rum et fuis, Lugd. Bat. 1679, 3 vols ^vo ’ tliat of
Clerc at Amfterdam, 1709, 10 vols i2tno; and that
of Crevier, at Paris, 1735, 6 vols 4to. Thefe have
the fupplements.—Learning perhaps never fuftained a
greater lofs, in any (ingle author, than by the deftruc-
tion of the latter and more interefting part of Livy.
Several eminent moderns have indulged the pleafmg ex-
pedlation that the entire work of this noble kiftorian
might yet be recovered. It has been faid to exift in an
Arabic verfton : and even a complete copy of the ori¬
ginal is fuppoled to have been extant as late as the year
1631, and to have periftied at that time in the plunder
of Magdeburg. The munificent patron of learning,
Leo X. exerted the moft generous zeal to refeue from
oblivion the valuable treafure, which one of his moft
bigotted predeceffors, above mentioned, had expelled
from every Chriftian library. Bayle has preierved, un
der the article Leo, two curious original letters of that
pontiff, concerning hk hopes of recovering Livy; which
afford moft honourable proofs of his liberality in the
caufe of letters.—A lately difeovered fragment of Li¬
vy’s hiftory was publiflied in 1773 by Hr Bruns.
Livius Andronicus, a comic poet who flouriftied at
Rome about 240 years before the Chriftian era. He
w as the firft who turned the perfonal fatires and fefeen-
nine verfes, fo long the admiration of tne Romans, in¬
to the form of a proper dialogue and regular play.
Though the charafter of a player, fo valued and ap¬
plauded in Greece, was reckoned vile and defpicable
among the Romans, Andronicus afted a part in his
dramatical compofitions, and engaged the attention
of his audience, by repeating what he had laboured
after the manner of the Greeks. Andronicus was the
freedman of 1M. Livius Salinator, whofe children he
educated. His poetry was grown obfolete in the age
of Cicero, whole nicety and judgement would not even
recommend the reading of it.
LIVONIA, a large province of the Ruffian empire,
with the title of a duchy. It is bounded on the north
by the gulf of Finland, on the weft by that of Riga, on
the fouth by Cotfrland, and on the eaft, partly by Plef-
cow, and partly by Novogorod. It is about 230 miles
from north to foutb, and 150 from eaft to weft. The
land is fo fertile in corn, that it is called the granary of
the north : and would produce a great deal more, if it
was not fo full of lakes. The fifh that abound here are
falmons, carps, pikes, fiat filh, and many others. In
the forefts there are wolves, bears, elks, rein-deer, flags,
and hares. The domeftic animals are very numerous ;
but the Iheep bear very bad wool. Here are a great
number
Livius,
Livonia.
  J
L O A [ 55 ] L O A
Livonica- nuitiber of forefts, which conflrt of oircii tree?, pines,
Terra and oaks $ and all the houfes of the inhabitants are
built with wood. The merchandifes wdrich they fend
Loach' , abroad are flax, hemp, honey, wax, leather fkins, and
potaflies. The Swedes were formerly pofleffed of this
province, but were obliged to abandon it to the Ruf¬
fians after the battle of Pultowa ; and it wTas ceded to
them by the peace of the north, concluded in \"]2 2,
which was confirmed by another treaty in I742- *s
divided into two provinces, viz. Letonia and Eilonia }
and two iflands called Oefel and Dagho, which are again
fubdivided into feveral diflrifts,
LIVONICA-terra, a kind of fine bole ufed in the
{hops of Germany and Italy. It is found in Livonia,
from whence it takes its name. It is in the form of
little cakes.
LIVRE, a French money of account, containing 20
fols. See MoNEr-Table.
LIXA, or Lixus, in Ancient Geography, a town on
the Atlantic near the river Lixus \ made a Roman co¬
lony by Claudius Caefar; famous in mythology for the
palace of Antscus and his encounter with Hercules,
(Pliny). Now Larache, 65 leagues to the fouth of the
Ilraits of Gibraltar.
LIXIVIOUS, an appellation given to falts ob¬
tained from burnt vegetables by pouring water on their
allies.
LIXIVIUM, in Pharmacy, &c. a ley obtained by
pouring fome liquor upon the allies of plants; which
is more or lefs powerful, as it has imbibed the fixed falts
contained in the afhes.
LIXNAW, a barony in the county of Kerry and
province of Munfter in Ireland, which gives title of
baron to the earls of Kerry •, the village here of this
name being their ancient feat, where the caftle was
erefted. This feat Hands agreeably on the river Brick,
which is here cut into feveral pieafant navigable canals,
that adorn its plantations and gardens. W. Long. 9. 15.
N. Lat. 52. 15.
LIZARD. See Lacerta, Erpetology Index.
Lizard, in Geography, a cape or promontory of
Cornwall, fituated, according to the moll common com¬
putation, in W. Long. 5. 47. N. Lat. 49. 50.
LLANDAFF. See Landaff.
LLOYD, William, a moll learned Englilh writer
and bilhop, was born in Berkfliire in England in 1627.
He was educated under his father, reCfor of Sonning,
and vicar of Tyle-hurft in Berklhire •, then went to Ox¬
ford, and took orders. In 1 660 he was made preben¬
dary of Rippon ; and in 1666 chaplain to the king. In
1667 took the degree of dosflor of divinity , in 1672
he was inftalled dean of Bangor ; and in 1680 was con-
fecrated bithop of St Afaph. He wTas one of the fix
bifhops who, with Archbilhop Sancroft, w’ere commit¬
ted prifoners to the Tower of London, for fubferibing
a petition to the king againft diftributing and publilhing
his declaration for liberty of confcience. Soon after the
revolution he was made almoner to King William and
Queen Mary : in 1692 he wfas tranllated to the bishop¬
ric of Litchfield and Coventry*, and in 1699, to the
fee ofWorcefier, where he fat till his death, which
happened in 1717, the gift year of his, age. Dr Bur¬
net gives him an exalted character, and his works are
highly efleemed.
LOACH, See Cobitis, Ichthyology Index.
LOAD, or Lode, in mining, a wmrd uied efpecial-
ly in the tin-mines, for any regular vein or courfe, whe¬
ther metallic or not; but molt commonly load means a i
metallic vein. When the fubftances forming thele
loads are reducible to metal, the loads are by the Eng¬
lilh miners faid to be alive 5 otherwife they are termed
dead loads.
In Cornw'all and Devonlhire the loads chiefly hold
their courfe from eaftwrard to wefhvard, though in other
parts of England they frequently run from north to
fouth. See Veins, Geology Index.
Load is alfo ufed for nine dtfhes of ore, each dilh
being about half a hundred weight.
LOADSTONE. See Magnet.
LOAMS, in Natural Hijlory, are defined to be
earths compofed of diflimilar particles, ftiff, denfe, hard,
and rough to the touch 5 not eafily broke wnile moift,
readily diflufible in water, and compofed of fand and a
tough vifeid clay. Of thefe loams fome arewhitilh, and
others browm and yellown
LOAN, any thing given to another, on condition of
return or payment.
Public Loans. See Funds and National Debt.
LOANDA, a province of the kingdom of Angola
in Africa. It is an ifland about 15 miles in length, and
three in breadth j remarkable chiefly for the capital of
Angola fituated upon it, in E. Long. 12. 25. S. Lat.
8. 45. This town was built by the Portuguefe in 1578,
under the direftion of the firit Portuguefe governor in
thefe parts. It is large, populous, and pleafantly feat-
ed on the declivity of a hill near the fea-coail, and fa¬
cing the fouth-weft. The ifland is fupplied wuth frelh
water from wells dug in it} and w'hich are not funk be¬
low the depth of three feet when they are filled with
excellent w*ater. It is remarkable, however, that the
water of thefe wells continues good only during the
time of high tide } for, as that finks, the w-ater becomes
more and more brackilh, till at laid it is quite lalt, al-
mofl as much as the fea itfelf. On the coaft of this
ifland are fifhed the zimbis, or fhells ufed in feveral
parts of Africa inflead of money j and with thefe fhells,
inflead of coin, is carried on a great part of the traffic
of this country.
LOANGO, a kingdom of Africa, extending itfelf
about 180 geographical miles in length from fouth to
north ; that is, from Cape St Catherine undet the fe-
cond degree of fouth latitude, to a fmall river called
Lovanda Louijia, on the 5th degree of the fame. From
weft to eaft it extends from Cape Negro on the coafl of
Ethiopia towards the Ruchumalean mountains, fo called
on account of their vafl quantity of ivory and great
droves of elephants, about 300 miles. It is divided
into four principal provinces, viz. thofe of Lovangiri,
Loango-mongo, Chilcngo, and Piri.
The inhabitants are very black, well fliaped, andb
of a mild temper. The men wear long petticoats, from
the waift downwards, and have a piece of cloth round
their w’aift. The women’s petticoats are made of ilrawr.
This country abounds with poultry, oxen, cows,
Creep, goats, elephants, tigers, leopards, civet-cats, and
other animals j fo that here are great quantities of ele7
phants teeth, and fine furs, to be traded for.
The capital city, where the king refides, called
Loango, and, in the language of the negroes, Boaric, is
fituated in South Lat. 4^ degrees, a league and a half
from .
r -
LOG Is
Lobby from the fea-coaft, and is fhaded and adorned with ba-
{ ^ j hanas, and other trees. 'ihe king, who refides in
tca ‘ a large palace in the middle of it, has about 1500 con¬
cubines. If any of them is furprifed in adultery, fhe
and her paramour are iuilantly conveyed to the top of a
very high hill, whence they are hurled down headlong
from the fleeneft place.
Every man marries as many wives here as he pleafes,
who are obliged to get their hulbands a livelihood, as
is the practice all along the African coaft inhabited by
blacks. The women, therefore, cultivate the land, fow
and reap, w hile the lazy hufbands-loiter away their time
in idlenefs.
The king’s revenue confifls in elephants teeth, cop¬
per, and a kind of petticoats made of palm-tree leaves,
and called lavogus: he has whole ftore-houfes full of
thefe lavogus; but his greateft riches conlift in Haves
of both fexes.
LOBBY, in Architc&ure, is a fmalhhall or waiting-
room : it is alfo an entrance into a principal apartment,
where there is a confiderable fpace between that and a
portico or veftibule, and the length or dimenfions will
not allow' it to be conhdered as a veftibule or an anti-
room. See Antichamber.
LOBE, in Anatomy, any fleftiy protuberant part, as
the lobes of the lungs, the lobes of the ears, &c.
LOBELIA, CARDINAL-FLOWER ; a genus of plants
belonging to the fyngenefia clafs ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 29th order, Campanacece.
See Botany Index.
LOBETUM, anciently a town of the Hither
Spain : faid to have been built by the Libyan Hercu¬
les, (Pliny). Now AlbaraAn, a town of Arragon on
the confines of New Caftile, on the river Guadalavir.
E. Long. 2. N. Lat. 40. 40.
LOBO, Jerome, a Jefuit miflionary, wras born at
Lifbon in the year 1593. ^-e became a member of the
Jefuit fociety at 16 years of age, and in 1622 w'ent out
as a miffionary to the Eaft Indies; He failed to the
coaft of Mozambique, after making fome ftay at Goa ;
and afterwards penetrated into Abyffimia, where his
zeal and refolution brought on him the hatred of the
monks, from which he incurred much danger and fuf-
fering. As he returned to Portugal he w7as fhipwreck-
ed on the coaft of Natal, where feven months were
fpent in conftru&ing fhallops to bring them away.
One of them foundered, but that in which Father Lobo
failed arrived fafe at Angola. After a variety of ad¬
ventures he arrived at Lifbon ; and be employed him-
felf in the caufe of the Ethiopian miffiion both at Ma¬
drid and Rome. He took a fecond voyage to the In¬
dies, where he w'as made reftor of the houfe at Goa.
He returned to Lilbon in 1638, and was chofen re&or
of the college of Coimbra, where he died in 1678, at
the age of 84.
Lobo wwote an hiftorical account of Abyffima in the
Portuguefe language, w'hich contains information both
curious and valuable. It was tranflated into French by
the abbe le Grand in 4to, in 1728; and the earlieft
producfion of Dr Samuel Johnfon w7as an abridged ver-
fion of this work.
LOBSTER, a fpecies of cancer. See Cancer, En¬
tomology Index.
LOCAL, in Law, fomething fixed to the freehold,
-pr tied to a certain place 5 thus, real actions are local,
Z
6 ] LOG
fince they muft be brought in the country w'here they
lie ; and local cuftorns are thofe peculiar to certain
countries and places.
Local Medicines, thofe deftined to a (ft upon par¬
ticular parts 5 as fomentations, epithems, veficatories,
&c.
LOC \RNO, a towm of Swiuerland, capital of a
bailiwick of the fame name, feated at the north end
ot the lake Maggiore, near the river Magie. It car¬
ries on a great trade ; and the country abounds in
paftures, wine, and fruits. E. Lonrr. 8. 41. N. Lat.
46. 6,
LOCHABER, a diftritft of the fhire of Invernefs in
Scotland. It is bounded by Moydart on the weft,
Glengary on the north, Badenoch on the eaft, and
Lorn on the fouth. It derives its name from the lake
or loch Aber} and extends about 20 miles from eaft to
w’eft, and 30 from north to fouth. The country is
barren, bleak, mountainous, and rugged. Near the mouth
of the river Aber, in the centre between the Weft and
North Highlands, ftands Fort William, with the town
of Maryburgh, built upon a navigable arm of the fea,
not far from the foot of Benevis. The town, diagned
as a futlery for the garriion, was ere£ted into a borough;
and the fort itfelf was defigned as a check upon fome of
the clans, who had been guilty of depredations and other
irregularities. Lochaber is inhabited moftly by the Mac¬
donalds, Camerons, and Mackintoflies. The caftle of
Macdonald of Glengary, in this dill rift, was burnt to
the ground in the year 1715, in confequence of his de¬
claring for the Pretender. The elegant houfe and
gardens belonging to Cameron of Loehiel undenvent
th e fame fate, for the fame reafon, in the year 1 746.
LOCHIA, in Midwifery, a flux from the uterus
coniequent to delivery. See Midwifery.
LOCK, a well-known inllrument ufed for faftening
doors, chefls, &c. generally opened by a key.
The lock is reckoned the maflerpiece in finithery ;
a great deal of art and delicacy being required in con¬
triving and varying the wards, fprings, bolts, &c. and
adjufting them to the places where they are to be ufed,
and to the various occafions of ufing them.
From the various ftnnfture of locks, accommodated
to their different intentions, they acquire various names.
Thofe placed on outer doors are called flock-locks; thofe
on chamber doors, flpring-locks; thofe on trunks, trunk-
locks, paddocks, &c.
Of thefe the fpring-lock is the moft conflderable,
both for its frequency and the curiofity of its ftrufture;
Its principal parts are, the main-plate, the cover-plate,
and the pin-hole : to the main-plate belong the key¬
hole, top-hook, crofs-wTards, bolt-toe or bolt-knab,
drawback-fpring tumbler, pin of the tumbler, and the
flaples ; to the cover-plate belong the pin, main-ward,
crofs-ward, ftep-w’ard or dap-ward ; to the pin-hole
belong the hook-ward, main crofs-ward, {hank, the pot
or bread, bow-ward, and bit.
As on the proper conftru<ftion of locks the fecurity
of the moft valuable kinds of property almoft entirely
depends, and as numberlefs devices are continually
fallen upon to elude the utmoft efforts of mechanical
invention in this refpeift, it thence becomes an objeift
of no fmall importance to invent a lock which it (hould
be impoflible to open except by its proper key. A trea-
tife upon this fubject has been publifhed by Mr Jo-
feph
Iccarno
y
Lock.
LOG L 57 ] LOG
Lack, feph Brawah ; who is confident that he has brought
“"v—the matter to the requifite perfection, and that every¬
one may reft affured of the fecurity of his property
when under the protection of a lock of his invention.
He begins with obferving, that the principle on which
all locks depend, is the application of a lever to an in¬
terior bolt, by means of a communication from with¬
out; fo that, by means of the latter, the lever aCts
upon the bolt, and moves it in fuch a manner as to
fecure the lid or door from being opened by any pull
or pufti from without. The fecurity of locks in ge¬
neral therefore depends on the number of impediments
we can interpofe betwixt the lever (the key) and the
bolt which fecures the door ; and thefe impediments
are well known by the name of wards, the number and
intricacy of which alone are fuppofed to diftinguifti a
good lock from a bad one. If thefe wards, however,
do not in an effectual manner preclude the accefs of all
other inftruments befides the proper key, it is ftill
poflible for a mechanic of equal fldll with the lock-
maker to open it without the key, and thus to elude
the labour of the other.
“ Locks (fays our author) have been conftruCfed,
and are at prefent much ufed and held in great efteem,
from which the picklock is excluded : but the admif-
Jfion of falfe keys is an imperfeCtion for which no lock-
fmith has ever found a correftive 5 nor can this imper-
fedlxon be remedied whilft the proteffion of the bolt
is wholly confided to fixed wardsy This pofition is
proved by a remark, that the wards, let them be as
intricate as we pleafe, muft all be exprefted on what is
called the bit or web of the key : and therefore, when
all the varieties that can be expreffed on this bit orw7eb
have been run through, every fucceeding lock muft be
the counterpart of fome other j and confequently the
fame key which opens one will open the other alfo.
This is evident from the locks ufually put upon drawers;
and which, though they fhould be made to refill the
picklock, are ftill liable to be opened by ten thoufand
other keys befides that appropriated to each of them.
But though the variety of wTards could be augmented
even to infinity, ftill there could be no fecurity againft
falfe keys ; for as every one of the wards muft be ex¬
preffed on the wreb of the key, if another key with a
web quite plain be made to fit the key-hole exadlly,
we have only to cover it over with fome colouring fub-
ftance upon which the wards may make an impreflion ;
after which, it is eafy to cut out the web in a proper
manner for admitting them, wdien the lock will be as
eafily opened by the falfe as by the true key.
The firft perfon, according to our author, who had
any claim to merit in the branch of lock-making, is
Mr Baron ; whofe lock he acknowledges to be by far
more perfect and fecure than any that ever appeared
before ; though he ilill confiders it as unfit for giving
that abfolute fecurity which is to be wiflied for. His
improvement confided in the proper application of
what are called tumblers. “ Thefe (fays Mr Bramah)
are a kind of grapple ; by wrhich the bolt is confined,
as well in its adiiye as in its paflive ftation, and render¬
ed immoveable till fet at liberty by the key. One of
thefe inftruments is commonly introduced into all locks
that are of any ufe or value ; it is lodged behind the
bolt, and is governed by a fpring which a£ts upon the
tumbler as the tumbler a£ts upon the bolt : The ao-
^ . Vol. XII. Part I.
plication therefore of any force to the tumbler, wdiich Lock,
is fuperior to the force of the fpring, will caufe it to —""''v-"*
quit its hold, and fet the bolt at liberty.” In the
common method of applying thefe machines, however,
it matters nothing how far the tumbler is lifted above
the point at which it ceafes to controul the bolt ; but
it is otherwife in thofe of Mr Baron’s cooftnnSion.
The adlion of his tumblers is circumfcribed by a cer¬
tain fpace cut in the centre of the bolt, of dimenfions
fufficient only to aniwer the purpofe intended. The
fpace in which the tumbler moves is an oblong fquare ;
and is not only furnished with niches on the under fide,
into which the hooks of the tumblers are forced by the
fpring as in other locks, but is provided w'ith cor-
refpondent niches on the other fide, into w'hich the
hooks are driven, if any greater force be applied to the
tumblers than what is juft fufficient to difengage them
from the bolt. Hence it becomes abfolutely neceffary,
in the making of a falfe key, to coiiftrudf it in fuch a
manner, that it may with the greateft exaclnefs give
the requifite degree of preffure, and no more.
Mr Bramah allows that this is a very great improve¬
ment, but obje&s that it is ftill poffible to frame a key
which will open it as well as its own ; nor will the ad¬
dition of any number of tumblers preclude the poffibi-
lity of opening it. “ By giving (fays he) an uniform
motion to the tumblers, and prefenting them with a
face w'hich exaftly tallies with the key, they ftill par¬
take, in a very great degree, of the nature of fixed
wards ; and the fecurity of this lock is thereby render¬
ed in a proportionable degree defedlive. Thus, fup-
pofe the falfe key to have paffed the wards, and to be
in contadl with the moft prormnent of the tumblers,
the impreffion, which the llighteft touch will leave on
the key, will diredl the application of the file till
fufficient fpace is prepared to give it a free paffage.
The key will then bear upon a more remote tumbler ;
which difficulty being in like manner got over, the
lock wall be as eafily opened by the falfe as by the true
key.”
This feemingly infuperable objedlion to the perfec¬
tion of lock-making, howTever, our author removes with
the greateft eafe imaginable, by caufing the tumblers
which project unequally to prefent a plane lurface :
whence they would require a feparate and unequal mo¬
tion to difengage them ; of conlequence no diftindl im¬
preffion could be made by them upon the plane lurface
of the wTeb that would give any idea of their pofitions
with regard to one another, and the conftrudfion of a
falfe key would be altogether impoffible.
But though the principal difficulty with regard to
Mr Baron’s lock be now overcome, others ftill occur,
viz. the difficulty of making locks which are conftrudt-
ed v\ith tumblers fufficiently durable. The tumblers
themfelves, he obferves, muft be but (lightly made;
and being expofed to perpetual friftion by the key and
their own proper motion, they muft loon decay ; and
the keys of Mr Baron’s locks, he alfo obferves, are
much lefs durable than thofe of any other locks he
ever faw.
With regard to the lock wdiich Mr Bramah pre-
fents to the public as abfolutely perfect, he informs
us, that the idea of conftru£Hng it was firft fuggelted
by the alarming increafe of houfe robbeiies, which may
reafonably be fuppofed to be perpetrated in a great
H meafure
LOG [58
Lock, meafuve by perrdious fervants, or acconiplifbed by their
— connivance. Thus it is evidtnt, that the locks which
miaht exclude ordinary houfebreakers could be no he
curity againld faithlefs fervants, who having con'dant
accels to the locks, might eafily get falfe keys fabri¬
cated at their leifure. In confidering the fubjedl, our
author was convinced, that his hope of fuccefs de¬
pended entirely upon his ufing means as diilimilar as
poffible to thole by which the old locks were con-
ftrudled } as thefe, however varied,, had been found
insufficient for the purpofe. “ As nothing (fays he)
can be more oppofite in principle to fixed xvards than
a lock which derives its properties from the motion of
all its parts, I determined that the conftruhtion of fuch
a lock ffiould ba the fubjedt of my experiment.” In
the profecution of this experiment he had the fatisfac-
tion to find, that the lead perfeft of all his models
fully afcertained the truth and certainty of his prin¬
ciple. The exclufion of wards made it neceffary to cut
oft' all communication between the key and the bolt;
as the fame paflage, which (in a lock fimply conftrucl-
ed) would admit the key, might give admiffion like-
wdfe to other indruments. The office, therefore, which
in other locks is performed by the extreme point of
the key, is here affigned to a lever, which cannot ap¬
proach the bolt till every part of the lock has under¬
gone a change of pofition. The neceffity of this change
to the purpofes of the lock, and the abfolute impofli-
bility of effecting it otherwife than with the proper
key, are the points to be afcertained } and this our
author does in the following manner.
rcxCVI Fig. 1. Shows Mr Bramah’s firft attempt to con-
ftrudi a lock upon this principle : which, to his fur-
prife, turned out complete and perfecf. A reprefents
a common axis on which the fix levers, croffing the
face of the lock, are united as on a joint. Each of
thefe reds upon a feparate fpring fufficiently ftrong to
bear its weight; or, if depreffed by a fuperior force,
to reftore it to its proper pofition when that force is
removed. B reprelents a frame through which the
levers pafs by feparate grooves, exadlly fitted to their
width, but of fufficient depth to allow them a free
motion in a perpendicular diredlion. The part which
projedls from the oppofite fide of the joint A, and is
inferted in the bolt C, is a lever to which two offices
are affigned; one to keep the bolt in a fixed pofition,
in the abfence of the key ; the other, to give it its
proper motion upon the application of the key. D is
a circular platform turning upon a centre. On this
v the joint or carriage of the levers, and the fprings on
which they red, are fixed ; and the motion of this plat¬
form impels i*he bolt, in either direction, by means of
the lever which is projected from the joint A. The
inviolable reftraint upon this lock, by which means it
is fubjedled only to the adlion of the key, is lodged in
the part E, which is a thin plate, bearing at each ex¬
tremity on a block, and having of courfe a vacant fpace
beneath, equal in height to the thicknefs of the blocks
on wffiich it reds. By this plate the motion of the
machine is checked or guided in the following manner:
On the edge of the plate which faces the movement
there are fix notches which receive the ends of the
levers projedling beyond the frame B j and while they
are confined in this manner the motion of the machine
] LOG
is fo totally fufpended as to defy every power of art Lock,
to overcome. 1 v~"*
To underftand in what manner the proper key of
this lock overcomes thefe obdacles, it mud be observ¬
ed, that each lever has a notch on its extremity, and
that thole notches are dilpofed as irregularly as pof¬
fible. To give the machine a capacity of motion, thefe
notches mud be brought parallel to each other, and
by a diftinft but unequal preffure upon the levers, be
formed into a groove in a direft line with the edge of
the plate E, which the notches are exadlly fitted to
receive. The lead motion of the machine, while the
levers afe in this petition, will introduce the edge of the
plate into the groove ; which, controuling the power
of the fprings, will give liberty to the levers to move in
a horizontal diredlion as far as the fpace between the
blocks which fupport the plate E will admit, and
which is fufficient to give the machine a power of add¬
ing on the bolt. The impodibility of thus bringing
the notches on the points of the levers into a diVedt
line, fo as to tally with the edge of the plate E by any
other means than the motion and impulfe of the key,
is that which conditutes the principal excellency of this
lock.
The key (fig. 2.) exhibits fix different furfaces,
againd which the levers are progreffively admitted in
the operation of opening the lock : the irregularity of
thefe furfaces {hows the unequal and didindt degree of
preflure which each lever requires to bring them to
their proper bearings, in order to put the machine in
motion. Hence it appears, that unlefs the various
heights of the furfaces expreffed on the bit of the key
are exadtly proportioned to the feveral diftances necef¬
fary to bring the notches into a draight line with each
other, they mud remain immoveable •, “ and (fays our
author) as one droke of a file is fufficient to caufe
fuch a difproportion as will prove an infurmountable
impediment to their motion, I may fafely affert, that
it is not in art to produce a key or other infirument,
by which a lock, confirudled upon this principle, can
be opened.”
On this principle it would even be a matter of great
difficulty for any workman, however {kilful, to condrudt
a key for the lock when open to his infpedlion : “ for
the levers being raifed, by the fubjacent fprings, to an
equal height in the frame B, prefent a plane furface }
and confequently convey no diredfion that can be of
any ufe in forming a tally to the irregular furface which
they prefent when adling in fubjedfion to the key.
Unlefs therefore we can contrive a method to bring
the notches on the points of the levers in a diredl line
with each other, and to retain them in that pofition
till an exadf impreffion of the irregular furface, which
the levers will then exhibit, can be taken 5 the workman
will be unable to fit a key to the lock, or to move the
bolt. This procefs mud be rendered extremely trou-
blefome by means of the fprings 5 and if fuch diffi¬
culties occur, even when the lock is open to the in-
fpedlion of a fkilful workman, much more mud we
fuppofe it out of the power of one who has not
accefs to the internal parts to make a falfe key to a
lock of this kind.
Thefe difficulties render it neceffary in making locks
of this kind not to fit the key to the lock, as is ufual
in.
LOG [ 59 ] L O C
in other locks, but to fit the lock to the key. In
this kind of lock, therefore, the key muft be made firftj
and the inequalities upon the furface of the bit work¬
ed as chance or fancy may diredt, without any refer¬
ence to the lock. The key being thus completed,
and applied to the furface of the levers, will, by a gen¬
tle preffure, force them to unequal diftances from their
common ftation in the frame B, and fink their points
to unequal depths into the fpace beneath the plate E.
While the levers are in this pofition, the edge of the
plate E will mark the precife point at which the notch
on each lever muft be expreffed. The notches being
cut by this diredlion, the irregularity which appears
when the levers refume their ftation in the frame B,
and the inequality of the receiTes on the bit of the
key, will appear as a feal and its correfponding im-
preffion.
The following is a lock contrived upon the fame
principle, but more curious ; and, in our author’s opi¬
nion, more extenfively ufeful. Fig. 3. reprefents a
circular block of metal divided from the centre into
eight compartments, each containing a cell which forms
a paflage through the block, as is reprefented by the
fmall circles defcribed on the flat furface A. In each
of thefe cells two grooves are cut at oppofite points,
which open a communication with the centre at one
point, and with the fpherical furface of the block or
barrel at the other. The fmall circle, which marks
the centre of the flat furface A, is the key-hole, which
likewife forms a paffage through the barrel in a parallel
line with the cells which furround it. This figure re¬
prefents the frame in which the adlive parts of the lock
are depofited.
Fig. 4. {hows a fpiral fpring lodged in the bottom
of each cell, and occupying one half of the fpace, the
other being filled with a Aider refting upon the fpring,
and reprefented by fig. 5. the office of thefe Aiders ex-
adtly correfponding wfith that of the levers in the lock
already defcribed. Thus, when lodged in their refpec-
tive cells, they are fuftained, like the levers, by the
elafticity of the fprings upon which they reft, till a fu-
perior power be applied j and they are again reftored
to their ftations by the readtion of the fprings wffien
the weight is removed. The fide B of each Aider is
projedled beyond the circular furface, as reprefented
fig. 6. in a manner fimilar to the projedlion of the le¬
vers in the former lock beyond the curved frame in
which they move. The point C is projedled through
the interior groove into the fpace which forms the cen¬
tre or key-hole, exprefled on the flat furface A.
Fig. 7. reprefents the key. When this is applied,
it muft of courfe encounter thefe interior projedlions ;
and when prefled forward, the indented fpaces on its
point being unequal, will force the Aiders to unequal
diftances from their bearers 5 bringing the notches ex¬
prefled on their exterior projedlions in a diredt line with
each other, in a manner fimilar to that by which the
eflfedl is produced upon the levers in the former lock.
When the key is withdrawn, and the Aiders refume their
Aations by the preflure of the fprings, the difpofition
of the notches muft be irregular in the fiime proportion
that the indentations on the point of the key are un¬
equal ; and they muft neceflarily fall again into a
flraight line when adled upon by the key.
Fig. 6. (hows the barrel completely fitted for adfion.
Its interior end is caped with a plate, which unites Lock,
its compartments, and confines the fprings and Aiders
within the cells to which they belong. From that plate
proceeds the point A, which reprefents the lever by
which the bolt is projedled or withdrawn, according
to the diredlion in which the machine performs its re¬
volution.
Fig. 8. Arow’S the Aat furface of a thin plate, corre*
fponding in its office with the part C of the former
lock. The fpace cut in its centre is exadlly fitted to
the fpherical furface of the barrel; the circle defer!bing'
its circumference, and the notches cut on its edge co¬
inciding with the projedlions of the Aiders. The barrel,
when encircled with this plate at the middle of its fphe¬
rical furface, has its motion totally fufpended till the
notches on the projedlions of the Aiders are forced, by
the preffure of the key, into a line wdth each other : a
groove being thus formed on the fpherical furface of the
barrel parallel to, and coinciding with, the edge of thft
plate, the machine is at liberty to perform a revolution
in any diredlion, but returns to its confined ftate when
the key is withdrawn.
The parts of the movement being thus united, the
interior end of the barrel is depofited in a bed repre¬
fented fig. 9. J'o this it is faftened at the angles of
the plate reprefented fig. 8. by which the barrel is en¬
circled. The tlation of the bolt is at A j the lever
which adls upon it being projedled on the other fide.
Fig. 10. is a cap or malk which covers the face of the
movement, and completes the lock.
On this lock our author obferves, that it is excellent
for ftreet doors : “ for no method of robbery (fays he)
is more pradlifed, than gaining admittance into houfes
by thofe keys, which as is well known, may be pro¬
cured at the old iron (hops to fit almoft any lock in
ufe. Such robberies are generally committed where
the fervants are allowed to take the key with them
when fent on errands, it being impradlicable while the
key is fixed in the lock. The variations, by which
the produdlion of correfpondent keys is avoided, have
two fources : the one arifing from the changes that may
be made in the difpofition of the levers •, the other from
the number of points contained on the projedled fur¬
face of each lever ; by which the pofition of its notch
may, in the fmalleft degree, be varied.
“ The variations produceable in the difpofitions of
fix figures only, are 720 : thefe, being pregreAively
multiplied by additional figures, will increafe by afto-
mAring degrees; and eventually {how, that a lock con¬
taining twelve levers will admit of 479,001,500 changes}
which, with the addition of another lever, will increafe
to 6,227,020,800. Thefe being again multiplied by
the number of changes wffiich the projedled furface of
the levers will admit in the difpofition of the notches,
their amount will exceed numeration, and may there¬
fore be properly faid to be infinite. The Aighteft in-
fpedlion will at once ffiow, that their conRrudlion pre¬
cludes all poAibility of obtaining an impreffion of their
internal parts, which is neceflary for the fabrication of
a falfe key } for it wall be ealily feen, that the poAtfdns
into w’hich the levers are forced by the preRure of the
key in opening the lock, can no more be afeertained
when the key is withdrawn, than the feal can be co¬
pied from its imprefiion on a Raid, or the courfe of a
Aiip be difeovered by tracing it on the furface of the
H 2
waves.
LOG [ 60 ] L O C
Lo'k, waves. But innolable fecurity is not the only excel-
L°cke^ lence they poflefs •, the fimplicity of their principle
gives them like wife a great advantage over locks that
are more complicated, in point of duration ; for their
effential parts being fubject to no fritlion, nor expofed
to any poffible accident from without, they will be
lefs affedled by ufe, and lefs liable to Hand in need of
repair.”
Lock, or tmr, in inland navigations, the general
name for all thofe works of wood or Hone made to con¬
fine and raife the water of a river : the banks alfo which
are made to divert the courfe of a river, are called by
thefe names in fome places. But the term loch is more
particularly appropriated to exprefs a kind of canal en-
clofed between two gates j the upper called by work¬
men the ilulce gate, and the lower called the ilood gate.
Thefe ferve in artificial navigations to confine the wa¬
ter, and render the paffage of boats eafy in nailing up
and down the Hream. See Canal.
LOCKE, John, an eminent Englifh philofo-
pher and writer in the latter end of the 17th century,
was fon of Mr John Locke of Pensford in Someriet-
fhire, and born at Wrington near Brifiol in 1632. He
was fent to Chrifi-church in Oxford 5 but was highly
diffatisfied with the common courfe of fludies then pur-
fued in the univerfity, where nothing was taught but
the Ariflotelian philofophy •, and had a great averfion to
the difputes of the fchools then in ufe. The firfi books
which gave him a reliili for philoi'ophy were the writ¬
ings of Des Cartes; for though he did not always
approve of his notions, yet he thought he wrote with
great perfpicuity. He applied himfelf with vigour
to his fludies, particularly to phyfic, in which he
gained a confiderable knowledge, though he never
pradlifed it. In 1664, he went to Germany as fe-
cretary to Sir William Swan, envoy from the Eng¬
lifh court to the eledlor of Brandenburg and fome other
German princes. In lefs than a year, he returned to
England; where, among other fludies, he applied
himfelf to that of natural philofophy, as appears from
a regifter of the changes of the air, which he kept at
Oxford from June 24. 1666, to March 28. 1667.
'There he became acquainted with the lord Afhly,
afterwards earl of Shaftefbury, who introduced him in¬
to the converfation of fome of the moft eminent per-
fons of that time. In 1670, he began to form the
plan of his ElTay on Human Underftanding j but his
employments and avocations prevented him from finilh-
ing it then. About this time he became a member of
the Royal Society. In 1672, his patron, now earl of
Shaftefbury, and lord chancellor of England, appoint¬
ed him fecretary of the prefentations, which place
beheld till the earl refigned the great feal. In 1673,
he was made fecretary to a commiflion of trade, worth
500I. a-year; but that commiffion was diffolved in
1674. The earl of Shaftefbury being reftored to fa¬
vour, and made prefident of the council in 1679, fent
for Mr Locke to London : but that nobleman did not
continue long in his poll, being fent prifoner to the
tow^er ; and after his difcharge retired to Holland in
3682.
Mr Locke followed his patron thither. He had not
been abfent from England a year, when he was ac-
cufed at court of having written certain tra£!s againft
the government, which were afterward difcovered to be
written by another perfon ; and in November 16S4, Locke,
he was deprived cf his place of ftudent in Chrifl-
church. In x68ij, the Engliili envpy at the Hague
demanded him and 83 other perfons to be delivered up
by the Hates general: upon which he lay concealed
till the year following ; and during this time formed a
weekly afiembly with Mr Limborch, Mr Le Clerc,
and other learned men at Amfterdam. In 1689 he
returned to England in the tieet which conveyed the
princefs of Orange ; and endeavoured to procure his
reftoration to his place of Undent of Chrift-church,
that it might appear from thence that he had been un-
juftly deprived of it : but when he found the college
would admit him only as a fupernumerary fludent, he
defilled from his claim.
Being efteemed a fufferer for revolution principles,
he might eafily have obtained a more profitable poll 5
but he contented himfelf with that of commiflioner of
appeals, worth 200I. a year, which was procured for
him by the Lord Mordaunt j and about the fame time
he was offered an appointment in a diplomatic charac¬
ter, but the infirm flate of his health prevented him
from accepting it. He went afterwards to refide with
Sir Francis Mafham and his lady, at Oates in Effex,
about 25 miles from London, where he fpent moft of
his time during the reft of his life. In this agreeable
fituation he enjoyed that health and vigour which en¬
abled him to exert his talents in writing on political fub-
je£ts. Hence he appears in defence of the revolution
in one piece j and confidering the great national concern
at that time, the ill ftate of the filver coin, and propofing
remedies lor it, in others. Hence he was made a com .
miflioner of trade and plantations in 1695, which en¬
gaged him in the immediate bufinefs of the ftate ; and
with regard to the church, he publifhed a treatife the
fame year, to piomote the fcheme which King William
had much at heart, of a comprehenfion with the dif-
fenters. This, however, drew him into one contro-
verfy ; which was fcarcely ended, when he entered into
another in defence of his effay, which held till 1698 ;
foon after which the afthma, his conllitutional dif-
order, increafing with his years, began to fubdue him ;
and he became fo infirm, that in 1700 he refigned his
feat at the board of trade, becaufe he could no longer
bear the air of London fufficient for a regular attend¬
ance upon it. After this refignation he continued al¬
together at Oates; in which retirement he employed
the remaining laft years of his life entirely in the ftudy
of the Holy Scriptures.
He died in 1704, aged 73. His writings will im¬
mortalize his name. The earl of Shaftefbury, author
of the Charadleriftics, though in one place he fpeaks
of Mr Locke’s philofophy with feverity •, yet oblerves,
concerning his Effay on the Human Underftanding,
in general, “ that it may qualify men as well for bufi¬
nefs and the world, as for the faiences and the uni¬
verfity.” His Difcourfes on Government, Letters on
Toleration, and Commentaries on fome of St Paul’s
Epiftles, are alfo held in much efteem.
LOCKED jaw. See Medicine Index.
LOCKMAN, an officer in the Ifie of Man, who
executes the orders of government, much like our under
fheriff.
Lockman, an eaftern philofopber. See Lokman.
LOCLE, a fmall town in a diftridl of the fame
name
riate CCXCVI
Locri
-LOG [ 61 ] LOG
name In Switzerland, adjacent to Neufchatel and \al- a (liip, generally about a quarter of an inch thick, and
Log1.
lengin, and united with another named La Ghaux
ds Fond. Both thefe dillri61s occupy foine valleys
formed by the mountains of Jura'j the greatell part of
which not many years ago was one continued foreft,
though now converted into fine pailure ground filled
with flouriiliing villages. The inhabitants of thefe
diftricls are remarkable for their induflry, and excel in
many mechanical arts, particularly in watch and clock
making ; 40,000 watches, it is faid, are made in a year.
LOCRI, or Locri Epiziephyrii, in Ancient Geogra¬
phy, a town on the Ionian fea near the promontory
Zephyrium. The people were called Locri and Lo-
crenfes, and are Lid to be the firft who ufed a code of
written laws, compiled by Zaleucus from the laws of
the-Cretans and others.
LOCK IS, the diftriJI or territory of the Locri.
Locris, a country of Achaia in Greece ; twofold,
and divided by Mount Parnafius. The Hither v\as oc¬
cupied by the Locri Ozolae, called alfo "dephyrii, or
Weftern, contained between ZEtolia and Phocis. The
Farther Locris lay beyond Parnaffus, running out to¬
wards Thermopylae, and reaching to the Euripus of
Euboea 5 occupied by the Locri Opuntii, and Epicne-
midii, who w’ere called the Eadern Locri.
LOCUS GEOMETRicus, denotes a line by which a
local or indeterminate problem is folved.
A locus is a line, any point of which may equally
folve an indeterminate problem. Thus if a right line
fuffice for the conftru&ion of the equation, it is called
locus ad re Bum ; if a circle, locus ad circulum ; if a
parabola, locus ad parabolam; if an ellipfis, locus ad
ellipjin : and fo of the reft of the conic fedfions.
LOCULAMENTA, and Loculi, in Botany,
cells or pockets: The internal divifions of a capfule,
or other dry feed-veffel, enclofing the feeds.
LOCUST. See Gryllus, Entomology/wc/gv.
Locusr-F.aters. See Acridophagi.
American Locust, or Frog-hopper. See Cicada,
Entomology Index.
LocusT-Tree. See Hymenjea and Gleditsia,
Botany Index.
LOCUTIUS, in mythology, the god of fpeech
among the Romans, called by Livy Aius Locutius.
LOCUTORIUM. A hall or apartment in mona-
fteries wdiere the monks and other religious met after
dinner to converfe together.
LODE, in Mining. See Load.
LODGMENT, in military affairs, a work made
by the befiegers in fome part of a fortification (after
the befieged have been driven out), to maintain it,
and be covered from the enemy’s fire
LOG, in the Jewifh antiquities.
a meafure which
five or fix inches from the angular ^point to the circu.n- 'v
ference. It is balanced by a thin plate of lead, nailed
to the arch, or circular fide, fo as to fwim perpendicu¬
larly in the water.
Log-Line, a little cord, or line, about a hundred and
fifty fathoms long, faftened to the log by means of
two legs a b (fig. 4.), one of which paffes through a ^^^GVII
hole at the corner, and is knotted on the oppofite fide,
while the other leg is attached to the arch by a pin
fixed into another hole, fo as to draw out occar
fionally. By thefe legs the log is hung in equilibrio ;
and the line thus annexed to it is wound round a reel
fixed for that purpofe in the gallery of the ftfip.
This line, from the diftance oi about ten, twelve,
or fifteen fathoms off the log, has certain knots or divi¬
fions, which ought to be at leaft fifty feet from each
other j though it was the common pradtice at fea no£
to have them above forty-two feet afunder.
The length of each knot ought to be the fame part
of a lea mile as half a minute is of an hour •, and ad¬
mitting the meafurement of Mr Norwood, who makes
a degree on a great circle of the earth to contain
367,200 Englilh feet, or about 69J Englith ftatute
miles, and therefore -gV^h part of it, or a nautical
mile, wall be 6120 feet 5 T~thof6i20, or 51 feet,
Ihould be length of each knot. But becaufe it is
fafer to have the reckoning rather before the ihip than
after it, therefore fifty feet may be taken as the pro¬
per length oi each knot. The knots are fometimes
made to confift only of forty-two feet each, even in the
prefent practice ; and this method of dividing the log¬
line was founded on the fuppolition that fixty miles,
each of 5000 Englilh feet, made a degree ; for ^ of
5000 is 41-f-, or, in round numbers, 42 feet. Mari¬
ners, rather than quit the old way, though known to
be erroneous, ufe glaftes for half minute ones, that run
but 24 or 25 feconds. They have alfo ufed a line of
45 feet to 30 feconds, or a glals of 28 feconds to 42
feet. When this is the cafe, the diftance between
the knots ftiould be corredied by the following pro¬
portion : as 30 is to 50 } fo is the number of feconds
or the glafs to the diftance between the knots upon
the line. The heat or moifture of the weather has of¬
ten a confiderable effedt upon the glafs, fo as to make
it run flower or fafter 5 it Ihould, therefore, be fre¬
quently tried by the pendulum-in the following man¬
ner. On a round nail hang a firing that has a muf-
ket ball fixed to one end, carefully meafuring between
the centre of the ball and the firing’s loop over the
Peg 39s" inches, being the length of a fecond pendu¬
lum ■, then fwing it, and count one for every time it
paffes under the peg, beginning at the fecond time it
field a quarter of a cab, and confequsntxy five-fixths of pafles and the number of fwings made during the time
pint. There is mention of a log, 2 Kings vi. 25
under the name of a fourth part of a cab. But in Levi¬
ticus the word log is often met with, and fignifies
that meafure of oil which lepers were to offer at the
temple after they were cured of their difeafe. Dr
Arbuthnot fays, that the log was a meafure of li¬
quids, the feventy-fecond part of the bath or ephah, and
twelfth part of the hin, according to all the accounts of
the Jewifh writers.
Log, a fea term, fignifying a fmall piece of timber a,
of a triangular, fedloral, or quadrantal figure, on board
the glafs is running out fhows the feconds it contains.
I he line alio is liable to relax and fhrink, and ftiould
therefore be occafionally meafured.
The ufe of the log and line is to keep account and
make an eftimate of the fliip’s way or diftance run ;
which is done by obferving the length of line unwound
in half a minute’s time, told by a half-minute glafs ;
for fo many knots as run out in that time, fo many
miles the {hip fails in an hour. Thus, if there be four
knots veered out in half a minute, the fhip is computed
to run four miles an hour.
The
Mem.Acad.
Scien. 1747.
LOG [62
The author of this advice for meafuririg the (hip’s
way is not knowrn ; and no mention of it occurs till the
year 1607, in an Eaft India voyge publiihed by Pur-
chas; but from that time its name occurs in other voy¬
ages among his colledfions ; and henceforward it be¬
came famous, being taken notice of both by our owrn
authors and by foreigners j as by Gunter in 1623 j Snel-
lius in 1624; Metius in 16315 Oughtred in 16335
Herigone in 16345 Saltonifall in 16365 Norwood in
1637 5 Fournier in 1643 ; and almoft by all the fuc-
ceeding writers on navigation of every country.
To Heave the Log, as they call it, they throw it in¬
to the water on the Ice (ide, letting it run till it comes
■without the eddy of the (hip’s wake 5 then .one hold¬
ing a half-minute glafs, turns it up juft as the firft
knot, or the mark from which the knots begin to be
reckoned, turns off the reel (fig. 2.) or paffes over the
ftern. As foon as the glafs is out, the reel is (lopped,
and the knots run off are told, and their parts eftimated.
It is ufual to heave the log once every hour in (hips
of war and Eaft Indiamen, and in all other veffels1
once in two hours, allowance being made for the wind
having increafed or abated in the intervals.
The log is a very precarious way of computing,
and mull always be corrected by experience, there be¬
ing much uncertainty from the motions of the (hip, the
winds of variable force, the fridlion of the reel and light-
nefs of the log in the courfe of the current. Yet this is
a much more exa£t way of computing than any other in
ufe 5 much preferable certainly to that of the Spaniards
and Portuguefe, who gueffed at the (hip’s w^ay by the
running of the froth or water by the (hip’s fide ; or
to that of the Dutch, who ufed to heave a chip over¬
board, and to number the paces they walk on the deck
while the chip fwims between any two marks or bulk
heads on the fide.
Compound Log. The above-mentioned errors, and
particularly the log’s being fubjedl to drive with the
motion of the water at its furface, wrhereas the experi¬
ment requires it to be fixed in the place where it is
when the mark commencing the knots goes off the reel,
have been confidered, and many methods propofed to
remove or to leffen them. M. Bouguer propofed the
following method. Take for the log a conical piece of
wood, which fix to the log line paffed through or along
it* axis, at about 40, 50, or 60, or more feet,-from one
end 5 and to this end fix the diver, which is a body
formed of ttvo equal fquare pieces of tin, or of thin iron
plate, fixed at right angles to one another along their
diagonals 5 and its fize fo fitted to that of the cone,
that the whole may float. A cone of three inches
diameter in the bafe, and of fix inches in the flant
height, is propofed by M. Bouguer to fuit a diver made
of plates about 9^ inches fquare 5 the interfeftion of
the diagonals is joined to the log line, and the loop
and peg fixed as in the common log. However, it has
been found, that no kind of wood ufed in Britifh dock
yards, when formed into a cone of the above dimen-
fions, will float a diver made of (lout tin plates, one fide
of the fquare being 91 inches. Such a diver weighing
*41b. avoirdupois, required to float it a cone of five
inches diameter and twelve inches on the flant fide, fo
as the point of the cone, which was made of light fir,
fhould juft appear above the rvater. Now, fuppofing
one fide of fuch a fquare tin diver to be about ten inches,
1
] LOG
and made of plates only two-thirds of the thicknefs of
the former, fuch a diver would wreigh, with its folder, '*
about 20 ounces, and can be floated by a light fir cone
of four inches diameter in the bafe, and ten inches in
the flant height or length 5 and fuch a compound log
might perhaps be found on trial to be affedted by about
as much again as that propofed by M. Bouguer 5 and
confequently the difference between the numbers
given by the common log and compound log, muft be
augmented by tvTo-thirds of itfelf for the neceffary cor-
redlion, as below. When the compound log of Bou¬
guer, above deferibed, is hove overboard, the diver
will fink too deep to be much affedled by the current
or motion of water at the furface, and the log will
thereby keep more fteadily in the place where it firft:
fell 5 and confequently the knots run off the reel
will (how more accurately the (hip’s rate of failing.
As the common log is affedled by the whole motion
of the current, fo this compound log will feel only a
part thereof, viz. fuch a part nearly as the refiftance
of the cone is to the refiftance of the diver 5 then the
refiftances of the above cone and diver are about as 1
to 5 5 and confequently this log will drive but one-
fifth part of what the common log would do 5 and fo
the (hip’s true run will be affedled by one-fifth only of
the motion of the waters. To obtain the true rate of
failing, it will be proper to heave alternately, hour and
hour, the common log, and this compound log 5 then
the difference of their knots run off, augmented by its
one-fourth part, is the correflion 5 which applied to the
knots of the common log, will give the (hip’s true rate
of failing at the middle time between the hours when
thefe logs were hove. The corredlion is additive when
the compound log’s run is the greateft, othemife it is
fubtraflive. To find the courfe made good : increafe
the obferved angle between the log lines by one-fourth
part 5 and this gives the corredlion to be applied to
the apparent courfe, or the oppofite of that (hown by
the common log 5 the corredlion is to be applied to the
{"eft} of the apparent courfe, wdien the bearing of
the common log is to the
ight } of the compound
log. Or thus : the lengths run off both logs, toge¬
ther with their bearings, being known 5 in a card or
compafs apply the knots run off, taken from a fcale
of equal parts along their refpedlive bearings from the
centre 5 join the ends 5 and in this line produced, on
the fide next the compound log’s length, take one-
fourth of the interval 5 then a line drawn from the
end, thus produced, to the centre of the card, will
(how the true courfe and diftance made good. When
a current, fuch as a tide, runs to any depth, the velo¬
city of that current may be much better afeertained by
the compound log than by the common one, provid¬
ed the diver does not defeend lower than the run of
the current 5 for as thole (hips which are deepeft im-
merged, drive faded with the tide 5 fo the diver, by
being afted on below, as well as the log on the fur¬
face, their joint motion will give the total effefl of the
current’s motion better than what could be derived
from the motion at the furface only. Alfo, by fuch a
compound log, the depth to which any current runs
may be eafily tried.
Other Logs. We have an account in the voyage to the
North
Log.
Log.
P’ate
CCXCVII.
LOG [ 63 ] LOG
North Pole, p. 97. of two other logs, which were tried
by Captain Phipps : one invented by Mr Ruilel, the
other by Foxon j both conftru&ed upon this principle, .
that a fpiral, in proceeding its own length in the direc¬
tion of its axis through a refilling medium, makes one
revolution round the axis •, if, therefore, the revolutions
of the fpiral are regifiered, the number of times it has
gone its own length through the water will be known.
In both thefe the motion? of the fpiral in the water is
communicated to the clockwork within board, by
means of a fmall line fallened at one end to the fpiral,
which tows it after the fliip, and at the other to a
fpindle, which fets the clockwork in motion. That
invented by Mr Ruifel has a hall Ipiral of two threads,
made of copper, and a fmall dial with clockwmrk, to
regifter the number of turns of the fpiral. The other
log has a whole fpiral of wood with one thread, and a
larger piece of clockwork with three dials, two of
them to mark the dillance, and the other divided into
knots and fathoms, to (how the rate by the half mi¬
nute glafs, for the convenience of comparing it with the
log. This kind of log will have the advantage of
every other in fmooth water and moderate weather;
and "it will be ufeful in finding the trim of a ftrip
when alone, in furveying a coaft in a Angle Ihip, or in
meafuring diltances in a boat between headlands and
flroals ; but it is fubject to other inconveniences, which
will not render it a proper fubfiitute for the common
log.
Perpetual Log, a machine fo called by its inventor,
Mr Gottlieb of London, is intended for keeping a con-
ft&nt and regular account of the rate of a drip’s velocity
in the interval of heaving the log.
Fig. 1. is a reprefentation of the whole machine ;
the lowTer part of which, EFG, is fixed to the fide of
the keel; H renrefenting only the boundary line of the
{hip’s figure. EF are the feftion of a wmoden external
cafe, left open at the ends KL, to admit the paflage
of the water during the motion of the drip. At M is
a copper grating, placed to obdruft the entrance of
any dirt, See. into the machine. I is a feftion of a
water wheel, made from 6 to 12 inches in diameter, as
may be neceffary, with doatboards upon its circumfer¬
ence, like a common water w'heel, that turn by the
refidance of the water pading through the channel
LK. It turns upon a drouldered axis, reprefented by
the vertical feflion at K. When the drip is in motion,
the refidance of the wrater through the channel LK
turns round the wheel I. This wheel, by means of a
pinion, is conne£!ed with and turns the rod contained ^
in the long copper tube N. This rod, by a pinion
fixed at its upper extremity, is connected with and
turns upon the wdrole fydein of wheels contained in
the dial of the cafe ABCD. This dial, by means of
the copper tube N, may be fixed to any convenient
place aboard the drip. In the front of the dial are
feveral ufeful circular graduations, as follow : Fire re¬
ference by the dotted line A has a hand which is
moved by the wheels within, which points out the mo¬
tion of the drip in fathoms of 6 feet each, 'the circle
at B has a hand {bowing the knots, at the rate of 48
feet for each knot : and is to be obferved with the half-
minute glafs at any time. The circle at C has a drort
and a long hand ; the former of which points out the
miles in land meafure, and the latter or longer the
number of knots contained in each mile, viz. 128,
which is in the fame proportion to a mile as 60 minutes,
to the hour in the reckoning. At c, a fmall portion of
a circle is feen through the front plate called the re^ijicrp
which drows, in the courfe of 24 hours (if the diip is
upon one tack), the didance in miles that die has run ;
and in the 24 hours the mariner need take but one
obfervation, as this regider ferves as an ufeful check
upon the fathoms, knots, and miles, diown upon the
two other circles.
/ Is a plate diowang 100 degrees or 6000 miles,
and alfo a£ts as another regider or check ; and is ufe¬
ful in cafe of any miftake being made in obferving the
didance run by the other circles. The reckoning by
thefe circles, without fear of midake, may therefore
be continued to nearly 1 2,000 miles.
A communication from this machine may eadly be
made to the captain’s bedfide, where by touching a
fpring only, a bell in the head ABCD will found as
many times in a half minute as the drip fails miles in an
hour.
Log-Board, a fort of table, divided into feveral co¬
lumns, containing the hours of the day and night, the
dire£Hon of the winds, the courfe of the drip, and all
the material occurrences that happen during the 2.4
hours, or from noon to noon ; together with the lati¬
tude by obfervation. From this table the odicers of
the diip are furnidied with materials to compile their
journals.
Loo-Book, a book into which the contents of the log-
board is daily copied at noon, together with every cir-
cumdance deferving notice that may happen to the diip,
either at fea or in a harbour. See Navigation.
LOGARITHMS-
INTRODUCTION.
THE labour and time required for performing the
arithmetical operations of multiplication, dividon,
and the extraftlon of roots, were at one time condder-
able obdacles to the improvement of various branches
of knowledge, and in particular the fcience of adro-
nomy. But about the end of the 16th century, and
the beginning of the 17th, feveral mathematicians be-^
gan to confider by whet means they might fimplify thefe
operations, or fubditute for them others more eafily
performed. Their efforts produced fome ingenious con¬
trivances for abridging calculations ; but of thefe the
mod complete by far wTas that of John Napier Baron of
Merchifton in Scotland, wiho invented a fyftem of num¬
bers called logarithms, which were fo adapted to the
numbers to be multiplied, or divided, that thefe being
arranged in the form of a table, each oppofite to the
number
6^
logarithms.
Introduc- number called its logarithm, the product of any two
tion. ^ numbers in the table was found by the addition of their
'logarithms; and, on the contrary, the quotient arifing
from the divifion of one number by another was found
by the fubtradtion of the logarithm of the divifor from
that of the dividend ; and fimllar Amplifications took
place in the flill more laborious operations of involu¬
tion and evolution. But before we proceed to relate
more particularly the circumftances of this invention,
it will be proper to give a general view of the nature
of logarithms, and of the circumftances which render
them of ufe in calculation.
Let there be formed two feries of numbers, the one
conftituting a geometrical progreflion, the hrft term of
which is unity or I, and the common ratio any num¬
ber whatever, and the other an arithmetical progreftion,
the firft term of which is o, and the common difference
alfo any number whatever ; (but as a particular ex¬
ample we (hall fuppofe the common ratio of the geome¬
trical feries to be 2, and the common difference of the
arithmetical feries I), and let the two feries be written
oppofite to each other in the form of a table, thus:
Geom. Prog. Arith. Prog.
I - O
4
8
16
3 2
64
128
256
512
1024
2048
4c 96
&.C.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
1 2
&c.
The two feries being thus arranged, the terms in
the arithmetical feries are called the logarithms of the
correfponding terms of the geometrical feries; that
is, o is the logarithm of 1, and 1 is the logarithm
of 2, and 2 is the logarithm of 4, and 3 that of 8,
and fo on.
From the manner in which the two feries are related
to each other, it will readily appear by indu&ion that
the logarithms of the terms of the geometrical feries
have the two following properties:
I. The fum of the logarithms of any two numbers
or terms in the geometrical feries is equal to the loga¬
rithm of that number, or term of the feries, which is
equal to their produft.
For example, let the terras of the geometrical feries
be 4 and 3 2 ; the terms of the arithmetical feries cor¬
refponding to them (that is, their logarithms) are 2
and 5 ; now the produff of the numbers is 1 28, and the
fum of their logarithms is 7 ; and it appears by infpec-
tion of the two leries, that the latter number is the
logarithm of toe former, agreeing with the propofition
we are iliuftrating. In like manner, if the numbers or
terms of the geometrical feries be 16 and 64, the lo¬
garithms of which are 4 and 6, we find from the table
that icrrp-f6 is the logarithm of 1024—16x64;
and fo of any other numbers in the table.
2. The difference of the logaiithms of any two num- Introduc”
bers, or term* of the geometrical feries, is equal to the tlon-
logarithm of that term of the feries which is equal to
the quotient arifing from the divifion of the one number
by the other.
Take for example the terms 128 and 32, the lo¬
garithms of which are 7 and 5 ; the greater of thefe
numbers divided by the lefs is 4, and the difference of
their logarithms is 2 ; and by inipe&ing the two feries,
this laft number will be found to be the logarithm
of the former. In like manner, if the terms of the
geometrical feries be 1024 and 16, the logarithms
of which are 10 and 4, we find that 1024-^-16=64,
and that 10—4 = 6;^ now it appears from the table
that the latter number, viz. 6, is the logarithm of the
former 64.
Thefe two properties of logarithms, the fecond of
which indeed is an immediate confequence of the firft,
enable us to find with great facility the product or
the quotient of any tvx> terms of a geometrical feries
to which there is adapted an arithmetical feries, fo that
each number has its logarithm oppofite to it, as in the
preceding ftiort table. For it is evident, that to mul¬
tiply twro numbers wTe have only to add their loga¬
rithms, and oppofite to that logarithm which is the fum
we fhall find the produfl required. Thus, to mul¬
tiply 16 by 128; to the logarithm of 16, which is
4, we add the logarithm of 128, which is 7, and op¬
pofite to the fum 11, w’e find 2048, the produdl fought.
On the other hand, to divide any number in the table
by any other number, we muft fubtraft the logarithm
of the divifor from that of the dividend, and look for
the remainder among the logarithms, and oppofite to
it we (hall find the number fought. Thus, to di¬
vide 2048 by 128, from 11, which is the logarithm
of 2048 we fubtraft 7, the logarithm of 128, and
oppofite to the remainder 4 we find 16, the quotient
fought.
Let us now fuppofe any number of geometrical means
to be interpofed between each two adjoining terms of
the preceding geometrical feries, and the fame number
of arithmetical means between every two adjoining
terms of the arithmetical feries ; then, as the refults will
ftill be a geometrical and an arithmetical feries, the in¬
terpolated terms of the latter will be the logarithms of
the correfponding terms of the former, and the two new
feries will have the very fame properties as the original
feries.
If we fuppofe the number of interpolated means to
be very great, it will follow that among the terms of
the refulting geometrical feries, fome one or other will
be found nearly equal to any propofed number what¬
ever. Therefore, although the preceding table exhi¬
bits the logaiithms of 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, &c. but does
not contain the logarithms of the intermediate num¬
bers, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, &c. yet it is eafy to conceive
that a table might be formed by interpolation which
ftiould contain, among the terms of the geometrical fe¬
ries, all numbers whatever to a certain extent, (or at leaft
others very neaily equal to them) together with their
logarithms. If fuch a table were conftrudled, or at
leaft if fuch terms of the geometrical progreflion were
found together with their logarithms, as were either
accurately equal to, or coincided nearly with, all num¬
bers
3
L O G A R
Introcluc- bers witbin certain limits, (for example between I and
, tl0n- iooooo) then, as often as we had occafion to multiply
v"" '' or divide any numbers contained in that table we might
evidently obtain the produfts or quotients by the Am¬
ple operations of addition and fubtra&ion.
The firft invention of logarithms has been attributed
by fbme to Longomontanus, and by others to Jufte Byrgey
two mathematicians who were cotemporary with Lord
Napier; but there is no reafon to fuppofe thi/t either of
thefe anticipated him, for Longomontanus never publilh-
ed any thing on the fubjeft, although he lived thirty-
three years after Napier had made known his difeovery;
and as to Byrgey he is indeed known to have printed a
table containing an arithmetical and a geometrical pro-
greffion written oppofite to each other$. ib as to form in
effect a fyftem of logarithms of the fatne kind as thofe
invented by Napier, without however explaining their
nature and ufe, although it appears from the title he
intended to do fo, but was probably prevented by fome
caufe unknown to us. But this work was not printed
till 1620, fix years after Napier had publilhed his dif¬
eovery.
It is therefore with good reafon that Napier is now
univerfally confidered as the firft, and moft probably as
the only inventor. This difeovery he publilhed in the
year 1614 in a book entitled Mirijici Logarithmorum
Canonis Defcriptio, but he referved the conftru&ion of
the numbers till the opinion of the learned concerning
his invention fhould be known. His work contains a
table of the natural fines and cofines, and their loga¬
rithms for every minute of the quadrant, as alfo the
differences between the logarithmic fines and cofines,
which are in effedl the logarithmic tangents. There is
no table of the logarithms of numbers $ but precepts are
given, by which they, as well as the logarithmic tan¬
gents, may be found from the table of natural and lo¬
garithmic fines.
In explaining the nature of logarithms, Napier fup-
pofes feme determinate line which reprefents the radius
of a circle to be continually diminifhed, fo as to have
fucceflively all poflible values, and thus to be equal
to every fine, one after another, throughout the qua¬
drant. And he fuppofes this diminution to be effected
by a point moving from one extremity towards the other
extremity, (or rather fome point very near it), with a mo¬
tion that is not uniform, but becomes flotver and flower,
and fuch, that if the whole time between the beginning
and the end of the motion be conceived to be divided
into a very great number of equal portions, the decre¬
ments taken away in each of thefe fhall be to one ano¬
ther as the refpeftive remainders of the line. Accord¬
ing to this mode of conceiving the line to decreafe, it is
eafy to (hew that at the end of any fucceffive equal in¬
tervals of time from the beginning of the motion, the
portions of the line which remain will conftitute a de-
creafing geometrical progreflion.
Again, he fuppofes another line to be generated by
a point which moves along it equably, or which paffes
over equal intervals of it in equal times. Thus the por¬
tions of the line generated at the end of any equal fuc-
ceflive intervals of time from the beginning of the mo¬
tion will form a feries of quantities in arithmetical pro¬
greflion, Now if the two motions be fuppofed to be¬
gin together, at the end of any equal intervals of time
the remainders of the one line will form a feries of
Vou XH. Part J.
I T H M S. 65
quantities in geometrical progrtflion, and the corref- Introduc-
ponding portions generated of the other line, will con-, tlon' ,
ftitute a feries in arithmetical progreflion, fo that the
latter will be the logarithms of the former. And as
the terms of the geometrical progreflion decreafe con¬
tinually from radius, which is the greateft term, to o,
while the terms of the correfponding arithmetical pro¬
greflion increafe from o upwards, according to Napier’s
lyftem the logarithm of radius is o, and the logarithms
of the fines from radius down to o, are a feiies of
numbers increafing from o to infinite.
The velocities or degrees of quicknefs with which
the motions commence may have to each other any ratio
whatever, and by affuming different ratios we lhall
have different fyftems of logarithms. Napier ftippofed.
the velocities to be equal; but the fyftem of logarithms
produced in confequence of this affumption having been
found to have fome difadvantages, it has been long dif-
ufed, and a more convenient one fubftituted inftead of
it, as we fhall prefently have occafion to explain.
Napier’s work having been written in Latin was
tranflated into EnglUh by Mr Edivard Wright, an in¬
genious mathematician of that period, and the inventor
of the principles of what is commonly though errone-
oully called Mercator's failing. The translation was
fent to Napier for his perufal, and returned with his
approbation, and the addition of a few lines, intimating
that he intended to make fome alteration in the fyftem
of logarithms in a fecond edition. Mr Wright died
foan after be received back his tranflation ; but it was
publhhed after his death, in the year 1616, accom¬
panied with a dedication by his fon to the Eaft India
Company, and a preface by Henry Briggs, who after¬
wards diftinguifhed himfelf fo much by his improvement
of logarithms. Mr Briggs likewife gave in this work
the defeription and draught of a fcale which had been
invented by Wright, as alfo various methods of his own
for finding the logarithms of numbers, and the contrary,
by means of Napier’s table, the ufe of which had been
attended with fome inconvenience on account of its con¬
taining only fuch numbers as were the natural fines ta
every minute of the quadrant and their logarithms.
There W’as an additional inconvenience in ufing the
table, arifing from the logarithms being partly pofitive
and partly negative ; the latter of thefe was, however,
well remedied by John Speidell in his New Logarithms,
firft publilhcd in the year 1-619, contained the
fines, cofines, tangents, cotangents, fecants, and cofe-
cants, and given in fuch a form as to be all pofitive ;
and the former was ftill more completely removed by an
additional table, which he gave in the fixth impreffion
of his work, in the year 1624, and which contained the
logarithms of the whole numbers 1,2, 3, 4, &c. to
1000, together with their differences and arithmetical
complements, &c. This table is now commonly call¬
ed hyperbolic logarithms, bccaufe the numbers ferve to
exprefs the areas contained between a hyperbola and
its afymptote, and limited by ordinates drawn parallel
to the other afymptote. This name, however, is cer¬
tainly improper, as the fame fpaces may reprefent the
logarithms of any fyftem whatever, (fee Fluxions.
$152. Ex. 5.)
In 1719 Robert Napier, fon of the inventor of lo¬
garithms, publiihed a fecond edition of his father’s
Logarithmorum Canonis Defcriptio. And along with
I this
/
L O G A R
- this the promifed Logarithmofum Canonis CotiJlruBio,
l and other pieces written bj his father and Mr Briggs.
An exafl copy of the fame two works in one volume
was alfo printed in 1620 at Lyons in France. In 1618
or 1619 Benjamin Urjinus, mathematician to the elector
of Brandenburg, publiilied Napier’s tables of logarithms
in his Curfus Mathematicus, to which he added feme
tables of proportional parts j and in 1624 he printed
his Trigonometric, with a table of natural fines,aand their
logarithms of the Napierean kind andfc>rm, to every ten
feconds of the quadrant.
In the fame year, 1624, the celebrated John Kepler
publiihed at Marpurg logarithms of nearly the fame
kind, under the title of Chilias Logarithmorum ad to-
tidem Numeros Rotundas, prcemijfa Demonjlratione ligi-
tima Ortus Logarithmorum eorumque Ufus, &c. and in
the following year he publilhed a fupplement to this
work. In the preface to this laft he fays, that feveral
of the profeflbrs of mathematics in Upper Germany,
and more efpecially thofe of them who were fomewhat
advanced in years, and were grown averfe to new me¬
thods of reafoning that carried them out of the old doc¬
trines and principles with which habit had rendered
them familiar, doubted in fome degree whether Napier’s
demon ft ration of the property of logarithms was perfect¬
ly true, and whether the application of them to trigo-
nometrical calculations might not be unfafe and lead
the calculator who ftrould truft in them to erroneous
refults 5 and in either cafe, whether the do&rine w'ere
true or not, they confidered Napier’s demon ftration of
it as illegitimate and unfatisfaclory This opinion in¬
duced Kepler to compofe the above-mentioned work, in
which the whole doftrine is treated in a manner ftriftly
geometrical, and free from the confiderations of motion
which the German mathematicians had objected to
(and not wuthout reafon) in Napier’s mode of treating
the fubjeci.
On the publication of Napier’s logarithms, Mr Henry
Briggs, fome time profeffor of geometry in Greiham
college London, and aftemards Savilian profeffor of
geometry at Oxford (whom we have already mentioned)
applied himfelf with great earneftnefs to their ftudy and
improvement, and it appears that he had projedted at
an early period that advantageous change in the fyftem
which has fince taken place. From the particular view
which Napier took of the fubjedf, and the manner in
which he conceived logarithms to be generated, it hap¬
pened that in his fyftem, the logarithms of a feries of
numbers which increafed in a decuple ratio, (as 1,10,
J 00, 1000, &c.) formed adecreafing arithmetical feries,
the common difference of the terms of which was
-•320585r* But it occurred to Briggs that it would
be oe;.ter and more conformable to the received deci¬
mal notation, to adopt a fyftem in which the logarithms
of the terms of fuch a geometrical feries fhould differ
froin each other by unity or 1. This idea Briggs com¬
municated to the public in his ledfures, and alfo to
Napier himfelf. He even went twice to Edinburgh to
fee him, and to converfe with him upon the fubiedt ■
and on his firft vifit Napier faid that he had alfo form¬
erly thought, of the fame improvement, but that he
chofe to publifh the logarithms he.had previoufly cal¬
culated, till fuch time as his health and convenience
would allow him to make others more commodious.
And whereas in the change which Briggs propofedj it
I T H M 8.
was intended to make the logarithms of the fines to in- Introduc-
creafe from o (the logarithm of radius) to infinity, t’ori-
while the fines themfelves fhould decreafe, it was fuo- v~"““
gefted to him by Napier that it would be better to
make them increafe fo that o, inftead of being the lo¬
garithm of radius, ftiould be the logarithm of°1 ; and
that 100000, &c. fhould be the logarithm of radius ;
and this Bfiggs admitted would be an improvement ; .
and having changed the numbers he had already cal¬
culated lo as to make them fuit Napier’s modification
of his plan, he returned with them next year to Edin¬
burgh, and fubmitted them to his perufal.
It appears therefore that Briggs was the inventor of
this improved fyftem of logarithms which has fince
been univerfally adopted, and that the only ftiare that
Napier had in it w’as his fuggefting to Briggs to begin
with the lovy number 1, and to make the logarithms,
or the artificial numbers, as Napier had always called
them, to increafe with the natural numbers, inftead of
decreafing, w hich made no alteration in the figures, but
only in their affedlions or figns, changing them from
negative to pofitive.
On Briggs’s return from Edinburgh, in 1617, he
printed the firft thoufand logarithms to eight places of.
figures, befides the index, with the title of Logarithmo¬
rum Chilias prime; but thefe feem not to have been
pubhftied till after the death of Napier, which happen¬
ed in 1618, for in his preface he expreifes a hope, that
the circumftances which led to a change in the fyftem
would be^explained in Napier’s pollhumous work, which
was prefently to appear. But although Napier had in¬
timated in a note he had given in Wright’s tranflation
of the Canon Mirificus, as wxdl as his Rabdolcgia, print¬
ed in 1617, that he intended to alter the fcale, yet he
altogether omits to ftate that Briggs either w as the firft
to think of this improvement, or at leaft to publifh it
to the w’orld. And as the fame filence on this point
was obferved in Napier’s pofthumous work publilhed
in 1619 by his fon, Briggs took occafion in the preface
to his Arithmetica Lagarithmica to affert his claims to the
improvement he had nowr carried into execution.
The ftudied filence which Napier feems to have ob¬
ferved refpedfing the improvement of the fyftem, which
Briggs had communicated to him, has given juft reafon
to fufpeft that he wifhed to be confidered as the author
of that improvement, as wTell as the original inventor.
But although it is poffible that he thought of it as foon
as Briggs, it would feem to have been no more than
juftice, if, when announcing his intended change of the
fcale, he had acknowledged that the fame idea had oc¬
curred to Briggs as well as to himielf.
In 1620 Mr Edmund Gunter publiflied his Canon of
Triangles, which contains the artificial or logarithmic
fines and tangents to every minute to feven places of fi¬
gures befides the index, the logarithm of radius being
10. Thefe logarithms are of the kind which had been
agreed upon between Napier and Briggs, and they w'ere
the firft tables of logarithmic fines and tangents that
were publiftied of this fort. Gunter alio in 1623 re¬
printed the fame in his book de SeBore et Radio, toge¬
ther with the Chilias pnma of Briggs j and in the fame
year he applied the logarithms of numbers, fines, and
tangents, to ftraight lines drawn upon a ruler. This
inftrument is now in common ufe for navigation and o-
ther purpofes, and is commonly called Gunter's fcale.
The
L O G A H
Ifttfoduc- The difcoveries In Logarithms were firft carried to
tion. Trance by Mr Edmund Wingate, but not firft of all as
•—""v ' he fays in the preface to his book. He publiftied at
Paris in 1624 two fmall trafts in the French language
upon logarithms, and thefe were reprinted with improve¬
ments at London in 1626. > _ .
In the year 1624, Briggs publifhed his Arithmetica
Logarithmica, a ftupendous work confidering the fhort
time he had been in preparing it. He here gives the
logarithms of 30000 natural numbers to fourteen places
of figures, befides the index •, namely, from 1 to 20000,
and from 90000 to looooo, together with the difte-
rences of the logarithms. He alio gives an ample trea-
tife on their conftruaion and ufe, and he earneftly foli-
cits others to undertake the computation of the interme¬
diate numbers, offering to give inftru&ions, and. paper
ready ruled for that purpofe, to any perfons inclined to
contribute to the completion of fo valuable a work. By
this invitation he had hopes of collefting mateiials for
the logarithms of the intermediate *jooco numbers,
while he Ihould employ his time upon the Canon of Lo¬
garithmic fines and tangents, and fo carry on both works
at once.
Soon after this, Adrian Vlacq or Elack of Gouda m
Holland completed the intermediate 70 chiliads, and
republilhed the Amthnietica Logarithmic a in 1627 and
16 28, with thefe intermediate numbers, making in all,
the logarithms of all numbers to 100,000, but only to
10 places of figures. To thefe was added a table of ar¬
tificial fines, tangents, and fecants, to every minute of the
quadrant.
Briggs himfelf lived alfo to complete a table of lo¬
garithmic fines and tangents, to the 100th part of every
degree, to fourteen plates of figures befides the index,
together with a table of natural fines to the fame parts
to fifteen places, and the tangents and fecants of the
fame to ten places, with the conftruftion of the whole.
But his death, wdiich then happened, prevented him
from completing the application and ufes of them.
However, when dying, he Committed the performing
of this office to his friend Henry Gellihrand, who ac¬
cordingly added a preface, and the application of the
logarithms to plane and fpherical trigonometry. 1 he
work was called Trigonometria Britannic a, and was
printed at Gouda in the year 1633 under the care of
Adrian Vlack.
In the fame year, 1633, Adrian Vlach printed a
work of his own, called Trigonometria Artijicialis, Jive
Magnus Canon Triangulorum Logarithmicus ad Decadas
Secundorum Scrupulorum Conjlrudius. This work con¬
tains the logarithmic fines and tangents to 10 places of
figures, with their differences for every 10 feconds in
the quadrant. It alfo contains Briggs’s table of the
firft 20000 logarithms to ten places, befides the index,
with their differences •, and to the rvhole is prefixed a
defcription of the tables and their applications, chiefly
extracted from Briggs’s Trigonometria Britannic a, which
we have already mentioned.
Gellibrand publifhed alfo, in 1635, An Injiitution
Trigonometrical, containing the logarithms of the firft
J0,000 numbers, wdth the natural fines, tangents, and
fecants, and the logarithmic fines and tangents for de-
grees-and minutes j all to leven places of figures befides
the index.
I T H M s. 67
The writers, wdiofe works we nave hitherto noticed, Intreduc-
were for the moft part computers of logarithms. But 1 __ ^ 1
the fyftem beft adapted to practice being now7 w’ell af-
certained, and the labour of conftrucling the table ac-
complifhed, fucceeding writers on the fubjeft have had
little more to do than to give the tables in the moft
convenient form. It is true that, in confequence of
the numerous difcoveries which were afterwards made
in mathematics, particularly in the dodfrine of feries,
great improvements were made in the method of com¬
puting logarithms •, but thefe, for the moft part, came
too late to be of ufe in the adtual conftrudtion of the
table, although they might be applied wflth advantage
to verify calculations previoufly performed by methoas
much more laborious.
As it is of importance that fuch as have occafion to
employ logarithms ftiould know what wTorks are held in
eftimation on account of their extent and accuracy, wre
fhall enumerate the following.
1. Sherwin’s Mathematical Tables, in 8vo. Thefe
contain the logarithms of ail numbers to ici,oooj and
the fines, tangents, fecants, and verfed fines, both na¬
tural and logarithmic, to every minute of the quadrant.
The third edition, printed in I742> which w\*s revifed
by Gardiner, is efteemed the moft correct j but, in the
fifth edition, the errors are fo numerous, that no de¬
pendence can be placed upon it when accuracy is re¬
quired.
2. Gardiner’s Tables of Logarithms for all numbers
to 101,000, and for the fines and tangents to every ten
feconds of the quadrant 5 alfo for the fines of the firft
72 minutes to every fingle fecond, &c. This wTork,
which is in 410, was printed in I742> anc^ **
high eftimation for its accuracy.
3. An edition of the fame work, with fome additions,
printed in 1770 in Avignon in France. The tables in
both editions are to feven places of figures.
4. Tables Portatives de Logarithmes, publiee a Lon-
dres, par Gardiner, augmentdes et perfeclionecs dans
leur difpojition, par M. Collet.—Th'.s work is moft
beautifully printed in a fmall oftavo volume, and con¬
tains all the tables in Gardiner’s quarto volume j with
fome additions and improvements.
5. Dr Hutton’s Mathematical Tables, containing
common hyperbolic and logiftic logarithms, &c.— I his
w7ork has paffed through feveral editions, under the
care of the learned author : it is perhaps the moft com¬
mon of any in this country, and is defervedly held in
the higheft eftimation, both on account of its accuracy,
and the very valuable information it contains refpedting
the hiftory of logarithms, and other branches of mathe¬
matics connefted with them.
6. Taylor’s Table of Logarithmic Sines and Tangents
to every fecond of the quadrantto which is prefixed
a table of logarithms from 1 to 100,000, &c.— 1 his is
a moft valuable work •, but being a very large quarto
volume, and alfo very expenfive, it is lefs adapted to
general ufe than- the preceding, which is an o£tavo,
and may be had at a moderate price.
7. Tables portatives des logariihmes, contenant les lo¬
garithmes des nombres depuis 1 jufqu'1 a 108,000; let
logarithmes des Jinus et tangentes, de feconde en feconde
pour les cinq premiers degrees, de dix en dix fecondes
pour tons les degrees du quart-de cercle, et fuivant la
J a . nouvelle
68
LOG A n
vol.
feries,
P-3H
4to
Nature of nauvslle divi/ion eentejimale dc dix-millleme en dix mil-
Logarithm^,licme, &.c. par Callet,—This work, which is in oftavo,
£-cc- may be re a Ion ably expefted to be very accurate, it be¬
ing printed in the (lereotype manner, by Didot.
In addition to thcfe, it is proper that we fliould no¬
tice a flupendous work relating to logarithms, origi¬
nally iu^gefted by the celebrated Carnot, in conjunction
with Prieur de la Cote d'Or, and Brunei de Montpelier,
about the beginning of the French revolution. This
enterprife was committed, in the year 1794> ^'e care
of Front/, a French mathematician of great eminence,
who was not only to compofe tables which JhouId leave
nothing to be defined with rcfpecl to accuracy, but to
male them the mojl extended and mojl Jlriking monument
of calculation which had ever been executed or ever una-
* Nicholf. gined *. It appears that two manufcript copies of the
Journ. work were formed, compofed of 17 volumes large fo¬
lio and containing, befides an introdu£tion, the fol¬
lowing tables.
1. The natural fines for each 10,000th part of the
quadrant, calculated to twenty-five places of decimals,
to be pmblifhed with twenty-two decimals and five co¬
lumns of differences.
2. The logarithms of thefe fines, calculated to four¬
teen decimals, with five columns of differences.
3. The logarithms of the ratios of the fines to the
arcs for the firfi: five thoufand 100,000th parts of the
quadrant, calculated to fourteen decimal places, with
three columns of differences.
4. The logarithms of the tangents correfponding
with the logarithms of the fines.
5. The logarithms of the ratios of the tangents to
the arcs calculated like thcfe of the third article.
6. Logarithms of numbers from 1 to 100,000, cal¬
culated to nineteen places of decimals.
7. The logarithms of numbers from 100,000 to
200,000, calculated to 24 decimals, in order to be pub-
Ilfhed to 12 decimals and three columns of differences.
The printing of this work was begun at the expence
of the French government, but was fufpended at the
fall of the aflignats •, whether it has been fmce refumed
we cannot pofitively fay, but it certainly is not yet
completed.
SECT. I.
jQF THE NATURE OF LOGARITHMS AND
THEIR CONSTRUCTION.
WE have already ftiewn that the properties of loga¬
rithms are deducible from thofe of two feries, the terms
of one of which form a geometrical progreffion, and thofe
of the other an arithmetical progreffion 5 and as this
manner of treating the fubjefl is fimple, it is perhaps
the beft adapted of any to fuch of our readers as have
not purfued the ftudy of mathematics to any great ex¬
tent We fhall now (hew how, from the fame princi¬
ples, the logarithm of any propofed number whatever
may be found.
The firft flep to be taken in conftrufling a fyffem of
logarithms is to affume the logarithm of fome determi¬
nate number, befides that of unity or 1, which muff ne-
ceffaiily be o. From the particular view which Napier
took of the fubjeft, he was led to affume unity for the
logarithm of the number 2.718282, by which it hap-
I T H M S.
pened that the logarithm of 1 0 was 2.302585, and tiffs Nature of
affumption being made, the form of the fyffem became Logantfinaa,
determinate, and the logarithm of every number fixed ^c'
to one particular value.
Mr Briggs however obferved, that it would be bet¬
ter to affume unity for the logarithm of ic, inftead of
making it the logarithm of 2.718282, as in Napier’s
fyftem, and hence the logarithms of the terms of the
geometrical piogreflion
I, 10, ICO, IOOO, IOOOO, &c.
were neceffarily fixed to the corefponding terms of this
arithmetical progreflion,
o, I, 2, 3, 4, &.c.
That is, the logarithm of 1 being o, and that of 10
being j, the logarithm of 100 is 2, and that of 1000
is 3, and fo on.
The logarithms of the terms of the progreflion, 1,10,
IOO, loco, &c. being thus determined j in order to
form the logarithms of the numbers between 1 and 10,
and between 10, and ico, and fo on, we muff conceive
a very great number of geometrical means to be inter-
pofed between each two adjoining terms of the prece-
ding geometrical feries, and as many arithmetical means
between the correfponding terms of the arithmetical fe¬
ries ; then, like as the terms of the arithmetical leries
o, I, 2, 3, &c. are the logarithms of the correfponding
terms of the geometrical feries 1, 10, 100, 1000, &c.
the interpolated terms of the former will alfo be the1 lo¬
garithms of the correfponding interpolated terms of the
latter. Now as by fuppofing the number of means in-
terpofed between each two terms of the geometrical fe¬
ries to be fufficiently gfeat, fome one or other of them,
may be found which will be very nearly equal to any
propofed number j it is evident that to find the lo¬
garithm of fuch a number, we have only to feek for one
of the interpolated means which is very nearly equal to
it, and to take- the logarithm of that mean as a near
value of the logarithm required.
As a particular example, let it be required to find
the logarithm of the number 5, according to Briggs’s
fyftem.
Fir/l fep of the procefs.—‘The number 5 is between
I and 10, the logarithms of which rve already know
to be o and 1 : Let a geometrical mean be found be¬
tween the two former, and an arithmetical mean be¬
tween the two latter. The geometrical mean will be
the fquare root of the product of the numbers 1 and
10, which is 3.162277 •, and the arithmetical mean
will be half the firm of the logarithms O and 1, which
is 0.5; therefore the logarithm of 3.162277 is o.?.
But as the mean thus found is not fufficiently near to
the propofed number, we muff: proceed with the opera¬
tion as follows:
Second fep.—The number 5, whofe logarithm is
fought is between 3.162277, the mean laft found, and
10, the logarithms of which we know to be 0.5 and
I j we muff now find a geometrical mean between the
two former, and an arithmetical mean between the
two latter. The one of thefe is v/(3-I62277 X 10)
= 5.623413, aijd the other is
1 +0.t_
0.75
there¬
fore the logarithm of 5.623413 is 0.75.
ThirdyA/>.—We have now obtained two numbers,
namely
L O G A R
Nature of namely 3.162277 and 5.623413, one on each fide of
logarithms,^ together with their logarithms 0.5 and .075, we
. ^~c~ therefore proceed exaftly as before, and accordingly we
v ' find the geometrical mean, or ^(3.162277x5.623413),
to be 4.216964, and the arithmetical mean, or -
2
to be 0.625 j therefore the logarithm of 4.216964 is
0.625.
Fourth flep,—We proceed in the fame manner with
the numbers 4.216964, and 5.623413 (one of which
is lefs, and the other greater than 5) and their loga¬
rithms 0.625 and 0.75, and find a new geometrical
mean, viz. 4.869674, and its correfponding arithmeti¬
cal mean, or logarithm, 0.6875.
We muft go on in this way till we have found twen¬
ty-two geometrical means, and as many correfponding
arithmetical means or logarithms. And that wTe may
indicate how thefe are found from each other, let the
numbers 1 and to be denoted by A and B, and their
geometrical means taken in their order by C, D, E,
&.c. then the refults of the fuccefiive operations will be
as in the following table.
Numbers.
A I.OOOOOO
B = 10.000000
C = a/AB == 3.162277
D = x/BC = 5.623413
E = x/CD — 4.216964
F = y^DE 4.869674
G = y/DF = 5.232991
H =r ^/FG = 5.048065
I = i/FH = 4.958069
K = x/HI = 5.002865
L = ^/IK = 4.980416
M =r ^KE = 4.991627
N = VK-M = 4.997242
O — v/KN — 5.000052
P = VNO rr 4.998647
Q. = A/OP = 4*999350
R = a/OQ^ — 4.999701
S = y'OR = 4.999876
T = ^/OS = 4.999963
V =r v^OT — 5.000008
W =r v'TV = 4.999984
X =: ^/WV rr 4.999997
Y — y'VX ~ 5.000003
Z =0 y^XY = 5.000000
Logarithms.
0.0000000
1.0000000
0.5000000
0.7500000
0.6250000
0.6875000
0.7187500
0.7031250
0.6953125
0.6992187
0.6972656
0.69824!!
0.6987304
0.6989745
0.6988525
0.6989135
0.6989440
0.6989592
0.6989668
0.6989707
0.6989687
0.6989697
0.6989702
0.6989700
As the laft of thefe means, viz. Z, agrees with 5, the
propofed number, as far at leaft as the fixth place of de¬
cimals, we may fafely confider them as very nearly equal,
therefore their logarithms will alfo be very nearly equal,
that is the logarithm of 5 will be b 6989700 nearly.
In performing the operations indicated in the prece¬
ding table it will be neceflary to find the geometrical
means at the beginning to many more figures than are
here put down, in order to obtain at laft a refult true
to 7 decimal places. Thus it appears that the labour
of computing logarithms by this method is indeed very
great. It is, however, that which was employed by
Briggs and Vlacq in the original conftruflion of loga¬
rithms 5 but fince the period in which they lived, others
more eafy have been found, as we {hall prefently have
occafion to explain.
The logarithm of any number whatever may be
I T H M S. 69
found by a feries of calculations fimilar to that which Nature of
we have juft now explained. But in conftru£ling the
table it rvould only be neceffary to have recourfe to this , , ^. 1
method in calculating the logarithms of prime num¬
bers ; for as often as the logarithm of a number which
was the produft of other numbers, whofe logarithms
were known, was required, it would be immediately
obtained by adding together the logarithms of its fac¬
tors. On the contrary, if the logarithm of the produfl
of tw’o numbers were known, and alfo that of erne of
its fadlors, the logarithm of the other faflor would
be obtained from thefe, by limply taking their difference.
From this laft remark it is obvious, that having now
found the logarithm of 5, we can immediately find that
of 2; for fince 2 is the quotient of 10 divided by 5,
its logarithm wall be the difference of the logarithms
of 10 and 5 *, now the logarithm of 10 is 1, and the
logarithm of 5 is 0.6989700, therefore the logarithm
of 2180.3010300.
Having thus obtained the logarithms of 2 and 5, in
addition to thofe of 10, 100, 1000, &c. we may thence
find the logarithms of innumerable other numbers.
Thus, becaufe 4=r 2X2, the logarithm of 4 will be the
logarithm of 2 added to itfelf, or wall be twice the lo¬
garithm of 2. Again, becaufe 5 x 10=150, the loga¬
rithm of 50 will be the fum of the logarithms of 5 and w
10. In this manner it is evident we may find the lo¬
garithms of 8=2x4, 16=2x8, of 25=5x5, and
of as many more fuch numbers as wTe pleafe.
Befides the view w'e have hitherto taken of the theo¬
ry of logarithms, there are others under which it has
been prefented by different authors. Some of thefe we
proceed to explain, beginning with that in which they
are defined to be the tneafures of ratios; but to fee the
propriety of this definition, it muft be underftood what
is meant by the meafure of a ratio.
According to the definition of a compound ratio, as
laid down by writers on geometry, it there be any num¬
ber of magnitudes A, B, C, D, which are continual
proportionals, or fuch that the ratio of A to B is equal
to the ratio of B to C, and that again is equal
to the ratio of C to D, and fo on, the ratio of the firft
of thefe magnitudes A to the third C is confidered as
made up of two equal ratios, each equal to the ratio of
the firft A to the fecond B. And in like manner the
ratio of the firft A to the fourth D is confidered as
made up of three equal ratios, each equal to the ratio
of the firft to the fecond, and fo on. (See Geometry
Se<ft. III. Def. 10, 11, and 12.) Thus, to take a par¬
ticular example in numbers, becaufe the ratio of 81 to
3 may be confidered as made up of the ratio of 81 to
27, and of 27 to 9, and of 9 to 3, which three ratios
are equal among themfelves, (Geometry Se£f. III.
Def. 4.) the ratio of 8r to 3 will be triple the ratio of
9 to 3 ; and in like manner the ratio of 27 to 3 will
be double the ratio of 9 to 3. Alfo, becaufe the ratios
of 1000 to 100, 100 to 10, 10 to 1, are all equal, the
ratio of 1000 to 1 will be three times as great as the
ratio of 10 to 1 j and the ratio of too to 1 will be
twice as great; and fo on.
Taking this view of ratios, and confidering them as
a particular fpecies of quantities, made up or others of
the fame kind, they may evidently be compared with
each other, in refpeft of their magnitudes, in the fame
manner as we compare lines or quantities of any kind
whatever...
L O G A R
of whatever. And as when eftirnating the relative mag-
nitudes of two quantities, two lines for example, if
we find that the one contains five fuch equal parts as
the other contains feven, we fay the one line has to the
other the proportion of 5 to 7 j fo, in like manner, if two
ratios be fuch, that the one can be refolved into five
equal ratios, and the other into feven of the fame ratios,
we may conclude that the magnitude of the one ratio
is to that of the other as the number 5 to the number
7 ; and a fimilar conclufion may be drawn, when the
ratios to be compared are any multiples whatever of
fome other ratio.
It is well known that there may be lines and other
quantities, which, as they admit of no common meafure,
are faid to be incommenfurable to each other ; and the
fame will alfo happen to ratios: That is, there may be
two ratios fuch that into whatever number of equal ra¬
tios the one is divided, the other cannot poffibly be ex¬
actly equal to a ratio compofed of any number of thefe.
We may however conceive the number of equal ratios
into which the one is divided to be fo great that a cer¬
tain number of them (hall compofe a ratio more nearly
equal to the other ratio than by any affignable diffe¬
rence. Therefore, like as we can always find numbers
which fhall have among themfelves, either accurately,
©r as nearly as we pleafe, the fame ratios as any num¬
ber of lines or other magnitudes have to each other,
and which therefore may be taken as the meafures, or
reprefentatives of the lines; fo alfo, correfponding to
any fyflem of ratios, there may be always found a feries
of numbers which will have the fame proportions a-
mong themfelves as the ratios have to each other, and
which may in like manner be called the meafures of the
-ratios.
Let us now fuppofe that unity, or I, is affumed as the
common confequent of all ratios whatever ; and that
the ratio of 10 (or fome particular number) to 1 is
compounded of a very great number of equal ratios, as
for example 1000,000 : then, as each of thefe will be
very near to the ratio of equality, (for it will be the
ratio of the firfl: term to the fecond of a feries of one
million and one continued proportionals, the firft of
which is 10 and laft 1), it will follow, and is eafy to
conceive, that the ratios of all other numbers to unity
will each be very nearly equal to fome multiple of that
fmall ratio. And by fuppofing the number of final 1
equal ratios of which the ratio of io4o 1 is compofed
to be Efficiently great, the ratios of all other numbers
to unity may be as nearly equal to ratios which are
multiples of that fmall ratio as we pleafe. Let us ftill
fuppofe, however, for the fake of illuftration, that the
number of fmall ratios contained in that of 10 to 1 is
1000,000 then, as it may be proved that the ratio of a
to 1 will be very nearly the fame as a ratio compofed of
301030 of thefe •, and that the ratio of 3 to 1 will be
nearly equal to a ratio compofed of 477121 of them,
and that the ratio of 4 to I will be nearly equal to a
ratio compofed of 602060 of them, and fo on j thefe
numbers, viz. looocoo, 301030, 477121, and 602060,
or any other numbers proportional to them, will be the
meafures of the ratios of 10 to 1, 2 to 1, 3 to 1, and 4
to 1, refpeftively ; and the fame quantities will alfo be
what have been called the logarithms of the ratios •, for
the word logarithm, if regard be had to its etymology,
is Aayaiv u^6o)t or the numbers of fmall and equal
I T K M S.
ratios (or ratiuncultf as they have been called) con- Nature of
tained in the feveral ratios of quantities one to another. Logarithms*
We have for the fake of illuftration, affumed 1000000 &cg'
as the meafure of the ratio of 10 to 1, by which it hap- v~n
pens, as already obferved, that the meafures of the
ratios of 2 to I, 3 to 1, &c. are 301030 and 477121
refpedlively ; as, however, thefe meafures are not abfo-
lute, but relative quantities, We may affume any other
numbers whatever inftead of thefe, provided they have
the fame proportions to each other as thefe numbers
have among themfelves. Accordingly, we may.affume 1
as the meafure or logarithm of the ratio of 10 to 1 j and
then the logarithms of the ratios of 2 to 1, 3 to 1, &c.
inftead of being 301030, 477121, &c. will be .301030
and .477121, &c. refpedively, that is, each will be the
one-millionth of what it was before.
In Briggs's fyftem, the logarithm of the ratio of 10
to 1, or, to fpeak briefly, the logarithm of 10, is unity j
but we are at liberty to affume any number whatever
as that whofe logarithm (hall be unity. Napier, in con-
fequence of his particular views of the fubjefl, chofe
the number 2.718282 j and hence it happens that the
logarithms of the ratios are expreffed by different num*
bers in the two fyftems.
It yet remains for us to fhew the identity of the pro¬
perties of logarithms, as explained in the two different
views we have now given of the fubjeft j and this may
be done as follows.
Let A and B denote any two numbers. The ratio
of their produdt to unity, that is, the ratio of A X B to
I, is compounded of the ratio of AxB to B, and of
B to 1 j (fee Geometry Part III. Def. 10.) but fince
AxB, B, A, and 1 are four proportionals, the ratio of
AxB to B is equal to the ratio of A to 1. There¬
fore the ratio of A X B to 1 is compounded of the
ratio of A to 1 and of B to 15 and confequently the
logarithm of the ratio of A X B to 1 will be equal to
the fum of the logarithms of the ratios of A to 1, and
of B to 1 5 or in other words, the logarithm of A X B
will be the fum of the logarithms of A and B.
And becaufe log. (AxB)=tlog. A-flog. B, there¬
fore, log. Brrrlog. (A X B)—log. A. In this equation
let — be fubftituted for B, and D for A, then, (be-
c c
caufe A X B—D x —~C) wrehave log. ——log. C—
log. D.
We have now given a ffiort Iketch of the theory
of logarithms as deducible from the doftrine of ratios.
It was in this way that the celebrated Kepler treated
the fubjeft according to the ftri&eft rules of geometri¬
cal reafoning j and in this he has been followed by Mer¬
cator, Halley, Cotes, as well as by other mathemati¬
cians of later times, as by Mr Baron Maferes, in his
“ Elements of Plane Trigonometry,” a work in which
the whole theory of logarithms is treated with all that
perfpicuity and accuracy which chara&erize the ingeni¬
ous author’s various writings. The fame mode of treat¬
ing the fubjefl was likewife adopted by that excellent
geometrician Dr Robert Simfon, as appeal's by a ffiort
tra& in Latin, written by him and publiffied in his poft-
humcus w'orks. As, howrever, the doftrine of ratios is
of a very abftracl nature, and the mode of reafoning up¬
on which it has been eftabliflied is of a peculiar and
fubtle kind, wTe prefume that the greater number of
readers
L O G A R
Nature of readers will think this view of the fubjeft lefs flmple
Logarithms,an(j natural than the following, in which we mean to
| deduce the theory of logarithms, as well as the manner
0f computing them, from the properties of the exponents
ef powers.
If wTe attend to the common fcale of notation in
arithmetic, we fliall find that it is fo contrived as to
exprefs all numbers whatever by means of the powers
of the number 10, which is the root of the fcale, and
the nine digits which ferve as coefficients to thefe
powers. Thus, if R denote 10, the root of the fcale,
fo that R* will denote 100, and R3 1000, and fo on,
the number 47i5'c>9 is otherwife expreffed by 4Rs-r
7R4_j_ jR 3 which is equivalent to
Again, the mixt number
371.2431s exprefled by jR'+yR'A _|_
|t, °' ty sR'+vR'+^+^'+dR^+sR-3-
As to vulgar fraftions, by transforming them to deci¬
mals, they may be exprefied in the fame manner.
Tl,uSi=.375=3R-I+7R-J+jR~3- Alfa |=
.666, &c.=6R-i+6R-j+6R-34. &c.
Although the number 10 has been fixed upon as the
root of the fcale of notation, any other number may
be employed to exprefs all numbers whatever in the
fame manner ; and feme numbers are even preferable
to 10. Thus, making 8 the root of a fcale, and de¬
noting it by R, the number 2735, when expreffed ac¬
cording to this fcale, is 5R3 + iR1-}-5RIff-7R°, or
5R3+2RI + 5R-}-7 ; and here we may obferve, that if
a number greater than 10 wTere affumed as the root of
the fcale of notation, it would be neceffary to adopt
fome new numeral charafters in addition to thofe in
common ufe, and if a fmaller number wrere affumed,
we might difpenfe with fome of thofe we already
have.
But inftead of expreffing all numbers by the fums of
certain multiples of the fucceflive powrers of fome par¬
ticular number, we may alfo exprefs them, if not accu¬
rately, at leaf! as near as we pleafe, by a fingle power,
whole or fractional, of any pofitive number whatever,
which may be either wdrole or fractional, but mult not
be unity.
Let us take, for example, 2 as the number, by the
powders of which all others are to be expreffed. Then
it may be Ihewn that the numbers 1, 2, 3, &c. are all
expreffible by the powrers of 2, as follows.
1 = 2°
2=2J
3 —21-5849(5
6—;2j-5849(5 nearly
7_:22.807 3 nearly
:, nearly 8rr23
p—2 3.1699
10= 23•3219 nearly,
4=2*
5=r22*3119, nearly
and fo on. And if inftead of 2 we take the number 10,
then wre have
1 = 10°
2~ 10*3 020 3
3— jq.477i»
4— i0-«O2O<s
j—! 0-69897
g_I0.778,S
7_io.845io
8--; ! 0.90509
9m O'95424
lomo1.
I T H M S. - yr
determinate number, and // for any indefinite pofitive Nature of
number, whole or fractional, it is always poffible to find Logarithm?,
another number N, fuch, that the number r being raifed . .
to the pow-er N lhall either be exaCtly equal to n, or
lliall be as near to it as we pleafe } that is, we lhall have
When numbers are expreffed in this way by the
powers of fome given number r ; the exponent of that
power of r which is equal to any afjigncd number is
called the logarithm of that number. Therefore, if rN—v,
(« being put for any number) then N will be the loga¬
rithm of the number n.
The logarithms which are produced by giving to r
fome determinate value conffitute aof logarithms,
and the conllant number r, from which the fyltem is
formed, is called the bafe or radical number of the
fyliem.
The properties of logarithms may be readily deduced
from the above definition as follows. Let a and b be
put for any two numbers, and A and B for their loga¬
rithms j then, r being fuppofed to denote the bafe, or
radical number of the fyliem, wre have a—r^ and
b^zr^ : now if we take the produCt of a and b, we
have a b=zr^ x ; but according to the de¬
finition, A-J-B is the logarithm of a b, (for it is the in¬
dex of that power of r which is equal to a b) therefore^
the fum of the logarithms of any two numbers a and b is
the logarithm of their producl a b. Again, we have
a rA
— =: —5-—rA but here A—B is the index of that
b rB
Q
power of r which is equal to ? therefore, A—B is the
logarithm of — 5 hence, if one number a be divided by
another number b, the excefs of the logarithm of the divi¬
dend above that of the divifor is equal to the logarithm
of the quotient
Let n exprefs any number whatever, then, railing
both fides of the equation a~r^ to the ttth power, we
have an~(rA') =rwA 5 but here « A is manifeltly
the logarithm of an ; therefore, the logarithm of an, any
power of a number, is the producl of the logarithm of the
number by n, the index of the power. And this mvf
evidently be true, whether that index be a whole num¬
ber, or a frattion, either poftive or negative.
From thefe properties it is eafy to fee in wffat man¬
ner a table that exhibits the logarithms of all numbers
wdthin certain limits may be applied to fimplify calcula-.
tions : for fince the fum of the logarithms of any two
numbers is equal to the logarithm of their produCl ; it
follows, that as often as we have occafion to find the
produCl of two or more numbers, we have only to add
their logarithms into one fum, taking them from the
table, and to look in the table for the number whofe
logarithm is equal to that fum, and this number will be
the produCl required. Alfo, becaufe the excefs of the
logarithm of the dividend above that of the divifor is^
equal to the logarithm of the quotient 5 as often as we
have occafion to divide one number by another, \ye have.
72
Nature of
Logarithms,
&c.
L 5 G A Tl
only to fubtraft the logarithm of the divifor from that
of the dividend, and oppofite to that logarithm in
, the table, which is the remainder, we ihall find the
quotient.
As the logarithm of -any powder of a number is the
produ£t of the logarithm of the number, and the in¬
dex of the power j and on the contrary, the logarithm
of any root of a number is the quotient found by di¬
viding the logarithm of the number by the index of the
root j it follows, that we may find any power or root of
a number, by multiplying the logarithm of the number
by the index of the power, or dividing it by the index
of the root, and taking that number in the table whofe
logarithm is the product or quotient for the power or
root required.
If in the equation a—r^ (where a is any number,
A its logarithm, and r the bafe of the fyftem) we fup-
pofe a=zl, then, in this cafe rA = i 3 bnt this .equation
can only be fatisfied by putting Amo. Hence it ap¬
pears, that in every fujlem of logantnins, the logarithm
of unity tnujl be c. It on the; other hand w7e alfume
n—r ,• then we have the equation r~r^~, which is im¬
mediately fatisfied by putting A~I ; thereiore, the lo¬
garithm of the bafe, or radical number of every fyjlem is
neceffarily unity.
If we fuppofe r to be a pofitive number greater than
unity, and a a pofitive number greater than unity, then
A will be a pofitive number 5 for if it be negative we
would have a{^vz.r zr—a proper fra£Uon, and at
the fame time a number greater than unity by hypothe-
11s, which is impofiible. If on the contrary we fup¬
pofe a a proper fraction, then A tnuft necefiarily be ne¬
gative, for if it were pofitive, then rA would be greater
than unity, and tf(—rA) alfo greater than unity, while
by hypothefis it is a fraction lefs than unity, which is
impofiible. Therefore, in every fystem, the bafe of which
is greater than unity, the logarithm af a whole or mixt
number is always pofitive, but the logarithm of a proper
fraction is always negative.
Becaufe the logarithm of r is unity, the logarithm
of rn will be n; therefore, the logarithm of any integer
power of the radical number r will always be an in¬
teger.
Let r and r1 denote bafes of two different fyftems j
and let A be the logarithm of a number, a, taken ac¬
cording to the firft of thefe, and A' its logarithm taken
according to the laft. Then becaufe a rr rA, and
a—r,?>J, it followrs that r^rzr* , and r—r1^. Let us
now fuppofe that r" is the bafe of a third fyftem of lo¬
garithms, and R and R' the logarithms of r and r' ta¬
ken according to this third fyilem $ then becaufe
I T H M S.
A' R
A ~ R7’ and A: A (^: : R : R'): ' R : R'*
Hence it appears, that the logarithm of a number, taken
according to one fystem, has to its logarithm, taken ac¬
cording to any other fystem, a con fart ratio, which is the
fame as that of the reciprocals of the logarithms of the
radical numbers of thofe fystems, taken according to any
fystem whatever.
Let us next fuppofe, that a and b are two numbers,
and A and B their logarithms, taken according to the
fame fyftem, and r the bafe of the fyftem j then becaufe
A B / .
r —a, r ~b;
r"R=r,
r’1 — r' •
we have r"RR'=rR', r"RR'=r'R j
therefore rR ~r'R, and r~r,lv j but we have already
M A/ _R
found rzzr1^- > therefore r1A—and consequently
3
R
.fj
Nature of
Logarithms,.
&.C.
, AB B
we have r ~a ,
AB 7 A
r =£>
therefore a^—b^, and a—b^, now as r is not found in
A
this equation, the value of the fra&ion — depends only
on the numbers a and b ; therefore, the logarithms of
any two given numbers have the fame ratio in every fys¬
tem whatever.
Having now explained the properties wdiich belong
to the logarithms of any fyftem whatever, we proceed
to inveftigate general rules by which the number cor-
refponding to any logarithm, and on the contrary, the
logarithm correfponding to any number, may be found
the one from the other. And for this end let us de¬
note any number whatever by y, and its logarithm by x,
and put r as before for the bafe, or radical number of
the fyftem •, then by the nature of logarithms we have
this equation
y-rX-
Put r=r 1-|-tf, and let the expreffion (i-f-fl)* be ex¬
panded into a feries by the binomial theorem j thus we
fliall have ij—
1 -\-xa -}
y(.v—1) , x(x—1)(*—2)
 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 '
2-3
'-f- &c.
Let this feries, the terms of which are arranged ac¬
cording to the powers of the quantity a, be transform¬
ed into another the terms of which (hall be arranged
according to the powders of x; and to effeft this we
muft find the aftual products of the fa&ors which con-
ftitute the powers of a, and arrange the terms anew, as
fpllows,
1 = 1,
xa—-\-ax,
x{x—1)
a*
a 0
 xA x‘
2 1 2
1.2.3 3 2 6
x(x l)(.V 3)  ^y.l. **.
i . 2 . 3 . 4 4 24 4 24
&c. &c.
fo that adding into one fum the quantities on each fide
of the fign —, and recolledling that the fum of thefe
on the left-hand Jide is equal to y, wre have
1
LOGARITHMS.
73
Nature of
Logarithms,
&cc.
y-rX-
!
/ a* a' >
—}-*( a— 1 — 
2 3 4
, a* <j3 1 ia4 0 . .
+ ( h- &c.)a%
rv 2 2 ^ 24 *
/i3
+(t—7+ &c>>3’
4-( &.c.)a4,
1 v24
t+&C.
wliich equation, by fubftituting,
r7*
A for « [-
A' for
2
a*
3
23 I liT*
 —
2 4
4
—&c.
4-&c.
A" for   f-&c.
6 4
Aw for   &c.
24
&c.
may be abbreviated to
rx — 1 -j-Ax’ -j- AJx1 -f- Al'x* -f- A!"x* &c.
Next, to determine the law of connexion of the
quantities A, A', A", A"', &c. let ar + ss be fubftituted
in the laft equation for x, (here ^ is put for any inde¬
finite quantity) thus it becomes
rX+7,— 1 -f.A(a?-f-2s)-f.A'(a?-f-!3)*+A"(a?-|-!s)J-f- &c.
But rx+*—rx x /**, and fince it has been fhewn that
rx~ 14-Aa* A'a1 -{~ A,/a3 -j" A'^x4 -}- &c.
for the very fame reafon
r^= l-|-A« +A'^-i-A"»3_j_Aw2;4-J- &c.
therefore the feries
1 + A(a?+‘2)-f A'^d-^)^A"(a;+!s)34-Aw/(ar!-«)4-f &c.
is equal to the produft of the two feries
1 -(- A*-}- A'x2 -f- A"a3 -{- A'"x* -j- &c.
1 A 2; -J- A'z* A''^3 A'"*;4 -f &c.
That is, by a6lual involution and multiplication
1 -J-AcV-fJA' x7, -}- A" x* + A'" x* &c.'|
-j~Az-j-2 A'xz -j-3 AJ'x1^ -j- 4A'"*3* J
-f- A'x;* -j-3 A/'a?«3-{-6A//Vis*-f- &c.
-J- A" z* ^A"'x%* -f- &c.
-j- A!" 2>4 -j- &c.
"i4-Aar-f-A'#* 4. A"a’ -f- A'"a;4 4 &c.
4A*4A*Ar!z4AAVz4 AA,/x5«4 &c.
4 A'z* 4 AA!xz2-\-A,A,x1z2 4 &c.
4 A'^1 4 AA,/a;K34 &cc.
4 A'" z4 4 &c.
Now as the quantities A, A', A", &cc. are quite inde¬
pendent of x and 2;, the two fides of the equation can
Vol. XII. Part I.
only be identical upon the fuppofition that the co-effi- Nature of
cients of like terms in each are equal; therefore, letting^10
afide the firfl: line of each fide of the equation, becaufe ,
their terms are the fame, and alfo the firft term of the
fecond line, for the fame reafon, let the coefficients of
the remaining terms be put equal to one another, thus
we have
A*~ 2 A'
AA'=3A"
AA'^A'"
&c.
and hence
we have
A'—
A"=
A'"—-
A*
. 2
A3
2 • 3
A4
l
1 . 2
&c.
3-4
Here the law of the coefficients A, A', Aw, &c. is
obvious, each being formed from the preceding by mul¬
tiplying it by A, and dividing by the exponent of the
power of A which is thus formed. Let thefe values
of A', A", &c. be now fubftituted in the equation
y—rx— 14 Ax 4 AV 4 Al’x3 4 &c.
and it becomes,
A3 ,. A4 , „
x*+ &c.
A*
y~i 4 Ax’4-::—
1 .2
• 3 1.2.3 *4
thus we have obtained a general formula expreffing a
number in terms of its logarithm and the bafe of the
fyftem, for we muft recoiled that the quantity A which
is equal to
a.a
'T+y
is otherwife exprefled by
  (r—l)* | (r— 1) 3
•—4- &c.
4 5
(r—Q4 j (r—I)3
&c.
where r denotes the bafe of the fyftem (a).
If in the formula
rx~ i 4 Ax 4‘j
we fuppofe x—
A3
-a:*4
2 I.2.3
it becomes
A3
«34
A4
3-4
A4 4 &C.
A*
r— 14 A-J }-
1 1.2 1 1.2.3
A4
3-4
4" &c.
an equation which contains r only ; but as r has been
all along fuppofed an indeterminate quantity, this equa¬
tion muft be identical, that is, if inftead of A, its va¬
lue, as exprefled above in terms of r, were fubftituted,
the whole would vaniili.
Again, let us fuppofe that is fubftituted inftead of
-A.
x in the general formula, thus it becomes
1
rA~141 —~ “P 7—~—7 4 7—~—i—■ 4 &c*
• 2.3
K
2-3 -4
Thus
J
(a) For other analytic methods of inveftigating the fame formula, fee Algebra § 203, and FluxioNj 6 54
and $ 70. Ex. 1. alfo J 200. Prob. 1.
JL O G A H
Nature of
Logarithms, t]-,e quantity rA, whatever be the value of r, is
&c* , evidently equal to a conftant number, which, as appears
from the laft equation, is equal to the value of r when
A=i. By adding together a fufficient number of the
x
terms of the feries expreffing the value of rA, we find
that quantity equal to
2.718281 828459045 .. .
I
Let this number be denoted by <?, and we have r^zze,
and r—eA } hence it appears, that if the number e be
confidered as the bafe of a logarithmic fyftem, the quan¬
tity A, that is
0
-O’
•04('—o5
&c.
3 4 ’ 5
is the logarithm of r to the bafe e. But as r is not re-
ftridled here to any particular value, we may fubfiitute
y inftead of it, keeping in mind that y denotes any
number whatever, and st its logarithm 5 thus we have x
the logarithm of y, expreffed by the feries
{y—1)*, i)J (y—04, (y—0s
y-J~—r—    
&c.
2 1 3 4 5
fuppefing that the bafe of the fyflem is the number we
have expreffed above by e.
We have now found a general formula for the lo¬
garithm of any number, y, taken according to a parti¬
cular fyllem, namely, that which has the number e for
its bale. But it is eafy from hence to find a formula,
which {hall apply to any fyffem whatever. For it has
been fiiewn that the logarithms of the fame number,
taken according to two different fyftems, are to each
other as the reciprocals of the logarithms of the bafes
of the fyftems, thefe lafi logarithms being taken ac¬
cording to any fyftem whatever, that is,
log. y to bafe * : log. y to bafe r : : : ~-r ;
hence we find
log. y to bafe rcrj-^^xlog* y to Bafe e.
Let the value we have already found for the logarithm
of y to bafe e be fubftituted in this equation, and it be-
-coiiies
log. r i '
o
I T H M S.
log. e . Nature of
•■-A'vvill be unity, and the formula will becomeffiraply Logarithms
log. r &c.
1 (y—1Y (y—1)} (y—1 )* 0 '•——
log.y=:y—I*— + &c-
as we have already remarked. Now this is the {yftem
which was adopted by Lo?~d Napier; and although the
logarithms which were computed according to this fyf¬
tem. or upon the fuppofition that the radical number is
2.7x82818 &.c. have been called hyperbolic logarithms
becaufe they happen to be proportional to certain hy¬
perbolic fpaces, yet, asqbe logarithms of every fyftem
have the fame property, it is more proper to call them
Nepierean logarithms.
As the conftant multiplier
Hu
log. r
, which occurs in
which is a general formula for the logarithm of any
number whatever, to the bafe r. And it is to be re-
colle&ed that in the fradlion •——, which is a common
log. r
multiplier to the feries, the logarithms are to be taken
according to the lame bafe, which however may be any
number whatever (b).
Jf in the above formula we fuppofe rrre-, the multiplier
the general formula for the logarithm of any num¬
ber, is the only part of the formula which depends for
its value upon the bafe of the fyftem, it has been called
by writers on logarithms, the modulus of the fyftem.
If we fuppofe the logarithms taken to the bafe e, then
the numerator, viz. log. e, will be unity, and the de¬
nominator will be the Napierean logarithm of r. If
however w’e fuppofe the logarithms taken to the bafe r,
then the numerator will be log. e to bafe r; and the
denominator will be unity, fo that the modulus of any
fyftem whofe bafe is r, is the reciprocal of the Napierean
logarithm of that bafe; or it is the logarithm of the
number e (the bafe of the Napierean fyftem) to the
bafe r.
In the Napierian .fyftem the modulus is unity, and
hence the logarithms of this fyftem, as far as depends
upon facility of computation, are the moft limple of
any. It was however foon found that a fvftem whofe
bafe ftrould be the fame as the root of the fcale of the
arithmetical notation, viz. the number 10, would be the
moft convenient of any in practice •, and accordingly
inch a fyftem was adlually conftrufted by Mr Briggs.
This is the only one now in common ufe, and is called
Briggs's fystem, alfo the%common fjstcm of logarithms.
The modulus of this fyftem therefore is the reciprocal
of the Napierean logarithm of 10 j or it is the common
logarithm of e~2.7182818 &c. the bafe. of the Na-
perean fyftem. We (hall in future denote this modulus
by M ; fo that the formula expreffmg the common lo¬
garithm of any number y will be
W. v=M 5v-z>*+ &c ?
If the number y, whofe logarithm is required be very
near to unity, lb that 1—y is a fmall quantity, then
the logarithm may be found from this formula with
great eafe, becaufe the feries will converge very rapid¬
ly. If, however, I—y be greater than unity, the fe¬
ries, inftead of converging, will diverge, fo as to be in
its prefent form of no ufe.
It may however be transformed into another, which
{hall converge in every cafe, by fubftituting in it n\fy
inftead of y, and obferving that leg.
(B) For other metuods of inveftigating the fame formula fee Alg^BRA 284, and Fluxions § 70. Ex, 3;
alfo § 136.
Nature
Logari- '
L O G A R
tliu; becomes
• ;; ,vJ«A/y_I_x(«v/y--i)*+TC^/F-1),-&c.|
where: ,*< ^a; denote any number whatever, pofitive pr
negative. LV whatever be the number y, we can always
take n, fuch, that nx^t/ ihall be as nearly equal to I, as
we nleafe, therefore by this laft formula, we can al¬
ways find the logarithm of y to any degree of accuracy
whatever.
If we fuppofe n to be taken negative, then K^/y
I T H M S, 75
Thus we have two limits to the value of the lo- Nature of
garithm of y, which, by taking the number n Sufficient- tog^hms»
ly great may come as near to each other as we
pleafe.
In like manner we .find two limits to the value of the
reciprocal to the modulus, viz.
It is evident that the difference between the two limits
of log. y, is
rr - and the feries which expreffes log. y becomes,
fWy
by changing the figns,
where all the terms are pofitive. Thus we have it in
our power to exprefs the value of y, either by a feries
which {hall have its terms all pofitive, or by one which
.{hall have its terms alternately pofitive and negative :
for it is evident that y being greater than unity, n\/y
will alfo be greater than unity, and y being lefs than
unity, n\/y will alfo be lefs than unity, but the diffe¬
rences will be fo much the fmaller as n the exponent of
the root is greater j therefore w\//y—1 be pofitive
in the firft cafe, and negative in the fecond.
Becaufe ^ —, therefore Nap. log. 10
> Nap. log. 10 r 6
— ~ ; hence by the two laft formulas we have
M ■
— r:n^w\/io—x—J(”v/10—i)*+f(w\Ao —1)3 — &c.|-
alfo
It is evident that by giving to n\fy fuch a value that
n^y—i is a fraftion lefs than unity, we render both
the feries for the value of log. y converging ; for as
H ■s/y—i is a fraction lefs than unity, the expreffion
- —A will alfo be lefs than unity, feeing that it is
nVy
equal to V ^ Therefore, in the firft feries, the fe-
n\/y
cond and third terms (taken together as one term) con-
ftitute a negative quantity, and as the fame is alfo true
of the fourth and fifth, and fo on j the amount of all
the terms after the firft is a negative quantity, that is a
quantity which is to be fubtra&ed from the firft, that
we may have the value of log. y. Hence we may in¬
fer that
log. y^LnU{»i/y—i).
And fince, on the contrary, the terms of the fecond fe¬
ries are all pofitive, the amount of all the terms after
the firft is a pofitive quantity, that is, a quantity which
muft be added to the firft to give the value of " log. y;
fb that we have
therefore if we take either the one or the other of the
two preceding expreflions for log. y, the error in excefs
or defeat is neceffarily lefc than this quantity.
By thefe formulas we may depend upon having the
logarithm of any number true to m figures, if we give
to n fuch a value that the root n \/y fliall have m cy¬
phers between the decimal point and the firft fignifi-
cant figure on the right. So that in general, as the er¬
ror is the fmaller according as n the exponent of the
root is greater, we may conclude that it becomes no¬
thing, or may be reckoned as nothing, when n is taken
indefinitely great •, and this being the cafe, we may con¬
clude that either of thefe expreflions
«M(Vy—1)> «M(i—
is the accurate value of log. y.
The beft manner of applying the preceding formula
is to take fome power or the number 2 for n ; for by
doing fo, the root n\/y may be»found by a repetition
of extra£lions of the fquare root only. It was in this
way that Briggs calculated the firft logarithms ; and
he remarked, that if in performing the fucceflive extrac¬
tions of the fquare root, he at laft obtained twice as many
decimal places as there were cyphers after the decimal
point, the integer before it being unity, then the deci¬
mal part of this root was exactly the half of that which
went before ; fo that the decimal parts of the two roots
were to each in the fame proportion as their logarithms:
now this is an evident confequence of the preceding
formula.
To give an example of the application of the formu¬
la, let it be required to find the numerical value of M,
the modulus of the common fyftem of logarithms,
which, as it is the reciprocal of the Napierean logarithm
of i o is equal to
- x r—7 nearly,
n n\/lO—I J
when h is fome very great number. Let us fuppofe
h~26°—%i0 $ then, dividing unity by 8, and this refult
again by 8, and fo on, we ihall after 20 divitions have
or eqaal to
« o
0.00000 ooooo ooooo 00086 73617 37988 40354-
Alfo, by extra&ing the fquare root of 10, and. the
fquare root of this refult, and fo on, after performing 6®
extra&ions we {hall find n\/ lo equal to
1.60000 00000000000019971742 08125 5052703251.
K 2 Therefore,
76
Nature of r
Logaritlims, Therefore, - X
&c. n
LOGARITHMS.
, or M, is equal to
quently
86736.7379,8i40iii= ; 8 _
199717420812550527
As a fecond example, let it be required to find by
the fame formula the logarithm of the number 3,
which is nearly equal to
M —1) =
_ Vs—1
log. 3 =
—1) n\/io—1’
n being as before a very great number. Let us fap-
pofe alfo in this cafe that n—260 ; then after 60 ex¬
tractions of the fquare root we have wv/3 equal to
1 .oocoo ocooo occoo 0095 28942 64074 5893 2.
Therefore, taking the value of K^/io as found in laid
example, we have
VS—1 _ 952894^64Q745893a
!^/io—1 199717420812550527
=•4 7712 11547 19662.
This method of computing logarithms is evidently
attended with great labour, on account of the number
of extractions of roots which it requires, to obtain a re-
fult true to a moderate number of places of figures.
But the two feries, which we have given, ferve to
fimplify and complete it. For, whatever be the number
7/, it is only neceflary to proceed with the extractions of
the fquare root, till we have obtained for a value
which is unity followed by a decimal fraCtion; and
then n\/i/—I, being a fraCtion, its powers will alfo be
fractions, which will be fo much the fmaller as their
exponents are greater 5 thus a certain number of terms
of the feries will ferve to exprefs the logarithm to as
many decimal places as may be required.
There are yet other analytical artifices by which the
feries
log.y = M|y-i-^(y-i)J-j-}(y-03-|(y-04+&c-}
may be transformed into others which (hall always
converge, and in particular the following. Let 1 -\-u
be fubftituted in the feries for y ; then it becomes
1 f \ UK f u% . u* *>s n \
log. = -4-   - +——, &c.J.
In like manner let 1—u be fubftituted for ?/, and we
have
log. y—-7
43 /
l V'
25—1 r ' „ , , Nature of
——— tor u, will be otnerwife exprefted thus, Logarithms
53+ 1 Vc.
log^IU {|Ti+t(—)!+4|—;
and this formula for the logarithm of a number is not
only fimple, but has alfo the property of converging in
every poflible cafe.
That we may give an example of the utility of this
formula we (hall employ it in the calculation of the
Napierean logarithm of 2, which by the above formu¬
la will be
(j+ -4+
11 1
5.3! * 9.3^
where A is put for
C
3 3-3
A-hyB-bxC-h^D-j-^-E'b &c
2
+ &c.^
B
D for
lows.
37
3
&c.
B for 4=—, C for4 “
3J 9 3J 9’
The calculation will be as fol-
A —
B=FA:
.666666666666
2.074074074074
C~ -5- Brz.00823045 ^674
D= -g- C — .O0O9 I 4494742
Err F Dcr .0001016 x 05 27
F — F Err.000011290059
G — F Fr=.000001 254451
Hrr ^Grr.000000139383
I .000000015487
Krr-g- I = .000000001721
L rr -g- Krrr.ooooooooo 191
M= -g-Lrr.oooooooooo2X
A=.666666666666
|B=.o2469i358o25
F €=.001646090535
4 D=.ocoi3o642 rob
~ Err.oooor 1290059
ttF=.000001026369
-rTG=.OOOOOOO96496
-i^rH=.oooooooo929z
—.OOOOOOOOO9I I
-ii5L=.oooooooooo9 1
•g-VM—.OOOOOOOOOOO I
Let each fide of the latter equation be fubtrafted
from the correfponding fide of the former 5 the refult
on the left-hand fide will be log. (1 -}-«)—log. (1—w),
which, by the nature of logarithms, is equal to log.
and on the right-hand fide the alternate terms
of the two feries, having the fame fign, thefe will by
fubtraCHon deftroy each other, fo that we (hall have
, I 4-W -nv C V* tl"1 1
log-7Z^=2M|"+7 + 7+y+» j
which ftries, by fubftitutjng % for and confe-.
Nap. log. 2 =.693147180551
Thus, by a very eafy calculation, we have obtained the
Napierean logarithm of 2 true to the firft ten places of
figures 5 the accurate value, as far as the I 2th place,
being 0.693147180550.
If this very fimple procefs by which we have found
the logarithm of 2 (the whole of which is here actually
put down), be compared with the laborious calcula¬
tions which muft have been performed to have found
the fame logarithm by the method explained in the be¬
ginning of this fedion, the great fuperiority of this me¬
thod to the other, and even to the fecond method, by
which we have found the numerical value of M, and
the common logarithm of 3, muft be very apparent.
In the fame manner as we have found the logarithm
of 2 we may find thofe of 3, 5, &c. In computing the
logarithm
LOGARITHMS.
Nature of logarithm of 3 the feries would converge by the powers
Logantbiu,^ thefra£lion and in computing the loga-
v "’J 5—I j
ridim of 5 it would converge by the powers — T 5
but in each of thefe cafes the feries would converge
flower, and of courfe the labour would be greater than
in computing the logarithm of 2. And if the number
whofe logarithm was required was ftill move confider-
able •, as for example 199, the feries would converge
fo flow as to be ufelefs.
We may however avoid this inconvenience by again
transforming this laft formula into another which fhall
exprefs the^ logarithm of any number by means of a
feries, and a logarithm fuppofed to be previoufly known.
_ . . l-fw «
To effe£l this new transformation, let  - = 1 -r~»
=: -OOOOO T o 24000
F=tVE =.000000040960
Gt= F = .0000000016 5 8
H=7/^-Gro.oooooooooo66
A=.400000000000
4 B =.005333333333
C = .000128000000
4. D = .00000365 7143
i £ = .000000113778
tYF=.000000003724
Vtg=.00000000012 5
^5-^1=.000000000004
77
Nature of
Logarithms*
&.C.
Nap. log. 2.
.405465108108
1.693147180551
then, by refolving this equation in refpea of u, we have NaP* loS- 3- — l-0986x 2288659
1
and « be fub-
u — —, Let thefe values of
2i-(-52 1—u
flituted in the/ormula,
iog- +7 + 7 + 7+&c-)
and we have log. ^1 equal to
but log. ^ I 4- ^)=log. = log. (fl-f*2) log- «’
therefore, by fubflituting this value of log. —~an<l
tranfpofing log. n to the other fide of the equation, we
have
log- O+s) ^ log* w +
By the affiftance of this formula, and the known pro¬
perties of logarithms, we may proceed calculating the
louarithm of one number from that of another as fol-
O
lows.
To find the Napierean logarithm of 3 from that of
2, which has been already found. We have here «=2,
2=1, and—-— = -f. Therefore the logarithm re-
2 ti
quired is equal to
log. 24-2(1-A_| L._j L-f- &c.)
V5 3-53 5-55 7*57 J
= log. 24-A + 4B4-4C4-4D-F4E+ &c.
where A is put for -k B for —C for ■—, and fo on,
r 25’ 25’
The calculation may {land thus :
A =.400000000000
B=-gVA=.0 16000000000
C=tYB =.000640000000
3}=TYC=.000025600000
This logarithm is true to 10 decimal places, the accu*
rate value to 12 figures being 1.09861 2 288668.
To find the Napierean logarithm.of 4. I bis is im¬
mediately had from that of 2 by confidering that as
4=2*, therefore log. 4=log. 2-j- log. 2.
Nap. log. 2
.693x47180551
2
Nap. log. 4 = 1.386294361102
This logarithm is alfo true to 10 places befides the
integer.
To find the Napierean logarithm of 5, from that of
4; we have «=4, iz=i& = h therefore the lo¬
garithm of 5 is expreffed by
log- <+2 (5+ 55!+7^+&c‘)
log.
where A=Jr> B =-jpr A, C “-gY B, &c.
The calculation.
A=.222222222122
B = -5it-A-=.oo2743484225
C=TtB = .000033870176
d=YtC=.000000418150
E=aVD = .00000000516 2
F=jTE =.000000000064
A=.222222222222
4 B=.000914494742
4 £=.000006774035
4 D=.oooooco59736
4 £=.000000000574
* F =.000000000006
.223143551315
Nap. log. 4 =1.386294361102.
Nap. log. 5 =1.609437912417
This refult is alfo correft to the firft ten places of deci¬
mals.
The
/
7g ; L O G A R I T H! M S.
Nature of The logarkhtn of 6 is found from thofe of 2 and 3
Logarithms^ conftdering, that becaufe 6=2X3> therefore log. 6
&c‘ =. log. 2 + log. 3.
Nap. log. 2=0.693147180551
Nap. log. 3 = 1.098612288659
Nap. log. 6=1.791759469210
This refult is correifl; as far as the tenth decimal place.
We might find the logarithm of 7 from the loga¬
rithm of 6, that is, from the logarithms of 3 and 2, in
the fame manner as we have found the logarithms of 5
and 3 $ but it may be more readily found from the
logarithms of 2 and 5 by reafoning thus. Becaufe
, therefore log. 2 -j- 2 log. $ — 2- l°g* 7
7* 49
=log.—, and confequently
iog. 1—i IoS- 2+ log. 5—4 log. ~
Now the logarithm of — may be readily obtained from
& 49
the formula
log. +&c.|
For fubftituting — for z, the formula gives
Nap. log. — =2( j r+ —-j-f- &c. )
^ 0 49 V99 4*993 /
This logarithm, like thofe we found before, is correct Nature of
in the firil ten decimal places. Logarithms^
The logarithms of 8, 9, and 10 are immediately ob* 4. t
tained from thofe of 2, 3, and 5, as follows •:
49 W9 ‘ 3-99
= A-k^B+^C-f &c.
2
wher« A = —, B =
9*11
—, C = -i-7, &c.
9a,n* 9*. ii*
This
feries converges with great rapidity, and a few of its
terms will be fufficient to give the logarithm of 7, a&
appears from the following operation,
B =
A=.020202020202
, - A=.coooo2o6t 22©
9*. 11*
C! B=.C00C000002I®
Q*.I I*
A=.0 202020 2020 2
y B=.oooooo687o73
f €=.000000000042!
Nap. log. = .020202707317
§ log. 2 = 0.346573590275
log. 5 = 1.609437912417
50
1.956011502692
*los‘49 = 0-010I0I3S3658
Nap. log. 2 = 0.695147180551
3
Nap. Idg. 8= 2.079441541653
Nap. log. 3 = 1.098612288659
2
Nap. log. 9 = 2.I97224577318
Nap. log. 2 = o 693147180551
Nap. log. 5= 1.6094379x2417
Nap. log. 10 = 2.302585092968
Thus by a few calculations we have found the N<t*
pierean logarithms of the firlt ten numbers, each true
to ten decimal places $ and fince the Napierean loga¬
rithm of XO is now known, the modulus of the common
fyftem, which Is the reciprocal of that logarithm will
alfo be known, and will be
; —‘43429d48l9
2.302585092968'
The common logarithms ol the firft ten numbers may
now be found from the Napierean logarithms by multi¬
plying each of the latter by the modulus, or dividing by
its reciprocal, that is, by the Nsplerean logarithm of 10.
And as the modulus of the common fyftem is fo im¬
portant an element in the theory of logarithms, we
{hall give its value, together with that of its reciprocal,
as far as the 30th decimal place.
M=.434 29448i903 25i827t)5i 128918917
^=2.302585092994045684017991454684
The formulas we have already given are fufficient for
finding the logarithms of all numbers whatever through¬
out the table, but there are yet others which may often
be applied with great advantage, and we {hall now in-
veftigate fome.of thefe,
Becaufe
<-* +
If we now fuppofe
fo that
2«*—1’
O—0O + 1)
then the formula becomes
Nap. log. 7 = 1.945910149034
2; 4-1
n' f I
log.  r- - = 2PvI4 {-
6 (tf—(_ 2«*—I
+&c'l
3
But
Nature of «*
logw.hm,, But log. Io«-
t—y-i   log. tlierefore, putting N for the feries
L O G A R
— log. O—i) —
2m
{^i?+'!(rf=r)+f('^s2 3=r) +&c-}
we have this formula,
2 log. n—log. (n—i)—log. («-{-l)=rN
and hence, as often as we have the logarithms of any
two of three numbers whofe common difference is uni¬
ty, the logarithm of the remaining number may be
found. Example. Having given
the common log. of 9=ro.9542425C943
the commort log. of 10=1 •,
it is required to find the common logarithm of 11.
Here we have wzzio, fo that the formula gives
in this cafe 2 log. 10—log. 9—log. iizzN, and hence
fve have
log. 11 2 log. 10—log. 9—N,
2 M
, 2 M
where N=r—- 4-
199 3
M being
Calculation of N.
99
,43429448190.
+&c.
A=^^=:.oo436476866
E~—:—- =.00000003674
3*I99
.00436480540
I T H M S. 79
and hence by tranfpofition, &c. Nature of
logarithms,
log. n=4N-f Ilog. 2-f log. 7—log. 9-}-log. 10 j &c.
and in this equation.
,T 2 M 2M , .
N=—z K 7 T+&C.
19601 I960X3
The firft term alone of this feries is fufficient to give
the logarithm of 11 true to 14 places.
Another formula, by which the logarithm of a num¬
ber is expreffed by the logarithms of other numbers and
a feries, may be found as follows.
Refttming the formula
H—«{5i+f(g)+*(5;)'+,"i
Let us afiume
+ 3) —3 ”+a
~ („_2) (« +1)» ”«3—3 « —2
. 55—1 2
then —-— — *
3 + 1
Let thefe values of 2, &
formula, and it becomes
° («-2)(«+i)* c«3-3« j\«3-3»/ 3
But the quantity on the left-hand fide of this equation is
manifeftly equal to 2 log, («—l)-J-log. (« + 2) — log.
(«—2) — 2 log. (« + i), therefore, putting P for the
feries.
jMf^£5;+T(^TZ7„)+r(jrf7„) +&c-}
n3—3«
3—1
be fubftituted in thp
2 log. 10=2.00000000000
log. 9=0.95424250943
1^=0.00436480540
log. 9-f N=o.9586673i483
log. 11 =1.04139268517
Here the feries expreffed by N converges very faff,
To that two of its terms are fufficient to give the loga¬
rithm true to 10 places of decimals. But the loga¬
rithm of 11 may be expreffed by the logarithms of
fmaller numbers and a feries which converges (fill more
rapidly, by the following artifice, which will apply alfo
to fome other numbers. Becaufe the numbers 98, 99,
and loo are the products of numbers, the greateft
of which is II, for 98=2x7*, 99—9 XU, and
100=10X10, it follows that if we have an equation
compofed of terms wThich are the logarithms of thefe
three numbers, it may be refolved into another, the
terms of which (hall be the logarithms of the number
11 and other fmaller numbers. Now by the preceding
formula, if we put 99 for «, we have
2 log. 99—log. 98—log. ioq=N.
that is, fubfiituting log. 94-log. 11 for log. 99, log. i-p
2 log. 7 for log. 98, and 2 log. ic for log. 100,
2 log. 94-2 log. 11—log. 2—2 log. 7;—2 log. IO=N,
we have this formula.
log. («4-2) 4-2 log. (n-l )-log.(«-2)-2log.(«4-x ) = P
By this formula we may find, with great facility, the
logarithm of any one of the four numbers «—2, n—r,
«4-l, «4-2, having the logarithms of the other three.
We may alfo employ it in the calculation of logarithms,
as in the following example. Let the numbers 5,6, 7,
8, be fubftituted fucceffively in the formula ; then, ob~
ferving that log. 6=log. 2-j-log. 3,and log. 8=3log. 2,
we have thefe four equations.
2M 2M
log. 7 4-2 log. 2— 3 log. 3 = -— 4- —3 4- &c.
1 .1 2M 2M
— 2 log. 74-log.24-2log.5= —-f —4- &C.
, , , 2M 2IVX
4 log- 3—4 log- 2— log. i = 7^ + J7773 +
log. 5-5 log. 3 + 2 log. 7 = — + + &C.
Let log. 2, log. 3, log. 5 and log. 7 be now con
fidered as four unknown quantities, and by refolv'ng
thefe equations in the ufual manner, (fee Algebra, .
Se£t. VII.) the logarithms may be determined.
Refuming once more the formula
log. Vi— 2 M [5=i+4(=i) ’+ &C.} ,
let.:
8o
Nature of
«*(«+?) («—5)
Logghnn.fct („_4)
L O G A R
be fubftituted in it
inftead of then, by this fubftitution —-—will become
* ’ y z+i
—72
log.
the formula will be transformed to
n*0 + 5) O—1?)
(«+3) (n—3) (^ + 4) C"—4)
7S r0’+&c'}
 +i(-
(_ /i4-2 yi* -4-72 3 \/i4—2 +
Hence, putting the latter fide of this equation equal to
Q, we have this formula,
2 log.« +log.(« + 5 ) +log. («—5 ) —log. ( « + 3 ) 1 _ o
—log.(«—3)—log. (« 4.4)—log.(«—4) + Q. J
w7hich may be applied to the calculation of logaritums
in the fame manner as the former.
When it is required to find the logarithm of a high
number, as for example 1231, we may proceed as fol¬
lows :
Iog.i23i=log.(i23o+i)=log.|i23°(1+77^) }
= log. 1230+log. (i+^p)
Again, log. 1230 = log. 24-log. 5 -f. log. 1 23 and log.
i23=rlog.|l2o(i+^)]-
= log. 120 + log. (i+~)
log. 120 = log. (2? iog- 2 + log-3+log*5
Therefore
log. 123 1 =4 log. 2 4- log. 3 4-2 log. 5 4-log. (14--^
+ log-(I+t^)
Thus the logarithm of the propofed number is expref-
fed by the logarithms of 2, 3, 5, and the logarithms of
1 4-—> 1 —> all of which may be eafily found by
40 i 1230 _ J
the formulas already delivered.
Having now explained, at confiderable length, the
theory of logarithms upon principles purely analytical,
fuch being, as we conceive, the moft natural way of
reafoning concerning the properties of number, we (hall
conclude this fe£lion by dating briefly the ground upon
which it was referred to the principles of geometry by
the mathematicians of the 17th century. Let C be the
centre, and CH, CK the aiymptotes of an hyperbola.
In either of thefe let there be taken any number of con¬
tinual proportionals CA, CB, CD, CE, &.c, then if
B b, D </, E c, &c. be drawn parallel to the other
afymptote, meeting the curve in a, b, d, e, &c. the hy¬
perbolic fpaces AabBi Bbdt), Dr/eE, &c. are
equal to one another ; alfo if ftraight lines be drawn
from C to the points a, b, d, e, &c. the hyperbolic
feftors a C b, b C d, dC e, &c. (hall alfo be equal
(Conic Sections Part III. prop. 30.) Now, fince it
2
I T H M S.
appears by this propofition that the fegmer.ts CA, CB, Description
CD, CE, &c. of the afymptote being taken in con- ^
tinued geometrical progrefiion, the correfponding hy-1 , - 1
perbolic areas A a b B, A adl), A e E, &c. conft:-
tute a feries of quantities in continued arithmetical pro¬
grefiion, it is evident that the two feries will have, in re-
fpe£t to each other, the fame properties as numbers and
their logarithms; fo that, if we afifume C A any fegment
of the afymptote asthe reprefentative of unity, and fup-
pofe CB, CD, CE, &c. to be the reprefentatives of
other numbers, the hyperbolic areas AabB, AadD,
AaeK will be the geometrical reprefentatives of the lo¬
garithms of thefe numbers ; and fo alfo will the hyper¬
bolic fe61ors Cab, C b d, C de, &c.
Let CA (the line denoting unity) be the fide of a
rhombus CAaL inferibed at the vertex of the hyper¬
bola, and let CP~//xCA (« being put for any num¬
ber) ; draw Pp parallel to CL meeting the hyperbola
in p, then it may be (hewn, by the methods ufually
employed in reafoning about curvilineal areas, that the
area of the rhombus A a LC is to the hyperbolic area
AapB as 1 to the Napierean logarithm of the number
n. Therefore if the hyperbola be equilateral, fo that
AaL.c is afquare, &c. confequently itsaream X I—r,
the Napierean logarithm of and the area AapB may¬
be taken as the mutual reprefentatives of each other.
It is this circumftance which induced mathematicians
to call thefe logarithms hyperbolic. But with equal
propriety might the logarithms of any other fytlem be
called hyperbolic, as they may be equally expreffed by
the area of the equilateral hyperbola, or indeed by the
area of any hyperbola whatever, (fee Fluxioxs 5 152.
Ex. 5.)
SECT. IL
DESCRIPTION AND USE OF THE TABLE.
THE common fyftem of logarithms is fo confirufled,
that, o being the logarithm of unity, or 1, the loga¬
rithm ofTo is 1 $ by which it happens that the loga¬
rithm of 100 is 2, that of 1000 is 3, and fo on. Alfo,
the logarithm of T\>> or .1, is —1, that is, 1 confider-
ed as fubtraftive $ or, in. the language of algebra,
minus one j and the logarithm of or .01, is —2 j
and the logarithm of .ooi is —’3, and fo on, as in the
following (hort table.
Numbers. Logarithms.
.OOI
• OO
.1
I
10
IOO
1000
&c.
As the terms of the geometrical progreffion 1, 10,
100, &c. continued backwards as well as forward, are
the only numbers whofe logarithms are integers $ the
logarithms of all other numbers whatever muft be either
fra&ions, or mixt numbers. Accordingly, the loga¬
rithms of all numbers, whether integer or mixt, be¬
tween 1 and 10 are expreffed by decimal fractions lefs
than
L O G A R
toefcriptlon than unity-. The logarithms of numbers between 10
and Uie of an(J 10o are expreffed by mixt numbers compofed of
the Table. unity and a decimal fradion. The logarithms of num-
bers between too and 1000 are expreffed by mixt num¬
bers compofed of the number 2 and a decimal fraction,
and fo on. On the other hand, the logarithm of any
vulgar or decimal fradlion lefs than I, but greater
than -/q- or .1, will be fome negative decimal fraflion
between o and —i •, and the logarithm of any fradlion
between .1 and .01, will be a negative mixed quantity
between —1 and —2, and fo on.
But it muff be remarked, that any fradlion, or mixt
number, confidered as entirely negative, may always
be transformed into another mixt number of equal va¬
lue, that (hall have its integer part negative, but its
fractional part politive, by diminiihing the integer by
unity, and increaiing the fractional part by the fame
quantity. Thus let the mixt quantity be —2^, which
may be alfo written thus —2—T^. Let the integer
—2 be dlminifhed by 1, and the refult is —2—J =—3.
Alfo, let the fr*£lion—-,V be increafed by 1, and it
becomes —TV -f- 1 = + ^ > therefore the fra&ion
—2TV or — 2.3, when transformed, is —3 -{- or
—3 which may be written thus,, 3.7 •, where the ne¬
gative lign is placed over the integer to indicate that it
is the only part of the expreffion that is confidered as
negative, the other part, viz. .7, being reckoned pofi-
tive.
Since therefore any fraClional or mixt quantity, con-
lidered as entirely negative, is equivalent to another
mixt quantity, the integer part of which only is nega¬
tive, but the fractional part poiitive, it is evident that
Inftead of expreffing the logarithms of fraClions by num¬
bers confidered as entirely negative, we may exprefs
them by numbers having their integer parts negative,
Und their decimal parts pofitive 5 and it is ufual fo to
exprefs them. Thus the logarithm of .03, inftead of
being expreffed by —1.52288, that is, by —1—.52288,
is ufually expreffed by 2.47712, by which is to be un-
derftood —2-f.477i2. Again, the logarithm of .7,
which, if coniidered as entirely negative, would be
—.15490, is otherwife 1.84510.
As the logarithms of any leries of numbers forming
a geometrical progreflion, the common ratio of which
is 10, will exceed each other by the logarithm of 10,
that is, by 1, it fellows that the logarithms of all num¬
bers denoted by the fame figures, and differing only in
the pofition of the decimal point, wall have the decimal
part of their logarithms the fame ; but the integers
ftanding before the decimals will be different, and will
be pofrtive or negative, according as the numbers are
whole or fractional, as in thefe examples.
Numbers.
69150
6915
691.5
69.15
6.915
.6915
.06915
Logarithms.
4.83980
3.83980
2.83980
1.83980
0.83980
1.83980
2.83980
I T H M S. ?*•
number of integer figures which the natural number con- Defcriptiotr
ffts of; or it is equal to the dfiance of the firfl figure
from the place of units or firfi place of integers, whether 1 '‘j
on the left or on the right of it.
The table of logarithms given at the end of this ar¬
ticle, contains the decimal parts of the logarithms of
all numbers from 1 to 10,000 j and indeed of all num¬
bers which can be expreffed by four figures, preceded
or followed by any numbers of cypher^, fuch as the
numbers 367500, .002795, &c. The index, however,
is not put down 5 but it is eafily fupplied by the rule
which has juft now been given. The table alfo con¬
tains the differences of the logarithms of all numbers
from 1000 to io,oco, by means of which the loga¬
rithm of any number confifting of five figures may be
eafily obtained.
I. To find the logarithm of any number confifiing of
four or any fmaller number of figures. Look for the
number in the columns titled at the top Numbers ; and
in the fame line with it, on the right, in the column of
logarithms, will be found the decimal part of its loga¬
rithm, to which fupply the decimal point, and its index
according to rule delivered above. Thus,
The log. of 9 is found to be 0.95424
of 17
of 2.63
of 13.42
of 6280
of 3749
of .6027
of .00234
of 852600
i.23045
0.41996
1.12775
3.79796
3-57392
1.78010
3.36922
5-93°75
2. To find the logarithm of a number confifiing of five
figures.
Find the decimal part of the logarithm of the firft
four figures of the number, (that is, find the logarithm
of the propofed number as if the laft figure were a cy¬
pher), by the preceding rule, and find the difference
between that logarithm and the next greater, as given
in the column of differences (to the right of the column
of logarithms). Then ftate this proportion :
As 10,
To the tabular difference,
So is the laft, or fifth figure of the number,
To a fourth proportional j
which being added to the former logarithm, and the
decimal point and index fupplied, will be the logarithm
fought.
Example. Required the logarithm of 186.47. The
decimal part of the logarithm of the firft four figures,
viz. 1864, is .27045, and the difference oppofite to it
in the column marked D on the top is 23. Therefore
we have this proportion :
*3 - 7 ■ “
10 : 25
10
’=:i6.i
Tht integer figure of a logarithm, is called its index
Or character file ; and it is always lefs by one than the
Vol. XII. Part I.
The fourth proportional is 16.1, or, rejedlipg the deci¬
mal part, .16 nearly ; therefore,
to log. of 1684 .27045
add 16
thelog, of 168.47 is 2.27061
JL
3. To
$2 L O G A R
Defcription To find the logarithm of a vulgar fraBion or mixt
number.
the labie.^ ]T{tlier reduce the vulgar fra&ion to a decimal, and
find its logarithm as above, or elie (having reduced the
mixt number to an improper fra&ion) fubtraft the lo¬
garithm of the denominator from the logarithm of the
numerator, and the remainder will be the logarithm of
the fradiion fought.
Ex. I. To find the logarithm of-jly.
From the log. of 3 0.4771 2
Subtrad! the log. of 16 1.20412
Rem. log. of or of . 1875 1.27300
Here, as the lower number is greater than the upper,
the remainder muff be negative •, the fubtradlion, how¬
ever, is fo performed, that the decimal part of the re¬
mainder is pofitive, and the integer negative.
Ex. 2. To find the logarithm of 13^ or ^.
From log. of 55 1.74036
Subtradl log. of 4 0.60206
Rem. log. of 13-]; or of 13.75 1.13830
4. To find the number corresponding to anij given lo¬
garithm.
Seek the decimal part of the propofed logarithm in
the column of logarithms, and if it be found exactly,
the figures of the number correfponding to it will be
found in the fame line with it in the column of num¬
bers. If the index of the given logarithm is 3, the
four figures of the numbers thus found are integers j but
if it be 2, the three firft figures are integers, and the
fourth is a decimal, and fo on ; the number of integer
figures before the decimal point being always one great¬
er than the index, if it be pofitive 5 but if it be nega¬
tive, the number fought will be a decimal, and the
number of cyphers between the decimal point and firlt
fignificant figure will be one lefs than the index.—Ex¬
amples. The number correfponding to the logarithm
3‘57392 3749* number correfponding to
1.12775 is 13.42. The number correfponding to
3.3692213 .00234, and fo on.
But if the given logarithm is not exactly found in
the table, fubtradf the next lefs tabular logarithm from
it, and take the difference between that logarithm,
and the next greater (as given in the column of differ-
t ences). Then flate this proportion :
As the difference, taken from the table,
Is to 10,
So is the difference between the given logarithm and
the next lefs,
To a fourth proportional,
which being annexed to the four figures correfponding
to the logarithm next lefs than the given one, will be
the logarithm required.
Example. Find the number anfwering to the loga¬
rithm 4,13278,
I T H M S.
The dec. part of given log. is 327S Deicdptio!i
That of next lefs, viz. log. of 1357, is -13258 ^
Difference 20 v
The tabular difference is 32, therefore we have this
proportion,
20x10 , .
22 : 10 :: 20 :  —6 nearly.
0 32
Therefore the number correfponding to the propofed
logarithm is .13576.
"in like manner may the numbers to the following lo¬
garithms be found.
Logarithm!!. Numbers.
I.23457 17.162
3/7343° 5423'8
1.09214 .12363
4.61230 40954
The tabic of logarithms of numbers is followed by a
Table of logarithmic Sines and Tangents, for evenj mi¬
nute of the quadrant, with their differences. For the
explanation of this table we refer to Trigonometry,
to which branch of mathematics it is intended to be
applied.
We fliall now give pradfical rules, illuftrated by ex¬
amples, for performing the different operations of arith¬
metic by logarithms.
MULTIPLICATION by Logarithms.
Rule.
Take out the logarithms of the fadlors from the
table •, then add them together, and their fum will be
the logarithm of the produft required. Then find, by
infpedlion of the table, the natural number anfwering
to their fum, and it will be the produdf required.
Obferving to add what is to be carried from the de¬
cimal part of the logarithm to the pofitive index or in¬
dices, or elfe fubtradl it from the negative.
Alfb adding the indices together when they are of
the fame kind, that is, both pofitive or both negative;
but fubtradfing the lefs from the greater when the one
is pofitive and the other negative, and prefixing the
fign of the greater to the remainder.
Examples.
E.x. I. To multiply 2.314 by 50.62.
Numbers. Logarithms.
2.314 O.36436
50.62 1.70432
Produdl 117.13 2.06868
Ex. 2. To multiply 2.5819 by 3 4573.
Numbers. Logarithms.
2.5819 0.41194
3-4573 0.53874
Prod.
0.95068
8.9265
2
Ex. 3,
Ddcription Ex.
ar.d Ule ot together,
the Table. °
L O G A R
To multiply 39.02, and 597.16, and .03147
Numbers.
39.Q2
597-16
.03147
Prod. 733.3
Logarithms.
I*59129
2.77609
2.49790
2.865 28
I T H M S.
Ex. 3. Divide ,06314 by .007241*.
Numbers. Logarithms.
Divid. .06314 2 80030
Divif. .007241 3.85980
?3
Defcription
amt Ui'e of
the Table.
Here the fum of the pofitive indices, together with I
which we carry, is 4> and from this we fubtraft 2, be-
caufe of the negative index —2.
Ex. 4. To multiply 3.586 and 2.1046, and 0.8372
and 0.0294 all together.
Quot. 8.720 0.94050
Here I carried from the decimals to the —3 makes it
—2, which taken from the other —3, leaves O re¬
maining.
Ex. 4. Divide .7438 by 12.947.
Numbers. Logarithms.
Divid. .7438 1.87146
12.947
Divif.
1.11218
Numbers.
3.586
2.1046
O.8372
O.0294
Logarithms.
0.55461
O.32317
1.92283
2.46835
2.75928
.26896
Here the 2 to carry cancels the —2, and there remains
the —1 to fet down.
DIVISION by Logarithms.
Rule.
Subtract the logarithm of the divifor from the lo¬
garithm of the dividend, and the number anfvvering to
the remainder will be the logarithm of the quoUtmt re-
qtti’ed. .
Obferving to change the frgn of the index of the di¬
vifor from pofitive to negative, or from negative to
pofitive j then take the fum of the indices if they be of
the fame name, or their difference when they have dif¬
ferent figns, with the fign of the greater for the index
to the logarithm of the quotient.
Alfo, when 1 is borrowed in the left-hand place of
the decimal part of the logarithm, add it to the index
of the divifor when that index is pofitive, but fubtraft
it when negative 5 then let the index arifing from thence
be changed, and work with it as before.
Examples.
Ex. 1. To divide 24163 by 4567.
Quot. .057449
Here the 1 taken from the —1 makes it become —2
to fet down.
PROPORTION by Logarithms.
Rule.
Add the logarithms of the fecond and third terms,
and from the fum fubtradl the logarithm of the firffc
term by the foregoing rules, the remainder will be the
logarithm of the fourth term required.
Or in any compound proportion wdiatever, add toge¬
ther the logarithms of all the terms that are to be mul¬
tiplied ; and from that fum take the fum of the others,
the remainder will be the logarithm of the anfwer.
Rut, inftead of fubtraaing any logarithm, we may
add its arithmetical complement, and the refult. will be
the fame. By the arithmetical complement is meant
the logarithm of the reciprocal of the given number,
or the remainder by taking the given logarithm from
O, or from 10, changing the beginning of the fcale
from o to 10 *, the eafieft way of doing which is to be¬
gin at the left hand, and fubtraa each figure from 9,
except the laft fignificant figure on the right hand,
which muft be fubtraaed from 10. But when the in¬
dex is negative, it muft be added to ,9, and the reft
fubtraaed as before •, and for every complement that is
added fubtraa 10 from the laft fum of the indices.
Examples.
Ex. 1. Find a fourth proportional to 72.34, 2.519,
and 357.48.
Numbers.
Divid. 24163
Divif. 4567
Logarithms.
4-3 8315
3-65963
0401.5.2908 0.72352
Ex. 2. To divide 37.15 by 523.76.
Numbers.
Divid. 37-15
Div. 523.76
Logarithms.
I.56996
2.71913
Numbers.
As 72.34
To 2.519
So is 357.48
To 12.448
Logarithms.
I.85938
O.4OI23
2.55325
2.95448
I.O95IO
Quot. .07093 2.85083
Here the logarithms of the fecond and third terms are
added together, and the logarithm of the firft term is
fubtraaed from the fum ; but by taking the arithmeti-
L 2 cal
^4
LOGARITHMS.
Delcription cal complement of the firfl term, the work might ftand
and Ufeofthus ;
the Table.
As 72.34
To 2.519
So is 357.48
..To 12.448
Comp. log.
8.14062
0.40123
2-553 25
1.09510
As{136° Gomp. iog. ^
Toj 279-25
I 274
So is 4.5
To
9-4333
00000
43771
2.44599
2-43775
0.65321
0.97466
Here, inftead of fubtrafling the fum of the logarithms
of too and 365, we add the arithmetical complement
of the logarithms of thefe numbers, and fubtraft 20
from the fum of the indices.
INVOLUTION by Logarithms.
Rule.
Multiply the logarithm of the given number by
the index of the power, and the number anfwering to
the product will be the power required.
Noie.—In multiplying a logarithm with a negative
index by a pofitive number, the produdl will be nega¬
tive. But what is to be carried from the decimal part
of the logarithm will always be pofitive. And there¬
fore the difference will be the index of the produft,
and is always to be made of the fame kind with the
greater.
Examples.
Ex. 1. To fquare the number 2.579.
Number.
Root 2.569
The index
Logarithm.
°-4I M5
2
Pbwer 6.6513 0.82290
Ex. 2. To find the cube of 3.0715.
Number. Logarithm.
Root 30715 0.48735
The index 3
Power 28.976 1.46205
Ex. 3. To raife .09163 to the fourth power.
Logarithm.
Number.
Root .09163
2.96204
4
Power .000070495 5.84816
Here 4 times the negative index being —8, and
3 to carry,
prcdudd.
the difference
is the index of the Pefcription
and Ufe of
Ex. 4. To raife 1.0045 to the 365th power.
the Table.
V—-V-—<
Ex. 2. If the intereft of 100I. for a year, or 365
days, be 4.5, What will be the intereft of 279.25I. for
274 days.
Number.
Root 1.0045
The index
Power. 5.1493
Logarithm.
O.OOI95
975
1170
585
•7H75
EVOLUTION by Logarithms.
Rule.
Divide the logarithm of the number by the index
of the root, and the number anfwering to the quotient
is the root fought.
When the index of the logarithm to be divided is
negative, and does not exadtly contain the divifor with¬
out fome remainder, increafe the index by fuch a num¬
ber as will make it exactly divifible by the index of the
root, carrying the units borrowed as fo many tens to
the left-hand place of the decimal, and then divide as
in whole numbers.
Examples.
Ex. 1. Find the fquare root of 2.
Number.
Power .2
Logarithm.
2)0.30!03
Root 1.4142 0.15051
Ex. 2. Find the 10th root of 365.
Logarithm.
10)2.56229
N umber.
Powrer 365
Root 1.804
0.25623
Ex. 3. To find \A°93*
Number. Logarithm.
Power .093 2)2.96848
Root .30496
1.48424
Here the divifor 2 is contained exactly in the nega¬
tive index —2, and therefore the index of the quo¬
tient is —1.
Ex. 4. To find 3v/*00048.
Number. Logarithm.
Power .00048 3)4.68124
Root .078298
2-89375
Here the divifor 3, not being exaftly contained in —
it is augmented by 2 to make up 6, in which the divi¬
for is contained juft 2 times, then the 2 thus borrowed
being carried to the decimal figure ft, makes 26^ which,
divided by 3 gives 8, &c.
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
N.
11
12
l3
M
±5
16
x7
18
19
20
Log.
ooooo
30103
477i2
60206
69897
677815
84510
8903°9
95424
ooooo
°4i39
07918
II394
i46i3
17609
20412
23045
25527
27875
3oio3
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
3°
4I497
43*36
44716
46240
477*2
31
32
3 3] 5
34
_35
36
37
38
39
40
49*36
5°5*5
*851
53*48
544°7
4*
42
43
44
.45
46
47
48
49
_5?
5*
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
3222
34242
36*73
38021
39794
5563°
56820
57978
59*06
60206
61278
6232 c
63347
64345
6532*
66276
67210
68124
69020
69897
7°757
71600
72428
73239
74036
74819
75587!
76343j
77085:
778*5
N. Log.
60
61
62
63
64
65
77815
78533
79239
79934
80618
81291
6681954
67 82607
~ 83251
83885
84510
68
69
70
7*
72
73
74
_75
76
77
78
79
80
85126
85733
86332
86923
87506
88081
88649
89209
89763
903°9
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
93450
93952
94448
94939
95424
101
102
103
104
*05
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
**3
* *4
11
11
1 *7
118
11
120
90849
91381
91908
92428
92942
95904
96379
96848
97772
9*
92
93
94 973*3
_95
96
97
98
99
IOC
98227
98677
99123
99564
OOOOO
00432
0860
01284
01703
02119
02531
<02938
03342
03743
04139
04532
O4922
05308
05690
^ 06070
606446
06819
C7188
555
07918
9°7J
N. Log.
120
121
122
12
124
12
07918
08279
08636
30899:
09342
509691
126
127
128
129
130
*3*
*32
*33
*34
*35
10037
10380
10721
1*059
**394
11727
12057
12385
12710
*3033
136
*37
*38
*39
140
*3354
13672
*3988
*4301
14613
*4*
142
*43
*44
*45
146
*47
148
*49
*5°
*5*
*52
*53
*54
*55
*56
*57
*58
*59
160
161
162
163
164
*65
166
*67
168
169
170
*7*
172
*73
*74
*75
176
*77
178
*79
180
14922
1C229
*5534
*5836
16137
*6435
16732
17026
*73*9
17609
17898
18184
18469
18752
19033
*93*2
*959°
19866
20140
2041?
20683
20952
21219
21484
21748
22011
22272
2253*
22789
23045
23300
23553
23805
24055
24304
2455*
24797
25042
2 C28 c
25527
N.
180
181
182
*83
184
185
25527
25768
260.07
26245
26482
26717
186
187
188
189
190
*9*
192
*93
*94
*95
196
*97
198
*99
200
201
202
20
204
210
211
212
213
2*5
218
219
220
Log.
26951
27184
27416
27646
27875
28103
28330
28556
28780
29003
29226
2-9447
29667
9885
30*03
3032o
30535
30750
30963
2053**75
206 31387
2073*597
20831806
20932015
32222
32428
32634
32838
2143304
33244
21633445
21733646
33846
34044
34242
221
222
223
22^
225
226
354*1
22735603
22835793
35984
36*73
229
230
23*
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
34439
34635
34830
35025
352*8
36361
36549
36736
36922
37lo7
37291
37475
37658
37840
38021
N. Log.
240
241
242
243
24
245
38021
38202
28382
38561
438739
389*7
246
247
248
24
21°
25*
2C2
253
254
25
2c6
257
39094
39270
39445
9 59620
39794
39967
40140
40312
40483
5 40654
40824
40993
25841162
2594*330
26041497
261
2624
263
264
265
2644
41664
*830
4*996
2160
42325
266
267
268
2694
270
42488
42651
42813
2975
43*36
271
222
273
2644
275
4329
43457
43616
3775
43933
44091
744248
44404
944560
447*6
276
27
278
27
28
281
282!
283
2844
2854
286
287
288
28
290
291
292
29 '
29
296
297
2984
29
300
4487*
45025
45*79
45332
548
45637
45788
,45939
946060
46240
46389
46538
346687
446835
546982
47129
47276,
7422
947567
477*2
N.
Log.
47712
47857
48001
48144
48287
48430
300
3°*
302
3°3
3°4
305
30648572
307487*4
30848855
30948996
31049136
3**
3*2
3*3
3*4
3*5
49276
494*5
49554
49693
4983*
316
3*7
3*8
3*9
320
49969
50106
50243
50379
505*5
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
33°
33*
332
333
334
335
5065*
50786
50920
5*055
5**88
5*322
5*455
5*587
51720
5*85*
336
337
338
339
34°
34*
342
343
344
5*983
52**4
52244
52375
52504
52634
52763
52892
53020
53*48
5327
53403
53529
5365
345 53782
346
347
348
349
350
53908
54033
54*58
54283
54407
35*
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
5453*
54654
54777
54900
55023
55*45
5526
55388
55509
55630
N. Log.
360
361
362
63 5
364
365
55630
5575*
5587*
599*
56110
56229.
36656348
367
368
369
37°
56467
56585
56703
56820
37*
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
56937
57054
57*7*
57287
57403
38*
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
39*
392
393
394
395
396
397
39
399
40c
575*9
57634
57749
57864
5797s
58092
58206
58320
58433
58546
58659
5877*
58883
58995
59*06
401
402
403
4°4
405
406
407
'408
409
410
411
4*2
4*3
4*4
4^5
4*6;
4*7
418
4*9
420
59218
59329
59439
5955°
5966
5977°
59879
59988
60097
60206
60314
60423
60 C31
60638
60746
j N. [Log.
42062325
42162428
42262531
42362634
42462737
42562839
42662941
427,63043
428:63144
429.63246
430i63347
43*;63448
43263548
433I63649
43463749
435.63849
436,63949
437.64048
43864*47
439:64246
44°!64345
44*64444
442j64542
445164640
444164738
! 445:64836
! 44664933
| 4476503*
44865128
44965225
4506532*
45165418
45265514
453656*0
45465706
45^65801
4 5665896
45765992
45866087
45966181
46066276
461 66370
46266464
46366558
464666 52
46066745
46666839
467 66932
46867025
46967117
47067210
47* |6730 2
47267394
47367486
47467578
47567669
i 476^7761
i 477167852
i 478167943
! ,479168034
I 48068124
86
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
N.
I L°g-
68124
68215
6830 c
68395
68485
68574
48668664
48768753
68842
68931
4»o
481
482
483
484
485
488
489:
490169020
491169108
49269197
493|69285
49469373
49569461
496
497
49869723
44969810
50069897
501
50,2
503
5°4
3°5
5067
5°7
508
5°97
S1©
5
512
5*3
514
515
51?
69548
6963
69984
70070
70243
70329
°415
70501
70586
0672
7°757
70842
70927
71012
71096
71181
5167126^
7I3-19
5i8 7i433
5*97*
71600
71767
71850
5247I933
525I72016
526172099
527172181
52872263
52972346
53072428
531725°9
53272591
533172673
534^2754
535172835
536:72916
537:72997
538I73078
539:73I59
54°73239
N. Log.
54°
541
542
543
544
73239
73320
73^°°
73480
73560
545173640
546173719
54773799
54873878
54973957
55°74°36
55Ij74II5
55274I94
55374273
554I74351
555i74429
55^74507
557174586
55874663
559
560
56i ,
5627
563
564
565
5667
567
568
56975
57c
571
572
573
574
575
5767
577 .
5787
5797
580
581
582
583
584
5857
5867
587
588
589
59°
591
592
593
594
74741
74819
74896
4974
75051
5x28
75205
5282
/5358
75435
5511
75587
75664
7574°
75815
75891
75967
6042
76118
6193
76268
763.45
76418
76492
76567
76641
6716
6790
76864
76938
77012
77085
77*59
77232
77305
77379
595 7 745:
596j77525
597(77597
598177670
599 77743
600:77815
N. | Log.
600 778x5
6oi;77887
602:77960
603,78032
604:78104
605178176
606178247
6071783x9
608(78390
609:78462
1 610178533
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
6.34
635
636
637
638
6398
640
641
642
643
6448
78604
78675
78746
788x7
78888
78958
79029
79099
79169
79239
79309
79379
79449
795l8
79588
79657
79727
79796
79865
79934
80003
80072
80140
80209
80277
80346
80414
80482
0550
80618
80686
80754
80821
^0889
64^80956
646 81023
647 81090
648 81158
6498
650
651
652
653
65
655
656
657
658
65
66
81291
48
8i358
81425
81491
‘1558
81624
81690
8i757
81823
981889
8i954
N. L.
660
661
662
8} 954,
82020
82086
663IS2T51
664:82217
665 82282
666:82347
667:82413
668182478
669:82543
670 82607
671
672
673
674
675-82930
676
677
678
681
682
683
684
683
686
687
688
689
690
82672
82737
82802
82866
82995
83°59
83123
679S3187
680 83251
833L
83378
83442
835°6
83569
83632
3696
^3759
3822
83885
691
692
693
694 8
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
7°3
704
7°5
83948
84011
84073
4i36
84x98
84261
84323
84386
84448
84510
84572
84634
84696
84757
84819
706 84S80
70784942
708 85003
85065
85126
709
710
71183187
71285248
713|85309
7i4|8537o
715|85431
71618549:
717:85552
71885612
7i9|85673
720:85733
! - i
720:85733
72185794
72285854
723 85914
724:85974
723S86034
72686094
727
728
729
86i53
86213
86273
73086332
734
735
731:86392
73286451
86510
86570
86629
86688
86747
86806
86864
86923
/o
737
738
739
740
74
742
743
744
745
74687274
74
748
74
75°
78733
87390
987448
87506
751
752
753 8
754
755
87564
87622
7679
87737
587795
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
763
764
765
766
767
768
769
77°
771
772
77
774
77
77
777
778
77.,
780
8698
87040
87099
87216
87852
87910
87967
88024
88081
88138
88195
88252
88309
88366
88423
88480
88536
88593
88649
88705
88762
388818
8887,
588930
688986
89042
89098
_ 154
89209
989]
IS.
780:
781
782
783
784
785
786
787
Log.
89209
89265
89321
89376
89432
89487
8954
89597
78889653
789^9708
79089763
79*
792
793
794
795
796
797
798
799
800
390091
90146
9020c
90255
9°309
Sox
802
8039
804
80.
8069
8079
808
809
8x0
811
8129
8249
825
831
832
833
89818
89873
899
89982
9003
90902
'956
813 91009
81491062
81591116
81691169
81791222
81891275
81991328
82091381
82191434
82291487
82391540
II593
9^45
82691698
82791751
82891803
82991855
83091908
91960
92012
9206 5
83492117
83592x69
836J92221
83T92273
83892324
83992376
84092428
N.
84?
841
842
843
! Log. |
92428
92480
9*531
92583
•84492634
84592686
846,92737
847192788
84b'!92840
849192891
850I92942
85192993
85293044
853|93095|
854193146:
855 931971
85693247!
85793298
s58 93349
85993399
86093450
861
862
863
864
865
866
93500
9355*
93601
93651
93702
93752
86793802
86893852
869193902
87o|93952:
87194002
872(94052
873I94101
87494151
87594201
87694250
87794300
87894349
87994399
880:94448
881:94498
88294547
883:94596
88494645
88594694
8869474
88794792
88894841
88994890
89094939
891
892
8939
8949
895
896
897
898
899
900
94988
95036
5085
5I34
95x82
95231
95279
95328
95376
95424
i J'L1
' 90095424
9°1'95472
90295 C2I
90395569
904j956l7
90595665
906,95713
90795761
90895809
9o9;95356
91095905
9IIj95952
912(95999
9x3:96047
914196095
91596x42
91696190
91796237
91896284
91996332
92096379
921196426
92296473
923(96520
92496567
925966x4
92696661
927 96708
92896755
92996802
93096858
93196895
93296942
93396988
93497935
935 97°81
93697128
93797174
938 97220
93997267
94° 973 93
94197359
94297405
94397451
94497497
94597543
94697589
94797635
94897.681
44997727
950(97772
95197818
95297864
953 97909
95497955
95598000
95698046
95798091!
958;98i37’:
95998182
96098227
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
N, |_L _
96 198227
96TI98272
962198318
963I98363
963)98408
965I98453
966) 98498
967) 98543
96898588
96998632
970*98677
9-198722
972I98767
9739^8i 1
974)98856
975:9890°
iio2i!00903l
43
N. j Log. D.l N. i Log. L.
102000860, ^ 1108003342
053 83
-°342'3
i°3463i
r 03503i
I022j00945^|
I023|00088:4^!
1081
Io82<
1083 <
,1084 u
1025I01072TI1085 93543 A |ii45|0588_
,1026 01115 "" ^ ‘
10275011571,
1028:01199'
1029:01242^
1030 01284^
1031101326 /
103201368'
1033I01410;
;8
1086 03 5’83L r 114^05918 U 811206 0813 5
108703623^° 1147 P5956^o! 120708171
97698945
977(98989
978'99034
97'
980
99078
90x23
981
982
983
984
99x67
99211
99255
99300
98599344
986
987
988:
9 Sc
990
99388
9943 2
99476
99 5 20
995^4
99
999
100c
1001
1002
1003
1004
1087103623
108803665*
1089103703!^
109003743!^,
0378:
103822
03862
1034
1035
OI452,
01494
1036
1.037
I1038
1039
1040 01703
99607
99651
9969 :
99739
7978 2
991
992
99
994
995
99699826
99799870
99913
99957
OOQOO
OOO43
OO087
OOI3O
OOI73
1004 00217
100600260
CO303
IO08
1012
1013
1014
101 S
1017
1018
003461
=389,.,3
o_243?j43
0047 q
00518
001:61
00604
00647
101600689
00732
00775
10x9008x7
102000860
OI536 2
OI578^2i
01620 ^
01662'*'2
41
42
42
41
42
42
41
42
J745
01787
1041
1042
1043 01828
1044I01870
1045(01912
1046101953
104701995
1048 02036^
1049 02078
1050 02119
105102160
105202202
i°53lo2243
1054 02284
105502325
1056 02366
105702407
105802449
105902490
106002531
1061:02572
106202612
106302653
106402694
1065)02735
4°
109403902;
i095i°394Ii^n
1096103981!
1097I04021:
1098040601^
04I00i39
°4I39;^o
1066,02776
1067,02816
1068 02857
1069 02898
1070 02938
51071
(1072
1073
1074
10 r?
1076
1077
1078
1079
02979
03019
03060)
03100
03Mi.p
1099
1100
1102
o
1104
l°4179!oQ|-l^ir^-3!28
042185'’) 116206521,-’
..^042971^
IlO^O^^j^
IIO604376
04415
04454
1107
1108
1109
1110
04493
0453 2
ii 11
1112
1113
1114
04571
046x0
04650
04689
1116
1X20
°3.8i
O3222O
°8262i4o
-/r 03300^
080,03342.^ I
11 21
1X22
II23
iii5°4727
04766
111704805
111804844
111904883
04922
04961
04999
0503 8
112405077
II2505i15
112605154
112705192
112810523
1129-05 269
1130,05308
II3I05346
ii3205385
054 23
Ir33
ii34_J^
ir3505500^8
08
0546i-T
1136
1138
1139
1140
ii48i05994l8gj.i2o8|o8207
1149I0603 2P “1120908243
xi50:o6o7o:8'nl 1210 08279
FiTI 06108^
11 52 06145 *28
II53 o6l83 oQ
L°g- lD-
i2oo!o79i8! 6
120107954!^
I202|0799°;^
1203080270'
■i204!o8o63
1205)08099 -’6
206I08135
26
36
36
35
36
6
X. j Loj
D.
126
1261
1262
1263
1264
1265
i0037Lj
100
10106,
10140
10175
34
10209 „
-3t
N. ! Log.
D.|! N. i Log. ID*
13204 20 57:
132142090
1322)12123, ,
i323jx 2x56)004383'
1324:12189 00I4384
13251x2222
„P38oi3988U
o|x38xi4oI9^
5;F382i405i4i
j’i r 438
^ * vX 0622 I
xi 5506258p
0S314
0835
- o386)36
1214084221 6
i2i5o8458)-10
1213
1156:062961 421608493
ii57jo6833i-N
ii58o637IrLi
1159064080/
1160:064465’^
116106483 r
1217 08529
1218 08565
08600
08636
39
39
39
39
39-
39
4°i
39'
38,
39j
39
39
39j
39
39
38
39
39
38
39|
38
39
38
39
38
39
38
1165
1164
116 ?
7166
1167
o65583;
06595
06633
06670'
06707
1223
08672
08707
08743
1226
1168 06744
1169
1170
06781
06819
1171
x 172
H73
1x74
1 x75
o5538i
05576
05614
05652
05690
1191
1192
xx 93
1194
1X95
1196
1197
1198
X199
1200
06856'
06893
06930
06967
07004
1176 07041
1177 070781
' 07115
117907151
1180
1181
1182
1183
1184
1185
1186
1187
1188
1189
1190
122408778
1225 08814
08849
08884
08920
o8955
08991
09026
09061
09096
09x32.
09167
109202
09237
: 09272
' 09307
09342
09377
09412
09447
09482
’95X7
07188
07225
07262•
07298
07335
°7372
074o8 oJ1246o9552
07445
ofel
07555
07591
07628;
07664jI^|I 253
07700■
Q7737'
07773'
07809■
07846■
07882■
079x8•
ji 247 09587
1248:09621
09656
09691
09726
09760
09795
09830
09864
09899
09934
09968
00003
00037
1266102431 ,
x 267 1027818-’
1268)10312'
1269:10346
1270)10380
:S2
127110415
1272)10449
1273I10483
1274110517
1275I055I
1326)12254
i327:x 2287j-’^:l:x387
33'1385:i4t4°8!
“ li386|i4i76
3LX328|x232op!iI388
31’113 29, i235 2h 4!13 89
o j I38Q:I2885rG:439°
83 X33xji24i8^4:1391
x332!i2450lTr392
x.393
34
x333|x2483! 3,1
13 34125i
1276)10585
10619
10653
X277
1278
1279
1280
35
36
35
36
35
35
36
35
36
35
35
35
S6
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35!
35
34
35
35
35
34
35
35
34
35
35
34
35)
34
1281
32;
1394
34i 1335ii 2548'^ )|X395 I4457n;
34j Q-^° iTTTTZ“Tq7|3 2
X420832
I4239|gI
142 H31
X4201u2
>4333
1 ^
X4395|3J
26P
14420!
31
34
X337
X338
o687|34|i339
10721
10755
1282 10789
128310823
128410857
1285110890
1286:10924
i287ii0958
128810992
1289)11025
1290
1291
1292
1293
1294
11059
x 1093
11126
11160
11193
1295 11227
129611261
1297
1298
1299
1300
1301
1302
13°3
X304
1305
x3o6
1307
1308
1309
1310
1311
13x2
x.3X4
X3X5
X3X7
1318
X3X9
1x294
1x327
11361
xi394
11428
11461
11494
11528
xx 561
xx 594
11628
11661
11694
X1727
34!
34
34
34
33
34
34
34
33
34
34
33
34
33
34
34
33
33
34
33
34
33
33
34
33
33
34
33
33
33
11760
11793
1313 1x826
;893
33
33
11860 84
33
33)
33
33'
32
33
131611926
xi959
11992
12024
132012057
X341
X342
X343
1344
1
'8x|"2!!i396jx
X 2613!^:) I 3 97j 145 2C|“ t
12646^113981145510
X2678:32:139914582T
0 j 1400! x 4613'0
-710,
33!
12743r2,H
X2775LI
12808 0-’
332
^ 12840. ,
345U2872.0 I
1346)12905]^^
13471X2937
X348
X349
X350
X351
1352
X353
X354
1355
X356
X357
X358
1359
x36o
1361
1362
X363
1364
1365
1366
1367
x368
1369
X370
33;
1X37X
XS?2
X373
X374
1.375
12969
13001
X3°33 og! X410
13066,
I3098P2
J y 132
13130-’
0 4 32
131624
o 132
13I94g2
42
32)
32
S2
32!
13226
13258
13290
13322
X3354
X3386
X34i8
X3450
X3481
135x3
X3545
13577
13609
13640
13672
13704
X3735
13767
X3799
i383°
1376 13862
X377!I3893
I378iI3925 21
X379’3956)“-
1380)13988
1402
1403
1404
140 ^
4406
1407
1408
1409
1411
1412
1413
1414
14x5
14644!, 1
146753
.4706)3'
.4737|3
i/|768)8
■2 1 31
I4799-3o
148600
1489181
1492281
  3
X4953
3 2,
31
32’
32
32
32i
32!
32
31
3
32
31
3 2:
31
32!
32,
1416
1417
14x8
14x9
1420,
1421
1422
X423
1424
X425
14983
15014
X5045
1507631
15106
X5i37
15168
15x98
15229
1426
142
1428
X429
M3°
IX431
14 3 2
1x433
X434
1435
15259
I529°
153 20
I535ISo
1538113°
'31
13412j 30
154423
I5473)3
.5503 ;
‘333|o
X5564
15594)3 j
i5625|0
X56 >‘5 3
1568}30
AS0
1436
x4371574
X438
X439
I1440
157I5l3I
746)3
157763
x58068°
15836
3°
B7
m
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
456,
r457
1458
1459
1460
1461
1462
H63
1464
1466
1467
1468
469
I47°
N. | Log. D.| N. | Log.
T440 i583^ orlI50°jI76o9
1441
1442
1443
1444
x445
446
1447
448
1449
I45°
16167
16197
16227
162^6
14^ t; 16286
16316
I45I
x452
x453
1454
1471
1472
r473
J474
x475
x476
1477
1478
1479
1480
'i 481
x 5866
i5897
x3927i"c
1 5937^g
15987301
l6oi7 30
3
3°
3°
3
3°
3°
29
3°i
3°
16047
16077
16107
56137
1150617782
‘1507117811
150817840
17869
17898
16346
x6376
16406
*6435
1646 c
x6495
16524
x6554
46516584
16613
16643
16673
16702
16732
16761
16791
16820
16850
16879
16909
16938
16067
16997
17026
17056
3°
29
30
29
3°
29
29
3°
2 9
3°
20!
29
29
301
29
29
29
29
3°
 'i ni20
I49i!i7348 _
i492I7377l^
1493;174°6|
14821708 5
i483171r4
148417143
x483I7I73
i48617202
x487i7231
148817260
148947289
149017319
1501I17638
1502117667
X5°3|I7696
I5°4jI7725
I5P5I7754
I5°9
1510
I5H
1512
1513
1514
I3I5
1 ci6
!i5i7
1518
o0|i5i9 18156
29
29
29
29
2 9
28
29
29
29
29
 ,28
0926 2„
*79 5JUq
1798417^;
i8oi3!‘9
18070
b.!l N.
1560
1561
1562
*563
x564
£565
1 c66
x567
i568
4369
I57°
1571
1572
1573
J374
!i575
D.| N. Log. D. N. Log. jD.)! N. Log. 1>. N. Log. D,
I9312
28
I9368,
I9396:
1.9424;
I9451'
x9479'
I95°7'
I9535!
x9562;
i959°;
19618,
i9645'
x9673;
19700;
19728;
20952
20978
21005
21032
2io39
210851 6
  :i.!27
162621112!
2ii39l27
2116526
21192j“/
1627
1628
1629
1:630
1521
1522
1523
x524
1525
9 x526 18355
11527 18384
3° 1528
1529
1C30
4536
x537
T538
I539
!x540
1531
1532
1533
x534
153 5
1541
1542
1543
x544
x545
|i576ji9756
8o99!oq!i577ii9783
i8i27 ; 4578119811,
2glI57919838!2g
28II c80 19866 28
■9 tyoT rr?TTr!27
28!,-82
2H0-83
18184
18213
18241
18270
18298
18327
1841 2
i884i
18469
18498
1:8526
i8554
18583
18611
18639!
18667!
18696
■8724!^
‘iTiiiS
18780; q!
.8808 28
i8837'28
l8893:2g
29
28
29
28
28
29
28
28
28
1:631
!632
i633
x634
*635
1636
q!i637
1638
1639
1640
20167,
20194;
20222;
__ .20249;
1595 20276
154618921
... i8949
1548 l8977 "g
1549 19005^
15 ^019033^
28
28
1551
1552
1553
19061
19089
x9893
19921
. _.I9948
I58449976
158 !;|2ooo3
586 20030
i587
588
i589
59°
1591
1592
593
I594
I596
x597
x598
x599
1600
1601
1602
!6o3
1604
x6o5
2°303 27
2033° 2g
203 38 ^
20412
204 3 9! 2!
2046647
20493
20520
20548
27
1641
1642
x643
1644
1645
212191
21245
21272
21299
21315
2X352
21378
2i4°5,
2I431!
2x458;
2i484!
4680
4681
6682
4683
11684
4685
17686
:687
1x688
11689
1690
1691
1692
*693
1694
I1695
1696
4697
22^!26
22^7!26
22583 Uc
226o8!26
22634! 6
2 266c2;^
22686
22712;
22737!
22763;
22789;
22814
22840;
22866;
22891;
22917;
1740
1741
1742
x743
1744
24055
24080
24105
24x30
24x55
174524180
174624204
24229
24254
24279
24304
24329
24353
2437s.
H403 .
24428
21511
21537
21564
21590
21617
1646
1647
1648
1649
1650
21643
21669
21696
21722
21748
!65i
1652
*653
x654
i655
21775
21801
21827
21854
21880
1606.20575
1607:20602
160^20629
1609:20656
1610120683
1611120710
161220737
1656
x657
x658
x659
1660
1661
1662
1663
1664
[1665
!ji666
I1667
!i668
11669
122943
/22968 2|
7698 22994!
ji699j23oi9|^
il7ooj23045j2°
26i
21906
21932
21958
21985
22011
22167
22194
22220
22246
!l670 22272
1671
-^r.i«i3po763
I494:i7435!2q 1 '54 'SHi
.jl672
!!i673
22298
22324
22350
I495lI7464
29j 1555'19573 2g|!1615.20817
i49o;i7493 '111556119201 ^JII6i6i2o844
149717522I29; 1557,19229 1617120871
149815551 29i;I558iI9257 ^nii1618:20898
1499 17 580 29,1559 19285 1619120925
15oo!i76o9 29! 1560 19312 27 i62o!20952
167422376
1675(2240
i676!
2<7l ^677
; 1678
— ■ t2ni , -27‘!l679 "J“J
500I17609 29! 1560 19312 ^7, i62oi20952 /|!i68oj2253i|
22427
22453
22479
2*S.°A 26
1706
I7°7
1708
I7°9
1710
27!1726
2CI727
1728
1729
1730
1731
23198
23223
23249
23274
23300
23325
23350
23376
. .23401
171523426
23452
. . 23477
171823502
|I7I9 23528
172Q23553
23578
23603
^ 23629
I72423654
172523679
23704
23729
23754
23779
23805
1766
1767
1768 :
1769:
1770:
1776
1777
1778
x779
1780
24822
24846
24871
24895
24920
24944
24969
24993
25018
25042
25
26
-'-23n3°2C
I73223855 3
x733 23880^
I734239°5
17352393° 3
123955! 3
/j/r 23980!23 x797 25455,24
1738,2400525 1798 25479^^
1791
x792
x793
x794-jj--2,
1795 25406 ^
25
124
N. Log. |D
25527,.,.
2555jL|
2557.'4l
i8o5|256482^jl
1806 25672
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1805
1807
1808
1809
1810
25696
25720
25744
25768
25792 2,,
25816*4
25840
25864
25888
1816
1817
1818
1819
1820
1821
1822
!823
1824
25912
25935
25959
25983
26007
26031
26055
26079
26102
1825 26126
1826
1827
1828
1829 :
1830:
179625431
I 24030 25
•24055Z5
x799 25503
180025527
1836
1'837
1838
1839
1840
1841
1842
1843
1844
£845
1846
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
1854
26269
26293
26316 ^
26340
26364
26387
26411
26435
26458
26482
26505
26529
26553
26576
26600
26623
26647
26670
26694
26717
26741
26764
26788
26811
-85526834
1856
1857
1858
26858
26881
26905
185926928
i860 26951
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
i875i
1876
1877
187827370
27393
27416
1879
1880
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
18S6
1887
1888
1889
1890
189127669
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
i8971
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
I9°4
I9°5
1906
I9°7
1908
I9°9
1910
1911
1912
2695iL,
26975i:|
26998: 3
270211 4
27=4.;;t
27068:^8
123
23
24
866 2709
23
27114
27138
27161
£2iM23
27207:
27231124
27254
27277
27300
27323
27346
27439
27462
27485
27508
27531
27554
27577
27600
27623
27646
27692
277I5
27738
27761
27784
27807
27830
27852
27875
27898
27921
27944
27967
27989
28012
2803 5
2805823
28081
28103
28126
28149
1913 28171
1914 28194
1915 28217
1916 28240
1917 28262
1918 28285
191928307
1920
28330 23
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
89
N. i Log.
1920'
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
1932
1933
J934
I935
28330
28353
28375
28398
28421
28443
28466
28488
28511
28533
28556
28578
28601
28623
28646
28668
936 2869:
28713
28735
28758
28780
I937
1939
1940
1941
1942
J943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
I95°
1991
x952
J953
1954
1955
l95^
I957
^i8
2 959
28803
28825
28847
28870
28892
28914
28937
28999
28981
29003
29026
29048
29070
29092
29215
29237
29259
29181
29203
196
2963
2964
2965
1960 29226
196129248
29270
29292
29324
29336
1966
2967
1968
2969
2970
2972
2972
2973
29358
29380
29403
29425
29447
29469
29492
29513
25274 29535
197529557
197629579
1977 29601
1978 29623
197929645
2980 29667
1). N. Log. |D.
980
981
982
983
2984
1985
1986 2^798
1987 29820
1988 29842
1989 29863 ^
1990 29885
992 29929
299329952
29667!^
29688^
29710 22
2973222
29754!22
2977^22
2 994
1995
1996
2997
2998
2 999
2000
30026
30038
30060
30081
30103
2001
2002
2003
2004
200;
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2017
20 if
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
2°3:
29973
29994
3OI25
30146
30168
3OI9°
30211
22
22
21
2
22
I99I 299°7 22
22
22'
2ij
22
22!
22
21
22
22
21
22
22
21
22
22
21
22
22
21
22
21
22
22
21
22
21
22
21
22
21
22
21
22
21
21
22
21
22
21
200630233
3°255
30276
30298
3°320
3°34I
3°3^3
„30384
201430406
201 c 30428
201630449
3°47I
30492
3°5I4
30535
30557
30578
30600,
30621
3D643
202630664
2027 30685
2028 30707
202930728
203030750
30771
N. Log.
204030963
204130984
204231006
20433I027
204431048
2°453io69
204631091
2047’3iii2
2048 31133
°493II54
205031175
2051
2052
2053
2054
2055
31*97
31218
3i239
31260
31281
20563
2057
2058
2059
2060
2061
2062
2063
20643
206 c
20663
2067
2068
20693
2070
2071
2072
207
2074
2075
21
203230792
2033130814 ^
2034;3o835i
2035130856:^
. 20361308781
2J2037|30899|2I
22 2038:30920!^
22 2039,30942^
2040309631
2076
2077
2078
2079
20803
1302
3*323
3*345
31366
3*387
31408
3*429
3*450
*47*
3*492
*5*3
3*534
3*555
*576
3*597
3*618
3*639
31660
31681
31702
3*723
3*744
3*765
3*785
1806
208131827
2082:31848
2o83!3i869
2084131890
2085131911
2086,31931
208731952
208831973
208931994
209032015
209132035
209232056
209332077
209432098
209532118
2096 3 21391
2097 32160
2098 32181
209932201
210032222
N. Log.
210032222
210132243
210232263
2103 32284
2*0432305
2*0532325
210632346
2107 32366
2*0832387
210932408
211032428
2*11 32449
211232469
2113:32490
2114325*0
2**5!3253*
2**632552
2117132572
2**8132593
2ii9'326i3
2*20132634
2121
2122
2123
2124
2125
21263
2127
2128
212
2*3°
9328
2*3*
2*32
2*33
2*34
2*35
363
2*
2*37
2138
2*39
2140
2141
2142
2*43
2*44
2*45
463
21
2*47
2148
2*49
2150
2151
21 C2
2*53
32654
32675
32695
327*5
32736
2756
32777
32797
‘18
32838
32858
32879
32899
329*9
32940
2960
32980
3300*
33021
33041
33062
33082
33*02
33*2
33*43
3*63
33*83
33203
33224
33244
33264
33284
33304
2*5433325
2*55133345
2*56,33365
2*57i33385
2*5833405
2*59
2160
33425
33445
D.
N. Log.
D. N. | Log.
2*6033445
216133465
2*6233486
2*63
33506
2*6433526
2165
33546
2166
2167
2168;
2169
2170
33566
33586
336o6
33626
33646
2171
2172
2*73
217
2*75
33666
33686
337o6
433726
33746
763
21
2*7
2178
2*7
2180
3766
733786
33806
933826
33846
2181
2182
2183
2184
2185
2186
2187
2188
2189
2190
2191
2192
2*9;
2*94
2*95
2196
2*97
2198
2*99
2200
2201
2202
2203
2204
2205
2206
2207
2208
2209
2210
33866
33885
33905
33925
33945
D.
33965
33985
34005
34025
34044
34064
34084
34*04
34*24
34*43
34*63
34183
34203
34223
34242
3426
34282
3430i
3432i
3434*
3436i
34380
34400
34420
34439
34459
221234479
221334498
221434518
22*5134537
22*634557
22*7|34577
2218:34596
22*9 34616'
222034635!
20
21
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20 h
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
*9
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
I
20
20
20
20
*9
20
20
20
20
*9
20
20
*9
20
20
20
*9
20
20
*9
20
20:
*9
20
*9
20
20
*9
201
*9
222034635
2221134655
222234674
2223134694
2224134713
2225
34733
2226
2227
2228
2229
2230
34753
34772
34792
34811
34830
2231
2232
2233
2234
2235
34850
34869
34889
34908
34928
2236
2237
2238
2239
2240
2241
2242
2243
2244
2245
2246
2247
2249
2250
2251
2252
2253
2255
2257
2259
2260
2261
12262
2263
2265
2266
2267
2268
2269
2271
2272
2273
2274
34947
34967
34986
35005
35025
35044
35064
35083
35*02
35*22
35*4*
35*60
2248 35180
35*99
352*8
35238
35257
35276
225435295
353*5
225635334
35353
225835372
35392
354**
35430
35449
35468
226435488
35507
35526
35545
35564
35583
227035603
35622
3564*
35660
35679
2275135698
2276!357*7!
2277357361
227835755
227935774
228035793
N.
2280
2281
2282
2283
2284
Log. lD.; N.
35832 j
3585*
35870
228535889
2286 35908
2287
2288
2289
2290
35927
35946
35965
35984
2291
2292
2293
2294
2295
36003
36021
36040
36059
36078
22963609
2297
2298
229936154
230036173
2301
2302
2303
230436248
230536267
2306 36286
230736305
2308
2309
23*0
2311
2312
23*3
23*4
23*5
2316
23*7
23*8
2321
2322
2323
2324
2325
2326
2327
2328
233*
2332
2333
2334
2L3^
2336
2338
2339
2340
35793 20
358*3|I9
9;
*9!
*9
*9j
*9!
*9
*9
*9
*9
18
*9
*9
*9
*9
*9
*9
*9
*9
*9
*9
18
2340
234*
2342
2343
2344
2345
36116
36*35
36192
36211
36229
36324
36342
36361
3638c
36399
364*8
36436
36455
36474
36493
365**
23*936530
232036549
36568
36586
36605
36624
36642
36661
6680
36698
*9
*9
*9
*9
*9
18
*9
*9
*9
*9
18
*9
*9
*9
18
*9
*9
*9
18
*9
*9
18
*9
19
18
*9
2329367171!
2330 36736|T)
'^o >•*
36829T
36847
233736866
36884
36903
36922
234637033 ! g
2347 37°5*|I0i
234837070'-
37o88'j;
37*07:^
Log. 1)..
36922 o
3694°!
36959!
36977io
36996J
I9
2349
2350
35*
2352
2353
2354
2355
37*25
37*44
37x62
37*81
37*99
235637218
235737236
2358
2359
2360
2361
2362
2363
236437365
2365
236637401
236
2368
236937457
2370
2371
2372
2373
2374
2375
2378
2380
2381
2382
2383
2387
2389
2390
2391
2392
2393
2394
2395
*91
18^0
2396
97
239J
37254
37273
3729*
373*o
37328
37346
37383
37420
37438
37475
37493
375**
37530
37548
37566
237637585
237737603
37621
237937639
37658
37676
37694
377*2
23843773*
238537749
238637767
37785
238837803
37822
37840
18
18
37858l8
37876 |
37894;:;!
379*2!
3793£!!i
37949Lg
379^!i8
I9r--|379H8
^239938003^
^1230038021
Vol. XII. Part I.
M
SiQ
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
| NL
(2400
!2401
|24°2
24°3
24°4
24°5
24°7
Lou. jD-H_N. 1 Log iD.| N. Lo^.lD-j N. Log.
380211^12460139094!
D.;! N.
3^°39
3 8° 5 7
38o75
38o93io
 3liL2|j8
240638130^
>46139111
J252040I40I 258041162
1 T-T / ArRl iTT^O
38148}
2408381661‘g
240^-0'0■
2410
<5»2°2j[8
6i! 25 21 '40! 5 7| j 258141179
*^8241196
41212
;a246239i29! f2i22140175 12582
J8t24«339;46IL^3i40>9jILl83
'7!
2D4<
! 2641
246439i64!i8!2524|402°9ij .
2465 39182 j 425251402261 '
2466
2467
39i99
39217
246839235
246939252
247°39270
242138399
242238417
242338435
242438453
242538471
242638489
242738507
242838525
242938543
243038561
243138578
43238596
243338614
243438652
24353865°
2436 38668
243738686
2438j387°3
18
2471
2472
2473
2474
24 I ^ 38 22O1 Q
24I238238!i8
t24I338256L8
l24l438274!i8
1 24I538292(i8
24I638310U
241738328^ 2477
24I838346; g
24I938364L
2420 38382^
39287
39305
39322
3934°
247539358
247639375
39393
247839410
247939428
248039445
2481
2482
2483
2484
2485
18!|2526j40243
i8'2527!4°26i
15252840278
40295
403_i^
40329
40346
40364
40381
40398
x?
I8ii2529
7j|^
isN1
2532
17
1
18
I7< <
i8;2636
2537
2538
8ii2533
‘2534
2535
39463
39480
39498
39515
39533
24863955°
248739568
248839585
248939602
2490 39620
249139637
249239655
249339672
249439690
2495 39727
17
t Ri254°
r7
18
i8;25464°586
243938721
244038739
244138757
244238775
244338792
2444!388io
2445, ‘
249639724
249739742
249839759
249939777
lSl2500 39794
1250139811
39829
2541
4°4I5
40432
40449
253940466
!4°483
40500
18
r7
T7
x7
r7
18
17
17^
17
258441229!
258514x246'
258641263
258 ~
^58841296;
258941313
97
2590
4I33°
254240518
4°535
4°552
40569
2543
2544
2545
2547
2548
40603
4062
Is 25494o637
255°
2446
244/
38846
38863
^ 8j 2502
IZ 250339846
,01250439863
lg 2505 39881
18
27
18
17
ll
18
!7
18
ll
x7
18
*7
x7
18
40654
40671
40688
40705
40722
40739
2551
2552
2553
2554
2555
255640756
2557
2591
2592
2593
2594
2595
2596
2597
17 25984x464
41481
4T497
2599
2600
2601
Log. |D.
42160
42177
\l 264242193-
264342210
264442226
2645142243
2646U225916
N. Log. 1).
43x36jl6
43I52j1 ~
412804 Z 2647U2275
4*347
4*363
41380
4*397
4*4*4
4*43°
4*447
4*5*4
260241531
*712603 4*547
260441564
260541581
260641597
2607 41614
260841631
260941647
261041664
....40773 _
255840790.7
255940807
256040824
2561
2562
2563
2564
*7
*7
40841 17
10858*7
4o875
40892
16
17
*7
*7
16
*7
*7
*7
16
*7
*7
*7
16
*7
*7
16
*7
*7
16
2648142292;
2649142308
2650142325
2700
2701
2702431
2703 43 *85'! 6
27044320116
*6:
16
16
16
16
270543217
>43233
43249
270843265
270943281
271043297
N. ! Log.
D.
2760
2761
2762
2763
2764
2765
44091
44*07
44*22
44138
44*54
44*7°
276644185
2767I44201
2768:44217
2769 44232
2651
2652
2653
2654
42341
42357
42374
42390 l6
433*3
■43329
. J43345
27*44336*
265 5 424061 1271543377
2656U2423 ^271643393
265742439 ° 27*743409
265842455 ° 27184342
265942472 * 27i94344i
266042488 t° 2720I43457
261141681
2612 41697
261341714
261441731
261541747
261641764
2617 41780
261841797
261941814
2620 41830
244838881
244938899
2450
389*7
38934
389521"o
38970'18
2451
2452
2453^
24543898717
245539005,
245639°23.
2457i39°4* ■
2458|390581
2459139076
2460139094
250839933
250939950
25*039967
25**39985
251240002
21:1340019
251440037
2515,40054
251640071
251740088
2621 41847
2622 41863
2623 41880
I262441896
{262541913
7 262641929
1812567 40943)17 2627 41946
25684096o|I7 262841963
256940976^6 262941979
*7
*7
16
*7
*7
16
*7
*7
16
*7
16
*7
*7
16
*7
266142504
266242521
266342537
266442553
266542570
266642586
266742602
266842619
266942635
267042651
256540909
2566 40926!
*7
40993 17 2630 41996
42012
42029
42045 T„
42062*7
41010
141027
I4io44
r4*o6i
4*078^
1272143473
1272243489
1272343505
1272443521
'2725 43537
272643553
272743569
272843584
272943600
273043616
267142667
267242684
67342700
267442716
267542732;
273*43632
273243648
2733 43664
2734 4368o
273543696
267642749
267742765
267842781
267942797
268042813
2736437*2
273743727
273843743
273943759
274043775
16
*7
16
*7
16
*7
*7
16
*7
16
*7
16
268142830
268242846
2683 42862
268442878
2685I42894
6 iZlS
2771
2772
2773
2774
44248
N. t Log.
44264
44279
44295
443**
2775 44326
2776,44342
2777i44358
2778j44373
2779144389
278044404
2781I44420
2782I44436
78344451
2784:44467
2785
2786
2787
2788
2789
2790
268642911
268742927
268842943
268942959
269042975
^2078
_ . . ^ 25774111*
251840106 257841128
25764*095 ' 263642095
25*9
2520
40123
40140
2579
2580
I263742111
263842127
263942144
274*4379*
274243807
274343823
274443838
274543854
274643870
274743886
274843902
2749
2750
439*7
43933
4I*45 1 ...
41162 *71264042160!
269142991
269243008
2693 43024
269443040
269543056;
43949
43965
4398i
43996|
282045025
2821 45040
282245056
282345071
282445086
2825I45102
2826145117
2827I45133
282845148
2829!45i63
2830145179
D.
2831:45*94
283245209
283345225
283445240
2835I45255
*5
16
*5
*5
16
*5
16
55
*5
16
*5
15
16
*5
*5
16
*5
! 6,28364527
2837,452861
2838145301^
2839453*7j
44483
44498
445*4
44529
44545
4456o
2791
2792
2793
2794
6 2795
2798
2799 447oo
2800
2801
15
16! 2797
16
16
16
16
16
*5
16
16
16
16
44576
44592
44607
44623
44638
279644654
44669
44685
447*6
4473*
280244747
2803
2804
2805
44762
44778
44793
2806
2807
2808
16 2%°9
28lO
269643072
269743088*
269843IO4
269943120 '
2700431361
l 275*
2752
2753
21SA
2755 440* 2U1
27564402816!
2757440444 r!
27584405945
27 59 4407 5!! 6
276044091'
2811
2812
2813
2814
281 q
*5
16
*5
16
16
15
16
16
*5
16
*5
16
*5
16
16
*5
16
*5
16
15
16
*5
16
*5
16
15
16
15
16
'J
44809
44824
44840
44855 J
44871
284045332
284145347
284245362
2843 45378
284445393
284545408
284645423
284745439,ic
284845454 0
284945469
285045484
285145500
285245515
2853 45530
285445545
285545561
285645576
28574559*
285845606
285945621 6
286045637™
44886
44902
449*7
44932
44948
44963! 16
28i7 449791I?
286145652
2862
2863
2864
2867
2868
45667
45682
45697
286545712
286645728
45743
45758
16
*5
16
*5
*5}
286945773
287045788
16
2816
287145803
287245818
287345834
287445849
2875145864
287645879!
2877:45894! 0
281844994 > 2878.459091 3
281945010 287945924 3
282045025 3i|288o,i45939| 3
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
91
Log-
45939
45954
45969
45984
46000
288y46oi5
188^46030
288746045
288846060
288046075
289046090
289146io5
289246120
289346135
289446i5°
289546^65
D.| N
289646180
28q746i95
2898462i°
2899 46225
2qoo46240
290146255 j r
2902 46270Ir
2903 46285 j'r
2904 46300^
2905 46315T j
2920
I s
2919 46523]^
46538
292146553!r
292246568
2923 46583I5
292446598!^
I4
292346613
15
15
16
15
!5
!5
!5
I5
!5
!5
r5
!5
x5
!5
x5
15
15
!5
15
!5
194046835
2941'468 50
2942L4.6864
294346879
294446894
294546909
D.!| N.
[300047712
^300247741
3 30°3 47756
.I3004 47770
294646923
294746938
294846953
294946967
295046982
290646330!r
290746345
290846359
290946374!',-
291046389 TJ
2911 46404 ! r
29i2464I9Ir
2913 46434! r
2914464491^
291546464 T3
291646479
29I746494ir
2918465O9
29 26(466 2 7 j
2927146642 •;
2928U66576
2929(46672^
x5
2951
2952
46997
470x2
Log.
D.
f^il3005 47784
295347026
47041
47°56
2954
2955
!5
55
J4
!5
J5
r5
I4I
!5
’4
x5
x5
M
295647070
2957I47085
2958I47100
295947II4i]
296047129
296147144
296247159
296347173
296447188
296547202
296647217
296747232
296847246
296947261T
297047276 J
2971
2972
2973
2974
2930J46687
2931(46702
2932467161
293346731!,"
293446746!!^
29354676i!i5
47290
47305
473I9
47334
297547349
2936I46776
293746790;,]
293846805^]
293946820;^
2940468351
N. I Log.
D.
300647799
,1300747813
300847828
300947842
301041857
!2o6oi48 572
13061148586
!3o62l486ox
13063148615
I3064I48629
'3o65j48643j
301147871
1301247885
3013 47900
!30i4479i4
!3oi547929
"1306648657
5P0?7|4867i
!5
H
!4
I306848686
48700
48714
3069
13070
|3°7I
48728
307248742
!3°73 48756
307448770
307548785
3oi6j47943
3017147958
301847972
3019
3020'
i3021
"302248029
302348044
1302448058^
3025 48073
302648087
297647363i;p-o-^-o-
297747378 "1303748244
2978 47392t‘!I303848259
2979474O7
298047422t2
298147436^
298347465J4
298447480,]
298547494T]
298647509
298747524!:
298847538,4
298947553!:
2990147567 t]
299147582
299247596,]
299347611^
299447625,7
2995(47640,]
47654!,]
*4
302748101
302848x16
30294813°
303048144
2999I47698]]
3000477121 H
3041
3°42 . „
304348330
304448344
3045 48359
304648373
304748387
304848401
304948416 ^1310949262
:303I 48159
303248173
303348187
(303448202
303548216 ^
303648230
303948273
304048287
308248883
3083
3084
307648799
307748813
307848827
307948841
] 308048855
308148^69
48897
48911
308 5 48926
308648940
308748954
308848968
308948982
309048996
3091 49010
309249024
3093 49038
309449052
48302
48316 I4 3102
305o!48430
305x48444
3052148458
3053,48473
3054!48487
3055148501
3100
3x01
J4
!5
J4
I4
r4
J4
J4
!5
M
I4
r4
J4
I4
I4
T5
I4
M
J4
M
1
14
x4
T4
T4
15
r4
r4
x4
x4
x4
x4
*4
x4
x4
x4
x4
T4
3x2°
3121
3122
3I2349457
31244947i
312549485
N.
Log.
494x5
49429
49443
312649499
3x27
49513
312849527
3129
3I3°
3I3I
49541
49554
49568
313249582
3i3349596
3x3449610
313549624
Log. |D.
J024§!i3
S°2S%4
S02'04
502841 ^
50297
5°3 11
3I3649638
3X3749651
3I3849665
, 3X3949679
] 314049693
!3i9i!5°393
T/t;3i92 50406
T]i3I93!5°42o
413194 50433
309549066
309649080
309749094!
309849108; 4
3099491221]
49136 4
49I5°
49164
3I0349I78
3x0449192
310549206
310649220
3x0749234
310849248
311049276
31ii49290
311249304
3ii3493i8
3x14(49332
3x1549346
3116149360
3II7'49374
3I4I
3X42
49707
497
3X4349734
3x4449748
3X4549762
3156499x4
3X5749927
315849941
315949955
316049969
3x61
3x62
3x63
3x64
3165
3x66
312049415
3x4649776
3X4749790
114849805
314949817
315049831
3x5x49845
315249859
3x5349872
311:449886
315549900
3186
3x87
3188
3x89
3x90
5°325jT2
50338! 3
50352
50365
50379
N.
,3240
324X
3242
3243
13244
Log. ID. | N.
5x055
51068
5io8x
5x095
51108
32455x121
1930
3X95
Mr
x4
T3
X4
x4
14
X4
x3
14
14
14
13
x4
14
14
13
14
x4
r4
x3
14
14
x4
13
x4
3i7x;5ox2o'4
3x7250x33 ,"
3I73|5ox47|,4
3174501611 ]
3175:501741-
317650x88; 4
3177502021]
49982
49996
50010
50024
•5°?37
50051
3167 50065
3i68|50o79
3i69;5oo92
3170(50106
50447
3x9650461
(3X97
5°4741,1
50488 4
l3246|;ii35
h247i5Ix48|I3ll33°7 5X943
§248 5116214|!33o8 51957
l3249|5ii75! ]|'3309 51970
Log.
33005x851
I3301 51865
330251878
33°35x891
33o4 5i9°4
!33°5 5x9x7
;325Q|511
3251I512021
!3 325215X215113
t4|3253 51228! 3
3I9^— 113
3i99505°x ,]
320050515 ^
13201
3202
'3203
^3204
3 205
50529
50542
50556
50569
50583
13206
3207
3208
3209
3210
32x1
3212
321350691
321450705
3215507x8,]
321650732
321750745
321850759
321950772
50596
50610
50623
50637
5065X
50664
50678
4
51983
3254
3255
I3256
3257
3258
5124214
5x255
51268
51282
5I295
325951308
3260I51322
3261
4262
3263
3220
50786
3221
50799
322250813
50826
C084O
50853
3223
3224
3225
3226
3227
3228
3229
3230:
50866
50880
50893
50907
50920
3II7:49374 ' 3x7750202 _ 32375x0141 “
31x849388; 4 3i78l502i5j 3 3238 5x028: 4
3ii9;494o2i]—1 0
3x79150229
3180^50 2431 4
3237
3239
323X
3232
3233
3234
3235  
323651001
5X33512
5i3fj;34
5x3621,]
32645x375!,
32655x388
3266 51402
32675x415
3268 51428
326951441
50934
50947!,,
509611 4
50974! 1 x
5^98714
’3
5XOI4!
5X041
3270
3272
3273
3274
3275
328X
3282
3283
3284
3285
X286
3287
3288
3289
3290
3291
3292
j33XI
33X2
3313
33X4
33i
331
;33X.
L33x8
33i
’3320
5X996
52o°9
52022
52035
52048
6 52061
52075
52088
9 C2I0I
52114
(3321
3322
3323
138840
X4
J3
X3
X3
,14
3324 32166
3325 52179
5X455
14
5I4o8;io
5148118
5x495
5x508
5x521
327651534
3277
3278
3279
3280
13
13
5I548;;4
5x5611
515741
5x587
5x601
5x614
5x627
;x640
5x654
13
3
14
13
X3i
13
»4
51667
51680
5x693
5x706
51720
5X733
5x746
3293 5X759
3294
329551786
324051055
X4;
5X772
3296I5X799
329751812
329851825
3299I5X838
33o°:5x85i
3326
332752205
3328
3329
333°
3331
3332
3333
3334
3335
3337
3338
3339
3340
i334x
3342
3343
3344
3345
X3
13
X3
X4
X3
r3
X3
X3
X4
T3
X3
1S
X3
r3
3346
3347
3348
3349
335°
52127
1:2x40
52153
52192
D.
14
13
X3
X3
13
13
x3
14
13
X3
X3
X3
X3
x.3
X3
X3
%4\
X3
X3
X3
X3
13
J3
X3
X3
l3
X3
52218 13
52231
X3
42244 J3
X3
X4
52257
52270
52284
52297
523x0
333652323
52336
52349
52362
2375
52388
52401
52414
52427
52440
52453
C2466
524791
52492
52504
3351
3352
3353
3354
3355
3356
3357
3358
3359
3360
52517
52530
52543
52556
52569
52582
52595
52608
42621
52634J3
M 2
92
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
N.
3360
3361
3362
3363
3364
3365
3366
3367
3368
337°
3371
3372
3373
13374
3375
Log.
52634
5?647
52^60
52673
52686
52699
527H
52724
52737
3369 5275°
52763
52776
52789
$2802
52815
52827
D.
337652840
3377 52853
3378 52866
3379
3380
3381
3382
3383
3384
3385
3386
3387
3388
3389
339°
52969
52982
52994
53°°7
53°2o
3391
3392
3393
3394
3395
53°33
53°46
53°58
S30!1
53°84
3396
3397
3398
3399
34°°
3406
3 4° 7
3408
34°9
3410
52879
52892
529°5
52917
5293°
52943
52956
53°97
53110
53I22
53I35
53I48
53*61
*3
*3
*3
*3
*3
12
*3
*3
*3
*3
*3
*3
*3
*3
12
*3
*3
*3
*3
*3
*3
12
*3
*3
*3
*3,
*3
12!
*3
*3
*3
*3
12
*3
*3
*3
*3
12
*3
*3
*3
12
1342° 534°3
N. j Log.
342i
13422
3423
3424
3425
3426
!l34'27,
'342853504
3433
3434
13435
3456
3457
3458
3459
3460
3401
340^53173
-j 12
53*99
12
34°3
34°4
340553212
53224
53237
53250
53263
53275
34** 53288
341253301
34*3 533*4
34*4 53326
34*5 53339
34*6 53352
34*7 53364
34*853377
34*9 5339°
342053403
534*5
53428
5344*
53453
53466
53479
5349*
3429
343°
343*
3432 53555
3436
3437
3438
3439
344°
344*
3442
3443
3444
3445 537*9
3446
3447
3448
3449
345
345*
34521
3453
3454
3455
3461
3462
3463
3464
3465
535*7
53529
53542
53567
5358o
53593
D.
3j
53605
53618
53631
53643
53656
53668
53681
53694
53706
53732
53744
53757
53769
53782
53794
53807
53820
53832
53845
53857
53870
53882
53895
539
53920
53933
53945
53958
53970
346653983
3467
3468
53995
54008
I3469154020
13470154033
!347* 54045
I3472j54°58
3473)54070
3474154083
3475)54095!
*3
8*3
12
*3
12
*3
12
*3
12
1*3
N.
3480
3481
3482
3483
3484
3485
3486
3487
3488
3489
349°
349*
3492
3493
3494
3495
3496
3497
3498
3499
3500
3501
3502
3503
3504
350<
54295
54307
54320
54332
54345
54357
5437°
543^2
54394
54407
544*9
54432
54444
54456
5 54469
3506
3507
3508
3509
35*o
35**
35*2
35*3
35*4
35*5
35*6
35*7
35*
35*
3520
3521
3522
3523
3524
352 ‘
3476:54108
3477154120!
3478'54*33i12
3479:54145 _
3480154158) 3
3526
3527
3528
35
353°
353*
3532
3533
3534
3535
3536
3537
3 S38
353
3540
Log.
54*58
54*7°
54*83
54*95
C4208
54220
54233
54245
54258
54270
54283
N. Log. D.'| N. I Log. ;D.;| N. j Log.
ll36oo!5j630) 3660I56348
.J360155642LJ366156360:
I2 360255654L01366256372 ]
!j?6o3'5s666 ^66^565^^,
; 3544 54949 JS604I55678 J 3664156396:
j 3545 54962 j j 3605:5569* t J 3665156407
,! 3546 54974 t '3606)5570312 3666156419
;i 3547 54986 36071557*5 j 2 3667 5643 *
ll 3548 54998 j J3608 55727 12 3668 56443
135495501* A 36095573912 366956455
ijjsiigi3! 55751123670 56467
355* 55035 I2'361* 55763 j 2 3671 56478
3552 55047 I,i36i255775I2 3672 5649o]
3553 55o6o 8 3613 5578712 3673 56502 j
  1361455799 367456514 ^
361555811 TO 367556526.
Log. N. | Log. 'L
'57°54lI2ij378o57749!I2i
57o66! 13781'57761'j!
57078LI3782 57772)I2.
57089’,.43783 57784
3784!5^795!
3785157807
57241
57252
57264
57276
57287
5448i
54494
54506
545*8
5453*
54543
54555
54568
5458o
54593
54605
. 54617
85463
9 54642
54654
54667
54679
5469*
54704
16
5 547
54728
5474*
54753
9 54765
54777
I5 35865546* J364656182 I3706
^l3587 55473 TO 364756*94 IT 3707 5
or o_ '364856205^3708
oA/ir\ * 3709
-*58855485 ‘■I3648 56:
3589 55497 J J3649 562i7 J2 37°9
T2 359° 555°9 , 3650 56229 i2 3710
1359* 55522! 5 3651 56241 12 37**
'' S5534iI2<36S2S62S3 i2 37*2
365356265 37x3
' * O A r/I r O *7 T ,
5479°
5481
548i4
54827
54839
*3
5485
54864
54876
9 54888
549oo
12
;i3592
3593
3594
55546
T2 3597!55594 ... .
I2 3598,55606) ^ 365856324
I2 3599|556i8j 365956336
136oo|5563oj I3660I56348
55558 !3654 56277 I2 ^ ^t j~^_t
I2;3655 56289^ 37*556996
ojy-pj 12 36565630* u 37*657008
I2 3597:555943657563*2I2 37*7
QC08 cc6n6!12 365856324^ 3718
I2 37*9
3720
157553
■57565
: 57576
'57588
1^7600
576*1
376957623
377057634
'377*
!3772
3773
,3774
,3775
57646
57657
57669
57680
57692
3776I57703
3777577*5
377857726
377957738
3780 57749
379*
3792
13793
3794
3795
379657933
379957967
380057978
3801
3802
3803
380458024
380558035
13806
13807'
3808
3809
3810
3786
3787
3788
3789
:i2
578*84
57830
5784*
57852
379057864
3797
3798
57875
57887
57898
579*o
5792i
57944
57955
!38n
3812
381358127
3814
3815
3820
I3821
3822
3823
3824
3826
3827
828
5799°
58001
58013
58047
58058
C8070
58081
58092
58104
58115
58138
58149
1381658161
3817 38172
381858184
381958195
58206
58218
58229
58240
58252
382558263
58274
58286
58297
382958309
13830
II383*
3832
3833
3834
3835
58320
3836
3837
3838
5833
58343
58354
58365
58377
58388
58399
58410
383958422
3840)58435
Log'. D.; N.
Loo. D.
384658501
384758512
384858524
384958535
3850 58546
385158557
385258569
385358580
38545859
3855
3856
3857
3858
3859
3860
58602
58614
58625
58636
58647 *
586.5912
2900
3901
3902
39°3 59I4°
39°4^59I5I
390559162
39o659I73
39°7 59i84
390859195
390959207
3910 59218
391159229
391259240
39I3 592SI
391459262
391559273
N.
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
Log. D. N. 1.0^. U.| N. | Log. D.l N. [ T
93
5977°
5978o
3962159791
11
58670
58681 IT
58692^
58704 t j
587I511
3861
3862
3863
864
J6J
386658726
3867 5873712
3868 58749 i
386958760^
387058771
11
3971
3972
3973
3974
59890
599°1
59912
59923
402060423 j
402160433 j
1402260444 j
! 4° 2360455 j
402460466 ^
[402560477 ]
402660487
JH&sss;
^ 4028:60509 ]
ii||4O29;60520
11
39l6 59284
391759295
391859306
39I9593l8
392059329
392159340
3922 59351
3923 59362
392459373
3925 59384
11
387158782
387258794x1
387358805^
3874 58816
387558827
3876 58838
387758850
387858861
387958872
926 59395
3927 59406
392859417
3929 59428
393°59439
393159450
393259461
393359472
393459483
3935 59494
397559934
397659945
3977 59956
"59966
59977
59988
3981.59999
398260010
398360021
398460032
398560043
408061066
(4081:61077
4082:61087
4083 61098
408461109
408561119
(408661130
408761140
408861151
408961162
1409061172
, N. I Log. (D.jl. N-l Log. ii).; N. Log.
(414061700^ J4200 62325!
:4i4i6i7ii| Li 2016222 ci
'414261721
4143 61731
414461742
414561752
393659506
393759517
3938|59528
393959539
394°59550
39415956i
394259572
13943 59583
394459594
394559605
394659616
394759627
394859638
394959649
'395059660
395159671
395259682
3953 59693
395459704
395559715
395659726
395759737
395859748
395959759
396059970
11
11
11
11
11
ri
11
11
11
11
11
12
11 (3
11
398660054
3987 60065
3988 60076
398960086
399060097
399160108
399260119
39936013
399460141
399 c 6015
99660163
499760173
499860184
399960195
j j 4000 60206
xx'400160217
4002 60228
4003 60239
400460249^
4005 60260
403660595
54037,60606
I403S60617
:4°39|6o627j
; |4040i6o63S|
1404260660!:
404360670^
404400631
4O45I6069
^ ^ ;6n8^
!j|40926ii94ji0|
114093 61204 xx1
. 409461215
409561225
409661236 XI
4O97 6I247
> 4O986I257
;4i466i763
414761773
I414861784
1414961794
(415061805
J420262346L
420362356
^420462366
1 ij'4205j6_2377'
^4206)62387
11,420762397
ic|42o862408
4420962418
Il!*42IO 62428
11(421162439
io42i262449
xi 4213 62459
4214,62469
11II421562480
426o'6294i
426162951
(4262:62961
!!426362972'
426462982
‘£(65629 93:
415761878
{415861888
1415961899
(416061909
404660703
404760713.
404860724:
404960735
405060746
405160756]
405260767
405360778:
405460788.
405560799
405660810
4057 60821
40586083
410461321
410561331
410661342
410761352
410861363
10961374
411061384
4in6l395
411261405
4113 61416
411461426
411561437
411661448
411761458
4161619
416261930
416361941
416461951
416561962
416661972
416761982
41686199
4169 6200^
417062014
11
11
(4171 62024
417262034
417362045
417462055
4175 62066
405860831 ^(4118614691
405960842 ii| 4119614791
406060853 I £12061490
4006160271
4007j60282
4008(60293^
4009(60304
401060314
10
II
■4011,60325 IX
401260336 r-
'40136034711
401460358 J J
401560369Tn
406160863
406260874
I4063 60885
{406460895
xx 406560906
(406660917
14067 60927
(406860938
(406960949
407060959
401660379xx
(4017 60390 xx
4018,60401 xx 407861045
 ^ *4079^i055
4o8o{6io66
XJ-4019,60412 xx
,402060423)
412161500
412261511
io'4I13^r521
xx;4i246i532
412561542
'4071 60970
407260981
407360991
'4074 61002
•4075 6101
407661023
J077 61034
413161606
413261616
413ZUXUXU 11
4133;6i627i0|4193
41346i637!xi
417662076
4177 62086
4178 62097
' 417962107
418062118
427763114
)427863124
4279,63134
tT 4280 63144
1,428163155
>1428263165
428363175
428463185
(428563195
11
• 10 j
' I0f
! IO
(4221 62542
'422262552
(4223 62562
, '422462572
1422562583
10 3 -1—-2—2
) 422662593 x0
422762603x
422862613 ,-r  „ ^
’I422962624 U28963236
X^ I429063246
423 I 62644 T T (4291I63256
4l8l62128
418262138
4183 62149
418462159
4185 62170
(4286'63205
1428763215
I4288 63225
423262655
423362665^
423462675
423562685^
423662696^
11U29263266
1014293 63276
429463286
1429563296
429663306
4237 62706 {4297 63317
423862716 1429863327
4239(62726xx 429963337
^ 424062737 ic!430°63347
424162747 |43oi 63357
,424262757 1430263367
" ' {430363377
4186 62180!
4187 62190)
4188 62201
10
£13 627671:
11
10
10
10
ic
10
10
11
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
11
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
424462778 :430463387 10
424562788 !4^0(l62qQ7
4189
4190
62211
62221
,^424662798
L Ti4247628081 0.^7 j
Il!|4248 62818 ^430863428
430563397
430663407
(4307 634171
419162232
419262242
62232
4249 62829
425062839
42 5162849
^,425262859
11
„ 11425362870
XX , v, , :X 1 (4 1 94 62263 I 1425462880
10 4i35;6i648!Tnl4i95|62273 425562890
(4136,616581
I413761669IO
, 4138:61679U
413961690
4140 61700
4196,62284
(419762294
1x419862304
xoH199'62315
[4200,62325
4256 62900
x° 425762910'
4258 62921
425962931
4260 6294
430963438
431063448
431163458
(431263468'
'431363478!
431463488)
431563498:
i43l6j635o8;
{43 i7i635i8
I43i8i63 5 28
'43i963538
10
10
11
10
10
10
10
10
jio
10
>110
43 20
63548
(no
10
10
10
94
LOGAMTHMS OF NUMBERS.
432°
43 21
43 2 2
43 23
43 24
43 2 5
N.
Log. ID. N.
63548 io
6355BU0
63568
63519
63589
63599
432663609
43 27
43 28
43 29
433°
4331
4332
63619
63629
63639
6A6J2
63659
63669
4380
4381
4382
4383
10
433363679
433463689
4335.
433663709
4337637j9
433863729
433963739
434063749
4341
4342
4343
63759
63769
63779
63839
65849
4355
4361
4363
436463988
4365
4366
4367
4368
4371
4372
4373
63699
434463789
434563799
424663809
434763819
434863829
4349
435°
4351
4352
4353
63859
63860
63879
435463889
63899
435663909
4357639T9
435863929
435963939
436063949
63959
436263969
63979
63998
64008
64018
64028
436964038
437064048;
640 c8
64068
64078
10
10
10
10
440464385
440564395
4374|64o88i
4375,64098
xo
1x0
64x47
64i57
64x97
64177
438464187
438564197
438664207
438/
4388
438964237
439064246
4391
4392
4393
439464286
439564296
439664306
439764316
439864326
439964335
440064345
4401
4402
4403
4411
4412
4413
1415
437^641081
4377164118; *4437
437864128' J4438
437964I37Io
438064147
4439
4440
Log.
D.
64217
64227
64256
64266
64276
64355
64365
64375
440664404
440764414
440864424
440964434
441064444
64454
64464
64473
441464483
64493
441664503
44x764513
4418 64523
441964532
4420
4421
4422
4423
4424
4425
64542
64552
64562
64572
64582
64591
442664601
44276461i
442864621
442964631
443°
4431
4432
4433
64640
64650
6466
64670
443464680
443564689
443664699
64709
647x9
64729
64738
IO;444Ii64748
I0 4442:64758
10;4443;64768
,0:4444,64777, j
m 4445:64787
IO|4446 64797
64807
64816
64826
64836
10 4447
io|4448
o 14449
to|445o
10,4451
10 4452
1014453
ioj4454
1014455
io!4456
xo'445/
9 4458
10 4459
10
10
10
10
10
N. | Log. D. N.
64846
64856
64865
64875
64885
4460
4461
4462
64895
64904
64914
64924
64933
64943
64953
4463 64963
4464 64972 IO _ _
4465 64982 IO 4525 65562
10446664992
10446765002
10
10
10
4487
4488 65205
448965215
449065225
L°g-
65321
65331
65341
65350
65360
65369
94-512
xo45i3
ioi45i4
45I5
xo
u45x8j65495
q!45i9 65504
io452o|655I4
4521 65523
452265533
q4523S65543
4524165552
4468 65011
446965021
4470 65031
4471 65040^
4472 65050jIO
4473 65060;^
447465070;
4475 65079'Tn
4476650891'
4477650991
447S6i>°8,S
447965II8
4480 65128
ST8! 65137
4482 65147
4483 65157
448465X67
1045266557
452765581
14528 6559I
:452Ql65600
65I96
4485 65I76,Tn
4486 65X86 I0
9
10
10
9
xc
10
44916 234
1449 2 65244
4493 65254
449465263
4495 65273
4496 65283
I4497 65292
1449865302
,114499 65312
|45oo 65321
45i6
451?
D. N. Log.
65379
65389
65398
65408
654i
65427
65437
65447
65456
5466
65475
65485
453°
4531
4532
4533
534
14535
' 6 ij6io
65619
6 ';629
65639
65648
65658
,4536
|4537
;4538
4539
[454.0
14541
)4542
;4543
6 C667
65677
65686
65696
65706
657j5
65725
65734
4544 65744
4545P5753
4546,65763
4547]65772
;4548 65782
65792
65801
4549
4550
4551
65811
455265820
4553i658
loiiil
J4556
10!i4558
iorJ 0
J 45591
65839
65849
65858
65868
65877
 ^165887
S456o|65896
4560
4561
4562
4563
4564
4565
D.l N. I Log. D.
65896
65906
659x6
65925
65935
65944
65954
65963
65973
65982
65992
66001
66011
66020
x 0:4620j 66464
;462lj66474
^ 4622:66483
*4623166492
,462466502
9 462566511
4566
4567
4568
4569
457°
4571
4572
4573.
457466030
4575
4576
,4577
,14578
166039
66049
66058
^^.66068
Ic 4579!66o77
^14580(66087
i0458i|66o96
|°j4i8266io6
"ll
i|4583|66 _
45 4166124
4585I66134
4586:66143
.. I53
14588:66162
14589166172
4590^6181
10
:459I
4592
4593
66191
66200
66210
I459466219
66229
,4595
:4596
,'4597
^598
'4599
14600
4601
4602
4603
'4604
4605
4606
4607
4608
4609
4610
66238
66247
66257
66266
66276
66285
66295
66304
66314
66323
66332
6634
663 ex
66361
66370
66380
66389
66398
4611
4612
4613
4614166408
4615:66417
146x66642/
4617 66436
^4618:66445
461966455
y 4620 66464
26
J4627
WS
66521
66530
66
njl^u uu539
10 4629 66549
463066558
10
sS
,04633
^3!
i o: Z_4P
^4636
1014637
4630
9 4639
4640
66 367
66577
66586
66596
66605
66614
66624,
66633 ^
66642 ^
6665211
4641
4642
4643
4644
4645
4646
4647
4648
4649
4630
,,465!
,14652
4653
,4654
>4655
66661
66671
66680
66689
66699
,14656
,14657
4658
4659
466c
4661
4662
4663
4664
4663
4667
4668
4669
4670
N. | Log.
4680167025
468167034
468267043
4683167052
4684167062
'4685167071
4686:67080
4687:67089
4688*67099
,4689!67io8
4690:67117
:469i;67i27
469267136
4693
'4694
6lI45
67154
469567164
66708
66717
66727
66736
66745
66755
66764
66773
66783
66792
66801
66811
66820
66829
66839
66848
66857
66867
66876
66885
4666 66894
66904
66913
66922
66932
467i!6694i
4672166950
4673166960
4674166969
4675:66978
4676166987
4677,66997
4678
4679
4680
67006
67015
67025
4696)67x73
:4697i67i82
14698167191
4699J6720X
1470067210
701I67219
470267228
470367237
67247
67256
4704
4705
14706
470767274
470867284
4709
4710
4711
4712
47I36733o
67339
67348
47x4
4715
47i667357
47x767367
471867376
47i967385
4720,67394
67265
67293
67302
673x1
67321
721
4722
4723
67403
674i3
67422
4724I67431
472567440
472667449
472767459
4728
4729
473c
4731
4732
33
4734
4735
473667541
473767550
4738 67 c6o
4139,61569
4740\6757%
67468
67477
67486
67495
67504
675*4
67523
67532
D.
N.
4740
4741
4742
4743
4744
4745
4746
4747
4748
4749
ro!475o
9
9
9
iC
9
9
9
10
9
9
9
9
10
9
9
9
10
9
9
9
xc
9
9
9
10
9f
9
4771
4772
*4773
14774
4775
475*
4752
4753
4754
4755
4756
4757
:4758
4759
4760
;476i
4762
14763
14764
4765
4766
4767
4768
14769
477°
14776
4777
4778
4779
4780
,47 81
4782
4783
4784
4785
4786
4787
4788
4789
479°
4791
4792
4793
4794
Log. D.
67578
67587
67596
67605
67614
67624
67633
67642
67651
67660
67669
67679
67688
67697!
67706
677*5
9
9
9
9
10
9
9
9
9
9
10
9
9
9
9
9
9
67724
67733:
677421
^Ixo
67752;
67761
67770
67779
67788
67797
67806
67815
67825
67834
67843
67852
67861
67870
67879
67888
67897
67906
67916
67925
67934
67943
67952
67961
67970
67979
67988
67997
68006
68015
68024
68034
68043
68052
68061
68070
4795,68079
4796
,4797
I4798
4799
4800
6.8088
68097
68106
68115
68124
1
1
3
VQIQSOMg 'O'QVOSOVQ VQ OVOVOVO VQ^OVOVOVO VQVO'OVQ O VQ^OVOVOVO VOVOVQVO
480!
4801
4802
480368151
4804 68i6o
480568169
480668178
4807
4808
480968205
4810
4811
4812
4813
481668269
481768278
481868287
481968296
4821
4822
482368332
482468341
482568350
482668359
482768368
482868377
482968386
N. Log. D.1! N. Log,
68124
68133
68142
68187
68196
68215
68224
68233
68242
48146825
4815
68260
4820
68305
4830
4831
4832
4840
484
4842
4443
68314
68323
68395
68404
68413
4833 68422
483468431
483568440
483668449
483768458
483868467
483968476
68485
68494
68502
6851
484468520
4845168529
4846168538
4847.68547
4848,68556
4849168565
4850)68574
485ij68583
4852
4853
4854 68610
485568619
68592
68601
485668628
48 C768647
485868646
485968655
486068664
4860
4861
9 4862
4863
68664
68673
6868
68690
486468699
4865:68708
4866)68717
4867168726
4868168735
486968744
487068753
487168762
487268771
487368780
487468789
4875I68797
4876I68806
487768815
487968833
488068842
4881
4882
4883
4884 68878
488568886
488668895
.488768904
94888689.3
'488968922
489068931
4891
4892
68940
68949
489368958
4894 68966
489568975
490:
0 490 7
949°8
4910
34911
14912
68851
68860
68869
489668984
489768993
489869002
489969011
490069020
69028
490269037
0 49°3 69046
o| 4904 69055
4905 69064
I4906 69073
69082
69090
3490969199
yll/ioTo69I08
69117
69126
g|49I3 69135
491469144
[4915 69152
,4916169161
9 4917 69170
J 4918169179
q 49I9j69I88,
^492069197
14920169197
4921169205
(4922 69214
'492369223
492469232
492569241
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
~~N. Log, lD-1 m
N. [ Log. D.;
492669249
492769258
' 492869267
492969276
493069285
1493169294
,.14932 693° 2
nj493369311
8 493469320
o493569329
9 493669338
o493769346
gl4938 69355
o493969364
n494o69373
J494
o4942
69381
69390
495169469
495269478
4953 69487
495469496
495569504
495669513
495769522
49586953
495969539
496069548
J494369399
| 494469408
494569417
494669425
4947 69434
4948 69443
494969452
495069461
496169557
496269566
496369574
496469583
496569592
49666960
1496769609
’14968 69618
4969169627
4970I69636
'14971169644
4972)69653
4973:69662
4974:69671
4975169679
14976169688
i 4977169697
: 4978-69705
ol 4979 697 *4
(498069723
_ N. I Log. D.|
8 4980:69723'
4981)69732
4982:69740
J4983169749
4984)69758
4985169767
4986:69775
14987169784
4988:69793
498969801
499069810
81499169819
499269827
o499369836
499469845
499569854
499669862
499769871
499869880
499969888
500069897
500169906
500269914
5003 69923
500469932
500569940
500669949
500769958
500869966
500969975
501069984
J502670122
502770131
9502870140
3502970148
3503070157
J503
501169992
50127000
50137001
501470018
50157002'
501670036
501770044
5018 70053
■(5019 70062
5020 70070
502170079
502270088
5023 70096
502470105
I5025701X4
70x65
j5°3 2.70x74
0I5033I70183
8|5034:70I9I
J*Q3570200
503670209
3503770217
9(503870226
35039 70234
5040702431
504070243
504170252
504270260
504370269
504470278
504570286
504670295
5047 70303
504870312
504970321
.505070329
505170338
505270346
,|5053 70355
, I5054 70364
1505570372
N.
150567038
I505770389
J505870398
Q15059 70406
9|5o6o 70415
Log.
D.
506170424
506270432
5063 70441
506470449
506570458
506670467
506770475
5068 70484
506970492
50707050
507x70509
507270518
597370526
507470535
507570544
5076:70552
5077:70561
507870569
5079
5080
70578
70586
508170595
£1508270603
i 5o83j7o6i 2
508470621
^085170629
5086(70638
5087 70646
508870655
508970663
509070672
J5091
5092
70680
70689
5093 70697
5094
,5095/
g! 50967.
5097
70706
70714
70723
..70731
509870740
509970749
510070757
J 5100 76757
510170766
510270774
5x0370783
510470791
5105 70800
1510670808
5107 70817
510870825
510970834
511070842
cm 708 ex
511270859
5113 70868
511470876
511570885
511670893
511770902
511870910
511970919
512070927
512170935
512270944
5I237095
512470961
512570969
514671147
5x4771x55
514871164
514971172
515071181
5156
1512670978
5512770986
512870995
512971003
513071012
513171020
513271029
5I33 7I037
513471046
513571054
5x367x063
5I377I07I
513871079
5x397x088
514071096
514171105
J5I427III3
51437x122
514471x30
5J45 71I39
5i5i7ix89
515271198
515371206
5I547I2I4
5x557x223
7I23 v
5x5771240 ^
51587x248 ^
5i5971257 §
516071265
Ji5l6o
ci6x
5162
5j63
5165
Lcg^IlL
7x265
7I273
71282
71290
516471299
7I3°7
5166)71315
5x67:71324
5x68)71332
69i7I34I
5I70i71349
517I|7I357
72,7x366
5I73,7I374
5x74)7x383
5I75:71391
5176,7x399
> 5i77]7i408
^1517871416
5x797x425
518071433
51817X44X
518271450
518471466
5x857x475
5183
7I458
518671483
5187
5188
7x492 g
7I5°° 8
51897x508
7I5i7
5I9°
5J9
5!92
5I93
94
5J95
525
7X533
7I542
7I55°
7I559
51967x567
5J97
5198
5X99
5200
520
5202
5203
5204
5205
5207
5208
5209
I5210
5211
5212
5213
521471717
521571725
5216
5217
5218
7I575
7x584
7X592
71600
71609
71617
7x625
71634
7*642
520671650
7*659
71667
7*675
71684
7*692
71700
7*709 g
7*734 8
7*742 8
522071767
‘5220 71767
52217x775
522271784
522371792
o 5224 71800
8 52257*809
5226 71817
522771825
522871834
522971842
52307*850
523*7*858
523271867
5233 7*875
7*883
892
5234
5235
5236
5237
5238
'5239
5240
15241
5242
:5243
!5244
15245
N.
90°
71908
7*9*7
7*925
7*933
5246
5247
5248
5249
5250
71941
7*950
7*958
71966
7*975
5251
5252
5253
5254
5255
5256
5257
5258
5259
5261
5262
5263
5264
5265
5267
5268
5269
5270
527*
5272
5273
5274
5275
52767*230
, , , 527772239 ^
7*750 J5278 72247 ^
Log. L»,
7*983
7*99
7*999
72008
72016
72024
72032
7204
72049
72057
72066
72074
72082
72090
'526072099 ^
5266 72148
721.56
72165
/2173
7218
72189
721.
72206
72214 £
72222
52197*759 §!5279 72255 £
5280I72263
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
g6
N.
C28o
5281
1:282
5283
5284
5285
52867
5287
5288
5289
5290
5291
5292
5293
5294
5295;
52967
5297
5298
5299
5300
5301
5302
53°3
53°4
5305
53o67
53°7
53°8
53°9
'5310
5311
5312
5313
5314
5315
5316
5317
5318
531
5320
5321
5322
5323
5325
5326
5327
5328
5329
533°
Log. |D.
72263
72272
72280
72288
72296
72304
2313
72321
72329
72337
72346
72354
72362
72370
72378
72387
2395
72403
7 2411
72419
72428
72436
72444
72452
7246c
72469
2477
72485
72493
72501
72509
725i8
72526
72534
72542
7255°
97
72558
72567
72575
2583
72591
72599
72607
72616
532472624
72632
72640
72648
72656
72665
72673
5331
5332
5333
5334
5335
5336
5337
5338
72681
72689
72697
72705
727I3
72722
72730
72738
533972746
534072754
N.
534°
5341
5342
5343
5344
5345
5346
5347
5348
5349
5350
5351
5352
5353
5354
5355
5356
5357
5358
5359
5360
5361
5362
5363
5364
5365
5366
5367
5368
5369
5370
5371
5372
5373
5374
5375
5376
5377
5378
5379
5380
5381
5382
5383
5384
5385
5386
5387
5388
5389
539°
5391
5392
5393
5394
5395
Log.
D.
72754
72762
72770
72779
72787
72795
72803
72811
72810
72827
72835
72843
72852
72860
72868
72876
72884
72892
72900
72908
72916
72925
72933
72941
72949
72957
72965
72973
72981
7-2989
72997
73006
73OI4
73022
73030
73038
73046
73°54
73062
7307°
73078
73086
73°94
73102
73H1
73II9
73I27
73I35
73M3
73I5I
73159
5396
5397
5398
5399
54°
73j67
73x75
73i83
73I9I
73I99
73207
73215
73223
73231
73239
8
N.
5400
54°1
5402
54°3
54°4
5405
5406
5407
5408
54°9
5410
5411
5412
5413
54M
5415
5416
54J7
54i8
54x9
5420
Log.
73239
73247
73255
73263
73272
73280
73288
73296
733°4
73312
73320
73328
73336
73344
73352
73360
73368
73376
73384
73392
7340°
5421
5422
5423
5424
5425
5426
5427
5428
5429
543°
5431
5432
5433
5434
5435
5436
5437
5438
73408
734i6
73424
73432
73440
75448
73456
73464
73472
73480
73488
73496
73504
73512
73520
73528
73536
73544
5439|73552
5440173560
544i|73568
73576
73584
73592
73600
5442
5443
5444
5445
5446
5447
5448
5449
5450
5451
5452
5453
5454
5455
5456
5457
5458
73608
73616
73624
73632
73640
D.
73648
73656
73664
75672
73679
73687
13^95
73703
5459I73711
54601737x9
N.
737I9
73727
73735
73743
5460
5461
5462
5463
5464 73 751
5465 73759
5466
5467
5468
5469
547°
5471
5472
5473
5474
5475
5476
5477
5478
5479
5480
5481
5482
5483
5484
5485 739l8
5487
5488
549°
5491
5493
5494
5495
549674005
5497
5498
5499
5500
5501
5502
550
5504
5505
5506
5507
5508
5509
5510
5511
5512
5513
55M
55I5
Log.
D.
73767
73775
73783
73791
73799
73807
73815
73823
73830
73838
73846
73854
73862
73870
73878
73886
73894
73902
73910
548673926
73933
73941
548973949
739^7
73965
549273973
7398i
73989
73997
74°13
74020
74028
74036
74044
74052
74060
74068
74076
74084
74092
74099
74107
74TI5
74i23
7413
7,4139
74i47
74I55
5516
5517
5518
5519
5521
N.
5520
5521
5522
5523
5524
5525
5526
5527
5528
5529
553?
5531
5532
5533
5534
5535
5536
5537
5538
5539
5540
74I94
74202
74210
74218
74225
74233
74241
74249
74257
74265
74273
74320
74327
74335
74343
743 51
5541
5542
5543
5544
5545
74359
74367
74374
74382
74390
5546
5547
5548
5549
5550
5551
5552
5553
5554
5555
5556
5557
5558
5559
5560
5561
5562
556'3
5564
5565
5571
74162
74170
74 *7 8i
74I86:
7 4194
Log. D.| N.
74280
74288
74296
74304
74312
74398
74406
74414
74421
74429
74437
74445
74453
74461
74468
74476
74484
74492
74500
74507
74515
74523
7453
74539
74547
5566 74554
5567
5568.
55697457s
557°74586
74562
7457°
74593
557274601
5573 74609
557474617
1557574624
^5576
5577
5578
5579
5580
74632
74640
74648
74656
74663
5580
55'8i
5582
5583
5584
5585
5586
5587
5588
5589
559°
5591
5592
5593
5594
5595
5596
5597
5598
5599
5600
5601
5602
5603
5604
5605
5606
15607
5608
5609
5610
5611
5612
5612
5614
5615
5616
5617
5618
5619
5620
Log. D.
74710
74718
74726
74733
7474?
74749
74757
74764
74772
74780
74788
74796!
74803I
74811,
74819
74827
74834
74842
74850
74858
74865
74873
74881
74889
74896
74904
74912
74920
74927
74935
552i
15622
5623
5624
5625
5626
5627
5628
5629
5630
74943
7495°
74958
74966
74974
74981
74989
74997
75005
75012
5631
5632
5633
75020
7 5028
75035
75043
7505
75059
7 <5066
75074
563475082
4H5635
35636
35637
35638
75089
75097
75105
75H3
563975120
5640175128
746631 8
74671 8
74679: q
74687! 8
74695]
74702!
64975197
565075205
75213
7 C220
75228
75236
75243
5651
5652
5653
5654
5655
565675251
5657
5658 . _
565975274
5660175282
N
5640
5641
5642
5643
75128
75!36
75I43
- 75I5I
564475!59
5645
5646
5647
75I74
. ,.75i82
564875189
Log.
75166
75259
75266
566175289
566275297
5663175305
5664175312
5665175320
5666175328
5667i75335
566875343
5669175351
567075358
5671
5672
5673
75366
75374
7538i
567475389
567575397
75412
75420
75427
5681
5682
5683
5684
5685
5686
5687
5688
567675404
5677
5678
5679._. .
568075435
75442
7545°
75458
75465
75473
7548i
75488
Q_ 75496
81568975504
8l|5690 7551
J5691
35692
15693  
1569475542
8
755I9
75526
75534
35695
o 5696
05/597
85698
75549
75557
75565
7557
5699:7558o;
57oO|75587
N.
5700
5701
5702
5703
5704
5705
5706
5707
5708
5709
1Z10
5711
5712
5713
57M
5715
5716
57x7
57i8
57J9
5720
372i
5722
5723
5724
5725
5726
5727
5728
5729
5730
5731
5732
5733
5734
5735
5736
5737
5738
5739
574°
5741
5742
5743
5744
5745
5746
5747
5748
5749
5750
5751
5752
5753
1 /
L°g-
75587
*15595
75603
7 c6io
75618
75626
75633
75641
75648
75656
75664
75671
75679
7 5686
75694
75702
75709
7571?
75724
75732
7574°
75747
75755
75762
75770
75778
75785
75793
75800
7 c8o8
75815
75823
75831
75838
75846
75853
7 5861
7 c868
75876
75884
75891
75899
75906
759I4
7592i
75929
75937
75944
75952
75959
75967
75974
75982
75989
5754,75997
5755176005
5756176012
5757,76020
5758:76027
5759;76o35
5760:76042
1
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
‘N. I Log. D. N. Log. D. N. j Log.
N.
5760I76042
5761176050
576276057
5766
5767
5768
5769
577^
76087
76095
76103
76110
76118
577476148
577576155 g:
577676163
57777617O
577876178
577976185
578076193
5781 762OO
578276208
076492
1 765OO
2 76507
3 76515
, 15824 76522
5 76530
6 76537
„ 7 76545
582876552
582976559
5830 76567
176574
276582
3 76589
4 76597
5 76604
| 583876626
5839 76634
588076938
5881176945
5882,^6953
; 5883 76960
8 5884I76967
5885I76975
0:588676982
'588776989
'I5888 76997
81588977004 ^
^1589077012
815891 77oi9
, 589277026 ^
: 5893 77034
589477041
3895I77048
5896177056
589777063
589877070
589977078
578376215
5784 76223
578576230
578676238
578776245
578876253
5789 76260
5790 76268
, 584076641 ^ 5900177085
176649
276656
3 76664
584476671
584576678
584676686
584776693
584876701
584976708
585076716
i 585176723
- 585276730
j 585376738
r 5854 76745
585576753
585676760
, 585776768
, 5858 76775
: 585976782
586076790
?86~i 76797
5804
5805
5806
5.807
5808
2 76365
76373
76380
76388
76395
76403
7 5862
5862
5864
586 s-
5809764IO
581076418
c8n
5812
76425
76433
15867
, 5868
; 5869
J5870
76805
76812
76819
76827
586676834
590677129
590777137
590877144
59°9 77I5I
591077139
5911 77166
59I277I73
59i3 77i8i
591477188
59I5 77I95
5940,77379
5941,77386
594277393
1S9437740I
215944.77408
7 '5945:774^5
I594677422
1594777430
:5948j77437
,5949:77444
(595Qj77452
i595I|77459
(595277466
5953(77474
595477481
595577488
595677495
595777503
5958775io
595977517
596077525
596177532
596277539
596377546
596477554
59657756
596677568
596777576
596877583
596977590
597077597
76842
76849
76856
76864
581376440:
581476448*
581 576455) t
5816176462; 8
581776470 "
5818:76477 X
581976485 ^
582076492 '
N- L°g-
600077815
^ 600177822
600277830
600377837
600477844
77851
77859
77866
77873
77880
77887
601477916
77924
6016
6017
6018
601^
!i6o2Q
597677641
597777648
597877656
597977663
(598077670
5871
5872
5873.
587476893
(587 y 76901
58761769081
587 7.76916l
5878(76923 . (
5879170930! Xj
!'88o1!76938;
5936 77349
593777357
5938 77364
593977371
f94o 77379
^ 5990
7 5991
I5992
5 (5993
,|59,94
,15995
598177677
598277685
I 598377692
r 598477699
, 598577706
598677714
^98777721
598877728
5989 77735
77743
77750
77757
77764
77772
77779
599677786
. 5997(77793
|5998:778oi
' 5999(77808
6oooj778i5
7793
77938
77945
77952
77960
77967
77974
77981
77988
77996
78010
78017
602978025
7803
6031
6032,
6033 78053
6034 78061
6035 78068
6021
6022
6023
6024
6025L,,  - ■ ■
602678003 ' 608678433
603678075
6037 78082
6038 78089
603978097
6040 78104
60417811
6042 7811
6043 78125
604478132
6045 78140
6046 78147
604778154
6048 78161
604978168
6050 78176
605178183
I6052 78190
I605378197
*6054 78204
1605? 78211
16056(78219
16057:78226
.6058(78233
/ (605978249
'1,6060^78247
Log. D.
N. I Log. ID. 1 N. 1 Log. D
6i2o!78675! ;6i8o'79099;
6121 78682: ^ 618179106
606678290
606778297
6068(78305
60697831
6070(783
6071I783
6072(78333
'607378340
6074(78347
6o75I78355
607678362
607778369
607878376
607978383
6080 78390
608178398
608278405
6083 78412
608478419
608578426
6087 78440
6088 78447
6089784cc
609078462
6091 78469
609278476
6093 78483
6094 78490
609578497
6096 78504
609778512
6098 78519
609978526
610078533
6101 78540
610278547
610378554
610478561
6105(78569
610678576
610778583
610878590
610978597
J6II078604
,611178611
21 611278618
7 6113 78625
2 6114178633
6115)78640
6116(78647
2 6117,78654
216118)78661
6119(78668,
6120:78675
1613878803
(613978810
^614078817
(614178824
21614278831
7 614378838
614478845
614578852
614678859
6147 78866
614878873
614978880
6150 78888
615178895
615278902
615378909
615478916
^5578923
615678930
)615778937
, 615878944
615978951
616078958
/ 616679000
7 616779007
2 616879014
7 616979021
'17079029
, 5T7I79036
r 617279043
; 617379050
m79057
579064
,(r 78682]  
(6122(786891 7 618279113
2:6123786961 7 618379120
2:6124787041 ; 618479127
2 6125 787111 7 6185 79134
:6i26:787i8i / 618679141
216127:78725 2 618779148) .
612878732 2 618879155.'
216129^8739 ' 618979162,'
'(613078746 ' 619079169.:y
1613^78753 :6191791761
,613378767 2.619379190I
,613478774 2:619479197
,613578781 ' 619579204
^613678789 619679211
''613778796 2 619779218
2619879225
2 619979232
2i 6200:79239
(6201(79246
'(6202(79253
6203:79260
6204:79267
6205
;62o6
16207
79-74
79281
79288
620879295
620979302
621079309
;62i6 79351
2 62i779358
2(621879365
2,621979372
21^2^ 795 79
(622179386
2,622279393
2,6223 79400
2 (6224 79407
7;622579414
2(62267942
2(622779428
'■622879435
'622979442
(623079449
617679071
7790781 ■
879085 7
,979092 '
618079099
(623179456
2,623279463
2 62337947c
: 16234 79477
,1623579484
(623679491
I623779498
(623879505
623979511
624079518
Vox.. XII. Part I.
97
“nTT^j
6240 79518
I624179525
624279532
|6243 79539
P M4 79546
624579553
I6246I79560
j624779567
6248 79574
6249179581
6250179588
6251179595
6252:79602
6253 79609
625479616
625579623
■625679630
625779637
6250 79644
625979650
626079657
626179664
6262 79671
6263 79678
6264 79685
6265 79692
6266 79699
6267 79706
6268 79713
626979720
6270 79727
627179734
0 27 279741
627379748
627479754
6275 79761
627679768
6277!79775
6278 79782
627979789
628079796
628179803
628279810
6283 79817
6284 79824
6285,79831
6286179837
6287,79844
6288 79851
628979858
629079865
629179872
629279879
6293 79886
629479893
6295 79900
629679906
6297 79913
6298 79920
629979927
630079934
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
N
6300
6301
6302
6303
6304
16305
6306
6307
6308
6309
6310
TE
79934!
79941!
79948
79955
79962
79969
jD.i
N.
63x1
6312 80017
63x380024
631480030!
6315 8003 7!
631680044!
6317 80051
g 16318 80058;
'6319 80065!
7 6320
J0321
J|6^22
7^6323
J!63 24
6325
80072
079
80085
80092
80099
80106
632680113
^6327,
^6328
7 6329
6330
80120
80127
80134
80140
6331
6332
6333
6334
6335
6336
6337
6338
6340
63 41
6342
6343
6344
6347
6348
6349
635°
6351
79975
79982
79989
79996
80003
80010
80147
80154
80x61
80168
80175
80182
80188
80195
633980202
80209
80216
80223
80229
80236
6345 80243
6346
80250
80257
80264
80271
80277
80284
80298
80305
80312
63^28029
6353
6354
,6355
6356
6357
6358
j6359
6360
80318
8032 c
80332
80339
80346
J6360
E636i
S16362
6364
6365
6366
6367
L°g' .
80346,
803531
80359'
D.f N. 11
og'
636380366;
8o373j
80380!
387!
.j 6420:80754
^16421180760
5 6422180767
6423180774
bo
80393
6368180400
6369
6370
6371
i 6372
6373
6 638
6382
6383
6384
6385
6387
6388
6389
16390
i639;
6
7!
804.07
80414
80421
80428
80434
637480441
6375180448
6376180455
6377180462
637880468
6379
6380
6386 80523
>393
6395
66396
6397
6398
6400
6401
6400
6404
6405
6406
80475
80482
80489
80496
80502
80 cog
80516
80530
80536
80543
80550
80557
639280564
8057c
639480577
80584
80591
80598
80604
6399 80611
80618
80625
6402 80632
80638
8064 c
80652
80659
6407180665
;64o8!8o672
6409*80679
64ioj8o686
6411180693
6412180699
6413180706
641480713
6415180720
6416180726
6417 80733
6418 80740
6419
6420
80747
80754
6424
6425
6426
64
6428
.,6429
j 6430
6431
6432
6433
6434
6435
6436
6437
6338 80875
6439
6440
/i6442
6443
6444
6445
80882
80889
80895
80902
80909
80916
80922
.,6446
6 6447
J64488
36449 "
3645c
80929
0936
943
80949
80956
J645i
7'6452
61645781003
‘6458 81010
6459 810x7
6460 81023
6453
6454
6455
6456
6461
6467
6468
6470
6471
6472
6473
6474
6475
6476
6477
6478
6479
6480
80781
80787
80794
80801
80808
80814
80821
80828
80835
80841
80848
80855
80862
80868
80963
80969
80976
80983
80990
80996
81030
6462 81037
6463 81043
6464 81050
6465 81057
6466 81064
81070
81077
6469 81084
81090
81097
81104
Sim
81x17
81123
8x131
8ii37
81143
8ix5i
81158
Ulj N. | Loe.
D.
J6480I81158
J648181164
16482 81171
J648381x78
6 ^484|8ii84
,..,64851,1191
J648681198
'11648781204
ZI648881211
!;6489 81218
i649°
81224
7;!
3649x81 2j
^1649281238
649381245
7|6494 8i25i
^16495 81258
^649681265
1649781271
716498 81278:
3649981285
^650081291*
^*6501 81298
71650281305
7'6503 81311
6j65°48l3l8
365°581325
1650681331
716507 81338
365°88x345
16509 81351
6510 81358
6651181365
^6512 81371
7:65I48i385
616515 8x391
N.
0,654°
7.16541
76542
^543
,ji654-
81564!
81571
81578
rJ.t-t 81584
3654581591
L°g-1£
8>558 6
6 654681598
616553
3655481651
’6J53 '
I651681398
7 |65I7 8i405
6518814II
65>9
6520
6521
6522
6523
6524
16525
81418
8x425
6526
6527
8143
81438
8i445
81451
81458
81465
8147
6 528 81478
652981485
653081491
7653>
76532
6 i6533
6534
6535
6 65o
7
81498
8i5°5
81511
81518
81525
618153
'6537181538
653881544
6539
,654°
8i55>
81558
6l65568i664
1655781671
655881677
6i65598
(6560 ~
65638
656481717
656581723
6 c66|8i72o
6567|8i737
6568181743
65698x75°
657°i8i757
81657
6|°”
P572
6573
6574
65758
!6 06181796
6577:8,803
6578 81809
7|6579l8x8i6
6580181823
6581I81829
6582:81836
'83l8i8
81763
81770
81776
8178
79°
42
659181895
659281902
6CQ2 8lCo8
j65948l9I5
i6595 8l92I
659681928
6597 8l935
6600:81954
660 x'81961
2660281968
‘";66o3|8i974
660418198
660 t; *
l\. j Log. |D.| N. | Log.
6606 81994
6607 82000
6608 82007
6609 82014
6610 82020
,6611 82027
6612 82033
16613 8204c
J6614 82046,
16615820c3
716617 82066
0ji66i8 82073
82079
1662082086
^6621 8209
7|6622 82099
[1662382105
7|6624 8211
1662582119
'7|6626 82125
71662782132
016628 82138
7 662982145
71663082151
663182158
6632 8216
663382171
663482178
7 663582184
^ 6636 82191
7 663782197
6638 82204
663982210
7 6640 82217
664182223
7 6642 82230
^664382236
6584;8i849 7664482243
6585181856 7664582249
6586,81862 664682256
6587.81869 7664782263
658881875 ^664882269
659881941 16658182334
1659981948 2 6659182341
660081954
J6651 82289
7; 6652 82295
1665382302
716654 82308
665582315
,6656823
7j 6657182328
^6660182347
16660:82347
1666182354
1666282360
5«6638467
^|j666482373
J|6665!S2380
’Ntep,
^ 6667I82393
7!c668 82400
^116669 82406
IY
7668982536
6!669o82j43
6698
,7i6699
/:167
6670
6671
6672
6673
6674
667582445
6676
6677
6678
6679 82471
668082478
6681
6682
I6683 82497
668482504
6685 82510
6686
6687
6688
82517
82523
82530
6691
6692
6693
6696
6701
I6702
|67°3
!67°4
6705
6?°7
6708
^1670982666
6710
6711
82413
82419
82426
82432
82439
82452
82458
82465
82484
82491
82549
82556
82562
669482569
669582575
82582
6697 82588
82595
82601
82607
82614
82620
82627
82633
82640
670682646
82653
82659
82672
82679
671282685
6713 82692
671482698
671582705
]67i6;827ii
'6717182718
^671882724
^67x9182730
6720:82737
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
Log.
672082737
672^82743
6722,82750
6723g2756
6724182763
67 25*8 2769
672682776
672782782
6728
82802
672982795
;^3°
6731
6732
6733
82808
82814
8282^
6754,82827
^735r2834
6736 82840
673782847
673882853
6748 82918
674982924
D.i N. Log. D.| N.
82789
6739
6740
6741
6742
6743
6744
6745
6746 ,
6747829
82860
82866
82872
82879
82885
82892
82898
8i905
6750
8293°
6751
6752'
6753
82937
22943
82950
6755
6756
6757
6760
6761
6764
6770
6771
6772
6773
675482956
82963
82969
82975
675882982
6759 82988
82995
83001
676283008
676383014
83020
676583027
676683033
676783040
6768 83046
676983052
83059
83065
83072
83078
677483085
6775!8309i
677683097
6777*83104
6778,83110
6779,83 II7
6780183123
7 67828,
67838.
67848,
16785
67868
678 "
67888,
67898
67908.
6791
6792
6793
679.
i6795
_ * 23
83129
V36
83x42
"13I49
83i55
6684°
^6842
'68-43
6844
6845
!3l6l
•l68
3r74
3181
3187
83*93
83200
8.3206
*3
6846
6848
Log-
D.Jj N. ' Log.
83506
835*2
835*8
83525
8353*
83.537
83544
684783550
83556
684983563
685083569
716796 8;
83219
6851
6852
6853
„57-
83582
83588
6854S3594
3225
83232
83238
98324.
83251
*83257
2 83264
383270
483276
583283
6,:68i.5
6856
"6857
83601
16858,83620
6i6859 83626
^6860
J686I
36862
#863
3 6807 8.
6821
^6822
6823
i6824
56825
, 6821
16827
168 28
; 682i
5 6830
'683289
“3296
883302
'9 83308
833*4
183321
283327
383334
4 8334o
583347
6 83353
/ 83359
18 83366
i983372
83378
83385
8339*
83398
83404
83410
16867
6868
683417
83423
83429
•983436
83442
683183448
6:6832:83455
,1683383461
^16835183474
;6836:8348o
'•---37497'
,•6838183493
|686483658
,636
6866
6871
16872
6873
6]6876
6'6877
6881
16882
16886 83797
^'688783803
5688883809
3688983816
6|689o83S22
83607
83613
83632
83639
83645
8365*
83664
83670
83677
83683
16869 83689
[6870 83696
83702
83708
837*5
1687483721
I687583727
83734
83740
16878 83746
1687983753
83759
83765
8377*
6883 83778
688483784
688583790
689Xi83828
689283835
6893 83841
689483847
689583853
J689683860
26897'83866
5689883872
J689983879
7690083885
.690083885
3690*83891
5690283897
5690383904
61:690483910
3690583916
5690683923
5690783929
169088393
3!69098394:
691083948
69*i83954
691283960
,6913 83967
69*483973
69*583979
691683985
D.ji N. I Log.
J6o6o:84.26
6917:8399'^
.:6oi8:82ooJ
|69i9'84oo4
16920I84011
692118401
. .
6922!84Q23
'6923 84029
I6924.84036
I692584042
692684048
6927
[6928
,692984067
2693084073
26931
0|6932
’6933
56934
”6935
6
6
7
6
6
84080
84086
8409
84098
8410
6941
16942
16943
5694684173
1694784180
1694884186
84192
36949
6'i695ol
j695]
84055
84061
693684111
693784**
84*23
30
6938 .
693984*..
694084136
S4142
84148
84*55
6944 84161
{694584167
84198
84205
84211
56953I84217
56954184223
16955184230
516956,84236
26959|84255
j'6960 84261
J6960j8426l
^696184267
,696284273
>; 6963184280
5116964 84286
D. N. 1 Log. [D.; NJ
,116965
J6966
6*6967
84292
84298
, . . 84305
16968 84311
56969843*7
6970
697*
6972
6973
697484348
6975
6976
6977
6978
,6979
^6980
6981
6982
698.,
^ 698484410
698,
6986
$6988
(6989
#993
^16995
6!
6996
6997
6998
6:7ooi
'7002
7003
7005
7007
7008
7009
7010
7011
’0X2
6l7°!*
170*484597
370*5184603
1701684609
3701784615
0l7oi88462i
71 84628
84634
170*9
1702
I
84323
84330
84336
8434:
84354
84361
84367
84373
843
843;
8439
84398
84404
844*7
84423
84429
84435
8444
1699084448
c"1
6992
84454
84460
84466
(699484473
84479
84485
84491
84497
699984504
7000 84510
845x6
84C22
84528
700484535
8454*
700684547
84553
84559
84566
84572
84578
84584
8459'
•O 84634J
84640I ,
84646
84652;
4 846581 '
  84665
1702684671
2784677
28 84683
2984689!
) 84696)
Uj02'
^7028 8,
84702
84708
_84714
1484720
584726
84733
784739
8 84745
984751
84757
84763
84770
84776
484782
■584788
704684794
7047 84800
704884807
7049848x3
705084819
705684856
705784862
705884868
705984874
706084880
7061 84887
706284893
7063 84809
7064 84905
706584911
706684917
706784924
706884930
706984936
707084942
7071 84948
707284954 ;
7073:84960
7074184967! (
7075184973; (
^7 0761849 79! (
^7077184985: (
^7078)84991),
^7079:84997,
O|!7o8o,84003;
l7o8o|850o3
|708185009
!708285016
|7c83;8502.2
708485028
7085)85034
7o86!85040
7087 85046
708885052
708985058
709085065
* 85071
285077
3 8 5083
- 709485089
709585095
J709685101
? 709785107
, 709885114
? 709985120
:710085126
*85*3
285138
, 385*44
1710485*50
; 7*4985425
\ 7*5018543-*
517*51)85437
7*52 85443
517153 85449
5!7*5485455
: 7*55l8546i
715685467
715785473
7*5885479
715985485
.1716085491
5 7*6185497
5 7*62)85503
5 7*63 85509
. . _ „ - 7*64!855i6
7*0585156 7165 85522
5 7*06^85163
710785169
,7*0885175
^710985181
'17**085*87
*85*93
285199
, 385^-
)!7**4852ix
; j7* *5 8521
.1711685224
! 711785230
5)7**885236
^711985242
*85254
285260
385266
5 7*2485272
685285
785291
885297
985303
085309
*853*5
28c32X
385327
485333
585339
517*3685345
517*3785352
517*3885358
517*3985364
7*4085370
,'7*46
d 7*47
17*48|
L0g. I
085370“
*85376
2 85382
3 85388
485394'
5854OO
85406
854*2
85418
7166
7*67
7168
6I7169
17*70
85528
85534
85540
85546
85552
85558
85564
85570
85576
85582
I7*76j85588
5 7I77f8i594
. i7i78,8 5600
''7*7985606
;712085248 r'718085612
-'7181 8
771828
j71®3S
85618
85625
8563I
7*8485637
£15 85278 pj 85 85643
7186
7*87
85649
85655
' 7*888566
'{718985667
’ 7*9085673
* 85679
2 8C685
38569I
485697
585703
' 7*96:85709
'l!7*97!857*5
77198,85721
7199,85727
’ .7200 85733
$9
C\CT\OnO\CN CnCNOn Q\^r OSO\C\CNO\ On CN |Q\ 0\0\0N0\C\ C\ 0\0\ a\. OnOnONOs 0\C\0\OnQ\ On ow
ICO
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
N. i Log. jD. J N. | Log.
726086094
7200:85733
72°i|85739
720218574
72°3'8575
7204;837.L
72°5i85763
7206185769
72°7 85775
,088578
85788
85794
/
7209
7210
7211:85800
72x2185806
7213185812
7214)85818
7221
7222
7223
7224
7225
)72I5
72x7
7218
72x9
7220
85824
721685830
85836
85842
85848
85854
85860
85866
85872
85878
85884
7226)85790
7227185896
7228 85902
85908
7229
7230
723T
7232
7233
85914
85920
85926
8593 2
723485938
723585944
7236
7237
7238
7239
724°
85950
85956
85962
85968
85974
724x
7242
7243
7244
7245
8^98
85986
85992
85998
86004
724686010
7247 86016
7248I86022
1249)86028
72,50186034
7251
7252
7253
7254
7255
86040
86046
86052
86058
86064
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6)
6i
6)7271
7261
7262
7263
7264
7265
7266
7267
86100
86106
86112
86118
86124
86130
86136
7268:8614
7269J86147
7270:86153
86159
^727286165
0 86171
86177
86183
7273
7274
6 7^75
7256)86070
7257186076
7258) 86082
7259) 86088
726o|36o94
727686189
7277 86195
7278 86201
727986207
7280
86213
7281
7282
7283
7284
7284
86219
86225
86231
86237
86243
7286
7287
7288
7289
7290
7291
7292
7293
7294
7295
4296
7297
7298
7299
7300
7301
7302
73°3
73°4
73°5
73°7
86249
86255
86261
86267
86273
86279
86285
86291
86297
86303
86308
86314
86320
86326
86332
86338
86344
86350
86356
86262
730686368
86374
7308 86380
86386
86392
86398
86404
86410
731486415
7315 86421
73°9
73H
7311
7312
7313
73J7
731686427
86433
731886439
731986445
7320
86451
7331 86316
6)7332S
7333 86528
7334 86534
733-5 8654°
734186576
734286581
6 7343 86587
734486593
734c86599
N.
7320
7321
Log.
86451
_ 86457
732286463
7323 86469
732486475
7325r-548
7326 86487
732786493
732886499
732986504
7330 86510
733686546
7337 86552
733886558
733986564
734086570
735186635
7352 86641
735386646
735486652
735586658
D
734686605
7347 86611
734886617
734986623
73 52 86629
7356 86664
7357 86670
7358 86676
73 ^9 86682
7360 86688
736186694
736286700
736386705
736486711
736586717
736686723
7367 86729
736886735
736986741
737086747
7371
7372
7373
7377
737?*
7379
7380
86753
86759
86764
73748677°
737586776
737686782
7398869
7399
7400
7401
7402
74°3
7404
7405
86788
86794
86800
86806
N.
7380
7381
7382
7^s3
73 4
73S5
Log. ID.
86806
86812
86817
86823
86829
86835
7386)86841
738786847
738886853
738986859
739086864
739186870
739286876i
7393 86882
739486888
7395
739686900
7397
86917
86923
86929
86935
86941
86947
86953
740686958
74°7
7408
74°9
7410
7411
74x2
74I3
74x4
74I5
7419
7420
74 21
7422
7423
7425
86894
86906
86964
86970
86976
86982
86988
86994
86999
87005
87011
741687017
7417 87023
7418 87029
87035
87040
87046
87052
87058
742487064
870'
742687075
742787081
742887087
742987093
743087099
7431
7432
7433
87100
87111
87116
7435
743487x22
87128
743687134
7437l87 H0
7438,87146
7439|87I5I
744087157
N.
7456
7457
7458
7459
7460
7440
7441
Log.
87j57
87163
744287169
7443) 87175
7444) 87x81
7445) 87186
7446187192
7447!87i98
7448 87204
87210
87216
7449
7450
7451
7452
7453
8725
87256
87262
87268
87274
7461
7462
7463
7464
7465
87280
87286
87291
87297
87303
746687309
7467
7468
7469
7470
7471
7472
7473
7474
7475
7477
7478
7479
7480
7481
7482
7483
7484
87221
87227
87233
D.j| N. | Log.
7454 87239
7455 87245
8?3i5
87320
87326
87332
87338
87344
87349
87355
87361
747687367
87373
87379
87384
87390
87396
87402
87408
874x3
748587419
74868742,
7487
7488
7489
7490
87431
87437
87442
87448
j749I
7492
17493
7494
7495
87454
87460
87466
87471
87477
749.
7498
749687483
87489
87495
74998750°
750087506
417500^7506
£7501)87512
£7562|875i8
6 750387523
47504)87529
675Q5 87535
6i!75o6.8754i
6)7507,87547
6)750887552
° 7509,87558
75x087564
75ii'8757o
75x2187576
75I3i8758i
75i4!87587
7515!87593
D.
17516,87599
1751787604
6 7518 87610
6|75^9!876i6
 '87622
7520
6p21
5P22
87628
87633
87639
87645
61752587651
5
6
6
6
6I7531
7532
(7533
7534
7535
752687656
87662
87668
87674
87679
7527
7528
7529
753°
87685
87691
87697
87703
87708
7536
(7537
7538
7541
7542
7543
7544
7545
754;
7548
7549
7550
7551
7552
7553
7554
7555
87714
8772
87726
7539 8773
754087737
87 743
87749
87754
87760
87766
754687772
87777
87783
87789
87795
87800
87806
87812
87818
87823
7556
7557
7558
7559
7560
87829
87835
87841
87846
87852
N.
7500
7561
7562
Log. jD.|| N. [ Log. D
87852)
87858
87864
7563:87,869
17564)87875
75658788
7576
7577
7578
75
7580
7566:87887
7567)87892
7568.87898
756987904
757087910
757 2
7572
7573
7574
7575
7581
7582
7583
7584
7585
5
6
6
6
6
5
6
6
6)
6
6j
5
«!
Oi
6)
6
5
6
7595
6'7598
87973
87978
87984
87990
87996
7586
7587
7588
7589
7590
7591
7592
7593
7594
7595
7596
|7599
7600
7601
7602
7603
7604
7605
7606
7607
7608
7609
87925
87921
87927
87933
87938
87944
87950
87955
87961
87967
88001
88007:
88013
88018
88024
88030'
88036
88041
88047
88053
88058
88064
88070
88076
88081
88087
88093
88098
88104
88110
88116
88121
88127
. ,88133
7610 88138
7611 88144
7612
7613
7614
7615
88150
88156
88161
88167
7616)88173
76i7;88i78
7618 88184
7619
7620
88199
88195
6S,62o
6p21
:7622
,,,7624
6i:7625 88224
88195
88201
88207
88213
88218
6'i/627
°i,7628
6
J7626 88230
5)4^oh ^§235
88241
88247
88252
88258
88264
88270
88275
88281
1630
I7631
|7632
j7633
7634
I635
7636
7637
7638
7639
7640
7641
7642
7643
7644
7643
7646
,7647
17648
7649
7650
7651
7652
7653
7654
7655
76.56
7657
7658
7659
7660
7661
7662
7663
7665
7666
7667
7668
7669
6,767
6
6
5
6
7671
7672
7673
88287
88292
88298
88304
88309
88315
88321
88326
88332
88338
88343
88349
88355
88360
88366
88372
88377
88383
88389
88395
88400
88406
88412
88417
88423
88429
88434
88440
88446
88451
88457
88463
88468
88474
88480
88485
88491
88497
7674 88502
7675
7676
7677
7678
7679
7680
88508
88513
88519
88525
88530
88536
OS Q\ '-n OnOi ON ON l'. OS ON OV^I ON On O.Oi Os OS Sj-. Q\ Q\i Q\Ln Os Q\ Q\ Ssi Q\ QMo Q\ OMo Q\ Os^n Q\ CMn ON ON Q\^n Q\ Q\ Qs’-^i
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
ioi
7680
7681
7682
7683
7684
7685
N.
Log.
D
88536
88542
88547
88553
88559
88564
7686,88570
7687188576
7688,88581'
7689:88587
7690I8859
N. Log.
D.
7740588874
774i|8888o
7742,88885
17743188891
^7744:88897
^7745188902
7691
88598
769288604
886x0
88615
88621
.693
7694
7695
7696
7697
7698
7701
770288660 3 7762,88997
‘ r s fa s- !o 
7703
7704 88672
7705! 886771
7706 88683
88689
88694
887OO
88705
77°7
7708
7709
7710
7716588739
7717588745
77x888750
771988756
7720J88762
8862.
88632
88638
769988643
7700 88649
88655
88666
7711
712
:77I3
77r4
88711
88*7x7
88722
88728
77I588734
7721188767
7722,88773
7723i88779
7724,88784
7725^88790
^7746588908
^7747188913
617748188919
6!|7749l88925
pl775° 88930
6'775^
6 7752
5'
6
6
7756188964
^757588969
7758588875
7759188981
7760,88986
17763,89003
7764 89OO9
5'776 9,89014
772688795
7727,88801
7728,88807
7729I88812
773o'888t8
773i]88824
773288829
7733|88^35
7734,188840
^73588846
88852!
888.57
88936
. .1 88941
7753|88947
7754i88953
7755188958
N.
Log.
7761588992
,7766,89020
7767(89025
5! 7768)8903*1
C)l7769i89037
5 7770(89042
6  
J777i;89°48
6i 7772589053
5: 7773|89059
6,7774|89064
6, 7775:89070
5,7776589076
6 7777I89081
5 777889087
S9092
89098
^ 7779
6,7780
5,’ 7781 89104
6 77825S9109
6i7783|89II5
5,7784189120
6; 7785589x26
5,7786589131
67787:89137
65778889143
89I48
5,|7789
6,i7790
7739
7740
6:i
°i|779I
5|j7792
6,7793
5(7794
6 7795
89J54
7736
7737
773888863
88868'
88874!
89I59
89165
89170
89176
89182
6,779689187
5:7797 89193
6 7798 89198
7799^9204
7800 89209
78^0*89209
780x189215
7802589221
7803589226
780489232
780489237
7806589243
6 7807(89248
6 780889254
7809,89260
^ 7810(89265
7811I89271
781289276
7813189282
7814(89287
781589293
Dj N. I Log.
1).
781689298
7817 893°4!
781889310I
7819893x5,
7820893211
7821 89326!
782
7823
7824
89332!
8933.
89343
7826
7827
57828
782589348
89354
89360
89365
78298937
7830189376
783
7832
89382
89387
89393
783489398
783
89404
89409
894t5
89421
89426
894
7836
J78371
,17838
^7840 , . 
i 7841589437
5(784289443
4 7843 89448
5 7844;89454
'7845189459
7851589492
7852,89498
7853589504
, 7854,89509
■| 7855,89515
,(7856.89520
,17857,89526
785889531
7859,89537'
786089542
7860589542
7861589548
7862(89553
7863;89559
7864'89564
7865I895
6
6
5
6
5
7866(89575
^ 7867(89581
° 7868189586
7869
6l5ZS
7871
6 7q^2
r 7873
6?874
5 7875
6
6
5
6
89592
89597 11793° 89927
7877
7879
8960^
89609
89614
89620
89625
78768963
89636
78788964
89647
7880(8965
7881(89658
7882I89664
7883189669
7884189675
788589680
788689686
7887 89691
7888 89697
,7889
K 7890
89702
q6o8
7891
892
7893
7894
897I3
S9719
89724
89730
(7897
' 7898
57899
17900
6!7901
17902
5; 79°3
51
789589735
7896
8974
89746
89752
89757
89763
89768
89774
 89779
790489785
5(790589790
17906 89796
89801
89807
89812
89818
89823
89829
89834
89840
5|79q7
i79°8
5|79°9
u 791°
7911
7912
7913
79T4 , .
791589845
>79x6!8985
7917(89856
6 79i8;89862
'791989867
7920(89873
N. 1 Log.
D.
792089873
7921:89878
7922:89883
7923,89889
792489894
792589900
792689905
(792789911
,|7928 89916
1792989922
89933
89938
 89944
793489949
793589955
^7933
5
6!
$7937
>938
$7939
1794°
89988
89993
89998
794490004
794590009
7941
7942
7943
79469001j
794790°2o
794890026
79499003 xj
755090037
N. j Log. .jD,
798090200!
798x;902o6{
7982'9Q2i 1
21'
7983(902 ,
798490222
^7985:9022,
7986(90233
798790238 | (8047
.(793689960
89966
89971
89977
89982
5 7988:90244
i 798900249
517990(90255
7991(90260
7992,'90 266
j7993li90271
17994!90276
79959028
5(799690287
799790293
799890298
795190042
79529°°48
795390053
795490059
7955 90064
79 c690069
795790075
795890080
795990086
796090091'
796190097
796290102
5( 7963 90108
6 796490113
5179659009
7900(90124
7967:90129
7968:90135
7969:90140
7670I90146
797I9OI5I
797290157
707390162
7974(90168
797590173
797690179
7977(90184
797890189
79799OI95
798090200
7999
8000
9°3°4
9°3
8001
8002
8003
90314
9032
90325
5
6
5
5
6
5,
6L—,
8oo6903^._
5 800790347
61800890352
800990358
801090363
(80049033
800590336
801190369
801290374
8013 90380
801490385
801590390
801690396
, 801790401
5} 8018904
802690450
802790455
■ 802890461
$ 802990466
1803090472
803T
. . 7
801990412
802090417
1802190423
802290428
239°434
802490439
802590445
8032
8°33
;34
8035
90477
90482
90488
90493
90499
803690504
803790509
803890515
803990520
804090526
N.
18040
8041
18042
(8043
(8044
£|8o45
[8046
,8048
8049
,8050
Log. 1)
90526
90531
90536
90542
9°547
90553
90558
90563
5U—
6;8°5
c|j8°5o -
$,8054 9
i|8o55
90569
90574
90580
90585
2 90590
90596
601
90607
8057
8058
9061
9061
90623
8061
c, 8062
g' 8063
806^
65
8066
00666
S067 9067
8068 90677
i8069 90682
!8070 90687
5|
!j 8059 90628
8060 90634
. 639
90644
006 CO
90655
90660
8c
I?
8071 90693
8072 90698
807390703
8074 90709
807590714
8076 90720
8077 90725
8078 90730
807990736
8080 90741
8081 90747
r 8082 $0752
'j 8083 90757
1 8084 90763
8085 90768
99
8100
N_
81009
8101
81029
8103
8104
Log. (D.
, 849j
908541
90859
90865
90870
810590875
8106
8107
8108
810990897
8110*90902
90881
90886
90891
811190907
8112I909I3
8113*90918
81141,909 24
8115190929
811690934
8117(90940
811890945
|8ii9!90950
8120,90956
,8121 90961
5 8122(90966
j 8123(90972
((8 x 24190977
' ~ 125(90982
sis
6,
8126:90988
8l27!90993
8X28(90998
81299IOO4
3o86 90773
8790779
,88 90784
8990789
8090 90795
8091 90800
(8092 90806
J809390811
$!8o94 908x6
8095 90822
s 809690827
^(8097 90832
6809890858
90843
90849
814991110
(I 815091116
81
5,
51
6i
5i
?
5,
6
91121
!| 815291126
81C3 91132
8i549II37
8i55 9II42
815691148
8157 9II53
815891158
8159 91164
8160 91169
Oo O'Ss-i ON'^n On Vi ^ On OVi Ln C>On Q-. C\Cn In Q\ ^ ^ ^ Q\^i ^ Ov ^ ^ ON <-n Vo On—
» C2
LOGARITHMS of numbers.
I N. 1 Log. |D. 1 N.
j8160*91769
18161:911741 ^
816291180!
8i63'9ii85
816491190
816591196
816691201
8167191206
8168,91212
8i69'9i2i7
817091222
8x7i|9i228|
8i72|9i233
739i23*
8i7419i243
8i75!91249
8176U1254
8i77 9I259
8178I91265
8i79|9i27°
8180I91275
Loi
822091487
8221 91492
8222I91498
8223*91503
6224 91508
I8225I91414
D]
1
61
6
N.
Log. jD.
82801918031
8281191808
2191814
■;j 8283191819
6!
8226191519
18227191524
■8228;9i529
8229l9I535
;8232!9I542
8181I91281
818291286
8183191291
8184191297
8185I91302
8i86{9i307
< 8187191312
8188 91318
818991323
8190 91328
.
8192 91339
8i9391344
8x949x35
8195 9135 c
8206 91413
8207
8208 91424
8209 91429
8196 91360
81979x365
8i98 9I371
8190 91376
8200 9138X
820191387
8202 91392
82°3 9I39
8204 91403
8205 91408
-i 823i|9i545
823319i556
8234|9i561
8 23 5191566
8284,91824
!| 8285 91829
'll 8286
8^87
8288
8289
18 290
823619157
u,8237 9i577
jj8238|9i582
r j8239|9I587
^18240(91593
:|824i9i598
. 42(91603
J8243191609
,824491614
^•lIS 245*91619
18246(91624
'8247 91630
1824891635
c
6
5!
6172_7
5!
j823
I8252
a!8253
6 :8254
18255
18256
S8257
118250
IH826"
6ii7
8249 91640
91645
91651
91656
91661
91666
91672
9x677
9168:
8258 91687
9I034
91840
91845
91850
^ 9i855
7S 291 hi 861
82929x866
5 8293 91871
„|;8294 91876
gl'8295 91882
1:8296 91887
4 8297 91892
•1118298:91897
6|8299;9I9°3
^8300,91908
r i83OI|9I9I3
6'18302!9i9i8
j 8303 9i924
!<83°4i9i929
3°3 9I934
9*696
9169_.
9I7°3
91 JOG
83°“9I939
83°7 9I944
8308191950
83°9 9I955
83io
9196c
■8511
8312
8313
83^
9*965
9I97I
91976
91981
831591986
8317
8261
8262,
8263 91714
18264
91418
8210
3 (8265
5
6
9r434
917x9
91724
91440
9I445
8211
8212
82I3,
821491455
8215 91461
8266 91730
826719173^
8268I91740
8269I91745
,8270*91751
5 S
8319
832°
832I
18322
23
83169x991
9I99'
8318 92002
N. f Lo^r.
D
8340i92II7
8341 92122:
8542l:92i27
8343192I32
8344 92I37
8345921
8346'92i4.'§
r' 8347!92I53
'|8348|92i58
•> 8349!92i63
4;i835°!92x69
i835i|92i74
c!:835292I79
h!8353j92l84
3j 8354192189
J; 83 5 i!9 2195
j   
718 3 56:9 2 200
|8357|92205
8217
8218
8219
8220
l82?1 9X756j
5|'8272;9i76xi
91450 5|8273]9i766j
5 82749x772:
^1,827519x777;
• 827691782
5; ■8877917871
8278 9179^!
51827991798;
5j SiSopiS^i
8216 91466
9x471
91477
91482
9x487
183 2.
fihxs-
5i8326
5
5
6
5
5
5
6
5
200 ^
92012
92018
92023
92028
92033
92038
.. 92°44
,8327 92049
8328 92054
92059
92065
8329
;833°
18331
18332
8333
18334
'833 5
92070
92.075
92080
92085
92091
2X0
8359l922i5
8360102221
8361192226
8362192231
8363(922
S564
8365
92241
92247
|8366
'8367
.8368
118399
3,8370
6
I8371
8372
N. | Log. LXj N.
8400(92428
(8401:92433
8402’92438
84°3'92443
'8404 9 2449
840592454
:84°6|92459
‘8407 92464
'8408 92469
84o<>:92474
|84ic'9248o
,8411192485
*841292490
8'84x3^2495
2;84i4925o°
6 04i5(92505
84i6;925ii
;84i7l925i6
18418192521
S8419I92526
842092531
92252
92257
92262
92267
92273
92278
92283
837392288
8374
8374
92293
92298
1837692304
I837792309
92314
92319
8381
,:8h
^8383
3 83S4
6 Mi
|!8386
-^8387
-■I8388
5I 838.9
8390
:8378
18379.
838092324
9233°
92335
92340
92345
92350
^842192536
•’I842292542
^18423,92547
'424I92552
425:92557
8426(92562
. 8427)92567
8428:92572
f42992578
(8430 9258.1
(843192588
843
,843692614
^8437:92619
918438192624
r 843992629
844092634
92355
92361
92366
92371
92376
5
844
9 8442
8443
9^65^,
92645
9265
844492655
j8445
18336192096
'8337(92101
,8338 921061
8339 921111
834092117,
^8391 92381
•518392J92387
f |8393j92392
91839492397
0.1839 51924021
^83961924071
9 ,8397192412;
f ,8398.92418;
>8399,92423!
0;,8400 92428:
8447
8448
■5 41
.18450
6!
8451
9266;
44692665
L°a-
92737
846c
8461 92742
846292747
8463 92752
8464
8465
92758
92763
846c
8467 9
84689
^4699
'8470
8471
8472
8473
8474
8475
8476
8477
D.'l N. i Log.
92768
. 773
92778
_ 7»3
92788
92793
92799
9280
92809
92814
92819
92824
847b 92829
847992834
8480 92840
(8481 (9284 5
848292850
5 8483(92855
8484192860
84s5
8486
8487
8488
'"84899
9286 5
.8490
1S492
8493
8494
18495
8496
8497
92870
92875
92881
886
92891
926'
92675
92686
92691
845292696
7I8453I92701
%454 92706
7[|8455!927ii
J845692716
^8457192722
18458,92727
3i8459;92732
0 846092737
5
5
5}
6'
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
5
5
5
$ 8506
i|8507
j850g
[8490
185OO
85OI
]8502
8503
8504
8505
92896
9 2901
92906
92911
92916
92921
.. . 92927
84989293 c
92937
9£-942
92947
92952
92957
92962
92967
8510 9
92973
92978
9298:
92988
U
J85 20,95044
■;| 852,193049
•’■852293054
8523 93059
,1852493064
<’525193069
8526(93075
8527i9308o
^8528*93085
r'8529:93090
8580:93095
853 1 (93 100
853293io5
853393110
853493ii5
8
N. 1 Log.
D
535
93x20
ri 8536l93 1 25
Jbj37
SiS8
8539
5
5
6
5
5
5
5
5],s
8540
■18541
8542
8543
93I31
93j36
93I4I
93 !46
93*5*
93*56
854393161
93166
54 5:93171
6^547
,[8548
854993192
85509319,
176
93x81
93x86
J8551
8552
8553
■I8554
8555
18511
■98512.,„ ..
8|85i3 93o°8
8i 8514
185.5
993
92998
93003
93°13
93018
^85x6 93024
r:;85I 7 93029
J8518 93034
•’,18519,93039
•’1I85 20 93044
032.02
93207
93212
93217
93222
855693227
855793232
855893237
8559
8 s6o
93242
93247
J858093349
•Jib 58193354
¥582193359
¥383|93364
■’18 584193369
^(8585(93374
J8586I93379
^1858793384
¥58893389
AI858993394
93399
‘J:8.x9J 93404
^ 859293409
¥593!934I4
9.85949842c
“|8595j93425
85969343°
, 8597 93435
¥598 93440
i 8599:93445
860093450
8601
8602
¥603
8604
^,-8605
8606
(8607
93455
93.460
93^65
93470
93475
93480
93485
860893490
860993495
8610
8611
8612
935oo
93505
93510
8613 93515
!8 56103252
856293258
8563I93263
8 564:03268
8565193273
18 ^66103278
¥567193283
8568:93288
8569fe>329,
8570,93298
8614
8615
93520
93526
8616
8617
3186x8
¥619
3;862o
5
6
5
5
9353*
93536
9354*
93546
9355*
!862i 93556
862293561
862393566
862403571
¥62593576
8620:93581
8627I93586
862893591
,8629^3596
1863019360
8571 |933o3
8572(93308
8 5 73193313
8574,93318
8575193323
¥576.93328
¥577:93334
¥578 03339
¥57993344
¥38003349
5
5
¥63 j'9c?6o6
-qjS632i956ii
¥633936x6
,.1863 5'93 6 26
¥636;9363i
¥63793636
- 8638 93641
^1863.9:93646
-18640:93651
3
O Lri On O-x Ln On Lr» Lo Vi Lo Lo Lo Oi Ln Lm Lrx O. O-j Q-; Oi Oi Ot Lo On Oi
LOGAKITHMS OF NUMBERS.
1.03
N. _
864093651
864193656:
8642
8643
864493671;
8645 93676:
864693682,
864793687!
864893692;
864993697;
865093702;
93661! ^!8702j93962; ‘ 376494260
93666; 'c!;870393967 ,1876394265
Log. ;D.| N. j Log.
j!87ooj93952
870193957
D.
N. | Log.
1876094250
I]876i,94255
D.
8651937°7|
861:293712!
865393717
865493722
865593727
8704193972 L876494270
05193977 ^'876594275
11876694280
1876794285
^876894290
"8769’94295
N.
‘8706:93982
870793987
870893992
870993997
871094002
865693732
865793737
865893742
8659
8660
8661
8662
8663
8664
866 ?
8666
8667
8668
93747
93752
93757
93762
93767
93772
93777
93782
93787
93792
866993797
8670
93802
8671
8672
8675
8711
8712
871
8714
!8770i943°o
94007
94012
94017
94022
1594027
871694032
d1,8? 17194037
r 87l8j94042
J871994647
|; 872094052
93807
93812
8673938x7
867493822
93827
867693832
867793837
867893842
867993847
868093852
8691
8692
8693
8694
8721194057
51872294062
5 8723:94067
872494072
8725194077
872694082
8727194086
8728!9409i
8729194096
873094101
S731
8732
94106
94111
8733 94116
8734
8735
87369413i
8737
868193857
8682193862
8683:93867
868493872
868593877
868693882
8687;93887
8688j93892
8689193897
869C93902
9390;
93912
939I7
93922
869593927
869693932
869793937
8698193942
869993947
870093952
8-739
8
8741
8742
8743
8744
8745
941
94126
94i36
5:p77I94305
dl8 7 7 2;94310
5!|87 7394315
3;is7749432o
5
5
94325
8775
8776
877794335
87789434
9433°
'878294359
8787
8788
873894141
94146
94I5I
94156
94161
94166
94171
94176
874694181
8747194186
874894191
874994196
8750194201
8779,94345
878o;94349
878194354
94364
94369
94374
8783
8784
8785
878694379
94384
94389
878994394
8790
94499
8791
8792
8793
8794
8795
8796
8797
8798
882094547
882i!94552
8822194557
8823:94562
882494567
88 25|94571
8826194576
8827i9458i
8828,94586
8829:94591
8 8 30194596
!883i!946oi
883 2:94606
8833194611
8834194616
8835I94621
N. j Log.
,! 8836:94626
8837194630
8838 94635
^8839
jSSgc
94640
94645
94404
94409
94414
94419
94424
94429
9443:
94438
87999444:
8800 94448
875! 194206
87529421 il
i8753j942i6|
,875494221!
:8755!94226j
,8756:94231
;8757|94236
8758i94240
8759;94245
876094250
8801
8802
880
94453
94458
94463
8843
94660
4!
^ 884194650
f$l4l4s
5
5
5
5
5
5
884.
884494665
9467c
884694675
8847
94680
8848 9468
884994689
8850
00 ■,
8852
8853
5 8854
8856
I8857
94694
Log. (iLpESL | Log. jD.
888094841
888194846
8882'9485i
8883'94856
8884'9486i
8885:94866
94699
94704
94709
94714
8855947i9
94724
94729:
- 8858 94734
4I8859 94738
^i|886o;94743
8804 94468
880594473
88o6l94478
88o7j94483
8808194488
880994493
881094498
8811
8812
8813
8814
8815
!88i6
94503
945°7
94512
94517
94522
94527
886194748
8862194753
~ 8863i94758
r 8864:94763
8865,94768
88661947/3
886794778
5| 8868 94783
0 8869:94787
^887094792
•4887194797
^;8872!948o2
%873j948o7
o|!8874;948i2
^l8 8 7 5:94817
5
%817 9453 2
tj 8818 945371
r',8819945421
1,8820:9454
88869487
8887:94876
888894880
8889‘94885
889092890
I889194895
889294900
889394905
,889494910
; 8895:94215
7I f
|8876!94822
%877!94827
%8 7894832
^8879:94836
8880:94841
894095134
894195139
7:8942 95 x43
•;8943'95i48
•789449J153
^,8945'.95i58
J;8946,95163
i8947;95I68
4; 8948195173
'7!8949!95177
^ 8950:95182
900095424
o|9ooi|95429
‘+9o°2|95434
9C03:95436
900495444
9005I95448
889694919
889794924
8898,94929
18899:94934
118900:94939
11890 i!94944
I8902I94949
■71!8 9° 31949 54
11890694968
I890794973
890894978
t s9-y
I8910
h11
489x2
94983
94988
511
89x3
89x4
5!
l!89X5 950i
>916
I891795022
0 891895027
r 89X995032
0;|8920 95O36
94993
9499s
9 coo2
9500
950x7
I8921
5I 922
418923,
'r^92Al9S°5^
18925|95o6
,95041
95046
9505
,8926195066
-8927 95071
48928195075
8929^5080
018930:95085
Ji;893i|9 C090
^893 2j9 5095
58933i95XOO
•78934(95105
-1:893 $j9 5109
'8936:95x14
8937i95xi9
8938195124
8939;95X29
8940,95x34
8951
8952
95x87
95192
895395X97
89 5495202
895595207
895695211
895795216
895895221
895995226
8960952
18961 95236
89629524c
!8963 95245
8964195250
95255
9oo6,95453
9007:95458
900895463
9009
'9060195713
0 9061:95718,
^‘9062195722
r:9o63!95727
^‘9064:95732
? 9065:95737
95468,
90x095472
90HI05477
9012
9066:95742
,:9o67i95746
0 9068 9575
0 9069,95756
],9c7o:95761
41907 xi95766
95482, 7'9072195770
90x395487!
9014
90X5
95492
95497
4907395775
r 1907495780
9OI6955OI
90X7 95506
90X8955
'90X9
9020
-i 4
9075
,95785
896695260
896795265
897295289
8973
8974
[8_9
8968
8971
95270
896995274
897095279
95284
95294
95299
5 95303
j8976953o8
8977
8978
8979
8980
953X3
953lS
95323
95328
8981
8982
8983
8984
8985
8986
8987
8988
8989
95332
95337
95342
95347
953 52
95357
9536i
95366
95371
899095376
8991
8992
9538x
95386
955x6
95521
9021
9022
9023
9024
'9025
9026
95525
95530
95535
95540
95545
49076
49077
•>l9078
95789
95794
95799
I9079 95804
19080
'9081
9082
9083
9084
9085
95809
95550
902795554
r 9Q_35 95593
9028
95559
902995564
903095569
9°31
9033
903.1
9037
95574
903295578
95583
95588
903695598
95602
903895607
90399561
904c95617
904X
9°4 2
9043
904495636
904595641
904695646
95650
95655
95660
.905095665
9047
9048
9°49
8993 95390
899495395
8995 954OG
J9051
4:9052
9562
9 5626
95631
5405
8997!95410
8998,954x5
8999i954X9
900C95424
95670
... „ 95674
, 9053 95679
9054195684
19 .
7i,9055195689
I905695694
19057:95698
19058,95703
19059^95708
•’j,9o6o:957i3
908695837
95842
95813
95818
95823
95828
9583
9088
95847
90899585
909095856
909X
9092
9100
9101
9102
9103
9x04
9586
95866
90939587
909495875
9095 95880
909695885
90979589°
909895895
909995899
95904
95909
959X4
959x8
95923
910595928
910695933
95938
9 594 2
95947
95952
9x07
9108
9x09
9110
9^95957
9112I95961
,,91x3,95966
19114j9597i
I91X 5)95976
19116:95980
fb117 95985
5c9xx 8(9599°
l9x 1995995
4:9x20,95999
104
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
N.
9120
9121
912296009
9I23
912496019
912596023
912696028
912796033
912896038
912996042
913096047
9I3I
913296057
96061
96066
9135 96071
9T33
9*34
913696076
9137 96080
913896085
9T39
9140
95999
96004
9141
9142
9 M3
9144
9146961
9M7
9M8
9M9
9150
l9I5I
9I53
:9I54
9160
9161
Los. |D.
96014
96o52
96090
96095
96099
9610
96109
96114
914596118
96128
96133
96137
96142
96147
96152
96156
96161
915596166
915696171
915796175
915896180
915996185
96190
96194
916296199
91639620-4
916496209
916596213
916696218
916796223
916896227
916996232
917096237
917196242
917296246
917396251
917496256
917 596261
^917619626
'9177I96270
9178196275
917996280
9180196284
59191
9192
N.
9180
9181
9182
9183
9184
9185
9186
9187
9188
9189
9i9°
Los-
D.
96284
96289
96294
96298
96303
96308
96313
96317
96322
96327
96332
96736
96341
9i93 96346
•JI9i949635°
‘ 9i9596355
919696360
9X9796365
919896369
919996374
920096379
920196384
920296388
920396393
920496398
920596402
920696407
920796412
020896417
920996421
921096426
921196431
921296435
921396440
921496445
921596450
921696454
921796459
921896464
921996468
922096473
922196478
922296483
922396487
922496492
^922596497
922696501
922796506
922896511
922996515
923096520
9231
9232
9233
9234
9235
9236
9238
96525
9653°
96534
96539
96544
_ 06 C48
;923796553
96558
923996562
924096567
9240,96567
^9241196572
.9242196577
9243!96581
924496586
96591
96595
96600
96605
96609
96614
9^619
5
5
5
4
5
5
5
4
5
5
4 „
519 254
5i9^
9256
4I9257
N. | Log.
9245
9246
9247
9248
9249
9250
9251
D.
925296624
9253 96628
96633!
966381
96642!
96647!
5j9258 966 C2i 49318^6932
5'9259 " ''  
9260
9261
^19262
;9263
9264
'9265
9266
9267
19268
5
4
5
5
5
4
5
5 927°
N.
9300
9301
!93°2
93°3
93 °4
93^5
L°g- 1D-
96848
96853
96858
96862
96867
96872
9306
9307
9308
93°9
9310
9311
9312
96876
96881
96886
96890
96895
96900
96904
931396909
96656. 51931996937
96661; ^932096942
96666) 4‘9321
5 ;93 22
5:9323
96670}
96675;
96680!
9668 5!
966S91
96694
96699
5,93 24 96960
4:9325196965
5:9326 9697°
9269 96703
96708
9271
9272
927'3
9274
9275
9276
927796741
4
5
5
5
4
5
5
4,
c 9279
^ 9280
5
4
5
5
4
5
5!
967M
96717
96722
96727
96731
96736
9278
9281
9282
928
9284
9285
96745
96750
96755
9286
9287
9288
9289
cj9290
19291
9292
5
4
^9294:
5i9327
4:932896979
96759
96764
96769
96774
96778
06783
96788
96792
96797
96802
96806
96811
9293 96816
96820
4 929596825
,19296196830
59297I96834
419298196839
1929996844
9300 96848
93 M
9315
9316
96914
96918
96923
931796928
96946
96951
96956
96974
5:93 29
5 933®
4'933’
5;9332
5j9333
4'9334
5L9335
5 9336
4'9337
5 9338
5!9339
4,934°
5I9341
9342
96984
96988
96993
96997
97002
97007
97011
97016
97021
97021c
97020
9703 c
97030
97044
5i9343|97°49
9344j97°53
9345197058
9346197063
9347|07°67
9348I9.7072
9349 97°77
935° 07081
9351
97086
935297090
9353j97°95
9354j97IO°
!93X5|97104
93 56I9 7109
9357i97II4
9358197118
N.
9360
9361
9362
9363
9364
9365
9366
^367
9368
9369
5 937°
4 93 71
‘ 9372
9373
9374
9375
97128
97132
91*31
97M2
97M6
91*5*
Log.
D.
91*55
97160
97i65
97i69
97174
97179
97i83
97188
97192
97197
9381197225
9382.9723°
9383:97234
9384I97239
9385:97243
9386;97248
9387I97253
9388'97257
9389!97262
9390,91261
4 93919727!
519392
5 9393
4
5
5
97276
_97280
939497285
9395197 29°
9396|97294
I 9397i97299
939897304
9399973°8
040097313
937697202
9377'972o6
9378i972n
9379,97216
9380,97220
9401
9402
9403
9404
9405
9406
94°
9408
9409
!94i°
9411
9412
9413
19414
0415
97317
97322
97327
97331
97336
97340
97345
9735°
97354
97359
97364
97368
91313
97377
 97382
9416:9738
9417 0739 s
9418 97396
94I99740°
942097405
N.
9420
Log.
D.
974*5
9421197410
9422
9423
9424
9425
9426
9427
9428
9429
943°
9431
9432
9433
9434
9435:97474
9436
9437
9438
9439
9440
9441
9442
9443
9444
9445:97520
9446
9447
9448
9449
945°
(9451
9452
9453
9454
9455
9456
9457
9458
97414
974M
97424
97428
97433
97437
97442
97447
9745i
97456
197460
97465
9747°
97479
97483
97488
97493
97497
97502
97506
97511
975i6
97525
97529
97534
97539
97543
97548
97552
97557
97562
97566
9151*
91515
97580
9459 97585
9460
9461
9462
9463
9464
9465
i 9466
'9467
9468
9469
2470
9471
9472
9473
9474
9475
97589
97594
97598
97603
97606
97612
97617
97621
97626
97630
97635
9476
947
9478
9479
9480
97640
97644
97649
91^53
97658
97663
97667
97672
97676
07681
•*’9486
..9487
6 '9488
4t
3 9489 97722
N.
9480
9481
9482
9483
Log. D.
97681
97685
97690
97695
948497699
97704
97708
97713
97717
949°
97727
9491
9492
9493
9494
9495
'9496
9497
3 9498
' 9499
9500
97731
97736
97740
97745
91149
9501
9502
9503
19506
. 9507
5 co8
'"9509
9510
95 M
9521
9522
9523
9524
9525
97754
97759
97763
97768
97772
97777
97782
97786
95°49779i
39505 97795
97800
97804
97809
97813'
97818
97823
97827
9511
9512
95i397832
97836
^951597841
951697845
951797850
951897855
951997859
952097864
97868
97873
97877
9788
97886
97891
97896
N.
954°
9541
9542
9543
9544
9545
97955
97959
97964
97968
97973
97978
9546
9547
9548
9549
.9550
9551
9552
9553
9554
9555
9556
;9557
Log.
97982
97987
97991
97996
98000
98005
98009
98014
98019
98023
98028
98032
^955898037
M9559j98c4i
•L!956o;98o46
5!:956i
980 co
98055
98059
08064
4H9565 98068
5j!9562
^19563
%566 98073
fes
9526
9527
952897900
952997905
rt,9530 97909
4^3'
19532
J9533
5!
19534
979M
979i8
97923
97928
98078
98082
956998087
9570I98091
95 7i 198096
957298100
:9573'98io5
9574
9575
98109
98114
4!
5i
5i
4|
5|
4
5
V>576|98u8
^19577198123
3 9578 98127
'L9579 98132
5,9580198137
:!958i|9bi4i
5 9582198146
9583198150
..958498155
f; 9585’98i 59
19586198164
4! 9587 98168
19588.98173
5',958998177
959o:98i82
%535|9793
'9 S3691931
9794i
97946
91950
91955
4I
''9537
59538
T9539
■i!!954c
19591198186
9s92 08191
9593'98195
9594:98200
9595!98204
959698209
9597
9598
9599
9600
98214
98218
98223
98227
i
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
10
960098227
960198232
960298236
960398241
960498245
960598250
N.
Log.
D.
960698254
960798259
96089826
960998268
961098272
961198277
961298281
961398286
961498290
961598295
961698299
961798304
961898308
961998317
962098318
962198322
962298327
9622 98351
962498336
96259834°
962698345
962798349
962898354
962998358
96309836.'
963198367
96329837
96339837
963498381
963598385
963698390
96379839.
963898399
96399840.
964098408
96419841
964298417
964398421
964498426
964598430
N.
■I 965°
9651
9652
9653
964698435
964798439
964898444
964998448
96^0
9845:
9655
9656
9657
Log.
D.'i N.
98453
98457
98462
98466
965498471
98475
98480
98484
I9658 98489
1965998493
19660 98498
',9661 98502
'9662 98507
19663 98511
966498516
9665 9852c
966698525
(9667 98529
966898534
966998538
I967098543
196719854?
967298552
967398556
967498561
967598565
96769857°
967798574
i9678 98579
967998583
9680
968
98588
98592
51
96829859
96839860
968498605
96859861
9700
q'J9701
4il97°2
'97°3
98677
98682
98686
98691
968698614
968798619
968898623
'9689 98628
969098632
969198637
969298641
9693 98646
969498650
969598655
969698659
969798664
969898668
9699198673
970098677
970498695
97°5
9708
Log.
D,
98:
970698704
9707 98709
987i3
970998717
971098722
98726
9873
, . _ 98735
971498740
97x5 98744
I9711
iP?12
9718
19716
98749
b?1? 98753
98758
971998762
972098767
972
9722
9723
9726
9731
■9732
9733
9734
9735
98771
98776
98780
1972498784
972598789
98793
972798798
972898802
972998807
973°
98816
98820
98825
98829
98834
9 73 6
9737
9738
9739
974°
9741
9742
9750'989oo
975i|989°5
975298909
9753989i4
i9754i989i8
9755!98923
9756:98927
i9757|98932
9758198936
9759I98941
N. j Log.
D.
9760
98945
9761
9762
98949
98954
976398958
9764
98963
97659896
976698972
9767
i9768
98976
98981
976998985
9770 98989
,9771
9772
9773
98994
98998
99°°3
98838
98843
98847
98851
98856!
978
9782
9783
9784
9783
9786
977499°°?
9775 99°12
977699016
077799°2
|977899°25
977999°29
978099034
99°38
99°43
99°47
99052
99°56
99061
9788
978999074
979099078
9791
9793!99c92
9794i99°96
9795.99100
98860
98865!
9743I98869;
9744:98874
974598878|
9746:98883!
974798887!
9748:98892;
9749198896;
^l975o'989oo! ^1980099123
[978799065
99069
99083
979299087
N. | Log.
LV
979699105
'9797 99I09
59798 99i14
.49799 99118
9800199123
9801199127
98o2l99i3i
98o3!99x36
9804:99140
9805199145
980699149
980799154
980899158
980999162
9810
981!
9812
9813
981499185
9815
981699193
99i67
991?1
99176
99180
99i89
9817
99^8
99207
99211
981899202
9819
9820
9821
9822
9823
9824
99216
99220
99224
99229
982599233
9826
9828
(9830
9831
9832
9833
9835
99238
982799242
99247
982999251
99255
99260
99264
99269
983499273
99277
983699282
983799286
9838
9839,^
9840^9300
9841
9842
9843
9844
9845
9846
9847
99304
99308
993I3
99317
99322
99026
, ..9933°
9848,99335
9849;99339
9850,99344
^9850,99344
985199348
9852
. . 99352
985399357
985499361
985599366
985699370
985799374
985899379
985999383
986099388
986199392
986299396
9863 99401
986499405
986599410
9866 99414
98679941^
986899423
9869
9870
N. I Log.
D.
99427
99432
9871
9872
9873
99436
9944
99445
987499449
987599454
987699458
9877
9878
99463
99467
98799947
9880
9881
9882
9886
9887
9888
9889
9890
99476
99480
99484
988399489
988499493
9885I99498
99502
99506
99511
99515
99520
989!99524
989299528
9893 99533
989499537
9895|99542
'9896199546
i989799550
I989899555
989999559
9900.99564
990099564
9901 99568
9902
9903
9904
9905,
N. j Log.
9906
9907
9908
9909
991 c
D.|j N. [ Log.
!995o!99782
[995199787
99572
99577
9958i
99585
9959°
99594
99599
99603
99607
9911
9912
9913
99M
9915
9916
9917
9918
9919
9920
9921
9922
9923
9924
9925
99612
99616
99621
99625
99629
99634
99638
99642
99647
99651
9926
9927
9928
9929
993°
993
9932
9933
9934
9935
9936
9937
9938
9939
9940
99656
99660
99664
99669
99673
99677
99682
99686
99691
99695
99699
99704
99708
99712
99717
99721
99726
9973°
99734
99739
j994I
9942
9943
9944
99743
99747
99752
99756
9945199760
994699765
9947I99769
9948-99774
9949.99778
9950,99782
1
995299791
995399795
:9954j998oo
!9955!998o4
6956
9957
9958
9959
9960 99826
59808
99813
99817
998
9961
9962
9963
9964
9965
99830
99835
99839
99843
99848
9966
9967
9968
9969
0970
99852
99856
9986
99865
99870
997
997
9973
9974
9975
9976
9977
9978
9979
9980
9981
9982
9983 99626
998499930
9985
998699939
D
99874
99878
99883
99887
99891
99896
99900
99904
99909
99913
99917
99922
9987
9988
9989
999°
9991
9992
19993
9994
9995
99944
99948
99952
99957
9996
9997
9998
9999
10000
99935
99961
99965
9997°
99974
99978
99983
99987
99991
99996
00000
4
Voi,. JXII. Part I.
o
io6
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
o Degrees.
.06579
i; 7.1627O
Sin.
luf neg,
6.46373
Dif.
4.o.io8 c 7 y| 6.04084
67.24188
7.30882
8 7.36682
9 7*4i797
746373
7.50512
7.54291
„ 7-57767
4 7-60985
5 7^3982
16 7.66784
7.69417
18 7.71900
197.74248
7-76475
7-78594
7.8061 r
7-82545
7-84393
7.86166
7.8787
77.89509
7.91088
7.92612
7.94084
7.95508
7.96887
7.08223
7.9952c
358.00779
368.02002
37 8.03192
388.04350
39
40
8.05478
8.06578
41 8.07650
42 8.08696
8.09718
8.10717
8.11693
43
44
45
4618.1264
47i8.i358i
488.14495
408.1 c ^01
308.16268
9691
79l8
6694
5800
5115|
4576
4^39
3779i
3476
3218
2997
2802
2633
2483,
2348;
2227
2119!
2021
I93°
1848
I773
I7°4
1639!
I579
I524
1472
1424
*379
I33
1297
!259
1223
Tang.
Inf neg.
6-46373
94085
7.06579
7.16270
7.24188
7.30882
7.36682
7.41797
7-46373
7-5°5I2
7-54291
7-57767,
7.60986
7.63982
7^66785
7.69418
7.71900
! 7-74248
7-76476
7-78595
7.80615
7.82346
7-84394
7.86167
87871
l!7-89510
7.91089
7.92613
7.94086
Dif.
u 7-955
6 7-96889
'' 7.98225
7.99522
8.00781
5118.17128
52!8-1797I
53 8-18798
54j8.i96io
5518.20407
568.21189
57,8-21958
5818.22713
598.23456
608.24186
Cof.
1190
1158
11
1100
1072
1046
1022
999
976
954
934
9x4
896
877
860
843
827
81
797
782
769
755
743
73°
8.02004
8.03194
8.04353
8.05481
8.06581
30103
17609
12494
9691
7918
6694
5800
5II5
4576
4I39
3779
3476
3219
2996
2803
2633
2482
2348
2228
2119
2020
I93I
1848
I773
1704
1639
I579
1524
I473
I424
!379
!336
I297
I259
1223
1190
IJ59
1128
1100
13-53627
13-23524
I3-°59I5
12.93421
12.8373c
Cot.
12.75812
12.69118
12.63318
12.58203
12.53627
12.49488
12.45709
12.42233;
12.39014
12.36018
12.33215
12.30582 9.99999
12.28100
12.25752
12.23524
12.21405
12.19385
12.17452
12.15606
12.13833
12.12129
12.10490
12.08911
12.07387
12.05914
8.07653
8.08700
8.09722
8.10720
8.11696
1072
1047
10 2 2:
I 2.O449O
I 2.O3111
! I.97996
Cof.
0.00000,60
o.ooooo|59
0.00000158
o.ooooo|57
0.00000I56
0.00000155
0.00000
o. ooooo|54
p. ooooo;53
o.oooooj52
0.00000 51
o.ooooo!5°
o.ooooo!49
0.0000048
0.0000047
0.0000046
0.0000045
44
43
42
41
4°
9-99999 39
9.9999938
9.99999
9-99999
9-99999 35
34
33
9-99999
9-99999
9-99999
9-99999
9-99999
9.9999932
9-999983
9.99998
9.99998
9.99998
12.01775:9.99998
12.00478'9.99998
11.99219:9.99998
P.99998
11.96806 9.99997
n.95647
11-94519
11-93419
8.12651
8.13585
8.14C00
8.15395
8.16273
8.17133
8.17976
8.18804'
8.19616I
8.20413
n.92347
11.91300
11.90278
9981H.89280
976[ii,883o4
ASiii 1.87349 ;9-99996
934|i 1.8641519-99996
9 ^ 5|11 .85500I9.99996
q?q'ii’846°5
Bfo'11-83727
35
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
9.9999722
9-9999721
9.9999720
J9
18
17
16
!5
9-99997
9.99997
9.99997
:9-99996
9.99996
9.99996
9-99995
n 111.82867
sts11-82024
°2S|n.81196
812' T
9-99995
9-99995
9-99995
8.21195
8.21964
8.22720
,8.23462
8.24192
Cot.
J! I.80383 |9.99995
^8-I1-79587 9-99994
^ jn.788°5 9.99994
769!!!.78036:9.99994
^ J! 1-772801 9-99994
74^! ^7653819.99994!
>80|i 1.75808(19.999931 o
' Sin
Tans
89 Degrees.
1 Degree.
Sm. I DU.,; Tang.
0:8.24186
1:8.24903/ ^
6|8-?83M653
7|8-28977
818.29621
9i8.30255
10 8.30879^,6
20
644
634
624
8-3i4950o8
8-3 2I03! rgg
3 8’8270259o
14 8-33 292^
^5 8-338755 3
168.34450
17 8.35018
88.35578
98.36131
8.36678
3°
8.37217
8-3775°
8.38276
8.38796
8.39310
68.39818
8.40320
8.40816
98.41307
8.41792
31
575
568
?6o
553
547
539
533
526
520
5M
508
5° 2
496
491
485
480
474
470
8.42272
328.42746 ^
843680 464
8-44i39
368.44594
378.45044
38845489
398-4593°
40846366
41 8.46799^2^
459
455
45°
445
441
436
'433
8.47226
8-47650i4I9
8.48069
8.48485
1424
416
411
408
4°4
8.24192
8.24910
8.25616
8.26312
8.26996
8.27669
8.28332
3.28986
8.29629
8.30263
8.20888
8-3i5°5
8.32112
8.32711
8.33302
8.33886
8.34461
8.3 5029
8.3559°
8.36143
8.36689
8-37229
8.37762
3.38289
3.38809
8-3 93 2 3
8.4080
8.41321
8.41807
46:8.48896
47:8.493°4'
488.497oSj
49;8.s0i°8i 6
50|8.5Q504;gQ3
5ij8.508971 0
52;8.5i287:p6
538-51673382
548-52°55|379
5j,8-52434 375
568.52810
57'8.53>83! S
58,8-53 5 5 ^ 67
598-539^9 3^3
60:8.54282 -
Dif. i Cot
Coi.
718
706
696
684
673
663
654
643
634
625
617
607
599
591
584
575
568
561
553
546
24°
533
527
52°
5J4
5°9
502
S.20822
3*4°334 496
491
486
480
475
47°
464
460
455
45°
446
441
437
43 2
428
424
8.42287
8.42762
S.43232
8.43696
8.44156
8.44611
8.45061
8-455°7
8.45948
8.46385
11.75808 9-99993 6o
11-75°9°:'9-9999359
11-74383 9-99993 58
9-9999357
9.9999256
9-9999 2 55
11.71668’9.9999254
11.72004
n.72331
11.71014
11.70371
11.69737
11.69112
11.68495
11.67888
11.67289
11.66698
11.66114
l9-99992:53
19.999925 2
19-99991 5°
11.62771
11.62238
11.61711
11.61191
11.60677
11.60168
11.59666
II-59I7°
11.58679
11.58193
9-9998942!
9.9998941
9.9998840
11-65539! 9-99989;t4
n.64971
11.64410
11.63857
H.633U
8.46817
8-47245
8-47669; 20
8-48°89!lJ?
«-485°5|/i2
9-9999149
9.9999048
9.9999047
9-9999°;46
9-9999°45
9.99988
9-99988
9-99987
9.99987
9.99987
9.99986
9.99986
9.9998632
9.9998531
9.99985
II-577I3 9-99985
H.5723S 9.99984
11.56768 9.99984
11.56304
ii-55844
ii-55389
n-54939
n-54493
II-54°52
11-53615
8-489i7|40S
849325!304
8-49729(4C)x
8.5oi3°,2o7
8-30827i393
1 i-53i83
II-52755
II-52331
11.51911
11.51495
9.9998
9.99983 25
>•99983
9.9-9983
9.99982
19.99982
19.99982
24
i2°
22
21
20
9.99981
9.99981
9.99981
9.99980
9.99980
11-5 1083 9.99979
8.50920
8-5i3i°!
139°
86
8-5l696Uf,,
8'52°79:38o
I !.5067 0
H.50271
II.4987O
11-49473
11.49080
11.48690
11.48304 9.99977
9.99979
9.99979
9.99978
9-99978
9.99977
9.99977
8.52459
376
111.47921
I1-47541
8-5283547,
JO ^^7 0
8.53578ip7
8-543°8l:
Cof.
Cot.
11.47165
1146792
1146422
11.46055
IM5692
Tang.
9.99976
9.999
9-99975
9-99975
9-999741
9-99974
9-99974
! Sin. 1
88 Degrees.
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
L
’
Sin. I Dif.
0iQ'54?8 360
18.54642!^
2 8.54999.,-,
3(8-55354i,,i
€-«7°5i49
5i8-56o54;346
6|8*56400„4,
7;8-56743^i
8,3-57034:3,^
11 8*58
12
1.8.5841-133?
89:
I9j,2a
i3!8-58747!325
148,590724^
i5;8-59395i^o
i6!^97I3|3i8
17 8.6oo334 6
18 8.60349!3 ^
8.60662.^3
8-6o973i3n9
8.612821^
228.615893 7
038.6.89J°f
24 8.62i96|-JOI
8-62497 298
68.62795
27 8.63091
8.63385
8.63678
8.63968
8.64256
328.6.1543
8.648
8.6 ‘
:i 10
2 Degrees.
Ting. | Dif.
33
34,
33)8^5391
3618.65670
378-65947
38.8.66223
39'8.66497
4o|S.66769
41,8.67039
42'8.673
43,8-67575
4 #-67841
4^8.68104^^
468.68367 6o
478.68627!^
488.6888^ 1
4918.69144 2->c6
5-0-8.69400 2"
51 8.696541
528.69907 33
538*7OI592ro
548.70409 -
55!8^o658249
568.709051 ^
578.71151^
c8 8.7'395,;
c9'.71638
608.71880' 4
,|8-343o8!.6
8.54669'30.
8-550273^
8-5538274
18.5573434
^3.£f6
■8.56429';^
'8-56773!j4T
;q'57II4^38
j8*57452;,,6
8-5 7 7 88 3 3
33o
320
326
8-5942B^3
Cot.
8.58451
58779
;8.59io5
8-59749!,I9
8.60068 3 ^
18.60384 ®
:8.6069s314
[8.61009
8.61319
\S.61626
[8.61931
18.62234
i8-^2535
8.62834
!8.63i 31
8.63426
8.63718
18.64000
8.64298
18.64585
8.64870
18.65154]
8-6 543 5
8.65715
8.65993
8.66269
[8.66 545
8.66816
8.67087
8.67356
8.67624
8.67890
[8.68x54
8.68417
8.68678
8.68938
8.69196
8-69453
8.69708
8.69962
8.70214
8.7046 5
32£2iS
8.70962 ^
8-7I2°8 245
: 8-7I453:244
[8.71697:^
18.71940
I Cof. 1
Cot.
x 1.45692;
11-4533 ^
11-44973
9.9997460
Cof.
9-99973
9-99973
11.44618 9.99972
11.44266
II-439I7
11-4357I
11.43227
x 1.42886
xx.42548
11.42212
9.99972
9-9997I|55
9-9997 ll54
9-99970j53
9.9997052
9.99969 5 x
'9-99969 5°
11.418799.9996849
11.41549 9.99968 48
11.41221
11.4089 c
x 1.4057 2
311
310
3°7
3°5
3°3
201
299
297
295
292
291
289
287
285
284
281
280
278
276
274
273.
271
269
268
266
264
263
261
260
258
257
255
254
252
251
249
11.40251
II-39932!9-9996643
ix.396169.9996542
II-393°2
xx-3899i
11.38681
1 i-38374
11,38069
ii-37766
•37465
.37x66
11.36869
II-36574
11.36282
11.35991
19.99961
i9-9996o
19.99960
9-99959
9-99959
lI-357°
II-354I5
xi.34846
1 i-34285
11-34°07
II-3373I
11.3318,
ii-32644
11-32376
x 1.32110
11.31846
^-3i583
11.31322
x 1.31062
11.3080/j
11-3°547
11.30292
11.30038
11.29786
II-29535 9-99944
11.29286
11.29038
11.28792
9.9996747
9-99967,46
9.9996745
[9.9996644
'9.9996441
:9-999644°
[9-99963
,9-99963
9.99962
;9-99962
[9.99961
11-34565,9-99956
39
38
37
6
i3
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
'9-99955 24
9-99955 23
'9-99954
|9-99958
9-99958
9-99957
9-99956
II-33457 [9-99954
9-99953
1I-329I3[9-99952
I9-99952
9-99951
9-99951
9-9995°
20
^9
18
16
9.9994914
,9-99949 J3
9-99948;12
9-99948!11
9-99937 10
:9-99946j
9.99946:
9-99945!
22
9.99944
9-99943
9.99942
xx.28547 9.99942
11.28303I9.99941
1 x.28o6oj9.99940[
87 T)egrees.
Tang, t' Sin.
' | Sin. | Dif.
0i8-7i88o|24o
I 8.72I20L,^
2j8'72359!2?8
3!8-72597 3
4;8-72834
5|8-73°69
6|8-733°3
7j8-73 535
818.73767
6:8-73997
io!8.74226
118.74454
128.74680
13 8.74906
i48-75i3°
i58-75353
i6i8.75575
i7|8-75795
18 8.7601
198.76234
208.76451
8.76667
8.76883
238.77097
24 8.773 xo
258.77522
237
235
234
232
222
230
229
228
226
226
224
223
222
220
220
219
2x7
216
216
214
2x3
2X2
268-77733
27 8-77943
8.78x52
8.78360
8.78568
8.78774
8.78979
33 8-79i83
8.79386
8.79588
8.79789
8.79990
8.80189
8.80388
8.80585
8.80782
8,80978
8.81I73
8.8X367
41
42
43
44
4 5 8.8156c
468.81752
8.81944
8.82134
8.82324
8.82513
8.82701
8.828SS;
8.83075
8.83261
558.83446
568.83630
578.83813
588.83996
98.84177
60 8.84358
Cof.
3 Degrees.
Tang. Dif. Cot
8.7194c
8.72181
8.72420
241
239
8-72659
8.72896 JN
8.73132 “3
234
234
232
23I
229
229
8.73366
8.73600
8.73832
8.74063
,8-74292
8-7452C.27
8'7«7422j
8-75*99 ,4
8-75423
209
208
208
206
205
204
203
202
201
201
X99
199
197
x97
195
X94
J93
192
192
190
190
189
188
187
187
186
185
184
183
183
181
181
8-75645
8.75867
8.76087
8.76306
8-7652
8.76742
8.76958
8-77173
8.77387
8.77600
8.77811
8.78022
8.78232
8.78441
8.78649
8.78855
8.79061
8.79266
8.7947
8.79673
8.79875
8.80076
8.80277
8.80476
8.80674
| 8.80872
8.81068
8.81264
8.81459
8.81653
I99
198
198
196
196
!95
194
J93
192
192
190
190
189
188
188
186
186
185
8-83732,1
8.83916: g4
8.84100 *4
8.84282^
8.84464102
8.81846
8.82038
8.8223c
8.824201
8.82610
8.82799
8.82987
8.83x75,
8.83361
8-83547
11.28060
11.27819:9.99940159
11.27 c8
11-2734I
11.27104
11.26868
Col.
9.9994000
9-99939\58
9-99938;57
9-99938,56
9-99937155
11.26634 9.99936154
11.26400 9.99936153
11.26168 9.99935I52
**.^-937 9-99934i5>
1I-257o8i:9-99934!5°
11-25479li9-99933j49
11.252529.99932,48
11,2562619.9993247
224
222
222
220
219
219
217
216
215
2x4
213
211
211
2X0
209
208
206
206
205
204
203
20 2
II.2480I 9.9993I
II-24577i:9-99930
46
45
II-24355j[9-9992944
II-24I33[9-9992943
ii.23Qi3i[9.9992842
11.23694I19.9992741
11-23475 9-9992640
11.23258
11.23042
11.22827
11.226x3
11.22400
11.22189
11.21978
11.21768
11.21559
II-2I35I
ix.21145
II-20939
11.20734
1 x.20530
XI.20327
11.201 25
11.1992/j
II.I9723
IX.19524
11.19326
11.19128
11.18932
11.18736
11.18541
11.18347
11.18154
11.17962
11.17770
11.17580
XI.17390
11.17201
XI.17013
11.16825
11.16639
11-16453 9-99898,
9.9992639
9.99925
9.99924
9.9992336
9-99923 35:
34
33
32
31
3°
9.99922
9.999
9.99920
9.99920
19.999x9
29
9.99918
9.9991728
9.999x7
9.999x6
9-999I5
9.99914
9-999I3
9.999x3
9.99912
9-99911
9.99910
9.99909
9.99909
9.99908
9.99907
9.99906
9.99905
9.99904
9.99904
9.99903
9.99902
9.99901
9.99900
9-99899
11.16268:9.99898 4
11.16084:9.99897 3
11.15900! 9.99896 2,
11.157x8,9.9989^ i
ii-i5536:9-99894 *
Crt.
Tang.
Sin
86 Degrees,
O 2
IO7
'io 8-
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
4 Degrees.
Dif. I l ang. |Dif.
8.84464
8.84646
|8.84826i
[8.85006
,8.85185
8.85363
22
'15
'15
'!'
171
169
169
169
167
168
166
166
165
164
164
163
163
162
162
160
 161
8.89625
8-89784159
8-89943 ! 59
8.9OIO2
8.90260
568.90417
37i8-9°574
388.90730
8.86301
8.86474
3 8.86645
8.86816
5 8.86987
i6'8.87i56
i7!8-87325
818.87494
i9!8.87661
208.87829
8.87995
8.88161
23 8.88326
248.88490
258.88654
26 8.88817
8.88980
8.89142
8:89304
8.89464
8.8554c
8-85717
8.8 3893
8.86069
8.86243
8.86417
8.86591
8.86763
8.86935
8.87106
8.87277
8.87447
8.87616
8.87785
8-87953
8.88120
8.88287
8.88453
8.88618
8.88783
398.90885
40 8.91040
418.91195
428.9i349
43,8.91502
j44|8.91655
|45j8.91807
46:8.91959
47 8.92110
4818.92261
4918.92411
5018.92561
5118.92710
52I8.92859
53j8-93007
54|8-93i54
55i8*93301
568.93448
57i8'93594
58,8.9374°
59.j8.93 885
608.94030
158
i57
'51
'56
'55
'55
'55
I54
I53
I53
!52
152
J51
I51
I5°
149
'49
148
J47
147
I47
146
146
I45
Hi
182
180
180
179
178
177
'll
176
76
'14
'14
'14
172
I72
il'
171
170
169
169
168
167
167
166
65
i65
^-15536,
II-I5354
Cot.
Coi.
9-99894
9.99893
I i.i5i74i9.99892
II •i4994!'9-9989i
11.1481] i9.9989i
11.14637
.14460
11.14283
11.14107
1 '-'595'
"•'5151
9.99890
9.9988954
9.9988853
9.99887 52
9.99886 51
9.9988550
11-13583
11-13409
11.13237
11.13065
11.12894
8.88948
8.89111
8.89274
8.89437
8.89598
8.89760
8.89920
8.90080
8.90240
8.90399
11.12723
1I-I2553
11.12384
11.12215
T 1.12047
II.Il88o
II.II7I3[9
"•"541
11.11382
9.9988449
9.99883 48
9.9988247
9.99881 46
9.9988045
9.9987944
9.9987943
9.9987842
9.9987741
9.9987640
9-99875 39
8-9°557
8.90715
18.90872
8.91029
8.91185
65
163
163
163
161
162
160
160
160
'59
158
158
11.11217 9.99871
11.11052
11.10889
11.10726
11.10563
11.10402
11.10240
11.10080
11.09920
11.09760
11.09601
Cof.
8.91340
S-9I495
18.91650
[8.91803
8.91957
8.92110
8.92262
8.92414
8.92565
8.92716
8.92866
8.93016
8*93165
8-933t3
8.93462
8.93609
8-93 7 56
8.93903
8.94049
8.94195
H7
I57
Ii6
x55
Hi
Hi
H3
154
x53
'52
H2
li1
H1
H°
H°
'49
148
149
T47
147
147
146
146
Cot.
9-99873
9.99872
9.9987034
9.9986933
9.99868 32
9.99867 31
9.9986630
11.09443
11.09285
11.09128
11.08971
'99874 38
9.99865
'9.99864
I9-99863
|c).pp862
19.99861
n.08815 9-99856
9-99^55
11.08660
11.08505
11.08350
11.08197
11.08043
9.99860
9-99859
9.99858
9-99857
9.99854
[9-99853
9.99852
9.99851
11.07890
11.07738
11.07586
11-0743 5
11.07284
II-°7I34
11.06984
11.0683 q
11.0668
11.06538
;9-99850
9.99848
9.99847
’9.99846
9.99845
9.99844
9.99843
19.99842
9.99841
9-99840
11.06391 9.99839
11.06244 9.99838
11.0609719.99837
II-°595Ij9-99836
11.05805! 9.99834
Tang, jj Sin.
85 Degrees.
5 Degrees.
Sin.
08.94030
18.94174
2 8-94317
38.94461
Dif*.; Tang. I Dif.
8.94603
8.94746
4
J
6 8.94887
8.95029
88.95176
8.95310
8-9545°
12
!i6
8.95589
8.95728
138.95867
148.96005
H 8.96143
8.96280
178.96417
188.96553
19 8.96689
8.96825
8.96960
22 8.97095
8.97229
24 8.97363
258.97496
26
27
28
29
3°
8.97629
8.97762
8.97894
8.98026
8.98157
I44
x43
x44
142
143
141
142
I4I
140
140
H9
H9
H9
H8
x38
'51
'51
136
136
136
Hi
Hi
H4
H4
'55
'55
'55
132
8-9434° ,Vr
8.94485
8.94630
8-94773
8-949i7
8.95060
8.95202
8-95344
8.95486
8.95627
|8-95767
8.95908
8.96047
8.96187
8.96325
8.98288
8,98419
8.98549
34 8.98679
35 8.98808
368.98937
7 8.99066
388.99194
8.99322
8.9945°
8-99577
428.99704
8.9983°
8.99956
9.00082
9.00207
9.°°332
489.00456
9.00581
9.00704
8.96464
[8.9660
'8.96739
8.96877
8-97°H
8.9715°
8.97285
8.97421
8-97556
8.97691
8.98490
8.98622
8-98753
8.98884
8.99015
51 9.00828
529.00951
9.01074
9.01196
9.01318
53
54
55
569.01440
579.01561
589.01682
9.01803
9-OI923j
8.97825
8-97959
ia2 [8.9809
18.98225
18-98358
H1
H°
H°
129
129
129
128
128
128
127
127
126
126
126
I25
I25
124
125
123
124
123
123
122
I45
Hi
x43
H4
H3
142
142
142
'4'
140
'4'
'59
140
H8
H9
H8
'51
H8
136
'51
'55
136
Hi
Hi
H4
H4
'55
'55
'55
152
152
Cot.
11.05805
11.05660
11.05515 ^ ^
"•°5510\9-99^5'
11.05227
11.0/1940
11.04798
11.04656
1 i-°45I4
Coi’.
9.99834
9-99833
9.99832
1
,[9-9983°^
11.05083 [9.99829 55,
9.9982854
9.99827 53
9.9982552
9.9982451
11.04373''9-99823 5°
9.9982249
n.°4233
11.04092,
II-°3953
11.03675
n-QSiS6,
xi-°3398[
11.03261
11-°3I23
11.02987
8-99H5
8.99275
8.99405
8-99534
8.99662
8.99791
8-99919
9.00046
9.00174
9.00301
122
9.00427
9-°°553
9.00679
9.00805
9-°°93°
121
121
ii 20
Cof.
9.9982148
9.9982047
11.03-813 9.9981946
9.9981745
9.9981644
9.9981543
9.9981442
9.99813 41
9.9981240
11.02850'
11.0271
11.02579:
11.02444
11.023091,9.99806
11.02175
11.02041
11.01908
ii-oi775
11.01642'
9-oi°55
9.01179
9-OI3°3!
9.01427!
9.° 155°'
9-oi673!
9.01796
9.01918
9.02040
9.02162
H1
'5'
'5'
150
H°
H°
129
128
129
128
127
128
127
126
126
126
126
I25
I25
124
124
124
123
123
I23
122
11.01510,
11.01378*
9.9981039
5 9.9980938
9.9980837
9.99807 36
9.9980434
9-998°3 33
9.9980232
9.9980131
9.99800 30
35
9.99797
11.0124719.99796
11.01116,9.99795
11.0098519.99793
9.9979829
28
27
26
25
11.00855 9.99792
11.0072519.99791
ii-°°595'9-9979°
11.0046619.99788
11.003389.99787
11.002099.99786
11.00081,9.99785
i°-99954 9-99783
10.99826:9.99782
10.99699j9.9978!
i°-99573|9-9978o
10.99447 9.99778
10.99321 9.99777
10.99195 9.99776
10.99070 9.99775
10.98945 9.99773
10.98821
10.98697
io-98573!9-99769
122
122
10.98450
10.98327
10.98204
10.98082
10.97960
9.99772
9.99771
9.99768
19.99767
,9.99765
I9.99764
i9-99763
io-9783819-9976i
Cot.
84 Degrees.
Tang.
Sin.
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
6 Degrees.
6:9.02639
79-°2757
89.02874
99.02992!;^ I9.C3242:
id9-03I09TT4 !!9-°336_l
n 9.03226 6 19-03479
129.03342 6 !9.o3597
139.03458 !i6 j 9-°37 x4
49-03574 it6
Sin.
9.01923
9.02043
2I9.02163
319.02283
4l9.024O2
5I9.01520
Dit.
120
120
120
II9
118
119
118
117
Tang, j Dif.
I9.02162
'9.0228312I
19.02304
;9‘02525 120
19.02643,2,
19.02766 l
1j9.o2885l
9.03005
118 9-03i24!
Cot.
Cof.
is 9-03690
69.03805
i79-03920
189.04034
! 9 9.O4149
209-04262
21
b-043 76
s'2 9.04490
239.04603
249-04715
23-9.04828
379-0^°.o3
58l9'°«3^‘=3
S99-°84f 10,
6019.08589
! Cof.
115
H5
H4
115
IJ3
1 x4
1T4
1 *3
112
IT3
112
269-04940 II2
279.05052 II2
289-°5164 XII
299-°5275iii
3° 9-053^° ! j x
3i9‘°5497 ,IO
329'0.56°7,IO
339'°37j7 [I0
349-°j827IIO
3J2£M7109
369.06046,^
3^9.06155 io^
389.06264108
399.06372 IO
109.06481 10l
4l9'°^8T‘°7
429-06696,08
439-06804 ;°7
449-06911,07
4j9-07Qi8 ,06
■,6,9-071 24,o7
479-°723i lo6
48,9-07337,05
49l9-07442,0g
5o9-07548 ,o5
5i9-°7653 ,OJ
529.07758 o
539.07863
j9-03832
9.03948
n.04065
9.04181
9-°4297
9.04413
9.04528
i 9-04643
19.04758
9.04873
9.04987
9.05101
9.05214
9.05328
9.05441
9-05553
9.05666
9.05778
9.05890
:9.o6oo2
I9.06113I
19.06224
l9.o6335
9.06445
9.06556
9.06666
9-o6775
9.06885
9.06994
9.07103
9.0721 x
9.07320
59.07428
9-07536
9.07643
9.07751
9.07858
9.07964
9.08071
9.08177
9.08283
9.08389
9-o8495
9.08600
9.08705
,9.08810
19.08914
I9
120
up
xi8
1x9
118
118
1x7
118
xi6
1x7
116
116
116
TI5
^ ^ 5
JI5
115
XX4
1x4
“3
114
IJ3
112
113
112
112
112
in
in
in
110
in
110
109
110
109
109
108
9
108
108
107
108
107
106
107
106
106
106
106
!05
!05
*05
104
10-97355
io-97234
10.97115
10.96995
9.99756
9-99755
io.97838i9-9976i|6o
io-977i7i9-9976o59
10.97596 9.99759
10.97475 9-99757
fj
56
55
54
9-99753
„  |9-99752 53
10.96876 9.99751]5
10.96758'q.99749I'5 1
10.96639I9.99748150
7 Degrees
Sin.
10.965 2Ij9.99747)49
',110.96403119.99745148
I0.96286jj9.99744 47
IO.96168I9.9974246
10.96052)19.9974145
Io-95935|9-9974044
10.95819'9.99738 43
io.95703ii9-99737 42
IO-95587 9-9973641
10.95472
10-95357
10.95242
10.95127
10.95013 {9-
.04.800 Q.
9-99734
9-99733
9-99731
10.94899
10.94786
10.94672
10-94559
io.94447
iQ-94334
10.94222
10.94110
10.93998
:9-99727
35
9.99726
9.99724
9-99723
9.997 2 x
9-99 7 20
I9.99718129
9-99717 28
19.9971627
10.9388719.99714 26
10.9377619-99713
  25
10.93665(9.99711 24
io.93555
xo-93444
10-93334
10.93225
9.9971023
9-997°8
59.99707
;9-997°5
10.93115
10.93006 (9.99702
10.92897
10.92789
10.92680
10.92572
10.9246^
10.92357
10.92249
10.92142
10.92036
10.91929
9.99704
9.99701
9.99699
9.99698
9.99689
„ . ^ 9.99687
xo.91823 9.99686
io.9i7i7,;j9.996B4
10.9161 iji9.99683
9.99696
9.9969
9.99693
9.99692
9.99690
22
21
20
!9
18
17
16
Li
x4
r3
Cot.
10.91505 9.99681| 4
10.9140019.99680; 3
10.912951(9.99678 2
10.911909.99677. 1
10.91086(9.99675) o
Tang. 1 Sin. 1
09.08589
1(9.08692
29-o8795
39.08897
49.08999
59.09101
Dif.
103
103
102
102
102
101
69.0920:2 2
79-°9304!IOi
89-o9405!ioi
99-°95°6‘!ioo
io9.09oc6|TnT
Tang. | Dif. | Cot
83 Degrees.
69.10205
I7|9-I0304
8(9.10402
x9'9.io50i
20(9.10599
9.10697
9.10795
9.10893
9.10990
259.11087
269.11184
27*9.11281
28(9.11377
299.11474
309.1x570
419.11666
11761
9-ii857
9.11952
9.12047
,9.089141
9.090191,
9.09x23
9.09227
9.09330
9-°9434
9-09537,
9.09640
9.09742
9.09845
9-Q9947
9.10049
g.101 so
(9.I0252
9-io353
9-1Q454
9-io555
i9.xo656
9.10756
9.10856
(9.10956
10.91086
ic.9098'1
10-90877
10.90773
10.90670
10.90566
10.90463
Xo.9036o
10.902581*9.99663
10.90155 9.99661
1^9005319.99659
10.89951
10.8985c
10.89748
10.89647
10.89546
10.89445
10.89344
10.89244
45
44
38(9.12331
399-i2425
4o9-i25i9
219.12612
9.12706
9.12799
449.42892
9.12985
9-I3539
529-i363°
539-I3722
54i9-I38l3
559-I39°4
56(9.13994
57i9-i4o85:
58i9-I4I75
59(9.14266
60(9.14356
Cof.
94
94
93
94
93
93
93
93
93
92
92
92
92
91
92
91
91
9°
91
90
91
90
q.i 10 s6
9-I1I55
9-11254
9-II353
9-1145 2
9-1155I
9.11649
9-1174
9.H845
9-11943
(9.12040
'9.12138
,9.12235
:9.12332
9.12428
;9^2525
;9.i262'i
'g.i 2717
(9.12813
'9.12909
;9-I3°o4
:9-I3099
9-I3194
9.13289
9-I3384
'9.x 347 8
9-I3573
9.13667
9.13761
9-I3854
9-13948
9.14041
9.14x34
9.14227
9-I4320
9.1441
9.14504
9-I4597
9.14688
9.14780
Cot.
99
99
99
99
99
98
98
98
98
97
98
97
97
96
97
96
96
96
96
95
95
95
95
95
94
95
94
94
93
94
93
93
93
93
92
92
93
91
92
 y 11
10.89044
10.8894419.99642
10.8884.5 (9.99640^
(10.88746(9.996383'
(10.88647 9.99637 3<
10.8854819.996353,
'.88449I9.99633
.883 si Q.99632
10
10.88351I9.99632
10.88253J9.99630
10.88155I9.99629 3
10.88057(19.99627'
10.8796c’9.99625
10.87862(9.99624
10.87765,19.99622(27
10.87668
10.87572
10.87475
10.87379
10.87283
10.87187
10.87091
9.99620(26
9.99618(25
9.996x7124
9.9961523
9.996i3'22
9.9961 2(21
9.9961 Oj£0
10.86996
10.86901
<9.9960^9
(9.9960718
10.8680619.99605(17
10.86711:9.99603 16
x4
£3
10.86616l9.9960!
10.86522(9.99600
10.86427(9.99598
10.86333'(9.99596
10.86239
10.86146
10.86052
10.85956
10.85866
10.85773
10.85680
10.85588
10.85496
10.85403
10.8531
10.85220
Tang.
9-99595
9-99593
9-99 591
(9.99589
9.99588
9.99586
9-99584
9-99582
9.99581
9-99579
'9-99577
(9-99575
Sin.
12
!2 Degrees.
3C9 1
I ID
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
9-M3 56 8
i|9-M445
2 9-M535
3 9.14624
49-M7M
59.14803
8 Degrees.
D. ^
Sin. jD. j Tang.
“9^4780
9.14872^5
9-M963
9-I5°54
9-15M5
9.15236
fis-.-lSpigo
79.1498° y
89.15069!^
ioj9£5245u8
ii|9'i5333|88
12:9.15421
I3i9,I550^
M9-i5596
Mb-15683
169.1577°'
i79-i5857 87
18 9-15944!86
i99.i6o3o86
209.16116^
21)9.16203^
2219.16289
23 9-i6374
249.16460
259.16545
26
27y.iu/iUjo
289.i68oiJq-1
9.1663
9.16716!
9.16886
9.16970
9-I7055
9-I7I39
9.17
9-I73°7 8
9-I7391 So
ojT-88-*
9-1 ' :8 s
9-I764i83
9*177 24 83
9^7807^
9.178908^:
8-2!
91
91
91
91
91
9-15327 no
9-r54I7qi
9’lSSof90
,9-M598Iqo
'9-13688^
90
89
9-M777
9.15867
9-I595^
9-16046
9-I^x35
9.16224
9.16312
9.16401
9.16489
9-i6577
9.16665
9-I(>753
9.16841
9.16928
9.17016
9-I7I°3
9.1719b
9-I7277
9-x7363
9.17450
9-17536
9.17622
9.17708
9-I7794
9.17880
9-i7965
9.18051
9-i8i36^
b.18221
19.18306
9-I7973
9*i8o55 g
9-i8i37
9.18220
9.18391
469.18302
47|9-i8383 8
48.9-i8465 8,
499-t8547'8i
50)9.18628
51:9.1870981
529.18790 8 j
53j9-l887I)8i
4i9-i8952,8i
55j9-I9033:8c 9-I95^1
56)9.19113^ 9.19643!
57:9-i9i93;8o
58:9.19273180
599-I9353l8o
60)9.19433!
Cof.
9-i8475 Q
9.i8c6o85
9.18644
9.18728
9.18812
9.18896
9-i8979 n8
9.19063^4
9.i9i46;®3
Cot.
Cof.
10.85220! 9.99 C7 t'6o
10.85128:19.99574:59
IO-85°37i|9-99572!58
10.84946^9.99570:57
10.S4855r9.99568 56
10.84764
I9-84^73j
10.84583:
10.84492
10.84402!
10.84312
9-99566 55
9-99565;54
9-99563 53
9.99561
9-99559
9-99557
10.84223 "g.gg 3 c6
IO-84x33 9-99554
10.8404419.99552
IO-83954 9-9955°
10.83865
10.83776
10.83688
io-83599
io-83511
10-83335
io-83247
io-83i59
10.83072
9-9954845
9.9954644
9-99545
9-99543
9-99541
9-99539
9-99537
9-99535
9-99533
9-99532
10.82984 9-99530
10.82897
10.82810
10.82723
10.82637
10.82550!
10.82464!
10.82378)
10.82292)
I0.822c6;
10.82120
10.82035.
10.81949
10.81864
10.81779
10.81694!
9.99528
9.99526
9-99524
9.99522
9.99520
9.995x8
9-995x7
9-99515
9-995x3
9.99511
9.99509
9-99507
9-99505
9-99503
9-99501
10.81609; 9.99499
10.81525II9.99497
10.81440)9.99495
10.8x356 9.99494 16
10.81272:9.99492 15
10.8x188
10.81104
10.8x021
10.80937
9-9949°|I4
9.99488.13
9.99486,12
9.9948411
10.80854 9.9948240
9.i9229|oO!xo.8o77i I9.99480
10.8068819.99478
10.80605 9.99476
10.8052219.99474
10.80439)9.99472
,9-i93i2|q3
9.19395*3
9-i9478!®3
i2
10.80357,9.99470
9-i9725!q^io.8027519.99468
9.19807^210.8019319.99466
9.198896 2jxo.801111)9.99464
A19971 f2jx 0.80029,19.9946 2
Cot.
Tz
Sin.
81 Decrees.
9 Degrees.
17 9.20768 *77! 9.21341 ^
i8|9.2o845 77; 9.21420 ^
19I9.2092277 9.214996
Sm. iD.ii
ang.
:D
Ai8
|9-20053 ;g:
f n d n r d /i i..
09-i9433laJ9-i997I!82
i9-i95‘379 9-20oj3:8l
2 9-r9592j8oj!^'20I34:82
49-i975i:79 9'20297 gs
5|9-I9^30!4|9-2037^i:
69.199091 19.20459!,
7|9-I99®^ 4 9'20540j:
79.19900'' 9.2054,
8;9.20067 9.2062
a'9-20145 78; 9.2070
9.2099977 9,2157!
__ 9.21076^;9.2165
229.2115311
> „ o r ^ /-a
77 9.2173679
76 9.21814
2747Q
239.21229/69.21S14
24:9.2I3o677(9.21893
25|9-2X38276 9.21971
19
2519-21382^ 9.2197/ 7^
269.2x458;' 9.22049 '
279-2I534M 9-22127 M
28;9.2i6io f 19.22205 7°
299.2168575:9.22283 7°
309.21761 76,9.22361 78
9.21836^^ 9.22438 77
9*21912 7°; 9.225! _
33 9.21987 75; 9.22593 77
349.22062'4. 9.22670 77
359-22137 7^j 9.22747 77
369.22211 '4; 9.22824 7 7
379.22286 73:9.22901 77
38:9.22361 73; 9.22977 76
39,9-22435'] 9.2305477
409.225099.23130 7«
419.22583 H 9.23206 7
42,9.22657 74.9.23283 77
43j9-22731 74:9.23359 7°
44‘9.22805 7t! 9-23435 7°
. - - ^^0‘-q/0,o.'2^CTo7j
439-22878 73; 9.23510 75
46 9.2295 2 A 9.23 586^
47 9*23025 9.23661 75
489.2309873,9.23737/0
49;9-23i7i C19-238x2 75
50)9.23244 '5;9.23887 /5
5I9-23317^ 9.2396273
529-23390'J 9.24037 73
ca'g.23462 72.9.24112 73
54:9-23533 73 9.2418674
3 39.23607 72 9.24261 75
3 39.23007 / - 9.24201 /0
5^9*23679^i 9*24333 74
579-2373273)9.24410 73
589.23823 7X| 9.24484 74
599-23895 ' 9.24558 74
60,9.23967:72,9.24632174
i~' Coir hl_cbr'“1“
Cot.
Cof.
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
1
10
10
10
10
10.
10.
10.
xo.
10.
10.
10.
10.
xo.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
xo.
10.
10.
10.
10.
IC.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10
10.
.80029'9.99^62'SO
79947'9-9946o|59
79866,9.9945858]
79784 9-99456
•79703 j9-99334
.796229.99452
79541 9-994 5C
.7946
79379
79299
79218
•79I38
.79058
78978
78898
.78818
•78739.
78659
.78 380
.78301
.78422;
•78343
•782649.99417
78186
77795
77717
77484
77407
7733°
77253
77176 9-99388
77099
77023
76946
76870
76794
767x7
76641
76565
76490
764x4
76339
76263
76188
76113
76038
75963
j7!
56
33
54
53
52
5
5°
9-99448
9.99446
9-99444
9-9944 2
9.99440
9.99438
9.99436
9-9943446
9-9943 2i45
9,9942944
9.99427
9-99425
9-99423
9.99421
9.99419
9-994x537
36
.78107; 9.99413
78029 9.99411
7793i!9-99409
77873,9-99407
9.99404
9.99402
77639)9-994oo
77562 9.99398
9.99396
9-99394
9-9939
9.99390
9-99385
9-99383
9.99381
9-99379
9-99377
9-99375
9.99372
9-99370
19-99368
9.99366
9.99364
9.99362
9-99359
9-99351
9-99355
9-99353
758889.9935.
758i4;9-99348
75739 9-99346
75665'9.99344
7559° 9-99342
755x6; 9-9934°
75442:9.99337
15368'9-99335
Ti
Sin.
80 Degiees.
111
LOGARITHMIC SINF.S AND TANGENTS.
6'9-2396772|9-2463j74
i 9-24°39T 9-24706^
29-24110K :9-24779iH
39-^i8.P ?9-M853:^
4 9-24253i7 j 9-24926^
5;9-24324!7t
^6,9.24 39 A,
79.24466/o
8 9-24536|T
t o Degrees.
biii.
D. j Tang. ;D.j Cot. j Col.
9.25000
9-25°73
9-25i46
9.25219
99.24607T19.25292
10:9.24677 ^l|9-25365
11 9.24748 ' '9.25437
12 9.24818' 1,9.25510
13 9.24888''J9-25382
1419.24958^ 19.2565573
15:9.25028
7°i
70
16,9.25098
i7i9-25i68Z
18,9-25237 A
19 9-25307 A
20 9-25376 A
21 9-25445 6
229.255x4 9
2319-25583 A
,. ./A
25
24 9-2j^-6(,|
9-25721 a-
26 9.25790 68
27
9.25858
289.25927 q
9-25995
9.260636h
9.26131
9.26199
9.26267
6c
. . 9-26335
35 9.26403 a
.!<• -V- ’7
37
9.26470
9.26 ^38
9.266015 6?
9.2667267
9.26739^
9.26806
9.26873
9.27007
9.27073
9-27405 66; 9.28186 69! icv/1814
10.75368:9.9933560
Io.75294 9-99335|59
io.7522ij*9.9933ij58
IO-75I47 9-99328|57
lIo-75°74 9-99326|56
^>10.7500019.99324! C5
73
73
73
72 io-74635
74
IO-74927j9-9S322 54
10.748549.9931953
10.74781'9.99317 52
10.7470819.99315 41
9.26015 72
9.26086 71
^58 72
622971
19.26301 72
'9.26372 71
'9.2644371
68
68
68
68!
9.25727
9-25799
9.25871 72
9-25943
72
9.26514
19-265857
'9.26655 /
9.26726 71
9.2679771
9.26867
I9.2693770
19.27008 Z1
9-27357
19.27427 7°
9.27496 D9
9.27566 7
. 9.27773 09|I0.72227
66 9.2784269110.72158
9-27I4° A9-279I A,9|io-72o89
47 9.27 206 9.27980 094 0.7 20 20
489.2727367 9.2804969:10.71951
66; 9.28117 684 0.71883
10-74563
i°-74490
19.27078 7° 10.72922
9.27148 7O110.72852
10.74418 '9.9930647
IO-74345 9-9930446
xo-74273 9.9930145
10.74201
10.74129
10.74057
10-73985
Io-739I4
•73842
IO-7377I
10.73699
10.736
IO-73557
10.73486
IO-73415
IO-73345
IO-73274
IO-732°3
1 o-73133
io.73°63
10.72992
9-99313
50
9.9931049
!9-993o848
70jio.72712
69
10.72643
IO-72573
I0-72504
9-9929944
9-99297 43
9-99294 42
9.9929241
9.9929040
9.99288 39
9.9928538
9-99283 37
9.99281 36
9.9927835
9.9927634
9-99274 33
9-99 271 32
9.99269 31
9.9926730
9.99264 29
9.99262 28
9.99260 27
9.99257 26
9-99255 25
10.72434
6? |9.27635 69I10.72365
9.26940 67 !9.27704 69|io.72296j 9.99236
9*27471p 9-28254
^J| 9.28323
1
51
52|9-27537
53'9.27602
54:9.27663
55 9-27734
659.2839.
eA2-4'9
4: 1 C.?!?./,
o9,i°.7i677
Oo,IG.71600
08 xo-71541
56:9.27799
5719.2786465 9.2866.
589.27930^9.28730
59 9-27995:^5 9.28798
609.28060,65 9.28865
xri9TiA'7roL°'7I473
79.28595
Cof.
68
,10.71405
IO-7I338
%io-7i27o!
00 10.71202
°7 10.71135
Cot.
'i'ang.
9.99252
9.99250
9.99248
9-99 245
9-99243
9.99241
9.99238
9-99233
9.99231
9.99229
9.99226
9-99224
,9.99221
9-992I9
19-992I7
:9-992I4
9.99212
,9.99209
I9-992Q7
I9-99204
^.99202
!9.992oo
9.99197;
9-99I95!
Sin.
^9 Degrees.
II Degrees.
Sin. D.j Tang. D.1 Cot.
Cof.
09.28060,5 9,2886568
x^^Sx 25 7,9-28933,
29.28190 A 0
3 9-28254^
49*28319g
59.28384
12
9.28448
7 9.28512
9-28577
9.28641
9-28705
9.28769
9.28833
139.28896
J4
!7
9-29I5° A
—m63
18 9.29
19
20
9"29277 62 i9-3oi3o
9-29340 63 |9-30195
9-29403 A|9-3026i
;9-3032
36
9.28960
x 5 9.29024 7
169.29087^
9-2S4664
9-2952962
9-29591 63
9-29654 A
26 9.297165
9-29779 62
9-2984I62
9-299°3 62
o.29966]7
9-30028 62
9.30090 6
9-3oi5i 62
9-302x362
35 9-30275 At
>3033662
379-303986!
389.3045962
39j9-30521
4019.30582
41|9-3o6436i
42,9-307046!
43 9-30765
449.30826
9-29932
9.29998
19.30064
9.29000
9.29067
9-29I34
9201
6 10.71067
6>o.71000
6> o*7093 3
7 10.70866
9.29268
9-29335
,9.29402
9.29468
9-29535
9.29601
9.2966S
9-29734
9.29800
9.29866
9-3°39:
9-30457
9.30522
Io-7II35!:9-99I95
67
67
67
67
66
67
66
67
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
65
66
10.70799
10.70732
10.70665
10.70598
'I0-7053
i9-9919
19.9919c
:9.99i87
9.99185
:9.99i82
;9.99i8o
19-99177
!9,99I75
9.9917251
" / J J ^ t J
11.7046519.99170 50
Io-7039919.9916749
io-70332|9-99i65
10.7026619.99162
10.70200,
10.70134;
6>
t 6q
Io-<i9739;9-9914239
10.6967419.9914038
9-30587
9-30652 -
9.30717 05
9.30782105
9.30846 04
65
64
65
45
9-3J
61
61
60
9-30947,
9.3ioc8;e)I
9.31068^0
499.3x129
50,9-31189
51^.31250
529.8x310
53j9-3I37o
54,9-3143° >
r5!9-3I49oi0°
61
601
61
60
60
60
569.3 * 549,>
57 9.3x609100
58:9-3 i669|Oo 9,32623
59l9.3i728|59! g.^268
60,'9.31
9.30911
9-30975
9.31040
9.31104, 4
9.3x16864
65
64
64
64
64
63
9-3I552 A
9.31616,04
9.3x67903
9-31743
9.31806
I Cof.
9.31870
9-31933
9-3I996j,-
9-32059:,8
19.3212
9-32185
9,32248
9.32311
9-32373
9.32436
9.32498
9.32561
48
9.99160
9-99I5745
10.70068J9.9915544
10.7000219.9915243
10.69936l9.9915042
io.6987o!!9.99i474i
10.6980519.99145 40
10.69609:9.99137
IO-69543j9-99I35
10.69478:9.99132
10.69154
10.69089
10.69025
10.68960
xc.68896
10.68822
10.68767
10.68703
10.68639
10.68575
37
36
>5
10.69413I9.9913034
10.6934819.9912733
io.69283;9.99i2432
10.60218; 9.99122 21
9-99II930
9.9911729
9.99114 28
9.99112 27
9.99109 26
9.99106 25
9.99104 24
9.99101 23
9.99099 22
9.9909621
10.68511,,9.99093 20
io.68448;!9.99C9i 19
10.68384,9.9908818
10.68321
10.68257
10.68194
9.99086,17
9.9908316
9.9908015
10.68004
10.67941
10.67878
10.67815 9.99064
10.67752
10.67689
10.67627
10.67564
10.67502
10.67439
10.67377
6210.67315
9-32747:62]IO-67253
Cut.
1 ang¬
le.681309.990 7 814
10.68067 9.99075I13
9.9907212
9.99070 lx’
9.99067I10
!9.99o62
'9-99059
I9-99056
'9-99054
9.99051
9.99048
9.99046
9.99043
9.99040
Sin.
78 Degrees.
/ <J
TV2
/
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
9.31788
Sin. iD.
9.32747
9-3l847ig 9.32810
9-3i9°7|^ 9-32872
9,3I966j5CQ
9.32025 ^9
59.32084
9-32143
9.32202
8 9.32261
9-3 2319
9-32378
59
59
59[ 9.33180 62
9-32437
129-32495
s 9-32553
14 9.32612
15 9.32670
6 9.32728
79.32786
189.32844
19 9.32902
20 9.32960
2l9-33oi8
229-33075
23 9-33133
249-33I90
259-33248
36 9-33874
37 9-33931
38 9-33987
39 9-34043
40 9.34100
9-332426
5r^ 9-33303 62
58
58
59
12 Degrees.
Tang.
D.
63
62
9-32933
9-32995 62
9-33057 62
I9-33ii96i
269.33305
27 9-33362
28 9.33420
29 9-33477
3° 9-335'34
31 9-33591
329.33647
33 9-33704
349-3376i
35 9-338i8
9-334266
9-33487 6l
59^^
^feo6,:
c8 9-33731 5
58 9-33792 6
58,9-33853 60
58 9-339i36,
58!^32146o
57
58
57
58
57
57
58
57
57
57
56
57
57
57
56
57
9-34034 6
9-34095 60
9-34I55 60
9-34215 6
9-34276 60
9-34330 60
9-34396 60
9-34456 6o
9-34516 6o
9-34576
41 9-34I56
42
43
44
45
[9-34635 60
9.34695 60
9-34755 rQ
9-348M 60
I9-34874 59
59
9-34933
9-34212 6
9-34268 ->2
9-34324 r6
9-34380 56
36 9-34992 59
9-35051 6o
9-35111 m
9-35i 7° 59
9-35229 rQ
9-35288 ‘
9-35347 58
9-35405 c9
9-35464'
46 9-34436
47 9-34491
48 9-34547
Q.^4602
9-34658
49
5°
51
52
53
54
55
9.34713
9-34769
)-34824
9 34879
9-34934
9.34989
_ 9-35044
589-35099
59 9-35I54
6019.35209
oar
55
55
55
55
55
55
55
59
9-35523 ;8
9-3558i
9.35640 rg
9-35698 r9
9-35757 58
9-358i5 58
9-35873 58
Cot.
10.67253
10.67190
10.67128
10.67067
,10.67005
10.66943
Cof.
g.ggo^o'60
9.99038 59
9-99035
^9.99032
'0,99030
l9-99°27
10.66881'9-99024
10.66452 9.99005I47
10.66391
10.6633
10.66269
10.66208
10.66147
10.66087
10.66026
10.65966
10.65905
10.65845
10.65785
10.65724
10.66820
10.66758
10.66697
10.66635
10.66574 9.99011 49
10.66513:9.990
'9.99022
'9.99019
9.99016
9.99013
54
53
52
5i
,50
9.98967
10.65664
10.6 5604
10.65544
10.65484
10.65424:9.98958
9.99002146
9-9900045
9-98997 44
9.9899443
9.98991
9.98989
9.98986
9.98983
I9.98980
9.98978
[9.98975
9-98972
9.9896934
10.65365
10.65305
10.65245
10.65186
10.65126
9.9896432
9.9896! 31
3°
9-9^955 29
9.98953 28
9.98950
9.98947
:9-98944 25
33
10.65067
10.6 5008
10.64949
10.64889
10.64830
10.64771
10.647x2
10.64653
10.64595
9.98941
9.98938
9.98936
9-98933
9.98930
'9
9.98927
I9.98924 18
'9.98921
‘9.98919
10.6453619.98916
10.64477
10.64419 9.98910
10.6436c
10.6430
10.64243
10.64x85
[9-35931 <8
9-35989
9-3^047
9.36105
9.36163
9.36221
sslf&h
Cot.
9.98913
':9-989°7
9.98904
9.98901
9.98898
10.64127*9.98896
10.64069
10.6401 x
10.63953
10.63895
10.63837
19.63779
10.63721
10.63664
Tang.
9.98893
9.98890
9.98887
10
9.98884
!9.98881
|9-9887
9.9887
9.98872
Sin.
Sin.
[D4 Tang.
13 Degrees.
9.35209
9.35263
9.3531
9-35373
^9-35427
59-3548i
69-35536
79-35590
89-35644
99-35698
I09-35752
77 Degrees.
8^9-36452^
^ 9-36509^
54)9.36566 57
54
55|9-366H^
^■’ 9.36681 ^ '
54 9.36738 57
54)9-36795^7
xi 9.35806
129.35860
13 9-35914
1
^49-35968
15 9.36022
69.36075
79.36129
89.36x82
99.36236
20 9.36289
54!
541*
54
54
54
53
54
53
219.36342
229.36395
23 9-36449
249-36502
259-36555
269.36608
27 9.36660
289.36713
299.36766
30 9-36819
319-36871
329.36924
339.36976
349.37028
359-37081
9.36966
9-37023
9.37080 0'
9-371373
9-3 7193
9-37250 6
, 9-37306
^9.373633i
^ 9-37419 „
9-3 74 76 ^
9.37532 f6
9-37588 3
53
53
53
52
53
52
52
53
52
9-37644
9-37700
9-37756
9-3 78”i 2 ^
9-37868 L
9-37924-;6
9.379805
9-38035
369-3713352
379-37i85
389-37237
399.37289
4° 9-37341 ^ 2
52
 56
9-38091 ,6
9.38147
9.38202
9-38257
9-38368 ..
9-38423 rg
9-38479 rr
9-38534 r r
9.38589 53
41 9-37393
42 9.37445 52
43 9-37497 52
449-37549 5
459.37600
469.37652
47 9-377°3u
48 9-37755I5,
499.37806(52
5I|
52
51
:52
i
9-38644 f,
9-38699 5r3
9-387544j
8808 «
55
9-38863
9-38918 „
|9-38972 55
|9-39°27
Cot. I, Cof.
10.63548 9.98867)58
10.6349x119.9886457
10.634349.98861
10.633769.98858
56
   55
10.633199.9885554
10.6326219,9885253
10.63205F9.98849 52
10.63148I9.98846 5
10.63091'9.98843
10.63034
10.62977
10.62920
10.62863
10.62807
10.62750
10.62694
5°
I9.98840 4Q
9.988374 ‘
9.988344,
9.98831 46
9.988284
44
43
10.62581
10.62524
10.62468
IO.624I 2-
IO.62356
IO.623OO
IO.62244:
(9.98825
I9.98822
IO.6263719.98819 42
I9.988164I
9.98813
IO.62188
IO.62132
IO.62076
10.62020
IO.61965
IO.61909
IO.61853
IO.61798
IO.61745
IO.61687
IO.61632
IO.61577
IO.6152I
IO.61466
IO.614I I
4°
9.98810 39
9.988073"
9.98804 3
9.98801 3
9-987983.
9-9U79S
9.98792_
9.9878932
9.9878631
9-98783 30
9.98780
9-98777
9.98774
9.98771
9.98768
9-98765 .
9.98762 23
9.98759I22
9.9875621
9-98753
IO.61356
IO.613OI
IO.61 246
IO.61192
IO.61137
IO.61082
10.61028
10.60973
9.39082
50 9-37858 5 J |9;39i36j'5410-608641
51 9-37909 rIil9-39I90 r r io.6o8ioj
529-3796o^1|!9-39245|54
53 9-38oii ^ 9-39299|54
549.380624 9.39353)^
559-38i i3irT 9-394Q7ir
56|9-38i64| 9-3946i|
579.382154 9.395151^
58 9.38266^ Tj;9.395694
9-9875°
9.98746
9-98743
9.98740
9-98737
9-98734
9.98731
9.98728
10.6099.98725
9.98722
  9-98719
10.60755119.98715
10.60701 J9.98712
10.60647I9.98709
io-6°593 9-987°6
29
28
27
26
25
24
io.6o539!!9-98703| 4
10.604851,9.98700* -
7i3!l!9-39623i34
s4
/,rTs!y-oyu^oir
6ol9-.38368l|5 ii9-39677f
i Cof. I 11 Cot. 1
10.60431
10.60377
10.60323
Tang.
9.98697
9.98694
[9.98690
Sin
76 Degrees.
1
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
11
14 Degrees.
' | Sin.
019.38368
1 9-38418
2,9.38469
3 9-385i9
4 9-3857°
q 9.38620
6 9,38670
7 9-38?21
8 9-38771
Q 9.3882I
9.3887I
D.
50
51
5°
51
5°
5°
5I!
Tang.
9-39677
9-39731
9-39785,
9-39838 5^
D.
9.39892
9-3-9945
54
9.38921
9-3897i
9.39021
14 9.39071
15 9-39121
i69-39I70
179.39220
189.39270
I9 9-393I9
9-39369
9.39418
20
9-39999
9.40052
5°i 9.40106
~ 9-40159
9.40212
9.40952
9-41005
9-4°795
9-39467^|9-4o847
9-395i7,:o!9-40900
9.39566
9-396i5
9.39664
9-397I3
9.39762
9.39811
9.39860
9.39909
9.399 c8
9.40006
9-40055
9.40103
9.40152
9.40200
589.40249
9.40297
9.40346
9-40394
9.40442
9-40490
9.40538
4 ^9.40586
46!9-4o634
4-719.40682
48,9-40730
1499.407781
130 9.4082 5
ril9.4o873
2 9.409 21
9.40266
9.40319
9.40372
9.40425
9.40478
9-40531
9-4°584
9.40636
9.40689
19.40742
9.41057
9.41109
9.41161
9.41214
9.41266
9.41318
9-4I37°
9.41422
9.4M74
9-4 VS26
9-4157
9.41629
9.41681
9-41733
9-4x784
9.41836
9.41887
9-41939
9.41990
9.42041
4a
49
48
IV
48
49
48
I
48
48
481
48
48
48
gi9-42093
4o 9-4 2144
/o 9-4219c
9.42246
47,
Cot.
10.60323
10.60269
10.60215 9.98684'58
10.60162
10.60108
53jio.60055
^ 10.60001
53
54
53
53
54
53
53
53
53
53
53
52
53
53
53
52
53
5 2
53
5
52
52
53
52
52
52
52
5 2
5:
12
10-59948
10.59894
10.59841
10.59788
Col.
9.98690 60
9-98687!59
9.9868i[57
9.98678:56
9-98675'55
9.98671|54
9.98668153
9.9866552
9.98662 51
'9-98659 5^
io-59734!9-98'65649
10.59681
10.59628
IO-59575
io-59522
,o!942297
48'9-42348
H 9-42399
53|9-4°96842i9-42450
5419.41016^ ';9.42 50i
c -9.41063
56^.41111
47
48;
57J9.4! 158 ^.9.426 53
5819.41205
c 919.41252
60I9.4I300
Cot
942552
9.42603
9.42704
9-427 S5
48 942805
Cot:
10.59469
10-594l6!9-98636
xo.59364
10.59311
10.59258
10.59205
IO-59I53
10.59100
10.59048
10.58995
10.58943
10.58891
10.58839
10.58786
io-58734
10.58682
10.58630
io-58578
10.58526
io-58474
10.58422
io-5837i
10.58267
10.58216
10.58164
io^Sns
10.58061
10.58010
IO-57959
I0-57907
51
10.5780 5
IO-57754
JT |10-5 7 703
J ^iio.57652
10.57601
10.5 7 550
10-57499
10.57448
10.57195
'I'ang.
9.98652
9.98649
9.98646 46
9-98643 45
9.98640
9-98633
9.9863041
9.98627
9.98623
9.98620
9.9861737
9.9861436
9.98610 35
9.98607
9.98604
9.98601
9-98597 31
9.9859430
9.98591
9.98588
9.98584
9.98581
9.98578
9-98574
9.98571
io-583i9!9-98568
9-98565
9.98561
9-98558
9-98555
9.98551
9.98548
9-98545
9.98541
io.57856 9-98538
io-57397
10-57347
10.57296
10.57245.9.98498
9-98535
9-98531
9.98528
9-98525
9.98521
9.98 518
9-985t5
9.98511
9.98508
9-98505
9.98 coi
9.98494
Sin.
75 Degrees.
15 Degrees.
' j Sin.
ol9.4i300
Ij9-4I347
2 9-413 94
3|9-4I44I
4;9-4I488
5:9-4153 5
6i9-4I382
,9.43108
7!9.4i 62816 9.4^ x 38
8i9-416754;'9-432°8
9:9-4 i7224T9,43 258
1019.4176840
^9.41815
1219.41861
x3
1_i9-433o8
4I 9-43358
46
9.4190847 9.43458
9-435o8
9-43558
I49-4I954
159.42001
169.42047
179.42093
189.42140
199.42186
209.42232
21 9.42278
229.42324
23 9-4237°
249.42416
259.42461
269.42507
279-42553
289.42599
299.42644
30 9.42690
46
31 9-42735
329.42781
339.42826^
349.42872
359-429r7
369.42962
379.43008
38 9-43053
39 9.43098 43
40 9-43143
419.43188
429-43233 . c
43 9-43 278 4J>
44 9-43323
Tang. D.
19.42805
9.428565
9.42906
9-42957
9.43007
9-43057
Io.57I44;9-9849I|59
10.5 7094'9.98488158
Io-57043l'9-98484!57
10. ^699319.98^81 56
5° 10-56943 9-98477 55
3I'io.56892|9.98474
50;io.j6842;9.9847i
45
9.43408
9.43607
9-43657
9-437°7
943756^
9438o6
9-43855
943905
943954
9.44004
9-44053
9.44102
944151
9.44201
944250
9.44299
45 9-43367j44 945029
469.43412. ^_(.
47 943457i4f|945I26
I48 9435021^ 9.4074
49 943546j44l 945222
9.44348
944397
9.4444
9-44495
9-44544
944592
9.44641
9.44690
944738
9.44787
Cot.
IO-57I95
Col.
9.9849460
10.56792!9.98467 52
9.44836
9.44884
944933
9.44981
9.45078
9.45271
49
5°
49
50
49
49
49
50
49
49
49
49
6 49
49
49
48
49
49
48
49
49
48
49
48
48
49
48
48
48
49
48
10.56742
10.56692
10.56642
10.56592
10.56542
10.56492
10.56442
io-56393
io-56343
!0.56293
10.56244
10.56194
53 9-437 24:44;i9-454x5|48
54 9-43 769 ^ !9-45463C8
55 9-43813i44:9-455I ^
569-43857. :9-45559 7
57l9-439OI’T?:9-456o6Cg
58 9.4394643 9.45654^
599-43990 IT 9-4 5.702ks
60 9-440349-4575Q^
| Cof. 1 I' Cot. I
10.56145
10.56095
10.56046
10.55996
IO-55947
10. c c8g8
io.55849
IO-55799
I0-55750
Io-55701
10.55652
10.? C603
IO-55554
10.55505
io-55456
10.55408
IO-55359
Io-55310
io-55262
IO-552i3
10.55164
10.55116
10.55067
lo.tcoig
io15497i
10.54922
io-54874
10.54826
io-54778
xo-54729
10.54681
io-54633
10.54585
9.984645
9.98460
9-9845749
9.9845348
9.9845047
i9-98447
9-98443
9.98440
,.9 .1 44
9‘9843643
9-9843342
9.984294
9.9842640
39
9.98422
9-984I938
9-984i5
9.98412
9.98409 351
9.98405
9.98402
9.9839832
9-9839531
9-9839i3o
46
45
9.98388
9.98384
9.98381
9-98377
9-98373
9.98370
9.98366
9-98363
9-98359
9:98356
9-98352
9.98349
9'98345 .
9.9834216
9-98338
9-98334
9-98331
9.98327
9.98324 H
9.98320 IO
9.98317 9
9.98313 8
  9-98309 7
10. ,4537 9.98306 6
10.5448919.98302 c
l 4i
J
2
10.54441:9.98299
io.54394!9.98295
10.54346 9.98291
10.54298 9.98288
10-54250 >98284
Tang. I' Sin.
74 Degrees.
VOL. XII. Part I.
114
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
' ! Sin. |D.
0 9-44°34'
i;9.44o7844
2:9.441221^
3|9-44i66|44
4!9-442iO|^
_5!94W343
69-44297!
16 Degrees.
Tang. |D.l Cot.
Cof.
9-45750L !io-5425° 9-982«4;6o'
9-45797cg iO'54203|9-9828li59
9-45845%
9-45892
9.45940
9-45987
-K , . 9-46035
7j9-4434Ij11 p*4^0^2
89.4438544 9.46130
.- 9-44516! ,
12 9-44559 ^
^ 9.44602
49.44646
I59-44639
I69-44733.,
7 9-44776 ^
89.44819
99.44862
9-44905
20
9-45i63
279-452°6
289-45249
29 9.4529 2
30 9-45334
3I9-45377
3 2 9-45419
339.45462
349-45504
35 9-45547
99.44428,43
9-44472^
10
9.44948
9.44992
9-45°35
9-45°77
9.45120
369-45589
379-45632
389.45674
399.45716
409.45758
319*458o1
429-45843
439.45885
449-45927
9-45969
45
469.46011
'9-46053
946095
9.46136
9.46178
47
48
49
5°
51
44
43
42)
43
43{1:
43
43
43
42
43
42
43
42
43
42
43
42
42
42
43
42
42
42
42
42
42
42
9.46177
9.46224
9.46271
9.46319
9.46366
9.46413
9.46460
9.46507
9-46554
9.46601
9.46648
9.46694
9.46741
9.46788
9-46835
9.46881
9.46928
‘9.46975
9.47021
9.47068
9-47II4
9.47160
47
48
47
48
47
48
47
47
47
48
47
47
47
47
47
47
47
46
47
47
9.47207
947253
9.47299
9-47346
9-4739
9.47438
9-47484
9-4753°
947576
9.47622
Io-54I55 9-98277|58
10.54108
10.54060
10.54013
io-53965 9-98262 54
10.536189.9825953
io.5387o
10.113823
1 o-53 7 7*6
10.53729
10.53681
io.53634
9-98273 57
9.9827056
9.98266
55
9-9825552
9.98211 51
9.98248 50
9.9824449
9.98240
i9-98237
io-53587!9-98233
I0-53540 9-98229
47
46
47
47
46
47
46
46
47
46
46
47
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
IO-53493
IO-53446
IO-53399
IO-53352
io-533°6
10-53259
10.53212
io-53i65
10.53119
I0-53072
10.53025
lo-S2919
10.52932
10.52886
10.52840
IO-52793
io-52747
10.52701
10.52654
10.52608
10.52562
10.52516
10.52470
10.52424
10.52378
9.46220
529.46262
9-46303
9-46345
5^9.46386
569.46428
579.46469
58.9.46511
59,9-46552
609.46594
Cof.
9.47668
9-47714 46
9.47760
9.47806
9.47852
9.47897
9-47943
41 ;9-47989
4 '9-48o35
9.4808
9.48126
9.48171
9.48217
9.48262
9.48307
9-48353
9.48398
9-48443
9.48489
9-48534
Cot.
45
46
46
46
45
46
45
46
45
45
46
45
45
46
45
48
47
46
45
9.9822643
9.98222
9.98218
9.98215
9.98211
9.98207
9.98204
9.98200
9.98196
9.98192
31
3?
9.98170 29
'28
27
26
24
23
22
9.98166
9.98162
9.98159
9-98i55
9.98151
9.98147
9.98144
9.98140
9.98136
10-52332
10.52286
10.52240
10.52194
10.52148:9.98117
10.52103
10.52057
10.52011
10.51965
10.519201
10.51874
10.51829
io-5i783
10.51738
10.51693
10.51647
10.51602
IO-5I557
IO-5I511
10.51466
Tang.
9.98189
9.98185 _
9.98181 32
9.98177'
9.98174
9.98132
9.98129
9.98125
9.98121
9.98113
9.98110
9.98106
9.98102
9.98098110
9-98094!
9.98090
9.98087
9.98083
9.98079
9.98075
9.98071
9.98067
9.98063
9.98060’
1 Sin.
73 Degrees.
17 Degrees.
Sin. ID.
9-46594 ,,
-9-46634,
29.46676^
9.467171
49.46758
5I9.46800
6'9.^68^i
7J9.46882
89.46923
99-46964
109.47005
9-47°45
129.47086
9-47127
9.47168
159.47209
Tang.
D,
l6i9-47249
17
9.47290
18 9-4733°
9-47371
9.47411
19
20;
‘219-47452
229.47492
9-47533
9-47573
9.47613
23
24
25
269.47654
9.47694
28;9-47734
9.47774
9.47814
419.4825
4219.48292
43|9-48332
4419-483 71
459-48411
46
47
48
9-47854
9.47894
9-47934
9.47974
9.48014
41
41
42
42
41
I41
41
41
4°'
41
41
41
41
4°
41
40
41
4°
41
4°
41
4°
40
41
4° 1;
4°
4° r
40 r
40
Cot. Cof.
9.48534I 10.51466 9.9806060
'9-48579j^ 10.514219-98056 59
9.4862415 10.51376 9.9825258
9.48669:45 10.5133 x19.98048 57
9.4871445 10.51286 9.98o44!56
9-48759 45 10-51241 9.9^040:55
9.48804
9.4884945
9.4889445
9-48939j^
948984:45
9.49029I8 10.50971.9.9801749
9.4907344 io.5C927|!9.98oi3‘48
9.49118 45jx 0.5088 2! 9.98oo9'47
9.4916345 10.50837:9.9800546
I°-5°793jl9-98ooi 45
Io-50748'!9-97997 44
10.51196 9.98036I4
10.511519.9803253
10.51106 9.98029152
10.51061 9.98o25!5i
10.5101619.98021 50
949207I44
9^92529 8
9.49 296|4410.507041:9.5 7993;43
31
S2
33
34
35
36948054
37948094
38948133
399.48173
409.48213
9.4845°
9.484901
948529^
4°
4°
4°
40
4°
4°
39
391
4° j
49948568 89 j9.50703
a ^0746
94° 7 89
509.48607
5i
40
9.48647
9.48686°? j9.50333
948725
948764
948803
52
53
54
85 _
569.48842
5-7 9.488,81
589.48920
599.48959
Cof.
9493411j-'
949385 44
'94943°
9.49474
949519
9-49563
9.49607
9.49652
9.49696
9*4974°
949784
9.49828
9-49872
9.49916
9.49960
9.50004
9-5°°48
9-5°°92
9-5OI36
I9.50180
40,9-50223
T0 9-50267
9.50311
9-5°355
9-5°398
9.50442
9-5°485
9-5°529
9-5°572
9.50616 44
19.5065943
i°-5°659 9-97989i42
10.50615
I0.50570
10.50526
10.50481
Io-50437
10.50393
10.50348
*0.50304
10.50260
9-9798641
:9-979824o
9.97978
9-97974
9.97970
9.97966
9.97962
9-97958
9-97954
10.50216:9.97950 32
10.5017 219.97946 3
10.50128 9.97942 30
10.50084
10.50040
10.49996
10.49952
10.499089.97922
10.49864
10.49820
10.49777
*6-49733
10.49689
10.49645
10.49602
10.49558
39
39,'
8^9-50876
9.50919
9-5°962:43
*o-4947]
10.49428
10.49384
*0-4934*
10.49297
9-97938
9-97934
:9-9793°
9.97926
9-979*8
9.97914
9.97910
9.97906
9.97902
'9.97898
9-97894
9.97890
*°-495*5 9-97886
*0.49254 9-97861
9-97857
10.49211
10.49167
10.49124
10.49081
9.97882
9.9787
9.97874
9.97870
9.97866
9-97853
9.97849
9-97°45
-43
9-5*°°5j^
!9‘5I048!t^
,9.5*092144
9-5**35ri,
60I9.43998 89j|9.5 i 178.43
Cot
10.49038,9.97841
9-97837
9-97°33
9.97829
9-97825
9.97821
10.48952
10.48908
10.48865
ic.48822
Tans
72 Dc ;grees.
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
lrJ
18 Degrees.
Sin. D.; Tang. D
39
9.48998
9'49°3h9
9.49076
9.49115
9-49*53
5 949195
6 9.49231
7 9.49269
819.49308
10
9-49424|Ug
9 9-49347 og
^ 9-493^5|^p
9.49462
9-49500
9-49539
9-49577
16 9.4961 c
179.49654
9.49692
9-4973° ;q
9.49768
9.49806
9.49844
9.49882
9.49920
25 9-49958
6 9.49996
9-5°°34
28 9.50072
9.50110
9-5° M8
9.50185
9.50298°/
9-5°336
9-5II78
'9.51221
I9-5I264
9-5I3°6il!
9-5I349
9-5I392
Cot.
10.48822
10.48779
10.48 73 6
10.48694
10.48651
10.48608
|9-5I435
:9.iM78,
:9-5*5f!L
i9-5i563;T,
9.51606J5
43
43
0.^648
9.51691
:9-5i734T2
i9-5>7764
9-51819
9.51861
|9*5I9°3
^g|9-5I946u2
30j9.51988 42
9.52031
9-52°73
9-52II5
9-52I57
9.52200
9.52242
9.52284
9.52326
9.52368
- ,9.52410
J.j9-52452
36 9-5°374
9.50411
38 9-50449 2.7
9.50486 8 /
9-50523 ^
89
IS
41
42
43
44
459.50710
37
9.50561
9-5°59837
9-50635 ,0
9-5°673 ^
37
37
46 9-50747
9.50784
.50821
9.50858
9-50896
9-50933
9.50970
43
42
42
42
43
42
42
,42
42
42
42
42
42
42
42
41
42
42
4
42
41
42
4J
42
42
41
42
41
4*
42
41
2
41
41
41
42.
41
41
/"T 41
•3/l9-536l5gI
xo.48352
10.48309
10.48266
10.482241
10.48181
io-48i39
10.48097
10.48054
10.48012
10.47969
9-52494
9-5 253'6
9-52578
9.52620
9.52661
9-52703
9-52745
9.52787
9.52829
9.52870
9.C2912
9-52953
9-52995
9-53037
9-53078
9.53120
9-53161
,:i'9-53202
371
3 J 9-533 27
H 9-53368
l!9-534°9
53 9-5100713611 - . -
54 9-51043 9-53450
55 9-5io8q ,7 ;9-53492
56|9*51I17 0^9-53533
57 9-5*154
58 9.5x191
o 3 9-53574
10.47927
10.47885
10.47843
10.47800
IO-47758
10.47716
10.47674
10.47632
I0-47590
10-47548
10.47506
10.47464
10.47422
xo.47380
IO-47339
10.47297
IO-47255
10.47213
10.47171
10.47130
10.47088
10.47047
10.47005
10.46963
10.46922
10.46880
10.46839
10.46798
10.46756
10.46715:
XC.j
10.46632
10.46591
10.46467
9-51227j^ 9-53656|4I
9.51264P/ 9.536971
Cof.
Cot.
Tang.
Cof. D.j '
60
59
9.97821
9.97817
9.97812
9.97808^
9.97804IJ
9.97800!
10.48565 9-97796L
10.48522 9.9779214
10.48480 ~
10.48437
10.48394
9-9778814
9-97784ir
9-977794
9-97775
9.97771
9.97767
9.97763
9-97759
9-97754
9-9775°
9.97746
9.97742
9-97738
9-97734
9.97729
9-97725
9.97721
9.977 x 7
9-97713
9.97708
9*97704
9.9770
9.97696
9.97691
9.97687
9.97683
9.97679
:9-97674
’9.97670
’9.97666
‘9.97662
|9-97657
'9-97653
9-97649
'9.97645
^9.97640
9.97636
j9-97632
9.97628
9.97623
9.97619
9.97615
9.97610
667319.97606
9.97602!
9-97597(4
10.46550 9.97593-
10.46508 "■-Q-^
9-97589,5
9-97584L
10.46426 9.97580
10.463859.97576,?
io-46344!9-9757iu
10.46303 9.97567
Sin.
71 Degrees.
58
57
56j
55
54
53
52
51
5°
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
3^
29
28
27
26
25
24
2
22
21
20
19
18
x7
16
:5
M
13
12
11
10
19 Degrees.
' Sin.
09-51264
19-5I3°I
29.51338
39-5i374
49-514x1
59-5i447
69-5i484
9.5x520
9*5I557
9-5I593
9.51629
9.51666
9.5x702
Dll Tang.
„ 9-53697
??|'9-53738
19-53779
37
D.1 Cot.
10.46303
10.46262
10.46221
^9-53820^(10.46180
^ 6|9.5386i Tt|io.46i39
?7 9-53902
9*53943
^ 9.53984
^(10.46098
37
“ >liQ.C4025
^|9-5406j
37
26i9-54I47
36 9-54l87uIiio-458i3
j10-45853
t59-5i8ii
169.51847
I7i9-5i883
1 8|9-5i9i9
I99-5i955
2o!9-5i991
219-52027
229-52063
9.52099
9-52I35
9-52171
26
27
28
299
9.52207
9.52242
9.52278
523I4
309-52350
319-52385
329-52421
33 9-52456
349.52492
359-52527
369-52563
379-52598
389-52633
399.52669
4° 9-^5 2705
419.52740
9-5i738?6'9*54228!^i!io.45772
9-51774 o7i!9-54269?0|i0-45731
^i9-54309|1T!IO-4569^
41!:
o6':9-5435o!4o i0-4565°
36 9-5439041 Tn
429-52775
439.52811
449.52846
459,5288i
469.52916
47 9-52951
489.52986
499.53021
509-5305636
519-53092
529.53126
53 9-53i6i
549-53I96
55 9-5323 J
569.53266
36
36
3 6
36
36
36
36
36
35
36
36
36
35
36
35
36
35
36
35
36
35
36
35
35
36
35
35
35
34
35i
35
35
35
,9.55949
57 9-5330 Iu?i9-55989 ao
58 9-53336|^ |9-56o28
599-5337° 5? 9-56067
6o|9-534° 5
35
Cof.
9-54431
9-544 71
9-54512
9-54754
9-54794
9-54835
9-54875
9-54915
4°
41
!4°
9-54552U
9-54593i40
9-54633j4o
9-546734i
9-547i44o
40
41
4°
40
4°
4°
4°
40
40
4°
40
4°
40
40
4°
40
39
40
9-54955
9-54995
9-55035
9.55075
9-55II5
9-55I55
9-55r95
55235
9.55275
9-55315
9-55355
9-55395
9-55434
9-55474
9-555 M
9-55554
9-55593
9-55633
9-55673
9-55712
10.45610
io-45569 . . . .
io-45529 9-97484
10.45448
X0.45407
xo.45367
iO'45327
j Cof.
9-97567
19-97563
19-9 7558
!9-975544
i9-9755°?
 19-97545
1x0.4605719.97541
^jio.4601619.97536
?o'IO*45975
?IlIO-45935
4I!io-45894
41,
D.
!9-97532
I9-97528
9-97523
9-975I9
9-975I5
9-97510
9.97506
9-975° 1
9.97497
9.97492
9.97488
10.45488 9-97479(4
10.4528619.97457
IO-45246!9-97453
10.45206 9.97448
10.45165 9-97444
xo.45125
„ 9-97439
10.45085 9.97435
9.97430
9-55752
[9-55791
9-55831
9-55870
9.55910
40
39
4
4°
39
40
39
40
39
40
39
40
9.56107
10.45045
10.4 cooc
10.44965
10.44925
10.44885
9.97426
9.97421
9.974x7
9-97412
9.97408
9-97403
9-97399
9-97394
9-9739°
10.44645 9-97385
10.44605 9.97381
xo.44845
10.44805
10.44765
10.44725
10.44685
10.44566
10.44526 9-97372
10.44486
10.44446
10.44407
1 o-44367
10.44327
10.44288
9-97475
9.97470
9.97466
9.97461
9-97376
9-97367
9-97363
9-97359
9-97353
9-97349
9-97344
10.44248(9.97340
10.442091
10.44x69!
I0‘44I3°!
10.^40901
9-97335
9-97331
10.44051
10.44011
10.43972
,io-43933
10.43893
Cot.
Tang.
9.97326!
9.97322!
9-973171 r
9-97312!.
9-97308, r
9-97303:4
9.97299,
Sin.
70 Degrees.
160!
|59
I58
57
156
155
54
53
l3 2
.51
15°
|49
48
'47
|46
.45
|44
43
'42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
3^
29
,8
27
26
25!
24
23
22
P 2
116
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
20 Degrees.
Sin.
D.
o9-534°5
19-5344°
29-53475
39-535°9
49-53544
59-53578
69-536l3
79-53647
89'5368?34
99-537i6.T
I09-53751
35
Tang.
D.
9.56107
Q. 156146
9.56185
9.56224
9.56264
9-563°3
9-56342
9-56381
9.156420
9-56459
9.56498
9-56537
9-56576
J3!9-566i5
ii;9-53785
i29-538i9
49-53888|3l 9-56654
I59-53922,o n 9-56693
39
39
39
40
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
Cot.
Cof.
D.
io-43893 9-97299
IO-43854 9-97294
10.4^815 9.97289
10.43776 9-97285
i°-43736|9-9728°
10.4369719.97276
I69.53957UV9-56732
17 9-53991
l8j9-54°25
i99-54°59
209-54093
10^3658 9.97271
io.436i9!9.97266
io-4358°
1 °-43 541
jio-43502
9.97262
9-912 57
9-97252
9.97248
9-97 243
.|9-97238
I°-43346i9-97234
IO-433°7
9-54I27
9.54x61
239-54i95
249-54229
2j9-54263
269-54297
27 9-54331
289-54365
299-54399
30 9-54433
319.54466
329-54500
339-54534
349-54567
359.54601
369-54635
379.54668
389-54702
399-54735
409.54769
419.5480
429.54836
439.54869
449.54903
459-54936
9.5677-
A 9.56810
9-56849
pt 9-56887
^19.56926
24:9-56965
24:9-57°°4
9.57042
9.57081
3QiIO-43463
^Uo.43424
^i°-43385
39
39
39
39
39
38:
39
39
10.43268
10.43229
10.43190
10.43151
9/9 7229
9.97224
9.97220
9.97215
9.97210
10.43II3 9-972°6
10.43074
io.43035
10.42996
10.42958
10.42919
10.42880
10.42842
10.42803
10.42765
10.42726
9.97201
9.97x96
9-97192
9.97x87
9.97182
10.42688 9-97154
10.42649 9.97149
10,42611
10.42572
10.42534
xo.42419 9.97121
9.97x78
9-97I73 c
9.97x68 ^
9-97163
9-97I59
9-97I45
9.97x40
9-97135
10.42496I9.97130 .
10.42457 9.97126^;
10.42381
io-42342
9-9711
6^
9.971 xxj^
60
59
5 8
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
5Q
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
4^
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
31
29
28
27
26
24
23
22
21
20
9.97x071
9.97io2-)
469.54969
479-55003
489-55036
499-55o69
509.55x02
5i9-55i36
52|9-55i69
53 9-55202
54 9-55235
559.55268
34
33
33.
34
33
33
33
34
33
33
33:
33
33
33'
33
33
609.55433133
i9-57696i28 Io-423°4
^!9'57734lo8IO-42266 , . .
8819.577721^10.42228 9.97097
9-578lo'3QiIo-42I9c,ii9-97092
19.57849 ^ ^xo.42151 9-97o87
569-55301
579-55334
589-55367
599.55400
9-57887 o8'IO-42II3 9-97o83L
9-57925 ^jio.42075 9.97078 ^
|9-57963 q8iI0,42037 9-97073 ^
9.58001 Oglio.41999 9.97068^
9-58039 8^10.41961 9.97063
9.58077
:i9-58ii5
9-58i53
9.58191
9.58229
Cof.
9-97059
i9-97054
9. C8267
9-58304
9-58342
9.58380
9.584x8
38!10-41^3
OQlio.41885
~8jIO-4l847 9-97°49
8g|xo.4i8o9| 9.97044
8 glio^iTTil 9.97039
o JIo-4I733j
^104.696
0 ,10.41620
8 iio.4i582(
Cot.
Tan'
9-97035
9.97030
9.97025
9.97020
9.97015
Sin.
!9
18
J7
16
15
!4
!3
12
11
IO
Sin.
D.
9-55433
9.55466
9-55499
3 9-55532
4 9.55564
5 9-55597
69 Degrees.
6 9-55630
7 9-55663
8 9-55695
99-55728
I09-5576I
Tang.
21 Degrees.
D.
9.58418
9-58455
9-58493
9-58531
9-58569^
9.58606^
Cot.
11 9-55793
12 9.55826
13 9-55858
149.55891
i5 9-55923
i69-55956
17 9-55988
18 9.56021
199-56053
9-56085
9.561x8
9-56150.
239.561820
249.56215
259-56247
269.56279
279.56311
289.56343
40
41 9-56759
429.56790
439.56822
449.56854
459.568868
10.41582
10.41545
10.41507
10.41469
10.41431
io-4I394
10.4x356
10.41319
10.41281
10.41243
10.41206
Cof.
D.
9.970x5
9.97010
9.97005
9.97001
9.96996
9.96991
10.41168
10.41131
10.41093
9.96986
9.96981
9.96976
9.96971
9.96966
9.96962
9-96957
9.96952
9-590i9l„
9-59056|^
9.59094 0
|9-59I3I
9‘59i68
9-59205
9-59243
9.59280
9-5935 7
9-59354
29 9-56375 3^
30 9.56408 yy
319.56440
329.564720
33 9-56504^
34 9-565368
35 9.565688j
369-56599,2
379-56631^2
38 9.5666382
9-59391
9-59429 „
9.59466I'
9-59503
9-59540
399.566958^ 9.59872
9.56727
469.569x7
9.56949
9.56980
499-57012
9-57044
9-57075
9.57x07
9-57I38
9.57x69
9.57201
9-57232
9.57264
589.57295
9-5732
9-5735
10.41056 9.96947
10.41019 9.96942
10.40981
10.40944
10.40906
10.40869
10.40832
10.40795
IO-4°757
10.40720
10.40683
10.40646
9-59577
9.59614
9-59651 .
9-5968887
9-59725
9.59762
9-59799
9-59835
10.40609
10.40571
10.40534
9.59909
31
32
31
S2
32
31
32
31
31
32j
31!
32
31
9.59946
9-59983
9.60019
9.60056
9.60093
9.60130
9.60166
9.60203
9.60240
9.60276
37
37
37
36
37
37
37
37
36
37
37
37
9-96937
9.96932
9.96927
9.96922
9.96917
9.96912
9.96907
19.96903
19.96898
i9-96893
19.96888
I9.96883
19.96878
10.4049719.96873
10.4046019.96868
10.40423
10.40386
10.40349
10.40312
10.40275
I9-96863
'9.968 58
9-96853
9.96848
9.96843
10.40238
10.40201
10.40165
10.40128
10.40091
10.40054
10.40017
10.39981
10.39944
io-39907‘9-96793
9.96838
9-96833
9.96828
9.96823
9.96818 8
9.96813
9.96808
9.96803
*9-96798
10.39870
io-39834
10.39797
10.39760
10.39724
681
S32
Cof.
9.60313
9.60349
9.60386
9.60422
9-60459^
37
36
37
36
10.39687
10.39651
60
59
58
57
56
11
54
53
52
51
IS
49
48
47
46
11
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
IS
29
28
27
26
SI
24
23
22
21
20
9.96788
9-96783 .
9.96778°
9.96772;
19.96767 V
9.96762
9-96.757
IO.39614 9.96752
10.39578'9-96747
9.60495
19.60532
9.60568
9.60605
I9.6064I
Cot.
iQ-39541
io.39505
10.39468
10.39432
!9-96737
19.96732
_ 9-96727
io-3939519-96722
10-39359
Tang.
i9-96742
9-96717
Sin.
10
68 Degrees.
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
Degre
09-57358
9-573°9
29.5742°
39-57451
49.57482
59-575I4
Sin-
69-57545
7 9-57576
89.57607
99-57638
109.57669
11 0.1:7700
129.57731
!3 9-57762
M9-57793
I59’57824
Tang.
Cot.
9-967I76
 i9-96711
■Hi 10.39286 9.96706
3^10.39250 9.96701
lio.392i4|9.96696
9.60641 6 10.39359
9.60677^110.39323
9.60714
9.60750
9.60786
9.60823
169.57855
i79-57885
i89-579i6
199-57947
9-57978
9.58008
9-58o39
9.58070
249.58101
259-58i3i
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
3°
31
9.60859
9.60895
9.6093
9.60967
9.61004
23
9.58162
9.58192
289.58223
9-58253
9.58284
9-583i4
. 9-58345
33 9-58375
9. C8406
9-58436
Cof.
37!io-39i77 9.96691 5
9.61040
9.61076
9.61112
9.61148
9.61184
10.39141 9.96686
10.39105 9.96681
10.39069 9.96676^
10.39033 9.96670
10.38996 9.96665 3
10.38960
10.38924
369.58467
379.58497
389-58527
9-58557
9.58588
9.58618
9.58648
9.58678
449.58709
45
31
31
3°
31
31
31
3°
31
3°
31
3°
31
3°
3
3°
31
3°
31
3
3°
3°
31
3°
3°
3°
31
3°
S6
36
36
36
36
36
9.61472
9.61508
9.61544
9.61220
9.61256
9.61292
9.61328
9.61364
10.38780
io-38744
10.38708
9-5873930
36
36
36
. 35
9-61579.6
9.616158
9.61651
9.61687
9.61722
10.38421
10.38385
10.38349 .
10.38313'9.96567
36
9.61758
9'«T436
9.6183O J
9.61865
9.619OI
l9-6l936
9.6l972
9.62OO8
9-62043
9.62079
469-58769!
479-58799l30
489.5882918
499-58859li,o
9-58889^
9.621 I4
9.62150
9.62185^
9.62221
9-62256^
50
9'5o9I93o
- 9-^9493o
53 9-58979 30
9-59009 30
9-59Q39i3o
569.5906929
579-59098
589-59i28
599-59i58:3o
609.591881
Cof.
9.62292
9.62327
9.62362
9.62398
9-62433
9.62468
9.62504
9-62539
9.62574
9.62609
9.96660
9-96655
10.38888 9.96650 8
10.38852 9.96645 8
10.38816 9.96640
9.96634
9.96629
9.96624
10.38672 9.966198
10.38636
10.386009.96608
10.3856419.96603 8
10.385289.96598^
I0.38492 9.96593-5
10.384569.96588^
10.38278
10.38242
10.38206
10.38170
10.38135
10.38099
10.38064
9.9658
9-96577
9.96572
9-96562^
9-96556
9-9655
9.96546
9.9654
9-96535
9-9653°
10.37886
io.37850
io-378i5 9-96493
10-37779
10.37744
9.62645
9.62680
9.62715
9.62750
9.62785
35
35
36
35
35
36
35
35
35
36
35
35
35
35
io-377o8
10.37673
10.37638
10.37602
10.37567
IO-37532
10.37496
10.37461
10.37426
10-37391
Cot.
10-37355
10.37320
10.38028 9.96525
10.37992 9.96520^
10-37957 9-965I4r
10.37921 9-965095
9-965046
9.96498 ^
5
5
9.96488
9-964836
9.96477
9.96472
9-964676
9.96461
9.96456
9.9645
9.96445
19.96440
9-96435 6
,9.96429
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
5i
5°
49j
48
47 i
46!
45|
44!
431
42!
41
—j
39;
38|
H
35
34
33,
32
31
30
29!
28
27'
26!
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
16
£5
J4
13
12
9.96424
9.96419
io-37285 9-96413
10.37250,9.96408
10.37215 9-96403
Tang.
Sin.
67 Degrees.
9-595i42Q
12 9-59543 ,0
39-59573 2q
49-596o2 J
59.59632P
169.59661
7 9-59690
18 9.59720
199-59749
9-59778
23 Degrees.
Sin. |D.
9-59I88! ;
]9-®2l8ia9
2|9-59247',oi
3°i
13°,
29
3°
3|9-59277i
49-593°7
5!9-59336
69-59366
9-5939
89.59425
99-59455 20
0 9-59484 ^
Tang. D.; Cot.
9
9.62855.
i3 5|
35!
10.37145
9.628901^110.37110
9.62926!° 410.37074
9.62961^10.37039
63°!99:63^fc
29i 9.63066
10.37004
10.36969
10.36934
Cof.
  jD.r
9.62785! ]10.37215!9.96403^ 60
.628203-; 10.37180 9-96397 59
9.963923 58
9-963876 '57
9.96381
9.96376
9.96370
9-96365
9.96360
10.36899 9.96354
20
23
9. C9808
9-59837
9.59866
249-59895
2519-59924
9-63345
9-63379
9-634i4
2q|9-634o935
9-634843 5
269.59954
279-59983
289.60012
9.60041
9.60070
38
9.600991
9.60128
9.60157
9.60186
9.60215
9.60244
9.60273
9.60302
399.60331
409.60359
41
42
43
44
45
9.60388
9.60417
9.60446
9.60474
9.60503
469.60532
47
29
29!
29!
29
3°
29
29
291
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
28
9-63519
9-63553
9.63588
9.6056:
489.60589
9.60618
9.60646
9.63623
9-63657
9.63692
9.63726
9.63761
9.63796
9.63830
9.63865
9.63899
9-63934
9.63968
9.64003
9.60675
9.60704
9.60732
9.6076
9.60789
9.64037
9.64072
9.64106
9.64140
9.64175
9.64209
9.64243
9.64278
19.64312
(9.64346
10.36865
10.36830
10.36795
10.36760
10.36725
10.36690
10.36655
10.36621
10.36586
10.36551
10.36516
9.96349
9-96343
9-96338
9-96333
9.96327
9-96322 ^
9.96316
9.96311
9-96305
9.96300
9.96294
35
35
34
35
34
35
35
34
35
34
35
34
35
34
35
34
34
35
34
34
35
34
10.36481
10.36447!
10.36412
10.36377
10.36343
10.36208
.36274
10.36239
10.36204
10.36170
9.96289
9.96284
9.96278
9.96273
9.96267
9.96262
9.96256
9.96251
9.96245
9.96240
10.36135
10.36101
10.36066
10.36032
10-35997
io-35963
10.35928
10.35894
10.35860
10.358259.96185
9.96234
9.96229
9.96223
9.96218°
9.96212
9.96207
9.96201
9.96196
9.96190
9.64381
9.64415
9.64449
9.64483
9.64517
34 1035654
34
10.35483
!9-64552
9.64586
9.64620
9.64654
9.64688
569.60818 2g 19.64722
579.60846 9.64756
589.60875^ 9.64790
599.60903!^ n-6/t8'2/i
60 9.60931|
Cof.
9.64824
9.64858
IIO.35619
Ji°.35585
34iIO-3555i
3410.35517
35
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
Cot.
10.35448
10.35414
10.35380
56
33
54
53
52
51
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
S6
35
34
33
32
31
3£
29
28
io.3579Ii9-96i79
10.35757
io-35722j
10.35688
9.96174°
9.96168^
9.961624
9-96.57 6<
9.96151
9.96146°
9.96140
9-96i356
9-96129^
9.96123
9.96118°
9.96112
io.35346! 9-96107 6
10-35312 9.96101
10.35278
10.35244
10.35210
10.35176
10.35142
Tang.
9.96095
9.96090°
9.96084
9-960796
9.96073
Sin.
6 6 Degrees.
ll7
ii 8
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
24 Degrees.
Sin.
9.00941
9.6096
9.60988
9.61016
49.61045
59.61073
69.61101
79.61129
89.61158
99.61x86
109.61214
'i'ang. jD.
9.648581
9.64892:^2
9.64926i:S^
9.64960^110.35040
9.64994 ^ 10.35006 9.96050
9.65028!34— 
y • ]34
28
xi 9.61242
129.61270
13 9.61298
149.61326
i59-6i3^4
169.61382
179.61411
89-61438
199.61466
209.61494
21
9.61522^
29-6155028
239.61578
249.61606
29
28
28
29
28
28  
28ji9-65o62j
i29i;9-6s°96,4
2¥'^IJ0!34
28 9'«3iS45’
, I. ;9.6519714
|9-6523I
9.65265
9.65299
9-65333
9.65360
Cot.
10.35142
10.35108
10-35°74|
9-96073^
9.96067,
9.96062^
9-96056:5
IO-34972i
28
9.65568
9.65602
9.65636
28 9,65669
25 9-61634 9a 9-65703
28
20 9-65400
2^! 9-65434
9.65467
9.6 f COX
28i 9-65535
269.61662
279.61689
289.6x7x7
299.61745
qo 9.61773
31 9.6x800
329.61828
33 9.61856
349.61883
359:61911
369.61939
379.61966
389.61994
399.62021
409.62049
4x9.62079
429.62104
439.62131
449.62x59
459.62186
469.62214
479.62241
489.62268
499.62296
509.62323
519.62350
529.62377
539.62405
549.62432 '
559.62459 6
27
27
28
28,
28
27
28
28
27
28
28
27
28
27
28
2 7
28
27
28
2 7
28
27
27
28
27
27
9-65736
9.6577°
9.65803
9-65837
9.65870
9.65904
9-65937
9.65971
9.66004
9.66038
34
34
34
33
34
34
33
34
34
33
34
34
33
34
33
34
33
34
33
34
33
34
33
34
33
33
xo.34938
x 0.34904
10.34870!
10.34836!
10.34803! 9.96017!^
io.34769,,9-96oii6
IO-34735 9*96005
Cof. iD.
9.96045^
9.96039
9*96034^
9.960285
9.96022
10.34701
10.34667
10.34634
9.66071
9.66104
9.66138 ^
9.66171
9.66204
9.66238
9.66271
9.66304
9.66337
9.66371
xo.34432
10.34398
io*34364
IO-34297
io-34264
10.34230
10.34197
io*34j63
10.3413019.95902
9.96000:5
9-959946
9.959885
10.3460c 9.95982
10.34566 9.95977
IO*34533 9-95971
1 o*34499 9*95965 ,
10.34465 9*95960 6
19*959546
(9*959486
9*95942 r
|9*95937 6
TP 5931 6
9*95925 r
j9-959206
9*959i46
9-959085
10.34096
10.34063
9.66404
9.66437
9.66470
9.66503
9*66537
9*66570
9.66603P0
9.66636fJ‘'
9.66669 s33
9.66702s33
33
33
34
33
33
33
34
33
331
33
33
34
33
10.34029 9.95885
io*33996 19*958795
10*3396219*95873
10.33929
10.33896
10.33862
10.32829
19:13 796
°*3376
i°*33729
10.33696
io*33663
10*33629 9*95815
io*33596
(9*958976
!9*9589l 6
.9.95868^
9*958625
19*958565
!9*9585°5
19*95844
i9*95839
!9*95833
!9*95827
9.95821
'9*95810
io*33563 19*95804
I0•33530,9*95798
IO*33497'9*957925
io*33463 9-95786
569.624861^; 9.66735
,'33
57!9.625i3!^!p.66768:33
58:9.62541; ^,9.66801 o3
599-62568j^!j9.66834i33
6oj9.62595r6'9.66867,33
cS '
,*33397| 9*95775 5
*33364 9*95769L
I0*33430,9*9578o
10
co
IO*33331 9-95763I5
10.33298,9.95757^
Io*33265|i9.9575iL
10.33 232'9.95745;
10.33 x 99; 9.95739,
io*33i66;9.95733;
|l Cot. * i Tang.
9*95728
60
59
58|
57 i
56
33
54
53,
52
51
50
49i
48;
47;
46:
45!
44!
43
42
41
39
38
37
36
33
34
33
32
31
3_o
9
28
27
26
25
24
23
1
20
19
18
z7
16
15
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
A
4!
3!
?!
o!
Sin.
65 Degi
25 Degrees.
D.|! Tang. D.( Cot. |r Cof. |D.|
2 '9.66867;
7;9.669oo|33
11 9.6289:
129.62918
139.62945
149.62972!
5 9.62999 A
16 9.63026] J
: 17 9.63052!
189*63079!
199.63106^1
209.63133
IO*33r33 9*95728!6
,10.331009.957225
27l9*66933P^io.33d6^9-957i6,5
27! 9*66966Pi;io.33034j 9.957 xo;6
27 9*66999^ IO.33001 9.9570415
A 9*6703 2g 10.32968 9.95698:^
0 719-67065; IO.3 293 519.95692 5
"7 9.67098 33 IO.32902 9.956865
IO.3 2869 9.95680 5
Io.32837;9.956746
10.32804 9.95668
9.67131
9.67163
9.67196'
269.63292
7 9*63319
289*63345
9*63372
9*63398
29
3°
9'63425 26
9.63451
9*63478 ^
349.63504
3 5 9*63 531
3T
32
33
369*63557
379*63583
9.636x0
399.63636
9.63662
9.63689
9*63 715
9.63741
9.63767
9*63794
9.63820
9.63846
489.63872
499.63898
509.63924
9.67719
9.67752
9.67785
9.67817
'9.67850
9.63950
9.65976
9.64002
549.64028
559.64054
569.6408c
579.64106
589.64132
599.64158
609.64184
Cof.
(9.67882
9.679x5
9*67947
19.67980
9.68012
10.32771
10.32738
IO*327°5
9*95663 6
9*95657
9*95651
ro.32673 9.95645
10.32740,9.93639
10.326079.95633
IO*32574
IO*32542i
I0*32509
9.9562
9.95621 ^
9*956i56
10.32476:9.9560
10.32444
10.32411
'9.68044
9.68077 33
9.68109
9.68142
19.68174
9.68206
9.68239
9.68271
9.68303
9*68336
9.68368
|9.68400
, . 9*6843 2
269-68465
26:9-68497
9.68 529
9.68561
9.68593
9.68626
9.68658
9.68690
9.68722
9.68754
9.68786
9.68818
Cot.
io*32378 9-95591 5
x°.32346
10.32281
9*95585
9*95579
9*95573
10.322489.95567
10.32215 9.95561
10.32183
IO*32I5°
9*95555
9*95545
io.32ii8j9.95543
10.32085 9*95537
I0*32053'9*95531
xc.32020
9*95525
10.319889.05519
io*3i956 9.95513
10.31923
10.
9-95507
_ , 9*95500
10.31858 9*95494
10.31826 9.95488
I1S91
10*3x794
10.31761
10.31720
xo.31697
10.31664
1 °*3163 2
x 0.3160c
10.31568
1 °*3153 5
1 °*31503
10.31471
io*3i439
10.31407
Io*3I’374
10.31342
10.31310
A10.31278
A!10,31246
0 ’10.31214
32;
Tang.
9-95603
9*955976
9.95482
9*95476
9*9547°
9.95464
9*95458
9*9545-2
9.95446
9.95440
9*95434
9*95427
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
9-95391 .
>9*953 84:7
9*9 5378!^
19*95372;°
9.95421
9*9 5415
9.95409
9-95403
9-95397
10.31182 9.95366;°
60
59
58
57
56
55,
54
53
5 2
51
5p
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
3 2
31
30
29
28
27
26
A
24
23:
22|
21
20
l9
18
‘7
16
£5
14
x;
I 2
I]
10
9
8
h*
/
6
5
4
3
2
1
o
Sin.
64 Degr.es.
2
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
26 Degrees.
' | Sim. j-P-I i-ang. D
C|PITN:26 9-68818'
19.642X0 .9.68850^
^.64236-^9^2^
4,9.64288 20'‘ "
S'9-64313
69-64339
79-64365
8 9-64391
09.64417
109-64442
2 c
5
26
2<'9-69647
19.69679
‘9.69710
'9.69742
 19-69774
31:9.64978^99-69805
329.650031^9.69837
33 9.650291 9.69868
34;9-65054;2''!9-699oo
3 5*9-65° 79; 19-6993 2
169.64596
7^.64622
8,9.64647
9.9-64673
2ol9-64698
2ij9-64724
;9-64749
(239-64775
24I9.64800
21119.64826
26!
26!i9^9°10
26
26
25
26:
9.69042
9.69074
9.69106
9.69138
269-69i7°
^ 19.69202
:S9-69234
~%.69266
j9-69298
4'9-69393
2 j 9-69425
4i9-69457
, 9-69488
25i 9-695 20
9-69552
9.69584
9.69615
369.65104
3719-6513°
38I9,65I55
399.65180
409.65205
4I1!9-6523°
4^9-65255
439.65281
449.65306
4519-65331
4619-65356
47i9-65381
489.65406
499-6543^
50,9.654^6
519.65481
52I9.65506
53|,9-6553i
549-65556
559-6558°
51
26
25
25
25
25
2 5
26
569.65605
579.65630
58 9-65655
965680
609.65705
Col. I
5
25
25
25
2^
25
-5
25
25
25
24
25
25
25
2
2J
19.69963
9-69995
9.70026
9-7°°58
9.70089
9.70121
9.70152
9.70184
9.702151
9.70247
9.70278
9-7°3°9
9.7034!
9.70372
9.70404
9-7043,^
9.70466^
9.70498"0
9.70529
9.70560
2
2
;|32
S2
32
S2
32
32
S2
32
32
32
31
S2
32
32
32
31
32
32
32
31
32
32
31
32
32
31
32
31
S2
32
31
32
31
S2
31
32
31
32
31
r
32
31
31
32
31
32
31
Cot.
10.31182
10.3 n 50
10.31118
10.310S6
Col. D.
9'95366':6
'9-9536%
9-95354\6
9-9534%
10.31054:9.95341^
10.3102,219.95335U
19-95329(5
*9-95323 6
9-953ll h
9-953I06
9-95304^
10.30990
IO-3°958
10.30926
10.30894
10.30862
10.30830
10.30798
10.30766
I0-3o734
10.30702
9.70592
9.70625
9.70654
9.70655
9-7°7I7
Cot.
ic.30671
10.30639
10.30607
10-3057 5
IO-30543
9-952986
9-95292 6
9.95286°
9-952796
9-95273
10.30512
10.30480
10.3 0448
10.30416
I0-30385
io-3°353
10.30321
10.30290
io-3°258
10.30226
10.30x95
10.30163
10.30132
10.30100
10.30068
9-95i736
9-95167
9-9 5160^
9-9 5154 6
9.95148
10.30037
10.30005
10.29974
10.29942
10.29911
10.29879
10.29848
10.29816
10.29785
I0-29753
9-95I41 6
9-95I35 6
9.95129
9-95i226
9-95116 ^
10.29722
10.29691
10.29659
10.29628
10.29596
10.29 c6 f
xo.29534
10.29502
10.29471
10.29440
10.29408
IO-29377
10.29346
10.29315
10.29283
Tang.
9-952676
9-9526i
9-952546
9-9 5 248 6
9-95242 6
9-95236
9-95*296
9-95**3 6
9-9$ 217 6
9.952x1
9-95204 6
9-95i986
9-95i92 h
9-95i85 6
9-95i796
9.951x0
9-95io3 6
9-9 509717
9-95090 6
9-9 5o84 6
9-95078
9-9507%
9-95o65 6
9-95059
9-9 50 5* 6
9.95046
9-95039 6
9-95°33 6
9.95027
9-95Q20 6
9-95OI4
9-95oo7 ^
9.950016
9-94995 7
9-94988 7
Sin.
60
59
18
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
P
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
58
37
36
35
34
33
52
31
32
29
28
27
26
5
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
l7
16
£5
J4
!3
12
11
10
63 Degrees.
Sin.
09-65705
19.65729
j Ta»g-
D
24|9’7°7i7
25I9”7074^3
27 Degrees.
25
19.70779
29-65754
39-6577$ y. , 
49.6580422|9.7084l0
5 9-65828 9-70-873 j
69-65853
9.65878
89.65902
99.65927
12 2i659 53
119.659761
129.66001
39.66025
49.66050
159.66075
69.66099
179.66124
189.66148
199.66173
20I9.66I97
21 9.66221
29.66246
239.66270
2^9.66295
519.66319
269.66343
279.66368
289.66392
299.66416
309.66441
319.66465
329.66489
339-66513
349-66537
359.66562
369.66586
379.66610
389.66634
399.66658
409.66682
41 9.66706
429.66731
439-6675.5
449.66779
459.66803
469-66827
479.66851
489.66875
499.66899
509.66922
519.66946
529.66970
539,66994
549-67OI8o4
5519.670142
5619.67066
5719.67090
589.67113
S'9 9.67137
609.67161
Cof.
9-7
7i524
9-71555 3T
9.7x5868
2}i9-7I6i7
9.7x648
24!9-7i679
9-7I7°9
7x740
9-7I77i
9.7i8o2jO
D.i Cot.
9.7o8io3I
2
131
9-70904b
9-70935^
9.70966J0
i9-7°997j81
1028:
■ 31
r
J31
31
32
31
31
Co!'.
jD.i
10.29283
'10.29252
10.29221
10.29100 9.94060!
x0.29159 9.94962^
'10.291279.94956I
9.94988;^
9-94982*
9-94975(5
31
9-71059;
9.7x09
9.7x121
9-7II53
19-71184
19.71215
9.71246°
9-71277
9-7I3°88
9-7i3393I
31
3°
31
31
3i
31
9.71370
9.71401
9.7x431
9.71462
9*71493
10.29096,9.94949;^
10.29065'9.94943 7
x 0.29034; 9.9493 6^
10.2900319.94930
10.28972^9.94923
10.28941 9.94917
10.28910j9.949n
10.28879:9.94904
10.28847119.94898
10.288161:9.94891
.28:785 9.94885
10
10.28754; 9.94878
10.28723'
10.28692
xo.
9-9487;
, ,9-94865
866119.94858^
9.71986
9.72017
9.720488
9.720783°
9.72109
9.72140
9.72170
9.72201
9.72231
9.72262
9.72293
9-72323
9-72354
9-72384
9.72415
9-7244 ,
9.72476°^
9.72506"°
24 9'72337
'I9-72567
Cot.
31
9-7i833
9-71863 3
9.7x894-D
9.7x925
7l955
io.2863o’;9.94852
1o-28599i;9-94845
10.28 ^60:9.94839
Io-28538j9-94832
10.28 50719.94826
io.28476!9.948i9^
10.28445
10.28414
10.28383’
io-2S352
10.28321
10.28291
10.28260
9.94813
9.94806
9-947996
9-94793
10.28229 9.94767
10.28198 9.94760
10.28167
10.28137
10.28106
10.28075
10.28045
10.280x4
10.27983
xo.27952
10.27922
xo.27891
10.27860
10.27830
10.27799
1769
X0.2
xo-27738
10.27707
10.276779.94647
10.27646
10.27616
10-27585
IO-27555
10.27524
IO-27494
ro.27463
1Q-27433
tang.
9.94786
9.94780
9-94773 6
9-94753
9-94747
9.94740
9-94734
9.94727
I9.94720
|9-947I4
9.94707
19-94700
9.94694
9.94687
9.94680 ^
<>94674
9.94667
9.94660
:9-94654
9.94640
^•94634.
9-94627!'
9.94620'
9.94614!
9.94607I'
9.94600'
9-94593 7
Sin.
60
59
58
'57
6
33
54
53
52
151
5£
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42,
41
4£
39
38
37
36
33
34
33
34
1
351
29
28
2
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
*9
18
*7
16
l4
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
62 Degrees.
4120
28 Degrees.
' I' Sin.
o 9.67*61
1 9.67185
29.67208
3,9.67252
49-67256
9:9.67280
6 9.67303
D.
Tang. ID.
J9-72567L
^,9.72598-
2j 9*72628
^ 9-72659
2Ji9-72689
19-72720
3 9.727CO
7 9.67327 2^| 9.7 2780
8 9.673 90
99-67374
10,9.67398
11 9.67421
12 9.6744 c
13 9.67468
14,9.67492
r5 9-^7515
0.72811
^9-7 2841
2^19‘7 2872
16,9.67539
17,9.67 962
18 9.67 986
19 9.67609
20:9.67633
21I9.67656
22 9.67680
23:9.67703
24 9.67726
25!9-<>775.o
269.67773
77 9.67796
28 9.67820
9.72902
24| 9.72932
9.72963
^ 9-72993
^9-73°23
23
24
23
24
23
24
23
23
9.67843
.67866
0.67890
9.67959 23
6198223
24
16
47
5°
Cot.
Cof.
! 9.94580
9*94573
9-94567
9.7 3° 54
9.73084
9"73II4
9-73I44
9-73175
'9.73205
9.73235
9.73265
9.73205
9.73326
29
3°
31
32
33
35
3 5 ____
36 9.68006
.68o29|23
:38 9.68052 ~~
9.68075
9.68098
9.68121
9.68144
9.68167
9.68190
45 9.68213
9.68237
9.68260
9.68283
9.68305
9.68328 2 3
9-73346
9-733^6
9-7341
9.73446
9.73476
9.73507
9.73537
9.73567
9-73 597
9-73627
9.756
9.73687
9.757-7
9.72747
9.73777
3°
31
30
31
3°
3°
31
3°
3°
31
3°
3°
3°
31
3°
3°
3°
3°
31
3°
30
6 30
3°
3°
31
3°
3°
3°
3°
3°
3°
io.27433|9.94593
10.27402(9.94587
10.27372
10.27341
10.27311
10.27280
10.27250
10.27220
10:27189
10.27159
10.27128
10.27098
10.27068
10.-270-3 7
10.27007
- w - — y / ^ ^ ^ ^
IO.26977 19.94492
IO.26946'9.94485 6
IO.26916
10.26886
IO.26856
10.26825
IO.26795
IO.26765
io.26735!
10.26705
10.26674
,i3(
9.73807
9.73837
9.73867
23 9.73897
' ”9.73927
9.68351
529.68374
39.68397
4 9.68420
_' 0.68443
56,9.68466
,570.68480
58 9.68512
599.68534
6° 9,68557
Cof.
9.739 c7
9.73087
9.74017
9.74047
9.74077
9.74107
9-74I37
9.74166
9.74196
9.74226
3°
9.9456o;
9*945 53 j7
19.94546,6
|9.94 54°|7
:9.94533 7
9.94526
9-94 5I9 6
!9.94513
(9.94506
(9.94499 7
10.26644
10.26614
10.26584
10.26554
10.26524
9.94479
9.94472
9.94465
,9‘94458
9.94451
9.94445
19-9443 8
9-94431
9.94424
10.26493
10.26463
10.26433!
10.26403!
10-26373
io-26343
10.26313
10.26283
10.26253
10.26223
10.26193
10.26163
10.26133
9.94417
9.94410
9-94404]7
9-94397j7
9-9439° h
9-94383>7
9-943767
9-94369,7
9-94362:;
9-94355 6
9-94349'
9-94342
9-94335
9-94328
9.94321
9.742 56
9.74286
9*7431 '
9.74345
9-74375
Cot.
3°
3°
3°
3°
29
3°
3°
3°
3°
6 30
2 9
3°
9-943 T4 7
9-943°7:7
9-943°°|7
10.26103! 9.94293!;
io.26o73;|9.94"86| '
9.94279^
9.94273 u
9.94266 (7
9*94259*'
10.26043
10.26013
5° 10.25983
i°.2.5953
10.2 5923
10.25893
10.25863
10.25834
10.25804
10.25774
10.25744
10.25714
10.25684
10.25655
10.25625
Tang.
9-94252
9.94245
9.94238 V
Q.94231
(9.94224
(0.94217
60
59
5 8
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
5°
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
4^
32
3 8
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
3°
20
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
10
18
17
16
9.94210
9.94203
9.94106,7
0.94189 7
(9.94182 7
Sin.
10
rw
29 Degrees.
89.68739
9.68762
109.68784
11 9.68807
12 9.68829
3 9.68852
149.68875
159.68897
169.68920
79.68942
189.68965
99.68987
209-69010
21 9-69032
229.69055
23 9-69077
249.69IOO
259.69122
^69.69144
279.69167
9.69189
9.69212
9-69234
Sin.
D.
9-68557
9.68580
29.68603
39.68625
4 9.6S648! 3
5(9.68671 ?3
9-74375
;9-74405
:9-74435
9-74465
9-74494
9.74524
6(9.68694
22
23
- |23
99.68762^
23
22
23
23
22
23
22
23
22
23
22
Tang. D-l Cut.
9-74554
(9"74583
9-74613
(9.74645
9-74673
9.74702
9-74732
9.74762
9-7479^
,9.74821
10.25625
0 110.25595
30:I0.25565
301 J
■Xn IO-25535
"10.25 506
8°:io.2 5476
3°|—-- g
2Q!IO-25446
^40.25417
35IO-25387
Cof.
19.94182
(9-94I75
19.94168
(9.94161
(9.94154
9.94147
,9.94140
;>9-94l33~
;9.94i26'
io-25357 ■9-94II9(Z
29—25327:T94^2'
iio-252v 8,9.94105
10.25268 (9.94098 /
9.69256
9.69279
9.69301
349.69323
9.69345
,69.69368 l
, .9.69390”
58 9.69412
9.69434
0.69456
29
3°
— 3°
9-7485I 2Q
9-7488C®
9.74910 20
9-74939Uo
9.7496929
10:2 5238 9.94090,
10.2520919.940837
10.25179 9.94076 '
10.25149
10:25120
10.25090
10.2-5061
10.25031
9-74998 30
9.75028^
9.75058:3
9-75o87i3o
9.75II7j29
10.25002'9.94034
io.24972i
10.24942
10.249131
10.24883(9.94005
9-75i4«i,0
9-75n6,C
9-7J2°5Uo
9-7523J,-Xn
9-75264(35
9-75^94l29
9.75323Lo
9-75353 20
9.75382^
9*7 C411 30
9.69479
9.69501
9.69523
9-69545
9-69567
9-69589
9.69611
489-69633
9.69655
9-69677
9.69699
9.69721
_ 9-69743
549-69765
559^9787
c6 9.69809
;*7jo.69831,22
c8j9-69853 22
CQ9-69875
60,9.69897 2
Cof.
10.24854
10.2482419.93991
10.24795
10.24765 9-93977
io.24736(9.9397o
10.24706
9-75441!
9.75470,^
9.7550o;^
9:75558^
9-7573 5
9-75764^
|9"7 5793 2q
9-75822! 9
9.758523o
9.75588
9.75617 "
9.7564730
9.7567^9
9.75707^
9.94069
9.94062 '
9.94055?
9.94048;
9.94041 *
9.94027
9.94020^
9.94012
9.93998
9.93984
9.93963
10.24677; 9-93955
10.24647
9.93948
10.24618 9-93941
10.24589(9-93934
10.24559
9.93927
9.75881
9-75910
9-75939
9.75969
0.7 5998
10.24412
10.24383
10-243 53
10.24324
10.24295
10.24265
10.24236
10.24207
10.24178
10.24148
10.24090
10.24061
10.24031
610.24002
10.24530 9.93920'
10.24500,9-93912 ^
10.2447c 9-939°5
10.24442 9.93898
9-93891-
9.93884V
9-93876L
9.93869?
9.93862'
9-93855
9-938471;
9-93840!;
9-93833;;
9.93826 V
60
59
58;
57
36
55
:>4
53
52
51
5°
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
4_o
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
3?
29
28
27
26
^5
24
23
22
21
IO.241199.9381912
  9.93811 °
9.93804?
9-93797 Z
9-93789^
2^iIO-2397319.93782!
2910.2394419-93775;?
3° io.239i4p9-93768 ;
29!io.2388i:j,9.9376oH
29! 1 o. 2 3 8 5 6 j19^9 3 7 5_3 ‘4
j Tang. 1 Sin.
60 Degree^.
i
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS,
121
30 Degrees.
Sin.
9.69897
9.69919
9.69941
3 9’69963
9.69984
9.70006
4
5  
6 9.70028
7 9-70050
8,9.70072
9'9-7°093
10I9.70115
9-70I37
12 9.70159
13 9.70180
14 9.70202
159.70224
16,9.70245
i7j9-70267
18I9.70288
199.70310
209.70332
9-70353
9-70375
9.70396
249.70418
^5
26
9:70439
9.70461
9.70482
9.70504
9-7°525
9-70547
9.70568
9-70590
9.70611
9.70633
359.70654
37
38
39
40
,41
369.70675
9.70697
9.70718
9-70739
9.70761
9.707S2
42 9.70803
43 9.70824
449.70846
459.70867
469.70888
47 9.70909
48 9.70931
499.70952
509.70973
51 9.70994
529.71015
5319.71036
5419.71058
5^9.71079
56I9.71100
57I9.71121
58(9-7ii42
599.71163
60.9.71184!
D.
22;
22;
21
22
22 i
22
21!
22
Tang.
D.
9.76144
9.76173
9.76202
9.76231
9.76261
9.76290
9-76319
9.76348
9-76377
9.76406
i9-76435
21
22 i
21
22
9.76464
9-76493
,9.76522
9-76551
,9;76j8c
9.76609
9.76639
9.76668
'9.76697
i9*76725
22
21
21
22
21
21
22
21
21
21
22
21
21
21
22
21
21
21
j9.76754
■9-76783
19.76812
9.7684
9.7687
9.76899
9.76928
9-76957
9.76986
9.77015
I9-77044
>9-77073
(9.77101
9.77130
9-77 759
9.77188
9.77217
9.77246
9.77274
9-77303
,9-77332
9.77361
9-7739°
9-774l8
9.77447
9.77476
’9-77505
9-77533
9.77562
9-77591
9.77619
9.77648
9-77977
9.77706
9-77734
21
Cot.
10.23856 9-93753
29jio.23827
29 10.23798
10.23769
10.23739
10.23710
10.23681
10.236 c 2
29 10.23623
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
3°
29
29
28
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
28
29
29
29
29
29
28
29
29
29
29
28
29
io-23594
Cof.
D.
9-937468
9-93738 7
9-93731 7
9-93 7 24 7
9-937I7s
9-93709 7
9.937027
9-93695 8
9.93687
10-23 565 i9-9368o
io-23536
10.23507
10.23478
IO-23449
10.23420
10.23391
10.23361
10.23332
10.23303
IO-23275
10.23246
10.23217
10.23188
10.23159
10.23130
10.23101
10.23072
10.23043
10.23014
10.22985
10.22956
10.22927
10.22899
10.22870
10.22841
10.22812
10.22783!
io-22754!
10.22726!
10.22697
10.22668
10.22639I9.93442
10.22610; 9.93435
1 Cof.
9-77763
'9-7779I
21 9-77820
2I; 9-77849
21,9.77877
Cot.
10.22524
10.22495
10.22467
10.22438
10.22409
10.22381
10.22352
10.22323
10.22294
10.22266
10.22237
10.22209
10.22180
ic.22151
10.22223
Tang.
9-93673 8
I9-93665 7
19-93658(1 14
I9-93650 7
;9-93643 7
!9-936368
9.93628
9.93621
9-936l4b
,9.936067
(9-935998
9-93591 7
9-93584 7
9-93577 8
9-935697
8
9-93562
9-93554
9-93547
9-93539 7
9-93532
9-93525
9-935I7 7
9-935IO
9-93502
9-93495
9-93487 .
9-9348o 8
9-93472
9-93465 8
9-93457 7
8
9-9345°
10.2258219-93427
io-22553 9-9342Q8
9-93412
9-93405^
9-93397
9-93390^
9-93382
9-933758
i9-93367
9.93360
9-9335
9-93344
7
.8
8
9-93337g
9-933297
9-93322,'
9-933I4L
9-93307 7
Sin.
59 Degrees.
Sin.
D.
9.71184
9.71205
29.71226
39.71247
49.71268
9.71289
69.71510
9-7I33I
89-7I352
9-7I373
9-11393
9.71414
9-7I435
139-7i45'6
I49-7I477
I59-7I498
i69-7i5i9
I79-7I539
I8f9-7156o
9.71581
9.71602
37
9.71622
9.71643
9.71664
9.71685
25 9-71705
269.71726
9-7I747
9.71767
9.71788
9.71809
31 9.71829
329.71850
33
34
35
9.71870
9.71891
9-7i9ii
21
20
21
369.71932
9.71952
389-7i973
399.71994
409.72014
9.72034
9-72055
9.72075
9.72696
9.72116
41
42
43
44
45
469.72137
479-72157
489.72177
9.72198
9.72218
519.72238
529.72259
53 9-72279
549-72299
559.7232^
31 Degrees.
Tang. D.( Cot.
9-77877!2Q!IO-22i23
9.77906 2^jio.22094
Aio.22065
9-77935
9.77963
9.77992
9.78020
(9.78049
.9.78077
;9.78106
:9-78i35
9.78163
9.78192
9.78220
9-78249
9.78277
,9.78306
’9-78334
'9-78363
I9-78391
>9.78419
9.78448
2Q
9.78476
9-78505 7o
!9-78533?o
9-78562|29
9.78590
28
9.78618I28
9-78647^
,9-7^675i n
9.78704 •‘•9
9.78732
Cof.
!9-93307 3
>9-93299 8
i9-9329I
10.22037(9.93284^
10.22008(9.93276
10.21980 !9-93269
10.21951 9.93261
10.21923 9.93253
10.21894(9.93246 7
10.21865 9.93238
to.21837 9-93230
10.21808 9.93223
10.21780 9.93215
IO-2I 751 (9-93207
IO.21723 (9.93200
10.216949.93192
9.93184
I0.2l666
IO.21637
10.21609'
IO.21581!
IO-2I552|
IO.21524!
IO.21495
IO.21467
IO.2I438I
IO.214IO
IO.21382
IO-2i353
10.21325(9.93092
569.72340
57(9.72360:
589.72381!
59
9.72401
6017-72421,
9.78760
(9.78789
19.78817|„
9-78845 28
9:78874!29
28
29
28
28
28
9.78902
9.78930
9-78959
9.78987
9.790:15
9-79°43
9-79072 29
9.79100
9.79128:
9.79156
9.79185
9.79213
9.79241
(9.79269
9.79297
10.21296;
10.21268
10.21240
10.21211
10.21183
I0-21155
10.21126
10.21098(9.93030
10.:
I07°!
10.2104119.93014
IO.21013I9.93OO7
10.20985(9.92999
9-93177
9-93I69
9.93161
9-93154
9-93i46
9-93 iS8
9-93 iS1
9-93123
9-93II5
9-93io8
9-93100
9.93084
9-93077
9.93069
9.93061
(9-93053
9-93046 7
9:93 °3 8 g
9.93022
10.2081519.92952
10.20787(9.92944
io.20759:9.92936
10.20731:9.92929
10.20703II9.92921
Io-20957;9-9299I
10.20928:9.9 2983
io.209oo*9.9 29767
10.20872(9.92968
10.20844:9.92960
D
I9-79326 2§ 10.20674 9.929131
^ ij0^0646,9.92905^
Cof.
9-79354
(9.79382
9.7941a
9'79438
9.79466
9-79495
9-79523
9-79551
9-79579
Cot.
2g!io.20618
23,10.20590
28 10-20562
29!io^°534
2g 10.20505
28 IO.20477
2g io.20449
IO.2042I
Tang.' •
9-92897,8
9.92889:°
9.92881
9.92874
9.92866
9,92858(0
9.92850L
9.928421°
Sin.
58 Degrees.
Vol. XII. Part I.
122
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
32 Degrees.
69.7254
79.72562
89.72582
99.72602
109.72622
11 9.72643
129.72663
139.72683
149.72703
1 ^9.72723
169.72743
i79-72763
189.72783
199.72803
209.72823
09.72421 2Q
19-7244I
29.72461
39.72482
. 20!9-796(53;28IO-20337
9-725°2 20 l9-7969I!2810-20309
59-72522 on ^g^'oS10-20281
Sin.
D.
Tang. jD.
20 9-79747'2q IO-2°253
2o!9-79776|28IO-20224
20 !9-798o4]28 io-20196
9.79832|2g 10.20168
9.7986oj28 10.20140
9.79888
20
21 9.72.843
229.72863
23 9-72883ii9
249-729022o
259.7292220
20
20
20
269.72942
279.72962
289.72982
299.73002
309.73022
319.73041
329.73061
339.73081
349.73101
35 9*731
369-73i40
37I9-73i60
38j9.73l8°
399.73200
4°9.73219
41
43
9.73239
9.73259
9.73278
9-79579^8 10.20421 9.928423
i9.796o7|28IO-2°393 9.92834!8
9-79635128 io,20365 9-9282^8
1    9.92818A
9.92810
9.92803 8
9-92795 8
9.927878
9-92779 8
8
9.79916
9-79944 28
2810.20112
2g 10.20084
9.79972
9.8000
9.80028
9.80056
9.80084
9.80112
9.80140
9.80168
9.80195
9.80223
9.80251
9.80279
44i9.73298
•45 9-73318
469.73337
479-73357
48 9-733 77
499.73396
509^3416
51
52
153
9-73435
9-73455
9.73474
,549-73494
55|9-735I3
!9
20
20
20
20
J9
20
20
20
!9
20
20
J9
20
20
!9
20
20
!9
20
19
20
9.8o3°7
9-8o335
9.80363
9.80391
9.80419
9.80447
9.80474
9.80502
9.80530
9'8o558
9.80586
9.80614
9.80642
9.80669
9.80697
10.20056
10.20028
Cot.
28
2g 10.20000
28,0-I9972
28 io'i9944
2310.19916
3 10.19888
2g 10.19860
27 IO.I9832
28l0.I9805
28 I°.I9777
28 I°.I9749
1 o. 197
2810.19693
2810.19665
28IO*I9637
2810.19609
28 IO"I9581
27 I°.I9553
2810.19526
28IO>I9498
281°.I9470
28 £2:1944 2
28IO-I94I4
28IO-I9386
2710.19358
_olT 0.102 2 I
Cof. D.i '
60
9.92771 0
9.927638
9.92755 8
9-92747 8
9-92739 8
9.9273 ^
9.92723 8
9’92V S 8
9.927078
9.926998
9.926918
9-926838
9.8072 c
9"8o753
9.80781
9.80808
19.80836
28,10.19331
28110,193°3 9.92522 u
'10.19275^9.925148
9.92675 s
O.92667 n
9.92659 8
9.9265I
9.92643
9.92635 8
9.926273
9.926193
9.92611 g
9-926038
9.92595 u
9.92587 8
9.92579
9.92571 8
9.92563 s
|9.92555q
9.925468
!9.925388
9.9253° 8
!9.8o864 28
9.8o892i27
19.80919128
10.19247
10.19219
10.19192
10.19164
10.19136
10.19108
10.190S1
y.uwyxy 28
1'9.80947<28!10'i9053
1^80975 28!£^£9££5
9.8ioo3j2Jio.i8997'9.9243318
i9|9‘?IO3°'28!l0'I?970j9.92425lg
120
x9
20
569.73533
5719.73552
589.73572
59S9.73591
10 9.73611
CoC
20
9.925063
9.92498 s
’9.92490 s
9.92482
9.92473 8
9.92465 3
9.92457 8
9.92449 8
9-92441 r
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
££
49
4 8
47
46
45
44
43
42
141
4£
39
38
37
56
35
34
33
32
31
3?
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
*9
18
27
16
£5
J4
l3
12
11
10
9.81058128'10.18942! 9.92416 g
!9.8io86ii |io.i89i4:9.92408^
J9-81113ioS I0.l8887j9.92400,s
'i ~ O . ,
I0l9.8iI4I!o8!l0-l8859i9.92392j8
9-Sl 169 2 ji°.l883i 9.92384!^
19 9-0119^|28 io.i88®^ 9.923761
9.81224! 8
20l9.8l252‘ !
Cot.
10.1 r
10.18776I9.92367,9
10.J874S) 9.923 590
Tang. *' Sin.
57 Degrees:
33 Degrees.
Sin. 1D.| Tang. |D.
69.73727i2p!9^I4l8
79.73747|iQi9.8l445
89.73766j9:9.8l473
99.73785 20 9'8l5°o
°9-73«II!I99-8^j2
29'73^0|i9’9'QI3°7k
39-73«9|2o!9-3,33J27
49-736J9I9te-8i362^
J9-737=8!Ij94£3922g
27
28
27
28
28
27
28
27
28
27
28
7
28
27
28
9.73805
10
119.73824
12 9-73843
J3 9.73863
149.73882
15 9-739°1
i69.7392i
17 9-73940
18 9.73959
i99-73978
20 9^3997
21 9.74017
229.74036
23 9.74055
249.74074
25 9.74093
26 9.74113
279.74132
289.74151
299-74i7o
309.74189
31 9.74208
329.74227
339.74246
349.74265
359.74284
369.74303
379.74322
389.74341
9.74360
74379
9.74398
9"744I7
9.74436
9-74455
9-74474
469.74493
479.74512!
48
20
i9
19
20
x9
J9
20
i9
*9
19
J9
20
x9
19
x9
x9
20
x9
*9
x9
x9
x9
x9
x9
x9
x9
x9
x9
x9
x9
x9
x9
x9
x9
x9
£9
x9
x9
i9i
9.81528
9.81556
9.81583
9.81611
9.81638
9.81666
9-81693
9.81721
9.81748
9.81776
9.81803
9.81831
9.81858
9.81886
9.81913
9.81941
9.81968
9.81996
9.82023
9.82051
9.82078^
9.82106
9.82133
9.82161
9.82188
9.82215
10.18748
10.1872]
10.18693
10.18665
10.18638
10.18610
10.18582
10.18555
10.1852719.92293I9
10.18500,19.92285 g
10.18472:
Cot.
Cof.
D
|9.92359
9-9235xt8
9-92343 8
9.92335
'9.92326
9-92318
;9.92310
19*92302
10.18444
9.92277 s
9.92269
10.17922
9.82243
9.82270
9.82298
9.82325
9.82352
9.82380
9.82407
9.82435
9.82462
9.82489
0.82 ^17
9.82544
. 9.7453x!j!9.8257x
499-74549!1(£9.82599
509.74^68,^1,9.82626
xo.i7757
10.17730:
10.17702!
10.18417 9.9226
10.18389:9.922523
io.i8362i9.92244
^1833419^92235
10.18307I9.92227 g
io.i8279'9.922i9 g
10.18252I9.92211
I0.l8224!9.92202|
io.i8i97i 9.92194 g
10.18169 9.92i86g
10.18142I9.92177 3
10.1811419.921698
10.18087 9.92161 g
10.1805919.92152^
10.18032 9.921443
io.i8oo4!9.92I36
10.1797719.92127^
xo.i7949|9.92ii98
9.92111
/y— .
10.17894I9.92102 g
io.i7867!9.920948
10.17839 9.92086
10.17812J9.92077 g
10.1778519.92069
9.92060 g
9.92052 o
9.92044
x0.17675! 9-9 203 5 8
10.1774819.92027
10.17620
xo.i7593
10.1 7565S9.92002
10.17538
10.17511
10.17483
10.17456
10.17429
10.17401
10.17374
9.92018 g
9.920103
..... b*826531 g
9-746o6,Ig! 9-82681 ^
00,9.74625^^19.82708 ^
549.74644IJ8 9.82735
55I9.74662, t J'9.82762
5619.746811^19.82790
19 9.82817
579.74700!^
5 8|9.74719i j g ,9.8 2844
599.74737'IQ9.8287i
6o!9'.74756l ^,9.82899
Cof
x°.i7347
9.92993^
9.9198
9.919763
9.91968
9‘9X959
9.91951
9.91942
9-9x934
xo.i73x9l9.9x925 8
10.172929.91917
10.172659.9190'
10.17238,9.91900
Cot.
9.91891
9.91883 Q
,--r- / -j - 9.9I874 O
10.17129:9.91866,^
10.17210
27l1°.i7x83
7110,17156
38
9
8
10.171011
6c
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
5£
49
48
47
46
44
43
42
4X
4°
39
58
37
36
5
34
33
32
3J
3£
29
28
27
26
£5
24
23
22
21
20
*9
18
x7
16
5
x4
x3
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
j;
4
3
2
1
o
1 Tang. '' Sin.
56 Degrees.
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
34 Degrees.
Sin.
9W56
9-74775
9-74794
9.74812
. 9-74831
5 9-74850
6j9.74868
7i9-74837
8|9-749°6
9|9-74924
i° 9-74943
11 9.74961
129.74980
I3 9-74999l!l'8
i49-750I7:Iq
15 9-75°36|ts
16 9-7 5? 54;
. 9-83334
9*75o73!Ty 9-83361
-- 11819.83388
I9-834I5
9-75i28|^|9-83442
9*75r47
9-75I^5
9.75184
9.7 c 202
9.75221
26 9-75239
2-7
. 9-75 258
289.75276
9-75294
9-75313
9-75331"
9-75350
9-75368
9-75386
35 9-75405
9-75423
. 9-75441 _
38 9-7545919
Tang.
D. Cot.
9.82899
9.82926
9-82953
9.82980
9.83008
9-83035
9.83062
9.83089
9.83H7
9-83I44
9.83198
9.83225
9.83252
9.83280
9-83307
510.17101
27:10.17074
27|io.17047
'"'10.17020
10.16992
27|io.i6965
27
27
28
.9-83470
b-83497
9-83524
9-83551
9-83578
39
40
9-75478
9-75496
9-755M
9-5 5533
9-75551
9-75569
9.75587
9.75605
9.75624
489.75642
9.75660
9-75678
9.75696
9-757I4
53 9-75733
54b-7575i
I59-75769
569.75787
47:9-758o5
,-89.75823
,99.75841
609.74849
Cof.
9.83605
9.83632
9-83659
9.83686
9-83 71
9.83740
9.83768
9-83795
9.83822
9.83849
10.16938
10.16911
Col'.
D.
9-9i857 §
9.91849
9.91840 g
9’9I832g
|9-9I823 8
9-9i8i5
9.91806 g
9.91798
27
27
27
27
27
28
27
27
27
27
27
27
28
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
2
27
28
27
27
27
27
10.16883 9.91789 3
10.16856II9.91781
10.16829I9.91772
10.16S02 9.91763 3
10.16775 9.9I755 Q
io.i6748[9.9I746 3
10.16720)9.91738
10.16693
9.83876
9-83903 27
9-83930
9-83957
9.83984
9.84011
9.84038
9.84065
9.84092
9.84119
9.84146
9.84173
9.84200
9.84227
9.84254
9.84280
9.84307
9-84334
9.84361
'9.84388
tq';9-844i5
0:9.84442
“9.84469;
j 3 :9-84496i25
ii Cot. I
10.16666
10.16639
10.16612
10.16585
10.16558
9.91720
9-9I7I
9‘9I703
9.91695
9.91686
10.16530
10.16503
10.16476
10.16449
10.16422
10.16395
10.16368
10.16341
10.16314
10.16287
10.16260
10.16232
10.16205
10.16178
10.16151
10.16124
10.16070
10.16043
10.15989
10.15962
IO-I5935
10.15908
10.15881
10.15854
10.15827:9.91451
10.15800
IO-I5773
10.15746
10.15720
10.15693
10.15666
10.15639
10.15612
io.i5585
io-i5558
IO-I553I
10.15504
IO-I5477
Tang.
9.91729
9.916773
9.91669
9.91660
9.91651
9.91643
9-9i634^
9-9i625 8
9.91617
9.91608
9-91599
9-9I59I 9
9.91182
9-9I573
9-9I565
9-91556
9-9 *547
10.1609719.915383
:9-9I53°
9.91521
10.16016:9.91512
9.91504
9-9I495
19.91486
:9-9I477
,9.91469
9.91460
19.91442
t9-9I433
|9-9I425
Sin.
55 Degrees.
8
60'
59|
58
571
56
55
54
53
52
51
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
4^
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
3^
29
28
27
26
T5
24
23
22
21
20
*9
18
J7
16
15
M
I3
12
11
10
I9.91416
!9-9I4°7
9-9i398
9-9I389 8
9-9138il9
9-91372 o
9-9I363g
9-9I354g
9-91345 g
■9.91336^
35 Degrees.
09-75859
19.75877
2 9-75895
3 9-75913
49-75931
59-75949
69-75967
79-75985
89.76003
99.76021
109.76039
119.76057
x 2 9.76075
13 9.76093
I49.76iix
159-76129
169-76146
X79-76I64
x89.76i82
i99.76200
209-76218
21 9*76236
229-76253
23
249.76289
259-76307
Sin.
D.j| Tang.
D.
T n,|9-84523
!fti'9-8455°
Jo 9-84576
n|!9-846o3
.0 9-8463°
Jb 9-84657
09-84684
Job-84?11
#•84738
“9.84764
-3 9-84791
9.84818
^19.84872 27
if-84899^
9.84923
Q 9-84952
gi9-84979
I9.85006
:9-85c33
9-8 5°59
9.70271
269.76324
279.76342
289-76360
299-76378
30 9-76395
3i9-764I3
329-7643t
go 9.764.48
349-76466
3] 9-76484
469-76501
379-765I9
389-76537,
399-76554
409-76572
4x9.76590
429.76607
439.76625
449,76642
4 9.76660
469-76677
479.76695
48 9.767 !2
499.76730
50 9-76747
5I9.76765
529.76782
33 9.768OO
549.76817
55 9-76835
9.85O86
9-85II3
9.85I4O
9.85166
9-85i93
9.85220
9.85247
9-85273
9.85300
9-85327
9-85354
9.8 5380
9.85407
xg 9-85434
5 9.85460
9.85487
i3i9-855i4
19-8554°
9-85567
9-85594
9.85620
9.85647
9.85674
0.8 cgoo
9.85727
9-85754
9.85780
9.8 fSog
9-85834
9.85860
9-85887!
Cot.
Cof.
IO-I5477i*9-9I336
10.1 34 C0H9.91328
IO.154249.91319
i°-I5397j|9-9f310
i0-I5370il9-9I301
IO-15343 9-9I292
86°
Q59
9}58
^57
356
slii
io.i53i6^.9i283 I54
10.15289 9.91274; g53
IO.I5262,9.9I266: J52
10.152369.912571 9 51
9.91248'0
D-l
10.15209
10.15182
IO-I5I55
10.15128
ic.15101
10.15075
10.15048
^'iio.i 5021
10.14994
2"
■TO.14967
26
10.14646
10.14620
IO-I4593
10.14566
Ho. 14540
IJ9-8594°i2;
79.85967) J
!;:9-85993i
56 9- 7 68 5 2) j 8!;9.8 60 20! ^
579.768^0! 19.860462
58;9.76887#'9.86073'^
59'9-769°4'x8!9-86ioo; g
60:9.769221 ^9.86126,
“l cdT^i-1 Cot. '
10.14941
9'9I239
!9-9i23°
9.91221
9.91212
9.91203
10.14914:
10.14887
10.14860
10.1483419.91123
10.14807
10.14780
IO-I4753
10.14727
10.14700
10.14673
I°-I4513
10.14486
10.14460
IO-I4433
10.14406
10.14380
i°-i4353|9-9°96o
10.14326
10.14300
10.14273
10.14246
10.14220
10.14193
10.14166
10.14140
9.9H94
9.91185
9.91176
9.91167
9-91158
9.91 r49
9.91141
9-9II32
9.91114
9.91105
9.91096
9.91087
9.91078
9.91069
9.91060
9.91051
9.91042
9-9I033
9-9io23
9.91014
9-9I005
9.90996
9.90987
9.90978
9.90969
9-9°951
9.90942
9-9°933
10.14113I9.90878
10.14087
10.14060)
IO-I4°33
10.14007!
10.13980
i°-I3954l
io-i3927
10.13900
10.13874^.90796
1 Tang.
9.90924
9.90915
9.90906
9.90896
9.90887
?36
9.90869
9.90860
9-9o85I
9.90842
9.90832
9.90823
9.90814
9.90805
Sin.
35
34
33
32
31
3^
29
9 28
9 27
9 26
25
24
23
22
o
54 Degrees.
123
12^
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
7d.
36 Degrees.
09.76922
19'7^939jI8
79'76957 I7
:-‘'9-76974:I7
49-7699IlI8
i 9-77009
69-77026.
7j9-77°43 x8
8j9.77°6xL_
9!9-77°78
ioi9-77095
9.86126
9.86x53
9.S6179
9.86206
9.86232
9.86259
1J 9-77112
149-77I47
149-77164
1 > 9-7718x
16 9-7 7199; 1
9.86524
Tang. ID.
9.86285
9.86312
9.86338
9.86365
9.86392
io-i3874
^io-x3S47
20 10.13821
IO-I3794
110.13768
^10-I374I
319.86418
9.86445
9.86471
9.86498
9.77285
9-77302 '
9-773J9 1
9-77336jI7,
9-7735347
9.8655:
9-772I6 Ti|9-86577
9-77233
9.77250
9.77268
J 3 9.86603
9.86630
9.86656
9-77370:i7
9-77387:i8
9-77405 i7
9-77422,I7
9-77439 i7
9-77456 I?
9-77473 i7
9-77490 i7
9-77507 17
3_^9-77524 17
369-7754iI7
S79-77558 i7
389-77575 i7
S99-77592 i7
40.9.77609 t7
14119.77626
429-77643 C
43,9.77660 j
9.87211
9.87238
j9.872'64
44i9-77677 I^9-8729o
45:9-77694
4619-777ii!i7 9-87343
47;9-77728 I6l;9-87369
48I9-77744 i7i9-87396
499-7776i|17::9-87422
5Q|9-77778|t7 9-87448
71
9.86683
9.86709
9.86736
9.86762
9.86789
9.86815
9.86842
9.86868
9.86894
9.86921
9.86947
9-86974
9.87000
9.87027 g
9-87053^
9-8707927
Cot.
I°-I37I5 9-90741
10.13688:9.90731
10.13662
IO-I3635
xo.i 3608
3582
IO-I3555
10.13529
X0.I3502
9-90694
9.90685
:9.9o676
9.90667
10.13476:9.90657
10.13423
IO-I3397
Io-I3370
IO-I3344
26
9-871 _
9-87i32 ^6
9-87158
9.87185
9.90396
. ,9-90386
261°-I2683!i9-9Q377
5Ii9-77795 17 9-87475
-329.77812 ' 9.87501
539-77829iI7!|9-87527
549.77846
:55 9-77862
56
! 7l9-87 580
9.87606
9-87633
9.87659
9.87685
9.877II
Cof.
D.
,9.90796
!9-90787
19-90777
9.90768
9-90759
9-90750
19.90722
[9-907I3
19.90704
10.13449 9.90648
10.13317
10.13291
10.13264
io.i3238
10.13211
9.90639
9.90630
9.90620
9.90611
9.90602
9.90592
9-90583
9-90574
9-90565
io.x3i85| 9.90555
io.i3i58 9.90546
10.13132 9.90537
10.13106I9.96527
10.13079 9.905x8
Io-I3053!i9-90509
10.13026 9.90499
10.13000
10.12973
10.12947
10.12921
10.12894
10.12868
10.12842
10.12815
9-90490 A
9.90480
9.90471
9.90462
9.90452
9-90443
9-90434
9.90424
60
59
58
9 56
9
_55
54
10
10.12789! 9.90415
10.12762:9.90405
10.12736J
10.12710
10
26
27
26
26
27
26
26
27
26
26
10.12657 9.90368
10.126311:9.90358
10.12604!! 9.903 49
10.12578^9.96339
Io-I2552:;9-9033Q ^
10.12525 9.90320
Cot.
10.12499
10.12473
10.12446
9.903x1
9.90301
9.90292
10.12420; 9.902821
IO-123 94;: 9-9° 27 3
10.12367, 9.90263
10.12341
10.12315!
10.12289
Tang.
9.90254
9.90244
9-90235
9
10
9
10
9
10
9
Sin.
53 Degrees.
o!9-77946
i!9-779G j'
29-77980.'
3j9-77997ij6
4.9.78013
519-78030,/
6j9-78o47jl6
719.78063^
819.78080^^
99-78097 A
10I9.78113 ^
11I9.78130
129.78147
139.78163
149.78180
59.78197
169.78213
17 9.78230
189.78246
199.78263
209.78280
2x 9.78296
22,9-783i3
23:9-78329
249-78346
37 degrees.
Sin. D.
25
9.78362
9-78379
9-78395
9.78412
9.78428
9-78445
9.78461
9.78478
9.78494
9.785x0
9.78527
369-78543
379.78560
389.78576
399.78592
409.78609
9.78625
27
26
26
27
26
26
9.87869 ^
9-87895 27
9.87922! A
9.87948 2
9.87974
9.88000
9.88027
9.88053
9.88079
9.88105
9.88131
9.88158
9.88184
9.88210
9.88236
-A
42,9.78642
449.786C8
449.78674
459-78691 A
4619.78707!^
A-’o723!^1
489-78739 17
499.78756 xl
50:9.78772;^
Tang.
D.
9.87711
9.87738
9-87764
9.87790
9.87817
9-87843
9.88262
9.88289
9.883x5
9.88341
9.88367
9-88393
9.88420 l
9.B844620
9.88472
9.88498
9.88524
9.88550
9.88577
9.88603
9.88629
9.88655
9.88681
9.88707
9-88733
9.88759
Cot.
10.12289
10.12262
10.12236
10.12210
10.12183
10.12157
10.12131
10.12105
10.12078
10.12052
10.12026
10.12000
10.11973
10.11947
10.11921
10.11895
Col.
9-90235
9.90225
9.90216
9.90206
9.90197
9.90187
9.90178
9.90168
9-90159
9.90149
!9-9OI39
I9.90130
9.90120
9.90111
9.90101
19.90091
10.11869I9.9008
ro.11842:9.90072
10.11816
10.11790
10.11764
10.11738
10.11711
IO.11685
10.11659
10.11633
10.11607
10.11580
I°-1I554
10.11528
10.11502
10.11476
10.11450
10.11423
IO-11397
10.11371
.88864
9.88890
9.88916
9.88942
9.88968
9.88994
9.89020
519.78788!
529.78805IJ'
53r7cQ2I!i6
549-78837 x6
55!9Ai853 x6
569.78869
57 9.78886
589.78902
599.78918
609.78934
Cof.
9.89046
9.89073
9.89099
9.89125
9^9I1I 26
io.ii345
10.11319
10.11293
10.11267
10.11241
9.88786 6
9.88812
16 9-88838
10.11084
10.11058
10.11032
9‘39177,26
.„,5-394°326
16 9-39229 26
16 9-89^3 26
9.8928I
Cot.
9.90034
9.90024
9.90014
9.90005
9-89995 IO
9.89985
9.89976
9.89966
9.89956
9.89947
10.11214
10.11188
10.11162!
10.11136
10.11110
9.90063
D, |
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
5°
49
48
47
46
9! 45
44
9
10
9-9oo53iIO
9.90043
9-89937
9.89927
9.89918
9.89908
9.89898
9.
10
1 o'
9
10
10
9
10
10
9.89888
9.89879
9.89869
9.89859
9.89849
9.89840
9-89830
9.89820
9.89810
9.89801
9.89791
9.89781
9.89771
10.11006 9.89761
10.1098019.89752
10.10954
10.10927
10.10901
10.1087 5
10.10849
10.10823
10.10797
10.10771
10.10745
10.10719
Tang.
9.89742
9.89732
9.89722
9.89712
9.89702
9.89693
9.89683
9.89673
9.89663
9-89653
Sin.
10
10
52 Degrees.
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
Q 9-78934
9.7895°
9.78967
39.78983
49.78999
9*79OI5
69.79031
9.79047
9.79063
9.79079
9-79°95
9-79111
9.79128
9-79I44
9.79160
9-79I76
9.79272
9.79288
9.79304
9-793I9
9-79335
26 9-79351
9-79367
9-79383
9-79399
9-794I5
Sin.
i69-79i92
x7 9-792°8
18 9.79224
9.79240
9.79256
9-79431
9-79447
33 9-79463
9.79478
9.79494
34
35
36 9-795IC
379.79526
389.79542
9-79558
9-79573
D.
38 Degrees.
CoT
D.
Tang^
9.89281
9.89307
9-89333 ^
9-89359;^
9-89385 J
9.89411,
9-89437
9.89463
9.89489!
9-895M 26
9.89541
I<7 9-89567
!6 9-89593
9-89619
' 9-89645
9.89671
9.89697
9.89723
9.89749
9-89775
6 9-8980
69.89827 6
9-89853 26
9.89879
9.89905
9-89931
9-79589
9.79605
9.79621
9.79636
9.79652
9.79668
9.79684
489.79699
499-797I5
5° 9-79731 ‘
51
5 2
9-89957
9.89983
6 9.90009
9-90035
9.90061
9.90086
9.90112
9.90138
9.90x64
9.90190
9.90216
16 9‘902^
9.90268
!, 9-9°294
16 9‘?°3 20
'9.90346
9.90371
9-9°397
9.90423
l6![9-9°449
6i 9-9047
x j9-90501
i5 9-9°527
6!9-9°553
9.90578
53 9-79778
54
55 9:798°9l6
56
9-79746!
9.90604
9-79762jl6l9.9o63o
9-79793|jgi
9.79825
579.79840
9.79856
9.79872
9.79887
Cof.
9.9065
9.90682
9.90708
10.10719
xo.10693
10.10667
10.10641
10.10615
10.10589
10.10563
10.10537
10.10511
10.10485
10.10459
Cof.
9-89653
9.89643
9-89633
9.89624
9.89614
9.89604
10-I0433
10.10407
10.10381
10.10855
10.10329
10.10303
10.10277
10.X0251
10.1022 5
IO.IOI99
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
25
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
25
26
26
26
26
IO.IOI73 9-89445
9-89435
9.89425
9.894x5
9.89405
IO.IOI47
IO.IOI2I
IO.IOO95
IO.IO069
IO.IOO43
10.100X7
IO.O999I
IO.O9965
IO.O9939
IO.O9914
IO.O9888
IO.O9862
IO.O9836
IO.0981O
IO.O9784
IO.O9758
IO.O9732
I0.09706j
IO.O9680
9-89594
9.89584
9-89574
9.89564
9-89554
9.89544
9-89534
9.89524
9.895x4
9.89504
9.89495
9.89485
9-89475
9.89465
;9-89455
Ti_
io!6°
lo0-^
xo|35
10,44
xo43
to52
51
5^
49
48
47
46
‘9j«
XO;44
10 43
42
41
40
10
10
10.09654
10.09629
10.09603 9.89223
10
9-89395
9-89385
9-89375
9.89364
9-89354
9.89344
9-89334
9.89324
9.893x4
9-893°4
9.89294
9.89284
9.89274
9.89264
9.89254
9.89244
9-89233
io|36
Iq!35
10 34
33
10
j, 9-9°734
I<!9-90759
9.90785
9.90811
9-9o837
Cot.
IO-°9577 9-89213
9-892°3
26!io-°9525 9-89193
26!I0-09499 9-89i83
26jio.°9473i 9.89173
2 io.o9447!!9.89162
.4j10-09422il9-89i52
2^iI0-09396]9-89I42
26 '"-^'9.89132
9.89122
9.89112
9.89101
10.09266 l9.8909i
10.0924119.89081
10.0921519.8907
10.09189 '19.89060
T0.09163 19.89050
26
10.09370
10.09344
10.09318
10.09292
Tang-.
Sin.
10
10
10
10
51 Degrees.
39 Degrees.
19-799°3iT r
29.799x8
3 9-79934
49-7995°
59-79965
Sin. l D
9.79887:^9.90837:2,,
lipoSSpi26
9.90914 ^
9.90940 26
69-7998I
79.79996
89.800I2
99.80027
IO9.80O43
I x 9.80058
129.80074
13 9.80089
149.80105
I3I9.80I20
9.90966
1619.80136
I7!9.80151
i8i9.8ox66
1919.80182
20I9.80197
2119.80213
229.80228
9.80244
9.80259
259.80274
41
0 X5 ^^20
429-8°534 Ig9.919i926
43 9-8c>55° ICI9-9I945 26
44;9-8o565Ii‘:!9-9197i
459.80580 / i^1996
9.80290
9.80305
9.80320
9.80336
9.80351
9.80366
9.80382
9.80397
9.80412
9.80428
9.80443
0.804 c8
9.80473
9.80489
9.80504
9.80519
Tang.
D,
9.90992
9.9x018
9-9I043
9.91069
9.9x095
9.91121
9.9x147
9-9ii72
9.91198
9.91224
9.9x250
9.91276
9.9130X
9-9I327
9-913 53
9-913 79
9.9x404
9.9x430
9.9x456
9.91482
9.91507
9-9I533
9-9ISS9
9-9I585
9.91610
Cot.
10.09163
io.°9I37
10.09111
10.09086
10.09060
10.09034
10.09008
10.08982
10.08957
10.08931
10.08905 9.88948
Cof.
9.89050
9.89040
9.89030
9.89020
9.89009
9.88999
9.88989
9.88978
9.88968
9.88958
10.08879 9.88937
10.0885319.88927
xcvg8828!;9.889I7
2^iio.o88o2i,9.889o6
29jio.o8776j!9.88896
'10.08750:9.88886
io.o8724i;[9.8887 5
io.o8699;9.88865
10.08673
^6122^X7
9.91636
9.91662
9.9X688
9-9^713 ^
9j9_m926
9.9x765
9.9x791
9.91816
9.91842
9.91868
9.91893
46;9-8o595
4719.80610
4819.80625.
4919.80641
5019.80656
51 9.80671
529.80686
539.80701
549.807161^9.922:
559-8o731!
10.08621
10.08596
10.08570
10.08544
10.08518
10.08493
10.08467
10.08441
10.08415
10.08390
10.08364
ic.08338
10.08312
10.08287
10.08261
10.082
10.08209
10.08184
10.08158
10.08132
10.08107
io.c8o8i
10.08055
10.08029
10.08004
xo.o7978i9.88573
ic.07952
10.07927:9.88 552
10.07901
^ 10.07875
“gio.0785
yio-°78%
10.07798
25I0-07773
15:
569.807461^9.92279
579.807621. JS9.92304
58 9.80777 Ji^! 9.92330
599.80792
609
S|9-92356
9.92381
Cot.
9.88855
9,88844
9.88834
9.88824
9.88813
9.88803
9.88793
9.88782
9.88772
9.88761
9.88751
9.88741
9.88730
9.88720
9.88709
9.88699
9.88688
9.88678
9.88667
9.88657
9.88647
9.8S636
9.88626
9.88615
9.88605
9.88594
9.88584
9.8856^
D.
10
10
10
10
10
9-88531
9.88521
9.885I01
19.8 849 9
9.88489!;°
610.07 747j9.88478j_|_,
10.0 7 7 2119.8 8468]"
10.07696 9.88457 ;o
io.o767o:!9.88447
10.07644J9.88436
10.0761919.88425
Tang. 1 Sin.
50 Degrees.
f
126
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS..
40 Degrees.
Sin.
09.80807
I 9.80822
29.80837
39.80852
49.80867
59.80882
69.80897
79.80912
819.80927
99.80942
109.80957
11 9.80972
129.80987
13 9.81002
149.81017
159.81032
169.81047
179.81061
89.81076
199.81091
209.81106
21 9.81121
229.81136
239-8h5i
249.81166
259.81180
269.81195
279.81210
a8 9.81225
299.81240
309.81254
319.81269
329.81284
339.81299
349.81314
359.81328
36*9.81343
379-8i358
389.81372
399.81387
409.81402
9.81417
429.81431
439.81446
449.81461
459-8i475
5l
469.81490
479-8i505
489.81519
499-8i534I?
509.81549^1
j ,
529.8
53
l>4
D.| Tang.
9.92792
,9.92817
r c j9-92.843
^19.92868
19.92894
r5
D
9.92381
9.92407
9-92433
9.92458
9.92484
9 92510
9-92535 26
9-9256i26
9.92587
9.92612
9.92638
9.92663
9.92689
9.92715
9.92740
'$.92766
[9.92920
r j9-92945
9.92971
9.92996
9.93022
9.93048
9-93073
9.93099
9-93124
9-93150
9-93175
9.93201
9.93227
9-93252
9.93278
9-93303
9-93329
9-93354
9.93380
9.93406
9-93431
9-93457
9.93482
9-935o8
9-93533
Cot.
10.07619:9.884251^
I0-07593 !9-884i5}TI
10.07567,9.88404
IO-°7542,9-88394
10.07516 9.88383
10.07490 9.88372
10.67465
10.07439
25!
26
25
26
26
25
26
26
25
26
25
26
26
25
26
25
26
26
25
26
25
26
25
26
26
25
26
25
26
25
26
26
25
26
25
26
IO.07413 9.88340
9.88350
9.88319
,07388
IO.O7362
IO-°7337
10.07311
10.07285
10.0726
10.07234
10.07208
10.07183
10.07157
10.07132
10.07106
10.07080
10.07055
10.07029
10.07004
10.06978 9.88158
10.06952
10:06927
10.06901
10.06876
10.06850
10.06825
10.06799
10.06773
10.06748
10.06722
10.0669^
10.06671
10.06646
10.06620
10.06594
10.06569
10.06543
26 io'o65i8| 9-87964
25 10-06492
10.06467
9-93559 2 cio-o6441 9-87931
9-93584 26!io-o64i6 9-87920
9.93610^10.06390
9-93636 2.10.06364
9-9366I 25,10.06339
Coi. lij.
9.88362
9.88351
9.88308
9.S8298
9.88287
9.88276
9.88266
9.88255
9.88244
9.88234
9.88223
9.88212
9.88201
9.88191
9.88180
9.88169
9.88148
9-88I37
9.88126
9.88115
9.88105
9.88094
9.88083
9.88072
9.8S061
9.88051
9.88040
9.88029
9.88018
9.88007
9.87996
9.87985
9-87975
9-87953
9.87942
10
9-93763 26 io-o6237
:9-93789L -|IO-o62i 1
9-8I563 j J 9-93687 2 r!10^ 13
9-81578 I^9-937I225;io.o6288
9.81592 4 9.93738 , .110.06262
.,,9.8,607;!
559-8i622
5619-81636 . „ .
57:9.81651 219.93840
jSd.81665! 419,93865
599.81680! 2 [9.93891
9.87909
9.87898!
9-87887!^
60
59
58
57
56
IO^i
54
53
52
51
5°
49
48:
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
4?
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
7
26
21
4
23
22
21
20
10
18
r7
16
15
J4
J3
12
11
10
10
10
10
9.87877
9.87866'
9-87855i“
9.87843,
9.87833!
9.93814^^10.06186 9.878221 ] 4
! jio.06160! 9.878n[I1i 3
2 d ^ loo 11 J
26IO-06I35|i9-878oo]ii 2
59;9.8168oi ^ [9.9389 iJ^|Io.o6io9l9-8 7789^ j
60-9.81694! 4,19.939161 4io.o6o84j!9.87778jI |
' 1  —'——  ^ nS ' ~ 1—
1 ang.
Cof.
Cot. 1
Sin.
49 Degrees.
Sin. D.
{9.816941
9-8170914
10.81723
0384
*5
219.8
3;9-8
4 9-8i75
5i9-8i767
. l8?o;4
9-818256
9-81839
69.8
7 9-8
89.8
9-81854 ^'9.94197 |
o.8i 868 9.94222 2^10.05778 9.§']64r6\l x
29.81868 ^[ 9.94222
3 9.81882 i41:9.94248 21,;io.o5752| 9.876^51:147
49-81897 I2||9.94273 26iIO-057'27 9-876241^46
5 9.81911,49.94299 .,5j10.05701 9-87613 j245
69.81926 [9.9432426ii0,05676; 9.87601 II44
9.81940 ^19-94350 2 J10.05650:9.87590 x j 43
9-8i955 !^j9-94375 26iIO‘°5625:9-87579 u
18 9.81955 6 [9.94375 26
199.81969 T9.94401
20 9.81983 ^,9-94426 2I
zz9-0^oi2I 19.94477 26lu-w55^3|9-°7535
23 9.82026 j] [9-94503 2 r I0-05497 9-87524
249.82041 > |9-94528 2610.05472 9.87513
25 9.82055 T^ 9-94554 25 io-°5446 9-875Qi
26 9.82069 ^[9.94579 2.10.05421! 9.87490
27
28
^ ^ 1 c 2~ 10-05421 9-87490
9.82084 ^ 9.94604 ^ 10.05396^9.87479
30
9.82098
9.82126
29!9.82I I 2 19.94655 26 JO-tJ. /
[9.94681 10.0531919.87446 T 93
9-946.-
I4
y
2 r—°537o| 9-87468
26 IO-°5345; 9-87457
31
9.82141
[9.94706
29,?2I55 i2!9-94732 25
339.82169
26IO-.°5294l 9.87434
IO.O5268: r, Pi 100
'9-947 5 7
2g io-°5243| 9-87412 j j
10.05217
ic.05192
34 9.82184 6 2 r
35 9-82198 x~j 9.94808
36 9.8 22! 2 9.948342 ,
37 9.82226 i2!9.94859 2- xc.05141 9.87367 x x 23
n Q'l '’nn/iRfii - 10.0 116 ^ ° ^ ^ ^
|9-94783 2r ^0.052I7 9-87401 „
'0.0^808 ^ic.o c102! p.87^9
37 9.02220 • 19.94059
38 9.82240 [9.94884 J
- 9.82255 ^19.94910 2 10.05090! 9.87345 j x 21
399.82255- 9.9491°
409.82269 ^[9-94935^
419.822831/; ,9.94961 10.05039,9.87322 xi
42 9-82297 J i9-94986 2610.05014! 9.87311 x x
43 9-82311 ^ ,9.95012 2 10.04988' 9.87300 x2
449.82326 > 9-95037 2r 10.04963:9.87288 xx
45 9-82340 j!; 9-95o62 26 1Q-0493819-872 77 ! j
469.82354  00 —
47 9.82368 4
48 9.82382 4
49 9.82396 4
5o9.«24ioT^
51 9-82424 j
9.952152,io-04785i9-87209!
52 9-82439 x7 9-95240 26 io-0476o, 9.87198
53j9-82453 Ili9-952662 10.0473419.871871 ,
54 9.82467 ITii9-95291 2610*04709i 9-87175i; j
? 99.82481 T 41:9.95317 ", 10-04683; 9.87164!
10.05599 9.87568 ix
10-o5574 9-87557 x,
43
42
41
    x^ /-f v-u/aa/! j 4^
Zl 9.81998 x 9-94452 2 r IO.O5548'; 9.87546 x x 39
22 9.82012 +19-94477 26 io-°5523! 9-87535 x j 3s
00 n •'!rvr\/irr>--) Tnnr/irv*-T'r\Q^ro^ ^
3
|35
34
33
3-
Tang
41 Degrees.
!9*939i6
:9-93942
i9-93967
9-93993
9.94018
9-94044
10.05982
9.87734
9-94095 Zci 0,059°5:i
,9.94120 IO.O588C
9.94146 2”|io.o5854
oGIio-°5829
D. Cot. 1 Co). :D.
10.06084,9.87778!
10.060 c8' 9.877671
Io.o6o33i9.87756LiI
10.0600719.87745^
11
11
11
11
11
10.05956 9-87723
9.94069 26!io-0593l!9-877i2
,9.87701
9.87690!
9-87679!: I51
,110.05803
6
59
58
57
56
55
54|
!53
152
9.87668
co
9-87657iII49
9.95088 IO.O4912| 9.87266
9-95I13 J 10-04887!9.87255 I2
9-951382 10.04861:9.87243 xi
9-95164 2610-04836,9.87 23 2^ 11
9-9519° 2510-04810; 9-872211 x 2 10
9-95215 2JrIO-°4785j 9-87209!
9-95240 26 io-°476o[ 9-87198:
10.04734:9.87187:
5619.82495 j ,:|9-95342!^610-04658!9-87i53!I2
5719.82509 iJ!9-95368j; 10.04632:9.87141
58,9.82523 x J9.95393I2'-10-04607!9-87130
599-82537Ij9-954I8y 10.04582:9.87119
6oi9^£55^ ii9-95444| " °
i Cof. ' il Cot, i
48 Degrees
10.04556; 9.87107
Tang. ^ Sin.
[48
9.87423
10.05166 9-87378 x j
9-87356
ic.05065,9.87334 T0
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
42 Degrees.
Sin.
D.
9-82551
9^565^1
9-82579I4
39-82593I4
49.82607: ^
5 9.8 26 21 t~j
Tsng. |D.| Cot. H Coi.
9.95444! ilO.04556 9.87107
69.82635
79.82649.
8I9.82663! ^
99-82677:4
109.82691!
11 9.827051
9-827i9;I4
i39-82733|I4
149.82747;
159.82761^
169.82775!
179.827884
189.82802 H
9.82816
9.82830
9-95469^JO-°453I
9-95495i4:IO-°45°5
9-95520L,;IO-0448o
9-95545jJ10-°4455
9-95571!: J10-°4429
9-95596
9.9 5622
9-95647
9.95672
9.95698
9-95723
9-95748
9-95774
9-95799
9-95825
9.82844
9.82858!
9.828724
9.828854
9.82899
9.82913
9.82927
289.82941
299-82955
309.82968
319.82982
329.82996
33
34
35
9.83010
9.83023
9-83037
36 9.83051
9.S3065
89.83078
9.83092
9.83106
9.83120
9-83133
9-83i47
r4
H
H
H\
T4
J3
T4
T4
x4
T3
x4
M
M
T3
M
14
14
13
H
M
r3
x4
26
25
25
26
25
25
26
25
26
9-958502!
9-95875j2^
9-95901
9.95926
9-95952
9-95977
9.96002
9.96028
9-96053
9.96078
10.04404
10.04378
10.043 53
10.04328
10.04202
9.96104
9.96129
9-96I55
9.96180
9.96205
9.96231
9.96256
9.96283
,9.96307
9.96332
10.04277
10.04252
9.87096
9.8708 5
9.87073
9.87062
9.87050
D.!
9.87039
9.87028
9.87016
9.87005
9.86993
H!
12
12
12
9.86982
9.86970
10.0422619.86959
9.86947
9.86936
10.04201
10.04175
10.04150
10.04125
10.04099
10.04074
10.04048
9.86924
9.86913
9.86902
9.86890
9.86879
9-96357
9-96383
9.96408
9-96433
9.96459
19-96484
'9-96510
:9-96535
9.96560
I9.96586
10.04023
10.03998
10.03972
10.03947
10.03922
10.03896
10.03871
10.03845
10.03820
IO-°3795
10.03769
10-°3744
10.03693
10.03668
10.03643
10.03592
10.03567
10.03541
9-966ii
9.96636^
J9.96662
^119.96687
9.96112
45 9-83174
4619.83188
179-83202
489.83215
499.83229
509.83242
519.83256
529.83270
539-83283
549.83297
55 9-8.3310
569.83324
37 9-8.333 8; Iv:9-9689o
389-8335i:I4,9-969i5
59 9-8.3 3 654JI9-96940
1609.83378, 8119.96966
2 .,10.03490
^jio.03465
4!10-°3440
io.o3389
10.03364
10.03338
10.03313
10.03288
10.03262
10.03237
10.03212
10.03186
10.03161
^10.03136
.10.03110
2 5J IO.O308 5
26iI°-o3o6o
I10.03034
9.86867
9.86855
9.86844
9.86832
9.86821
12
12
12
9.86809
9.86798
^.86786
9.86775
9.86763
9.86752
9.86740
10.0371919.86728
'9.86717
9.86705
9.86694
10.0361719.86682
'9.86670
9.86659
9.86647
10.0351619.86635
9.86624
9.86612
9.86600
10.0341419.86589
9.86577
9.86565
9-86554
9.86542
9-86530
9.86518
9.86507
9.86495
9.86483
9.86472
9.86460
9.86448
9.86436
9.86425
9.86413
1 Cof.
Cot.
Tang.
Sin.
|6o.
59
58
j57
55
54
53
52
51
5^
49
48
47
46
45'
44!
43!
42
41
4£
39!
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
50
12
I 2
12
12
12
11
I 2!
12'
12
II
12
12
11
12;
12
12
11
12
47 Degrees.
10
43 Degrees.
Sin. D.
o|9-83378;
1i9-83392;I4
29-83405!^
39.834i9I4
4!9-83432jJ3
59-834461 4
69-83459|T^
7 9-83473iT2
89.83486, 3
99-835oo; 4
9-83 513^ 3
9-83J27U
^9.83540! 0
-3 9-83554!j^
i49-8356% 3
I59-8358i
69-83594
79.83608
8 9.83621
99-83634
209.83648
21 9.83661
229.83674
23 9.83688
249.83701
259-837i5
Tang.
9.96966
9.96991
D.
25
9.97016 ^3
9.97042
9.97067
9.97092
9.97118
9-97I43
9.97168
9-97I93
9.97219
269.83728
7 9-83741
289.83755
299.83768
309-83781
31 9-83795 i:!
9.83808 t3
339.83821
349-83834
359.83848
369.83861
379-83874
389.83887
399.83901
409.83914
419.83927
42 9-8394'
43 9-83954
449.83967
459.83980
469-83993
47 9.84006
489.84020
499.84033
5c 9.84046
519.84059
529.84072
539.84085
549.84098
55 9.84!12
9.97244
9.97269
9-97295
9.97320
9-97345
9-97371
9-97396
9.97421
9.97447
9.97472
9-97497
9-97523
9-97548
9-97573
9-97598
9.97624
9.97649
9.97674
9.97700
9-97725
*3
1
x4
*3
13
!3
H
T3
!3
x3
r4
J3
J3
J3
*4
r3
!3
x3
23
!3
!3
!4
569.84125
579-84138,3.
58 9.84151 ^
599.841643
609.84177
Cof.
9-97750
9.97776
9.97801
9.97826
9-97^5
9.97877
9.97902
19.97927
I9-97953
9.97978
19,98003
9.98029
9.98054
9.98079
9.98104
9.98150
9-98i55
9.98180
9.98206
9.98231
!3
9.98256
9.98281
9.98307
9-98332
9-98357
Cot.
Col.
io.o3034;9.864i3
10.03009
10.02984
10.02958
10.02933
10.02908
10.02S82!
10.02857
10.02832
10.02807
jio.02781
110.02756
10.02731
10.02655
10.02629
10.02604
10.02579
10.02553
10.02528
25
25
26
25
25
25
26
25
25;
^jio.02705
10.02680
25:^^h
26
25
25
26
25
25
26
25
25
25
26
25
25
26
25
25
26
25
25
25
26
25!
25
26
25
25
26
25
25:
25
26
9.86401
9.86389
9.86377
9.86366
9-86354
9.86342
9-86330
9.86318
9.86306
9.86295
12
9.86283
9.86271
9.86259
9.86247
9.86235
9.86223
9.86211
9.86200
9.86188
9.86176!
!I 2
IO.02503
IO.02477
IO.02452
IO.O2427
10.02402
10.02376
IO.0235I
IO.O2326
IO.O23OO
10.0227 5
9.86164
9.86152
9.86140
9.86128
9.86116
9.86104
9.86092
9.86080
9.86068
0.86056
10.02250
10.02224,
IO.O2199
IO.02174
IO.02149
10.02123
IO.O2098
10.02073
10.02047
10.02022
IO.OI997
IO.OI971
IO.OI946
IO.OI921
IO.O1896
9.86044
9.86032
9.86020
9.86008
9.85996
9.85984
9.85972
9.85960
9.85948
9-85936
9-98383
9.98408
9-98433
IO.O1870
IO.O1845
IO.Ol82C
IO.OI794
IO.OI769
IO.OI744
IO.OI719
IO.O1693
IO. Ol668
IO.O1643
9.85924
9-85912
9.8590°
9.85888
9.85876
9.85864
9.85851
9-85839
9.85827
9.85815
IO.Ol6l’
IO.OI592
IO.OI567
9-98458l26iI°-oi542
9.984841 |io.01516
Cot.
Tang.
9.85803
9.85791
9-85779
9.8 066
9-85754
9.85742
9-85730
9.85718
g.8 C706
9-85693
6 c
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
5^
49
48
!i5,
44
43
42
41
i°
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
29
28
27
26
2 5
24
23
22
21
20
I9
18
x7
16
15
M
*3
12
11
|io
9
8
12
12
12
12
12
12
J3
I 2j
X 2
12;
12
12
12
x3
12
12
12
12
Sin.
!3
46 Degrees.
- I 27
I
J 28
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
44 Degrees.
Sin.
4\
59
69
79
•84i77
.84190
84203
.84216
.84229
.84242
9
9
 9
1 Ij9'
129,
I3!9'
149.
T5 9'
84255
84269
84282
84295
843°8
.8432
•84334
■84347
.84360
84373
21
*2
23
24
25
26
^27
28
29
3°
■84385
.84398
,84411
,84424
84437
.84450
,84463
.84476
'84489,
84502
845I5
84528
84540
84553
84566
c^r*
D,
13
r3
r3
x3
‘4
!3
!3
J3
r3
!3
!3
x3
l3
12
!3
!3
!3
J3
!3
J3
J3
13
13
13
r3
12
13
13
Tang.
9.98484
9.98509
9-98534
9.98560
9-98585
9.98610
9-98635
9.98661
9.98686
9.987x1
9-98737
9.98762
9.98787
9.98812
9.98838
9.98863
D. Cot.
9.98888
9.989x3
9.98939
9.98964
9.98989
9-99OI5
9.99040
9.99065
9.99090
9.99116
9.99141
9.99166
9.99191
9.992x7
9.99242
25
25
26
25
25
2 5
26
25
25
26
25
25
25
26
25
25
25
26
25
2 5
26
25
25
2 5
26
25
2 5
2 5
26
25
Cot.
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10,
10.
10,
10,
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10
10
10
10
10
10,
10
10,
10
10
.01516
.01491
.01466
.01440
.01415
.01390
Cof. D,
'°i365
'OI339
01314
01289
01263
.01238
,01213
,01188
,01162
■OII37
.0X1X2
.OI087
.OI061
.OIO36
.010X1
.00985
.00960
,00935
.00910
,00884 9
•85693
.85681
85669
85657
-85645
.85632
.8 5620
.85608
85596 1
85583
85571
•85559
•85547
■85534
•85522
,85510
•85497
.85485
•85473
,8 9460
•85448
.00859
.00834
.00809
.00783
.00758
Tang.
85436
85423
85411
85399
85386
•85374
.85361
•85349
•85337
■85324
Sin.
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
5£
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
4°
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
3°
4 5 Degrees.
44 Degrees.
' Sin. D.
469
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
569
57
58
59
60
9.84566
9-84579
9.84592
9.84605
9.84618
9.84630
9-84640
9.84656
9.84669
9.84682
9.84694
9.84707
9.84720
9-84733
9-84745
9.84758
.84771
9.84784
9.84796
9.84809
9.84822
9-84835
9.84847
9.84860
9.84873
9.84885
.84898
9.84911
9.84923
9.84936
9.84949
Cof.
9-99242
9.99267
9.99293
9.99318
9-99543
9.99368
Tang.
9-99394
9.99419
9-99444
9.99469
9-99495
9.99520
9-99545
9-9957°
9.99596
9.99621
9.99646
9.99672
9.99697
9.99722
9.99747
9-99773
9.99798
9.99823
9.99848
9.99874
9.99899
9.99924
9.99949
9-99975
0.00000
Cot.
D.
Cot. Cof. jD.
10.00758
10.00733
10.00707
10.00682
10.00657
10.00632
10.00606
10.00581
io.oo556;9
•85324I2
•853x2^
85299 3
85287
85274
85262
10.00531
10.00505
10.00480
10.00455
xo.00430
10.00404
10.00379'
I0-00354
10.00328
10.00303
10.00278
10.00253
10.00227
10.00202
10.00177
10.00 x 52
10.00x26
IO.OOIOI
10.00076
10.00051
10.00025
10.00000
Tang.
8525°
85237
85225
85212
85200
.85187
'85i75
,85162
,85150
85137
85i25
85112
85100
85087
85074^
|12
12
I 2
X3
12
r3
12
J3
12
13
12
*3
12
,85062!
85049II2
85037
85024
85012
84999
84986
84974
84961
84949
Sin.
45 Degrees.
L O G
logarith- LOGARITHMIC CURVE. If on the line AN
mit curve, both ways indefinitely extended, be taken AC, CE,
' "plate -EG? GI, IL, on the left hand j and alfo A^, ^ P,
-CCXCVII ^-c- on t^le right* equal to one another j and if at the
fig. 3. points P^-, A, C, E, G, I, L, be eredded to the right
line AN, the perpendiculars PS, g (f, AB, CD, EF,
GH, IK, LM, which let be continually proportional,
and reprefent numbers, viz. AB, 1 j CD, 10 j EF,
IOO, &c. then {hall we have two progreffiom of lines,
arithmetical and geometrical: for the lines AC, AE,
AG, &c. are in arithmetical progreffion, or*as 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, &c. and fo reprefent the logarithms to which the
geometrical lines AB, CD, EF, &c. do correfpond.
For fince AG is triple of the firft line AC, the number
GH fhall be in the third place from unity, if CD be in
the firft : fo likewife (hall LM be in the fifth place, fince
ALrrrj AC. If the extremities of the proportionals
5, d, B, D, F, &c. be joined by right lines, the figures
SBML will become a polygon, confifting of more or
lefs fides, according as there are more or lefs terms in
the progreflion.
If the parts AC, CE, EG, &c. be bifecled in the
points c, e, g, i, /, and there be again raifed the per¬
pendiculars, c d, ef, g 7i, i k, l m, which are mean pro-
iportionals between AB, CD, CD, EF, 8tc. then there
3
LOG
will arife a new7 feries of proportional? w7hofe terms, be- Loaarith-
ginning from that wThich immediately follows unity, are mic curve*
double of thofe in the firft feries, and the difference of ''""-“v~“ "J
the terms is become lefs, and approaches nearer to a ratio
of equality than before. Likewife, in this new feries,
the right lines AL, A c, exprefs the diftances of the
terms LMcr/, from unity, viz. fince AL is ten times
greater than A c, LM {hall be the tenth term of the
feries from unity -, and becaufe A <? is three times great¬
er than Ac, <?y'will be the third term of the feries if
c be the firft, and there fhall be two mean proportion¬
als between AB and ef, and between AB and LM
there will be nine mean proportionals. And if the ex¬
tremities of the lines B r/, D^J F &tc. be joined by
right lines, there will be a new polygon made, confift¬
ing of more but Chorter fides than the laft.
If, in this manner, mean proportionals be continual¬
ly placed between every two terms, the number of
tejms at laft will be made fo great, as alfo the number
of the fides of the polygon, as to be greater than any
given number, or to be infinite 5 and every fide of the
polygon fo leffened, as to become lefs than any given
right line j and confequently the polygon will be chan¬
ged into a curve-lined figure; for any curve-lined fi¬
gure may be conceived as a polygon, whofe fides are
infinitely
LOG [ 129 ] LOG
LogaritK- infinitely finall and infinite in number. A. curve defcrib-
mic Lines. e(j after thls manner is called logarithmical.
^ js man;fell from this defcription of the logarith¬
mic curve, that all numbers at equal diftances are con¬
tinually proportional. It is alfo plain, that if there
be four numbers, AB, CD, IK, LM, fuch that the
diltance between the firft and fecond be equal to the
diftance between the third and the fourth, let the di-
ftance from the fecond to the third be what it will, thefe
numbers will be proportional. For becaufe the diftances
AC, 1L, are equal, AB ftiall be to the increment Dj-,
as IK is to the increment MT. Wherefore, by com-
pofition, AB : DC : : IK : ML. And, contrariwife,
if four numbers be proportional, the diftance between
the firft and fecond (hall be equal to the diftance be¬
tween the third and fourth.
The diftance between any two numbers is called the
logarithm of the ratio of thofe numbers; and, indeed,
doth not meafure the ratio itfelf, but the number of terms
in a given leries of geometrical proportionals, proceed¬
ing from one number to another, and defines the num¬
ber of equal ratios by the compofition whereof the ra¬
tios of number is known.
Logarithmic Lines. For many mechanical purpofes
it is convenient to have the logarithms of numbers laid
down on fcales, as well as the logarithmic fines and
tangents 5 by 'which means computations may be car¬
ried on by mere menfuration with compafles. Lines
of this kind are always put on the common Gunter’s
fcale; but as thefe inftruments mull be extended to a
very great length, in order to contain any confiderable
quantity of numbers, it becomes on objedl of import¬
ance to Ihorten them. Such an improvement has been
made by Mr William Nicholfon, and publilhed in the
77th volume of the Philofophical Tranfadtions. The
principles on which the conftrudtion of his inftruments
depends are as follow :
1. If two geometrical feries of numbers, having the
fame common ratio, be placed in order with the terms
oppofite to each other, the ratio between any term in
one feries and its oppofite in the other will be conftant:
Thus,
2 6 18 54 162, &c.
3 9 27 81 243, &c. Then,
2 3 6 9 18 27 54 81 162 243, &c.
where it is evident, that each of the terms in the upper
feries is exadlly trvo-thirds of the correfponding one in
the lower.
2. The ratio of any two terms in one feries will be
the fame with that between thofe which have an equal
diftance in the other.
3. In all fuch geometrical feries as have the fame ra¬
tio, the property above mentioned takes place, though
we compare the terms of any feries with thofe of ano¬
ther : Thus,
2 4 8 16 32 64, &c. *
3 6 12 24 48 96, &c.
4 8 16 32 64 128, &c.
5 10 20 40 80 160, &c. $ where it is
plain that 2, 4, 3, 6; alfo 2, 4, 4, 8, and 2, 4, 5, IO, &c.
have the fame ratio with that of each feries.
4. If the differences of the logarithms of the num¬
bers be laid in order upon equidiftant parallel right
lines, in fuch a manner that a right line drawn acrofs
the whole ftiall interfedl it at divifions denoting num-
Vol. XII. Part I.
bers in geometrical progreflion *, then, from the Condi- Logamh-
tion of the arrangement, and the property of this lo- ,nilC ^in ’,
garithmic line, it follows, ill, That every right line fo
drawn will, by its interfedfions, indicate a geometrical
feries of numbers ; 2dly, That fuch feries as are indi¬
cated by thefe right lines will have the fame common
ratio; and, jdly, That the feries thus indicated by two
parallel right lines, fuppofed to move laterally, without
changing either their mutual diftance or parallelifm to
themfelves, will have each the fame ratio and in all
feries indicated by fuch two lines, the ratio between an
antecedent and confequent j the former taken upon one
line, and the latter upon another, will be alfo the fame.
The I ft of thefe propofitions is proved in the fol- Plate
lowing manner. Let the lines AB, CD, EF, repre- CCXCVII.
fent parts of the logarithmic line arranged according II'
to the proportion already mentioned j and let GH be
a right line palling through the points e, c, a, denoting
numbers in geometrical progreflion •, then will any
other line IK, drawn acrofs the arrangement, likewife
pafs through three points f d, Z>, in geometrical progref-
fion. From one of the points of interfedlion f 'm the
laft-mentioned line IK, draw the line fg parallel to
GH, and interfering the arrangement in the points
1, hi; and the ratios of the numbers e,f c /, will be equal,
as well as of ah} becaufe the intervals on the loga¬
rithmic line, or differences of the logarithms of thofe
numbers, are equal. Again, The pointyi the line
and the line kb, are in arithmetical progreflion denoting
the differences between the logarithms of the numbers
themfelves 5 whence the quotients of the numbers are in
geometrical progreflion.
The 2d propofition is proved in a fimilar manner.
For as it was Ihown that the line fg, parallel to GH,
paffes through points of divifion denoting numbers in
the fame continued ratio as thofe indicated by the line
GH j it may alfo be drown, that the line LM parallel
to any other line IK, will pafs through a feries of
points denoting numbers which have the fame continued
ratio with thofe indicated by the line IK, to which it is
parallel.
The 3d propofition arifes from the parallelifm of the
lines to their former fituation ; by which means they
indicate numbers in a geometrical feries, having the fame
common ratio as before : their diftance on the loga¬
rithmic line alfo remains unchanged; whence the dif¬
ferences between the logarithms of the oppofite num¬
bers, and of confequence their ratios, will always be
conftant.
5. Suppofing now an antecedent and confequent to
be given in any geometrical feries, it will always be
poffible to find them, provided the line be of unlimited
length. Drawing two parallel lines, then, through each
of the numbers, and fuppofing the lines to move with¬
out changing their diredion or parallel fituation, they
will continually defcribe new antecedents and confe-
quents in the fame geometrical feries as before.
6. Though the logarithmic line contain no greater-
range of numbers than from 1 to 10, it will not be
found neceffary for the purpofes of computation to re¬
peat it. The only tiling requifite is to have a Aider
or beam with two fixed points at the diftance of the
interval betwixt 1 and 10, and a moveable point made
to range betwixt them always to indicate the antece¬
dent ; then, if the confequent fixed point fall with-
R out
LOG [ r
Logarith- out the rule, the other fixed point will always denote
mic Lines. t]-,e divJf10n Dn which it would have fallen had the
rule been prolonged ; and this contrivance may ealily be
adapted to any arrangement of parallel lines whatever.
The arrangement of right lines, however, ought al¬
ways to be difpofed in fuch a manner as to occupy a
right-angled parallelogram, or the crofs line already
mentioned ought always to be at right angles to the
length of the ruler.
Tig. y. is a ruler confifting cf ten parallel lines.—
Fig. 8. a beam-compafs for meafuring the intervals.
B, A, C, are the parts which apply to the furface of
the ruler; the middle one, A, being moveable fidewife
in a groove in the piece DE, fo as always to preferve
its parallelifm to the external pieces DC, which are
fixed at a diifance equal to the length of the ruler, and
liave their edges placed in fuch a manner as to form
with the parallel lines which they interfeft a ratio,
which by compofition is ^-s *, which in the prefent cafe
requires them to be at right angles to the length. The
piece DE is applied to the edge FG of the ruler. The
edges or borders H, I, K, L, are more conveniently
made of tranfparent horn, or tortoife-fhell, than of any
opaque matter.
In ufing this ruler, apply the edge of either B or
C to the confequent, and Hide the piece A to the an¬
tecedent ; obferving the difference between the num¬
bers on the pieces denoting the lines they are found
on : then, applying the fame edge of A to any other
antecedent, the other piece B or C will interfe& a con¬
fequent in the fame ratio upon that line, having the
fame fituation with regard to the antecedent that the
line of the former confequent had to its antecedent.
But if B be the confequent piece, and fall without the
ruler, the piece C will fhovv the confequent one line
lower j or if C, in like manner, fall without the ruler,
then B will Ihow the confequent one line higher.—
“ It might be convenient (fays Mr Nicholfcn) for the
purpofe of computation, to make infiruments of this
kind with one hundred or more lines : but in the pre¬
fent inftrument, the numbers on the pieces will anfwer
the fame purpofe ; for if a confequent fall upon a line
at any given number of intervals without the ruler, it
will be found on that line of the arrangement which oc¬
cupies the fame number of intervals reckoned inwards
from the oppofite edge of the ruler.”
Fig. 9. is an inftrument on the plan of a Gunter’s
fcale of 28^ inches long, invented by Mr Robert-
fon. There is a moveable piece AB in the Aider
GH, acrofs which is drawn a fine line ; the Aider ha¬
ving alfo lines CD, EF, drawn acrofs it at diAances
from each other equal to the length of the ruler AB.
In ufing the inftrument, the line CD or EF is to be
placed at the confequent, and the line in AB at the
30 ] LOG
antecedent: then, if the piece AB be placed at any
other antecedent, the fame line CD or EF will indicate
its confequent in the fame ratio taken the fame way :
that is, if the antecedent and confequent lie on the
fame fide of the Aider, all other antecedents and confe-
quents in that ratio will be in the fame manner j and the
contrary if they do not. But if the confequent line fall
without the rule, the other Axed line on the Aider will
Aiovv the confequent, but on the contrary fide of the
Aider to that where it would clfe have been feen by
means of the firft confequent Ime.
Fig. ic. is a circular inftrument equivalent to the
former ; confifting of three concentric circles engraved
and graduated upon a plate of an inch and a half dia¬
meter. Two legs A and B proceed from the centre,
having right-lined edges in the direction of radii 5 and
are moveable either fingly or together. In ufing the
inftrument, place one of the edges at the antecedent
and the other at the confequent, and fix them at the
angle. Move the two legs then together ; and having
placed the antecedent leg at any other number, the
other will give the confequent one in the like po-
fition on the lines. If the line CD happen to lie be¬
tween the legs, and B be the confequent leg, the num¬
ber fought will be found one line farther from the cen¬
tre than it would otherwife have been ; and on the con¬
trary, it will be found one line nearer in the like cafe,
if A be the confequent leg. “ This inftrument (lays
Mr Nicholfon), differing from that reprefented fig. 7.
only in its circular form, and the advantages reiulting
from that form, the fines muft be taken to fucceed each
other in the fame manner laterally; fo that numbers
which fall either within or without the arrangement of
circles, will be found on fuch lines of the arrangement
as would have occupied the vacant places if the fucccf-
fion of lines had been indefinitely repeated fidewife.
“ I approve of this conftruflion as fuperior to every
other which has yet occurred to me, not only in point
of convenience, but likewife in the probability of be¬
ing better executed ; becaufe fmall arcs may be gradu¬
ated with very great accuracy, by divifions transferred
from a larger original. The inftrument, fig. 7. may
be contained conveniently in a circle of about four
inches and a half diameter.
“ The circular inftrument is a combination of the
Gunter’s line and the feftor, with the improvements
here pointed out. The property of the feclor may be
ufeful in magnifying the differences of the logarithms
in the upper parts of the fine of fines, the middle of the
tangents, and the beginning of the verfed fines. It is
even poflible, as mathematicians will eafily conceive, to
draw fpirals, on which graduations cf parts, everywhere
equal to each other, will fliow the ratios of thofe fines
by moveable radii, fimilar to thofe in this inftrument.”
LOGIC-
LOGIC fs the art of thinking and reafoning juftly j
‘ or, it may be defined the fcience or hiftory of the
human mind, inafmuch as it traces the progrefs of our
knowledge from our firft and moft fimple conceptions
through all their different combinations, and all thofe
numerous deductions that refult from varioufiy com¬
paring them one with another.
The precife bufinefs of logic therefore is, To explain
the nature of the human mind, and the proper manner
of conducing its feveral powers, in order to the attain¬
ment
Part I. LOG
Of raent of truth and knowledge. It lays open thofe errors
Perception. anj miftakes we are apt, through inattention, to run
u- y . i jntQ . an(j ttaches us how to diftinguiih between truth,
and what only carries the appearance of it. By thefe
means we grow acquainted with the nature 'and force
of the underftanding •, fee what things lie within its
I C. *3*
reach ; where we may attain certainty and demonftra-
tion ; and when w^e mull be contented with probability, ^
This fcience is generally divided into four parts,
viz. Perception, "judgement, Reafoning, and Method*
This divilion comprehends the whole biliary of the
fenfations and operations of the human mind.
PART I. OF PERCEPTION.
WE find ourfelves furrounded with a variety of ob-
jefts, which afting differently upon our fenfes, con¬
vey ditlinfl impreflions into the mind, and thereby
roufe the attention and notice of the underllanding.
By refle&ing too on what paffes within us, we become
fenfible of the operations of our own minds, and at¬
tend to them as a new- fet of impreflions. But in all
this there is only bare confcioufnefs. The mind, with¬
out proceeding any farther, takes notice of the im-
preflions that are made upon it, and views things in
order, as they prefent themfelves one after another.
This attention of the underllanding to the objedl act¬
ing upon it, whereby it becomes fenfible of the im-
preffions they make, is called by logicians perception ;
and the notices themfelves, as they exilt in the mind,
and are there treafured up to be the materials of think¬
ing and knowledge, are dillinguilhed by the name of
ieteas. In the article METAPHYSICS it lhall be Ihown
at large, how the mind, being furnilhed with ideas,
contrives to diverlify and enlarge its Hock : we have
here chiefly to conlider the means of making know-n our
thoughts to others ; that we may net only underftand
how- knowledge is acquired, but alfo in what manner
it may be communicated with the greatell certainty and
advantage.
Chap. I. Of Words, confdered as thefgns of our Ideas.
Words for- I. Our ideas, though manifold and various, are ne-
nifh the, verthelefs all within our own breafts, invifible to o-
means of t]ierSj nor can 0f themfelves be made appear. But
ouCr°ownS God, defigning us for fociety, and to have fellowlhip
thoughts; with thole of our kind, has provided us with organs
fitted to frame articulate founds, and given us alfo a
capacity of tiling thofe founds as figns of internal con¬
ceptions. Hence fpring words and language : for,
having once pitched upon any found to Hand as the
mark of an idea in the mind, Quftom by degrees efta-
blilhes fuch a connexion between them, that the ap¬
pearance of the idea in the underftanding always brings
to our remembrance the found or name by w-hich it
is expreffed ; as in like manner the hearing .of the
found never fails to excite the idea for which it is made
to Hand. And thus it is eafy to conceive how a man
may record his own thoughts, and bring them again
into view in any fucceeding period of life. For this
connexion being once fettled, as the fame founds will
always ferve to excite the fame ideas ; if he can but
contrive to regifler his words in the order and difpo-
fition in which the prefent train of his thoughts pre¬
fent themfelves to his imagination, it is evident he will
be able to recal thefe th ughts at pleafure, and that too
in the very manner of their firft appearance. Ac¬
cordingly we find, that the inventions of writing and
printing, by enabling us to fix and perpetuate fuch
perilhable things as founds, have alfo furnilhed us with
the means of giving a kind of permanency to the
tranfaflions of the mind, inforauch that they may be
in the fame manner fubjedled to our review as any other
objects of nature. _ 2
II. But belides the ability of recording our ow-n and of thie
thoughts, there is this farther advantage in the ufe ofmutual
external figns, that they enable us to communicate
our thoughts to others, and alfo to receive inf01'ma^0n knowledge
of what pafl'es in their breafts. For any number of men,fromone
having agreed to eftabhfh the fame founds as figns ot man to anor
the fame ideas, it is apparent that the repetition oftiier>
thefe founds mull excite the like perceptions in each,
and create a perfe£l correfpondence of thoughts.
When, for inllance, any train of ideas fucceed one
another in my mind, if the names by which I am
wont to exprefs them have been annexed by .thofe
with whom I converfe to the very fame fet of ideas,
nothing is more evident, than that, by repeating thofe
names according to the tenor of my prefent concep¬
tions, I lhall raife in their minds the fame courfe of
thought as has taken pofleffion of my own. lor by
barely attending to what pafles within themfelves
upon hearing the founds which I repeat, they will al¬
fo become acquainted with the ideas in my under¬
llanding, and have them in a manner laid before their
view-. °So that we here clearly perceive how a man
may communicate his fentiments, knowledge, and dif-
coveries to others, if the language in which he con-
verfes be extenlive enough to mark all the ideas and
tranfaftions of his mind. But as this is not always
the cafe, and men are often obliged to invent terms
of their own to exprefs new views and concep¬
tions of things j it may be alked, how in thefe cir-
cumftances we can become acquainted with the thoughts
of another, w-hen he makes ufe of w-ords, to which
we have never annexed any ideas, and that of courfe
can raife no perceptions in our minds ? In order to un¬
veil this myllery, and give fome little inlight into tiie
foundation, growth, and improvement of language,
the following obfervations will be found of conlider-
able moment. 3
III. Firft, That no word can be to any man thesimple
fign of an idea, till that idea comes to have a real ex- ideascannot
iftence in his mind. For names, , being only fo far in-^jconvey-
telligible as they denote known internal concePtions i^ind by
w-here they have none fuch to anfw-er them, there worcjs> or
they are plainly founds without fignification, and ofadeferip-
courfe convey no inllruflion or know-ledge. But nod011*
fooner are the ideas to w-hich they belong raifed in the
underftanding, than, finding it eafy to conned! them
with the eftablilhed names, we can join in any .agree¬
ment of this kind made by others, and thereby enjoy the
R 2 beueil
LOGIC.
Part I.
The names
of complex
ideas defin¬
able ; thofe
of Ample
ideas not.
benefit of their difcovencs. The firfl: thing therefore to
be confidered is, how thefe ideas may be conveyed in¬
to the mind ; that being there, we may learn to con¬
nect them with their appropriated founds, and fo be¬
come capable of underllanding others when they make
ufe of thefe founds in laying open and communicating
their thoughts. Now, to comprehend this diltinftly,
it will be neceffary to attend to the divilion of our
ideas into fimple and complex, (fee Metaphysics.)
And firft, as for our limple ideas; they can find no
admiffion into the mind, but by the two original
fountains of knowledge, fenfation and reflection. If
therefore any of tbefe have as yet no being in the un-
derflanding, it is impoffible by wmrds or a defcription
to excite them there. A man who had never felt the
fenfation of heat, could not be brought to comprehend
that fenfation by any thing we might fay to explain
it. If we would really produce the idea in him, it
inuft be by applying the proper objeCl to his fenfes,
and bringing him within the influence of a hot body.
When this is done, and experience has taught him
the perception to which men have annexed the name
heat, it then becomes to him the fign of that idea,
and he thenceforth underftands the meaning of the
term, which, before, all the words in this w-orld would
not have been fufficient to convey into his mind. The
cafe is the fame in refpeCl of light and colours. A
man born blind, and thereby deprived of the only con¬
veyance for the ideas of this clafs, can never be brought
to underfland the names by which they are expreffed.
The reafon is plain : they ftand for ideas that have no
exiflence in his mind ; and as the organ appropriated
to their reception is wanting, all other contrivances
are vain, nor can they by any force or defcription be
raifed in his imagination. But it is quite otherwife
in our complex notions. For thefe being no more
than certain combinations of fimple ideas, put toge¬
ther in various forms; if the original ideas out of
which the colle&ions are made have already got ad-
million into the underftanding, and the names ferving
to exprefs them are known $ it will be eafy, by enu¬
merating the feveral ideas concerned in the compofi-
tion, and marking the order and manner in which
they are united, to raife any complex conception in
the mind. Thus the idea anfwering to the word rain¬
bow may be readily excited in the imagination of ano¬
ther w7ho has never feen the appearance itfelf, by bare¬
ly defcribing the figure, largenefs, polition, and or¬
der of colours j if wre fuppofe thefe feveral fimple ideas,
with their names, fufficiently known to him.
IV. And this leads to a fecond obfervation upon this
fubjeft, namely, That words Handing for complex
ideas are all definable, but thofe by which we denote
fimple ideas are not j for fimple ideas being fecondary
perceptions, winch have no other entrance into the
mind than by fenfation or refleflion, can only be got
by experience, from the feveral objefts of nature, pro¬
per to produce thofe perceptions in us. Words indeed
may very well ferve to remiftd us of them, if they have
already found admiflion into the underftanding, and
their connexion with the eftablilhed names is known $
but they can never give them their original being and
exiftence there. And hence it is, that when any one
alks the meaning of a word denoting a fimple idea,
we pretend not to explain it to him by a definition,
well knowing that to be impoflible ; but, fuppofing Of
him already acquainted with the idea, and only igno- Perception.^
rant of the name by which it is called, we either men¬
tion it to him by fume other name with which we
prefume he knows its connexion, or appeal to the ob¬
ject where the idea itfelf is found. Thus, were any
one to afk the meaning of the word white, we ftiould
tell him it ftood for the fame idea as albus in Latin, or
b/anc in French j or, if we thought him a ftranger to
thefe languages, we might appeal to an objedt produ¬
cing the idea, by faying it denoted the colour we ob-
lerve in fnow or milk. But this is by no means a de¬
finition of the word, exciting a new idea in his un¬
derftanding } but merely a contrivance to remind him
of a known idea, and teach him its connexion with
the eftablilhed name. For if the ideas after which he
inquires have never yet been raifed in his mind ; as
fuppofe one who bad feen no other colours than black
and white, ftiould alk the meaning of the word fear let ;
it is eafy to perceive, that it wmuld be no more pof-
fible to make him comprehend it by words, or a defi¬
nition, than to introduce the fame perception into the
imagination of a man born blind. The only method
in this cafe is, to prefent fome objc£t, by looking at
w hich the perception itfelf may be excited; and thus
he will learn both the name and the idea together. ^
V. But howr comes it to pafs that men agree in the Experience
names of their fimple ideas, feeing they cannot view and obfer-
the perceptions in one another’s minds, nor make known ',atlon
thefe perceptions by wmrds to others? The effeft is^1^^^
produced by experience and obfervation. Thus find- rnent ;n tke
ing, for inftance, that the name of heat is annexed to names of
that fenfation which men feel when they approach thefimpfe
fire, I make it alfo the fign of the fenfation excited iri^eas-
me by fuch an approach, nor have any doubt but it
denotes the fame perception in my mind as in theirs.
For wre are naturally led to imagine, that the fame ob¬
jects operate alike upon the organs of the human bo¬
dy, and produce an uniformity of fenfations. No man
fancies, that the idea raifed in him by the tafte of fu-
gar, and which he callsfweetnefs, differs from that ex¬
cited in another by the like means j or that worm-
wood, to whofe relilh he has given the epithet bitter,
produces in another the fenfation which he denotes by
the word fweet. Prefuming therefore upon this con¬
formity of perceptions, when they arife from the fame
objects, we eafily agree as to the names of our fimple
ideas : and if at any time, by a more narrow ferutiny
into things, new ideas of this clafs come in our way,
which we choofe to exprefs by terms of our own in¬
vention j thefe names are explained, not. by a defini¬
tion, but by referring to the objetffs whence the ideas
themfelves may be obtained. ^
VI. Being in this manner furnilhed with Amplecon_
ideas, and the names by w’hich they are expreffed \ the veyance of
meaning of terms that ftand for complex ideas is ea-complex
fily got, becaufe the ideas themfclves anfwering t° ^e-
thefe terms may be conveyed into the mind by defi- wife contri-
nitions. For our complex notions are only certain Vance in na~
combinations of fimple ideas. When therefore thefe ture;
are enumerated, and the manner in which they are
united into one conception explained, nothing more
is wanting to raife that conception in the underftand¬
ing j and thus the term denoting it comes of courfe to
be underftood. And here it is worth while to refledl
Part I. L O
Of a little upon the wife contrivance of nature, in thus
Percepticn. fjimifting us with the very aptefl. means of commu-
v ~' nicating our thoughts. For were it not fo ordered,
that ive could thus convey our complex ideas from
one to another by definitions, it would in many cafes
be impoffible to make them known at all. This is
apparent in thofe ideas which are the proper work of
the mind. For as they exift only in the underftand-
ing, and have no real objects in nature in conformity
to which they are framed j if we could not make them
known by defcription, they maft lie for ever hid with¬
in our own breafts, and be confined to the narrow
acquaintance of a fingle mind. All the fine fcenes
that flrife from time to time in the poet’s fancy, and
by his lively painting give fuch entertainment to his
readers, were he dellitute of this faculty of laying
them open to the view of others by words and de¬
fcription, conic? not extend their influence beyond his
own imagination, or give joy to any but the original
y inventor.
and of VII. There is this farther advantage in the ability
great avail we enjoy of communicating our complex notions by
improve-the ^e^n^ons » that as thefe make by far the largeft clals
ment of our ideas, and moft frequently occur in the progrefs
knowledge. ajtd improvement of knowledge, fo they are by thefe
means imparted with the greateft readinefs, than
which nothing would tend more to the increafe and
fpreading of fcience : for a definition is foon perufed ;
and if the terms of it are well underftood, the idea
itfelf finds an eafy admiflion into the mind. Whereas,
in fimple perceptions, where we are referred to the
objefts producing them, if thefe cannot be come at, as
is fometimes the cafe, the names by which they are
exprefled mull remain empty founds. But new ideas
of this clafs occurring very rarely in the fciences, they
feldom create any great obftru&ion. It is otherwife
with our complex notions *, for every ftep we take
leading us into new combinations and views of things,
it becomes neceffary to explain thefe to others, before
they can be made acquainted with our difcoveries :
and as the manner of definitions is eafy, requiring no
apparatus but that of jvords, which are always ready,
and at hand ; hence we can with the lefs difficulty re¬
move fuch obftacles as might arife from terms of our
own invention, when they are made to Hand for new
complex ideas fuggefted to the mind by fome prefent
train of thinking. And thus at laft we are let into
the myftery hinted at in the beginning of this chapter,
viz. how we may become acquainted with the thoughts
of another, when he makes ufe of words to which we
have as yet joined no ideas. The anfwer is obvious
from what has been already faid. If the terms denote
fimple perceptions, he muft refer us to thefe objects of
nature whence the perceptions themfelves are to be
obtained j but, if they Hand for complex ideas, their
meaning may be explained by a definition.
Chap. II. Of Definition.
Definition I- A Definition is the unfolding of fame conception
defined. of the mind, anfiwering to the word tr term made ufe of
as the fign of it. Now as, in exhibiting any idea to ano¬
ther, it is neceffary that the defcription be fuch as may
excite that precife idea in his mind; hence it is plain
that definitions, properly fpeaking, are not arbitrary, but
G 1 C. 133
confined to the reprefenting of certain determinate OF
fettled notions, fuch namely as are annexed by the Perception.
fpeaker or writer to the words he ufes. As never- 1,7
thelefs it is univerfally allowed that the fignification of
words is perfedlly voluntary, and not the effect of any
natural and neceffary connexion between them and
the ideas for which they ftand ; fome may perhaps
wonder why definitions are not fo too. In order
therefore to unravel this difficulty, and ffiow diftin&ly
what is and what is not arbitrary in fpeech, we mult
carefully diltinguiffi between the connexion of our
words and ideas, and the unfolding of the ideas them¬
felves. ^
II. Firft, as to the connexion of our words and ideas; The con-
this, it is plain, is a purely arbitrary inftitution. When, nex^on he-
for inftance, we have in our minds the idea of any^,rdsand
particular fpecies of metals, the calling it by the name jdcajaper-
gold is an effect of the voluntary choice of men fpeak- fectly vo-
ing the fame language, and not of any peculiar aptnefs luntary e-
in that found to exprefs that idea. Other nations we
find make ufe of different founds, and with the famemen ’
effect. Thus aurum denotes that idea in Latin, and
or in French ; and even the word gold itfelf would
have as well ferved to exprefs the idea of that metal
which we call fiver, had cuftom in the beginning eita-
blilhed it. r®
III. But although we are thus entirely at liberty in The dc.
conne£ling any idea with any found, yet it is quite ^nPG°n of
otherwife in unfolding the ideas themfelves. For. e- b^bound-’
very idea having a precife appearance of its own, by ed to the
which it is diftinguilhed from every other idea: it is reprefenta-
manifeft, that in laying it open to others, we muft t*on .or tbat
ftudy fuch a defcription as ffiall exhibit that peculiar pearancefby
appearance. When we have formed to ourfelves the which they
idea of a figure bounded by four equal lides, joined are diftin-
togetber at right angles, we are at liberty to exprefs ll-
that idea by any found, and call it either a fquare or a ^°nsf ,
triangle. But whichever of thefe names we ufe, fo cmeves“
long as the idea is the fame, the defcription by which
we would fignify it to another muft be fo too. Let it
be called fquare or triangle, it is ftill a figure having
four equal fides, and all its angles right ones. Hence
we clearly fee what is and what is not arbitrary in the
ufe of words. The eftablilhing any found as the mark
of fome determinate idea in the mind, is the effedt of
free choice, and a voluntary combination among men :
and as different nations make ufe of different founds
to denote the fame ideas, hence proceeds all that va¬
riety of languages which we meet with in the world.
But when a connexion between our ideas and words
is once fettled, the unfolding of the idea anfwering to
any word, which properly conftitutes a definition, is
by no means an arbitrary thing: for here we are
bound to exhibit that precife conception which either
the ufe of language, or our own particular choice,
hath annexed to the term we ufe. ri
IV. And thus it appears, that definitions, confidcred Cauies of
as deferiptions of ideas in the mind, are fteady and in- the obicurk
variable, being bounded to the reprefentation of thefe Vlhat has
precife ideas. But then, in the application of defini- hetrhjgt0d
tions to particular names, we are altogether left to our j^theory
own free choice. Becaufe as the conne&ing of any ofdefini-
idea with any found is a perfeftly arbitrary inftitu-tions*
tion, the applying the defcription of that idea to that .
found muft be fo too. When therefore logicians tell
134
Of . us tliat the definition of the name is arbitrary, they
Perception. mean no more tllan this; that as different ideas may
be connefted with any term, according to the good
pleafure of him that ufes it; in like manner may dif¬
ferent defcriptions be applied to the term, fuitable to
the ideas fo connected. But this connexion being
fettled, and the term confidered as the fign of fome
fixed idea in the underftanding, we are no longer left to
arbitrary explications, but muff fludy fuch a defcrip-
tion as correfponds with that precife idea. Now this
alone, according to what has been before laid down,
ought to be accounted a definition. What feems to
have occafioned no final 1 confufion in this matter, is,
that many explanations of words, where no idea is
unfolded, but merely the connexion between fome
word and idea aflerted, have yet been dignified with
the name of definitions. Thus, when W'e fay that
a clock is an injlrument by which we meafure time;
that is by fome called a definition ; and yet it is plain
that wre are beforehand fuppofed to have an idea of
this infhument, and only taught that the word clock
ferves in common language to denote that idea. By
this rule all explications of words in our dictionaries
will be definitions, nay, the names of even fimple ideas
may be thus defined. White, we may fay, is the co¬
lour we obferve in fnow or milk ; heat the fenfation
produced by approaching the fire; and fo in innumera¬
ble other inftances. But thefe, and all others of the
like kind, are by no means definitions, exciting new
ideas in the underftanding, but merely contrivances to
remind us of known ideas, and teach their connexion
with the eftablifhed names.
Complex V. But now' in definitions properly fo called, w'e
ideas alone firft confider the term we ufe, as the fign of fome in¬
capable of ward conception, either annexed to it by cuftom, or
that kind of our own free choice : and then the bufmefs of the'de-
wbicKoes finiti°n is to unfold and explicate that idea. As there¬
by tlie name l0re tlm whole ait lies in giving juft and true copies
of a ded*i- of our ideas; a definition is then find to be made per-
tion. when it ferves diftinftly to excite the idea de-
feribed in the mind of another, even fuppofing him
before wholly unacquainted with it. This point fet¬
tled, let us next inquire what thofe ideas are which
are capable of being thus unfolded ? and in the firft
place it is evident, that all our fimple ideas are necef-
farily excluded. We have feen already that expe¬
rience alone is to be confulted here, infomuch that if
either the objefts whence they are derived come not
in our way, or the avenues appointed by nature for
their reception are wanting, no defeription is f'ufficient
to convey them into the mind. But where the un¬
derftanding is already fupplied with thefe original and
primitive conceptions, as they may be united together
in an infinity of different forms ; fo may all their fe-
veral combinations be diflinclly laid open, by enume¬
rating the fimple ideas concerned in the various col-
le&ions, and tracing the order and manner in which
they are linked one to another. Now thefe combi¬
nations of fimple notices conftitute wftiat w'e call our
complex notions, whence it is evident, that complex
ideas, and thofe alone, admit of that kind of deferio-
tion which goes by the name of a definition.
VI. Definitions, then, are pidures or reprefenta-
% tions of our ideas ; and as thefe reprefentations are
then only poffible when the ideas themfelves are
2
Part I.
complex, it is obvious to remark, that definitions Of
cannot have place, but where we make ufe of terms Perception,
ftanding for fuch complex ideas. But our complex "* v '
ideas being, as we have faid, nothing more than dif¬
ferent combinations of fimple ideas ; we then know and
comprehend them perfedUy, when wre know' the feveral
fimple ideas of w'hich they confift, and can fo put them
together in our minds as may be neceffary towards the
framing of that peculiar connexion which gives every
idea its diftind and proper appearance. ^
VII. Two things are therefore required in every Two thino-s
definition: firft, Ibat all the original ideas, out of required m
which the complex one is formed, be diftindly enu-a definition»
merated ; and, fecondly, That the order and manner of
combining them into one conception be clearly ex- khas'am!
plained. Where a definition has thefe requilites, no-explain the
thing is wanting to its perfedion ; becaufc every onemanner°i'
who reads it and underftands the terms, feeing at once tl?eir.corn'
what ideas he is to join together, and alio in what Dmatl°nS'
manner, can at pleafure form in his own mind the
complex conception anfvvering to the term defined.
Let us, for inftance, fuppofe the word fquare to Hand
for that idea by which w’e reprefent to ourfelves a
figure whofe fides fubtend quadrants of a circumfcribed
circle. The parts of this idea are the fides bounding
the figure. Thefe mull be four in number, and all
equal among themfelves, becaufe they are each to fub¬
tend a fourth part of the fame circle. But, befides
thefe component parts, we mull alfo take notice of
the manner of putting them together, if we would ex¬
hibit the precife idea for which the word fquave here
Hands. For four equal right lines, anyhow joined,
will not fubtend quadrants of a circumfcribed circle.
A figure with this property mull have its fides ftand¬
ing alfo at right angles. Taking in therefore this laft
confideration refpeiling the manner of combining the
parts, the idea is Lilly deferibed, and the definition
thereby rendered complete. For a figure bounded by
four equal fides, joined together at right angles, has
the property required ; and is moreover the only right-
lined figure to which that property belongs. I4
VIII. It will now be obvious to every one, in what How we
manner we ought to proceed, in order to arrive at juft a,e t0 P™-
and adequate definitions. Firft, We are to take anc.eed t0,arJ
ex-aft view .of die idea to be deferibed, trace it to its and ade^
original principles,, and mark the feveral fimple per- quate defi.
ceptions that enter into the compofition of it. Second-nitions.
ly, We are to confider the particular manner in which
thefe elementary ideas are combined, in order to the
forming of that precife conception for which the term
we make ufe of Hands. When this is done, and the
idea wholly unravelled, we have nothing more to do
than fairly tranferibe the appearance it makes to our
own minds. Such a defeription, by diftimftly exhibit¬
ing the order and number of our primitive conceptions,
cannot fail to excite at the fame time in the mind of
every one that reads it, the complex idea refulting from
them ;. and therefore attains the true and proper end of
a definition.
Chap. III. Of the Compoftion and Reflations of our
our Ideas, and the Rules of Definition thence arifing,
I. The rule laid down in the foregoing chapter is
general, extending to all poflible cafes; and is indeed
that
LOGIC.
Part I.
LOGIC.
O* that to which alone we can have recourfe, where any
Perception. Jou'yt or difficulty arifes. It is not, however, neceffary
\ ■\r~~- tinat we j|i0,jld prailife it in every particular inftance.
In corn. Many of our ideas are extremely complicated, info-
pour.ding much that to enumerate all the fimple perceptions out
our ideas, Qf which they are formed, would be a very trouble-
we proceed pime an(j tedious work. For this reafon logicians
five21 rada-'kave eitabliffied certain compendious rules of defining,
tion/ cf which it may not be amifs here to give fome ac¬
count. But in order to the better underftanding of
what follows, it will be necefiary to ebferve, that
there is a certain gradation in the compofition of cur
ideas. The mind of man is very limited in its views,
and cannot take in a great number of objects at or.ee.
We are therefore fain to proceed by Heps, and make
our firfit advances lubfervient to thofe which follow.
Thus, in forming our complex notions, we begin at
firft with but a few fimple ideas, fuch as we can ma¬
nage with eafe, and unite them together into one con¬
ception. When we are provided with a fufficient
itock of thefe, and have by habit and ufe rendered
them familiar to our minds, they become the compo¬
nent parts of other ideas ftill more complicated, and
form what we may call a fecond order of compound
notions. This procefs, as is evident, may be continued
to any degree of compofition we pleafe, mounting from
one ftage to another, and enlarging the number ot com-
^ binations.
Hence ideas H- But now in a feries of this kind, whoever would
of this clafs acquaint himfeif perfe&ly with the laft and higheft
beft com- order of ideas, finds it much the moft expedient me-
prehended, (UjQd (-0 proceed gradually through all the interme-
advance£ diate fleps. For, were he to take any very compound
gradually idea to pieces, and, without regard to the feveral
through all clafies of fimple perceptions that have already been
the feveral formed into diftinft combinations, break it at once in-
Oio.n. its original principles, the number would be fo great
as perfectly to confound the imagination, and over¬
come the utmofl reach and capacity of the mind.
When v/e fee a prodigious multitude of men jumbled
together in crowds, without order or any regular pofi-
tion, we find it impoflible to arrive at an exact know¬
ledge of their number. But if they are formed into
feparate battalions, and fo ftationed as to fall within
the leifure furvey of the eye *, by viewing them fuccef-
fively and in order, we come to an eafy and certain de¬
termination. It is the fame in our complex ideas.
When the original perceptions, out of which they are
framed, are very numerous, it is not enough that we
take a view of them in loofe and fcattered bodies j we
muft form them into diftind! clafles, and unite thefe
claffes in a juft and orderly manner, before wre can ar¬
rive at a true knowledge of the compound notices re-
fulting from them.
III. This gradual progrefs of the mind to its com-
tTons fliould Pountl notions, through a variety of intermediate fteps,
keep pace plainly points out the manner of conducing the defi-
withour nitions by which thefe notions are conveyed into the
obferve^ m"ic*s ot^ers- Bor as the feries begins with fimple
like grada- an<^ cafy combinations, and advances through a fuc-
tion. ceffion of different orders, riling one above another in
the degree of compofition, it is evident, that, in a train
of definitions exprefling thefe ideas, a like gradation
is to be obferved. Thus the complex ideas of the
lowed order can no otherwife be deferibed than bv
17
Our defini-
135
enumerating the fimple ideas out of which they are Of
made, and explaining the manner of their union. But lk‘rcePt)~01-;
then in the fecond, or any other fucceeding order, asv "'J
they are formed out of thofe gradual combinations, and
conftitute the inferior claffes, it is not neceffary, in de-
feribing them, to mention one by one all the fimple.
ideas of which they confift. They may be more diltindl-
ly and briefly unfolded, by enumerating the compound
ideas of a lower order, from whole union they refult,
and which are all fuppofed to be already known in con-
fequence of previous definitions. Here then it is that
the logical method of defining takes place ; which, that
it may be the better underftood, we lhall explain forae-
what more particularly the feveral fteps and gradations
of the mind in compounding its ideas, and thence de¬
duce that peculiar form of a definition which logicians
have thought fit to eftablilh. jS
IV. All the ideas we receive from the feveral ob-The fteps
jefts of nature that furround us, reprefent diftin£t in-by which
dividuals. Thefe individuals, when compared toge-A1-6 1T“n^
ther, are found in certain particulars to refemble each?ro"eeils .
1 tt 1 nv 1 r 1 v • 1 from parti-
ptner. Hence, by collecting the reiembkng particulars cuiar t0 ge_
into one conception, we form the notion of a fpecies. ner&l ideas.
And here let it be obferved, that this laft idea is lefs
complicated than that by which we reprefent any of
the particular objefls contained under it. For the idea
of the fpecies excludes the peculiarities of the feveral
individuals, and retains only fuch properties as are
common to them all. Again, By comparing feveral
fpecies together, and obferving their refemblance, we
form the idea of a genus ; where, in the fame manner
as before, the compofition is leffened, becaufe we
leave out what is peculiar to the fevsral fpecies com¬
pared, and retain only the particulars wherein they
agree. It is eafy to conceive the mind proceeding
thus from one ftep to another, and advancing through
its feveral claffes of general notions, until at laft it
comes to the higheft genus of all, denoted by the wrard
being, where the bare idea of exiftence is only con¬
cerned.
V. In this procedure we fee the mind unravelling The edn-
a complex idea, and tracing it in the afeending fcale,'Hk the
from greater or lefs degrees of compofition, until itmm 1 m
terminates in one fimple perception. If now we take
the feries the contrary way, and, beginning with the ideas, as it
laft or higheft genus, carry our view downwards, advances
through all the inferior genera and fpecies, quite to through
the individuals, we ftiall thereby arrive at a orders
apprehenfion of the conduft of the underftanding in0fperceii-
compounding Sts ideas. For, in the feveral claffes of tion.
our perceptions, the higheft in the fcale is for the
moft part made up of but a few fimple ideas, fuch as
the mind can take in and furvey with eafe. This firft
general notion, when branched out into the dift'erent
fubdivifions contained under it, has in every one of
them fomething peculiar, by which they are diftin-
guiflied among themfelves j infomuch that, in de-.
feending from the genus to the fpecies, we always
fuperadd fome new idea, and thereby increafe the
degree of compofition. Thus the idea denoted by the
w'ord figure is of a very general nature, and compo-
fed of but few fimple perceptions, as implying no
more than fpace everywhere bounded. But if wre
defeend farther, and confider the boundaries of this
fpace, as that they may be either Uries or furface, we
fill!
LOGIC.
Part I
7.0
The idea of
the fpecies
found by-
fuperad-
ding the
fpecific dif¬
ference to.
the genus.
fall Into tlie feveral fpecies of figure. For where the
fpace is bounded by one or more furfaces, we give it the
name of a folidfigure ; but where the boundaries are
lines, it is called a plain figure (a).
VI. In this view of things it is evident, that the
fpecies is formed by fuperadding a new idea to the
genus. Here, for inftance, the genus is circumfcrib-
ed fpace. If now to this we fuperadd the idea of a
circumfcription by lines, we frame the notion of that
fpecies of figures which are called plain; but if we
conceive the circumfcription to be by furfaces, we
have the /fpecies of folid figures. This fuperadded Of
idea is called the fipecific difference, not only as it ferves Perception.^
to divide the fpecies from the genus, but becaufe,
being different in all the feveral fubdivifions, we there¬
by alfo dillinguilh the fpecies one from another. And
as it is likewife that conception, which, by being
joined to the general idea, completes the notion of
the fpecies : hence it is plain, that the genus and fpe¬
cific difference are to be confidered as the proper and
conflituent parts of the fpecies. If we trace the pro-
grefs of the mind ftill farther, and obferve it advancing
through
(a) This account of the compofition and refolution of our ideas is agreeable to the common do&rine of lo¬
gicians on the fubjeft. Into the truth of the do&rine itfelf we fhali inquire afterwards under the article
Metaphysics : but to prevent miftakes, it may be proper to obferve here, that though every writer of logic
has treated largely of general and fipecific ideas, there is in reality nothing general in the matter but the terms of
language. When we utter, for inftance, the word triangle, that general term does not, as has been often faid,
fuggeft to the mind the general idea of a triangle, which is neither oblique nor reBangle, neither equilateral nor
Ccalenon, &c. forfiuch a triangle, as it cannot exijl in nature, cannot be conceived in idea. In like manner, the
general term Vii'tue does not excite a general idea of virtue, which is neither prudence, nor temperance, nor fortitude,
nor jufiice, nor charity, &c. for that which is difiinSl from all thefe is not virtue. What then is the import of
fuch general terms ? The anfwer is obvious: they denote clajfies of objetfs ; and are never ufed without fome
word of limitation, but when fomething that has no dependence upon the particular qualities, which diftinguilh
the individuals from each other, is affirmed or denied of the whole clafs. Thus we may affirm, that the three
angles of a plain triangle are equal to tvco right angles: and this propofition is demonftrably true, not of a triangle,
which is neither oblique nor reBangle, neither equilateral nor ficalenon, for fuch a triangle never was conceived ;
but of all thefe triangles equally, as the truth of the propofition and the progrefs of the demonftration has no
dependence upon the peculiarities which difiinguifh thefe triangles from one another. Again, When we fay
that a man of virtue will be rewarded by God, we do not mean by the word virtue a general idea making part
of each of the complex and more particular ideas of prudence, fortitude, jujlice, &c. and at the fame time dif¬
ferent from them all ; but we affirm, that the man who pra£lifes any or all of thefe virtues, according as he has
opportunity, will be rewarded by God.
The hiftory of our ideas is ffiortly this :—That aft of the mind, if it may be called an aEt, which makes
known an external objeB, is termed perception. That aft of the mind which makes known an internal ob-
jeB, is termed consciousness. Objefts once perceived may be recalled to the mind by the power of me¬
mory; and when they are fo recalled, we have a perception of them in all refpefts fimilar to the original per¬
ception, only lefs diftinft ; we fancy ourfielves in the fame place, and the objeB perceived attended by the fame
circurrfiances. This indiftinft fecondary perception of an objeft is termed an idi:a 5 and therefore the precife
and accurate definition of an idea, in contradiftinftion to an original perception, is “ that perception of a real ob¬
jeft which is railed in the mind by the power of memory.” Now all our original perceptions being of par¬
ticular objcBs, it is obvious that our ideas, which are only thofe perceptions recalled, muft be of particular ob-
jeBs likewife, and that no man can have an idea of a thing of which the real exifence is contradiftory and im-
poffible. But the general and fpecific ideas of logicians, are ideas of nothing which exifis, or which can pojfbly
exi/l. They are acquired, we are told, by abf raBion, in the following manner. Among a number of indivi¬
duals wre perceive certain qualities the fame in all, whilft in each individual there are other qualities which
have nothing fimilar to them in any other individual : new the mind, it is faid, has a power of abftrafting
the particular qualities of each individual from thoje which are common to the whole, and of thefe laft forming a
general idea of the whole clafs. Thus all men have nearly the fame form ; and they have each fome future and
fome colour, though there are not perhaps two individuals who have precifehy the fame future and the fame colour.
Nowq fay the advocates for general ideas, if we abfiraB what is peculiar to each individual, and retain what is
common to the whole race, we have the general idea fignified by the word man. That is, if we conceive a being
in human fliape, which is oifature and colour, but neither tall nor fhort, neither while nor black, nor red nor
brown, nor any other colour which we ever fiaw, we have the general idea of humanity, and underftand the mean¬
ing of the word man ! Surely no perfbn who is not the flave of prejudice will pretend that he can frame fuch an
idea as this—the idea of an objeft which cannot poffibly exift in nature.
By this we do not mean to affirm, that we cannot frame ideas of fuch objefts as have no real exiftence ; for it
is as eafy to imagine a man with ten heads as with one, becaufe there is nothing contradiftory between ten heads
and one body. YtvX figure, which is faid to be fpace bounded neither by lines nor fuperfeies ; colour, which is nei¬
ther red wot white, nor blue nor black, &c. ; and animal, which is neither man, beajl, bird, nor infeB ; are im-
poffible in nature, and inconceivable in idea. There is, however, no harm in ftill retaining the general
idea, provided he who ules it takes care to let it be known, that by thefe words he means not any abfiraB and
contradiBory idea, but merely a clafs of real objeBs. The phrafe may at times prevent much circumlocution • for
yvhich reafon have retained the uie of it in the text.
3
Part I. L 0
Of through the inferior fpecies, we Hiall find its manner
Perception. 0f proceeding to be always the fame. For every lower
fpecies is formed by fuperadding fome new idea to the
fpecies next above it $ infomuch that in this defend¬
ing fcale of our perceptions, the underfianding paffes
through different orders of complex notions, which
become more and more complicated at every ftep it
takes. Let us refume here, for inftance, the Ipecies of
plain figures. They imply no more than fpace bounded
by lines. But if we take in an additional confideration
of the nature of thefe lines, as whether they are right or
curves, we fall into the fubdivifions of plain figure, di-
itinguifhed by the names of reEiilinear, curvilinear, and
2I mixtihnear.
And in all VII. And here we are to obferve, that though
the inferior pla-jn figures, when confidered as one of thofe branches
come under the notions of figure in general, take
ding the the name of a fpecies j yet compared with the claffes
ipecific dif- of curvilinear, rectilinear, and mixtilinear, into which
ference to they tbemfelves may be divided, they really become
a gcnus> which the beforementioned fubdivifions
genii.. conftitute the feveral fpecies. Thefe fpecies, in the
fame manner as in the cafe of plane and folid figures,
confift of the genus and fpecific difference as their
conftituent parts. For in the curvilinear kind, the
curvity of the lines bounding the figure makes what is
tailed thefpecific difference; to which if we join the
genus, which here is a plain figure or fpace circum-
fcribed by lines, we have all that is neceffary towards
completing the notion of this fpecies. We are only
to take notice, that this laft fubdivifion, having two
genera above it, viz. plain figure, and figure in gene¬
ral •, the genus joined with the fpecific difference, in
order to conftitute the fpecies of curvilinears, is that
which lies neareft to the faid fpecies. It is the ho-
tion of plain figure, and not of figure in general, that
joined with the idea of curvity, makes up the complex
conception of curve-lined figures. For in this de-
fcending fcale of our ideas, figure in general, plain
figures, curved-lined figures, the two firft are confider¬
ed as genera in relpeft of the third j and the fecond
in order, or that which Hands next to tbe third, is
called the nearejl genus. Rut now as it is this fecond
idea, which, joined with the notion of curvity, forms
the fpecies of curve-lined figures ; it is plain, that the
third or laft idea in the feries is made up of the near¬
eft genus and fpecific difference. This rule holds in¬
variably, however far the feries is continued ; becaufe,
in a train of ideas thus fucce^ding one another, all
that precede the laff are confidered as fo many genera
in refpeft of that laft j and the laft itfelf is always
formed by fuperadding the fpecific difference to the
genus next it.
The idea of VIII. Here then we have an urtiverfal defcription,
anyindivi- applicable to all our ideas of whatever kind, from the
higheft genus to the loweft fpecies. For, taking them
in order downwards from the faid general idea, they
everywhere confift of the genus proxirnum, and dif¬
ferentia fpecifica, as logicians love to exprefs them-
felves. But when we come to the low-eft fpecies of
all, comprehending under it only individuals, the fu-
peradded idea, by which thefe individuals are diftin-
guiftied one from another, no longer takes the name
of the fpecific difference. For here it ferves not to
denote diftinfr fpecies, but merely a variety of indivi-
Vol.XII. Part I.
157
Of
G I G.
duals, each of which, having a particular exiftence of
its own, is therefore numerically different from every Perce tl0n;
other of the fame kind. And hence it is, that in this
laft cafe, logicians choofe to call the fuperadded idea
by the name of the numerical difference; inl'omuch
that, as the idea of a fpecies is made up of the neareft
genus and fpecific difference, fo the idea of an indivi¬
dual confifts of the loweft fpecies and numeric differ¬
ence. Thus the circle is a fpecies of curve-lined fi¬
gures, and what wre call the lovoejl fpecies, as compre¬
hending under it only individuals. Circles in particu¬
lar are diftinguiftied from one another by the length
and pofition of their diameters. The length therefore
and pofition of the diameter of a circle form what logi¬
cians call the Jiumerical difference ; becaufe, theie being
given, the circle itfelf may be defcribed, and an indivi¬
dual thereby conftituted. 23
IX. Thus the mind, in compounding its ideas, be- Definitions
gins
dual com-
pofed of
the loweft
fpecies and
numeric
difference.
wTe fee, with the moil general notions, which,t0 foliow
f . c r i 0 • ri one another
conlilting or but a few lirnple notices, are eahly com- ■
- , . . . .m tram
bined and brought together into one conception. and pafs
Thence it proceeds to the fpecies comprehended un-through tlie
der this general idea j and theie are formed by joining 'ame mccef*
together the genus and fpecific difference. And as it ^ ou'r
often happens, that thefe fpecies may be flill farther comp0und
fubdivided, aud run on in a long feries of continued ideasi
gradations, producing various orders of compound
perceptions; fo all thefe feveral orders are regularly
and fucceflively formed by annexing in every itcp the
fpecific difference to the neareft genus. When by
this method of procedure we are come to the loweft:
order of all, by joining the fpecies and numeric dif¬
ference, we frame the ideas of individuals. And here
the feries neceffarily terminates, becaufe it is impof-
fible any farther to bound or limit our conceptions.
This view7 of the coflapofition of our ideas, reprefent-
ing their conftituent parts in every ftep of the pro-
greftion, naturally points out the true and genuine
form of a definition. For as definitions are no more
than deferiptions of the ideas for which the terms de¬
fined Hand ; and as ideas are then defcribed, when
we enumerate diftin£lly and in order the parts of
which they confift 5 it is plain, that by making our
definitions follow7 one another according to the natural
train of our conceptions, they will be fubjedl to the
fame rules, and keep pace with the ideas they de-
feribe.
X. As therefore the firft order of our compound The rorm
notions, or the ideas that conftitute the higheft ge- °fa defini-
nera in the differeut feales of perception, are formed by t!on“1 al‘
# * ■»- * ^ 1/ the various
uniting together a certain number of fimple notices j or(jers
fo the terms exprefling thefe genera are defined % conception*
enumerating the fun pie notices fo combined. And as the
fpecies comprehended under any genus, or the com¬
plex ideas of the fecond order, arife from fuperadding
the fpecific difference to the faid general idea; fo the
definition of the names of the fpecies is abfolved, in a
detail of the ideas of the fpecific difference, conne£ted
with the term of the genus. For the genus having
been before defined, the term by which it is expref-
fed ftands for a known idea, and may therefore be
introduced into all fubfequent definitions, in the fame
manner as the names of fimple perceptions. It will
now be fufficiently obvious, that the definitions of all
the fucceeding orders of compound notions will every-
S where
I38
Of
Judgemert.
LOG
where confirt of the teiin of the neareft genus, joined
with an enumeration of the ideas that conftitute the
fpecific difference ; and that the definition of indivi¬
duals unites the name of the loweft fpecies with the
terms by which we exprefs the ideas of the numeric
difference.
I C. Part II.
XL Here then we have the true and proper form Of
of a definition, in all the various orders of conception. Judgement*
This is that method of defining which is commonly
called logical, and which we fee is perfect in its kind, in-
afmuch as it prefents a full and adequate defcription of
the idea for which the term defined hands.
PART II. OF JUDGEMENT.
Chap. I. Of the Grounds of Human Judgement.
THE mind being fumifhed wfith ideas, its next flep
reftjPV^way t0 know^e(ige is, the comparing thefe ideas
Intuition
between
our ideas
when they
are imme-
26
Experience
and tefti-
mony the
ground of
judging as
to fa&s.
together, in order to judge of their agreement or dif-
agreement. In this joint view of our ideas, if the re¬
lation is fuch as to be immediately difcoverable by the
^ , bare infpeflion of the mind, the judgements thence ob-
ceiveabVer- tained are called intuitive, from a word that denotes to
look at; for in this cafe, a mere attention to the ideas
compared fuffices to let us fee nowr far they are con-
nefted or disjoined. Thus, that the Whole is greater
than any of its Parts, is an intuitive judgement j no¬
thing more being required to convince us of its truth,
than an attention to the ideas of whole and [>art. And
this too is the reafon why we call the adl of the mind
forming thefe judgements zWttf/fo/z; as it is indeed no
more than an immediate perception of the agreement
or difagreement of any two ideas.
II. But here it is to be obferved, that our know¬
ledge of this kind refpe&s only our ideas, and the re¬
lations between them; and therefore can ferve only
as a foundation to fuch reafonings as are employed in
invefiigating thofe relations. Now it fo happens, that
many of our judgements are converfant about fadls, and
and the real exiftence of things which cannot be tra¬
ced by the bare contemplation of our ideas. It does
not follow7, becaufe I have the idea of a circle in my
mind, that therefore a figure anfwering to that idea
has a real exiftence in nature. I can form to myfelf
the notion of a centaur or golden mountain, but never
imagine on that account that either of them exifts.
What then are the grounds of our judgement in rela¬
tion to faffs ? experience and tejlimony. By experience
we are informed of the exiftence of the feveral ob-
jeffs which furround us, and operate upon our fenfes.
Teftimony is of a wider extent, and reaches not on¬
ly to objefts beyond the prefent fphere of our obfer-
vation, but alfo to faffs and tranfaffions, which being
now paft, and having no longer any exiftence, could
not without this conveyance have fallen under our cog¬
nizance.
III. Here-w7e have three foundations of human
judgement, from which the whole fyftem of our know-
ftXernent ^ec^§e may w^h eafe and advantage be derived. Firft,
‘Lv/^In-’ fruition, which refpefls our ideas themfelves, and
tuition, the their relations } and is the foundation of that fpecies
ground of of reafoning which we call demonf ration. For what-
fcientifical ever,is deduced from our intuitive perceptions, by a
ow c ge- clear and connefled feries of proofs, is faid to be
demonftrated, and produces abfolute certainty in the
mind. Hence the knowledge obtained in this man¬
ner is what Ve properly term fcience; becaufe in evefy
ftep of the procedure it carries its own evidence along
27
Three foun¬
dations of
human
with it, and leaves no room for doubt or hefitation.
And what is highly worthy of notice ; as the truths
of this clafs exprefs the relations between our ideas,
and the fame relations muft ever and invariably fubfiff
between the fame ideas, our deduflions in the way of
fcience conftitute what we call eternal, necefary, and
immutable truths. If it be true that the whole is equal
to all its parts, it muft be fo unchangeably ; becaufe
the relation of equality being attached to the ideas
themfelves, muft ever intervene where the fame ideas
are compared. Of this nature all the truths of natu¬
ral religion, morality, and mathematics, and in general -
whatever may be gathered from the bare view and con-
fideration of our ideas. 2g
IV. The fecond ground of human judgement is ew-2. Experx-
perience; from which we infer the exiftence of thofe ence>the
objedt? that furround us, and fall under the immediate grou,nd of
notice of our fenfes. When we feen the fun, or call
our eyes towards a building, we not only have per- the powers,
ceptions of thefe objedfs within ourfelves, but afcribe ancl quali-
to them a real exiftence out of the mind. It is alfo *,‘.es °* k°'
by the information of the fenfes that we judge of thediei’
qualities of bodies ; as when we fay that fnow is white,
fire hot, or fieel hard. For as we are wholly unac¬
quainted with the internal ftrudlure and conftitution of
the bodies that produce thefe fenfations in us, nay, and
are unable to trace any connexion between that ftruc-
ture and the fenfations themfelves, it is evident, that
we build our judgements altogether upon obfervation,
afcribing to bodies fuch qualities as are anfwerable to
the perceptions they excite in us. Not that we ever
fuppofe the qualities of bodies to be things of the fame
nature with our perceptions •, for there is nothing in
fire fimilar to our fenfation of heat, or in a fword fimi-
lar to pain : but that when different bodies excite in
our minds fimilar perceptions, w7e neceffarily afcribe
to thefe bodies not only an exiftence independent of
us, but likewife fimilar qualities, of which it is the
nature to produce fimilar perceptions in the human
mind. But this is not the only advantage derived
from experience 5 for to that too wTe are indebted for
all ©ur knowledge regarding the co-exiftence of fen-
fible qualities in objefts, and the operations of bodies
one upon another. Ivory, for inftance, is hard and
elaftic ; this we know by experience, and indeed by
that alone. For, being altogether ftrangers to the true
nature both of elafticity and hardnefs, we cannot by
the bare contemplation of our ideas determine how
far the one neceffarily implies the other, or whether
there may not be a repugnance between them. But
when we obferve them to exift both in the fame ob-
jeft, we are then allured from experience that they
are not incompatible ; and when we alfo find, that a
ftone is hard and not elafticj and that air though ela-
Part II. L 0
Of flic is not fcard, we alfo conclude upon the fame foun-
Judgemmt- dation, that the ideas are not neceifarily conjoined,
X"‘^r J but may exift feparately in different objedls. In like
manner, with regard to the operations of bodies one
upon another, it is evident, that our knowledge this
way is all derived from obfervation. j4qud regia dif-
folves gold, as has been found by frequent trial, nor
is there any other wTay of arriving at the difeovery.
Naturalifts may tell us, if they pleafe, that the parts
of aqua regia are of a texture apt to infinuate between
the corpufcles of gold, and thereby looien and lhake
them afunder. If this is a true account of the matter,
it will notwithftanding be allowed, that our conjefture
in regard to the conformation of thefe bodies is de¬
duced from the experiment, and not the experiment
from the conjedture. It was not from any previous
knowledge of the intimate ftru&ure of aqua regia and
gold, and the aptnefs of their parts to a£t or to be ail¬
ed upon, that we came by the conclufion above men¬
tioned. The internal conflitution of bodies is in a
manner wholly unknown to us : and could we even
furmount this difficulty, yet as the feparation of the
parts of gold implies fomething like an ailive force in
the menjlruum, and we are unable to conceive how it
comes to be poffeffed of this aftivity, the effeil muft
be owned to be altogether beyond our comprehenfion.
But when repeated trials had once confirmed it, in-
fomuch that it was admitted as an eftabliffied truth
in natural knowledge, it was then eafy for men to
fpin out theories of their own invention, and con¬
trive fuch a ftruilure of parts, both for gold and aqua
regia, as would bed ferve to explain the phenomenon
upon the principles of that fyftem of philofophy they
had adopted.
V. From what has been faid it is evident, that as
intuition is the foundation of what we call fcientifical
knowledge, fo is experience of natural. For this lail
being wholly taken up with objects of fenfe, or thofe
bodies that conflitute the natural world j and their
properties, as far as we can difeover them, being to
be traced only by a long and painful feries of obferva-
tions 5 it is apparent, that, in order to improve this
branch of knowledge, we muft betake ourfelves to the
method of trial and experiment.
VI. But though experience is what wTe may term
the immediate foundation of natural knowledge, yet
with refpeft to particular perfons its influence is very
narrow and confined. The bodies that furround us
are numerous, many of them lie at a great diftance,
and fome quite beyond our reach. Life is fo ffiort,
and fo crowded with cares, that but little time is left for
any fingle man to employ himfelf in unfolding the my-
fteries of nature. Hence it is neceftary to admit many
things upon the teftimony of others, which by this
means becomes the foundation of a great part of our
knowledge of body. No man doubts of the power
of aqua regia to diffolve gold, though perhaps he ne¬
ver himfelf made the experiment. In thefe therefore
and fuch like cafes we judge of the fa£ls and opera-
tic?ns of nature upon the mere ground of teftimony.
However, as we can always have recourfe to expe¬
rience where any doubt or fcruple arifes, this is juftly
confidered as the true foundation of natural philofo¬
phy $ being indeed the ultimate fupport upon which
the r
Judgement.
G I C. 139
our affent refts, and wffiereto vve appeal when
higheft degree of evidence is required.   
VII. But there are many fadts that will not allow
of an appeal to the fenfes) and in this cale teftimony 3. Teftimo-
is the true and only foundation of our judgme ts. n.G the ^
All human actions of whatever kind, when confidered
as already paft, are of the nature here deferibed j be- iinowiedge»
caufe having now no longer any exiftence, both the
fadts therofelves, and the circumftances attending them,
can be known only from the relations ot fuch as had
fufficient opportunities of arriving at the truth. Fejli-
mony therefore is juftly accounted a third ground of
human judgement j and as from the other two we have
deduced fcientifical and natural knowledge, fo we may
from this derive liijlorical; by which we mean, not
merely a knowledge of the civil tranfadlions of Hates
and kingdoms, but of all fadls whatfoever, where tefti¬
mony is the ultimate foundation of our belief.
30
Chap. II. Of Affirmative and Negative Propofitions.
I. While the comparing of our ideas is confidered The fub e51
merely as an adt of the mind, aflembling them toge- a
ther, and joining or disjoining them according to the pr0p0fition.
refult of its perceptions, we call it judgement; but when explained,
our judgements are put into wTords, they then bear the
name of propojitions. A propofition therefore is a fen-
tence expreffing fome judgement of the mind, whereby
two or more ideas are affirmed to agree or difagree.
Now, as our judgements include at leaft twro ideas, one
of which is affirmed or denied of the other, fo muft a
propofition have terms anfwering to thefe ideas. The
idea of which vve affirm or deny, and of courfe the
term expreffing that idea, is called the fubjeB of fhe
propofition. The idea affirmed or denied, as alfo the
term anfwering it, is called the predicate. Ihus in
the propofition, God is omnipotent: God is the fubjeft,
it being of him that w7e affirm omnipotence j and om¬
nipotent is the predicate, becaufe we affirm the idea ex-
preffed by that word to belong to God. 3r
II. But as, in propofitions, ideas are either joined ^he^°Pu'
or disjoined j it is not enough to have terms exprei- ’
fing thofe ideas, unlefs we have alfo fome words to
denote their agreement or difagreement. 1 hat word
in a propofition, which connetls two ideas together,
is called the copula ; and if a negative particle be an¬
nexed, we thereby underftand that the ideas are dif-
joined. The fubjlantive verb is commonly made ufe
of for the copula : as in the above mentioned propofi¬
tion, God is omnipotent; where is reprefents the co¬
pula, and fignifies the agreement of the ideas of God
and omnipotence. But if we mean to feparate two
ideas •, then, befides the fubftantive verb, we muft alfo
ufe fome particle of negation, to exprefs this repug¬
nance. The propofition, man is not perfeB, may ferve
as an example of this kind j where the notion of per-
feBion being removed from the idea of man, the ne¬
gative particle not is inferted after the copula, to fig-
nify the difagreement between the fubjeft and predi¬
cate. ^
III. Every propofition necefiarily confifts of
three parts j but then it is not alike needful that they times ex-
be all feverally expreffed in words*, becaufe the copula prefled by
is often included in the term of the predicate, as when a ^inS^e
■S 2 wewor<J- •
i4o L 0
7i ( nf we fey, he fits ; which imports the fame as he is fitting.
\ the L^iin language, a fingle word has often the
force of a whole fentence. Thus amhulat is the fame
as ille eji ambulctns ; amo, as ego fum anions ; and fo in
innumerable other initances ; by which it appears,
that we are not fo much to regard the number of words
in a fentence, as the ideas they reprefent, and the man¬
ner in which they are put together. For wherever
two ideas are joined or disjoined in an expreflion, though
ot but a lingle word j it is evident that we have a fub-
jecl, predicate, and copula, and of confequence a com-
33 plete proportion.
ar^nc^a-C the mind joins two ideas, wTe call it an
tive propo- judgement 5 when it feparates them, a ne-
G I C.
tence, to form one complex idea, of which the predi¬
cate beloved of God is direhlly affirmed.
Chap. III. Of Univerfial and IParticular Propofitions.
iitions.
34
When the
negative
particle
ferves to
disjoin
ideas.
gative ; and as any twro ideas compared together mufl
neceffarily either agree or not agree, it is evident that
all our judgements fall under thefe two divifions. Hence
likewife the propofitions expreffing thefe judgements
are al! either affirmative or negative. An affirmative
propofition connects the predicate with the fubjedl, as
ajlonc is heavy ; a negative propofition feparates them,
as God is not the author of evil. Affirmation therefore
ts the fame as joining two ideas together \ and this is
done by means of the copula. Negation, on the con¬
trary, marks the repugnance between the ideas com¬
pared ; in which cafe a negative particle muft be call¬
ed in, to ihow that the connexion included in the
copula does not take place.
vk Hence we fee the reafon of the rule commonly
laid down by logicians, lhat in all negative propoli-
tions the negation ought to affedl the copula. For as
the copula, when placed by itfelf, between the fubjedt
and the predicate, manifeilly binds them together ; it
is evident, that in order to render a propofition ne¬
gative, the particles of negation muft enter it in fuch
a manner as to deftroy this union. In a wTord, then
only are two ideas disjoined in a propofition, when the
negative particle may be fo referred to the copula, as
to break the affirmation included in it, and undo that
connexion it would otherwife eftablilh. When we
fay, for inftance, No man is perfeSl ; take away the
negation, and the copula of itfelf plainly unites the
ideas in the propofition. But as this is the very reverfe
of what is intended, a negative mark is added, to ffiow
that this union does not here take place. The nega¬
tion, therefore, by deftroying the effedt of the copula,
changes the very nature of the propofition, infomuch
that, inftead of binding two ideas together, it denotes
their feparation. On the contrary, in this fentence,
Phe man who departs not from an upright behaviour is
beloved of God, the predicate beloved of God is evidently
affirmed of the fubjedl an upright man : fo that, not-
withftanding the negative particle, the propofition is
itill affirmative. The reafon is plain : the negation
here affedls not the copula ; but, making properly a
part of the fubjedl, ferves, with other terms in the fen-
Part II,
Of
Judgement.
I* The next confiderable divifion of propofitions is Diviiion of
into univerfal and particular. Our ideas, according to ProP°fi-
what has been already obferved in the Firft Part, are tlo-ns ^
all lingular as they enter the mind, and reprefent in-“nd nS-
dividual objedls. But as by abftradlion we can render cular.
them univerlal, fo as to comprehend a whole clafs of
things, and fometimes feveral claffes at once ; hence
the terms expreffing thefe ideas muft be in like man¬
ner univerfal. If therefore w'e fuppofe any general
term to become the fubjedt of a propofition, it is evi¬
dent, that whatever is affirmed of the abftradt idea
belonging to that term, may be affirmed of all the in¬
dividuals to which that idea extends. Thus, when we
fay, Men are mortal; we confider mortality, not as
confined to one or any number of particular men, but
as wffiat may be affirmed without reftridfion of the
wffiole fpecies. By this means the propofition becomes
as general as the idea which makes the fubjedl of it ;
and indeed derives its univerfality entirely from that
idea, being more or leis fo according as this may be
extended to more or fewer individuals. But it is fur¬
ther to be obferved of thefe general terms, that they
fometimes enter a propofition in their full latitude, as in
the example given above ; and fometimes appear with
a mark of limitation. In this laft cafe we are given to
underftand, that the predicate agrees not to the whole
univerfal idea, but only to a part of it ; as in the pro¬
pofition, Some men are wife : For here wifdom is not
affirmed of every particular man, but reftrained to a
few of the human fpecies (b).
II. Now from this different appearance of the ge-Propofi-
neral idea that conftitutes the fubjedt of any judge-hons uni-
ment, arifes the divifion of propofitions into unive/ffaP
and particular. An univerfal propofition is that where- is f0 With¬
in the fubjedt is fome general term taken in its full la- out a mark
titude ; infomuch that the predicate agrees to all the °f reftric-.
individuals comprehended under it, if it denotes a
tion-
proper fpecies ; and to all the feveral fpecies, and
their individuals, if it marks an idea of a higher order.
The words all, every, no, none, &c. are the proper
figns of this univerfality ; and as they feldom fail to
accompany general truths, fo they are the moft obvi¬
ous criterion whereby to diftinguifii them. AH ani¬
mals have a power of beginning motion. This is an
univerfal propofition ; as w« know from the wmrd all
prefixed to the fubjedl animals, which denotes that it
muft be taken in its full extent. Hence the powder of
beginning motion may be affirmed of all the feveral
fpecies of animals. ^
III. A particular propofition has in like manner Propofi-
fome general term for its fubjedl; but with a mark oftions Part‘'
limitation fomeuni_
  verfal fub-
. . , . . je<a: aPPears
(B) eet e prece mg note, where it is demonIlrated that the/erfftx alone, and not the tVenx, are in reality^r* a inark
The term ,s equally applicable to every individual of the human race ; and therefore what 's af-f1""1'*-
n-dnn lalWe, “k”"’ '• S'Tc ’• ’ affirmed 7 denled of a11 th' “"duals, without regard to their difcrimi-
Jih f '7 de6n",Ve, "■“d GRAMMA*), which, prefixed to the word ,„uo, limits the
ff-lk f h 'er"‘! aRd therefore what is affirmed of fome men, is affirmed only of pm of the
xace, but that part itlelf is not afcertained. : / ”
Part II.
Of limitation added, to denote, that the predicate agrees
Judgement. only to forae ot the individuals comprehended under a
1 v J fpecies, or to one or more of the fpecies belonging to
any genus, and not to the whole univerfal idea. Thus,
Some Jlones are heavier than iron ; Some men have an
uncommon Jhare of prudence. In the laft of thefe propo¬
rtions, the fubjed fome men implies only a certain num¬
ber of individuals, comprehended under a Angle fpecies.
In the former, where the fubjed is a genus that ex¬
tends to a great variety of diftind dalles, fome Jlones
may not only imply any number of particular Hones,
but alfo feveral whole fpecies of Hones, inafmuch as
there may be not a few with the property there de-
feribed. Hence we fee, that a propoiition does not
ceafe to be particular by the predicate’s agreeing to a
whole fpecies, unlefs that fpecies, fmgly and diilind-
ly conlidered, makes alfo the fubjed of which we af-
38 firm or deny.
Singular IV. There is Hill one fpecies of propofitions that
proportions rema-ms to ke deferibed, and which the more deferves
under The our notice> as is not yet agreed among logicians to
headof1C which of the two claffes mentioned above they ought
particulars, to be referred j namely, fngular propofitions, or thofe
where the fubjed is an individual. Of this nature are
the following : Sir Ifaac Newton was the inventor of
fluxions ; This book contains many ufeful truths. What
occalions ibme difficulty as to the proper rank of thefe
propofitions is, that, the fubjed being taken according
to the whole of its extenfion, they fometimes have
the fame effed in reafoning as univerfals. But T it
be confidered that they are in truth the moH limited
kind of particular propofitions, and that no propofition
- can with any propriety be called univerfal but where
the fubjed is fome univerfal idea j we fiiall not be long
in determining to which clafs they ought to be refer¬
red. When we fay, Some boohs contain ufeful truths;
the propofition is particular, becaufe the general term
appears with a mark of reftridion. If therefore we
fay, This book contains ufeful truths ; it is evident that
the propofition mufi be Hill more particular, as the li¬
mitation implied in the word this, is of a more confin¬
ed nature than in the former cafe.
39 V. We fee, therefore, that all propofitions are either
folddivi- affirmative or negative; nor is it lefs evident, that in
fionofpro- both cafes they may be umverfal ox particular. Hence
LOGIC.
petitions.
.4° .
XKftindion
different circumdances.
colour, and great weight,
arifes that celebrated fourfold divifion of them into
univerfal affirmative and univerfal negative, particu¬
lar affirmative and particular negative, which compre¬
hends indeed all their varieties. The ufe of this
method of diHinguithing them will appear more fully
afterwards, when we come to treat of reafoning and
fyllogifm.
Chap. IV. Of Abfolute and Conditional Propofltions.
I. The objeds about which we are chiefly conver-
ofTTdkies ^ant 'n wor^> are a^ a nature Imble to change.
intoTlfen-3 What may be affirmed of them at one time, cannot
tial and ac-often at another*, and it makes no fmall part of our
cidental. knowledge to diHinguiffi rightly thefe variations, and
trace the reafons upon wffiich they depend. For it is
obfervable, that amidft all the viciflitudes of nature,
fome things remain conHant and invariable *, nor even
-are the changes, to which we fee others liable, effed-
cd but in confequence of uniform and Heady laws,
*41
which, when known, are fufficient to dired us in our
judgements about them. Hence philofophers, in di-
ftinguifhing the objeds of our perception into various
claffes, have been very careful to note, that fome
properties belong effentially to the general idea, fo as
not to be feparable from it but by deHroying its very
nature j while others are only accidental, and may be
affirmed or denied of it in
Thus folidity, a yellow col
confidered as effential qualities of gold : but whether
it {hall exiff as an uniform conjoined mafs, is not alike
neceffary. We fee that by a proper raenfiruum it
may be reduced to a fine powder, and that an intenfe
heat will bring it into a Hate of fufion. 41
II. From this diverfity in the feveral qualities offence a
things arifes a confiderable difference as to the man- diver-
ner of our judging about them. For all fuch proper-plty jn our
ties as are infeparable from objeds when confidered manner af
as belonging to any genus or fpecies, are affirmed ab-jndging.
folutely and without referve of that general idea.
Thus we fay, Gold is very weightij ; AJlone is hard;
Animals have a power of felf-motwn. But in the cafe-
of mutual or accidental qualities, as they depend up¬
on fome other confideration difiind from the general
idea \ that alfo muff be taken into the account, in or¬
der to form an accurate judgement. Should we affirm,
for inflance, of fome Hones, that they are very fuf-
ceptible of a rolling motion 5 the propofition, while it
remains in this general form, cannot with any advan¬
tage be introduced into our reafonings. An aptnefs
to receive that mode of motion flows from the figure
of the Hone ; which, as it may vary infinitely, our
judgement then only becomes applicable and determi¬
nate, when the particular figure, of which volubility is
a confequence, is alfo taken into the account. Let us
then bring in this other qonfideration, and the propo¬
fition will run as follows : Stones of a fpherical form are
eaflly put into a rolling motion. Here we fee the condition
upon which the predicate is affirmed, and therefore
know in what particular cafes the propofition may be
applied. _ _ r42
III. This confideration of propofitions refpeding the Which
manner in which the predicate is affirmed of the fub-gwesnfe
jedt gives rife to the divifion of them into abfolute an(i
conditional. Abfolute propofitions are thofe wherein pofitions ;n_
we affirm fome property infeparable from the idea of to abfolute
the fubjedf, and which therefore belongs to it in all and condi-
poffible cafes : as, God is infinitely wife ; Virtue tends^-10^'
to the ultimate happinefs of man. But where the predi¬
cate is not neceffarily connedfed with the idea of the
fubjed!, unlefs upon fome confideration diflindl from
that idea, there the propofition is called conditional.
The reafon of the name is taken from the fuppofition
annexed, which is of the nature of a condition, and may
be expreffed as fuch, thus : If a fone is expofed to the
rays of the fun, it will covtraB Jome degree of heat ; If
a river runs in a very declining channel, its rapidity will
confantly increafe.
IV. There is not any thing of greater importance'rlie great
in philofophy than a due attention to this divifion ofunportance
propofitions. If we are careful never to affirm things
abfolutely but where the ideas are infeparably con-ren(jers
joined; and if in our other judgements wTe difiindllypr0pofi-
mark the conditions which determine the predicate to tions deter-
belong to the fubjedt ; we Hi a 11 be the lefs liable tommate*
mi Hake
142
of miftatce in applying general truths to the particular
Judgement. concerns Df human life. It is owing to the exadt ob-
' v fervance of this rule that mathematicians have been fo
happy in their difcoveries, and that what they demon-
Itrate of magnitude in general may be applied with
eafe in all obvious occurrences.
And^redu- The truth of it is, particular propofitions are
ces them then known to be true, when we can trace their con-
from par- nexion with univerfals j and it is accordingly the great
ticulars to bufinefs of fcience to find out general truths that may
genera >. ^ app]je(j ^th fafety in all obvious initances. Now
the great advantage arifing from determining with
care the conditions upon which one idea may be af¬
firmed or denied of another is this : that thereby par¬
ticular propofitions really become univerfal, may be
introduced with certainty into our reafonings, and
ferve as flandards to condudt and regulate our judge¬
ments. To illuftrate this by a familiar inftance : if we
fay, Some water aBs very forcibly ; the propofition is
particular : and as the conditions on which this for¬
cible adlion depends are not mentioned, it is as yet un¬
certain in what cafes it may be applied. Let us then
fupply thefe conditions, and the propofition will run
thus: Water conveyed in fujfcient quantity along a feep
defcent aBs very forcibly. Here we have an univerfal
judgement, inafmuch as the predicate forcible aBion
may be afcribed to all water under the circumftances
mentioned. Nor is it lefs evident that the propofition
in this new form is of eafy application •, and in faff we
find that men do apply it in inftances where the forci¬
ble adlion of water is required j as in corn-mills and
many other works of art.
Chap. V. Of Simple and Compound Propof lions.
.45
Dmfion ot Hitherto we have treated of propofitions, where
tions into onty two ideas are compared together. Thefe are in
Ample and the general called fimple; becaufe, having but one fub-
eompound. je£t and one predicate, they are the eflfedt of a fimple
judgement that admits of no fubdivifion. But if it fo
happens that feveral ideas offer themfelves to our
thoughts at once, whereby we are led to affirm the
fame thing of different objefts, or different things of
the fame objeft $ the propofitions expreffing thefe
judgements are called compound: becaufe they may be
refolved into as many others as there are fubjedts or
predicates in the whole complex determination on the
mind. Thus, God is infinitely wife and infinitely power¬
ful. Here there are two predicates, infinite wifdom and
infinite power, both affirmed of the fame fubjedt; and
accordingly -the propofition may be rcfolved into two
others j affirming thefe predicates feverally. In like
manner in the propofition, Neither kings nor people are
exempt from death ; the predicate is denied of both fub-
jedts, and may therefore be feparated from them in di-
ftindt propofitions. Nor is it lefs evident, that if a com¬
plex judgement confiils of feveral fubjedts and predi¬
cates, it may be refolved into as many fimple propofi¬
tions as are the number of different ideas compared
together. Riches and honours are apt to elate the mind,
and increafe the number of our defires. In this judge¬
ment there are two fubjedts and two predicates, and it
is at the fame time apparent that it may be refolved
into four diltindt propofitions. Riches are apt to elate
Part II.
the mind. Riches art apt to increafe the number of our Of
defires. And fo of honours. N Judgement.
II. Logicians have divided thefe compound propo- ' v——1
fitions into a great many different claffes; but, in our The proper
opinion, not with a due regard to their proper defi-notion of a
nition. Thus conditionals, caufals, relatives, &c. arecomPound
mentioned as fo many diftindt fpecies of this kind,*5™130^10”
though in fadt they are no more than fimple propo-1 ^''ltame ’
fitions. To give an inftance of a conditional j If a
fione is expofed to the rays of the fun, it will contraB
fame degree of heat. Here we have but one fubjedt
and one predicate; for the complex expreffion, A
fione expofed to the rays of the fun, conftitutes the pro¬
per fubjedt of this propolition, and is no more than
one determined idea. 1 he fame thing happens in
caufals. Rehoboam was unhappy becaufe he followed evil
counfel There is here an appearance of two propo¬
fitions arifing from the complexity of the expreffion j
but when u’e come to confider the matter more near¬
ly, it is evident that we have but a fingle iubjedt and
predicate. The purfuit of evil counfel brought mifery
upon Rehoboam. It is not enough, therefore, to render
a propofition compound, that the fubjedt and predicate
are complex notions, requiring fometimes a whole len¬
ience to exprefs them : for in this cafe the comparifon
is ftill confined to two ideas, and conftitutes what we
call a fimple judgement. But where there are feveral
fubjedts or predicates, or both, as the affirmation or
negation may be alike extended to them all, the propo¬
fition expreffing fuch a judgement is truly a collediion
of as many fimple ones as there are different ideas com¬
pared. Confining ourfelves therefore to this more
ftridt and juft notion of compound propofitions, they
are all reducible to two kinds, viz. copulatives and dif-
jun&ives. ^
III. A. copulative propofition is, where the fubjedts Compound
and predicates are fo linked together, that they may propofm-
be all feverally affirmed or denied one of another. O^co^uktivT
this nature are the examples of compound propofitions ^ ’
given above. Riches and honours are apt to elate the
mind, and increafe the number of our defires. Neither
kings nor people are exempt from death. In the firft of
thefe the two predicates may be affirmed feverally of
each fubjedt, whence we have four diitindt propofitions.
The other furniffies an example of the negative kind,
where the fame predicate, being disjoined from both
fubjedts, may be alfo denied of them in feparate pro¬
pofitions.
IV. The other fpecies of compound propofitions are or disjunc-
thofe called disjundtives j in wffiicb, comparing feveral
predicates with the fame fubjedt, we affirm that one
of them neceffarily belongs to it, but leave the parti¬
cular predicate undetermined. If any one, for example,
fays, This world either exifis of if elf, or is the work of
fome all-wife and powerful caufe, it is evident that one
of the two predicates muft belong to the worldq but
as the propofition determines not which, it is therefore
of the kind we call dijunBive. Such too are the fol¬
lowing : The fun either moves round the earth, or is the
centre about which the earth revolves. Friendfhip finds
men equal, or makes them fo. It is the nature of all pro¬
pofitions of this clafs, fuppofing them to be exadl in
point of form, that upon determining the particular
predicate, the j;eft: are of courfe to be removed : or if
all
LOGIC.
LOGIC.
Part II.
Of all the predicates but one are removed, that one necef-
Judgement. fari]y takes place. Thus, in the example given above j
 ' if we allow the world to be the work of feme wife and
powerful caufe, we of courfe deny it to be felf-exift-
ent; or if we deny it to be felf-exiftent, we muft ne-
ceflarily admit that it was produced by fome wife and
, powerful caufe. Now this particular manner of link¬
ing the predicates together, fo that the eftablifhing one
difplaces all the reft j or the excluding all but one
neceffarily eftablifhes that one *, cannot otherwife be
effected than by means of disjunctive particles. And
hence it is that propofitions of this clafs take their
names from thefe particles which make fo neceffary a
part of them, and indeed conftitute their very nature
confidered as a diftindt fpecies.
Chap. VI. Of the Divifion of Propoftions into Self-evi¬
dent and Demonf table.
Pro .oiki any propofition is offered to the view of
onsdivided the mind, if the terms in which it is expreffed be
into felf- underftood } upon comparing the ideas together, the
evident and agreement or difagreement afferted is either immedi-
dt monftra- aj.e]y perceived, or found to lie beyond the prefent
reach of the underftanding. In the firft cafe the pro-
polition is faid to be felf-evident, and admits not of
any proof, becaufe a bare attention to the ideas them-
felves produces full convidlion and certainty ; nor is
it poffible to call in any thing more evident by way of
confirmation. But where the connexion or repug¬
nance comes not fo readily under the infpedlion of the
mind, there we muft have recourfe to reafoning j
and if by a clear feries of proofs we can make out the
truth propofed, infomuch that felf-evidence (hall ac¬
company every ftep of the procedure, we are then
able to demonftrate what we affert, and the propofi¬
tion itfelf is faid to be demonf table. When we affirm,
for inftance, that it is impojfible for the fame thing to be
and not to be; whoever underftands the terms made
ufe of perceives at firft glance the truth of what is af¬
ferted, nor can he by any efforts bring himfelf to be¬
lieve the contrary. The propofition therefore is felf-
evident, and fuch that it is impoflible by reafoning to
make it plainer*, becaufe there is no truth more ob¬
vious or better known, from which as a confequence
it may be deduced. But if we fay, This world had a
beginning; the affertion is indeed equally true, but
Ihines not forth with the fame degree of evidence.
We find great difficulty in conceiving how the world
could be made out of nothing : and are not brought
to a free and full confent, until by reafoning we ar¬
rive at a clear view of the abfurdity involved in the
contrary funpofition. Hence this propofition is of tne
kind we call demonf table, inafmuch as its truth is not
immediately perceived by the mind, but yet may be
made appear by means of others more known and
obvious, whence it follows as an unavoidable confe-
quence.
50 II. From what has been faid, it appears, that reafon-
Self-evi- ing Js employed only about demonftrable propofitions,
and that our intuitive and felf-evident perceptions are
principles the ultimate foundation on which it .refts.
ofreafon- III. Self-evident propofitions furniffr the firft prin¬
ts- ciples of reafoning ) and it is certain, that if in our
refearches we employ only fuch principles as have
this charadfer of felf-evidence, and apply them accord-jUI Sc^men *
ing to the rules to be afterwards explained, we {ball
be in no danger of error in advancing from one dif-
covery to another. For this we may appeal to the
writings of the mathematicians, which, being conduc¬
ed by the exprefs model here mentioned, are an incon-
tellable proof of the • firmnefs and liability of human
knowffedge, when built upon fo fure a foundation. For
not only have the propofitions of this fcience flood the
tell of ages 5 but are found attended with that invinci¬
ble evidence, as forces the affent of all who duly con-
fider the proofs upon which they are eilablilhed. Since
the mathematicians are univerfally allowed to have hit
upon the right method of arriving at unknown truths,
lince they have been the happieft in the choice as well
as the application of their principles, it may not be
amifs to explain here their method of Hating felf-evi¬
dent propofitions, and applying them to the purpofes of
demonftration. 51
IV. Firft then it is to be obferved, that they have Definitions
been very careful in afcertaining their ideas, and fix-f&reat
ing the fignification of their terms. For this purpofe
they begin with definitions, in which the meaning ofancievi_
their wrords is fo diftinftly explained, that they can-dence in
not fail to excite in the mind of an attentive reader knowledge'
the very fame ideas as are annexed to them by the
writer. And indeed the clearnefs and irrefiftible evi¬
dence of mathematical knowledge is owing to nothing
fo much as this care in laying the foundation. Where
the relation between any two ideas is accurately and
juftly traced, it will not be difficult for another to com¬
prehend that relation, if in fetting himfelf to difcover
it he brings the very fame ideas into comparifon. But
if, on the contrary, he affixes to his w'ords ideas dif¬
ferent from thofe that were in the mind of him wffio
firft advanced the demonftration ; it is evident that as
the fame ideas are not compared, the fame relation
cannot fubfift, infomuch that a propofition will be re-
jedled as falfe, wffiich, had the terms been rightly un¬
derftood, mull have appeared inconteftably true. A
fquare, for inftance, is a figure bounded by four equal
right lines, joined together at right angles. Here the
nature of the angles makes no lefs a part of the idea
than the equality of the fides : and many properties
demonftrated of the fquare How entirely from its being
a reclangular figure. If therefore we fuppofe a man,
who has formed a partial notion of a fquare, compre¬
hending only the equality of its fides, without regard
to the angles, reading fome demonftration that implies
alfo this latter confideration •, it is plain he would re-
je6l it as not univerfally true, inafmuch as it could not
be applied where the fides were joined together at
equal angles. For this laft figure, anfwering ftill to his
idea of a fquare, would be yet found without the pro¬
perty affigned to it in the propofition. But if he
comes afterwards to corredl his notion, and render his
idea complete, he will then readily own the truth and 52
juftnefs of the demonftration. ticians'^by
V. We fee, therefore, that nothing contributes fo beginning
much to the improvement and certainty of human with them
knowledge, as the having determinate ideas, andPro<jurea
keeping them fteady and invariable in all our dif- ceptjyn t"0
courfes and reafonings about them. And on this ac-the truths
count it is, that mathematicians, as was before obferved, they ad-
alwayswice' ■
144
Of
Judg-ement.
LOGIC.
Part 1L
_ £3
The efta-
blifhing of
principles,
always begin by defining tbeir terms, and diftindlly un¬
folding the notions they are intended to exprefs.
Hence fuch as apply themfelves to thefe dudies have
exactly the fame views of things : and, bringing al*
ways the very fame ideas into comparifon, readily dif-
cern the relations between them. It is likevvile of
importance, in every demonftration, to exprefs the fame
idea invariably by the fame word. From this praftice
mathematicians never deviate •, and if it be neceffary in
their demonftrations, where the reader’s comprehenfion
is aided by a diagram, it is much more fo in all reaion-
ings about moral or intelleftual truths where the ideas
cannot be reprefented by a diagram. The obfervation
of this rule may fometimes be produffive of ill-found¬
ing periods •, but when truth is the object, found ought
to be defpifed.
VI. When the mathematicians have taken this firft
flep, and made known the ideas whofe relations they
the fecond intend to inveftigate •, their next care is, to lay down
ftep in ma- fome felf-evident truths, which may ferve as a founda-
thematical tion for their future reafonings. And here indeed
knowledge, proceed with remarkable circurtifpeftion, admit¬
ting no principles but what flow immediately from
their definitions, and neceflarily force themfelves upon
a mind in any degree attentive to its ideas. Thus a
circle is a figure formed by a right line moving round
fome fixed point in the fame plane. The fixed point
round which the line is fuppofed to move, and where
one of its extremities terminates, is called the centre of
the circle. The other extremity, which is conceived
to be carried round until it returns to the point whence
it firfl: fet out, deferibes a curve running into itfelf, and
termed the circumference. All right lines drawn from
the centre to the circumference are called radii. From
thefe definitions compared, geometricians derive this
felf-evident truth ; that the radii of the fame circle are
54 all equal to one another.
Propofi- VII We now obferve, that in all propofitions we
tions divi- cither affirm or deny fome property of the idea that
culadve andcon^tutes t^ie fabjef! of our judgement, or we maintain
practical. t^lat fomething may be done or effedfed. The firft fort
are called fpecu/ative propofitions, as in the example
mentioned above, the radii of the fame circle are all
equal one to another. The others are called praBical, for
a reafon too obvious to be mentioned j thus, that a right
line may be drawn from one point to another is a pradti-
cal propofition •, inafmuch as it expreffed that fome¬
thing may be done.
VIII. From this twofold confideration of propofi¬
tions arifes the twofold divifion of mathematical prin-
diftinguifh- ciples into axioms and poftulates. By an axiom they
edintoaxi- underftand any felf-evident fpeculative truth •, as, That
oms and the whole is greater than its parts : That things equal to
poftulates, one Qny (jie jame thing are equal to one another. But a
felf-evident pradfical propofition is wThat they call a
pojlulate. Such are thofe of Euclid j that a finite right
line may be continued dire&ly forwards ; that a circle
may be deferibed about any centre with any diftance.
And here we are to obferve, that as in an axiom the
-agreement or difagreement between the fubjedt and pre-
2
* 55
Hence ma¬
thematical
principles
onsin-
orems
dicate muft come under the immedi ite infpedlion of the Of
mind ; fo in a poftulate, not only the pofiibility of the Judgement.
thing aflerted muft be evident at firft view, but alfo
the manner in which it may be effedled. For where
this manner is not of itfelf apparent, the propofition
comes under the notion of the demonftrable kind and
is treated as fuch by geometrical writers. Thus, to
draw a right line from one point to another, is affumed
by Euclid as a poftulaie, becaufe the manner of doing
it is fo obvious, as to require no previous teaching.
But then it is not equally evident, how we are to con-
ftrudt an equilateral triangle. For this reafon he ad¬
vances it as a demonftrable propofition, lays down rules
for the exadt performance, and at the fame time proves,
that if thefe rules are follow’ed, the figure will be juftly
deferibed. $6
IX. This leads us to take notice, that as felf-evident and demon-
truths are diftinguiilicd into different kinds, according Pro*
as they are fpeculative or pradlical *, fo is it alfo w'tbtoth0
demonftrable propofitions. A demonftrable fpecula- and pro-*
tive propofition is by mathematicians called a theorem, blem;.
Such is the famous 47th propofition of the firft book
of the Elements, known by the name of the Pythago-
ric theorem, from its fuppofed inventor Pythagoras,
viz. “ that in every right-angled triangle, the fquare
deferibed upon the fide fubtending the right angle is
equal to both the fquares deferibed upon the fides con¬
taining the right angle.” On the other hand, a de¬
monftrable pradlical propofition is called a problem ; as
wdiere Euclid teaches us to deferibe a fquare upon a
given right line. ^
X. It may not be amifs to add, that, befides the Corollaries
four kinds of propofitions already mentioned, mathe- are obvious]
maticians have alfo a fifth, known by the name of^^^®”5
corollaries. Thefe are ufually fubjoined to theorems orremsorpro
problems, and differ from them only in this: that they blems,
flow from what is there demonftrated in fo obvious a
manner as to difeover their dependence upon the pro¬
pofition whence they are deduced, almoft as foon as
propofed. Thus Euclid having demonftrated, “ that
in every right-lined triangle all the three angles taken
together are equal to two right angles j” adds by way
of corollary, “ that all the three angles of any one tri¬
angle taken together are equal to all the three angles
of any other triangle taken together : which is evi¬
dent at firll fight; becaufe in all cafes they are equal
to two right ones, and things equal to one and the fame
thing are equal to one another.
XI. The fcholia of mathematicians are/ indifferently scholia
annexed to definitions, propofitions, or corollaries j ferve the
and anfwer the fame purpofes as annotations upon a purpofes of
claflic author. For in them occafion is taken to ex* annotation*
plain whatever may appear intricate and oblcure in a ^e^tcorn"'
train of reafoning; to anfwer objeftions j to teach the
application and ufes of propofitions ; to lay open the
original and hiftory of the feveral difeoveries made in
the feienre ; and, in a word, to acquaint us with all
fuch particulars as deferve to be known, whether con-
fidered as points of curiofity or profit.
PART
LOGIC.
Part III.
Of
Reafoning.
PART III. OF REASONING.
59
Remote re
€o
This man¬
ner of arri-
vina: at
fonins
Chap. I. Of Reafoning in genera!, and the Parts of
which it cotfifls.
IT often happens in comparing ideas together, that
their agreement or difagreement cannot be difcerned
at firil view, efpecially if they are of fuch a nature as
not to admit of an exaft application one to another.
When> for inftance, we compare two figures of a de¬
lations dif- ferent make, in order to judge of their equality or in-
covered by equality, it is plain, that by barely confidering the fi-
means of gures themfelves, we cannot arrive at an exadl deter-
diatehieas. m>nat;on j becaufe, by reafon of their difagreeing forms,
’ it is impofiible fo to put them together, as that their
feveral parts {hall mutually coincide. Here then it be¬
comes neceffary to look out for fome third idea that
wull admit of fuch an application as the prefent cafe
requires ; wherein if we fucceed, all difficulties vanifli,
and the relation we are in quell of may be traced, with
eafe. Thus, right-lined figures are all reduced to
fquares, by means of which we can meafure their areas,
and determine exadlly their agreement or difagreement
in point of magnitude.
II. But how can any third idea ferve to difcover a
- relation between two others ? The anfwer is, By be¬
ing compared feverally with thefe others ; for fuch a
ed'rea1611”" comPar^on enables us to fee how far the ideas with
which this third is compared are conne&ed or disjoin¬
ed between themfelves. In the example mentioned
above of two right-lined figures, if we compare each of
them with fome fquare whofe area is known, and find
the one exaflly equal to it, and the other lefs by a
fquare inch, we immediately conclude that the area of
the firft figure is a fquare inch greater than that of the
fecond. This manner of determining the relation be¬
tween any two ideas, by the intervention of fome
third with which they may be compared, is that which
we call reafoning; and is indeed the chief inftrument
by which we pufli on our difcoveries, and enlarge our
knowledge. The great art lies in finding out fuch in¬
termediate ideas, as when compared with the others in
the queftion, will furnifh evident and known truths j
becaufe, as will afterwards appear, it is only by means
of them that w?e arrive at the knowledge of wffiat is
hidden and remote.
III. Hence it appears, that every acl of reafoning
that confti- neceffarily includes three diftindl judgements ; two
tutc an act wherein the ideas whofe relation wTe want to diicover
are feverally compared with the middle idea, and a
third wherein they are themfelves connected or disjoin¬
ed, according to the refult of that companion. Now,
as in the fecond part of logic, our judgements, when put
into words, w7ere called propofitions, fo here in the
third part the expreffions of our reafonings are termed
fijllogifms. And hence it follows, that as every aft of
reafoning implies three feveral judgements, fo every fyl-
loglfm muft include three diftinft propofitions. When
a icafoning is thus put into words, and appears in form
of a fyllogifm, the intermediate idea made ufe of, to
dfifeover the agreement or difagreement we fearch for,
VpL. XII. Part I.
61
"The parts
of reafon
ing and a
fyflogifm.
is called the middle term ; and the two ideas themfelves
with which this third is compared, go by the name of
the extremes. 6z
VI. But as thefe things are bed illuftrated by ex-rndanc^.
amples $ let us, for inftance, fet ourfelves to inquire
whether men are accountable for their adiions. As the abienefi.
relation between the ideas of tnan and accountablenefs,
comes not within the immediate view of the mind,
our firft care muft be to fifid out fome third idea that
will enable us the more eafily to difcover and trace it.
A very fmall meafure of refleftion is fufficient to in¬
form us, that no creature can be accountable for his
aftions, unlefs we fuppofe him capable of diftinguifti-
ing the good from the bad •, that is, unlefs wre fuppofe
him poffeffed of reafon. Nor is this alone fufficient.
For what would it avail him to know good from bad
aftions, if he had no freedom of choice, nor could
avoid the one and purfue the other ? hence it becomes
neceffary to take in both confiderations in the prefent
cafe. It is at the fame time equally apparent, that
wherever there is ability of diftinguiffiing good from
bad aftions, and of purfuing the one and avoiding the
other, there alfo a creature is accountable. We have
then got a third idea, with which accountablenefs is
infeparably connefted, viz. reafon and liberty which
are here to be confidered as making up one complex
conception. Let us now take this middle idea, and
compare it with the other term in the queftion, viz.
man, and we all know by experience that it may be
affirmed of him. Having thus by means of the inter¬
mediate idea formed two feveral judgements, viz. that
man is poffeffed of reafon and liberty ; and that reafon
and liberty imply acc&untablenefs ; a third obvioufly and
neceflarily follows, viz. that man is accountable for his
aBions. Here then we have a complete aft of reafon,-
ing, in which, according to what has been already ob-
ferved, there are three diftinft judgements: two thaf!
may be ftyled previous, inafmuch as they lead to the
other, and arife from comparing the middle idea with
the two ideas in the queftion : the third is a confe-
quence of thefe previous afts, and flows from combin¬
ing the extreme ideas between themfelves. If now
we put this reafoning into words, it exhibits what logi¬
cians term a fyllogifm j and, when propofed in due
form, runs thus :
“ Every creature poffeffed of reafon and liberty is
“ accountable for his aftions.
“ Man is a creature poffeffed of reafon and liberty :
“ Therefore man is accountable for his aftions.”
V. In this fyllogifm we may obferve, that there are Premifes,
three feveral p'ropofitions expreffing the three judge-c0nclull0n-
ments implied in the aft of reafoning 5 and fo difpo{ed,^J^es’
as to reprefent diftinftly what paffes within the mind in term,
tracing the more diftant relations of its ideas. The two
firft propofitions anfwer the two previous judgements
in reafoning, and are called the premifes, becaufe they
are placed before the other. The third is termed the
conclufon, as being gained in confequence of what was
afferted in the premifes. We are alfo to remember,
1' that
346 LOGIC* Part III.
Of that the terms exprefling the two ideas whole rela-
Reafonmg. tjons we inquire alter, as here man and accountab/e-
p.efs, are in general called the extremes ; and that the in¬
termediate idea, by means of which the relation is tra¬
ced, viz. a creature pojjejfed of recfon and liberty, takes
the name of the middle term. Hence it follows, that by
the premifes of a fyllogifm we are always to underftand
the two propofitions where the middle term is feverally
compared with the extremes; for thefe conllitute the
previous judgements, whence the truth we are in queft
of is by reafoning deduced. conclufion is that other
propofition, in which the extremes themfelves are joined
or feparated agreeably to what appears upon the above
comparifon.
Major and VI. The conclufion is made up of the extreme terms
minor term,of the fyllogifm : and the extreme, which ferves as the
major and predicate of the conclufion, goes by the name of the
pofition.10" TnaJor term '• the other extreme, which makes the fub-
je6l in the fame propofition, is called the minor term.
From this diftindHon of the extremes arifes alfo a di-
rtin&ion between the premifes, where thefe extremes
are feverally compared with the middle term. That
propofition which compares the greater extreme, or
the predicate of the conclufion, with the middle term,
is called the major propoftion : the other, wherein the
fame middle term is compared with the fubjedl of the
conclufion or Idler extreme, is called the minor propof¬
tion. All this is obvious from the fyllogifm already
given, where the conclufion is, Man is accountable for
his actions. For here the predicate accountable for his
adlions being connedled with the middle term in the
firft of the two premifes, every creature pojfeffed of rea-
fon and liberty is accountable for his aft ions, gives what
we call the major propoftion. In the fecond of the
premifes, man is a creature pofejfed of reafon and liberty,
we find the leffer extreme, or fubjedl of the conclu¬
fion, viz. man, connedfed with the fame middle term,
whence it is knowm to be the minor propofition. When
a fyllogifm is propofed in due form, the major propo¬
fition is always placed firft, the minor next, and the
conclufion laft.
In a fingle VII. Thefe things premifed, we may in the gene-
ad: of rea- ral define reafoning to be an adl or operation of the
ionmg the m;n(^ deducing fome unknown propofition. from other
muft be in- previous ones that are evident and known. Thefe
tuitive previous propofitions, in a fimple adl of reafoning, are
truths. only two in number 5 and it is always required that
they be of themfelves apparent to the underftanding,
infomuch that vve affent to and perceive the truth of
them as foon as propofed. In the fyllogifm given
above, the premifes are fuppofed to be felf-evident
truths j otherwife the conclufion could not be inferred
by a fihgle adl of reafoning. If, for inflance, in the
major, every creature pojfeffed of reafon and liberty is ac¬
countable for his aflions, the connexion between the
fubjedl and predicate could not be perceived by a bare
attention to the ideas themfelves j it is evident that
this propofition would no lefs require a proof than the
conclufion deduced from it. In this cafe a new middle
term muft be fought for, to trace the connexion here
fuppofed $ and this of courfe furnilhes another fyllo¬
gifm, by which having eftabliftied the propofition in
queftion, wre are then, and not before, at liberty to
life it in any fucceeding train of reafoning. And
fhould it fo happen, that in this fecond eflay there was
ftill fome previous propofition whofe truth did not ap- Of
pear at firft fight, we muft then have recourfe to a ^eafonlng.
third fyllogifm, in order to lay open that truth to the ' J
mind : becauie fo long as the premifes remain uncer¬
tain, the conclufion built upon them mull be fo too.
When, by condudling our thoughts in this manner,
we at laft arrive at fome fyllogifm where the previous
propofitions are intuitive truths j the mind then refts in
full fecurity, as perceiving that the feveral conclufions it
has pafied through ftand upon the immoveable founda¬
tion of felf-evidence, and when traced to their fource ter¬
minate in it. gtf
VIII. We fee, therefore, that in order to infer aReafoiaingy
conclufion by a fingle adl of reafoning, the premifesm ^
muft be intuitive propofitions. Where they are not,
previous fyllogifms are required •, in which cafe rea- concatena-
foning becomes a complicated adl, taking in a variety tion of fyL
of fucceflive fteps. This frequently happens in tra-loSifi:ns*
cing the more remote relation of our ideas; where,
many middle terms being called in, the conclufion can¬
not be made out but in confequence of a feries of fyl¬
logifms following one another in train. But although
in this concatenation of propofitions, thofe that form
the premifes of the laft fyllogifm are often confider-
ably removed from felf-evidence j yet if we trace the
reafoning backwards, we {hall find them the conclufions
of previous fyllogifms, whofe premifes approach nearer
and nearer to intuition in proportion as we advance,
and are found at laft to terminate in it. And if, af¬
ter having thus unravelled a demonftration, we take it
the contrary way j and obferve how the mind, fetting
out with intuitive perceptions, couples them together
to form a concluuon : how, by introducing this con¬
clufion into another fyllogifm, it ftill advances one
ftep farther j and fo proceeds, making every new dif-
covery fubfervient to its future progrefs j wre (hall
then perceive clearly, that reafoning, in the higheft
fenfe of that faculty, is no more than an orderly com¬
bination of thofe fimple adls which we have already fo
fully explained. ^
IX. Thus we fee, that reafoning, beginning with Requires
firft principles, rifes gradually from one judgement to intuitive
another, and conne6ls them in fuch manner, that every certai,^Yia*
ftage of the progreflion brings intuitive certainty along
with it. And now at length wre may clearly under-greflion.
ftand the definition given above of this diftinguifhing
faculty of the human mind. Reafon, we have faid, is
the ability of deducing unknown truths from principles
or propofitions that are already known. This evi¬
dently appears by the foregoing account, where we
fee that no propofition is admitted into a fyllogifm, to
ferve as one of the previous judgements on which the
conclufion refts, unlefs it is itfelf a known and efta-
blilhed truth, whofe connexion with felf-evident prin¬
ciples has been already traced.
Chap. II. Of the feveral hinds of Reafoning : and frf,
of that by which we determine the Genera and Species
of Things.
I. All the aims of human reafon may in the general
be reduced to thefe two: 1. To rank things under twofold,
thofe univerfal ideas to which they truly belong j and,
2. To aferibe to them their feveral attributes and pro¬
perties in confe^uence of that diftribution.
IT One
PartHI. . L °
Of r II. One great aim of human reafonw to determine
Reafoning. the genera and fpecies of things. We have feen in
the Firft Part of this treatife, how the mind proceeds
Tt/ff* in framing general ideas *. We have alfo ften in the
iw”. Second Part, how by means of thefe general tdeas we
gards the Come by univerfal propolitions. Now as m thele um-
genera and verfai propofitions we affirm fome property of a ge-
fpecies of ^ or f cies> it is plain that we cannot apply this
* 'sic Foot property to particular objefts till we^have firft deter-
note,
$■ 13^
" 70
The fteps
by which
we arrive
at conclu-
iions of this
£ort.
71
Thofe fteps
always
followed,
though in
familiar
cafes-we do
not always
attend to
them.
mined whether they are comprehended under that ge¬
neral idea of which the property is affirmed. Thus
there are certain properties belonging to all even num¬
bers, which neverthelefs cannot be applied to any par¬
ticular number, until we have firft difcovered it to be
of the fpecies expreffed by that natural name. _ Hence
reafoning begins with referring things to their feve-
ral divifions and claffes in the fcale of our ideas j and
as thefe divifions are all diftinguiffied by particular
names, we hereby learn to apply the terms expreffing
general conceptions to fuch particular objects as come
under our immediate obfervation.
III. Now, in order to arrive at thefe conclufions, by
which the feveral objefts of perception are brought un¬
der general names, two things are manifeftly n5<^eJ"
fary. Firft, That we take a view of the idea itfelt
denoted by that general name, and carefully attend to
the diftinguiffiing marks which ferve to charaftenze
it. Secondly, That we compare this idea with the
objecT under confideration, obferving diligently where¬
in they agree or differ. If the idea is found to corre-
fpond with the particular objeft, we then without he-
fitation apply the general name ; but if no fuch corre-
fpondence intervenes, the conclufion muft neceifanly
take a contrary turn. Let us, for inftance, take the
number eight, and confider by what fteps we are led
to pronounce it an even number. Firft then, we call
to mind the idea fignified by the expreffion an even
number, viz. that it is a number divifible into two equal
parts. 'We then compare this idea with the number
eight, and finding them manifeftly to agree, fee at
once the neceffity of admitting the conclufion. Thefe
feveral judgements therefore transferred into language,
and reduced to the form of a fyllogifm, appear thus:
“ Every number that may be divided into two equal
“ parts is an even number :
« The number eight may be divided into two equal
“ parts ‘j
“ Therefore the number eight is an even number.
IV. Here it may be obferved, that where the ge¬
neral idea, to which particular objefts are referred, is
very familiar to the mind, and frequently in view 5
this reference, and the application of the general
name, feem to be made without any apparatus of rea¬
foning. When we fee a horfe in the fields, a dog
in the ftreet, we readily apply the name of the fpe¬
cies •, habit, and a familiar acquaintance with the ge¬
neral idea, fuggefbng it irtftantaneoufly to the mind.
We are not however to imagine on this account that
the undemanding departs from the ufual rules of juft
thinking. A frequent repetition of a6ts begets a ha¬
bit ; and habits are attended with a certain prompt-
nefs of execution, that prevents our obferving the fe¬
veral fteps and gradations by which any courfe of ac¬
tion is accompliffied. But in other inftances, where
GIG. H7
we judge not by precontraaed habits, as when the
general idea is very complex, or lefs familiar to the . ^ »
mind, we always proceed according to the form of
reafoning eftabliffied above. A goldimith, for inftance,
who is in doubt as to any piece of metal, whether it
be of the fpecies called gold, firft examines its proper¬
ties, and then comparing them with the general idea
fignified by that name, if he finds a perfeft correfpond-
ence, no longer hefitates under what clafs of metals to
rank it. -n, 1.
V. Nor let it be imagined that our refearches here,
becaufe in appearance bounded to the impofing of
neral names upon particular obje£ts, are therefore tri- kranch 0f
vial and of little confequence. Some of the moft con-reafoning;
fiderable debates among mankind, and fuch too as
nearly regard their lives, intereft, and happinefs, turn
wholly upon this article. Is it not the chief employ¬
ment of our feveral courts of judicature to determine
in particular inftances, what is law, juftice, and equity ?
Of what importance is it in many cafes to decide a-
right whether an aflion fhall be termed murder or
manjlaughter ? We fee then that no lefs than the. lives
and fortunes of men depend often upon thefe decilions.
The reafon is plain. A£tions, when once referred to
a general idea, draw after them all that fnay be af¬
firmed of that idea j infomuch that the determining
the fpecies of actions is all one with determining what
proportion of praife or difpraife, commendation 01
blame, &c. ought to follow them. For as it is allow'-
ed that murder deferves death ; by bringing any par¬
ticular aftion under the head of murder, we of courie
decide the puniffiment due to it. 73
tilt. ^ - - • »
VI. But the great importance of this branch of rea- ^‘he^ex-
foning, and the neceffity of care and c*5cum^Pe^°u Vance of it
in referring particular obje£ts to general ideas, is ftdl pradlifed by
farther evident from the pradlice of the matherm-ti- mathemati¬
cians. Every one who has read Euclid, knows, tha.tc^ans'
he frequently requires us to draw lines through certain
points, and according to fuch and fuch directions.
The figures thence refulting are often fquares, paral¬
lelograms, or redtangles. Yet Euclid never fuppou;s
this from their bare appearance, but always demon-
ftrates it upon the ftridteft principles of geometiy.
Nor is the method he takes in any thing different fiom
that defcribed above. Thus, for inftance, having de¬
fined a fquare to be a figure bounded by four equal
fides joined together at right angles •, when fuch a fi¬
gure arifes in any conftrudtion previous to the demon-
ftration of a propofition, yet he never calls it by tnat
name until he has iliown that its fides are equal, and
all its angles right ones. Now this is apparently the
fame form of reafoning we have before exhibited in
proving eight to be an even number. 74
VII. Having thus explained the rules by which we Fixed and
are to conduff ourfelves in ranking particular o.bjefts
under general ideas, and ffiown their conformity a fteaciy ap-
the praftice and manner of the mathematicians : it re-piicati0n of
mains only to obferve, that the true way of render- name.% ren-
ing this part of knowledge both eafy and. certain is, ^1S
by habituating ourfelves to clear and determinate knowledge
and keeping them fteadily annexed to their refpecHve both eafy.
names. For as all our aim is to apply general words and certain,
aright, if thefe words Hand for invariable ideas that
are perfefllv known to the mind, ana can be readily
diftiuguilhed upon occafion, there will be little danger
T 3 of
148 LOG
Of of miftake or error in our reafonings. Let us fuppofe
Realonmg. examining any obje£l, and carrying our at-
" teiation fucceiTively from one part to another, we have
acquainted ourfelves with the feveral particulars ob-
fervable in it. If among thefe we find fuch as confti-
tute fome general idea, framed and fettled before¬
hand by the underftanding, and difiinguifhed by a par¬
ticular name, the refemblance thus known and perceiv¬
ed neceffarily determines the fpecies of the objeft,
and thereby gives it a right to the name by which
, that fpecies is called. Thus four equal fides, joined
together at right angles, make up the notion of a
fquare. As this is a fixed and invariable idea, with¬
out which the general name cannot be applied 5 we ne¬
ver call any particular figure a fquare until it appears
to have thefe feveral conditions j and contrarily,
wherever a figure is found with thefe conditions, it
neceffarily takes the name of a fquare. The fame
will be found to hold in all our other reafonings of this
kind, where nothing can create any difficulty but the
want of fettled ideas. If, for infiance, we have not
determined within ourfelves the precife notion denot¬
ed by the wrord manflaughter, it will be impoffible for
us to decide wfficther any particular aftion ought to
bear that name : becaufe, however nicely wTe examine
the aflion itfelf, yet, being ftrangers to the general
idea wuth wffiich it is to be compared, wTe are utterly
unable to judge of their agreement or difagreement.
But if wTe take care to remove this obftacle, and di-
ftinflly trace the two ideas under confideration, all
difficulties vaniffi, and the refolution becomes both eafy
and certain.
VIII. Thus we fee of what importance it is towards
the improvement and certainty of human knowledge,
that we accuftom ourfelves to clear and determinate
ideas, and a fteady application of words.
Chap. III. Of Reafoning, as it regards the powers
and Properties of Things, and the Relations of our
general Ideas.
75
Thediftinc- I. We now come to the fecond great end which
tionofrea- men have in view in their reafonings •, namely, the
re^mls the” ^‘^cover’ng an'-l afcribing to thing-s their feveral attri-
fciences ^ ^utes an^ properties. And here it will be necefiary
and as it to diilinguifii between reafoning, as it regards the
concerns fciences, and as it concerns common life. In the fci-
common ences, our reafon is employed chiefly about univerfal
truths, it being by them alone that the bounds of hu¬
man knowledge are enlarged. Hence the divifion of
things into various claffes, called otherwife genera and
fpecies. For thefe univerfal ideas being fet up as the
reprefentatives of many particular things, whatever
is affirmed of them may be alfo affirmed of all the in¬
dividuals to which they belong. Murder, for inftance,
is a general idea, reprefenting a certain fpecies of hu¬
man a£lions. Reafon tells us that the puniffiment due
to it is death. Hence every particular adlion, coming
under the notion of murder, has the puniihment of
death allotted to it. Here then ive apply the general
truth to fome obvious inftance ; and this is what pro¬
perly conftitutes the reafoning of common life. For
men, in their ordinary tranfaflions and intercourfe
one with another, have, for the moft part, to do on¬
ly with particular objefls. Our friends and relations,
1 c. Pan 11 r.
their characters and behaviour, the confiitution of the Of
feveral bodies that furround us, and the ufes to wffiich ^ea^on^ng‘
they may be applied, are what chiefly engage our at- v f
tention. In all thefe, wre reafon about particular
things j and the whole refult of our reafoning is, the
applying the general truths of the fciences in the or¬
dinary tranfadions of human life. When we fee a
viper, we avoid it. Wherever we have occafion for
the forcible aCtion of w-ater to move a body that makes
confiderable refifiance, w’e take care to convey it in
fuch a manner that it flrall fall upon the objeCl with
impetuofity. Now all this happens in confequence of
our familiar and ready application of thefe two gene¬
ral truths. The bite of a viper is mortal. Water falling
upon a body with impetuofty, alls very forcibly towards
fetting it in motion. In like manner, if we fet ourfelves
to confider any particular charafter, in order to deter¬
mine the (hare of praife or difpraife that belongs to it,
our great concern is to afcertain exaclly the propor¬
tion of virtue and vice. The reafon is obvious. A
juft determination, in all cafes of this kind, depends
entirely upon an application of thefe general maxims
of morality : Virtuous actions deferve praife ; vicious ac¬
tions deferve blame. ^5
II. Hence it appears that reafoning, as it regards The fteps
common life, is no more than the afcribing the ge-fy’ which
neral properties of things to thofe feveral objefts with^j^0^5*
which we are more immediately concerned according fonino-0f "
as they are found to be of that particular divilion or common
clafs to which the properties belong. The fteps thenlife*
by which we proceed are manifeftly thefe. Firft, We
refer the object under confideration to fome general
idea or clafs of things. We then recoiled the feveral
attributes of that general idea. And, laftly, Afcribe
all thofe attributes to the prefent objed. Thus, in
confidering the charader of Sempronius, if we find it
to be of the kind called virtuous, when we at the fame
time refled that a virtuous charader is deferving of
efteem, it naturally and obvioufly follows that Sem¬
pronius is fo too. Thefe thoughts put into a fyllo-
gifm, in order to exhibit the form of reafoning here re¬
quired, run thus:
“ Every virtuous man is wrorthy of efteem.
“ Sempronius is a virtuous man :
“ Therefore Sempromus is worthy of efteem.”
III. By this fyllogifm it appears, that before we af-The con¬
firm any thing ot a particular objed, that objed mull nexion and
be referred to fome general idea. Sempronius is pvo-d^Pendence-
nounced worthy of efteem only in confequence of his°* llujtwo
being a virtuous man, or coming under that general branches of
notion. Hence wTe fee the neceffary connexion of the reafoning
various parts of reafoning, and the dependence theyoneuPon
have one upon another. The determining the generaanother’
and fpecies of things is, as we have faid, one exercife
of human reafon ; and here we find that this exercife
is the firft in order, and previous to the other, which
confifts in afcribing to them their powers, properties,
and relations. But wffien we have taken this previous
ftep, and brought particular objeds under general
names; as the properties we afcribe to them are no
other than thofe of the general idea, it is plain that,
in order to a fuccefsful progrefs in this part of knovv-
ledge, we mull thoroughly acquaint ourfelves with the
feveral relations and attributes of thefe our general
ideas*.
Part ITT.
LOG
Of ideas. When this is done, the other part will be eafy,
Reafoning. an(] reqUires fcarce any labour or thought, as being no
' * ' more than an application of the general form of rea¬
foning reprefewted in the foregoing fyllogifm. Now,
as we have already fufficiently fhown how we are to
proceed in determining the genera and fpecies of
things, which, as we have faid, is the previous ftep
to this fecond branch of human knowdedge } all ^ that
is farther wanting towards a due explanation of it is,
to offer feme confiderations as to the manner of. in-
vefligating the general relations of our ideas. This is
the higheft exercife of the powers of the underltand-
ing, and that by means whereof we arrive at the dif-
covery of univerfal truths 5 infomuch that our deduc¬
tions in this way conftitute that particular fpecies of
reafoning which we hav,e before faid regards principally
78
the fciences.
good rea-
foner.
Two'things IV. But that we may conduft our. thoughts with
required to fome order and method, we (hall begin with obferv-
make a relations of our general ideas are of two
kinds: either fuch as immediately difeover themfelves,
upon comparing the ideas one with another } or fuch
as, being more remote and diilant, require art and
contrivance to bring them into view\. The relations
of the firft kind furnifh us with intuitive and felf-evi-
dent truths : thofe of the fecond are traced by reafon¬
ing, and a due application of intermediate ideas. . It
is of this laft kind that we are to fpeak here, having
defpatched what w^as neceffary with regard to the
other in the Second Part. As, therefore, in tracing the
more diflant relations of things, we mull always have
recourfe to intervening ideas, and are more or lefs
fuccefsful in our refearches according to our. acquaint¬
ance with thefe ideas, and ability of applying them
and it is evident, that to make a good reafoner, two
things are principally required. Fir/l, An extenfive
knowledge of thofe intermediate ideas, by means of
which things may be compared one with another.
Secondly, The fkill and talent of applying them hap¬
pily in all particular inflances that come under conli-
deration. _ .
V. In order to our fuccefsful progrefs in reafoning,
cAicimvt we mull have an extenlive knowledge of thofe inter¬
knowledge mediate ideas by means of which things may be com-
diateidTas Pared one with another. For as it is not every idea
that will anfwer the purpofe of our inquiries, but fuch
only as are peculiarly related to the objects about
which we reafon, fo as, by a comparifon. with them
to furnifh evident and known truths 5 nothing is more
apparent than that the greater variety of conceptions
we can call into view, the more likely we are ^to find
fome among them that will help us to the trutns here
required. And, indeed, it is found to hold in experi¬
ence, that in proportion as we enlarge our views .of
things, and grow acquainted with a multitude of uif-
ferent objedls, the reafoning faculty gathers ftrength :
for, by extending our fphere of knowledge, the mind
acquires a certain force and penetration, as being ac-
cuflomed to examine the feveral appearances of its
ideas, and obferve what light they caft one upon ano¬
ther.
VI. This is the reafon why, in order to excel re¬
markably in any one branch of learning, it is necefia-
ry to have at leaf! a general acquaintance with the
whole circle of arts and fciences. The truth of'it is.
79
Firft, An
extenfive
L ticular in-
' ftances.
I G. 149
all the various divifions of human knowledge are very Rea^kntr<
nearly related among themfelves, and, in. innumerable
inftances, ferve to illuffrate and fet oil each other. g0
And although it is not to be denied that, by an ob-To excel in
flinate application to one branch of iludy, a man may any one
make confiderable progrefs, and acquire fome degree lpal.n-n^
of eminence in it •, yet his views will be always nar-We mult be
row and contrafted, and he will wTant that mallerly j], general
difeernment which not only enables us. to purfue our acquainted
•diicoveries with eafe, but alfo, in laying them °Pen^Qjg(qr_
to others, to fpread a certain brightneis around them. Qf a-ts
But when our reafoning regards a particular fcience,an(ifcien-
it is farther neceffary that wTe more nearly acquainted,
ourfelves with whatever relates to that Icience. A
general knowledge is a good preparation, and enables
us to proceed with eafe and expedition in wThatever
branch of learning we apply to. But then, in the
minute and intricate queltions of any Icience, we are
by no means qualified to reafon with advantage until
•we have perfe&ly maftered the fcience to which they ^
bevn'. We come now to the fecond thing requir-Secoftdly,^
ed, in order to a fuccefsful progrels in realoning ; jniii
namely, the Ikill and talent of applying intermediate termediate
ideas happily in all particular inftances that come un- ideas hap-
der conlideration. And here, rules and precepts are; ' P'
of little fervice. Ufe and experience are the belt >
inltruclors. For, whatever logicians may boaft of
being able to form perfedl reafoners by book and rule,
we find by experience, that the ftudy of their pre¬
cepts does not always add any great degree of ftrength
to the underitanding. In Ihort, it is the habit alone
of reafoning that makes a reafoner. And. therefore
the true way to acquire this talent is, by being much
converfant in thofe Iciences wrhere the ait of reafon¬
ing is allowed to reign in the greateft perieflion.
Hence it was that the ancients, who fo well under-
ftood the manner of forming the mind, always began
with mathematics, as the foundation of their philo-
fophical ftudies. Here the underftanding is by de¬
grees habituated to truth, contrails infeniibly a cer¬
tain fondnefs for it, and learns never to yield its ai-
fent to any propofition but where the evidence is
fufficient to, produce full conviction. For this reafon
Plato has called mathematical demonftrations the ca-
thartics or purgatives of the foul, as being the pro¬
per means to cieanfe it from error, and reftore that
natural exercife of its faculties in which juft thinking
confifts. # 82
VIII. If therefore we would form our minds to a The ftudy
habit of reafoning . clofely and in train, we cannot
take any more certain method than the exerciling our-^n^.^
felves in mathematical demonftrations, fo as to contradt tions of
a kind of familiarity with them. Not that we look great avail
upon it as neceffary that all men ftiould be deep rna- re
thematicians j but that, having got the wjay of reafon- ^
ing which that ftudy neceffarily brings the mind to, ^
they may be able to transfer it to other parts of know-^s o£
ledge, as they ftiall have occafton. fuch au-
IX. But although the ftudy of mathematics be of all thors on
ethers the moft ufeful to form the mind and give it other fub-
an early relilh of truth, yet ought not other parts q^nguifti-
philofophy to be negledled. Far there alio w7e meet etj for
with many opportunities of exerciling the powers of ftrength
the underftanding ; and the variety of fubjefts natu- andjuftnefs
0 oireaiGiiitig.
i5o L 0 C
Of rally leads us to obferve all thofe different turns of
Reafoning. thinking that are peculiarly adapted to the feveral
v ideas we examine, and the truth we fearch after. A
mind thus trained acquires a certain mallery over its
own thoughts, infomuch that it can range and model
them at pleafure, and call fuch into view as beft fuit
its prefent defigns. Now in this the whole art of rea¬
foning confilis ; from among a great variety of differ¬
ent ideas to fingle out thofe that are moft proper for
the bufinefs in hand, and to lay them together in fuch
order, that from plain and eafy beginnings, by gentle
degrees, and a continued train of evident truths, we
may be infenfibly led on to fuch difeoveries, as at our
lirfl fetting out appeared beyond the reach of human
underflanding. For this purpofe, befides the iludy of
mathematics before recommended, we ought to apply
ourfelves diligently to the reading of fuch authors as
have diilinguifhed themfelves for ifrength of reafoning,
and a ji>ft and accurate manner of thinking. For it is
pbfervable, that a mind exercifed and feafoned to
truth, feldom refts fatisfied in a bare contemplation of
the arguments offered by others; but will be frequent¬
ly affaying its own ftrength, and purfuing its difeove-
ries upon the plan it is moft accuftomed to. Thus we
infenfibly contradl a habit of tracing truth from one
ftage to another, and of inveftigating thofe general
relations and properties which we afterwards aferibe to
particular things, according as we find them compre¬
hended under the abftraft ideas to which the proper¬
ties belong.
Chap. IV. Of the Forms of Syllogifms.
84
The figures I. Hitherto we have contented ourfelves with a
offyllo- general notion of fyllogifms, and of the parts of which
gifms.
is now time to enter a little more
particularly into the fubjedl, to examine their various
forms, and lay open the rules of argumentation pro¬
per to each. In the fyllogifms mentioned in the fore¬
going chapters, we may obferve, that the middle term
is the fubjeft of the major propofition, and the predi¬
cate of the minor. This difpofition, though the moft
natural and obvious, is not however neceffary j it fre¬
quently happening, that the middle term is the fub-
jedt in both the premifes, or the predicate in both;
and fometimes, diredlly contrary to its difpofition in
the foregoing chapters, the predicate in the major,
and the fubject in the minor. Hence the diftindiion
of fyllogifms into various kinds, fgures by logi¬
cians. For figure, according to their ufe of the word,
is nothing elfe but the order and difpofition of the
middle term in any fyllogifm. And as this difpofition
is, we fee, fourfold, fo the figures of fyllogifms thence
arifing are four in number. When the middle term is
the fubjedf of the major propofition, and the predicate
of the miner, we have what is called the frflfigure;
As,
“ No work of God is bad :
“ The natural paflions and appetites of men are
“ the work of God :
“ Therefore none of them is bad.”
If, on the other hand, it is the predicate of both the
premifes, the fyllogifm is faid to be the iecondfigure:
As,
I C. Part III.
“ Whatever is bad is not the work of God : Of
“ Therefore the natural paflions and appetites of
“ men are not bad.”
Again, In the third figure, the middle term is the fub-
jedt of the two premifes : As,
“ All Africans are black :
“ All Africans are men :
“ Therefore lome men are black.”
And laftly, By making it the predicate of the major,
and fubjefl of the minor, we obtain fyllogifms in the
fourth figure; As,
“ The only Being wrho ought to be worftiipped is
“ the Creator and Governor of the wTorld :
“ The Creator and Governor of the wTorld is
“ God :
“ Therefore God is the only Being who ought to
** be worflnpped.” ^
II. But, befides this fourfold diftinflion of fyllo-The moqils
gifms, there is alfo a farther fubdivifion of them inof tyllQ'
every figure, arifing from the quantity and quality, as*
they are called, of the propofitions. By quantity we
mean the confideration of propofitions, as univerfal or
particular j by quality, as affirmative or negative.
Now aSj in all the feveral difpofitions of the middle
term, the propofitions of which a fyllogifm confifts
may be either univerfal or particular, affirmative or
negative $ the due determination of thefe, and fo put¬
ting them together as the law's of argumentation re¬
quire, conftitute what logicians call the moods of fyllo¬
gifms. Of thefe moods there is a determinate num¬
ber to every figure, including all the poflible ways in
which propofitions differing in quantity or quality can
be combined, according to any difpofition of the mid¬
dle term, in order to arrive at a juft conclufion.
The firft figure has only four legitimate moods.
The major propofition in this figure muft be univerfal,
and the minor affirmative j and it has this property,
that it yields conclufions of all kinds, affirmative and
negative, univerfal and particular.
The fecond figure has alfo four legitimate moods.
Its major propofition muft be univerfal, and one of the
premifes muft be negative. It yields conclufions both
univerfal and particular, but all negative.
The third figure has fix legitimate moods. Its mi¬
nor muft always be affirmative 5 and it yields conclu¬
fions both affirmative and negative, but ail particular.
——Thefe are all the figures which were admitted by
the inventor of fyllogifms, and of which, fo far as we
know', the number of legitimate moods has been af-
certained, and fevepally demonftrated. In every figure
it will be found upon trial, that there zxz fixty four dif¬
ferent moods of fyllogifm •, and he w ho thinks it w orth
while to conftrucl fo many in the fourth figure, always
remembering that the middle term in each muft be the
predicate of the major and the fubjeci of the minor pro¬
pofition, will eafily difeern wffiat number of thefe moods
are legitimate, and give true conclufions.
Befides the rules that are proper to each figure,
Ariftotle has given fome that are common to all, by
which the legitimacy of fyllogifms may be tried.
Thefe
3
Partlll. L °
Of Thefe may be reduced to five : 1. There muft be
Reafoning. on]y t]iree terms in a fyllogifm : As each term occurs
' v   in two of the propofitions, it muft be precifely the
fame in both ; if it be not, the iyllogifm is faid to have
four terms, which makes a vicious fyllogifm. 2. T he
middle term muft be taken univerfally in one of the pre-
mifes. 3. Both premifes mult not be particular propo¬
fitions, nor both negative* 4* conclufion muft oe
particular, if either of the premifes be particular ; and
negative, if either ot the premifes be negative. . 5*
term can be taken univerfal/y in the conclufion, if it be
not taken univerfally in the premifes.
For underftanding the fecond and fifth of thefe ruies,
it is neceffary to obferve, that a term is faid to be ta¬
ken univerfally, not only when it is \.\\e fubjecl ot a uni-
verfal propofition, but alto when it is the predicate or
a negative propofition. On the other hand, a term is
faid to be taken particularly, when it is either xhnefub-
jeft of a particular or the predicate of an affirmative pro-
86 pofition.
Toundation HI. The divifion of fyllogifms according to mood
of th.- Other anj figure refpects thofe efpecially which are known
fky the name of plain fimple fyllogilms j that is, which
y oai ms, ^ boun{le(l to three propofitions, all fimple, and
where the extremes and middle term are connected,
according to the rules laid down above. But as the
mind is not tied down to any one precife form of rea-
foning, but fometimes makes ufe of more, lometimes
of fewer premifes, and often takes in compound and
conditional propofitions, it may not be amifs to take
notice of the different forms derived from this fource,
and explain the rules by which the mind condufls it-
« felf in the ufe of them.
Conditional IV. When in any fyllogifm th* major is a condition-
fyllogiiins. al propofition, the fyllogifm itfelf is termed conditional.
Thus:
« If there is a God, he ought to be worftiipped :
“ But there is a God :
“ Therefore he ought to be worftiipped.”
In this example, the major, or firft propofition, is,
we fee, conditional, and therefore the fyllogifm itfelf
is alfo of the kind called by that name. And here tve
are to obferve, that all conditional propofitions are
made of two diftind parts : one exprefling the condi¬
tion upon which the predicate agrees or difagrees with
the fubjedf, as in this now before us, if there is a God i
the other joining or disjoining the faid predicate and
fubjedl, as here, he ought to be wor[hipped. I he firfl:
of thefe parts, or that wdiich implies the condition, is
called the antecedent; the feeond, where we join or dif*
join the predicate and fubjeff, has the name of the con-
fequent.
x ^ V. In all propofitions of this kind, fuppofing them
illation in exa& in point of form, the relation between the
conditional antecedent and confequent muft ever be true and real 5
fyllogifms. that is, the antecedent muft always contain fome cer¬
tain and genuine condition, which neceflarily implies
the confequent •, for otherwife the propofition itfelf
will be falfe, and therefore ought not to be admitted
into our reafonings. Hence it follows, that when any
conditional propofition is affumed, if we admit the
antecedent of that propofition, we muft at the fame
time neceflarily admit the confequent j but if we re¬
ject the confequent, wd are irL like manner bound to
G I C. 151
reject the antecedent. For as the antecedent always Of
exprefles fome condition which neceflarily implies the , ^ninfe‘
truth of the confequent •, by admitting the antecedent,
we allow of that condition, and therefore ought aifo
to admit the confequent. In like manner, if it appears
that the confequent ought to be rejected, the antece¬
dent evidently muft be fo too : becaufe, as wras juft
now demonftrated, the admitting of the antecedent
would neceflarily imply the admiflion alfo of the confe-
quent. . _ • Th
VI. There are two ways of arguing in hypothetical^^
fyllogifms, which lead to a certain and unavoidable con-c0ndltl0nal
clufion. For as the major is always a conditional pro-fyllogifms.
pofition, confifting of an antecedent and a coniequent
if the minor admits the antecedent, it is plain that the
conclufion muft admit the confequent. 1 his is called
arguing from the admiflion of the antecedent to the
admiflion of the confequent, and conftitutes that mood
or fpecies of hypothetical fyllogifms which is diftin-
guiftied in the fchools by the name of the modus ponens,
inafmuch as by it the whole conditional propofition,
both antecedent and confequent, is eftabliihed. Thus :
“ If God is infinitely wife, and a£ts with perfeft
“ freedom, he does nothing but what is beft:
“ But God is infinitely wife, and a<fts with per-
“ fe£l freedom :
“ Therefore he does nothing but what is beft.”
Here we fee the antecedent or firft part of the con¬
ditional propofition is eftabliihed in the minor, and the
confequent or fecond part in the conclufion j whence
the fyllogifm itfelf is an example of the modus ponens.
But if now we on the contrary fuppofe that the mi¬
nor rejedl the confequent, then it is apparent that the
conclufion muft alfo rejedt the antecedent. In this
cafe we are faid to argue from the removal of the con¬
fequent to the removal of the antecedent, and the par¬
ticular mood or fpecies of fyllogifms thence arifing is
called by logicians the modus tollens > becaufe in it both
antecedent and confequent are rejedled or taken away,.,
as appears by the following example :
90
« If God were not a Being of infinite goodnefs,
“ neither would he confult the happinefs of his
“ creatures :
“ But God does confult" the happinefs of his crea-
“ tures :
“ Therefore he is a Being of infinite goodnefs.
VII. Thefe two fpecies take in the whole clafs ofThey in¬
conditional fyllogifms, and include.all the poflible ways^®3^
of arguing that lead to a legitimate conclufion j be" mate ways
caufe we cannot here proceed by a contrary procefs of argUing,
of reafoning, that is, from the removal of the ante¬
cedent to the removal of the confequent, or from the
eftabliihing of the confequent to the eftabliftiing of the
antecedent. For although the antecedent always ex¬
prefles fome real condition, which, once admitted,
neceflarily implies the confequent, yet it does not fol¬
low that there is therefore no other condition ; and if
fo, then, after removing the antecedent, the confe¬
quent may ililL hold, becaufe of fome other determi¬
nation that infers it. When we fay, If a/lone is ex-
pofedfome time to the rays of the fun, it will contraci a
certain degree of heat; the propofition is certainly
true 5 and, admitting the antecedent, we muft alf©
admit .
L O
91
The man¬
ner of ar¬
guing in
disjundtive
fyHogifms.
admit tlie confequent. But as there are other ways
by which a ftone may gather heat, it will not follow,
from the ceafmg of the before-mentioned condition,
that therefore the confequent cannot take place. In
other words, we cannot argue: But the Jione has not
been expofed to the rays of the fun ; therefore neither has
it any degree of heat: Inafmuch as there are a great
many other ways by which heat might have been
communicated to it. And if wre cannot argue from
the removal of the antecedent to the removal of the
confequent, no more can we from the admiflion of
the confequent to the admiflion of the antecedent :
becaufe, as the confequent may flow from a great va¬
riety of different fuppofitions, the allowing of it does
not determine the precife fuppofition, but only that
fome one of them muft take place. Thus in the forego¬
ing propofition, If aJione is expofedfome tune to the rays of
thefun, it will contraEl a certain degree of heat; admitting
the confequent, viz. that it has contraBed a certain de¬
gree of heat, we are not therefore bound to admit the
antecedent, that it has been fome time expofed to the rays
of the fun : becaufe there are many other caufes
whence that heat may have proceeded. Thefe two
ways of arguing, therefore, hold not in conditional
fyllogifms.
VIII. As from the major’s being a conditional pro¬
pofition, we obtain the fpecies of conditional fyllo¬
gifms : fo, where it is a disjunctive propofition, the
fyllogifm to which it belongs is alfo called disjun&ive,
as in the following example :
“ The world is either felf-exiftent, or the work of
“ fome finite, or of fome infinite Being :
“ But it is not felf-exiftent, nor the work of a finite
“ being :
“ Therefore it is the work of an infinite Being.”
Now, a disjunctive propofition is that, where of fe-
veral predicates, w>e affirm one neceffarily to belong
to the fubjeCt, to the exclufion of all the reft, but
leave that particular one undetermined. Hence it
follows, that as foon as w'e determine the particular
predicate, all the reft are of courfe to be rejeCted •, or
if we rejeCt all the predicates but one, that one necef¬
farily takes place. When, therefore, in a disjunctive
fyllogifm, the feveral predicates are enumerated in the
major ; if the minor eftabliftres any one of \hefe pre¬
dicates, the conclufion ought to remove all the reft ;
or if, in the minor, all the predicates but one are re¬
moved, the conclufion muft neceflarily eltablifti that
-one. Thus, in the disjunctive fyllogifm given above,
the major affirms one of the three predicates to be¬
long to the earth, viz. felf-exiftence, or that it is the
work of a finite, or that it is the work of an infinite Be¬
ing. Two of thefe predicates are removed in the
minor, viz. fielfexifience, and the work of a finite be¬
ing. Hence the conclufion neceffarily alcribes to it the
.third predicate, and affirms that it is the work of an
infinite Being. If now we give the fyllogifm another
turn, infomuch that the minor may eftablilh one of the
predicates, by affirming the earth to be the production
of an infinite Being : then the conclufion muft remove
the other two, afferting it to be neither felf-exifient,
nor the work of a finite being. Thefe are the forms of
reafoning in thefe fpecies of fyllogifms, the juftnefs of
which appears at firft fight: and that there can be no
G 1 c. Part III.
other, is evident from the very nature of a disjunctive
propofition. v——\r—J
IX. In the feveral kinds of fyllogifms hitherto men- 92
tioned we may obferve that the parts are complete ; ImperfeCl
that is*, the three propofitions of which they confift are
reprefented in form. But it often happens, that fome
one of the premifes is not only an evident truth, but
alfo familiar and in the minds of all men j in w hich
cafe it is ufually omitted, whereby we have an imper-
feCt fyllogifm, that feems to be made up of only tvvo
propofitions. Should we, for inftance, argue in this
manner:
“ Every man is mortal:
“ Therefore every king is mortal :
the fyllogifm appears to be imperfeCl, as confifting but
of two propofitions. Yet it is really complete; only
the minor [every king is a man] is omitted : and left to
the reader to fupply, as being a propofition fo familiar
and evident that it cannot efcape him. ^
X. Thefe feemingly imperfeCl fyllogifms are called Enthyme-
enthymemes; and occur very frequently in reafoning, mes.
efpecially where it makes a part of common conver-
fation. Nay, there is a particular elegance in them,
becaufe, not difplaying the argument in all its parts,
they leave fomewhat to the exercife and invention^ of
the mind. By this means we are put upon exerting
ourfelves, and feem to ffiare in the difcovery of what
is propofed to us. Now this is the great fecret oi
fine writing, fo to frame and put together our thoughts,
as to give full play to the reader’s imagination, and
draw him infenfibly into our very views and courfe
of realoning. ft his gives a pleafure not unlike to that
which the author himfelf feels in compofing. It befides
(hortens difcourfe, and adds a certain force and liveli-
nefs to our arguments, when the words in which they
are conveyed favour the natural quicknefs of the mind
in its operations, and a Angle expreflion is left to exhi¬
bit a whole train of thoughts. # 94
XI. But there is another fpecies of rqafonmg with Ground of
two propofitions, which feems to be complete in itfelf,
and where we admit the conclufion without fuppofing jjate con_
any tacit or fuppreffed judgement in the mind, from fequencey.
which it follows fyllogiftically. _ This happens between
propofitions, where the connexion is fuch, that the ad¬
miflion of the one neceffarily and at the firft fight im¬
plies the admiffion alfo of the other. lor if it fo falls
out, that the propofition on which the other depends is
felf-evident, we content ourfelves wffth barely affirm¬
ing it, and infer that other by a direCl conclufion.
Thus, by admitting an univerfal propofition, we.are
forced alfo to admit of all the particular propofitions
comprehended under it, this being the very condition
that conftitutes a propofition univerfal. If .then that
uuiverfal propofition chances to be felf-evident, the
particular ones follow of courfe, without any. farther
train of reafoning. Whoever allow'S, for inftance,
that things equal to one and the fame thing are equal to
one another, muft at the fame time allow, that two
triangles, each equal to a fquare whofe fide is three inches,
are alfo equal between themfelves. 1 his argument
therefore,
“ Things equal to one and the fame thing, are equal
“ to one another :
“ Therefore,
Part III.
of
Reafoning.
LOG! C.
“ Therefore thefe two triangles, each equal to the
“ fquare of a line of three inches, are equal be-
“ tween themfelves”—
is complete in its kind, and contains all that is necef-
fary towards a juft and legitimate conclufion. For the
fird or univerfal propofition is felf-evident, and there¬
fore requires no farther proof. And as the truth of
the particular is infeparably connected with that of the
univerfal, it follows from it by an obvious and unavoid¬
able confequence.
All reduci- XII. Now, in all cafes of this kind, where propofi-
ble to fyl- tions are deduced one from another, on account of a
logifms of known snd evident connexion, we are faid to reafon
feme one immediate confequence. Such a coherence of pro-
other.0 pofitions manifeft at firft fight, and forcing itfelf upon
the mind, frequently occurs in reafoning. Logicians
have explained at fome length the feveral fuppolitions
upon which it takes place, and allow of all immediate
confequences that follow in conformity to them. It is
however obfervable, that thefe arguments, though
feemingly complete, becaufe the conclufion follows ne-
ceffarily from the fingle propofition that goes before,
may yet be confidered as real enthymemes, whofe ma¬
jor, which is a conditional propofition, is wanting. The
fyllogifm but ^uft mentioned, when reprefented accord¬
ing to this view, wall run as follows :
“ If things equal to one and the fame thing, are
“ equal to one another 5 thefe two triangles, each
“ equal to a fquare whofe fide is three inches, are
“ alfo equal between themfelves.
w But things equal to one and the fame thing, are
“ equal to one another :
H Therefore alfo thefe triangles, &c. are equal be-
“ tween themfelves.”
This obfervation wall be found to hold in all imme¬
diate confequences whatfoever, infomuch, that they are
in fa£l no more than enthymemes of hypothetical fyl-
logifms. But then it is particular to them, that the
ground on which the conclufion refls, namely its co¬
herence with the minor, is of itfelf apparent, and
feen immediately to flow from the rules and reafons of
^gic.
A forites of XIII. The next fpecies of reafoning we fliall take
plain fimple notice of here is wdiat is commonly known by the name
fyllogifins. 0f a Jorites. This is a way of arguing, in which a
great number of propofitions are fo linked together,
that the predicate of one becomes continually the fub-
je£l of the next following, until at laft a conclufion is
formed, by bringing together the fubjeft of the firft
propofition, and the predicate of the laft. Of this
kind is the following argument :
“ God is omnipotent :
“ An omnipotent Being can do every thing pof-
“ fible :
<s He that can do every thing poffible, can do what-
“ ever involves not a contradiction :
“ Therefore God can do whatever involves not a
“ contradiction.”
This particular combination of propofitions may be
continued to any length w-e pleafe without in the leaft
weakening the ground upon which the conclufion refts.
The reafon is, hecaufe the forites itfelf may be refolved
VOL. XII. Part I.
153
into as many fimple fyllogifms as there are middle terms Of _
in it $ wrhere this is found univerfally to hold, that when ^-ea^ning-,
fuch a refolution is made, and the iyliogifms are placed
in train, the conclufion of the laft in the feries is alfo
the conclufion of the forites. This kind of argument,
therefore, as it ferves to unite feveral fyllogifms into
one, muft ftand upon the fame foundation with the fyl¬
logifms of which it confifts, and is indeed, properly
fpeaking, no other than a compendious way of reafon¬
ing fyllogiftically. _ .97
XIV. What is here faid of plain fimple propofitions a forites of
may be as well applied to thofe that are conditional; hypotheti-
that is, any number of them may be fo joined toge-G?!
ther in a feries, that the confequent of one fliall be-^'ims‘
come continually the antecedent of the next following ;
in which cafe, by eftablilhing the antecedent of the firft
propofition, wre eftablifti the confequent of the laft, or
by removing the laft confequent remove alfo the firft an¬
tecedent. This way of reafoning is exemplified in the
following argument:
“ If we love any perfon, all emotions of hatred to-
“ wards him ceafe :
“ If all emotions of hatred towards a perfon ceafe,
“ we cannot rejoice in his misfortunes :
“ If we rejoice not in his misfortunes, we certainly
“ wifti him no injury :
“ Therefore, if wre love a perfon, we wifti him no
“ injury.”
It is evident that this forites, as well as the laft, may
be refolved into a feries of diftindl fyllogifms, with this
only difference, that here the fyllogifms are all condi¬
tional. _
XV. The laft fpecies of fyllogifm we fliall take'phe ground
notice of in this chapter is that commonly diftinguifti- of argu¬
ed by the name of a dilemma. A dilemma is an ar-mentation
gument by which we endeavour to prove the a^hrr-j^^“
dity or falfehood of fome afl'ertion. In order to this,
we affume a conditional propofition, the antecedent
of w hich is the affertion to be difproved, and the con¬
fequent a disjun£five propofition, enumerating all the
poflible fuppofitions upon which that affertion can take
place. If then it appears, that all thefe feveral fup¬
pofitions ought to be rejefted, it is plain, that the an¬
tecedent or affertion itfelf muft be fo too. When
therefore fueh a propofition as that before mentioned
is made the major of any fyllogifm ; if the minor re-
je6fs all the fuppofitions contained in the confequent,
it follows neceffarily, that the conelufion ought to re-
'je& the antecedent, which, as we have faid, is the
very affertion to be difproved. This particular way
of arguing is that which logicians call a dilemma ; and
from the account here given of it, it appears that we
may in the general define it to be a hypothetical fyl¬
logifm, where the confequent of the major is a dis¬
junctive propofition, which is wholly taken away or
removed in the minor. Of this kind is the follow¬
ing :
“ If God did not create the world perfect in its
“ kind, it muft either proceed from want of in-
“ clination, or from want of power :
“ But it could not proceed either from want of in-
“ clination, or from want ef power :
“ Therefore, he created the world perfect in its
U “ kind.”
f
99
An univer-
fal defcrip-
tion of it.
ICO
Rcafon at
firft em¬
ployed a-
bout par¬
ticulars ;
LOG
« kind.” Or, which is the fame thing : “ It is
a abfurd to fay that he did not create the world
“ perfect in its kind,”
XVI. The nature then of a dilemma is univerfally
this. The major is a conditional propoiition, whofe
confequent contains all the feveral fuppofitions upon
which the antecedent can take place. As therefore
thefe fuppofitions are wholly removed in the minor,
it is evident that the antecedent mult be fo too ; info-
much that we here always argue from the removal of
the confequent to the removal of the antecedent. That
is, a dilemma is an argument in the ?nodus tollens of
hypothetical fyllogifins, as logicians love to fpeak.
Hence it is plain, that if the antecedent of the major
is an affirmative propofition, the conclufion of the di¬
lemma will be negative ; but if it is a negative propofi¬
tion, the conclufion will be affirmative.
Chap. V. Of Induction.
I. All reafoning proceeds ultimately from firft
truths, either felf-evident or taken for granted 5 and the
firft truths of fyllogiftic reafonings are general propofi-
tions. But except in the mathematics, and fuch other
fciences as, being converfant about mere ideas, have
no immediate relation to things without the mind, we
cannot afiume as truths propofitions which are geneicd.
The mathematician indeed may be confidered as taking
his ideas from the beginning in their general form.
Every proportion compofed of fuch ideas is therefoie ge¬
neral ; and 'thofe which are theoretic are reducible to
two parts or terms, a predicate and a fubjeci, with a
copula generally affirmative. If the agreement or the
relation between the two terms be not immediate and
felf-evident, he has recourfe to an axiom, which is. a
propofition ftill more general, and which fupplies him
with a third or middle term. This he compares firft
with x\\t predicate, and then with the fuhjecl, or vice
verfa. Thefe two comparifons, when drawn out in
form, make two propofitions, which are called the pre-
mifes ; and if they happen to be immediate anA felf-evi¬
dent, the conclufion, confifting of the terms of the quef-
I c. Part III.
tion propofed, is faid to be demonftrated. ’Ihis method ^
of reafoning is conduced exaftly in the fyllogiftic form
explained in the preceding chapter.
II. But in fciences which treat of things external
to the mind, we cannot affume as f rjl principles the
moft general propofitions, and from them infer others
lefs and lefs general till we defeend to particulars. The
reafon is obvious. Every thing in the univerfe, whe¬
ther of mind or body, prefents itfelf to our obfervation
in its individual ftate ; fo that perception and judgement
employed in the inveftigation of truth, whether physi¬
cal, metaphysical, moral, or hijlorical, have in the firft;
place to encounter with particulars. “ With thefe
reafon begins, or ffiould begin, its operations.’ It ob-
ferves, tries, canvaffes, examines, and compares them
together, and judges of them by feme of thofe native
evidences and original lights, which, as they are the
firft and indifpenfable inlets of knowdedge to the mind,
have been called the primary principles of truths See
Metaphysics. ioi
III. “ By fuch afls of obfervation and judgement, di-from
ligently praclifed and frequently repeated, on many
dividuals of the fame clafs or of a fimilar nature, not- ;,ffe'ncisJtcj
ing their agreements, marking their differences how- generals or
ever minute, and rejedting all inftances which, however axioms,
fimilar in appearance, are not in effedl the fame, rea¬
son, with much labour and attention, extradls fome
general laws refpecting the powers, properties, qualities,
actions, paflions, virtues, and relations of reel things.
This is no hafty, premature, notional abftradtion of the
mind, by which images and ideas are formed that have
no archetypes in nature : it is a rational, operative, ex¬
perimental procefs, inftituted and executed upon the
conPcitution of beings, which in part compofe the uni¬
verfe. By this procefs reason advances from particu¬
lars to generals, from lefs general to more general, till
by a feries of flow progreflion, and by regular degrees,
it arrive at the mo/l general xwdAcm?,, called forms or
formal causes (c). And by affirming or denying a
genus of a ipecies, or an accident of a fubftance or clafs
of fubftances, through all the ftages of the gradation,
we form conclufons, which, if logically drawn, are
axioms (d), or general propofitions ranged one above
another,
(c) Qui FORMAS novit, is, quae adhuc non fadla funt, qualia nec naturae viciffitudines, nec experimentales in-
duftriee unquam in adlum produxiffent, nec cogitationem humanam fubiturae fuiffent, detegit et educit. Baconi
Nov. Org.
(d) The word axiom, literally fignifies dignity : Hence it is ufed metaphorically to denote a general
truth or maxim, and fometimes any truth that is felf-evident, which is called a dignity on account of its import¬
ance in a procefs of reafoning. The axioms of Euclid ar£ propofitions extremely general; and fo are the axioms
of the Newtonian philofophy. But thefe two kinds of axioms have very different origins. The former appear
true upon a bare contemplation of our ideas; whereas the latter are the refult of the moft: laborious indu&ion.
Lord Bacon therefore ftrenuoufly contends that they ffiould never be taken upon conjecture, or even upon the au¬
thority of the learned •, but that, as they are the general principles and grounds of all learning, they thould be
canvaffed and examined with the moft fcrupulous attention, “ ut axiomatum corrigatur jniquitas, quae plerumque
in exemplis vulgaris fundamentum habent:” De dlugm. Sc. lib. ii. cap. 2. “ Atque ilia ipfa putativa principia
ad rationes reddendas compellare decrevimus, quoufque plane conftantD if rib. Opens. Dr Tatham makes
a diftinCtion between axioms intuitive and axioms felf-evident. Intuitive axioms, according to him, pafs through
the firft inlets of knowledge, and flaffi direCt conviClion on the minds, as external objects do on the ferdes, of all
men. Other axioms, though not intuitive, may be properly faid to be felf-evident ; becaufe, in their formation,
reafon judges by Angle comparifons without the help of a third idea or middle term fo that they have their evi¬
dence in themfelves, and though induClively framed they cannot be fyllogiftically proved. If this diftinCtion be
juft, and we think it is, only particular truths can be intuitive axioms.
102
The pro-
cefs of in¬
duction ex¬
emplified
in phyfics.
PartHI. L O
Of another, till they terminate in thofe that are UNI-
Reafoning. yERSAL.
IV. “ Thus, for inftance, f/te evidence of the exter¬
na/ fenfes is obvioufly the PRIMARY PRINCIPLE from
which all phyfical knowledge is derived. But, where¬
as nature begins with caufes, which, after a variety of
changes, produce effedis, the fenfes open upon the cj-
fecis, and from them, through the How and painful
road of experiment and obfervation, afeend to caufes.
By experiments and ohfervations fkilfully chofen, art¬
fully conducted, and judicioufly applied, the philofopher
advances from one ilage of inquiry to another in the ra¬
tional inveftigation of the' general caufes of phyfical
truth. From different experiments and obfervations
made on the fame individual fubjeft, and from the fame
experiments and obfervations made on different fubjefls
of the fame kind, by comparing and judging, he difeo-
vers fome qualities, caufes, or phenomena, which, after
carefully diifinguifhing and rejedting all contradictory
inftances that occur, he finds common to inany. Thus
from many collateral comparifons and judgements form¬
ed upon particulars, he afeends to generals; and by a
repetition of the fame induftrious procefs and laborious
inveftigation, he advances from general to more general,
till at laft he is enabled to form a few of the mof gene¬
ral, with their attributes and operations, into axioms
or fecondary principles, which are the well-founded laws
enadted and enforced by the God of nature.—This is
that juft and philofophic method of reafoning which
found logic preferibes in this as well as in other parts
of learning ; by which, through the flow but certain
road of experiment and obfervation, the mind afeends
from appearances to qualities, from effedls to caufes 5
and from experiments upon many particular fubjedls
forms general propofitions concerning the powers and
properties of phyfical body.
V. “ Axioms fo inveftigated and eftablifhed are ap¬
plicable to all parts of learning, and are the indifpen-
fable, and indeed the wonderful expedients, by which,
to all parts in every branch of knowledge, reafon pufhes on its in-
of learning. qUir;es in the particular purfuit of truth : and the me¬
thod of reafoning by which they are formed, is that of
true and legitimate induction j which is therefore by
Lord Bacon, the beft and foundeft of logicians, called
the hey of interpretation.
VI. “ Inftead of taking his axioms arbitrarily out of
the great families of the categories (fee Category),
and erecting them by his own fophiftical invention in¬
to the principles upon which his deputation was to be
employed, had the analytical genius of Ariftotle. pre-
fented us with the laws of the true INDUCTIVE logic,
by which axioms are philofophically formed, and had
he with his ufual fagacity given us an example of it
in a fingle branch of fcience j he would have brought
to the temple of truth, an offering more valuable than
he has done by the aggregate of all his logic and phi-
lofophical productions.
VII. “ In all fciences, except the mathematics, it is
only after the inductive procefs has been induftriouf-
ly purfued and fuccefsfully performed, that DEFINITION
may be logically and ufefully introduced, by beginning
with the genus, palling through all the graduate and
Axioms, fo
eltabliflied,
applicable
104
Induction
prior to
definition,
G I C. 155
fubordinate ftages, and marking \\\e. fpecife difference as 9jr.
it defeends, till it arrive at the individual, which is the ^ "aionmg.
fubject of the queftion. And by adding an affirmation
or negation of the attribute of the genus or the fpectes
or individual, or of a general accident on the particular
fuhjlance fo defined, making the definition a propofi-
tion, the truth of the queftion will be logically folved
without any farther procefs. So that inftead of being
the frf, as employed by the logic in common ufe, de¬
finition may be the lafi aft of reafon in the fearch of
truth in general. I0-
VIII. “ Thefe axioms or general propofitions, thus and to fyl-
induBively eftablilhed, become another fpecies of PRiN-*°<dlm'
Cli’LES, which may be properly called secondary,
and which lay the foundation of the fyllogiftic method
of reafoning. When thefe are formed, but not before,
we may fafely admit the maxim with which logicians
fet out in the exercife of their art, as the great hinge
on which their reafoning and deputation turn : Tram
truths that are already known, to derive other which arc
not known. Or, to ftate it more comprehenfively, fo
as to apply to probable as well as to fcientific reafon¬
ing—From truths which are better known, to derive
others which are lefis known. Philofophically fpeaking,
fyllogiftic reafoning is, under general propofitions to re¬
duce others which are lefs general or which are parti¬
cular ; for the inferior ones are known to be true, only
as ive trace their connexion with the fuperior. Logi¬
cally fpeaking, it is, To predicate a genus of a fpecies
or individual comprehended under it, or an accident of
the fuhjlance in which it is inherent. Io(-
IX. “ Thus induction and syllogism are the indudtiem
two methods of dir eel reafoning correfponding to the and fyllo-
two kinds of principles, primary and fecondary, on which §‘4nl totab
they are founded, and by which they are refpeftively^ercnt'
condufted. In both methods, indeed, reafon proceeds
by judging and comparing, but the procefs is different
throughout j and though it may have the fanftion of
Ariftotle, an indudlive fy/Iogifm is a folecifm.
X. “Till general truths are afeertained by indue-induction
tion, the third or middle terms by which fyllogifms are the founda-
made are nowhere fafely to be found. So that ano- b01} °4 fyl*
ther pofition of the Stagyrite, that fyllogifm is naturally
prior in order to induclion, is equally unfounded j for
induBion does not only naturally but neceffarily precede
fiifi/ogifim; and, except in mathematics, is in every re-
Ipeft indifpenfable to its exiftence; fince, till generals
are eftablifhed, there can be neither definition, propofi-
tion, nor axiom, and of courfe no fyllogifm. And as
induftion is the firft, fo is it the more effiential and fun¬
damental inftrument of reafoning : for as fyllogifm can¬
not produce its own principles, it muft have them from
induftion 5 and if the general propofitions or fecondary
principles be imperfeftly or infirmly eftablifhed, and
much more if they be taken at hazard, upon authority,
or by arbitrary affumption like thofe of Ariftotle, all
the fyllogizing in the world is a vain and ufelefs logo¬
machy, only inftrumental to the multiplication of falfe
learning, and to the invention and confirmation of er¬
ror. The truth of fyllogifms depends ultimately on the
truth of axioms, and the truth of axioms on the found-
nefs of induftions (e).”—But though induftion is
U 2 prior
(e) This chapter is almoft wholly taken from Tathands Chart and Scale of Truth j a work which, notwith-
ftandirtg
1
LOGIC.
Part III.
of
Reasoning
10S-
Why we
prior m order, as well as fuperior in utility, to fyllo-
gifm, we have thought it expedient to treat of it laft ;
both becaule fyllogifna is an eafier exeicife of^the rea-
>TJir foning faculty than induftion, and becaufe it is the
have treat-method of mathematics, the firft fcience of reafon in
ed of fyl- vvhich the fludent is commonly initiated,
logifm firft.
Chap, VI. Of Dcmonf ration.
I. Having difpatched what feemed neceffary to be
laid with regard to the two methods of direft reafon-
ing, induBion and fjUcgifm ; we now proceed to confi-
der the laws of demonftration. And here it muft be
acknowledged, that in Aria demonftration, which re¬
moves from the mind all poflibility of doubt or error,
the induflive method of reafoning can have no place.
When the experiments and obfervations from which
the general conclufion is drawn are numerous and ex-
tenftve, the refult of this mode of reafoning is moral
certainty 5 and could the indudlion be made complete,
it would be abfolute certainty, equally convincing with
mathematical demon.ftration. Hut however numerous
and extenfive the obfervations and experiments may
be upon which an indu&ive conclufton is eftabhlhed,
they muft of neceflity come fhort of the number and'
extent of nature j which, in feme cafes, by its im-
menfity, will defeat all poflibility of their co-exten-
fton ; and in others, by its diftance, lies out of the
reach of their immediate application. I hough truth
does not appear in all other departments of learning
with that bold and refiftlefs convidtion with which it
prefides m the mathematical fcience, it ftnnes through
them all, if not interrupted by prejudice or perverted
by error, with a clear and ufeful, though inferior
ftrength. And as it is not necefiary for the general
fafety or convenience of a traveller, that he Ihould al¬
ways enjoy the heat and fplendor of a mid-day fun,
whilft he can with more eafe jaurfue his journey under
the weaker influence of a morning or an evening ray, fo
it is not requilite, for the various concerns and pur-
pofes of life, that men Ihould be led by truth of the
moft redundant brightnefs. Such truth is to be. had
only in thofe fciences which are converfant about ideas
and their various relations ; where every thing being
certainly what it appears to be, definitions and axioms
arife from mere intuition. Here fyllogifm takes up the
procefs from the beginning ; and by a fublime intellec¬
tual motion advances from the fimpleft axioms to the
moft complicated fpeculations, and exhibits truth
fpringing out of its firft and pureft elements, and fpread-
ing on all fides into ft- fyftem of fcience. As each ftep
in the progrefs is fyllogiftic, we (hall endeavour to ex¬
plain the ufe and application of fyllogifms in this fpe-
j0p cies of reafoning.
Of reafon- We have feen, that in all the different appearances
iogby a they put on, we ftill arrive at a juft and legitimate con-
concatena- c|uplon . now it often happens, that the conclufion of
lotfras ~ one iyllog^m becomes a previous propofition in ano-
1 g “ ‘ ther •, by which means great numbers of them are
fometimes linked together in a feries, and truths are
made to follow one another in train. And as in fuch Of
a concatenation of fyllogifms all the various ways of Re:if"ningV
reafoning that are truly conclufive may be with fafety
introduced j hence St is plain, that in deducing any
truth from its firft principles, efpecially where it lies at
a confiderable diftance from them, w'e are at liberty to
combine all the feveral kinds of fyllogifms above ex¬
plained, according as they are found beft to fuit the end
and purpofe of our inquiries. When a propofition is
thus, by means of fyllogifms, colle&ed from others more
evident and knowm, it is faid to be proved; fo that we
may in the general define the proof of a propofition to
be a fyllogifm, or feries of fyllogifms, collefting that
propofition from known and evident truths. But more
particularly, if the fyllogifms of which the proofs confift
admit of no premifes but definitions, felf-evident truths,
and propofitions already eftablilhed, then is the argu¬
ment fo conftituted called a demonf ration ; whereby it
appears that demonftrations are ultimately founded on
definitions and felf-evident propofitions. IIO
II. All fyllogifms whatfoever, whether compound,All fyllo-
multiform, or defedtive, are reducible to plain fituple g1*™5 what-.
fyllogifms in fome one of the four figures. But this is^^J^.
not alt. Syllogifms of the firft figure, in particular, the firft
admit of all poflible conclufions : that is, any propofi- gure.
tions whatfoever, whether an univerfal affirmation or
univerfal negative, a particular affirmative or parti¬
cular negative, which fourfold divifion embraces all
their varieties •, any one of thefe may be inferred by
virtue of fome fyllogifm in the firft figure. By this
means it hapens that the fyllogifms of all the other
figures are reducible alfo to fyllogifms of the firft fi¬
gure, and may be confidered as ftanding on the fame
foundation with them. We cannot here demonftrate
and explain the manner of this reduftion, becaufe it
would too much fwell the bulk of this treatife. It is
enough to take notice that the thing is uniyerfally
known and allowed among logicians, to whofe writ¬
ings we refer fuch as defire farther fatisfatftion in this
matter. This then being laid down, it is plain that
any demonftration whatfoever may be confidered as
compofed of a feries of fyllogifms, all in the firft fi^-
gure. For, fince all the fyllogifms that enter the de¬
monftration are reducible to fyllogifms of fome one of
the four figures; and fmee the fyllogifms of all the
other figures are farther reducible to fyllogifms of the
firft figure, it is evident, that the whole demonftra¬
tion may be refolved into a feries of thefe laft fyllo¬
gifms. Let us now, if poffible, difeover the ground
upon which the conclufion reftsin fyllogifmsof the firft fi¬
gure } becaufe, by fo doing, we ffiall come at an univerfal
principle of certainty, whence the evidence of all demon¬
ftrations in all their parts may be ultimately derived. m
III. The rules then of the firft figure are briefly The grournf'
thefe. The middle term is the fubjesft of the major?1
propofition, and the predicate of the minor. The^^j.®.
major is always an univerfal propofition and the mi¬
nor always affirmative. Let us now fee what effedl
thefe rules will have in reafoning. The major is an
univerfal propofition of which the middle term is the
fubjedft,
ftanding the ruggednefs of its fty1e, has fo much real merit as a fyftem of logic, that it cannot be too diligently
-ftudied by the \ oung inquirer who wilhes to travel by the ftraight road to the temple of Science*
PartHI. L O
fubjed, and the predicate of the conclufion the predi¬
cate. Hence it appears, that in the major the pre¬
dicate of the conclufion is always affirmed or denied
univerfally of the middle term. Again, The minor is
an affirmative propofition, whereof the fubjeft of the
conclufion is the fubjeft, and the middle term the pre¬
dicate. Here then the middle term is affirmed of the
fubjedl of the conclufion*, that is, the fubjedt of the
eonclufion is affirmed to be comprehended under, or
to make a part of, the middle term. I has then we
fee what is done in the premifes of a fyllogifm of the
firft figure. The predicate of the conclufion is uni-
verfaliy affirmed or denied of fome idea, f he fubjedt
of the conclufion is affirmed to be or to make a part
of that idea. Hence it naturally and unavoidably fol¬
lows, that the predicate of the conclufion ought to be
affirmed or denied of the fubjedf. f o illuftrate this by
an example, we (hall refume one of the fyllogiims of
the firft chapter.
lt Kvery creature pofleffed of reafon and liberty is ac
“ countable for his adlions :
« Man is a creature poffeffed of reafon and liberty :
“ Therefore man is accountable for his a dhotis.”
Here, in the firft propofition, the predicate of the
conclufion, accouniablenefs, is affirmed of all creatures
that have reafon and liberty. Again, In the fecond
propofition, man, the fubjedt of the conclufion, is af¬
firmed to be or to make a part of this clais of crea¬
tures. Hence the conclufion neceflarily and unavoid¬
ably follows, viz. that man is accountable for his ac¬
tions-, becaufe, if reafon and liberty be that which
conftitutes a creature accountable, and man has reafon
and liberty, it is plain he has that which conftitutes
him accountable. In like manner, wffiere the major
is a negative propofition, or denies the predicate of
the conclufion univerfally of the middle term, as the
minor always aflerts the fubjedl of the conclufion to
be or make a part of that middle term, it is no lefs
evident that the predicate of the conclufion ought in
this cafe to be denied of the fubjedt. So that the
ground of reafoning, in all fyllogifms of the firft figure,
is manifcftly this: “ Whatever may be affirmed uni¬
verfally of any idea, may be affirmed of every or any
number of particulars comprehended under that idea.”
And again: “ Whatever may be denied univerfally
of any idea, may be in like manner denied of every 01
any number of its individuals. Thefe two propofitions
are called by logicians the diElum de omm, icaA didlum
de tiullo ; and are indeed the great principles of fyl-
logiftic reafoning, inafmuch as all conclufions whatfo-
ever reft immediately upon them, or upon propofitions
deduced from them. But what adds greatly to their
value is, that they are really felf-evident truths, and
fiich as we cannot gainfay without running into an
exprefs contradidlion. To affirm, for inftance, that no
man is perfeB, and yet argue that fome men are perfeB ;
or to fay that all men are mortal, and yet \\\?&fome men
are not mortal, is to alfert a thing to be and not to be at
the fame time.
11 ^ n IV. And now we may affirm, that, in all fyllogifms
tiorTan in- kgure> ^ th6 premifes are true, the conclu-
fallible fion muft needs be true. If it be true that the pre¬
guide to dicate of the conclufion, whether affirmative or nega¬
tive, agree univerfally to fome idea and if it be alfo
G i C. ri7
comprehended under that idea} then it neceffarily ^„a?^-ncr
follows, that the predicate of the conclufion agrees alfo
to the fubjeft. For to aiTert the contrary, would be
to run counter to fome one of the two principles be»
fore eftabliffied that is, it would be to maintain an
evident contradidlion. And thus we are come at laft
to the point we have been all along endeavouring to
eftablilh} namely, that every propofition which can
be demonftrated is neceffarily true. For as every de-
monftration may be refolved into a feries of^ fyllo¬
gifms all in the firft figure and as in any one of thefe
fyllogifms, if the premifes are true, the conclufion
muft needs be fo too} it evidently followTs, that if all
the feveral premifes are true, all the feveral conclu¬
fions are fo, and confequently the conclufion alfo of
the laft fyllogifm, which is always the propofition to
be demonftrated. Now that all the premifes of a de-
monftration are true, will eafily appear from the veiy
nature and definition of that form of reafoning. A
demonftration, as we have faid, is a feries of fyllo¬
gifms, all whofe premifes are either definitions, felf-
evident truths, or propofitions, already eftablilhed.
Definitions are identical propofitions, wherein we con¬
nect the defcription of an idea with the name by
which wTe choofe to have that idea caLed, and theie-
fore as to their truth there can be no difpute. Self-
evident propofitions appear true of themfelves, and
leave no doubt or uncertainty in the mind. Propofi¬
tions, before eftabliftied, are no other than conclufions
gained by one or more fteps from definitions and felf-
evident principles, that is, from true premnes, and
therefore muft needs be true. Whence all the pre¬
vious propofitions of a demonftration being, we fee,
manifeftly1 true j the laft conclufion, or propofition to
be demonftrated, muft be fo too. So that demonftra¬
tion not only leads to certain truth,^ but we have here
alfo a clear view of the ground and foundation of that
certainty. For as, in demonftratmg, we may oe faid
to do nothing more than combine a feries of fyllogifms
together, all refting on the fame bottom } it is plain
that one uniform ground of certainty runs through the
whole, and that the conclufions are everywhere built
upon fome one of the two principles before edabliihed,
as the foundation of all our reafoning. 7 hefe two
principles are eafily reduced into one, and may be ex-
preffed thus: “ Whatever predicate, whether affirma¬
tive or negative, agrees univerfally to any idea 5. the
fame muft needs agree te every or any number of indi¬
viduals comprehended under that idea.” And thus at
length we have, according to our firft defign, reduced
the certainty of demonftration to one fimple and univer-
fal principle -, which carries its own evidence along with
it, and which is indeed the ultimate foundation of all
fyllogiftic reafoning. __ _ 113
v. Demonftration therefore ferving as an infallible The rules
guide to truth, and therefore on fo fure and unalter-of logic fur-
able a bafis, we may now venture to affert, that thenilh a
truth and
certainty.
true that the fubjedl of the conclufion is a part of or
rules of logic furniffi a fufficient criterion for the -loffcr the
ftinguifhing between truth and falfehood. For fince diftmgmfh.
every propofition that can be demonftrated is necef-ingbetween
farily true, he is able to diftinguiffi truth from falfe- truth and
hood who can with certainty judge when a propoli- falfehood;
tion is truly demonftrated. Now, a demonftration is,
as we have faid, nothing more than a concatenation
of fyllogifms, all whofe premifes are definitions, feif-
J evident
*
IT4
and ex¬
tending to
all cafes
where a
certain
knowledge
of truth is
attainable.
rr$
The diftinC'
tion of de¬
mon ft ra¬
tion into
direcft: and
’Endiredt.
L O
evident truths, or proportions previoufly eftabliflied.
• To judge therefore of the validity of a demonftration,
we mull be able to diftinguilh whether the definitions
that enter it are genuine, and truly defcriptive of the
ideas they are meant to exhibit : whether the pro-
potitions atTumed without proofs as intuitive truths
have really that felf-evidence to which they lay claim :
whether the fyllogifms are drawm up in due form,
and agreeable to the laws of argumentation : in fine,
whether they are combined together in a juft and or¬
derly manner, fo that no demonftrable propofitions
ferve anywhere as premifes unlefs they are conclu-
fions of previous fyllogifms. Now7, it is the bufinefs
of logic, in explaining the feveral operations of the
mind, fully to inftruft us in all thefe points. It teaches
the nature and end of definitions, and lays down the
rules by which they ought to be framed. It unfolds
the feveral fpecies of propofitions, and diftinguilhes
the felf-evident from the demonftrable. It delineates
alfo the different forms of fyllogifms, and explains the
laws of argumentation proper to each. In fine, it de-
fcribes the manner of combining fyllogifms, fo as that
they may form a train of reafoning, and lead to the
fucceflive difcovery of truth. The precepts of logic,
therefore, as they enable us to judge with certainty
when a propofition is duly demonftrated, furnifti a
fure criterion for the diftinguiftiing between truth and
falfehood.
VI. Perhaps it may be objected, that demonftra¬
tion is a thing very rare and uncommon, as being the
prerogative of but a few fciences, and therefore the
criterion here given can be of no great ufe. But
wherever, by the bare contemplation of our ideas,
truth is difcoverable, there alfo demonftration may be
attained. Now that is an abundantly fufficient crite¬
rion which enables us to judge with certainty in all
cafes where the knowledge of truth comes within cur
reach for with difcoveries, that lie beyond the li¬
mits of the human mind, we have, properly, no bufi¬
nefs or concernment. When a propofiticn is demon¬
ftrated, we are certain of its truth. When, on the
contrary, our ideas are fuch as have no vifible connec¬
tion or repugnance, and therefore furnifti not the pro¬
per means of tracing their agreement or difagreement,
there we are fure that fcientifical knowledge is not
attainable. But where there is feme foundation of
reafoning, which yet amounts not to the full evidence
of demonftration, there the precepts of logic, by
teaching us to determine aright of the degree of
proof, and of what is ftill wanting to render it full
and complete, enable us to make a due eftimate of
the meafures of probability, and to proportion our
affent to the grounds on which the propolition ftands.
And this is all we can poflibly arrive at, or even fo
much as hope for, in the exercife of faculties fo im¬
pel -eel and limited as ours.
VII. Before we conclude this chapter, it may not
be improper to take notice of the difiinflion of demon¬
ftration into direB and indircB. A direB detnonflration
is, when, beginning with definitions, felf evident pro-
pofitions, or known and allowed truths, w^e form a
train of fyllogifms, and combine them in an orderly
manner, continuing the feries through a variety of fuc-
cefiive fteps, until at laft we arrive at a fyllpgifm whofe
conclulion is the propofition to be demonftrated. Proofs
2
G I C. Part III.
of this kind leave no doubt or uncertainty behind Of
them ; becaufe, all the feveral premifes being true, the Reaforing..
cdnclufions rnuft be io too, and of courfe the very laft ^ 1111
conclufion or propofition to be proved. The other
fpecies of demonftration is the indireB, or, as it is
fometimes called, the apogogical. The manner of pro¬
ceeding here is, by affuming a propofition which di-
redlly contradicls that we mean to demonftrate $ and
thence, by a continued train of reafoning, in the way
of a diredl demonftration, deducing fome abfurdity or
manifeft untruth. For hereupon we conclude, that
the propofition affirmed was falfe 5 and thence again,
by an immediate confequence, that the propofition to
be demonftrated is true. Thus Euclid, in his third
book, being to demonftrate that circles which touch one
another inwardly have not the fame centre, affumes the
direct contrary to this, viz. that they have the fame cen¬
tre $ and thence, by an evident train of reafoning,
proves that a part is equal to the whole. The fuppofi-
tion therefore leading to this abfurdity he concludes to
be falfe, viz. that circles touching one another inwardly
have the fame centre ; and thence again immediately in¬
fers, that they have not the fame centre. 1J(-)
VIII. Now, becaufe this manner of demonftration is Ground of
accounted by fome not altogether fo clear and fatisfac-Fea/orjng
tory ; we (hall therefore endeavour to (how, that
equally with the other leads to truth and certainty, a"
Two propofitions are faid to be contradidlory one of
another, w7hen that which is afferted to be in the one
is afferted not to be in the other. Thus the propofi¬
tions, Circles that touch one another inwardly have the
fame centre, and Circles that touch one another inwardly
have not the fame centre, are contradlBories, becaufe the
fecond afferts the diredt contrary of what is afferted
in the firft. Now, in all contradidlory propofitions,
this holds univerfally, That one of them is neceffarily
true, and the other neceffarily falfe. For if it be
true, that circles which touch one another inwardly
ha^e not the fame centre j it is unavoidably falfe that
they have the fame centre. On the other hand, if it
be falfe that they have the fame centre, it is neceffarily
true that they have not the fame centre. Since therefore
it is impoffible for them to be both true or both falfe
at the fame time $ it unavoidably follows, that one is
neceffarily true, and the other neceflarily falfe. This
then being allowed, which is indeed felf-evident j if any
two contradictory propofitions are affirmed, and one of
them can by a clear train of reafoning be demonftrat¬
ed to be falfe, it neceflarily follows that the other is true.
For as the one is neceflarily true, and the other necef-
farily falfe ; when we come to difeover which is the falfe
propofition, we thereby alfo know the other to be true.
IX. Now this is precifely the manner of an indiredtIndire<£l Je-
demonftration, as is evident from the account given ofmonftra-
it above. For there we affume a propofition which di-tl0Ps a ^lire
redtly contradidls that we mean to demonftrate j and, e-^
having by a continued feries of proofs fhown it to be
falfe, thence infer that it is contradidlory, or the pro¬
pofition to be demonfirated, is true. As, therefore,
this laft conclufion is certain and unavoidable 5 let us
next inquire after what manner we come to be fatisfied
of the fallehood of the affumed propofition, that fo no
poflible doubt may remain as to the force and validity
of demonftrations of this kind. The manner then is
plainly this : Beginning with the affumed propofition.
Fart IV. . L °
Of Method, we, bv the help of definitions, felf-evxdent truths, or
u—v   propofitions already eftablilhed, continue a fenes of
reafoning, in the way of a direft demonftration, until
at length we arrive at feme abfurdity or known falie-
hocd,& Thus Euclid, in the example before mention¬
ed, from the fuppofition that circles touching one an¬
other inwardly have the fame centre, deduces that a
part is equal to the whole. Since, tneieioie, bj a due
and orderly procefs of reafoning, ue come at laid to a
falfe conclufion •, it is manifeft, that all the premifes
cannot be true : for, were all the premifes true, the
laft conclufion muft be fo too, by what has been be¬
fore demonifrated. Now, as to all the other premifes
made ufe of in the courfe of reafoning, they are mani¬
feft and known truths by fuppofition, as being either
definitions, felf-evident propofitions, or truths previ-
oufly eftabliftied. The affumed propofition is that on-
ly as to which any doubt or uncertainty remains.
That alone, therefore, can be falfe ; and indeed, from
what has been already ftiown, muft unavoidably be fo.
And thus we fee, that in ifidirect demonftrations, two
contradidlory propofitions being laid down, one of
which is demonftrated to be falfe, the other, which, is
always the proportion to be proved, rauft neceffarily
be true fo that here, as well as in the dirett way of
proof, w7e arrive at a clear and iatisfadf ory know ledge
of truth. . .
X. This is univerfally the method of reafoning m all
'kSe'of apogogical or direft demonftrations. But if any pro-
indirect de-pofition is aflumed, from which, in a diredf tram of
monltra- reafoning, we can deduce its contradictory 5 the pro¬
pofition fo affumed is falfe, and the contradiaory one
true. For if we fuppofe the affumed propofition to
be true, then, fince all the other premifes that enter
the demonftration are alfo true, wTe ftiall have a feries
of reafoning confifting wholly of true premifes; whence
the laft conclufion or contradiaory of the affumed pro¬
pofition muft be true likewife : fo that by this means
we ftiould have two contradiaory propofitions both
true at the fame time, which is manifeftly impoflible.
The aflumed propofition, therefore, whence this abfur¬
dity flows, muft neceflarily be falfe ; and confequently
its contradiaory, which is here the propofition deduced
from it, muft be true. If then any propofition is pro-
pofed to be demonftrated, and we qffume the contra-
ciElory of that propofition, and thence direaiy infer
the propofition to be demonftrated j by this very means
we know that the propofition fo inferred is true. For,
fince from an aflumed propofition wTe have deduced its
contradiaory, we are thereby certain that the aflumed
propofition is falfe j and if fo,. then its .contradiaory,
or that deduced from it, which in this cafe . is the
fame with the propofition to be demonftrated, muft be
true.
tions,
G I C. 159
XI. We have a curious inflance of this in the twelfth Of Method-
propofition of the ninth book of the Elements. Eu- ^
did there propofes to demonftrate, that in any feries ^ due
of numbers, rifing from unity in geometrical progref- knowledge
fon, all the prime numbers that meafire the laft term °f the Pfi"-
in the feries will alfo meafurc the next after unity. In °“
order to this, he affumes the contradiaory or the pf°-penfal>ly
pofition to be demonftrated*, namely, thatfome prime necefikvy to
number tneafurmg the lafl term in the feries does not make us
mcafure the next after unity ; and thence, by a conti- of
nued train of reafoning, proves that it aaually does^n^ftra.
meafure it. Hereupon he concludes the aftumed pro-tion;
pofition to be falfe * and that which is deduced from
it, or its contradiaory, which is the very propofition
he propofed to demonftrate, to be true. Now* that
this is a juft and conclufive way of reafoning, is a-
bundantly manifeft from what we have fo clearly efta¬
bliftied above. Whence it appears, how neceflary feme
knowledge of the rules of logic is, to enable us to judge
of the force, juftnefs, and validity, of demonftrations.
For, though it is readily allowed, that by the mere
ftrength of our natural faculties w*e can at once difeern,
that of two contradi&ory -propofitions, the one is ne¬
ceffarily true, and the other neceffarily falfe ; yet
when they are fo linked together in a demonftration,
as that the one ferves as a previous propofition wdience
the other is deduced, it does not fo immediately ap¬
pear, without fome knowledge of the principles of lo¬
gic, why that alone, which is colle&ed by reafoning,
ought to be embraced as true, and the other, whence
it is collefted, to be rejected as falfe. 120
XII. Having thus fufticiently evinced the certainty of and ofit-
demonftration in all its branches, and ftiown the rules by klffuffi-
which w*e ought to proceed, in order to arrive at a juft a_
conclufion, according to the various w*ays of arguing gajnfl. crroi..
made ufe of j it is needlefs to enter upon a particular and falfe
confideration of thofe feveral fpecies of falfe reafoning reafoning..
which logicians diftinguifti by the name of fophifms.
He that thoroughly underftands the form and ttruc-
ture of a good argument, will of himfelf readily dif¬
eern every deviation from it. And although fophifms
have been divided into many claffes, which are all
called by founding names, that therefore carry in them
much appearance of learning 5 yet are the errors
themfelves fo very palpable and obvious, that it would*
be loft labour to write for a man capable of being
milled by them. Here, therefore, w7e choofe to conclude
this part of logic : and ftiall in the next give fome
account of Method, which, though infeparable from
reafoning, is neverthelefs always confidered by logi¬
cians as a diftinct operation of the mind *, becaufe its
influence is not confined to the mere exercife of the
reafbning faculty, but extends in fome degree to alL
the tranfaclions of the underftanding.
PART IV. OF METHOD.
The under- WE have now done with the three firft operations
landing 0f the mind, whofe office it is to fearch after truth,
foinetimes 2nc| eniarCre the bounds of human knowledge. There
hTpittSl is yet a f°Luth> ™Mch regards the difpofal and ar-
together* rangement ©f our thoughts, when we endeavour , lo
known to put them together as that their mutual connexion
truths; ^
and dependence may be clearly feen. This is what lo¬
gicians call Method, and place always the laft in order
in explaining the powers of the underftanding; be¬
caufe it neceffarily luppofes a previous exercife of our
other faculties, and fome progrefs m^de in knowledge
before we can exert it in any extenlive degree.
II. In*:
,i6o LOGIC.
Of Method. II. In this view, it is plain that we muft be before- we have paffed through,
122
fometimes
in the
fearch and
difcovery
of fuch as
axe un¬
known:
123
Illuftrated
hand well acquainted with the truths we are to combine
together ; otherwife, how could we difcern their feveral
connexions and relations, or fo difpofe of them as
their mutual dependence may require ? But it often
happens, that the underftanding is employed, not in
the arrangement and compofition of known truths,
but in the fearch and difcovery of fuch as are un¬
known. And here the manner of proceeding is very
different. We affemble at once our whole flock of
knowledge relating to any fubje£l, and, after a ge¬
neral furvey of things, begin with examining them fe-
parately and by parts. Hence it comes t© pafs, that
whereas, at our firft fettfng out, we were acquainted
only with fome of the grand flrokes and outlines of
truth j by thus purfuing her through her feveral
windings and receffes, we gradually difcover thofe
more inward and finer touches whence fhe derives all
her flrength, fymmetry, and beauty. And here it
is, that when, by a narrow' fcrutiny into things, W'e
have unravelled any part of knowledge, and traced it
to its firfl and original principles, infomuch that the
whole frame and contexture of it lies open to the view
of the mind j here it is, that, taking it the contrary
way, and beginning with thefe principles, wre can fo
adjufl and put together the parts as the order and me¬
thod of fcience requires.
III. But as thefe things are befl underflood when il-
by the fimi- luflrated by examples, let us fuppofe any machine, for
watch°^a *n^ance a watch* prefented to us, whofe flru£lure and
compofition we are as yet unacquainted with, but
want, if poffible, to difcover. The manner of pro¬
ceeding, in this cafe, is, by taking the whole to pieces,
and examining the parts feparately, one after another.
When, by fuch a fcrutiny, we have thoroughly in¬
formed ourfelves of the frame and contexture of each,
we then compare them together, in order to judge of
their mutual adlion and influence. By this means we
gradually trace out the inw'ard make and compofition
of the whole, and come at length to difcern how parts
of fuch a form, and fo put together as we found in
unravelling and taking them afunder, conflitute that
particular machine called a watch, and contribute to
yll the feveral motions and phenomena obfervable in
it. This difcovery being made, we can take things
the contrary way, and, beginning w’ith the parts, fo
difpofe and connefl them as their feveral ufes and flruc-
tures require, until at length we arrive at the whole
itfelf, from the unravelling of which thofe parts re-
fulted.
Ground of IV. And as it is in tracing and examining the wmrks
the analytic of art j fois it, in a great meafure, in unfolding any part
and fynthe- Gf human know/ledge : for the relations and mutual
tic methods, habitudes of things.do not always immediately appear
upon comparing them one wdth another. Hence w'e
have recourfe to intermediate ideas 5 and, by means of
them, are furnifhed with thofe previous propofitions
that lead to the conclufion we are in queft of. And
if it fo happens that the previous propolitions them-
felves are not fufficiently evident, we endeavour, by new
middle terms, to afcertain their truth ; Hill tracing
things backward, in a continual feries, until at length
we arrive at fome fyllogifm where the premifes are firft
and felf-evident principles. This done, we become
perfedlly fatisfied as to-the truth of all the conclufions
. I
Part TV.
inafmuch as they are now Of Method,
feen to Hand upon the firm and immoveable founda-v—■"v——
tion of our intuitive perceptions. And as we arrived
at. this certainty by tracing things backward to the
original principles whence they flow ; fo may we at
any time renew it by a dire£l contrary procefs, if, be¬
ginning with thefe principles, we carry the train of
our thoughts forward until they lead us, by a con-
nedled chain of proofs, to the very laft conclufion of
the feries.
V. Hence it appears, that, in difpofing and putting Divifiou of
together our thoughts, either for our own ufe, that the method in-
difcoveries we have made may at all times lie open toto ana!ytic
the review' of the mind, or where we mean to commu-ancl fynthe“
nicate and unfold the difcoveries to others, there aretlC‘
two w'ays of proceeding equally within our choice :
for w'e may fo propofe the truths relating to any part
of knowledge, as they prefented themfelves to the mind
in the manner of inveftigation ; carrying on the feries
of proofs, in a reverfe order, until they at laft termi¬
nate in firft principles : or, beginning with thefe prin¬
ciples, w'e may take the contrary way, and from them
deduce, by a diredl train of reafoning, all the feveral
propofitions we want to eftablifti. This diverfity in the
manner of arranging our thoughts gives rife to the
twofold divifion of method eftabliftied among logi¬
cians : for method, according to their ufe of the word,
is nothing elfe but the order and difpofition of our
thoughts relating to any fubjedl. When truths are fo
propofed and put together as they were or might have
been difcovered, this is called \ht analytic method, or the
method of refolution ; inafmuch as it traces things back¬
ward to their fource, and refolves knowdedge into its
firft and original principles. When, on the other hand,
they are deduced from thefe principles, and connefted
according to their mutual dependence, infomuch that
the truths firft in order tend always to the demonftra-
tion of thofe that follow ; this conftitutes what we call
the fynthetic method or method of compoftion. For here
W’e proceed by gathering together the feveral fcatter-
ed parts of knowledge, and combining them into one
whole or fyftem, in fuch manner that the underftand¬
ing is enabled diftinftly to follow truth through all her
different ftages and gradations.
VI. There is this farther to be taken notice of, in Called o-
relation to thefe two fpecies of method ; that the firft therw'ife
has alfo obtained the name of the method of invention,1^. raet,10(l
becaufe it obferves the order in which our thoughts
fucceed one another in the invention or difcovery of the method
truth. The other, again, is often denominated the of fcience-,
method of doBrine or infruBion ; inafmuch as, in laying
our thoughts before others, we generally choofe to
proceed in the fynthetic manner, deducing them from
their firft principles. For we are to obferve, that al¬
though there is great pleafure in purfuing truth in the
method of inveftigation, becaufe it places us in the
condition of the inventor, and fhow's the particular
train and procefs of thinking by which he arrived at
his difcoveries ; yet it is not fo well accommodated to
the purpofes of evidence and convidlion. For, at our
firft fetting out, we are commonly unable to divine
where the analyfis will lead us; infomuch that our re-
fearches are for fome time little better than a mere
groping in the dark. And even after light begins to
break in upon us, wre are ftill obliged to many reviews,
and
Part IV.
L O
Of Method, and a frequent companion of the feveral f)ep3 of the
k •— v—'*'1 ■' inveftigation among themfelves. Nay, when wre have
unravelled the whole, and reached the very foundation
on which our difcoveries ftand, all our certainty, in re-
1 gard to their truth, will be found in a great meafure to
arife from that connexion we are now able to difcern
between them and firit principles, taken in the order of
compofition. But in the fynthetic manner of difpof-
ing our thoughts, the cafe is quite different : for as
we here begin with the intuitive truths, and advance
by regular deduftions from them, every ftep of the
procedure brings evidence and conviftion along with
it ; fo that, in our progrefs from one part of know¬
ledge to another, we have always a clear perception of
the ground on which our affent refts. In communi¬
cating therefore our difcoveries to others, this method
is apparently to be chofen, as it wonderfully improves
and enlightens the underftanding, and leads to an im¬
mediate perception of truth.
VII. The logic which for fo many ages kept pof-
fedion of the fchools, and was deemed the moft im¬
portant of the fciences, has long been condemned as a
mere art of wrangling, of very little ufe in the purfuit
of truth. Attempts have been made to reftore it to
credit, but without fuccefs ; and of late years little or
no attention whatever has been paid to t/ie art of rea-
' foxing in the courfe of what is called a liberal education.
As both extremes may be faulty, it fhould feem that
we cannot conclude this Ihort treatife more properly
than with the following
Reflections on the Utility of Logic.
If Ariflotle was not the inventor of logic, he was
certainly the prince of logicians. The wrhole theory
of fyllogifms he claims as his own, and as the fruit of
much time and labour ; and it is univerfally known,
that the later writers on the art have borrowed their
materials almoft entirely from his Organon and Por¬
phyry’s Introdu&ion. But after men had laboured
near 2000 years in fearch of truth by the help of fyl¬
logifms, Lord Bacon propofed the method of induc¬
tion, as a more effedlual engine for that purpofe ; and
fmee his days the art of logic has gradually fallen in¬
to difrepute.
To this confequence many caufes contributed. The
art of fyllogifm is admirably calculated for wrangling ;
and by the fchoolmen it was employed with too much
fuccefs, to keep in countenance the abfurdities of the
Rotnifh church. Under their management it pro¬
duced numberlefs difputes, and numberlefs fe£ls, who
fought againft each other with much animofity with¬
out gaining or lofing ground } but it did nothing con-
liderable for the benefit of human life, wliilft the me¬
thod of induflion has improved arts and increafed
knowledge. It is no wonder, therefore, that the ex-
ceflive admiration of Ariftotle, which continued for fo
many ages, Ihould end in an undue contempt : and
that the high efteem of logic, as the grand engine of
fcience, fhould at laft make way for too unfavourable
an opinion, which feems now prevalent, of its being
unworthy of a place in a liberal education. Men rare¬
ly leave one extreme without running into the contrary :
Thofe who think according to the fafhion, will be as
prone to go into the prefent extreme as their grand¬
fathers were to go into the former j and even they who
Vol. XII. Part I.
G I C. i5t
in general think for themfelves, when they are offend- Of Method,
ed at the abufe of any thing, are too apt to entertain '
prejudices againft the thing itfef “ In praflice (fays
the learned War burton *), logic is more a trick than * lufrodue-
a faience^ formed rather to amufe than to inftrucl. tl?n tc J11’
And in fome fort we may apply to the art of fyllogifm^c*
what a man of wit fays of rhetoric, that it only
tells us how to name thofe tools which nature had be¬
fore put into our hands. In the fervice of chicane, in¬
deed, it is a mere juggler’s knot, now faft, now loofe j
and the fchools where this legerdemain was exercifed
in great perfedlion are full of the ftories of its wonders.”
The authority of Warburton is great j but it may be
counterbalanced by another, which, on fubjefts of this
nature, is cenfeffedly greater.
“ Laying afide prejudice, whether faftiionable or
unfalhionable, let us confider (fays Dr Reid f) whe- f Appendix
ther logic is or may be made fubfervient to any goodt0
purpofe. Its profeffed end is, to teach men to think, ^
to judge, and to reafon, with precifion and accuracy, the Princi-
No man will fay this is a matter of little importance :pies and
the only thing therefore that can admit of doubt is, Pr0Srefs °f
whether it can be taught ? Reafon.
“ To refolve this doubt, it may be obferved, that
our rational faculty is the gift of God, given to
men in very different meafures: Some have a large
portion, fome a lefs ; and where there is a remarkable
defect of the natural power, it cannot be fupplied by
any culture. But this natural power, even where it
is the ftrongeft, may lie dead for want of the means of
improvement. Many a favage may have been born
with as good faculties as a Newton, a Bacon, or an
Ariflotle ; but their talents were buried by having never
been put to ufe, whilft thofe of the philofophers were
cultivated to the beft advantage. It may likewife be
obferved, that the chief mean of improving our ration¬
al power, is the vigorous exercife of it in various ways
and on different fubje£ls, by which the habit is ac¬
quired of exercifmg it properly. Without fuch ex¬
ercife, and good feT»fe over and above, a man who has
ftudied logic all his life may be only a petulant wrang¬
ler, without true judgement or Ikill of reafoning in any
fcience.”
This muft have been Locke’s meaning, when in his
Thoughts on Education, he fays, “ If you would have
your fon to reafon well, let him read Chillingworth.”
The ftate of things is much altered fince Locke wrote :
Logic has been much improved chiefly by his writings j
and yet much lefs ftrefs is laid upon it, and lefs time
confumed in its ftudy. His counfel, therefore, was ju¬
dicious and feafonable ; to wit, That the improvement
of our reafoning power is to be expedled much more
from an intimate acquaintance with the authors who
reafon beft, than from ftudying voluminous fyftems ol
fchool logic. But if he had meant, that the ftudy ol
logic was of no ufe, nor deferved any attention, he
furely wnuld not have taken the pains to make fo con-
liderable an addition to it, by his Effay on the Human
Underfunding, and by his Thoughts on the ConduB of the
Undetf ending; nor would he have remitted his pupil
to Chillingworth, the acuteft logician as well as the belt
reafoner of his age.”
There is no ftudy better fitted to exercife and
{Lengthen the reafoning powers than that of the ma¬
thematical fciences j becaufe there is no other branch
X d.
162 LOGIC. Part IV.
Of Method, of fclence which gives fiich fcope to long and accu-
"" v ' rate trains of reafoning, or in which there is fo little
room for authority or prejudice of any kind to give a
falfe bias to the judgement. When a youth of mode¬
rate parts begins to ftudy Euclid, every thing is new
to him : His apprehenfion is unlteady: his judgement
is feeble 5 and rerts partly upon the evidence of the
thing, and partly upon the authority of his teacher.
But every time he goes over the definitions, the axioms,
the elementary propofitions, more light breaks in upon
him ; and as he advances, the road of demonftration
becomes fmooth and eafy; he can walk in it firmly,
and take wider fteps, till at laft he acquires the habit
not only of underftanding a demonflration, but of dif-
covering and demonftrating mathematical truths.
It muft indeed be confefled, that a man without the
rules of logic may acquire a habit of reafoning juftly
in mathematics, and perhaps in any other fcience. Good
fenfe, good examples, and aflfiduous exercife, may bring
a man to reafon juftly and acutely in his own profeflion
without rules. But whoever thinks, that from this
conceftion he may infer the inutility of logic, betrays
by this inference a great want of that art j for he
might as well infer, becaufe a man may go from Edin¬
burgh to London by the way of Paris, that therefore
any other road is ufelefs.
There is perhaps no art which may not be acquired,
in a very confiderable degree, by example and prac¬
tice, without reducing it to rules. But pradtice join¬
ed with rules may carry a man forward in his art far¬
ther and more quickly than praftice without rules.—
Every ingenious artift knows the utility of having his
art reduced to rules, and thereby made a fcience. By
rules he is enlightened in his pradlice, and works with
more affurance. They enable him fometimes to corredl
his own errors, and often to detedl the errors of others j
and he finds them of great ufe to confirm his judgement,
to juftify what is right, and to condemn what is wrong.
Now mathematics are the nobleft praxis of logic.
Through them we may perceive how the ftated forms
of fyllogifm are exemplified in one fubjedl, namely the
predicament of quantity $ and by marking the force of
thefe forms, as they are there applied, we may be en¬
abled to apply them of ourfelves elfewhere. Whoever,
therefore, will ftudy mathematics with this view, will
become not only by mathematics a more expert logici¬
an, and by logic a more rational mathematician, but a
wifer philofopher, and an acuter reafoner, in all the pof-
fible fubjedls either of fcience or deliberation. But
when mathematics, inftead of being applied to this ex¬
cellent purpofe, are ufed not to exemplify logic, but
to fupply its place j no wonder if logic fall into con¬
tempt, and if mathematics, inftead of furthering fci¬
ence, become in fa# an obftacle. For when men,
knowing nothing of that reafoning which is univerfal,
come to attach themfelves for years to a Jingle fpecies,
a fpecies wholly involved in lines and numbers, the mind
becomes incapacitated for reafoning at large, and efpe-
cially in the fearch of moral truth. The objeft of ma¬
thematics is demonflralion; and whatever in that fci¬
ence is not demonftration, is nothing, or at leaft below
the fublime inquirer’s regard. Probability, through
its almoft infinite degrees, from fimple ignorance up to
abfdlute certainty, is the terra incognita of the mathe-
xnatician. ^nd yet here it is that the great bujinefs
of the human mind is carried on in the fearch and dif- Of Method*
covery of all the important truths which concern us ^
as reafonable beings. And here too it is that all its
vigour is exerted : for to proportion the aflent to the
probability accompanying every varying degree of mo¬
ral evidence, requires the moft enlarged and fovereign
exercife of reafon.
In reafonings of this kind, will any man pretend
that it is of no ufe to be wTell acquainted with the va¬
rious powers of the mind by which we reafon ? Is it
of no ufe to refolve the various kinds of reafoning in¬
to their fimple elements j and to difeover, as far as we
are able, the rules by which thefe elements are com¬
bined in judging and in reafoning ? Is it of no ufe to
mark the various fallacies in reafoning, by which even
the moft ingenious men have been led into error ? It
mnft furely betray great want of underftanding, to
think thefe things ufelefs or unimportant. Now thefe
are the things which logicians have attempted j and
which they have executed—not indeed fo completely
as to leave no room for improvement, but in fuch a
manner as to give very confiderable aid to our reafon¬
ing powers. That the principles they have laid down
with regard to definition and divifion, with regard to
the converfion and oppofition of propofitions, and the
general rules of reafoning, are not without ufe, is fuf-
ficiently apparent from the blunders committed daily
by thofe who difdain any acquaintance with them.
Although the art of categorical fyllogifm is confef-
fedly little fitted for the difeovery of unknown truth,
it may yet be employed to excellent purpofes, as it is
perhaps the moft compendious method of detefting a
fallacy. A man in queft of unknown truths muft ge¬
nerally proceed by the way of induftion, from effects to
caufes j but he, who as a teacher is to inculcate any
lyftem upon others, begins with one or more felf-evi¬
dent truths, and proceeds in the way of demonftration,
to the conclufion which he wifties to eftablifti. Now
every demonftration, as has been already obferved, may
be refolved into a feries of fyllogifms, of which the
conclufion of the preceding always enters into the pre-
mifes of that which follows : and if the firft principles
be clear and evident, and every fyllogifm in fome legi¬
timate mode and figure, the conclufion of the whole
muft infallibly be admitted. But when the demon¬
ftration is thus broken into parts j if we find that the
conclufion of one fyllpgifm will not, without altering
the meaning of the terms, enter legitimately into the
premifes of that which fhould immediately follow; or,
fuppofing it to make one of the premifes of a new fyl¬
logifm, if we find that the conclufion, refulting from
the whole feries thus obtained, is different from that
of the demonftration $ we may, in either of thefe cafes,
reft affured that the author’s reafoning is fallacious,
and leads to error j and that if it carried an appear¬
ance of convidtion before it was thus refolved into its
elementary parts, it muft have been owing to the ina¬
bility of the mind to comprehend at once a long train
of arguments. Whoever wifties to fee the fyllogiftic
art employed for this purpofe, and to be convinced of
the truth of what we have faid refpedting its utility,
may confult the excellent writer recommended by
Locke, who, in places innumerable of his incompar¬
able book, has, without pedantry, even in that pe¬
dantic age, made the happieft application of the rules
Part IV. L O
Of Method, of logic for unravelling the fophiftry of his [Jefuitical
antagonift.
Upon the whole, then, though xve readily acknow¬
ledge that much time was wafted by our forefathers
in lyllogiftic wrangling, and what might with little
G i C.
163
impropriety be termed the mechanical part of logic j
yet the art of forming and examining arguments is cer¬
tainly an attainment not unworthy the ambition of that
being whofe higheft honour is to be endued with rea*
fon.
Of Method’
LOG
Logiftse,
Logogra-
phy.
LOGISTiE, certain officers at Athen, in number
ten, whofe bufinefs conlifted in receiving and paffing the
accounts of magiftrates when they went out of office.
The logijlce were elected by lot, and had ten euthyni or
auditors of accounts under them.
LOGOGRAPHY, a new method of printing, in
which the types, inftead of anfwering only to fmgle let¬
ters, are made to correfpond to whole words.
This method, though feemingly a retrograde procef-
fion in the printing art, has lately obtained the fanc-
tion of his majefty’s patent, and has for fome time been
aflually put in execution in the way of trade, apparent¬
ly with advantage to the proprietors. In the year 1783*
a treatife upon this fubjeft appeared by Henry Johnfon,
in which the origin as well as the utility of the art are
fully laid down, and the matter fet forth in fuch a light
as can fcarce allow us to doubt that it is an improve¬
ment in the art. Mr johnfon informs us, that about
five years before, viz. in the year I77^> intending to
publilh a daily lift of blanks and prizes in the lottery
numerically arranged, he found it could not be accom-
pliffied in time by the ordinary way of printing. On
this account he procured types of two, three, or more
figures as was neceffary for his purpofe j and thus any
entire number might as readily be taken up as if it had
been a Angle type. His next attempt was in forming
fome large mercantile tables of pounds, {hillings, pence,
and farthings. For thefe he procured types expreffive of
any fum of money ready compofed and united, “ by
which (fays he) every fpecies of figure-printing could
be performed for the tenth part of the coft, printers
always charging it double the price of letter-print¬
ing.” Having thus fucceeded to his wifti in his two
firft attempts, he next began to confider if the me¬
thod could not be applied to words j and in this alfo
the fuccefs was equal.
The properties of the logographic art, according to
our author, are, 1. That the compofitor ftiall have lefs
charged upon his memory than in the common way.
2. It is much lefs liable to error. 3. The type of each
word is as eafily laid hold of as that of a Angle letter.
4. The decompoAtion is much more readily performed,
even by the mereft novices, than they now decompofe
letters. 5. No extraordinary expence nor greater num¬
ber of types is required in the logographic than in the
common method of printing.
The Arft of thefe poAtions is proved by our author
in the following manner. In the common method,
the compoAtor has 150 diviAons to which there is no
reference, and the printing offices are not agreed with
refped to the mode of placing their boxes ; “ but
under this improvement he has only to know the
.letters of the alphabet, and is affifted with an index
LOG
of them, infomuch that tha Amplicity of the latter hogogra*.
apparatus enables him, by a little praftice, to lay his , p^y‘ .
finger almoft blindfold on the word required j and the
meaneft capacity is equal to this mental exercife,
having little more to do than knowing by infpeftion
the difference between words under three and thofe
above three fyllables j and ail the apparatus being
within a compafs not a great deal more extended than
common printing, for thefe reafons he is as foon pof-
fefled of his type of a -word as they are of a Angle
letter.”
Thus the firft and third pofitions may be faid to
be proved ; but in his proof of the fecond, our author
himfelf {hows that his art is not infallible, by fubftitut-
ing the word third inftead of fecond. Subftitutions of
this kind, he owns, may readily take place j but fuch
errors are much more confpicuous than literal ones,
though they may be corredted with equal eafe ; “ for
the erroneous fubftitution cannot fail of being nearly
equal in length to the word required } although, even
otherwife, it would not be attended with greater difad-
vantage than in the common way, and it would be rec-
tifted with greater facility.”
The eafe with which the compofftion -is performed,
{hows that there mult be an equal eafe in performing
the decompoAtion j “ from whence (fays Mr Johnfon)
it is further demonftrable, that any work can be com¬
pofed by this method nearly as foon as it can be deli¬
berately read j and as to the fifth pofition, that it {hall
not require a greater expence of types, it is anfwered,
that it is impoffible for more types of letters to be want¬
ed for this method than by any other printer according
to the equal quantity of bufinefs to be performed,
every office having certain known quantities of each
letter called a fount. A printer’s fount cpntains about
92,500 letters, and our want is not more; nay, nearer
the truth, the prefent quantity for a fount containing
much more of fome letters than necellary, and fewer
of others ; which arifes from the calculation of the
quantity of each letter wanted being adhered to fince
the old fpelling.”
Our author now proceeds to demonflrate that the
number of types muft neceffarily decreafe as they are
combined in fyllables, and much more when formed
into words. The whole art of arranging the words
confifts in placing them under as few divifions as pof-
fible, and {fill fewer fubdivifions $ which is attained by
the following procefs.
1. A colledlion of words,, with the addition of
tenfes, plurals, and degrees of comparifon, amounting
to more than 100,000, was made from the bell Engltih
dictionaries :
2. Collections were made from the mifeeiianeous part
X 2 of
logogra
phy.
/1< O G f i
• of 20 newfpapers, the Spectator, and Common Prayer¬
-book. The method was, by procuring duplicates of
every flieet, fo that each alternate fide might be parted
over with white paper, in order to leave the whole of
the words on both fides perfedt j and thus the whole
might be touched with lefs danger of injury than other-
xvife could have been done. The confufion arifina
from the parts of other words being feen from the
oppofite fide was likewife prevented.
3. The words, being feparately cut out, were then
put into a cafe marked with the divifions from one to
16, according to the number of letters contained in
each wrord. Thus feveral letters were diftindlly col-
ledfed ^ and then each feparate parcel forted in a cafe
containing 26 divifions, marked with the letters of
the alphabet, according to the commencing letter of
the.word} and thus all the wTords were ranged alpha¬
betically, confifting of two, three, four, or five letters,
in feparate parcels.
4. The fame words were then placed together, and
ported into an alphabet, with the number of times
marked to each that had occurred on the whole ; that
in this.manner a proportion might be determined how
many times particular words ought to be repeated for
the printing of one flieet, and alfo to know what
words are in general ufe : There are likewdfe a num¬
ber of technical terms, and favourite phrafes, a great
number of times repeated almoft by every author } but
though thefe occur throughout the whole book in
great proportion to the reft, no more of them will be
neceffary than what fuffice for a fingle ftieet.
5. The whole of the above might be done without
the trouble juft mentioned, by porting every word at
once into a triformed alphabet ; becaufe the fubdivi-
fions of the fecond and third commencing letter of
each word for references are now obtained, and thus
can ealily be placed in its proper divifion, and may be
marked as often as it occurs, without repeating the
fame word } whence w’e plainly fee the eafe and expe¬
dition of it, from the facility and expedition of porting
every word from a leaf in any book. Before fuch fub-
divifions were known, they could only have been pla¬
ced under the firft commencing letter of the wmrd }
which would caufe fuch a multiplicity of repetitions,
that it would take up more time, be far more liable
to. error, and require more fubordinate poftings to
bring them into arrangement} fo that they may be
found more eafily than by the above proceedings.
Thus alfo a colleftion will be obtained of fingle and
double words, which are conftantly required from 20 to
400 or 500 times in the printing one fheet of any work
whatever } and which alone would abridge the compofi-
tor’s work near one-third. This fecond procefs like¬
wife enabled the author to reje£f, out of the firft col-
leftion, obfolete words, technical terms, &c. which re¬
duces the original colle&ion to one-fifth part.
6. By proceeding in this manner, feveral fpecies of
words are omitted in the founts. 1. Obfolete words}
becaufe they occur fo feldom, that the difference of
time loft in compofing them in the ordinary method
would be imperceptible. 2. Technical terms, names
of places, animals, &c.} though, for any particular
work, the terms peculiar to it may be added to the
fount in a biformed alphabet apart. 3. Real com¬
pounds, or words that may be compounded of others,
64 ] LOG
are alfo rejected ; becaufe we actually have the words Logogra-
aiready, and they may be joined with fufficient expe- phy.
dition, though the fpaces are annexed to each, by ' "' "y
being conftruaed accordingly. 4. Thofe of the fame
fpelling.are likewife omitted, though they bear differ-
ent fignifications, for obvious reafons.
7. The variation of tenfes, degrees of comparifon,
and numerous words in the Engllrti language, having
in general, the fame terminations, fuch as ed, ing, ly,
MENT, NESS, &c. an alphabet may be formed of fuch
a kind as is capable of being annexed to the abfo-
lute words or radices, as expeditioufly as the whole
word could be found in the fount, from its being
thereby fo much lefs extended. Thus, by dividing fe¬
veral words into their radices and terminations, many
other words may be formed from their radix by the ad¬
dition of various terminations, and each termination
may be added to other radices to which they are ap¬
plicable.
8. Some radices are imperfeft, viz. fuch as end with
the vowel e, which muft therefore be added in the ufual
way.of compofition. Thus, in the word adore, the ra¬
dix is ador, to which the terminations es, ed, eji, eth
er, ing, may be added occafionally.
9. By rejecting alfo the words which come under this
laft denomination, the number neceflary for a fount is
reduced to one-tenth of what it would other wife be, as
will appear evident from the following confiderations :
I. There are at leaft 42 verbs, the infinitive of which
ends in ify ; as qualify, Jignify; the radices of which
are qual, Jign ; the terminations are, if.es, ifed, ifying,
&c. And Mr Johnfon informs us, that by applyino
thefe radices to other terminations, he was enabled to
difpenfe with more than 500 words which would other-
wife have been neceffary. 2. For all regular verbs, no
more than fix terminations are neceffary, viz. r, ef, eth,
ed, es, ing. There are but few irregular ones in the
Fnglifh language ; whence it happens that 12 or 14
words may be formed from one fingle perfeft verb as a
radix, and many imperfect ones fave double that num¬
ber.
10. By ufing only the fet of terminations which
may be contained in a box of two feet fquare, the
common operation of printing would be fhortened near¬
ly one half} and in order to find out thofe which are
mort in ufe, and fitteft to retain, our author digefted
them alphabetically, with the radices, words, or fyl-
lables, which make complete words annexed to them.
Thus,
_s 1 abs—apper—afeer
 ecj ^ de—dis—con
cer—cap—-cur
 ing r^r—cap-cur
 mentj enter—main—re—fus, &c.
11. Thus it will be found, that out of more than
100,000 words of which the Englilh language confifts,
there will not be wanted much above 3500 for a com¬
plete fount. This will be very evident to any perfon
who confults a dictionary. He will there find, that a
yaft number of words require an explanation} whereas
in any mifcellaneous work, there are none but what
can be underftood moft readily either together or apart.
Newfpapers retain more of the uncommon kind of words
than any others. “ The vocabulary (fays our author)
LOG [ 165 ] L O H
Logogra- or alphabet as it is called, of the Chinefe, confifts of
phj- above 80,000 letters or chara&ers; yet he is admitted
a mafter 0f the language who knows about 4000 of
them, no more being in general ufe.”
The expedition with which the logographic method
of printing can be accomplilhed, depends eflentially on
their arrangement 5 which, from great numbers of ex¬
periments, our author found to be bell accomplilhed
in the following manner : 1. Words of one, two, or
three fyllables, are alphabetically placed by themfelves,
including all poflible commencing fyllables, by w’hich
the compofitor cannot fail of finding the word either
in whole or in part, let it be w'hat it will j and when
the whole cannot be found at once, the remainder may
eafily be found in fingle or double fyllables among the
terminations. 2. All words above three fyllables have
the fame alphabetical arrangement $ the terminations
being the fame at the bottom of each. Experience
(hows, that by a very few leflbns, the meaneft capacity
may determine the number of fyllables, and refer to
the particular cafe containing words of that number,
there being confpicuous references to each •, and by
thus equalizing them, any perfon may poffefs himfelf
very expeditioully of what he wants. Even boys who
fcarcely knew more than the letters of the alphabet,
were hardly a fortnight employed in this method, when
they could at the firft glance tell the number of letters
contained in any word.
By this fimplicity of arrangement, any intelligent
perfon, who never compofed in his life, by being pla¬
ced in a room with the apparatus, could compofe and
print, without other previous inftruflion than defiring
him to remember that the words under three fyllables,
and thofe above three, are placed in feparate alphabets j
and that whenever he wants a wrord, the firft letter is
feen in capitals of twTo inches on the walls, the fecond
in letters of one inch in right lines j and where it is ne-
ceflary to have more columns than one for fuch fecond
letter, the third is given in red down the column, com¬
prehending about 12 divifions, to contain the types of
the word coming under fuch reference.
To exemplify this method as far as it can be done
without actually feeing the apparatus, our author inflan-
ces the two words Above and Unfortunately. In
looking for the former, the firft letter, A, is feen upon
the wall as already mentioned ; the fecond, B, is on
the cafe under it, and down that column is OVE,
oppofite to the cell containing the types of the whole
word ; which would be only three references inftead
of five with fpaces, as in the common method. The
other word, viz. Unfortunately, may be found by the
fame references, though it contains 13 letters j but
“ admitting that practice will give the word as foon
as a fingle letter, the average wfill be found eight for
one.”—Our author’s explanation of the method in
which this word might be compofed, how'ever, feems
by no means intelligible.—“ For this diftindtion in the
cafes (fays he), the alphabet, or rather marks of firft
reference in large charadlers on the wall, is divided into
turn claffes, not as vowels and confonants, but as fol¬
lows, viz. A, Con, Dif, E, In, O, P, S, Un, com¬
mencing references, the fecond or fubfequent letters of
the words being in a right line from left to right, and
down each column is found the remainder of the refe¬
rence to the words, diftinguilhing always the third let-
ter in red. The fecond diftindlion is that for all other Logogra-
commencing letters^ the fecond letter of reference is in
a column down, and the third letter in lines from left
to right in red. > , ~ J
Thefe are the diredfions given by our author for
forming a fount of words j the next requifite is a fount
of fyllables, formed in the following method : 1. A
complete fet of two letters was obtained in all their
poflible combinations, amounting to 676. 2. Having
next obtained the poflible combination of thefe letters,
viz. 17576, by retaining only all poflible fyllables, and
words of three letters, it is reduced to the 30th part,
which anfwer all the purpofes of compofing with fylla¬
bles of two and three letters, for Latin, French, Eng-
lifti, and all names of perfons, places, and things, every
poflible fyllable being comprehended among them.
Hence it forms an univerfal Informed alphabet, where
Englilh charadlers are ufed ; from •whence all partial
biformed and triformed alphabets in the arrangement of
Englifti, French, Latin, and all technical matters, are
drawn. Though combinations of four letters are
again 26 times the number of thofe of three letters,
and five letters increafe in the fame ratio j yet as much
as all poflible combinations increafe in quantity pro¬
portionate to the number of letters combined, fo they
decreafe in the adtual number of fyllablcs included
among them, infomuch, that all the fyllables of four,
five, fix, and feven letters together, are confiderably
fewer than the fyllables of three letters only.—Befides
the two founts already mentioned, a third was found ne-
ceflary for fuch terminations as are moft commonly fol¬
lowed by particular punctuations ; but, after fome con-
fideration, this wras judged unneceffary.
Our author nowT proceeds to obviate fome objections
which muft naturally occur to one who firft hears of his
invention. Thefe are,
1. A fingle letter damaged in a word renders the
whole ufelefs.
This is not denied by Mr Johnfon 4 but lie contends,
that the quantity of metal loft in this manner is quite
trifling.
2. How are the blanks or fpaces in a line to be ma¬
naged, as thefe are by no means equal
To this our author replies, that, at the time of writ¬
ing the pamphlet, he was undetermined whether it be
moft eligible to have fpaces call along with the begin¬
nings of words, or to fpaee them in the common man*
ner. The former would be more expeditious 5 and
where a greater diftance is required, other fpaces may
be introduced in the ordinary method.
3. How is a long word at the end of a line to be
divided ?
This may be eafily accompliflied by means of the fyl-
labic fount already mentioned.
4. How is the error of fubftituting one word for*
another to be reClified ?
The anfwer to this is, that an error of the kind fpe-
cified may be correfted in the very fame manner as is
done in common printing. Long words may be divided'
by means of the fyllabic fount already mentioned, and
the intervals between the words may be filled up with
fpaces as ufual.
LOGWOOD. See Hematoxylon*, Botany and?
Dyeing Index.
LOHOCHj or LOCH, in Pharmacy, a compofition?
of;
Loins
Lollards.
L O L [ 166 ]
of a middle eonfiftence between a foft ele&uary and a
fyrup, principally ufed in diforders of the lungs.
i LOINS, in Anatomy, the two lateral parts of the
umbilical region of the abdomen.
LOIRE, the iargeft river in France, rifes in the
mountains of the Cevennes, and, after running a courfe
of about geo miles, falls into the bay of Bifcay.
LOKE, in Mythology, the name of one of the dei¬
ties of the northern nations, anfwering to the Arima-
nius among the Perfians, whom they reprefent as at en¬
mity both with gods and men, and the author of all the
evils which defolate the univerfe. Loke is deferibed in
the Edda as producing the great ferpent which encircles
the world ; which feems to have been intended as an
emblem of corruption or fin : he alfo gives birth to
Hela or death, the queen of the infernal regions •, and
alfo to the wolf Fenris, that monfter who is to encoun¬
ter the gods and deftroy the world.
LOKMAN the Wise, an eminent phiiofopher a-
niong the Eafterns. The Arabians fay he was the fon
of Baura, the fon or grandfon of a filler or aunt of Job.
He was an Ethiopian, and a Have for fome time. It is
related that he was born in the time of David, and lived
till the age of the prophet Jonas. Some fuppofe him
to have been the fame with iEfop the mythologift: and
indeed we find in the parables or apologues of Lok-
man in Arabic, many particulars that are feen in ]5L-
fop’s fables j fo that it is not eafy to determine whether
the Greek or the Arabian are the originals. He is faid
to have been deformed in his perfon ; but that this de-
fed was fufficiently made up^ by the perfedions of his
mind. Some pieces of his are extant j and he was look¬
ed upon as fo excellent a perfon, that Mahomet has in-
ferted a chapter of the Koran, called after his name, in
which he introduces God as faying, “ We heretofore
bellowed wifdom on Lokman.”—It is related that he
got his liberty on the following occafion. His mailer
having given him a bitter melon to eat, he ate it all.
His mailer, furprifed at his exad obedience, alked,
How it was pollible for him to eat fuch a naufeous
fruit ? He anfwered, “ I have received fo many favours
from you, that it is no wonder I ihould once in my life
eat a bitter melon from your hand.” This generous
anfwer of the Have llruck the mailer to fuch a degree,
that he immediately gave him his liberty. M. Galland
tranllated all the fables of Lokman, and Bidpai or Pil-
pay, a bramin phiiofopher, which were publilhed at
Paris in 17 24.
LOLIUM, darnel grass •, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the triandria clafs •, and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 4th order, Gramina. See Bo¬
tany Index.
LOLLARDS, in ecclefiaftical hillory, a religious
fed, differing in many religious points from the church
of Rome, which arofe in Germany about the begin¬
ning of the 14th century; fo called, as many writers
have imagined, from Walter Lollard, who began to
dogmatize in 1315, and was burnt at Cologn : though
others think that Lollard was no furname, but mere¬
ly a term of reproach applied to all heretics who con¬
cealed the poifon of error under the appearance of
piety.
The monk of Canterbury derives the origin of the
word Lollard among us, from lo/ium, “ a tare as if
the Lollards ;vere the tares fown in Chrift’s vineyard.
3
L O L
Abelly fays, that the word Lollard fignifies 11 praifing
God,” from the German loben, “ to praife,” and herr,
“ Lord ;” becaufe the Lollards employed themfelves
in travelling about from place to place, finging pfalms
and hymns.
Others, much to the fame purpofe, derive lollhard,
/ulI hard, or lollert, lullert, as it was written by the an¬
cient Germans, from the old German word Inllen, /al¬
ien, or /alien, and the termination hard, with which
many of the High Dutch words end. Lollen fignifies
“ to fing with a low voice,” and therefore Lollard
is a finger, or one who frequently fings j and in the
Lollards
vulgar tongue of the Germans it denotes a perfon who
is continually praifing God with a fong, or finging
hymns to his honour. The Alexians or Cellites were
called Lollards, becaufe they were public fipgers who
made it their bufinefs to inter the bodies of thofe who
died of the plague, and fang a dirge over them in a
mournful and indiliintt tone as they carried them to the
grave. The name was afterwards affumed by perfons
that difhonoured it ; for we find, among thofe Lollards
who made extraordinary pretences to piety and religion,
and fpent the greateft part of their time in meditation,
prayer, and fuch afls of piety, there were many abo¬
minable hypocrites, who entertained the molt ridiculous
opinions and concealed the moll enormous vices under
the fpecious mark of this extraordinary profeffion. And
many injurious afperfions were propagated againll thofe
who affumed this name by the priefts and monks; fo
that, by degrees, any perfon who covered herefies or
crimes under the appearance of piety, was called a Lol¬
lard. Thus the name was not ufed to denote any one
particular fe£l, but was formerly common to all perfons
and all fefts who were fuppofed to be guilty of impiety
towards God or the church, under an external profef¬
fion of extraordinary piety. However, many focieties
confining both of men and women under the name of
Lollards, were formed in moll parts of Germany and
Flanders, and were fupported partly by their manual la¬
bours, and partly by the charitable donations of pious
perfons. The magillrates and inhabitants of the towns
where thefe brethren and fillers refided, gave them
particular marks of favour and proteflion, on account
of their great ufefulnefs to the fick and needy. They
were thus fupported againft their malignant rivals, and
obtained many papal conftitutions by which their in-
llitute was confirmed, their perfons exempted from
the cognizance of the inquifitors, and fubjefled en¬
tirely to the jurifdiff ion of the bilhops; but as thefe
meafures were infufficient to fecure them from mo-
lefiation, Charles duke of Burgundy, in the year
1472, obtained a folemn bull from Pope Sixtus IV.
ordering that the Cellites or Lollards Ihould be rank¬
ed among the religious orders, and delivered from the
jurifditlion of the bilhops ; and Pope Julius II. grant¬
ed them yet greater privileges in the year 1506. Mo-
Iheim informs us that many locieties of this kind are
Hill fubfilling at Cologn, and in the cities of Flanders,
though they have evidently departed from their ancient
rules.
Lollard and his followers rejefled the facrifice of
the mafs, extreme un£lion, and penances for fin ; ar¬
guing, that Chrift’s fufferings were fufficient. He is
likewife faid to have fet afide baptifin, as a thing of
no effe£l; and repentance, as not abfolutely neceffary,
&.C.
L O M
t
Etymology
of the
aime.
Lombard, &c.—~In England, the followers of Wickliffe were
Lombards.^ called, by way of reproach, Lollards^ from fome affinity
* there was between fome of their tenets ; though others
are of opinion that the Englilh Lollards came from
Germany.
They were folemnly condemned by the archbifhop of
Canterbury and the council of Oxford.
LOMBARD, Peter, well known by the title of
Majlerof the Sentences, was born at Novara in Lombardy}
but being bred at Paris, he diftinguilhed himfelf fo
much at that univerfity, that, he firft had the canonry
of Chartres conferred on him, was fome time tutor to
Philip fon of Louis le Gros, and laftly obtained the fee
of Paris. He died in 1064. work of the Sen¬
tences is looked on as the fource of the fcholaflic theo¬
logy of the Latin church. He wrote alfo Commentaries
on the Pfalms, and on St Paul’s Epiftles.
LOMBARDS, a Scandinavian nation, who former¬
ly fettled in Italy, and for fome time made a confider-
t able figure.
Their name of Lombards, or Longobards, is by fome
derived from the word lack, or lache, fignifying in the
German tongue winter; becaufe the Lombards, while
in Scandinavia, lived in marfhes, or near the fea. Others
think that it comes from the two German words langen
harden, or helleborden, that is, from the long halberts
they were fuppofed to ufe in w’ar. But Paulus Dia-
conus their hillorian, and who was himfelf a Lombard,
tells us that they were called Longobards from the
length of their beards. A nation called the Lombards
is mentioned by Tacitus, Strabo, and Ptolemy j but
thefe are different from the Lombards who afterwards
fettled in Italy, and are reckoned to be the fame with
the Gepidae, whom the Italian Lombards almoft ex¬
terminated. The Lombards who fettled in Italy are
firft mentioned by Profper Aquitanus, bilhop of Rhe-
Vandalsde-gium in the year 379. That writer tells us, that
feated by about this time the Lombards, abandoning the moft
diftant coafts of the ocean, and their native country
Scandinavia, and feeking for new fettlements, as they
were overftocked with people at home, firft attacked
and overcame the Vandals in Germany. They were
then headed by two chiefs, Iboreus and Aion } who,
dying about the year 389, w^ere fucceeded by Agil-
mund, who is commonly reckoned the firft king of the
3 Lombards.
They fettle Before the time of Odoacer, the Lombard hiftory
in the coun-affords nothing remarkable} in his time, howxver,
Ruhuis 6 on Danube, in the country of the
* ns' Rugiaos, whom Odoacer had almoft totally extermi¬
nated or carried into captivity. During their ftay in
this country, they rendered themfelves formidable to
the neighbouring nations, and carried on fuccefsful
wars with the Heruli and Gepidae. In 526, they
were allowed by the emperor Juftinian to fettle in
^ Pannonia; and here they made war a fecond time
Deftroy the with the Gepidae. Alboinus, the Lombard king, kill-
Gepids. ed the king of the Gepidae with his owrn hand, put his
army to the rout, and cut fuch numbers of them in
pieces, that they ceafed from that time to be a nation.
Having caufed the deceafed king’s head to be cut off,
he made a cup of his fkull, called in the language of
the Lombards fchala, which he made ufe of in all public
entertainments. However, having taken, among many
ether captives of great diftindlioo, the late king’s
the Lom¬
bards,
67 ] L O M
daughter, by name Rofamunda, he married her after Lombards,
the death of his former wife Clodifvinta, the daughter '—■'V’—-'
of Clotaire king of France.
By this viflory Alboinus gained fuch reputation
that his friendfhip wTas courted by Juftinian ; and, in
confequence of the emperor’s application, a body of
6000 Lombards were fent to the affiftancc of Narfes
againft the Goths. The fuccefs of the Romans in
this expedition, the invafien of Italy by the Lombards,
and their fucceffes in that country, have been taken
notice of under the article Italy, N° 28—32. At 5
laft Alboinus, having made himfelf mailer of Venetia, Alboinus
Liguria, Emilia, Hetruria, and Umbria, was ftain byk,nSof^he
the treachery of his wife, in the year 575, the fourth affaffimited
of his reign. This princefs was the daughter of the at the infti-
king of the Gepidae, whom Alboinus had killed ingationof
battle, and made a cup of his Ikull, as above related.wife•
As he was one day feafting at Verona, with his chief
favourites and principal officers, in the height of his
mirth he fent for the queen, and, filling the detefted
cup, commanded her to drink merrily with her father.
Rofamund, ftruck with horror, hurried out of the
room } and highly incenfed againft her hulband for
thus barbaroufly triumphing over the misfortunes of
her family, refolved, at all events, to make him pay
dear for fuch an inhuman and affronting condutt.
Accordingly, fhe difcovered her intention to Helmi-
child the king’s fhield-bearer, a youth of great bold-
nefs and intrepidity. Helmichild peremptorily refufed
to imbrue his hands in the blood of his fovereign, or
to be any way acceffory to his death} and in this re-
folution he perfifted, till he was, by a lhameful ftrata-
gem, forced by the queen to a compliance : for the,
knowing that he carried on an intrigue with one of
her ladies, placed herfelf one night in her bed, and
receiving the youth, indulged him as if Ihe had been
his own miftrefs in his amorous defires ; which fhe had
no fooner done, than difcovering herfelf to the de¬
ceived lover, Ihe told him that he mull now either put
the king to death, or be put to death by him. Hel¬
michild, well apprifed, that, after what he had done,
his fafety depended upon the death of the king, engaged
in the treafon, which he otherwife abhorred. One day,
therefore, while Alboinus was repofing in his chamber
after dinner, Helmichild, with fome others whom he
had made privy to his defign, breaking in unexpeftedly,
fell upon the king wdth their daggers. Alboinus Halt¬
ing up at their firft coming in, laid hold of his fword,
which he had always by him } but having in vain at¬
tempted to draw it, the queen having before-hand
faftened it in the fcabbard, he defended hirofelf for
fome time with a footftool} but was in the end over- -
powered, and defpatched with many wounds.
Rofamund had promifed to Helmichild, that, as
foon as he had defpatched the king, fhe would marry
him, and, with her perfon, beftow upon him the king¬
dom of the Lombards. The firft part of her promife
Ihe immediately performed ; but was fo far from being
able to beftow the crown upon him, that both of them
were obliged to fave themfelves by flight. They fled
to Longinus the exarch of Ravenna, taking with them
all the jewels and treafure of the late king. Longinus
received her wuth the greateft marks of friendlhip and
kindnefs, and affured her of his prote&ion. She had
not been long in Ravenna, however, before the exarch,
judging g
L O M [ 168 ] L
:Lombards, judoing that a favourable opportunity now offered of laws among thefe people
O M
iHer death.
7
"Monarchy
aboli/lied.
8
Heftored.
. 9
’Written
laws when
firil intro¬
duced. -
making himfelf king of Italy by her means, imparted
his defign to her, and declared his intention to marry
her, provided, by fome means or other, fhe defpatehed
Helmichild.—Rofamund, highly pleafed with the pro-
pofal, refolved to fatisfy her ambition by getting rid
of the perfon whom fhe had married in order to gra¬
tify her revenge. Accordingly, having prepared a
ftrong poifon, fhe mixed it with wane, and gave it to
her hufband as he came out of the bath, and called for
drink, according to his cullom. Helmichild had not
half emptied the cup, when, by the hidden and ftrange
operation which he felt in his bowels, he concluded
what it w as ; and, with his fword pointed at the queen’s
breaft, compelled her to drink the reft. The poifon
had the fame effeiSl on both for they died in a few
hours. Longinus, on the death of the queen, laid
afide all thoughts of making himfelf king of Italy,
and fent the king’s treafure to Conftantinople, together
wdth Albifoinda, the daughter of Alboinus by Rofa¬
mund, whom fhe had brought alone with her.
After the death of Alboinus, the Lombards chofe
Clephis, one of the nobility, for their king. He was
murdered after a fhort reign of 18 months ; upon which
enfued an interregnum of io years, as related under
the article Italy, N° 32. During this time, they
extended their conquefts in that country •, but at laft
the Romans, jealous of their progrefs, refolved to put
a flop to their viftories, and, if poflible, to drive them
quite out. For this purpofe, they defigned not only
to employ their own force, but entered into alliance
with the Franks; which fo alarmed the Lombards
that they re-eftablifhed the monarchical form of go¬
vernment among themfelves, and chofe Autharis the
fon of Clephis for their king. This monarch, confi-
dering that the power of the dukes, who had governed
Lombardy for the fpace of 10 years, was during that
length of time very much eftabliihed, and that they
would not probably be walling to part with the au¬
thority which they had fo long enjoyed, allowed them
to continue in their government j but obliged them to
contribute one moiety of their revenues towards the
maintenance and fupport of his royal dignity, fuffer-
ing them to difpofe of the other as they thought pro¬
per. He referved to himfelf the fupreme dominion
and authority 5 and took an oath of the dukes, that
in time of war, they would readily affift him to the
utmoft of their power. Though he could remove the
dukes at pleafure, yet he deprived none of them of
their dukedoms, except in cafes of treafon j nor gave
them to others, except when their male iffue failed.
Having fettled matters in this manner with the dukes,
he enadted feveral wholefome laws againft theft, ra¬
pine, murder, adultery, and other vices wdiich prevailed
among his fubjedls, and was the firft of the Lombard
kings who embraced Chriftianity. Moft of his fubjedls
followed the example of their monarch 5 but as they
were all inftrucled by Arian bilhops, they continued
long infefted with that herefy •, which occafioned great
difputes between them and the orthodox biftiops of the
cities fubjedl to them.
From the re-eftaolifhment of the monarchy under
Autharis. to the reign of Rotharis in 636, the hiftory
of the Lombards affords nothing memorable. This
period is remarkable for the introdudlion of written
Before his time they had Lombard.?,
been governed only by tradition : but Rotharis, in imi- ^
tation of the Romans and Goths, undertook the pub-
lifhing of written law’s ; and to thofe which he enadled,
many w’ere added by the fucceeding princes. Grotius
prefers the method w’hich the Lombards followed in
making laws, to that which was pradlifed by the Ro¬
mans themfelves. Among the latter the emperor was
the foie lawgiver j fo that whatever pleafed him had
the force of a law\ But the Lombard kings did not
affume that power to themfelves, fince their laws were
enadled in public affemblies, convened for that purpofe,
after they had been maturely examined and approved
of by all the lords of the kingdom. From thefe affem¬
blies were excluded the ecclefiaftic order, and the peo¬
ple : fo that the legiflative power was lodged in the
king and nobles alone.
The reign of Rotharis is remarkable, not only for
his introducing written laws among his fubjedls, but
for the conquefts he made, and the fuccefsful wars
carried on with the exarch of Ravenna, whom he
totally defeated in feveral engagements, and made
himfelf mafter of fome part of his territories. This
monarch died in 6525 and the affairs of the Lombards
went on profperoufly, till the ambition of Luitprand
laid the foundation of the total ruin of his kingdom. lQ
He afeended the throne of Lombardy in 711, and Luitr^imd’s
watched all opportunities of enlarging his dominions at ambition,
the expence of the emperor’s. Of this, a fair oppor¬
tunity offered in 716: for the emperor Leo Ifauricus,
who at that time reigned in the eaft, having, by his
famous edift, forbidden the worfhip of images, and
ordered them to be everywhere pulled down, the
people were fo provoked at that innovation, that, in
feveral places, they openly revolted, and, falling up¬
on the emperor’s officers, drove them out of the cities.
In the eaft, Germanus, patriarch of Conftantinople,
oppofed the emperor’s defign with great warmth j but
Leo caufed him to be depofed, and Anaftafius to be
raifed to that fee in his room, ordering at the fame
time all the images in the imperial city to be pulled
down and publicly burnt. He ftri&ly enjoined his
officers in the weft, efpecially the exarch of Ravenna,
to fee his edi£l punftually obeyed in their refpeftive
governments. In compliance with thefe orders, Scho-
lafticus, then exarch, began to pull down the images
in all the churches and public places in Ravenna;
which incenfed the fuperftitious multitude to fuch a
degree, that taking arms, they openly declared they
wmuld rather renounce their allegiance to the emperor
than the worftiip of images.
Thus a kind of civil war being kindled in the city,
Luitprand thought he had now a favourable opportu¬
nity of making himfelf mafter of the feat of the exarch,
not doubting but the conqueft of fuch an important
place would be followed by that of the whole ex- Xl
archate. Having therefore drawn together all his He befieges
forces, he unexpectedly appeared before Ravenna, and and at iait
clofely befieged it. The exarch little expefted fuch atakes Ra'
furprife, as a friendly correfpondence had been main¬
tained for many years between the exarchs and the
Lombard kings. However, he defended the place
with fuch courage and refolution, that Luitprand,
defpairing of fuccefs, broke up the fiege and led his
army againft Claflis, at a fmall diftance from Ravenna,
which
12
Reduces
the exarch¬
ate to a
dukedom.
L O M
Lombards, which he took, plundered, and levelled
ground. The lofs of this place, and the fevere treat¬
ment the inhabitants met with from the king, threw
the citizens of Ravenna into the utmoft confternation ;
which Luitprand being informed of, he refolved to
take advantage of their fears, and, returning before
Ravenna while the inhabitants were thus difheartened,
to attempt once more the redudfion of that place.
Accordingly he led his whole army againft it, and,
by frequent attacks, tired the inhabitants and garri-
fon to fuch a degree, that the exarch, finding they
could hold out no longer, and defpairing of relief,
privately withdrew. Luitprand, informed of his re¬
treat, attacked the town with more violence than ever j
and, having carried it by ftorm, gave it to.be plunder¬
ed by his foldiers, who found in it an immenfe booty,
as it had been for a long time the feat of the Roman
emperors, of the Gothic kings, and the exarchs. The
king ftripped it of moft of its valuable monuments of
antiquity, and caufed, among the reft, an equeftrian
ftatue of an emperor, of wonderful workmanftiip, to be
conveyed to Pavia, where it is to be feen to this day.
The redu&ion of Ravenna was followed by the furrend-
er of feveral cities of the exarchate, which Luitprand re¬
duced to a dukedom ; appointing Hildebrand his grand-
fon to govern it with the title of duke : and giving him,
as he was yet an infant, Peredeus duke of Vicenza for
his guardian.
The conqueft of Ravenna and the greater part of
the exarchate did not a little alarm Gregory II. bi-
fhop of Rome. He was then at variance wdth the
emperor, whofe edift againft the worftiipping of ima¬
ges he had oppofed with all his might, and by that
means provoked Leo to fuch a degree, that he had
threatened to drive him from the fee, and fend him in¬
to exile. However, the pope, no lefs jealous of the
potver of the Lombards than all his predecefibrs had
been, refolved, by feme means or other, to put a flop
to their conquefts. The only prince in Italy to whom
he could have recourfe w7as Urfus duke of Venice,
the Venetians making already no inconfiderable figure.
The exarch ^ ° accordingly he wrote a very preffing letter j
conjuring him to aftift his worthy fon the exarch, and,
for the love of the holy faith, to attempt with him
the recovery of the exarchate, w'hich the wicked na¬
tion of the Lombards had unjuftly taken from his fons
Leo and Conftantine emperors. Urfus and the Ve¬
netians, moved with the pope’s letter, and at the fame
time greatly alarmed at the growth of fo powerful a
neighbour, promifed to aflift the exarch with the w-hole
flrength of their republic ; and accordingly fitted out
a confiderable fleet, pretending it was defigned for thd
fervice of the emperor againft the Saracens. At the
fame time the exarch, who had taken refuge in Ve¬
nice, abandoning that place, as it were in ‘defpair of
bringing the duke over to his party, raifed, in the
places ftill fubjefl to the emperor, what forces he was
able 5 and having got together a confiderable body,
he marched with them towards Imola, giving out that
he deligned to befiege that city 5 but turning on a
hidden towards Ravenna, as had been agreed on be¬
tween him and the Venetians, he laid fiege to it by
land, while they invefted it alrnoft at the iame infant
by fea. Peredeus defended the town for fome time
with great courage and refolution : obliging all thefe
VOL. XII. Part I.
[ 169 ] L O M
with the who were able to bear arms to repair to the walls.
affifted by
the Vene¬
tians :
But Lombards.
the Venetians having, in fpite of all oppofition, forced v ‘
open one of the gates on the fide of the fea, the city wh0 retake
was taken, and Peredeus flain, while he was attempt-Ravenna,
ing, at the head of a choice body, to drive the enemy
from the polls they had feized. As for Hildebrand,
he fell into the hands of the Venetians j who, having
thus recovered Ravenna to the emperor, returned home,
leaving the exarch in poffeflion of the city. Luitprand
was then at Pavia j but the town wTas taken before he
could affemble his troops to relieve it.
And now Gregory bifhop of Rome, to whom the
recovery of Ravenna was chiefly owing, perfuading
himfelf, that the emperor would, out of gratitude,
give ear to his remonftrances and admonitions, began
to folicit him with more prefling letters than ever to
revoke his edi£l againft the worfhip of images: but
Leo, well apprifed that the bifhop, in all the mea-
fures he had taken, had been more influenced by a re¬
gard to his own intereft than to that of the empire,
inftead of hearkening to his remonftrances, was ftill
more provoked againft him for thus obftinately oppof-
ing the execution of his edidl. Being, therefore, re¬
folved at all events to have it obferved in Rome itfelf,
and, on the other hand, not doubting but the pope
would oppofe it to the laft with all his might*, in order
to remove all obftacles, he fent three officers to Rome,
with private orders, either to defpatch the pope, or to
take him prifoner and convey him to Conftantinople.
At the fame time, he wrote to Mauritius duke of
Rome, fecretly enjoining him to affift his three officers
in their undertaking : but no favourable opportunity
offering to put their defign in execution, the emperor,
in the year 725, recalled Scholafticus, and fent Paul
a patrician into Italy, to govern in his room, with pri¬
vate inftrmftions to encourage the above-mentioned of¬
ficers with the promife of great rewards, and to af-
fure them of his protedlion.
But, in the mean time, the plot was difeovered, and
two of the confpirators were apprehended by the citizens
of Rome, and put to death ■, the third having efcaped
into a monaftery, where he took the monaftic habit
and ended his days. Hereupon the exarch, in com¬
pliance with the emperor’s orders," refolved to proceed
no longer by fecret plots, but by open force. Accord¬
ingly, be drew together a confiderable body of troops,
and fet out at the head of them on his march to Rome,
with a defign to feize on the pope, and fend him, as he 15
had engaged to do, in chains to Conftantinople. But, Luitprand
on this occafion, Luitprand, though highly provoked t^e
againft Gregory for having ftirred up the Venetians
againft him, yet refolved to affift him and the citizens exarch,
of Rome againft the exarch, iw order to keep the ba¬
lance even between them, and by affifting fometimes the
one and fometimes the other, weaken both. Purfuant
to this refolution, he ordered the Lombards of Tuf-
cany, and thofe of the dukedom of Spoletto, to join
the pope and the inhabitants of Rome ; who, being
by this reinforcement far fuperior in ftrength and num¬
ber to the exarch, obliged him to return to Ravenna,
and give over all thoughts of any further attempt on
the perfon of the pope.
In the mean time, Leo, perfifting in his former re¬
folution of fuppreffing throughout his dominions the
worfhip of images, fent frelh orders to the exarch
Y Paul.
L O M [ 170 ] L O M
lombards. Paul, rlriftly enjoining him to caufe his edi6l to be put
* 'r in execution in all the cities of Italy under his empire,
efpecially in Rome. At the fame time, he wrote to the
pope, promifing him his favour and proteftion if he
complied with the edi£l; and declaring him, if he con¬
tinued to oppofe it, a rebel, and no longer vefled with
the papal dignity. But Gregory was fo far from
yielding to the emperor’s threats, or promifes, that, on
the contrary, he folemnly excommunicated the exarch
for attempting to put the imperial ediff in execution :
and at the fame time wrote circular letters to the Ve¬
netians, to King Luitprand, to the Lombard dukes,
and to all the chief cities of the empire, exhorting
them to continue ftedfaft in the Catholic faith, and to
oppofe with all their might fuch a deteftable innova¬
tion. rI hefe letters made fuch an impreffion on the
minds of the people in Italy, that though of different
intereds, and often at war with one another, they all
united j protefling they wrould defend the Catholic
faith, and the life of the pope, in fo glorious a caufe,
at the expence of their own $ nay, the citizens of
1 Rome, and the inhabitants of Pentapolis, now Marca
d’Ancona, not contenting themfelves wdth fuch a pro-
teflation, openly revolted from the emperor ; and,
pulling down his ffatues, they eledled, by their own
authority, mpgiilrates to govern them during the in¬
terregnum. We are even told, that, tranfported with
a blind zeal, they wTere for choofing a new emperor,
and conducing him to Conftantinople, not doubting
but the people would everywhere join them. But the
pope, thinking this refolution unfeafonable, and not
to be eafily put in execution, oppofed it j fo that it
did not take place.
In the mean time, the exarch Paul, having gained
a confiderable party in Ravenna, began, purfuant to
the repeated orders from the emperor, to remove the
images, as fo many idols, out of the churches. Here-
16 upon the adverfe party, fupported and encouraged by
A civil wa! the pope, flew to arms: and, falling upon the icono-
dojis, or image-breakers, as they ftyled them, gave rife
to a civil war within the walls of Ravenna. Great num¬
bers were killed on both fides : but thofe who were for
the w'orfliip of imr^es prevailing in the end, a dread¬
ful daughter was made of the oppofite party y and,
among the reft, the exarch himfelf wras murdered.
However, the city of Ravenna continued faithful to
the emperor j but moft of the cities of Romagna be¬
longing to the exarchate, and all thofe of Pentapolis
or La Marca d’Ancona, abhorring the emperor as an
heretic, fubmitted to Luitprand king of the Lombards j
who, pretending a zeal for the Catholic religion, took
care to improve the difcontent of the people to his
advantage, by reprefenting to them, that they could
never maintain their religious rights under a prince,
who was not only an heretic, but a perfecutor of the
orthodox.
In Naples, Exhilaratus, duke of that city, having
received peremptory orders from the emperor to caufe
his edift to be put in execution, did all that hiy in his
power to perfuade the people to receive it 5 but find¬
ing all his endeavours thwarted by the biihop of Rome,
for whom the Neapolitans had a great veneration, he
hired affaffins to murder him. But the plot being dif-
cevered, though carried on wdth great fecrecy, the
Neapolitans, highly provoked againft the duke, tore
both him and his fon to pieces, and likewife put to
death one of his chief officers, w’ho had compofed a
libel againft the pope. Luitprand, and Gregory at
that time duke of Benevento, laying hold of fo fa-
vourable an opportunity to make themfelves mafters
of the dukedom of Naples, did all that lay in their
power to perfuade the Neapolitans to fubmit to them.
But the Neapolitans, bearing an irreconcilable ha¬
tred to the Lombards, with whom they had been con-
ftantly at variance, rejedted every overture of that na¬
ture with the utmoft indignation; and, continuing
ftedfaft in their allegiance to Leo, received from Con-
ftantinople one Peter, wdio was fent to govern them in
the room of Exhilaratus. Some writers fuppofe the
Neapolitans, in this general revolt of the cities of Italy,
to have fhaken off the yoke with the reft, and to have
appointed magiftrates of their own eledlion to govern
them, in the room of the officers hitherto fent from
Conftantinople, or named by the exarch : but they
are certainly miftaken ; it being manifeft from hiftory,
that Peter fucceeded Exhilaratus in that dukedom,
and that the Neapolitans continued to live under the
emperors, till they were conquered many years after
by the Normans.
In the mean time, Leo hearing of the murder of the
exarch, and the general revolt of the cities, and not
doubting but the pope was the chief author of fo much
mifehief, fent the eunuch Eutychius into Italy, with
the title and authority of exarch, ftriftly enjoining
him to get the pope defpatched by fome means or
other, fmee his death was abfolutely neceffary for the
tranquillity of Italy. The exarch fpared no pains to
get the pope into his power : but a meffenger, whom
he had fent to Rome, being apprehended by the citi¬
zens, and an order from the emperor being found up¬
on him to all his officers in that city, commanding
them to put the pope to death at all events, the pope’s
friends thenceforth guarded him with fuch care, that
the exarch’s emiffaries could never afterwards find an
opportunity of executing their defign. As for the mef¬
fenger, the Romans were for putting him to death ;
but the pope interpofed, contenting himfelf with ex¬
communicating the exarch..
And now the Romans, provoked more than ever
againft Leo, and, on the other hand, unwilling to
live under the Lombards, refolved to revolt from the
emperor, and appoint their own magiftrates, keeping
themfelves united under the pope, not yet as their
prince, but only as their head. This they did ac¬
cordingly ; and from thefe (lender beginnings the fo-
vereignty of the popes in Italy took its rife, though
they did not then, as is commonly fuppofed by hifto-
rians, but many years after, become fovereign lords
of Rome.
Eutychius failed in his defign upon the life of the
pope 5 but having brought with him from Conftantin¬
ople a good number of troops, he eafily quelled the
rebellion in Ravenna, and feverely punilhed the au¬
thors of the late difturbances. As for the rebellious
Romans, he was well apprifed he could never reduce
them, fo long as they were fupported by the king of
the Lombards $ and therefore he employed all his art
and policy to take oft that prince from the party of
the Romans, and bring hirn over to his own.
Luitprand, for fome time, withftopd all his offers;
but
i3
Luitprand
concludes
an alliance
with the
exarch.
19
The pope
fubmits to
Luitprand.
L O M [ 17
Lombaids. bdt Thrafimund duke of Spoletto revolting at this very
junfture, the exarch, laying hold of that opportuni¬
ty, offered to affuf the king with all his ftrength a-
gainft the rebellious duke, provided he would, in like
manner, affift him againft the pope and the Romans.
With this propofal Luitprand readily clofed j and a
league being concluded upon thefe terms between him
and the exarch, the two armies joined, and began
their march towards Spoletto. At their approach, the
duke, defpairing of being able to reiift two fuch
powers, came out with a fmall attendance to meet
them, and, throwing himfelf at the king’s feet, fued,
in that humble poiture, for pardon ; which Luitprand
not only granted him, but confirmed him in the duke¬
dom, after he had obliged him to take a new oath of
allegiance, and give hoftages for his fidelity in time
to come. From Spoletto, the two armies marched,
in purfuance of the treaty, to Rome } and encamped
in the meadows of Nero, between the liber and the
Vatican.
Gregory had caufed the city of Rome to be fortified
in the bell manner he could j but being fenfible that
the Romans alone could not long hold out againft two
fuch armies, and reflefting on the kind treatment the
duke of Spoletto had met with upon his fubmitting to
the king, he refolved to follow his example : and ac¬
cordingly, taking with him fome of the clergy, and
the principal inhabitants of the city, he went to wait
on the king in his camp ; and there, with a pathetic
fpeech, as he was a great mafter of eloquence, foften-
ed Luitprand to fuch a degree, that, throwing him¬
felf at his feet in the prefence of the whole army, he
begged pardon for entering into an alliance againft
him : and, affuring him of his proteftion for the fu¬
ture, he went with them to the church of St Peter ;
and there, difarming himfelf in the prefence of his
chief officers, he laid his girdle, his fword, and his
gauntlet, with his royal mantle, his crown of gold, and
crofs of filver, on the apoftle’s fepulchre. After this,
he reconciled the pope with the exarch, who was
thereupon received into the city, where he continued
for fome time, maintaining a friendly correfpondence
with the pope. At th?s time an impoftor, taking the
name of Tiberius, and pretending to be defeended from
the emperors, feduced a great many people in ,luf-
cany, and was by them proclaimed emperor. The
exarch, refblved to march againft him ; but as he had
not fufficient forces to oppofe the rebels, Gregory, who
let no opportunity flip of obliging Leo, perfuaded the
Romans to attend the exarch in this expedition •, by
which means the ufurper being taken in a caftle, his
head was fent to the emperor, and the rebellion utter¬
ly fuppreffed. But the emperor ftill infilling upon his
edi£t againft the images being received in Rome, the
Romans, at the inftigation of the pope, publicly re¬
nounced their allegiance to Leo, paid him no more
tribute, and withdrew for ever their obedience to the
emperors of the Eaft.
Leo, informed of this revolt, and not queftioning
but the pope was the author of it, immediately caufed
all the patrimonies of the church of Rome ^in Sicily,
Calabria, and his other dominions, to be confifcated.
At the fame time, he ordered a powerful army to be
raifed, with a defign to recover the towns that had re¬
volted ; to chaftife the Romans for their rebellion 5 and,
560
The empe¬
ror feizes
the domi¬
nions of the
pope.
i ] L O M
above all, to he revenged on the pope, who had raif- Lombard-.
ed all thefe difturbances, by himlelf oppofing, and
perfuading others to oppofe, the execution of his e-
dich Gregory, alarmed at the warlike preparations
that were carrying on throughout the empire, and
well apprifed that they were chiefly defigned againft
him and the Romans, refolved to recur to the pro-
teftion of the French, the only nation at that time
capable of coping with the emperor, and on. whom,
on account of their zeal for religion, he thought he
might depend. The Lombards were then very power¬
ful ; but, as they wanted to be mafters of Rome,
he did not think it advifable to truft them. The Ve¬
netians, though zealous in the defence of the pope,
were not yet in a condition to withlland the power of
the emperor •, and, befides, were jealous of the Lom¬
bards, who watched all opportunities of enlarging
their dominions at the expence of their neighbours.
As for Spain, it wras then in a moft deplorable condi¬
tion, being overrun, and almoft w’holly ruined, by the
Saracens. 21
The French nation wTas at this time governed by Who ap-
the celebrated Charles Martel, who had diftinguiftied P^to the
himfelf in a moft eminent manner in the wars ox'
France and Germany ; and had, not long before,
gained a fignal victory over the Saracens in the neigh¬
bourhood of Tours ; whence he was generally reput¬
ed the beft commander, and the greateft hero, of his
time. To him, therefore, Gregory fent a folemn em-
baffy, with a great number of relics, earneftly en¬
treating him to take the Romans, and the church, un¬
der his proteftion, and defend them againft the at¬
tempts of Leo. The ambaffadors were received with
extraordinary marks of honour j and a treaty was foon
concluded between them and Charles, wTho engaged to
march into Italy in perfon, at the head of a power¬
ful army, in defence of the Romans and the church,
if they fhould be attacked either by the emperor 01 the
Lombards. On the other hand, the Romans were to
acknowledge him for their proteftor, and confer on
him the honour of the confulfhip, as it had been for¬
merly conferred on Clovis by the emperor Anaftaiius,
after that prince had defeated the Vifigoths. The am¬
baffadors returned from France loaded wnth rich pre-
fents. But Gregory did not long enjoy the fruit of
their negociations j for he died the fame year 73 L
and was fucceeded by Gregory III. in whofe time fome
place the above-mentioned embaffy.
The French nation was at this time juft recovered End of the
from its diftreffed fituation under the defeendants of1 °mt>ard
Clovis } and by the bravery and conduft of Charlesm0narc
Martel, had become the moft powerful kingdom in
the weft. His fucceffor Pepin was no lefs wife and
powerful than his father had been •, and as the ambi¬
tion of the Lombard princes would be fatisfied with
nothing lefs than the entire conqueft of Italy, the
French monarch, Charlemagne, under colour of aflift-
ing the pope, at laft put an end to the empire of
Lombardy, as related under the article France,
N° 21, 22. 33
The Lombards wjere at firft a cruel and barbarous Charatfter,
nation; but divefting themfelves by degrees of their of the
native fiercenefs and barbarity, efpecially after they Lombards,
had embraced the Chriftian religion, they governed
with fuch equity and moderation, that moft other na-
Y 2 tions
Lombart
41
J-och-
Lomond.
L O M [ i
tions envied the happinefs of thofe who lived under
them. Under the government of the Lombards (fays
Paulus Diaconus) no violence was committed, no one
unjuftly difpofTefied of his property, none opprefied
with taxes j theft, robberies, murder, and adultery,
were feldom heard of: every one wrent, without the
Jeaft apprehenfion, wherever he pleafed. Their laws
were fo juft and equitable, that they were retained in
Italy, and obferved there fome ages after their king¬
dom was at an end.—According to Paulus Diaconus,
alfo, their drefs was loofe, and for the moft part of
linen, fuch as the Anglo-Saxons wore, being inter¬
woven with various colours; that their fhoes were
open to the end of their foot, and that they ufed to
button or lace them. From fome ancient paintings,
it appears, that they fhaved the back part of their
heads, but that their hair was long before; their
locks being parted, and laid on each fide their fore-
heads.
LOME ART, or Lombard, Peter, an engraver
of conliderable eminence, who flouriihed about the
year 1660. He was a native of Paris, where he learn¬
ed the art of engraving. It appears that he came to
England before the revolution, becaufe fome of his
plates for Engliih publications are dated prior to that
event. He executed a vaft variety of plates, as well
hiftorical as emblematical ; which, however, were
chiefly for books. But his beft works are portraits ;
and of thefe he produced a confiderable number, wdiich
are efteemed. They are moftly after Vandyck.—He
alfo engraved hiftorical fubjedls, from Pouflin, Raphael,
Annibal Carracci, Guido, and other mafters.
LOMENTACE^E, in Botany, (from lomentum, a
colour ufed by painters), the name of the 33d order
in Linnaeus’s Fragments of a Natural Method, con-
fifting of the following genera, many of which furnith
beautiful tin&ures that are ufed in dyeing, viz. ade-
nanthera, bauhinia, caefalpina, caflia, ceratonia, cercis,
gleditfia, guilandina, haematoxylon, hymenaea, mimofa,
parkinfonia, poinciana, polygama. See Botany.
Loch-LOMOND, a large lake of Dunbarton or
Lennox-lhire in Scotland, of which Mr Pennant gives
the following defcription. “ Loch-Lomond, the laft,
the moft beautiful of the Caledonian lakes. The firft
view of it from Tarbet prefents an extenfive ferpentine
winding amidft lofty hills ; on the north, barren,
black, and rocky, which darken with their Ihade that
contradfted part of the w’ater. On the weft fide, the
mountains are clothed near the bottoms with woods
of oak quite to the water edge ; their fummits lofty,
naked, and craggy. On the eaft fide, the mountains
are equally high; but the tops form a more even ridge
parallel to the lake, except where Ben-Lomond, like
Saul amidft his companions, overtops the reft. The
upper parts were black and barren ; the lower had
great marks of fertility, or at leaft of induftry, for the
yellow corn was finely contrafted with the verdure of
the groves intermixed with it.
“ This eaftern boundary is part of the Grampian
hills, wThich extend from hence through the counties of
Perth, Angus, Mearns, and Aberdeen. The road runs
fometimes through woods 5 at others is expofed and
haked ; in fome, fo fteep as to require the fupport of
a wall; the whole the work of the foldiery : blefied
exchange of inltrumeots of deftru&ion, for thofe that
72 ] L O M
give fafety to the traveller, and a poli!h to the once Loch-
inacceffible native ! Two great headlands covered with
trees feparate the firft fcene from one totally different: Lomo‘!ozof;
the laft is called the Point of Firkin. On palling this
cape an expanfe of water burfts at once on your eye,
varied with all the fofter beauties of nature. Imme¬
diately beneath is a flat covered with wood and corn :
beyond, the headlands ftretch far into the water, and
confift of gentle rifings ; many have their furfaces co¬
vered with wood, others adorned with trees loofely
fcattered either over a fine verdure or the purple bloom
of the heath. Numbers of iflands are difperfed over
the lake, of the fame elevated form as the little capes,
and wooded in the fame manner ; others- juft peep a-
bove the furface, and are tufted with trees j and num¬
bers are fo difpofed as to form magnificent viftos be¬
tween.
“ Oppofite Lufs, at a fmall diftance from ihore, is a
mountainous ifle almoft covered with wood ; it is near
half a mile long, and has a moft fine effeft. I could
not count the number of iflands, but was told there
are 28 ; the largeft two miles long, and ftocked with
deer.
“ The length of this charming lake is 24 miles j
its greateft breadth 8 ; its greateft depth, which is be¬
tween the point of Firkin and Benlomond, is 1 20 fa-
thonis. Befides the fifti common to the lochs are gui-
niads, called here poans.
“ The furface of Loch-lomond has for feveral years
paft been obferved gradually to increafe, and invade the
adjacent fliore: and there is reafon to fuppofe that
churches, houfes, and other buildings, have been loft
in the water. Near Lufs is a large heap of ftones at
a diftance from the ftiore, known by the name of the
old church j and about a mile to the fouth of that, in
the middle of a large bay, between Camftraddan and
the ifle Inch-tavanack, is another heap, faid to have
been the ruins of a houfe. To confirm this, it is
evident by a paffage in Camden’s Atlas Britannica,
that an ifland, exiiling in his time, is now loft 5 for
he fpeaks of the ifle of Camftraddan, placed between
the lands of the fame name and Inch-tavanack, in
which, adds he, was an houfe and orchard. Befides
this proof, large trees wfith their branches ftill ad¬
hering are frequently found in the mud near the ftiore,
overwhelmed in former times by the increafe of water.
This is fuppofed to be occafioned by the vaft quanti¬
ties of ftone and gravel that are continually brought
down by the mountain rivers, and by the falls of the
banks of the Leven ; the firft filling the bed of the
lake, the laft impeding its difcharge through the bed
of the river.”
LOMONOZOF, a celebrated Ruflian poet, the
great refiner of his native tongue, was the fon of a
dealer in fifti at Kolmogori : he was born in 1711, and
was fortunately taught to read 5 a rare circumftance
at that time for a perfon of his ftation in Ruflia. His
natural genius for poetry was firft kindled by the pe-
rufal of the Song of Solomon, done into verfe by Po-
lotlki, whofe rude compofitions, perhaps fcarcely fu-
perior to our verfion of the pfalms by Sternhold and
Hopkins, infpired him with fuch an irrefiftible paflion
for the mufes, that he fled from his father, who was
defifous of compelling him to marry, and took refuge
in the Kaikonofpalki monaftery at Mofcovv y there he
had
L O M
Lomonozof. had an opportunity of indulging his tafte for letters,
' y   and of ftudying the Greek and Latin languages. In
this feminary he made fo confiderable progrefs in po¬
lite literature, as to be noticed and employed by the
Imperial Academy of Sciences. In 1736 he was fent
at the expence of that fociety, to the univerfity of
Marpurg in Heffe Caffel, where he became a fcholar
of the celebrated Chriftian Wolf, under whom he ftudi-
ed univerfal grammar, rhetoric, and philofophy. He
continued at Marpurg four years, during which time
he applied himfelf with indefatigable diligence to che-
miftry, which he afterwards purfued with Hill greater
fuccefs under the famous Henckel at Frey berg in
Saxony. In 1741 he returned into Ruflia 5 was cho-
fen in 1742 adjunft to the Imperial Academy } and in
the enfuing year member of that fociety and profeflbr
of chemiftry. In 1760 he was appointed infpeftor of
the feminary then annexed to the academy ; in 1764
he was gratified by the late emprefs wdth the title of
counfellor of Hate } and died April 4th that year, in
the 54th year of his age. Lomonozof excelled in va¬
rious kinds of compofition : but his chief merit, by
which he bears the firft rank among the Ruffian writ¬
ers, is derived from his poetical compofitions, the
fineft of which are his odes. The firft wTas written in
1739, while he ftudied in Germany, upon the taking
of Kotfchin, a fortrefs in Grim Tartary, by Marffial
Munich. The odes of Lomonozof are greatly ad¬
mired for originality of invention, fublimity ot fenti-
ment, and energy of language *, and compenfate for the
turgid ftyle which, in fome inftances, has been im¬
puted to them, by that fpirit and fire which are the
principal charafteriftics in this fpecies of compofition.
Pindar was his great model •, and if wTe may give cre¬
dit to a perfon well verfed in the Ruffian tongue, he
has fucceeded in this daring attempt to imitate the
Theban bard, without incurring the cenfure of Ho¬
race. In this, as well as feveral other fpecies of com¬
pofition, he enriched his native language with various
kinds of metre, and feems to have merited the appel¬
lation beftowed upon him of the Father of Rujjian Poe¬
try. A brief recapitulation of the principal works of
Lomonozof, which were printed in three volumes oc¬
tavo, will ferve to ftiow the verfatility of his genius,
and his extenfive knowledge in various branches of li¬
terature. The firft volume, befides a Preface on the
advantages derived to the Ruffian tongue from the ec-
clefiaftical writings, contains ten facred and nineteen
panegyric odes, and feveral occafional pieces of poetry.
The fecond comprifes An Eifay in Profe on the Rules
for Ruffian Poetry ; Tranflation of a German Ode j
Idylls •, Tamira and Selim, a tragedy } Demophoon, a
tragedy •, Poetical Epiftle on the Utility of Glafs •, two
cantos of an epic poem, entitled, Peter the Great •, A
Congratulatory Copy of Verfes •, An Ode ; JTranfiation
of Baptift Rouffeau’s Ode Sur le Bonheur ; Heads of a
Courfe of Leftures on Natural Philofophy j certain
paflages tranflated in verfe and profe, according to the
original, from Cicero, Erafmus, Lucian, ./Elian, Am-
nranus Marcellinus, Quintus Curtius, Homer, Virgil,
Martial, Ovid, Horace, and Seneca, which Ruffian
tranflations were brought as examples in his Le&ures
upon Rhetoric ; laftly, Defcription of the Comet which
appeared in 1744. The third volume confitls chiefly
of Speeches and Treatifes read before the Academy }
LON
Panegyric on the Emprefs Elizabeth j on Peter the London. ,
Great; Treatife on the Advantages of Chemiftry ; on
the Phenomena of the Air occafioned by the Eleflri-
cal Fire, with a Latin tranflation of the fame j on the
Origin of Light as a new Theory of Colours j Me¬
thods to determine with precifion the Courfe of a Veflel $
on the origin of Metals by the means of Earthquakes j
Latin Dilfertation on Solidity and Fluidity j on the
Tranfit of Venus in 1761, with a German tranflation.
Befides thefe various fubjects, Lomonozof made no in-
confiderable figure in hiftory, having publilhed two
fmall works relative to that of his own country. The
firft, ftyled Annals of the Ruffian Sovereigns, is a fliort
chronology of the Ruffian monarchs •, and the fecond
is, the Ancient Hiffory of Ruflia, from the Origin of
that Nation to the Death of the Great Duke Yaro-
flaf I. in 1054 ; a performance of great merit, as it il-
luft rates the moft difficult and obfcure period in the
annals of this country.
LONDON, a large city of Middlefex in England,
the metropolis of Great Britain, and one of the moft
wealthy and populous cities in the world, is fituated
on the river Thames, in 51° 31' north latitude, 400
miles fouth of Edinburgh, and 270 fouth-eaft of Dub¬
lin j 180 miles weft of Amfterdam, 210 north-weft of
Paris, 500 fouth-weft of Copenhagen, 600 north-weft
of Vienna, 790 fouth-weft of Stockholm, 800 north-eaft
of Madrid, 820 north-weft of Rome, 850 north-eaft of
Lilbon, 1360 north-weft of Conftantinople, and 1414
fouth-weft of Mofcow. ,
This city w^as by the Romans firft called Londinium its different;
ox Lundinum, as we find it in Tacitus, Ptolemy, An-names,
toninus, and Ammianus. That name was afterwards
changed into Augufla ; in honour, as fome fay, of He¬
lena Augufta, the mother of Conftantine the Great ;
while others think it more probable that it had this
name from the fecond legion, whofe peculiar title was
Augufa; and fome imagine that the honourable ap¬
pellation of Augufa was conferred upon this city by
the Romans, as upon other principal cities of their em¬
pire, on account of its being grown up to be the ca¬
pital of their Britilh province. How long the name
of Augufa prevailed, is not now certainly known; but
after the eftabliffiment of the Saxons w'e find no more
mention of Augufta. It wras then called Caer Lun-
dain, Lundoun Bi/rig, Lunden Ceafer, Lunden-wyey
Lundenne, Lunden-berh or Lundenburg ; fince the con-
queft the records call it Londinia, Lundonia, Londine,
Londres; and, for feveral ages part, it has been call¬
ed London, a manifeft corruption from Tacitus’s Lon-
dinium. The moft probable derivation of thefe names
appears to be, either from the Britiftr words Ihong, “ a
Ihip,” and din, “ a town,” i. e. a town or harbour for
(hips } or from Lhn “ a lake,” i. e. Lhn din, “ the
town upon the lake,” the Surry fide being fuppofed,
upon very probable grounds, to have been anciently a
great expanfe of water.
Londinium, however, was not the primitive name of When
this famous place, which exifted before the invafion of Landed,
the Romans j being, at the time of Csefar’s arrival in
the ifland, the capital of the Trinobantes or Trinou-
antes. The name of this nation, as appears from Bax¬
ter’s Britifh Gloffary *, was derived from the three * p> ^
following Britifti words, tn, nou, hant, which fignify
the “ inhabitants of the new city.” This name, it is
fuppofed, ,
[ 173 1
I.onclon.
Henry's
Hill vol.
p. 171.
3
When ta¬
ken poffef-
iion of by
the Ro-
LON [ 1
fuppofed, might have been given them by their neigh¬
bours, on account of their having newly come from
the continent into Britain, and having there founded
a city called tri-now, or the “ new city 5” the mod an¬
cient name of the renowned metropolis of Britain. The
Trinobantes had come fo lately from Belgium, that
they feem fcarcely to have been firmly eifablilhed in
Britain at the time of the firft Roman invafion : For
their new city, which foon after became fo famous, was
then fo inconfiderable, that it is not mentioned by Cae-
far, though he mull have been within fight of the place
where it was fituated. His filence about this place, in¬
deed, is brought as a proof that he did not crofs the
1 hames 5 while Norden by the jirmijjima civitas of the
irinobantes underftands the city in queftion, the Tri¬
nobantes themfelves having been among the firft of the
Britilh ftates who fubmitted to that conqueror.
By Ptolemy, and fome other ancient writers of good
authority, indeed, Londinium is placed in Cantium,
or Cent, on the fouth fide of the Thames 5 and it is
the opinion of fome moderns, that the Romans pro¬
bably had a ftation there, to fecure their conquells on
that fide of the river, before they reduced the Trino¬
bantes. The place fixed upon for this ftation is St
George’s Fields, a large plat of ground fituated be¬
tween Lambeth and Southwark, wrhere many Roman
coins, bricks, and checquered pavements, have been
found. Three Roman ways from Kent, Surry, and
Middlefex, interfered each other in this place j this
therefore is fuppofed to be the original Londinium,
which it is thought became negledled after the Ro¬
mans reduced the Trinobantes, and fettled on the other
fide of the Thames; and the name w7as transferred to
the new city.
I he fituation of this city, as Mr Pennant obferves,
was juft fuch as the people would fele£l; according to
the rule eftablilhed among the Britons. An immenfe
foreft originally extended to the river fide, and even as
late as the reign of Henry II. covered the northern
neighbourhood of the city, and was filled wdth various
ipecies of beafts of chafe. It was defended naturally
by folfes ; one formed by the creek which run along
1 leet-ditch, the other afterwards known by that of
W allbrook j the fouth fide was guarded by the Thames;
the north they might think fufficiently protected by
the adjacent foreft.
I he Romans poffefled themfelves of London, on
their fecond invafion in the reign of Claudius, about
105 years after their firft under Caefar. They had be¬
gun with Camelodunum, the prefent Maldon in Effex;
and having taken it, planted there a colony confiding
of veterans of the 14th legion. London and Verulam
were next taken poffeflion of about one and the fame
time. Camelodunum w:as made a colonia or place go¬
verned entirely by Roman laws and cuftoms ; Verulam
(on the fite of which St Alban’s now Hands), a muni-
cipium, in which the natives wrere honouied w-ith the
privileges of Roman citizens, and enjoyed their own
laws and conftitutions ; and Londinium only a preefec-
tura, the inhabitants, a mixture of Romans and Britons,
being fuffered to enjoy no more than the name of citi¬
zens of Rome, being governed by praefedls fent annu¬
ally from thence, without having either their owm law^s
•or magiftrates. “ It was even then of fuch concourfe
(fays Mr Pennant), and fuch vaft trade, that the wife
74 ] LON
conquerors did not think fit to truft the inhabitants London,
with the fame privileges as other places of which they v*—^
had lefs reafon to be jealous.” But others obferve, that
this is a miftake; and that the Romans, in order to
fecure their conqueft, and to gain the affedions of thofe
Britons who had already fubmitted to their authority,
made London equally a municipium or free city with
Verulamium, as may be feen by referring to Aulus
Gellius, lib. xvi. c. 13. and to Spanhem. orbis Roman,
tom ij. p. 37, 38.
It is difficult to fay what w^ere the particular articles Anci™t
of commerce exported from and imported into the commerce
port of London at this period. The imports and ex-of London,
ports of the ifland in general wre know : Strabo lays,
“ Britain produceth corn, cattle, gold, filver, iron j
befides which, Ikins, flaves, and dogs, naturally excel¬
lent hunters, are exported from that iiland.” It is
probable that the two firft and three laft articles were
exported from London ; and perhaps, too, the gagates
or jet-ftone mentioned by Solinus as one of the pro-
duftions of Britain, together with horfes, were export¬
ed from thence. The imports were at firft fait, earthen
ware, and works in brafs, poliffied bits of bones emu¬
lating ivory, horfe collars, toys of amber, glaffes, and
other articles of the fame material.
In the reign of Nero, as Tacitus informs us, Lon¬
don was become a city highly famous for the great
conflux of merchants, her extenfive commerce, and
plenty of all things. No few'er than feven of the four¬
teen itinera of Antoninus begin or end at Lon¬
don ; which tends to corroborate the many proofs
which might be adduced, that this city was the capital
of Britain in the Roman times.
At firft London had no w^alls or other fortifications wTien fHt
to defend it, and was therefore expofed to the attacks furrounded
of every enemy : and thus it fuffered feverely about the with walls,
year 64, being burnt by the Britons under Boadicea,
and all the inhabitants maffacred. But it w!as foon
reftored by the Romans ; and increafed fo much, that
in the reign of the emperor Severus it is called by He-
rodian a great and wealthy city. It continued, however,
in a defencelefs ft ate for more than a century after this
laft period ; when at laft a w7all of hewn ftone and Bri-
tifti bricks wras erefted round it.
London at this time extended in length from Lud-
gate-hill to a fpot a little beyond the Tower. The
breadth was not half equal to the length, and at each
end grew confiderably narrower. Maitland aferibes
the building of the walls to Theodofius governor of
Britain in 369. Dr Woodward, with more probabi¬
lity, fuppofes them to have been founded under the
aufpices of Conftantine the Great ; and this feems to
be confirmed by the numbers of coins of that empe¬
ror’s mother Helena, which have been difeovered un¬
der them, placed there by him in compliment to her.
The fame emperor made it a biffiop’s fee ; for it ap¬
pears that the bilhops of London and York, and ano¬
ther Englilh bifhop, were at the council of Arles in the
year 314: he alfo fettled a mint in it, as is plain from 6
fome of his coins. The ancient courfe of the wrall Their an-
was as follows : It began with a fort near the prefent ^
fite of the Tower, was continued along the Minories, * ’
and the back of Houndfditch, acrofs Biihopfgate-
ftreet, in a ftraight line by London-wall to Cripple-
gate ; then returned fouthward
by Crowder’s Well
alley
London.
LON [ 1
alley (where feveral remnants of lofty towers wrere
> lately to be feen), to Alderfgate, thence along the
back of Bull-and-Mouth-llreet to Newgate, and again
along the back of the houfes in the Old Bailey to
Ludgate ; foon after which, it probably finifhed w*ith
another fort, where the houfe, late the king’s print¬
ing houfe, in Black Friars, now Hands : from hence
another wall ran near the river fide, along Thames-
ftreet, quite to the fort on the eaftern extremity. The
walls were three miles a hundred and fixty-five feet in
circumference, guarded at proper diftances on the land
fide wfith fifteen lofty towers j fome of them were re¬
maining within thefe few years, and poflibly may ftill.
Maitland mentions one twenty-fix feet high, near Gra¬
vel-lane, on the wTeft fide of Houndfditch j another,
about eighty paces fouth-eaft towards Aldgate •, and
the bafes of another, fupporting a modern houfe, at
the lower end of the ftreet called the Vinegar yard,
fouth of Aldgate. The walls, when perfect, are fup-
pofed to have been twenty-two feet high, the tow'ers
forty. Thefe, wfith the remnants of the wTall, proved
the Roman ftruflure, by the titles and difpofition of
the mafonry. London-wall, near Moorfields, is now
the moft entire part left of that ancient precinft. The
gates w'hich received the great military roads, were
four. The Praetorian way, the Saxon Watling-ftreet,
pailed under one, on the fite of the late Newgate j
veftiges having been difeovered of the road in digging
above Holburn-bridge : it turned down to Dowgate,
or more properly Dwr-gate or Water-gate, w’here
there was a trajeflus or ferry, to join it to the Wat¬
ling-ftreet, wTich was continued to Dover. The Her-
min-ftreet paffed under Cripplegate j and a vicinal wray
w’ent under Aldgate by Bethnal-green, towards Old-
ford, a pafs over the river Lee to Duroleiton, the
modern Leiton in Effex.
After the Romans deferred Britain, a new and fierce
e fucceeded. The Saxons, under their leaders
the Saxons. Hengift and Horfa, landed in 448, having been invit¬
ed over by the provincials as auxiliaries againft the
Scots and Pidfs ; but quarrelling with their friends,
they found means to eftablilh themfelves in the ifland,
and in procefs of time entirely fubdued them, as re¬
lated under the article England, N° 31—44. Lon¬
don fell into the hands of thofe invaders about the
year 457 5 and became the chief city of the Saxon
kingdom in Eftex. It fuffered much in the wars car¬
ried on between the Britons and Saxons: but it foon
recovered ; fo that Bede calls it a princely mart-town,
under the government of a chief magiftrate, whofe
title of portgf-ave, or portreve, (for we find him called
by both names), conveys a grand, idea of the mer¬
cantile ftate of London in thofe early ages, that re¬
quired a governor or guardian of the port. During
the civil wars of the Saxons with each other, the
Londoners had always the addrefs to keep themfelves
neuter *, and about the year 819, when all the feven
Saxon kingdoms fell under the pow7er of Egbert, Lon¬
don became the metropolis of England, which it has
ever fince continued.
During the invafions of the Danes, London fuffered
greatly. Ip 849, thefe invaders entered the Thames
with 2co {hips, plundered and burnt the city, and maf-
facred the inhabitants •, and two years after they re¬
turned with a fleet of 350 fail, fully determined to de-
7
London
fubmits to
Plundered
by the
Danes.
75 1 LON
ftroy every thing that had efcaped their barbarity in London,
the former expedition. At this time, however, they ~v
w'ere difappointed ; moft of their troops being cut in
pieces by King Ethelwolf and his fon Athelbald 5 yet
Juch was the deftruflion made by thofe barbarians at
London, that it fuffered more from thefe tw’O incur-
fions than ever it had done before. 9
In the reign of King Alfred the Great, London be-Recovers
gan to recover from its former ruinous ftate. He re-
built its walls, drove out the Danifh inhabitants w'ho Qreat,
had fettled there, reftored the city to its former liberties
and beauty, and committed the care of it to his fon-
in-lawr, Ethelred duke of Mercia, in hopes that this
might always be a place of fecure retreat within its
ftrong walls, whatever might happen from a foreign or
domeftic enemy. In 893, however, he had the mor- IO
tification to fee his capital totally reduced to afhes by Reduced
an accidental fire, which could not be extinguiflied, as to alhes.
the houfes at that time w7ere all built of wood. The
walls, however, being conftrufted of incombuftible ma¬
terials, continued to afford the fame protection as be¬
fore ; the houfes were quickly rebuilt, and the city di¬
vided into wards and precinCts, for its better order and
government. This king alfo inftituted the office of „
{heriff, the nature of which office made it neceffary tolls govern-
have it alfo in London ; fo that here we have the glim- ment fet-
merings of the order of magiftrates afterwards fettled tie^‘
in the city of London : in the perfon of the portreve,
or portgrave, or governor of the city, as fupreme ma¬
giftrate } in the Iheriff, and in the officer or fubordi-
nate magiftrate by what name foever then diftinguiftied,
which, being placed at the head of each ward or pre-
cin£i, w7ere analogous to the more modern title of al¬
dermen and common-council men. r,
Alfred having fettled the affairs of England in the Erick and
moft: prudent manner, direfted his attention to the or- (tone
namenting, as much as poftible, the city of London, houfes firft
For this purpofe, he fpirited up the Englilh. to an emu-ere<^e^‘
lation in building their houfes of ftronger and more
durable materials than formerly. At that time their
houfes were moftly of wood ; and an houfe built of
any other materials was looked upon as a kind of won¬
der. But Alfred having begun to raife his palaces of
ftone and brick, the opulent Londoners, and the no¬
bility refident in and about London, followed the ex¬
ample, though the cuftom did not come into general
ufe till fome ages after. ^
In 1015, a foreign enemy again appeared before Befieged by
London. Canute king of Denmark having invaded Canute,
and plundered the counties of Dorfet, Somerfet, and
Wilts, failed up the Thames w7ith 200 {hips, and laid
fiege to the city. The citizens continued faithful, nct-
withftanding the defedfion of the greateft part of the
kingdom ; and made fuch a brave refiftance, that Ca¬
nute thought fit to withdraw his army, leaving only
his fleet to blockade the city by water, that when he
found a fair opportunity he might renew the fiege with
better fuccefs. At laft, how7everj being defeated in
feveral battles by Edmund Ironfide, he was obliged
to call off his {hips to cover his own army in cafe of
neceffity. In the compromife, however, which was
afterwards made between Edmund and Canute, the city
of London w7as given to the latter, and owned him for
its lawful fovereign. We have a ftrong proof of the
opulence of London even at this time, from the tax laid
upon;
London.
H
Sends re-
prefenta-
tives to par¬
liament.
IS
Suffers
greatly by
"fires, hurri¬
canes, &c.
t6
Monftrous
licentiouf-
nefs of the
iN organs.
LON [ i
upon it by Canute in order to pay his artny j this be¬
ing no lefs than 10,500!. while the reft of the nation
was at the fame time taxed only at 72,000!.
In 1046, we have the firft inftance of the London¬
ers fending reprefentatives to parliament. This hap¬
pened on fettling the fucceflion to the throne after Ca¬
nute’s death. The Englilh in general declared for Ed¬
ward fon of King Ethelred ; or, if that could not be
carried, for Hardicanute, fon of Canute by Queen
Emma, and then abfent on a tour to Denmark. The
city of London efpoufed the claim and intereft of Ha¬
rold Harefoot, fon alfo of Canute, by Queen Elgiva
of Northampton. Edward’s party foon declined *, and
the Londoners agreed, for the peace of the realm, that
the two brothers ftiould divide the kingdom between
them ; but as Hardicanute did not return in proper
time to England, a voittena-gemote rvas held at Ox¬
ford, where Earl Leofric, and moft of the thanes on
the north of the Thames, with the pilots of London,
chofe Harold for their king. Here, by pilots we are
to underftand the directors, magiftrates, or leading
men of the city : and this manifeftly (hows, that Lon¬
don was then of fuch confequence, that no important
national affair was tranfafled without the confent of
the inhabitants', for the Saxon annals affure us, that
none were admitted into this affembly of election but
the nobility and the pilots of London.
On the invafion of the Normans under William I.
London fubmitted as well as the reft of the kingdom $
and received two charters from that prince, confirm¬
ing all the privileges they had under the Saxon kings,
and adding feveral new ones. But w’hile the citizens
were promifing themfelves all manner of feeurity and
tranquillity under the new government, it was almoft
entirely reduced to allies by an accidental fire in 1077.
It had" fcarce recovered from this calamity, when it
was vilited by another of the fame kind in 1086, wdiich
began at Ludgate and deftroyed the belt and moft
opulent part of the city ', confuming, among other build¬
ings, the cathedral of St Paul’s j wdiich, however, was
foon rebuilt more magnificently than before. Under
the reign of William Rufus, London fuffered confider-
ably by fires, hurricanes, and inundations, and feems
to have been depreffed by the tyranny of that prince j
but Henry I. granted large immunities to the city,
which again revived its trade, and was favourable to
the progrefs of the arts. The king, howTever, ftill re¬
tained the privilege of appointing the portreve, or
chief magiftrate •, but the immunities granted to the
Londoners fecured their affe&ions, and tended much
to fecure him on the throne. At the fame time, there
was fuch a plenty of all kinds of provifions, that as
much corn w’as fold for is. as would fuffice 100 people
for a day j 4d. would purchafe as much hay and corn
as would maintain 20 horfes for a day \ and a fheep
could be bought for a groat.
Henry thought proper alfo to check the licentious
behaviour of the Normans, which, by the favour
{bowed them under the tw’O Williams, bad carried
them into the moft barbarous praftices. Thofe who
followed William Rufus in his excurfions, haraffed
and plundered the country at difcretion. Many of
them were fo extravagant in their barbarity, that what
they could not eat or drink in their quarters, they ei¬
ther obliged the people to carry to market and fell
3
76 ] LON
for their ufe, or elfe they would throw it into the fire :
and, at their going off, they frequently waftied their ^
horfes heels with the drink, and ftaved the calks con¬
taining the remainder. King Henry refolved to put
a flop to thefe exceffes and favage cuftoms; and there¬
fore published a proclamation at London, commanding
that thenceforward all perfons who ftiould be convidled
of inch barbarities fttould have their eyes pulled out,
or their hands or feet cut off, as the minifters of juftice
fhould think fit. This effe&ually checked the info-
lence of the Normans, and the city continued to flou-
rilh throughout the reigns of Henry I. and Stephen.
The attachment of the citizens to Stephen, however,
was a crime which never could be forgiven by Henry II.
and, of confequence, he made them fenfible of his dif-
pleafure, by making frequent demands of money from
them. About this time, indeed, the Londoners were
London.
*7
arrived at fuch a pitch of licentioufnefs, that their pro-Londoners,
fperity feemed a curfe rather than a bleffmg. The
fons of the moft eminent and wealthy citizens entered
into a confederacy to commit burglaries, and to rob
and murder all that came in their way in the night¬
time. The king took an opportunity from thefe irre¬
gularities to enrich himfelf. He demanded feveral
loans and free gifts ; till at laft the Londoners,^ to
prevent further inquiries into their condufr, paid into
the exchequer 5000I. in three years, i hefe diiorders,
however, w’ere at laft flopped by the execution of John
Senex j who, though a very rich and reputable citizen,
had engaged in thele enterprifes. He offered 5001b.
weight of lilver, a prodigious fum in thofe days, for
his pardon, but was refufed. The king, however, ftill
continued to drain the citizens of their money by free
gifts} and at laft fined every feparate guild, fraternity,
or company, that had prefumed to a£l as bodies cor¬
porate without the royal letters-patent.
On the death of Henry II. the title of the firft ma¬
giftrate of London was changed from portgreve to that
of bailiff; and in 1189 claimed and afted in the office
of the chief butler at the coronation of Richard I. The office
1191 this monarch permitted the bailiff, named Henrymay0r
Fit%-Alwine, to affume the title of mayor. For, in when firft.
1192, we find certain orders of the mayor and alder- inftituted.
men to prevent fires 5 whereby it was ordained, that
“ all houfes thereafter to be ereaed in London and
the liberties thereof, fhould be built ot ftone, with
party-walls of the lame j and covered eitner with flates
or tiles, to prevent thofe dreadful calamities by fire,
which were frequently and chiefly occafioned by houfes
built of wTood, and thatched wuth draw or reeds.”
And for this purpofe, it was alfo provided by the dif-
creeter men of the city, “ that 12 aldermen of the
city flrould be chofen in full huttings, and there fvvorn
to affift the mayor in appeafing contentions that might
arife among neighbours in the city upon enclolure be¬
twixt land and land, and to regulate the dimenfions ©f
party-walls, which were to be of ftone, 16 feet high
and three feet thick } and to give direaions about
girders, windows, gutters, and wells.” Such confi¬
dence alfo did Richard put in the wifdom and faith-
fulnefs of the city of London, that when it was re¬
folved to fix a ftandard for weights and meafures for
the whole realm, his maiefty committed the execution
thereof to the ffieriffs of London and Middlefex, whom
he commanded to provide meafures, gallons, iron rods,
and
London.
19
Favours
granted to
the city by
King John,
London op-
prefled by
Henry III.
LON [ 1
and weights, for ilandards, to be fent to the feveral
counties of England. This happened in 1198, at
which time corn was advanced to the enormous price
of 18s. 4d. per quarter.
The city of London was much favoured by King
John, who granted them three charters foon after his
acceflion. 'Fhe firft was a recital and confirmation of
thofe granted by Henry I. and II. with the farther
privilege oi being free from toll and every other duty
or cuftom in his majefty’s foreign dominions ; for
which they paid the fum of 3000 merks. The fecond
was a confirmation of one granted by King Richard.
By this the citizens of London had the jurifdidlion
and confervancy of the river Thames; with a claufe to
extend that jurifdidtion, and the powers therewith
granted, to the river Medway •, and with another
claufe to enable the faid city, as confervators of the
rivers Thames .and Medway, to infiidt a penalty of 10I.
upon any perfon that Ihould prefume to eredt a wear
in either of thefe rivers. The third charter contains
a fee-farm-rent of the fheriff’wicks of London and
Middlefex at the ancient rent, of which they had been
deprived by Queen Maud j granting them alfo the ad¬
ditional power of choofing their own fheriffs. This
charter w'as given by way of conveyance from the
crown to the citizens for a valuable confideration, by
which the fheriffwick became their freehold 5 and this
is the firft covenant or conveyance we find on record
with the legal terms of to have and to hold, which are
at this time accounted an effential part in all convey¬
ances of property.
During the reign of Henry III. the city of London
was opprefled in many different wrays. In 1218, he
exadfed a fine of 40 marks for felling a fort of cloth
not two yards within the lifts ; and a 15th of the citi¬
zens perfonal eftates for the enjoyment of their ancient
rights and privileges. In 1221, he commanded by
proclamation all the foreign merchants to depart the
city, which drew’ 30 marks from the Hanfeatic com¬
pany of the Steelyard, to have feifin of their guild or
hall in Thames-ftreet. But it wras the wreftling match
at St Giles’s in the fields that brought on their great-
eft burden. In the year 1221, on St James’s day,
the citizens of London having carried off the vidlory
from the people of Weftminfter and other neighbour¬
ing villages, the fteward of the abbot of Weftminfter,
meditating revenge againft the Londoners, propofed
another wuellling match with them, and gave a ram for
the prize. The citizens reforted to the place at the
time appointed ; but were unexpedledly affaulted by a
great number of armed men, who killed and wounded
many, and difperfed the reft. This raifed a great
commotion in the city. The populace breathed
revenge \ and, by the inftigation of Conftantine Fitz-
Arnulph, a great favourer of the French party during
the troubles in King John’s reign, they proceeded to
eftminfter, and pulled dowm the houfes both of the
ftew'ard and abbot. Hearing afterwards that the ab¬
bot was come into the city with his complaint to
I hilip d Aubney the king’s counfel, they purfued him,
beat his fervants cruelly, took away 1 2 of his horfes,
and would have murdered himfelf, had he not efcaped
by a back-door. Upon this tumult, Hubert de Bury,
then chief judiciary, fummoned the mayor and many of
the principal citizens to attend him in the tower of
Vox.. XII. Part I.
77 ] L O N
London ; and inquiring for the authors of the riot, London.
Conftantine, the ringleader boldly anfwered, that “ he
wras one j that they had done no more than they
ought ; and that they were refolved to avow what
they had done, let the confequence be what it would.”
In this he was feconded by his nephew and che Geof¬
frey : but the jufticiary, having difmifled all the reft,
detained thefe three, and ordered them to be hang¬
ed next morning, though Conftantine offered 15,000
marks for his pardon. *-Hubert then coming into the <
city with a ftrong guard, caufed the hands and feet of
moft of the principal rioters he could feize to be cut
off: all which was executed without any legal pro¬
ceedings or form of trial. After thefe arbitrary cruel¬
ties, he degraded the mayor and all the magiftrates;
placed a cujlos over the city, and obliged 30 perfons
of his own choofing to become fecurities for the good
behaviour 4 the whole city. Several thoufand marks
were alfo exadled by the king, before he would confent
to a reconciliation.
^ This arbitrary condudl alarmed the whole nation.
The parliament of 1224 began to be uneafy for them-
felves, and addrefled his majefty that he would be plea!-
ed to confirm the charter of liberties which he had
fworn to obferve ; and the confequence of this applica¬
tion was a confirmation of the magna charta in the full
parliament at Weftminfter in the year 1225. At this
time alfo, the rights and privileges of the citizens
w^ere confirmed. They were exempted from profecu-
tion for burels, i. e. lifted cloth ; and were granted the
right of having a common feal. The neceflitous cir-
cumftances of this monarch, however, made him often
exadl money arbitrarily as long as he lived.
Under the fucceeding reigns, as the liberty of the peo¬
ple in general, was augmented, fo the liberty, opulence,
and power of the citizens of London increafed, until they
became a kind of balance to the power of the crown
itfelf, which in fome meafure they ftill continue to be.
Riots indeed, for which they generally fuffered, were by
no means unfrequent ; the city often fuffered by fires
and plagues. Nothing, however, happened which ma¬
terially affedted the weliare of the city, till the reign of 21
Charles II. in 1665.—This year London was ravaged ^rea^u^
by the moft violent plague ever known in Britain. plaSue in
The whole fummer had been remarkably ftill and1655'
warm, fo that the weather was fometimes fuffocatihg
even to people in perfeft health ; and by this unufual
heat and fultry atmofphere, people were undoubtedly
prepared for receiving the infe&ion, which appeared
with violence in the months of July, Auguft, and
September. A violent plague had raged in Holland
m the year 1663 ; on which account the importation
of merchandife from that country wras prohibited by
the Britifti legiflature in 1644. Notwithftanding this
prohibition, however, it feems the plague had atfuallv
been imported •, for in the clofe of the year 1664, two
or three perfons died fuddenly in Weftminfter, wuth
marks of the plague on their bodies. Some of their
neighbours, terrified at the thoughts of their danger,
removed into the city 5 but their removal proved too
ate 01 themfelves, and fatal to thofe amon^ whom,
they came to refide. They foon died of the plague 5
and communicated the infection to fo many, others),
that it became impoftible to extinguifh the feeds of it,
by feparating thofe that were infeifted from fuch as
z
were
LON t 178 ] LON
London, were not. It was confined, however, through a hard
frofty winter, till the middle of February, when it
again appeared in the parilh of St Giles’s, to which it
had been originally brought; and, after another long
reft till April, ftiowed its malignant force afrelh, as
foon as the warmth of the fpring gave it opportunity.
 At firft, it took off one here and there, without any
certain proof of their having infected each other, and
houfes began to be ftiut up, with a defign to prevent
•its fpreading. But it was now too late *, the infe&ion
gained ground every day, and the {hutting up of
houfes only made the difeafe fpread wider. People,
afraid of being ftiut up, and fequeftered from all commu¬
nication -with fociety, concealed their illnefs, or found
means to efcape from their places of confinement j
while numbers expired in the greateft torments, defti-
tute of every afliftance ; and many died both of the
plague and other difeafes, who would in all probabi¬
lity have recovered, had they been allowed their
liberty, with proper exercife and air.—A houfe was
fhut up on account of a maid-fervant, who had only
fpots, and not the gangrenous plague-blotches, upon
her, fo that her diftemper was probably a petechial
fever. She recovered 5 but the people of the houfe
obtained no liberty to ftir, either for air or exercife, for
40 days. The bad air, fear, anger, and vexation, atT
tending this injurious treatment, caft the miftrefs of
the family into a fever. The vifitors appointed to
fearch the houfe, faid it was the plague, though the
phyficians were of a different opinion : the family,
however, were obliged to begin their quarantine anew
though it had been almoft expired before ; and this
fecond confinement affefted them fo much, that moft
of the family fell fick, fome of one diftemper and fome
of another. Every illnefs that appeared in the family
produced a frefti prolongation of their confinement ;
till at laft the plague was a&ually brought in by fome
of thofe who came to inquire into the health of the
family, and almoft every perfon in the houfe died.—
Many examples of a fimilar kind happened, and this
was one of the worft confluences of flmtting up
houfes. All means of putting a ftop to the infe&ion
were evidently ineffeflual. Multitudes fled into the
country ; many merchants, owners of {hips, &c. fhut
themfelves up, on board their veffels, being fupplied
■with provifions from Greenwich, Woolwich, and lingle
farm houfes on the Kentiftr fide. Here, however,
they were fafe •, for the infeftion never reached below
Deptford, though the people went frequently on Ihore
to the country towns, villages, and farm houfes, to
buy freflh provifions. As the violence of the plague
increafed, the fhips which had families on board re¬
moved farther off; fome went quite out to fea, and
then put into fuch harbours and roads as they could
beft get at.
In the mean time, the diftemper made the moft ra¬
pid advances within the city. In the laft week of
July, the number of burials amounted to 2010 ; but
the firft week of Auguft it rote to 3817 ; thence to
3880 ; then to 4237 ; the next week, to 6102 ; and at
laft to 7000 and 8000 weekly. In the laft week of
September, however, the fury of the difeafe began
abate; though vaft numbers were fick, yet the
number of burials decreafed from 7155 to 5538 ; the
ne^t week there was a farther decreafe to 4920, then
to 4327, next to 2665, then to 1421, and the next ^ London. ,
week to 103 t. v
All this while, the poor people had been reduced
to the greateft; diftreffes, by reafon of the ftagnation
of trade, and the fickneffes to which they w'ere pe¬
culiarly liable on account of their manner of living.
The rich, however, contributed to their fubfiftence in
a moft liberal manner. The fums collected on this
occafion are indeed almoft incredible ; being faid to
amount to loo,oool. per week. The king is report¬
ed to have contributed 1000I. weekly ; and in the pa-
rifti of Cripplegate alone, 17,000!. was diftributed
weekly among the poor inhabitants.—By the vigilance
alfo of the magiftrates, provifions continued remark¬
ably cheap throughout the whole time of this dreadful
calamity, fo that all riots and tumults on that account
were prevented ; and at laft, on the ceftation of the
difeafe in the winter of 1665, the inhabitants who had
fled returned to their habitations, and London to ap¬
pearance became as populous as ever, though it vras
computed that 100,000 perfons had been carried off
by the plague.
The city was fcarcely recovered from the defolation Account of
occafioned by the plague, when it was almoft: totally ft16 Sreat
laid in aftres by a moft dreadful fire. This broke out
in a baker’s ftiop in Pudding-lane, on Saturday night,
September 2. 1666. In a few hours Billingfgate ward
was entirely burnt down ; and before morning the fire
had crofted Thames-ftreet, and deftroyed the church of
St Magnus. From thence it proceeded to the bridge,
and confirmed a great pile of buildings there ; but
was flopped by the want of any thing more to de-
ftroy. The flames, however, being fcattered by a
ftrong eaft wind, continued their devaftations in other
quarters. All efforts to ftop it proved unfuccefsful
throughout the Sunday. That day it proceeded up as
far as Garlick-hithe ; and deftroying Canon-ftreet, in¬
vaded Cornhill and the Exchange. On Monday, the
flames having proceeded eaftward againft the wind
through Thames-ftreet, invaded Tower-ftreet, Grace-
church-ftreet, Fenchurch-ftreet, Dowgate, Old Fifh-
ftreet, Watling-ftreet, Threadneedle-ftreet, and feveral
others, from all which it broke at once into Cheapfide.
In a few hours Cheapfide was all in flames, the fire
having reached it from fo many places at once. The
fire then continuing its courle from the river on one
fide, and from Cbeapfide on the other, furrounded the
cathedral of St Paul’s. This building flood by itfelf
at fome diftance from any houfes; yet fuch wras the
violence of the flames, and the heat of the atmofphere
occafioned by them, that the cathedral took fire at
top. The great beams and maffy ftor.es broke through
into Faith-church underneath, which was quickly let
on fire ; after which, the flames invaded Pater-nofter-
row, Newgate-ftreet, the Old Bailey, Ludgate-hill,
Fleet-ftree*, Ironmonger-lane, Old-Jewry, Laurence-
lane, Milk-ftreet, Wood-ftreet, Gutter-lane, Fofter-
lane, Lothbury, Cateaton-ftreet; and, having deftroy¬
ed Chrift-church, burnt furioufly through St Martin’s
le Grand towards Alderfgate.
The fire had now attained its greateft: extent, and
was feveral miles in compafs. The vaft clouds of finoke
obfeured the fun fo, that he either could not be feen
at all, or appeared through it as red as blood. The
flames reached an immenfe w’ay up into the air, and
LON [ i
London, their refle&ion from the fmoke, which in the night-
“■'V—time feemed alfo like flame, made the appearance ftill
more terrible. The atmofphere was illuminated to a
great extent, and this illumination is laid to have been
vifible as far as Jedburgh in Scotland. Some of the
light allies alio are faid to have been carried to the
diltance of 16 miles. Guildhall exhibited a Angular
appearance. The oak with which it was built wras
fo iblid that it would not flame, but burnt like char¬
coal, fo that the building appeared for feveral hours
like an enchanted palace of gold or burnilhed brafs.
At laft, on Wednefday morning, w'hen every one
expefted that the luburbs as well as the city were to
have been burnt, the fire began of itfelf to abate by
reafon of the wind having ceafed, and fome other
changes no doubt taken place in the atmofphere. It
was checked by the great building in Leadenhall-
ftreet, and in other ftreets by the blowing up feveral
houfes with gun-powder ; and on Thurfday the flames
were quite extinguilhed.—The following is a calcula¬
tion of the damage done by this extraordinary confla¬
gration.
Thirteen thoufand two hundred houfes,
at 12 years purchafe, fuppofing the
rent of each 25I. fterling, L. 3,960,000
Eighty-feven parifli churches, at 8000I. 696,000
Six confecrated chapels, at zoocl. 1 2,000
The royal exchange - - 50,000
The cuitomhoufe - - 10,000
Fifty-two halls of companies, at 1500I.
each - 78,000
Three city gates, at 3000I. each 9000
Jail of Newgate - - 15,000
Four Hone bridges - - 6000
Seflions houfe - - 7000
Guildhall, with the courts and offices
belonging to it - - 40,000
Elackweli-hall - - 3000
Bridewell - - - 5000
Poultry compter - * 5000
Woodftreet compter - - 3000
St Paul’s church - - 2,000,000
Wares, houfehold ftufl^ money, and
vemoable goods loft or fpoiled 2,000,000
Hire of porters, carts, waggons, barges,
boats, &c. for removing goods 200,000
Printed books and paper in ihops and
warehoufes - - - 150,000
Wine, tobacco, fugar, &c. of which
the town was at that time very
full
London.
23
Calculation
cf the da¬
mage done.
1,500,000
L. 10,689,000
It was never certainly known whether this fire was
accidental or defigned. A fufpicion fell upon the Pa-
pifls 5 and this gained fuch general credit, that it is af-
ferted for a truth on the monument which is ere&ed
in memory of the conflagration. Of the truth of this
aflertion, however, though there was not fufficient
proof, it had the effeft of making the Papifts moft
violently fufpefted and abhorred by the Proteftants,
which fome time after proved very prejudicial to the
city itfelf.
79 ] LON
From this calamity, great as it was, London foon
recovered itfelf, and became much more magnificent
than before j the ftreets, which were formerly crooked
and narrow, being now' built wide and Ipacious j and
the induftry of its inhabitants repaired the Ioffes they
had fuftained. In 1679, the city was again alarmed
by the difcovery of a defign to deftroy it by fire a fe-
cond time. Elizabeth Oxly, fervant to one Rind in
Fetter-lane, having fet her mailer’s houfe on fire, was a defign
apprehended on fufpicion, and confeffed, that Ihe hadtofetit
been hired to do it by one Stubbs a Papift, for a re-on fire
wrard of 5I. Stubbs being taken into cuftody, ac-aSain‘
knovvledged that he had perfuaded her to it j and
that he himfelf had been prevailed upon by one Father
Gifford his confeffor, who had affured him, that by
burning the houfes of heretics he would do a great fer-
vice to the church. He alfo owned that he had feveral
conferences with Gifford and two Irithmen on the affair.
The maid and Stubbs alfo agreed in declaring, that the
Papifts intended to rife in London, expecting to be
powerfully fupported by a French army. In confe-
quence of this difcovery, the Papifts rvere banilhed from
the city, and five miles round, and five Jefuits were
hanged for the above-mentioned plot.
The Papifts thought to revenge themfelves by forg¬
ing what was called the meal-tub plot, in which the
Prelhyterians were fuppofed to hatch treacherous de- 2.
figns againft the life of the king. Sir Edmondbury Which
Godfrey alfo, who had been very adtive in his pro-gives °cca-
ceedings againfl: the Papifts, was murdered by fomellon tc’,a
unknown perfons j and this murder, together with tjie
their difcovering the fahehood of the meal-tub plot, court,
fo exafperated the Londoners, that they refolved to
(how their deteftation of Popery, by an extraordinary
exhibition on the 17th of November, Queen Eliza¬
beth’s acceffion to the throne, on which day they had
ufually burnt the pope in effigy. The proceffion be¬
gan with a perfon on horfeback perfonating Sir Ed¬
mondbury Godfrey, attended by a bellman proclaim¬
ing his execrable murder. He was followed by a per¬
fon carrying a large filver crofs, with priefts in copes,
Carmelites, and Gray-friars, followed by fix Jefuits :
then proceeded divers waiters, and after them fome
bilhops with lawn fleeves, and others with copes and
mitres. Six cardinals preceded the pope, enthroned in
a ftately pageant, attended by divers boys with pots of
incenfe, and the devil whifpering in his ear. In this
order they marched from Biffiopfgate to Fleet-ftreet ;
and there, amidft a great multitude of fpeftators, com¬
mitted his holinefs to the flames.
This proceffion gave great offence to the court, at
which the duke of York, afterwards James II. had a
great influence. The breach was farther widened by
the choice of Iheriffs for that year. The candidates
fet up by the court were reje£led by a majority of al-
moft two to one •, but this did not deter their party
from demanding a poll in their behalf, upon which a
tumult enfued. This was reprefented by the Popilh
party in fuch colours to the king, that he iffued out a
commiffion that fame evening for trying the rioters}
which, however, was fo far from intimidating the reft,
that they grew more and more determined, not only
to oppofe the Popilh party, but to exclude the duke
of York from his fucceflion to the crown*
Z 2 In
LON
[ i?
London.
26
A $uo
Warranto
granted
In the mean time, the king prorogued the parlia¬
ment, to prevent them from proceeding in their in¬
quiry concerning the Popifh plot, and the exclufion-
bill. Upon this the lord-mayor, aldermen, and com¬
mon-council, prefented a petition to his majefty, in
which they requefted, that he would permit the
parliament to fit in order to complete their falutary
meafures and councils. This petition was highly re¬
lented by the king ; who, inftead of granting it, dif-
iblved the parliament, and could never afterwards be
reconciled to the city. From this time it wras deter¬
mined to feize their charter ; and frefh provocations
having been given about the elehtion of Iheriffs, a quo
warranto was at laft produced by the attorney-gene¬
ral, in order to overthrow their charter, and thereby
to deprive the citizens of the power to choofe ftreriffs.
This information fet forth, That “ the mayor and
commonalty and citizens of the city of London, by
the fpace of a month then laft paft and more, ufed,
HAW W A Cl A1A1 'lit LA U -WAl ICILK j-J U. A & CA i A V-A 1-i.i A. W ^
a_gaini. the c|ajm to llave an^ ufe^ without any lawful
warrant or legal grant, within the city of London
aforefaid, and the liberties and privileges of the fame
city, the liberties and privileges following, viz. T. To
be of themfelves a body corporate and politic, by the
name of mayor and commonalty and citi%ens of the city
of London. 2. To have ilierifts civitat. et. com. London,
et com. Middlefex, and to name, make, and elehf, and
conftitute them. 3. That the mayor and aldermen of
the faid city Ihould be juftices of the peace, and hold
feffions of the peace. All which liberties, privileges,
and franchifes, the faid mayor and commonalty, and
citizens of London, upon the king did by the fpace
aforefaid ufurp, and yet do ufurp.”
Though nothing could be more unjuft: than this
profecution, the miniftry w'ere determined at all events
to crulh the Londoners •, rightly judging, that it would
be an eafy matter to make all other corporations
furrender their charters into the king’s hands, and
that they had no other body in the nation to fear.
Accordingly they difplaced fuch judges as would not
approve of their proceedings j and, on the 12th of
dune 1683, Juftice Jones pronounced the following
fentence : “ That a city might forfeit its charter 5
that the malverfations of the common council were
adds of the whole city ; and that the points fet forth
in the pleadings were juft grounds for the forfeiting of
a charter.”
Notwithftanding this fentence, however, the attor-
ney-general, contrary to the ufual cuftom in fuch cafes,
was direfled to move that the judgement might not be
recorded : being atraid of the confequences. Yet it
was judged that the king might feize the liberties of
the city. A common-council w7as immediately fum-
moned to deliberate on this exigency. The country
party moved to have the judgement entered j but they
w7ere overruled by the court party, w'ho infilled upon
an ahfolute fubmiftion to the king before judgement
w’as entered ; and though this was in efteht a voluntary
furrender of the city-liberties, and deprived them¬
felves of the means.of getting the judgement reverfed,
the a£l of fuLmiflion was carried by a great majority :
and in a petition from the lord mayor, aldermen, and
common-council, they “ acknowledged their own mif-
government, .and his majefty’s lenity ; begged his. par-
o ] LON
don, and promifed conftant loyalty and obed’ence ; and London,
humbly begged his majelly’s commands and direhlions.” " v
To this his majefty aniwered, that he would not reject 27
their fuit, if they would agree upon the following par- Conditions
ticulars. 1. That no lord mayor, fheriff, recorder, rec01?c^'
common lerjeant, town clerk, or coroner, or the city
London, or itew'ard of the borough of Southwark, king and
(hall be capable of, or admitted to, the exercife of their chy.
refpeflive offices before his maiefty ffiall have appro¬
ved of them under his fign-manual. 2. That if his
majefty ffiall difapprove the choice of any perfon to be
lord mayor, and fignify the fame under his fign-manual
to the lord mayor, or in default of a lord mayor, to the
recorder or fenior alderman, the citizens fhall, within
one week, proceed to a new choice : and if his majefty
ftiall in like manner difapprove the fecond choice, his
majefty may, if he pleafes, nominate a perfon to be lord
mayor for the year enfuing. 3. If his majefty (hall, in
like manner, difapprove the perfons chofen to be ftieriffs,
or either of them, his majefty may appoint (herifts for
the year enfuing. 4. That the lord mayor and court
of aldermen may, with the leave of his majefty, difplace
any alderman, recorder, &c. 5. Upon the eleflion of
an alderman, if the court of aldermen ftiall judge and
declare the perfon prefented to be unfit, the ward fhall
choofe again j and upon a difapproval of a fecond
choice, the court .may appoint another in his room.
6. That the juftices of the peace fliould be by the
king’s commiffion ; and the fettling of thofe matters to
be left to his majefty’s attorney-general and counfel
learned in the law.”
To thefe the lord-keeper added, in the king’s name,
“ That thefe regulations being made, his majefty would
not only pardon this profecution, but would confirm
their charter in fuch a manner as ftiould be confident
wdth them ; concluding thus: “ My lord mayor, the
term draws towards an end, and Midfummer-day is at
hand, when fome of the officers ufed to be chofen ;
wffiereof his majefty will referve the approbation. There¬
fore, it is his majefty’s pleafure, that you return to the
city, and confult the common-council, that he may
fpeedily know your refolutions thereupon, and accord-
ingly give his directions. That you may fee the king
is in eameft, and the mattet is not capable of delay, I
am commanded to let you know he hath given oiders
to his attorney-general to enter upon judgement on Sa¬
turday next unlefs you prevent it by your compliance
in all thefe particulars.”
A common-council was fummoned, when the friends
of liberty treated thofe flavilh conditions as they de-
ferved $ and even declared, that they wrere ready to fa-
crifice all that w’as near or dear to them, rather than
fubmit to fuch. arbitrary impofitions : but when it was
put to the vote, there appeared a majority of 18 for
fubmiffion.
Thus the king got the government of the city into
his own hands, though he and his brothers entirely loft c
the affeClions of the Londoners. But, not content with kjnw
their fubmiffion, his majefly departed from his promife ; breaks his
commanded the judgement upon the quo to promife.
be entered ; and commiffioned Sir William Pritchard,
the lord mayor, to hold the fame office during his ma¬
jefty’s pleafure. In the fame manner he appointed or
difplaced. the other magilirates as he thought proper j
after.
29
Privileges
cf the city
reftored.
LON [ 18
London, after which the minifhy, having nothing to tear, pro-
  ' ceeded in the moft arbitrary manner.
In this fubjedli®n to the will of the court, the city
of London continued till the Revolution ; but, in 1689,
the immediate reftoration of the Londoners to their
franchifes was ordered j and in fuch a manner and form,
as to put it out of the powers of an arbitrary minillry
and a corrupt judge and jury to deprive them of their
chartered liberties for the time to come. Accordingly
a bill was brought into parliament, and palled, for re-
verfing the judgement of the quo xvarranto againft the
city of London, and for relloring the fame to its ancient
rights and privileges. Since that time the city of Lon¬
don hath enjoyed tranquillity ; its commerce hath been
carried to the higheft pitch j and for the politenefs,
riches, and number of its inhabitants, as well as
is extent and the magnificence of its buildings, is
inferior to no city in Europe, if not fuperior to every
3° .
Defcription
of the city.
. .31
Divifion in¬
to wards.
That part of this immenfe capital which is diftin-
guithed by the name of The City, Hands on the north
Ihore of the river, from the Tower to the Temple, oc¬
cupying only that fpace formerly encompaffed by the
wall, which in circumference meafures but three miles
and 165 feet. In this wall there were feven gates by
land, viz. Ludgate, Aldgate, Cripplegate, Alderfgate,
Moorgate, Bifhopfgate, which were all taken down
in September 1760 j and Newgate, the county gaol,
which was alfo taken down in 1776, and a malfive
building eredled a little Couth of it, which by the riot¬
ers in 1780 received damage to the amount of 83,000!.
On the lide of the water there were Dowgate and
Billingfgate, long fince demolilhed, as w’ell as the
poftern-gate near the Tower. In the year 1670 there
was a gate erefted called Temple-Bar, which termi¬
nates the bounds of the city weftward. The liberties,
or thofe parts of this great city which are fubjefl to
its jurjfdiftion, and lie without the walls of London,
are bounded on the eaft, in Whitechapel, the Mino-
ries, and Biihoplgate, by bars, which were formerly
polls and chains, that were frequently taken away by
arbitrary power, when it was thought proper to feize
the franchifes of the city of London : on the north,
they are bounded in the fame manner in Pickaxe-
Hreet, at the end of Fan-alley, and in St John’s-llreet :
on the weft, by bars in Holborn : at the eaft end of
Middle Row, and at the -weft end of Fleet-ftreet, by
the gate called Temple-Bar, already mentioned : on the
fouth, we may include the jurifdidlion which the city
holds on the river Thames, and over the borough of
South w’ark.
The city, including the borough, is at prefent divid¬
ed into 26 w-ards.
1. Atderfgate ward takes its name from .a city-gate
which lately Hood in the neighbourhood. It is bound¬
ed on the eaft by Cripplegate ward ; on the weft, by
Farringdon ward within and without and on the
fouth, by Farringdon w7ard within. It is very large,
and is divided into Alderfgate-within and Alderfgate-
with-out. Each of thefe divifions confifts of four pre-
cinfls, under one alderman, eight common-council men,
of whom two are the alderman’s deputies, eight con-
ftables, fourteen inqueflt-men, eight fcavengers, and a
beadle j exclufive of the officers belonging to the li-
1 ] LON
berty of St Martin’s le Grand, which contains 168
houfes.
2. Aldgate takes its name alfo from a gate, which
wqs of great antiquity, being mentioned in King Ed¬
gar’s charter to the knights of the Knighton Guild
about the year 967 j and was probably of a much
more ancient foundation, for it wras the gate through
w’hich the Roman vicinal w’ay lay to the ferry at Oid-
ford. In the time of the wars betwixt King John
and his barons, the latter entered the city through this
gate, and committed great devaftations among the
houfes of the religious. Aldgate w’as rebuilt by the
leaders of the party after the Roman manner. They
made ufe of ftone which they brought from Caen, and
a fmall brick called the Flanders tile, which Mr Pen¬
nant thinks has been often miftaken for Roman. I he
new gate wras very ftrong, and had a deep well within
it. In 1471 this gate was affaulted by the Baftard of
Falconbridge, who got poffelhon of it lor a few hours j
but the portcullis being drawn up, the troops which
had entered were all cut oft, and the citizens, headed
by the alderman of the ward and recorder, having
made a fally, defeated the remainder with great (laugh¬
ter. In 1606 Aldgate was taken down and rebuilt;
and many Roman coins were found in digging the
foundations.—The wTard of Aldgate is bounded on _
the eaft by the city wall, which divides it from Port-
foken ward ; on the north, by Bilhopfgate ward ; on
the weft, by Lime-ftreet and Langbourn wards 5 and
on the fouth, by Tower-ftreet ward. It is governed by
an alderman, fix common-council men, fix conftables,
twenty inqueft-men, feven fcavengers, and a beadle 5
befides the officers belonging to St James’s, Duke’s
Place.—It is divided into feven precinfls.
3. BaJJiJhaw or Bafnghall ward, is bounded on the
eaft; and fouth by Coleman-llreet ward, on the north
by part of Cripplegate, and one the weft by part of
the wards of Cheap and Cripplegate. On the fouth,
it begins at Black well-hall ) and runs northward to
London-wall, pulled dowm fome time ago to make
wray for new buildings in §Fore-Jlreet, and fpreads 88
feet eaft, and 54 feet weft againft the place where that
wrall flood. This is a very fmall ward, and confifts
only of two precindls : the upper precinfl contains no
more than 66, and the lower only 76 houfes. It is
governed by an alderman, four common-council men,
of whom one is the alderman’s deputy, three con¬
ftables, feventeen inqueft-men, three fcavengers, and
a beadle. It has its name from Bafinghall, the man-
fion-houfe of the family of Bajings, which was the
principal houfe in it, and flood in the place of Black-
well-hall.
4. Billingfgate ward is bounded on the eaft by
Tower-ftreet ward ; on the north, by Langbourn
ward j on the weft, by the ward of Bridge-within j
and on the fouth, by the river Thames. There have
been many conjeflures concerning the origin of the
name of Billingfgate, none of which feems to be very
w7ell authenticated. It is, for inftance, fuppofed to
have derived its name from a Britifti king named Beh-
nus, faid to have been ah affftlant of Brennus king of
the Gauls at th? taking of Rome, and is the fame with
the Beli-Maur mentioned in the Welfh genealogies..
The name of Ludgate is faid to be derived from his Ion
London.
LON [i
T.oncLn. LuJ.—It is divided into I 2 precin&s ; and is governed
by an alderman, 10 common-council men, one of whom
is the alderman’s deputy, il conftables, 14 inqueft-men,
fix fcavengers, and a beadle. The fituation of Billingf-
gate, on the river, gives it great advantages with re-
fpecl to trade and merchandife *, fo that it is well in¬
habited, and is in a continual hurry of bufmefs at the fe-
veral wharfs or quays.
5. Bijhopfgate ward is bounded on the eaft by Aid-
gate ward, Portfoken ward, and part of the Tower-
liberty, or Norton-falgate } on the weft, by Broad-ftreet
ward and Moornelds ; and on the fouth, by Langbourn
ward. It is very large, and divided into Bifhopfgate-
within and Bifhopfgate-without. The firft contains all
that part of the ward within the city-wall and gate,
and is divided into five precimfts j the fecond lies
without the wall, and is divided into four precindfts.
Biftiopfgate-without extends to Shoreditch, taking its
name from one Sir John de Sordich, an eminent law¬
yer much in favour with King Edward III. both on
account of his knowledge in the law, and of his
perfonal valour. In the time of Henry VIII. one
Barlo, a citizen and inhabitant of this place, was
named duke of Shoreditch, on account of his fkill in
archery 5 and, for a number of years after, the title
belonged to the captain of the London archers. This
ward is governed by an alderman, two deputies, one
within and the other without, 1 2 common-council men,
feven conftables, 13 inqueft-men, nine fcavengers, and
two beadles. It took its name from the gate, wdiich
has been pulled down to make that part of the city
more airy and commodious. This gate was built by
Erkemvald bifhop of London in 675 j and it is faid
to have been repaired by William the Conqueror foon
after the Norman conqueft. In the time of Henry III.
the Hanfe merchants had certain privileges confirmed
to them, in return for which they were to fupport this
gate $ and in confequence of this they rebuilt it ele¬
gantly in 1479. There were two ftatues of biihops, in
in memory of the founder and firft repairer ; other twTo
were alfo put up, which are fuppofed to have been de-
figned for Alfred and ALldred earl of Mercia to whofe
care the gate had been committed.
6. Bread-freet ward is encompaffed on the north
and north-weft, by the ward of Farringdon within •, on
the eaft, by Cordwainers ward j on the fouth by
Oueenhithe wTard ; and on the weft, by Caftle-Bay-
nard ward. It is divided into 13 precin£ls j and is
governed by an alderman, 12 common-council men, of
whom one is the alderman’s deputy, 13 conftables, 13
inqueft-men, 13 fcavengers, and a beadle j and yet
contains no more than 331 houfes. It takes its name
from the ancient bread-market, rvhich was kept in the
place now called Bread-Jlreet; the bakers being obliged
to fell their bread only in the open market and not in
ihops.
7. Bridge-ward within is bounded on the fouth by
the river Thames and Southwark 5 on the north, by
Langbourn and Bifhopfgate w^ard ; on the eaft, by
Billingfgate ; and on the weft, by Candlewick and
Dovvgate wards. It is divided into 14 precindts, three
of which were on London bridge } and is governed by
an alderman, 15 common-council men, one of whom is
the alderman’s deputy, 14 conftables, 15 inqueft-men,
82 ] LON
14 fcavengers, and a beadle. It takes its name from
its connexion with London bridge.
8. Broadflreet ward is bounded, on the north and
eaft, by Biihopfgate ward ; on the fcutb, by Cornhill
and Wallbrook ward j and on the weft by Coleman-
ftreet ward. It is divided into ic precindts j and go¬
verned by an alderman, 10 common-council men, one
of whom is the alderman’s deputy, 10 conftables, 13
inqueft-men, eight fcavengers, and a beadle. It has
its name from that part of it now diftinguiihed by the
name of Old Broad-Jlreet $ and which, before the fire
of 1666, was accounted one of the broadelc ftreets in
London.
9. Candlewick ward, Candlewick-JIreet, or Candle^
wright-Jlreet ward as it is called in fome ancient re¬
cords, is bounded on the eaft by Bridge ward ; on the
fouth, by Dowgate and part of Bridge ward ; on the
weft, by Dowgate and Wallbrook *, and on the north,
hy Langbourn ward. It is but a fmall ward, confift-
ing of about 286 houfes; yet is divided into feven
precindfts. It is governed by an alderman, eight
common-council men, of whom one is the alderman’s
deputy, feven conftables, 13 inqueft-men, feven fca¬
vengers, and a beadle. It has its name from a ftreet,
formerly inhabited chiefty by candle wrights or candle-
bakers, both in tallow and wax : a very profitable bu-
finefs in the times of Popery, when incredible quanti¬
ties of wax candles were confumed in the churches.
That ftreet, however, or at leaft its name, Candlewick,
is loft fince the great conflagration, for which the
name Canon-Jfreet is fubftituted, the candle wrights be¬
ing at that time burnt out and difperfed through the
city.
10. Cajlle-Bagnard ward is bounded by Queen-
hithe and Bread-ftreet wards on the eaft ; on the fouth,
by the Thames j and on the wreft and north, by the
ward of Farringdon-within. It is divided into 10 pre-
cindfs, under the government of an alderman, 10 com¬
mon-council men, one of wdiom is the alderman’s de¬
puty, nine conftables, 14inqueft-men, feven fcavengers,
and a beadle. It takes its name from a caftle built
on the bank of the river by one Baynard, a foldier of
fortune-, who came in with William the Conqueror, and
was by that monarch railed to great honours and au¬
thority.
11. Cheap ward is bounded on the eaft by Broad-
ftreet and Wallbrook wrards j on the north, by Cole-
man-ftreet, Baflilhaw, and Cripplegatc ; and on the
fouth, by Cordwainers ward. It is divided into nine
precindlsj and is governed by an alderman, 1 2 common-
council men, of w’hom one is the alderman’s deputy,
11 conftables, 13 inqueft-men, nine fcavengers, and a
beadle. It has its name from the Saxon -word chepe,
ivhich fignifies a market, kept in this divifion of the
city, now called Cheapfide: but then known by the
name of Wef cheap, to diftinguilh it from the market
then alfo kept in Eaftcheap, between Canon or Candle-
wick ftreet and TowTer-ftreet.
I 2. Coleman-fireet ward is bounded on the eaft by
Bifhopfgate, Broadftreet, and Cheap w7ards j on the
north, by Cripplegate ward, Middle Moorfields, and
Bifhopfgate ; on the fouth, by Cheap ward ; and on the
weft, by Baffifhaw ward. It is divided into fix pre-
cintfts} and is governed by an alderman, fix common-
council
London.
2
London.
LON
council men, one of whom is the alderman’s deputy,
fix conftables, 13 inqueft-men, fix fcavengers, and a
beadle. The origin of the name is not certainly
known. _ #
13. Cordivainers ward is bounded on the eatl by
Wall brook, on the fouth by Vintry ward, on the welt
by Bread-ftreet, and on the north by Cheap ward. It
is divided into eight precin&s; and is governed by an
alderman, eight common-council men, one of whom
is the alderman’s deputy, eight conftables, 14 inqueft-
men, eight fcavengers, and a beadle. . Its proper
name is Cordwainers-Jlreet ward; which it has from
Cordwainers-ftreet, now Bow-lane, formerly occupied
chiefly by ftioemakers and others that dealt or worked
in leather.
14. Cornhill ward is but of fmall extent. It is
bounded on the eaft by Bilhopfgate, on the north by
Broad-ftreet, on the weft by Cheap ward, and on the
fouth by Langbourn ward. It is divided into four
precirufts, which are governed by one alderman, fix
common-council men, of whom one is the alderman s
deputy, four conftables, 16 inqueft-men, four fcaven¬
gers, and a beadle. It takes its name from the prin¬
cipal ftreet in it, known from the earlieft ages by the
name of Cornhill, becaufe the corn-market was kept
there.
15. Cripplegate ward is bounded on the eaft by
Moorfields, Coleman-ftreet ward, Baflifhaw ward, and
Cheap ward 5 on the north by the parifli of St Luke’s,
Old-ftreet; on the weft, by Alderfgate ward ; and on
the fouth, by Cheap ward. It is divided into 13 pre-
cinfts, nine within and four without the wall; and is
governed by an alderman, 12 common-council men,
of whom two are the alderman’s deputies, 13 conftables,
34 inqueft-men, 16 fcavengers, and three beadles. It
takes its name from Cripplegate, which flood on the
north-weft part of the city wall. It was an old plain
ftruclure, void of all ornament, with one poftern •, but
had more the appearance of a fortification than any of
the other gates. It was removed in order to widen the
entrance into Wood-ftreet, which, by the narrownefs
of the gateway, was too much contrafted and rendered
dangerous for paflengers and great waggons.
] 6. Dowgate ward is bounded on the eaft by Candle-
wick and Bridge wards, on the north by Wallbrook
ward, on the weft by Vintry w-ard, and on the fouth
by the Thames. It is divided into eight precindfs,
under the government of an alderman, eight common-
council men, of whom One is the alderman’s deputy,
eight conftables, 15 inqueft-men, five fcavengers, and
a beadle. It has its name from the ancient water gate,
called Dourgate, which was made in the original wall
that ran along the north fide of the Thames, for the
fecurity of the city againft all attempts to invade it by
Water.
17. Farringdon ward within is bounded on the eaft
by Cheap ward and Baynard-caftle ward ; on the north,
by Alderfgate and Ciipplegate wards, and the liberty
of St Martin’s le Grand •, on the weft by Farringdon-
without; and on the fouth, by Baynard-caftle ward,
and the river Thames. It is divided into 18 precindls j
and governed by one alderman, 17 common-council
men, of whom one is the alderman’s deputy, 19 con¬
ftables, 17 inqueft-men, 10 fcavengers, and two
beadles. It takes its name from William Farringdom
LON
citizen and goldfmith of London, who, in 1279, pur- | London.
chafed all the aldermanry with the appurtenances, ' v
within the city of London and fuburbs of the fame,
between Ludgate and Newgate, and alfo without thefe
gates.
18. Farringdon ward without is bounded on the eaft
by Farringdon within, the precindl of the late priory
of St Bartholomew near Smithfield, and the ward of
Alderfgate ; on the north, by the Charter-houfe, the
parilh of St John’s Clerkenwell, and part of St An¬
drew’s parifli without the freedom •, on the weft, by
High Holborn and St Clement’s parilh in the Strand j
and on the fouth by the river Thames. It is governed
by one alderman, 16 common-council men, of whom
two are the alderman’s deputies, 23 conftables, 48 in¬
queft-men, 24 fcavengers, and four beadles. It takes
its name from the fame goldfmith w'ho gave name to
Farringdon within.
19. Langbourn ward is bounded on the eaft by Aid-
gate ward 5 on the north, by part of the fame, and
Lime-ftreet ward ; on the fouth, by Tower-ftreet, Bil-
lingfgate, Bridge, and Candlewick wards j and on the
wreft by Wallbrook. It is divided into 1 2 precindls..
It had its name from a rivulet or long bourn of frefti
water, which anciently flo.wed from a fpring near
Magpye alley adjoining to St Catherine Coleman’s
church.
20. Limejlreet ward is bounded on the eaft and
north by Aldgate ward, on the weft by Bilhopfgate j
and on the fouth by Langbourn ward. It is divided
into four precindls j and governed by an alderman, four
common-council men, one of whom is the alderman’s
deputy, four conftables, 13 inqueft-men, four fcaven¬
gers, and a beadle. It is very fmall 5 and has its name
from fome lime-kilns that were formerly built in or
near Lime-ftreet.
21. Portfohen ward is bounded on the eaft by the
parifties of Spitalfields, Stepney, and St George’s in
the eaft j on the fouth, by Tower-hill ; on the north,
by Bilhopfgate ward, and on the weft by Aldgate
w7ard. It is divided into five precindls 5 and is go¬
verned by an alderman, five common-council men, one
of whom is the alderman’s deputy, five conftablcs, 19
inqueft-men, five fcavengers, and a beadle. Its name
fignifies the franchife of the liberty gate. This Portfoken
wras for fome time a guild j and had its beginning in
King Edgar, when 13 knights, “ well beloved of the
king and realm, for fervices by them done,” requefted
to have a certain portion of land on the eaft part of the
city left defolate and forfaken of the inhabitants by
reafon of too much fervitude. They befought the king
to have this land, with the liberty of a guild for ever. .
The king granted their requeft on the following condi¬
tions, viz. that each of them (hould vidlorioufly accom-
plifh three combats, one above the ground, one under
ground, and the third in the water : and after this, at
a certain day, in Eaft Smithfield, tl ey ftiould run with
fpears againft all comers. All this was glorioufly per¬
formed ; upon which the king named it Knighten
Guild, and extended it from Aldgate to the places
where the bars now are on the call, and to the Thames
on the fouth, and as far into the water as an horfeman
could ride at low water and throw his fpear.
22. Queen-hithe ward is bounded on the call by
Dowgate, on the north by Bread-ftreet and Cord-
wainers -
[ ]
'*?• Y
LON t 184 ] LON
; '^on' on- wainers wards, on the fouth by the Thames, and on the'
v weft by Caftle-Baynard ward. It is divided into nine
precinfts ; and is governed by one alderman, fix com-
mon-council men, one of whom is the alderman’s depu¬
ty, and nine conftables. It has its name from the hit he,
or harbour for large boats, barges, and lighters ; for
which, and even for fhips, it was the anchoring place,
and the quay for loading and unloading veffels almoft of
any burden ufed in ancient times. It has the name of
queen, becaufe the queens of England ufually pofTeffed
the tolls and cuifoms of vefiels that unloaded goods at
this hithe, which were very ccnfiderable.
23. lower ward, or Tower-Jlreet ward, is bounded
on the fouth by the river Thames, on the eaft by
lower-hill and Aldgate ward, on the north by Lang-
bourn ward, and on the weft by Billingfgate ward. It
is governed by one alderman, 12 common-council men,
of whom one is the alderman’s deputy, 12 conftables,
13 inqueft-men, 12 fcavengers, and one beadle. It
takes its name from Tower-Jlreet, fo called becaufe it
leads out of the city in a diredl line to the principal
entrance of the Tower of London.
24. Vintry ward is bounded on the eaft by Dow-
gate, on the fouth by the Thames, on the weft by
Queenhithe ward, and on the north by Cord wainers
ward. It is. a fmall ward, containing only 418 houfes \
but is divided into nine precimfts, and governed by an.
alderman, nine common-council men. one of whom is
the alderman’s deputy, nine conftables, 13 inqueft-
men, three fcavengers, and a beadle. It takes its
name from the vintners or wine-merchants of Bour-
deux, who formerly dwelt in this part of the city,
were obliged to land their wines on this fpot, and to
fell them in 40 days, till the 28th of Edward I.
25. Wallbrook ward is bounded on the eaft by
Langbourn, on the fouth by Dotvgate ward, on the
weft by Cordwainers ward, and on the north by
Cheap w7ard. It is fmall, containing only 306 houfes j
but is divided into (even precindts, and governed by an
alderman, eight common-council men, of whom one
is the alderman’s deputy, feven conftables, 13 inqueft-
men, fix fcavengers, and a beadle. It has its name
from the rivulet Wall-brook, that ran down the ftreet
of this name into the river Thames near Dowgate ;
but in procefs of time it was fo loft by covering it
with bridges, and buildings upon thofe bridges, that
its channel became a common fewer.
26. The wrard of Bridge-without includes the borough
of Southwark, and the pariftres of Rotherhithe, Newing¬
ton, and Lambeth. It has its name from London
bridge, with the addition of the word without, becaufe
the bridge muft be paffed in order to come at it. Wejl-
minjler is generally reckoned a part of London, though
under a diftindl government j and has long been famous
for the palaces of our kings, the feat of our law wri-
bunals, and of the high court of parliament j all which
N lhall be defcribed in their order.
Govern- 1 be city and liberties of London are under an eccle-
mentof fiaftical, a civil, and a military government.
London. ^s to its ecclejiajlical government, London is a bi-
ErrleiLfti- ^0P’S ^ee> ^ diocefe of which comprehends not only
cal. Middlefex, EiTex, and part of Hertfordftiire, but the
Britifti plantations in America. The bifhop of Lon¬
don takes precedency next to the archbilhops of Can¬
terbury and York j but the following parilhes of this
I
city are exempt from his jurifdidlion, being peculiars London.
under the immediate government of the archbiihop of' v—
Canterbury ; viz. All-hallows in Bread-ftreet, All-
hailows, Lombard-ftreet j St Dionys Back-church,
St Dunftan in the Eaft, St John Baptift, St Leonard
Eaftcheap, St Mary Aldermary, St Mary Bothaw,
St Mary le Bow, St Michael Crooked-lane, St Mi¬
chael Royal, St Pancras Soper-lane, and St Vedaft
Fofter-lane.
The civil government of London divides it into wards .. 34
and precindls, under a lord mayor, aldermen, and com-CmL
mon-council.
The mayor, or lord mayor, is the fupreme rc>agi-Lorci35
ftrate, chofen annually by the citizens, purfuant to a Mayor,
charter of King John. The prefent manner of elecl-
ing a lord mayor is by the liverymen of the feveral
companies, aflembled in Guildhall annually on Michael-
mas-day, according to an aft of common council in
A. D. 1476, where, and when, the liverymen choofe,
or rather nominate, two aldermen below the chair,
who have ferved the office of 11161-111, to be returned to
the court of aldermen, who may choofe either of the
two 5 but generally declare the fenior of the two, fo
returned, to be lord mayor cleft. The eleftion be¬
ing over, the lord mayor eleft, accompanied by the
recorder and divers aldermen, is foon after prefented to
the lord chancellor (as his majefty’s reprefentative in
the city of London) for his approbation ; and on the
9th of November following is fworn into the office of
mayor at Guildhall ; and on the day after, before the
barons of the exchequer at Weft min fter ; the pro-
ceffion on which occafion is exceedingly grand and
magnificent.
i'he lord mayor fits every morning at the manfion-
houfe, or place where he keeps his mayoralty, to de¬
termine any difference that may happen among the
citizens, and to do other bufinefs incident to the office
of a chief magiftrate. Once in fix weeks, or eight
times in the year, he fits as chief judge of oyer and
terminer, or gaol-delivery of Newgate for London
and the county of Middlefex. His jurifdiftion ex¬
tends all over the city and fuburbs, except fome places
that are exempt. It extends alfo from Colneyditch,
above Staines-bridge in the weft, to Yeudale, or
Yenflete, and the mouth of the river Medway, and up
that river to Upnor-caftle, in the eaft : by which he
exercifes the power of punifhing or correfting all
perfons that ftiall annoy the ftreams, banks, or filh.
For wThich purpofe his lordlhip holds feveral courts of
confervancy in the counties adjacent to the faid river,
for its confervation, and for the punifliment of offend¬
ers. See the article MAYOR’s-dWr/.
The title of dignity, alderjnan, is of Saxon original,
and of the greateft honour, anfwering to that of earl j A^eimeB’
though now it is nowhere to be fisund but in charter¬
ed focieties. And from hence we may account for the
reafon why the aldermen and commonalty of London
were called barons after the conqueft. Thefe magi-
ftrates are properly the fubordinate governors of their
refpeftive wards under the lord mayor’s jurifdiftion j
and they originally held their aldermanries either by
inheritance or purchafe ; at which time the alderman¬
ries or wards changed their names as often as their
governors or aldermen. The oppreftions, to which the
citizens were fubjeft from finch a government, put them
upon
LON [ 185 ] LON
London, upon means to abolifli the perpetuity of that office and
they brought it to an adtual election. But that man¬
ner of deffion being attended with many inconvenien¬
ces, and becoming a continual bone of contention
among the citizens, the parliament, 17 Richard II.
A. I). 1394, enabled, that the aldermen of London
fliould continue, in their fevernl offices during life or
good behaviour. And fo it ftiil continues : though
the manner of ele&ing has feveral times varied. At
prefent it is regulated by an a£t of parliament, palled
m the year 1724-5 : and the perfon fo ele&ed is to be
returned by the lord mayor (or other returning officer
in Ins dead, duly qualified to hold a court of wardmote)
to the court of lord mayor and aldermen, by whom the
perfon fo returned muft be admitted and fworn into the
office of alderman before he can aft. If the perfon
chofen refuleth to lerve the office of alderman, he is
finable 500I.
_ Thefe high officers conflitute a fecond part of the
city legifiature when aiiembled in a corporate capacity,
and exfcrcife an executive power in their refpeftive wards.
The aldermen who have palled the chair, or ferved the
high office of lord mayor, are juftices of the quorum 5
and all the other aldermen are not only juftices of the
peace, but by the llatute of 43 Eliz. entitled, A1//
for relief of the poor, “ every alderman of the city
of London, within his ward, lhall and may do and
execute, in every refpeft, fo much as is appointed and
allowed by the faid aft to be done or executed by one
or tiMo juftices of peace of any county within this
realm.” They every one keep their wardmote, or
court, for choofing ward officers and fettling the affairs
of the ward, to redrefs grievances, and to prefent all
17 defaults found within their refpeftive wards.
Common- . The next branch of the legifiative power in this
cour.cn. clty is the common-council. The many inconveniences
that attended popular affemblies, which were called
fo lit mote, determined the commonalty of London to
choofe reprefentatives to aft in their name and for
their intereft, with the lord mayor and aldermen, in all
affairs relating to the city. At firft thefe reprefenta¬
tives were chofen out of the feveral companies : but
that not being found fatisfaftory, nor properly the re-
preffintatives of the whole body of the inhabitants, it
was agreed to choofe a certain number of difereet men
out of each ward : which number lias from time to
time increafed according to the dimenfions cf each
ward.: and at pi'efent the 25 wards, into which Lon¬
don is divided, being fubdivided into 236 precinfts,
each precinft fends a reprefentative to the common-
council, who are elefted after the fame manner as an
alderman, only with this difference, that as the lord
mayor prefides in the wardmote, and is judge of the
poll at the eleftion of an alderman, fo the alderman
of each ward is judge of the poll at the eleftion of a
common-council man.
Thus the lord mayor, aldermen, and common-
council, when afiembled, may be deemed the city par¬
liament, refembling the great council of the nation.
F01 is ccnfifts of two houfes j one for the lord mayor
and aldermen, or the upper hoiffe } another for the
commoners or reprefentatives of the people, commonly
called the common-council men. And they have power
in their incorporate capacity to make and repeal bye¬
laws; and the citizens are bound to obey or fubmit to
Vol. XII. Part I.
thofe laws. When they meet in their incorporn^ ca- London,
pacitjq they wear deep blue iilk gowns : and their .? - -y-——
femblies are called the court of common-council% and their
ordinances ails of common-council. No aft can be per¬
formed in the name of the city of London without
their concurrence. But they cannot affemble without a
fummons from the lord mayor ; who, neveithclefs, is
obliged to call a common-council, whenever it ihall be
demanded, upon extraordinary occafions, by fix re¬
putable citizens and members of that court. 38
This corporation is affifted by two flieriffs and a re- ^berirTs.
corder. The Iheriffs are chartered officers, to perform
certain fuits and fervices, in the king’s name, within
the city of London and county of Middlefex, chofen
by the liverymen of the fcveral companies on Midfum-
mer day. Their office, according to Camden, m ge¬
neral, is to collect the public revenues within tiieir fe¬
veral jurifdiftions ; to gather into the exchequer alt
fines belonging to the crown ; to ferve the king’s writs
of procefs ; to attend the judges, and execute their or¬
ders; to impannel juries ; to compel headltrong and
obftinate men by the pojfe conutatus to fubmit to the de-
cilions of the law ; and to take care that all condemn¬
ed criminals be duly puniihed and executed. In par¬
ticular, in London, they are to execute the orders of
the common-round!, when they have refolved to ad-
dieis his majelty, or to petition parliament.
Ihe fheriffs, by virtue of their office, hold a court at
Guildhall every Wednefday and Friday, for aftiohs
entered at Wood-ftreet Compter; and on Thurfdays,
and Saturdays for thofe entered at the Poultry Comp¬
ter : of which the fheriffs being judges, each has his
affiftant, or deputy, who are called the judges of thofe
courts ; before whom are tried aftions of debt, tref-
pafs, covenant, &c. and where the teftimony of any
abfent wflnefs in writing is allowed to be good evi¬
dence. To each of thefe courts belong four attornies,
who, upon their being admitted by the court of aider-
men, have an oath adminiftered to them.
lo each of thefe courts likewife belong a fecondary,
a clerk of the papers, a prothonotary, and four clerks-
fitters. The fecondary’s office is to allow and return
all writs brought to remove clerks out of the laid
courts , the clerk of the papers files and copies all
declarations upon aftions; the prothonotary draws and
engroffes all declarations ; the clerk-fitters enter ac¬
tions and attachments, and take bail and verdifts. To
each of the compters, or prifons belonging to thefe
courts, appertain 16 ferjeants at mace, with a yeo¬
man to each, belides inferior officers, and the prifon-
keeper. »
In the Iheriffs court may be tried aftions of debt,
cafe, trefpafs, account, covenant, and all perfonal ac¬
tions, attachments, and fequeftratious. When an er¬
roneous judgement is given in either of the ffieriffs
courts of the city, the writ of error to reverfe this
judgement muft be brought in the court of huftings be¬
fore the lord mayor for that is the fuperior court.
The (heriffs of London may make arrefts and ferve
executions on the river Thames. ^
We do not read of a recorder till the 1304, who,Recorder,
by the nature of his office, feems to have been intended
as an affiftant to, or affeffor with, the lord mayor, in
the execution of his high oftice, in matters of juftice
and law. He is chofen by the lord mayor and alder-
-A- * me«
LON [ 186 ] LON
men only ; and takes place in all courts, and in the
common-ccunci!, before any one that hath not been
mayor. Of whom we have the following description
in one of the books of the chamber : “ He fhall be,
as is wont to be, one of the moft Ikilful and virtuous
apprentices of the law of the whole kingdom ; whpfe
office is always to lit on the right hand of the mayor,
in recording pleas, and palling judgements ;• and by
whom records and procefles, had before the lord mayor
and alderman at Great St Martin’s, ought to be re¬
corded by vycu'd of mouth before the judges affigned
there to correct errors. The mayor and aldermen have
therefore ufed commonly to fet forth all other bufi-
neffes, touching the city, before the king and his
council, as alfo in certain of the king’s courts, by Mr
Recorder, as a chief man, endued with wifdom, and
eminent for eloquence.”—Mr Recorder is looked up¬
on to be the mouth of the city, to deliver all addreffes
to the king, &c. from the corporation j and he is the
firlt officer in order of precedence that is paid a fa-
lary, which originally was no more than. 10I. fter-
ling per annum, with feme few perquilites 5 but it has
from time to time been augmented to 1000I. per
annum, and become the road to preferment in the
law. This office has fometimes been executed by a
deputy.
The next chartered officer of this corporation is the
chamberlain ; an officer of great repute and truft, and
is in the choice of the livery annually. This officer,
though chofen annually on Midfummer-day, is never
dilplaced during bis life, except fome very great crime
can be made out againft him. He has the keeping of
the moneys, lands, and goods, of the city orphans, or
takes good fecurity for the payment thereof when the
parties come to age. And to that end he is deemed
in the law a foie corporation, to him and his fuc-
ceffors, for orphans ; and therefore a bond or a recog¬
nizance made to him and his fucceflbrs, is recoverable
by his fucceflfors. This officer hath a court peculiarly
belonging to him. His office may be termed a public
treafury, colledling the culloms, moneys, and yearly
revenues, and all other payments belonging to the
corporation of the city. It was cuftomary for govern¬
ment to appoint the chamberlain receiver of the land
tax 5 but this has been difeontinued for feveral years
pail.
The other officers under the lord mayor are, 1, The
common ferjeant. He is to attend the lord mayor and
court of aldermen on court days, and to be in council
with them on all occafions, within or without the pre-
cin£ls or liberties of the city. He is to take care of
orphans ellates, either by taking account of them, or
to fign their indentures, before their palling the lord
mayor and court of aldermen. And likewife he is to
let, fet, and manage the orphans eftates, according to
his judgement, to the bell advantage. 2. The town
clerk } who keeps the original charter of the city, the
books, rolls, and other records, wherein are regiftered
the a£ls and proceedings of the city ; fo that he may
not be improperly termed the city-regifter : he is to
attend the lord mayor and aldermen at their courts,
and figns all public inftruments. 3. The city remem¬
brancer ; who is to attend the lord mayor on certain
days, his hufinefs being to put his lordlhip in mind of
the days he is to go abroad with the aldermen,
&c. He is to attend daily at the parliament houfe, London,
during the feffions, and to report to the lord mayor vv" 1
their tranfa&ions. 4. The fword-bearer j who is to
attend the lord mayor at his going abroad, and to carry
the fword before him, being the emblem of jullice.
This is an ancient and honourable office, reprelenting
the ftate and princely office of the king’s moll excel¬
lent majelly, in his reprefentative the lord mayor j and,
according to the rule of armory, “ He mull carry
the fword upright, the hilts being holden under his
bulk, and the blade diredlly up the midfl of his brealf,
and fo forth between the fvvord-bearer’s brow's.”
5. The common hunt ; whofe bulinefs it is to take
care of the pack of hounds belonging to the lord mayor
and citizens, and to attend them in hunting in thofe
grounds to which they are authorized by charter.
6. The common crier. It belongs to him and the ferjeant
at arms, to fummon all executors and adminiftrators
of freemen to appear, and to bring in inventories of the
perfonal ellates of freemen, within two months after
their deceafe : and he is to have notice of the appraife-
ments. He is alfo to attend the lord mayor on let days,
and at the courts held weekly by the mayor and aider-
men. 7. The water bailiff 5 whofe office is to look
after the prel’ervation of the river Thames againll all
encroachments •, and to look after the lifhermen for the
prefervation of the young fry, to prevent the dellroy-
ing them by unlawful nets. For that end, there are
juries for each county, that hath any part of it lying
on the lides or Ihores of the faid river •, which juries,
fummoned by the water bailiff at certain times, do make
inquiry of all offences relating to the river and the lilh,
and make their preferments accordingly. He is alfo
bound to attend the lord mayor on let days in the
week.—Thefe feven purchafe their places ; except the *
town clerk, who is chofen by the livery.
There are alfo three ferjeant carvers j three ferjeants
of the chaihber ; a ferjeant of the channel j four yeo¬
men of the water fide j an under water bailiff j two
yeomen of the chamber 5 two meal wreighters; two yeo¬
men of the wood wharfs $ a foreign taker j city mar-
Ihals. There are befides thefe, feven gentlemen’s men j
as the fword-bearer’s man, the common hunt’s two
men, the common crier’s man, and the carver’s three
men.
Nine of the foregoing officers have liveries of the
lord mayor, viz. the fword-bearer and his man, the
three carvers, and the four yeomen of the water
fide. All the reft have liveries from the chamber of
London.
The following officers are likewife belonging to the
city $ farmer of the markets, auditor, clerk of the
chamber, clerk to the commiffioners of the fewers,
clerk of the court of confcience, beadle of the fame
court, clerk of the city works, printer to the city,
juftice of the Bridge yard, clerk comptroller of the
Bridge houfe, fteward of the Borough, bailiff of the
Borough.
There is alfo a coroner, called fo from corona, i. e.
a crown, becaufe he deals principally with the crown,
or in matters appertaining to the imperial crowm of
England. See the article Coroner.
Befides thefe officers, there are feveral courts in this
city for the executing of juffice, viz. the court of huf-
tipgs, lord mayor’s court, &c. In the city there are
alfo
LON [i
London- alfo two fubordinate kinds of government. One exe-
' cuted by the alderman, deputy, and common-council
men, and their inferior officers, in each ward ; under
which form are comprehended all the inhabitants, free
or not free of the city. Every ward is therefore like
a little free ftate, and at the fame time fubje£t to the
lord mayor as chief magiftrate of the city. The
houfekeepers of each ward eleft their reprefentatives,
the common council, who join in making bye-laws for
the government of the city. JLhe officers and fervants
of each ward manage the affairs belonging to it, with¬
out the affiftance of the reft; and each has a court call¬
ed the wardmote, as has been already defcribed, for
the management of its own affairs. T. he other, by the
mafter, wardens, and court of affiftants, of the incor¬
porate companies ; whofe power reaches no farther
than over the members of their refpe&ive guilds or fra¬
ternities j except that in them is veiled the power to
choofe reprefentatives in parliament for the city, and all
thofe magiftrates and officers elefted by a common
hall} which companies are invefted with diftindl
powers, according to the tenor of their refpedtive
charters.
The military government of the city is lodged in a
lieutenancy, confifting of the lord mayor, aldermen,
and other principal citizens, who receive their autho¬
rity by a commiffion from the king. Thofe have un¬
der their command the city trained bands, confifting
of fix regiments of foot, diftinguilhed by the names of
the white, orange, yellow, blue, green, and red,, each
containing eight companies of 150 men, amounting in
all to 7 200. Befides thefe fix regiments, there is a corps
called the artillery company, from its being taught the
military exercife in the artillery ground. This com¬
pany is independent of the reft, and conlifts of 700 or
800 volunteers. All thefe, with two regiments of foot
of 800 men each commanded by the lieutenant of the
Tower of London, make the whole militia of this city j
which, exclufive of Weftminfter and the borough of
Southwark, amounts to about 10,000 men.
The trading part of the city of London is divided
Companies, into 89 companies •, though fome of them can hardly be
called fo, becaufe they have neither charters, halls, nor
liveries. Of thefe 89 companies, 55 have each a hall
for tranfa&ing the bulinefs of the corporation j and
this confifts of a mafter or prime warden, a court of af¬
fiftants, and livery.—Twelve of thefe companies are
fuperior to the reft both in antiquity and wealth j and
of one of thofe I 2 the lord mayors have generally made
themfelves free at their ele&ion. Thefe companies are
the mercers, grocers, drapers, fiffimongers, goldfmiths,
fkinners, merchant-taylors, haberdaftiers, falters, iron¬
mongers, vintners, and clothworkers.— The principal
London.
Military
govern-
aaent.
43
Trading
44
87 J LON
incorporated focieties of the merchants of this city are, >
the Hamburgh Company, the Hudfon’s Bay Compa¬
ny, the Ruffia Company, the Turkey Company, the
Eaft India Company, the Royal African Company,
the South Sea Company, and fome Infurance Compa¬
nies. The moft of thefe companies have ftately houfes
for tranfafting their buftnefs, particularly the Eaft In¬
dia and South Sea companies. See Company.
The ftreets and public buildings in London and its Remark-
liberties being far too numerous for a particular de - ^ ^ets
fcription in this work, we {hall only feleft the m°ftfngswith-
remarkable, beginning with London Bridge as the moftp^g
andient, and proceeding in our furvey through the City.
wards into which the city is divided. 45
I. Remarkable buildings, &c. in the Cirr.—The ori-London
ginal bridge, which ftands in Bridge ward, was ofBndSe'
wood, and appears to have been firft built between the
years 993 and roi6 ; but being burnt down about the
year 1x36, it was rebuilt of wood in 1163. I he ex-
pences, however, of maintaining and repairing it be¬
came fo burdenfome to the inhabitants of the city,
that they refolved to build a ftone bridge a little weft-
ward of the wooden one. This building was begun in
1176, and finiftied in 1209; and was 915 feet long,
44 feet high, and 73 feet wide; but houfes being
built on each fide, the fpace between was only 23
feet.
This great work was founded on enormous piles
driven as clofely as poffible together : on their tops
were laid long planks 10 inches thick, ftrongly bolted ^
and on them was placed the bafe of the pier, the
lowermoft ftones of which were bedded in pitch, to
prevent the water from damaging the work : round
all were the piles which were called the Jlerlings, de-
figned for the prefervation of the foundation piles.
Thefe contrafled the fpace between the piers fo great¬
ly, as to occafion at the retreat of every tide a fall of
five feet, or a number of temporary catarafts, which
fince the foundation of the bridge have occafioned the
lofs of many thoufand lives. The number of arches
was 19, of unequal dimenfions, and greatly deformed
by the fterlings and the houfes on each fide, which
overhung and leaned in a moft terrific name. In
moft places they hid the arches, and nothing appeared
but the rude piers. Within recolle&ion, frequent
arches of ftrong timber croffed the ftreet from the tops
of the houfes to keep them together, and from falling
into the river (a). Nothing but ufe could preferve /
the quiet of the inmates, who foon grew deaf to the
noife of the falling waters, the clamours of watermen,
or the frequent flirieks of drowning wretches. In
one part had been a drawbridge, ufeful either by way
A o o of
(a) The gallant adion of Edmund Offiorne, anceftor to the duke of Leeds, when he was apprentice to Sir
William Hewet cloth-worker, may not improperly be mentioned in this place. About tue year 1536,. rvhen
his mafter lived in one of thofe tremendous houfes, a fervant maid was playing with his only daughter in her
arms in a window over the water, and accidentally dropt the child. Young Ofborne, who was witneis to the
misfortune, inftantly fprang into the river, and beyond all expectation, brought her fafe to the terrified fa¬
mily ! Several perfons of rank paid their addreffes to her when ftie was marriageable, among others the earl of
Shrewfbury 3 but Sir William gratefully decided in favour of Ofborne : OJborne, fays he,her, and OJborne
Jlmll enjoy her. In her right he poffeffed a great fortune. He became ftreriff of London in I575> ant^ ^or<^
mayor in 1583.
O N [ 188 ] LON
^dmiffion of Alps mo the upper in 1801, was a delign of MelTrs. Telford and Douglas,
in which it is fnopofed to conflruft tlie bridge of a
fingle arch, corapofed wholly of caft iron 5 the fpan of
tne arch is to be 600 feet, being the width to which, by
Mr Jell op’s report, the river ought to be contradfed. The
boldnels and fimplidty of this defign render it an ob¬
ject of great attention, not only to the committee en¬
gaged in confidering the further improvement of the
port of London, but to the public. No progrefs, we
believe, has yet been made in the execution of this clan
lendon. of defence or for the
V Part 01 riie nver. This was proteded by a flrong
to ;.er. It ferved to repulfe Falconbridge the Baftard
in hxs general affault on the city in 1471, with a let
of banditti, under pretence of rdcuing the unfortunate
Henry, then confined in the Tower. Sixty houfes
were burnt on the bridge on the occafion. It alfo
i rn j ^ C^eC^’ an^ "l the enc^ annihilate, the ill-con-
duded mfurredicn of Sir Thomas Wyat, in the reign
of Queen Mary. The top of this tower, in the lad
and turbulent days of this kingdom, ufed to be the
mumbles or human flefii, and covered with heads or
quarters or unfortunate partizans. Even fo late as the
year 159S, Hentzner, the German traveller, with Ger¬
man accuracy, counted on it above 30 hcMs. The
cud map of the city in 1597 reprefents them in a molt
ornble cluller.—An unparalleled calamity happened
on th:s bridge within four years after it was finilhed.
A fire began on it at the Southwark end ; multitudes
ot people rulhed out of London to extinguifii it j while
they were engaged in this charitable defign, the fire
jciztd cn the oppofite end, and hemmed in the crowd.
Aoove 3000 perfons perifhed in the Harnes, or were
drowned by overloading the vefl'els which were hardy
enough to attempt their relief.
The narrownefs of the palTage on this bridge having
occafioned the lofs of many lives from the number of
carriages continually palling ; and the llraitnefs of’the
arches, with the enormous fize of the fterlings, which
occupied one-fourth part of the water-wav, having al¬
io occaliened frequent and fatal accidents, as already
mentioned ; the magiftrates of London in 1736 ob¬
tained an aff of parliament for improving and widen¬
ing the paffage over and through the bridge, which
granted them a toll for every carriage and horfe paffing
over it, and for every vefiel with goods palling through
it : but thefe tolls proving infufficient, were abolilhed
by an ad made in 1758 for explaining, amending, and
rendering the former aft more effeaUal; and for grant¬
ing the city of London money towards carrying on
that work. In confequence of thefe adls of parliament,
a temporary wooden bridge was built, and the houfes
on the old bridge were taken down. Inftead of a
naiiow fireet 23. feet wide, there is now a paffage of
3 1 feet for carriages, with a railed pavement of Hone
on each fide 7 feet broad for the ufe of foot paffen-
gers. I he fides are fecured by Hone baluftrades, en¬
lightened in the night with lamps. The paffage through
the bridge is enlarged by throwing the two middle
arches into one, and by other alterations and improve¬
ments } notwithflanding which, however, it is Hill
gieaJy fuojeft to its former inconveniences.—Under
tne fiift, fecond, and fourth arches, from the north
fide of the bridge, and now likewife towards the fouth-
e:n extremities, there are engines worked by the flux
and reflux of the river, the water of which they raife to
lucn^ a height as to iupply many parts of the city.
Inoie engines were contrived in 1582 by one Peter
Monce a Dutchman, and are called London-brifoe
water-woi-hs. By the report of a committee appointed
to conlider of the requifite improvements in and about
London, it was propofed to remove the prefent London
bridge, and to replace it by one of call iron 63 feet
high in the clear above high water. Part of the plan
which came under the confideration of the committee
London,
ar tne north fide ot London bridge Hands the The W
Monument, a beautiful and magnificent fluted column nument.
°t the Doric order, built with Portland Hone, and
erected m memory of the conflagration 1666. It was
begun by Sir ChriHopher Wren in 1671, and finilh¬
ed by him m 1677. Its height from the pavement is
20 2 feet: 3 the diameter of the lhaft, or body of the co¬
lumn, is 15 feet 3 the ground-plinth, or lowefi part
of the pedellal, is 28 feet fquare 3 and the pedelial is
4° feet high. Over ihe capital is an iron balcony en-
ccmpaflihg a core 32 feet high, which lupports a blaz-
ing urn of gilt brafs. Within is a large Haircafe of
jo,a/,’ ,contain5ng 345 fteps, each 10 inches
and a half broad, and fix inches thick. The welt fide
is adorned with a curious emblem in alt-relief, denoting
ine defirudtion and refioration of the city. 'The firfl
female figure reprdents London fitting in’ruins, in a
Enguiflung pofiure, with her head dejected, her hair
dilheveiled, and her hand carelefsly lying on her fword.
Behind is Time, gradually railing her up : at her fide
is a woman touching her with one hand, wbilH a wing-
ed Iceptre in the other direeffs her to regard the cr0d-
deffes in the clouds 3 one with a cornucopia, denot-
Plenty ; the other with a palm branch, the emblem
oi fence. At her feet is a bee hive, fliowing, that by
indufiry and application the greatefl misfortunes are to
be overcome.. Behind the figure of Time are citizens
exulting at his endeavours to reflore her 3 and beneath
in the midfi of the ruins, is a dragon, who, as the
lupporter of the city arms, with his paw endeavours to
prelerve the fame. Oppofite to the city, on an ele¬
vated pavement, Hands the king, in a Roman habit
with a laurel on his head, and a truncheon in his
hand 3 and approaching her, commands three of his
attendants to defeend to her relief. The firfl repre-
fents the Sciences with a winged head and circle of
naked boys dancing thereon 3 and holding Nature in
her hand, with her numerous breads, ready to give
affiflance to^ all. The fecond is Architecture, with a
plan in one hand, and fquare and a pair of compaffes
m tne other 3 and tne third is Liberty, waving a hat in
the air,. Ihowing her joy at the pleafing profpea of the
city’s fpeedy recovery. Behind the king Hands his
brother the duke of York, with a garland in one hand
to crown the rifing city, and a fword in the other for
her defence. The two figures behind are JuJlice and
Fortitude; the former with a coronet, and the latter
with a reined lion ; and under the royal pavement lies
Envy, gnawing a heart, and inceffantly emitting peHi-
ferous fumes from her month. On the plinth the re-
conflruaion of the city is reprefented by builders and
labourers at work upon houfes. On the north, fouth,
and call fides, are inferiptions relating to the defiruc-
tion occafion.ed by the conflagration, the regulations
about rebuilding the city, and ereaing the monument 3
and
/
LON [ 189 ] LON
London, and round it is the following one :—“ This pillar was
fet up in perpetual remembrance of the mqft dreadful
burning of this Proteftant city, begun and carried on
by the treachery and malice of the Popifti faition, in
the beginning of September, in the year of our Lord
1666, in order to their carrying on their horrid plot
for extirpating the Proteftant religion and old Engiifb
liberty, and introducing Popery and ilavery.” Dr
Wendeborn, in his account of London, ohierves, that
the monument, though not much above too years old,
bears viiible marks of decay already ; and it will not
probably be long before it muft be pulled down. Some
are of opinion that this is occalioned by the fault of
the architedl, others by the continual (baking of the
ground by coa.ches; but the doctor inclines to the
47 latter opinion.
The rower. Eaftward of the bridge and monument (lands the
Tower, which gives name to another ward. It is the
chief fortrefs of the city, and fuppofed to have-been
originally built by William the Conqueror. It ap¬
pears, however, to have been raifed upon the remains
of a more ancient fortrefs, erected probably by the Ro¬
mans : for in 1720, in digging on the fouth fide of
what is called Ceefar's Chapel, there were difcovered
fome old foundations of (tone, three yards broad, and
(o firongly cemented that it was with the utrnoft dif¬
ficulty they were forced up. The firft work (accord¬
ing to Mr Pennant) feems to have been fuddenly Hung
up in 1066 by the Conqueror, on his taking pofleftion
of the capital; and included in.it a part of the ancient
wall.
The great fquare tower, called the White Tower,
was erected in the year 1078, when it arofe under the
direttions of Gundulph biihop of Rochefter, who was a
great military architect. This building originally flood
by itfelf. Fitz-Stephen gives it the name of Arx Pa~
latina, “ the Palatine Tower j” the commander of
which had the title of Palatine beftovved on him. With¬
in this tower is a very ancient chapel for the ufe of fuch
of our kings and queens who wiftied to pay their de¬
votion here. In 1092 a violent temped did great in¬
jury to the Tower •, but it was repaired by William
Rufus and his fucceffor. The firft added another ca-
ftellated building on the fouth fide between it and the
Thames, which was afterwards called St Thomas's
Tower.
The Tower was firft enclofed by William Long-
champ bifhop of Ely and chancellor of England, in
the reign of Richard I. This haughty prelate having
a quarrel with John, third brother to Richard, under
pretence of guarding againft his defigns, furrounded
the whole with wails embattled, and made on the out-
fide a vaft ditch, into which, in after times, the water
from the Thames was introduced. Different princes
added other works. The prefent contents within the
walls are 12 acres and 5 rods, the circuit on the out-
fide of the ditch 1052 feet. It was again enclofed
with a mud wall, by Henry III. : this was placed at a
diftance from the ditch, and occafioned the taking
down part of the city-wall, which was refented by the
citizens; who, pulling down this precinct of mud,
were punifhed by the king with a fine of a thoufand
merks.
The Lions Toiver was built by Edward IV. It was
originally called the Bulwark, but received the former
name from its ufe. A menagery had very long been
a piece of regal date : Henry I. had his at his manor
of Woodftock, where he kept lions, leopards, lynxes,
porcupines, and feveral other uncommon beads. They
were afterwards removed to the Tower. Edward 11.
commanded the fheriffs of London to pay the keepers
of the king’s leopards fixpence a-day for the fufte-
nance of the leopards, and three halfpence a-day for
the diet of the keeper out of the fee-farm of the city.
The royal menagery is to this day exceedingly well
fupplied.
In 1758 the Tower ditch was railed all round. New
barracks were fome years ago eredled on the Tower
wharf, which parts it from the river •, and upon the
wharf is a line of 61 pieces of cannon, which are fired
upon date holidays. On this fide of the Tower the
ditch is narrow, and over it is a drawbridge. Parallel
to the wharf, within the walls, is a platform 70 yards
in length, called the Ladies Line, becaufe much fre¬
quented by the ladies in the fummer 5 it being (haded
in the infide with a row of lofty treees, and without
is a delightful profpect of the (hipping with boats paf-
fing and repafling on 'the river Thames. You afcend
this line by (tone Heps, and being once upon it you may
walk almoft round th^ walls of the Tower without in¬
terruption.
The principal entrance into the Tower is by a gate
to the weft, large enough to admit coaches and heavy
carriages $ but thefe are firft admitted through an out¬
ward gate, fituated without the ditch upon the hill,
and muft pafs a flout (tone bridge built over the ditch
before they can approach the main entrance. There
is, befides, an entrance near the very fouth-weft corner
of the Tower outward wall, for perions on foot, over
the drawbridge already mentioned to the wharf.
There is alfo a water-gate, commonly called Traitor's
gate, through which it has been cuftomary to convey
traitors and other (late prifoners to or from the Tower,
and which is feldom opened on any other occafion ;
but the lords committed to the Tower in 1 746 were
publicly admitted at the main entrance. Over this gate
is a regular building, terminated at each end by two
round towers, on which are embrafures for pointing
cannon. In this building there are the infirmary, the
mill, and 'the water-works that fupply the Tower with
water.
In the Tower, the curiofities of which at? more
particularly defcribed in the note (b), are a church,
the offices of ordnance and of the mint, thofe of the
keepers
(b) In examining the curiofities of the Tower of London, it will be proper to begin with thofe on the
outfide of the principal gate. The firft thing a (Danger ufually goes to vifit is the wild beads ; which, from
their fituation, firft; prefent themfelves: for having entered the outer gate, and paffed what is called the fpur-
guard, the keeper’s houfc prefents itfelf before you, which is known by a painted lion on the wall, and another
over
LON [ 190 ] LON
keepers of the records, of the jewel office, of the Spa-
nitli armoury, the horfe armoury, and the new or fmall
armoury ; with barracks for the foldiers of the garrifon,
and handfome houfes for feveral officers who refide here.
The principal officers of the Tower are, a conftable, a
lieutenant, and a deputy-lieutenant. Belonging to this
fortrefs are 11 hamlets •, the militia of which, conMing
of 400 men, are obliged, at the command of the con-
liable of the Tower, to repair hither, and reinforce the London,
garrifon. - —v--—*
On Little Tower-hill is the ViBualling office for they r/*8.
navy. It is feparated from Towerhill by a wall and office^
gate, and contains houfes for the officers, llaughter-
houfes, ftorerooms, a brewhoufe, a falting-houfe, and
barrelling-houfe ; under the direction of feven commif-
lioners and other inferior officers.
In
over the door which leads to their dens. By ringing a bell, and paying lixpence each perfon, you may eafily
gain admittance.
The next place worthy of obfervation is the Mint, which comprehends near one-third of the Tower, and
contains houfes for all the officers belonging to the coinage. On paffing the principal gate you fee the White
lower, built by William the Conqueror. This is a large, fquare, irregular done building, lituated almoll
in the centre, no one fide anfwcring to another, nor any of its watch-towers, of which there are four at the
top, built alike. One of thefe towers is now converted into an obfervatory. In the firft dory are two noble
rooms, one of which is a fmall armoury for the fea-fervice, it having various forts of arms, very curioufly laid
up, for above 10,000 feamen. In the other room are many clofets and prefles, all filled with warlike engines
and indruments of death. Over this are two other floors, one principally filled with arms j the other with
arms and other warlike indruments, as fpades, (hovels, pickaxes, and chevaux de frize. In the upper dory
-are kept match, (heep-lkins, tanned hides, &c. and in a little room called Julius Caefar’s chapel, are depofited
fome records, containing perhaps the ancient ufages and cudoms of the place. In this building are alfo pre-
ferved the models of the new-invented engines of deftru&ion that have from time to time been prefented to
the government. Near the fouth-wed angle of the White Tower is the Spanifli armoury, in which are de¬
pofited the fpoils of what was vainly called the‘Invincible Armada •, in order to perpetuate to lated poderity
the memory of that fignal viflory obtained by the Lngliffi over the whole naval power of Spain in the reign
of Philip II.
You are now come to the grand dorehoufe, a noble building to the northward of the White Tower, tha&
extends 245 feet in length and 60 in breadth. It was begun by King James II. who built it to the fird floor ;
but it was finiffied by King William III. who erefted that magnificent room called the New or Small Ar¬
moury, in which that prince, with Queen Mary his confort, dined in great form, having all the warrant work¬
men and labourers to attend them, d re fled in white gloves and aprons, the ufual badges of the order of ma-
fonry. I o this noble room you are led by a folding door, adjoining to the eafi end of the Tower chapel,
which leads to a grand daircafe of 50 eafy deps. On the left fide of the uppermod landing-place is the
work-ffiop, in which are condantly employed about 14 furbiffiers, in cleaning, repairing, and newr-placing the
arms. On entering the armoury, you fee what they call a wildernefs of arms, fo artfully difpofed, that at
one view you behold arms for near 80,000 men, all bright and fit for fervice ; a fight which it is impoflible
to behold without adonifiiment 5 and befide thole expofed to view, there were, before the late war, 16 cheds
(hut up, each ched holding about 1000 mulkets. The arms were originally diipofed by Mr Harris, who con¬
trived to place them in this beautiful order, both here and in the guard-chamber of Hampton-court. He was a
common gunfmith 5 but after he had performed this work, which is the admiration of people of all nations, he
was allowed a penlion from the crown for his ingenuity.
Upon the ground floor, under the fmall armoury, is a large room of equal dimenfions with that, fupported.
by 20 pillars, all hung jound with implements of war. This room, which is 24 feet high, has a paltage in the
middle 16 feet wide. At the fight of fuch a variety of the mod dreadful engines of dedru&ion, before whofe
thunder the mod fuperb edifices, the nobled works of art, and numbers of the human fpecies, fall together in one
common and undiftinguilhed ruin } one cannot help wiffiing that thole horrible inventions had dill lain, like a
falfe conception, in the wTomb of nature, never to have been ripened into birth.
The horfe armoury is a plain brick building, a little to the eadv/ard of the White Tovrer j and is an edifice
rather convenient than elegant, where the fpe&ator is entertained with a reprefentation of thofe kings and heroes
of our own nation, with whofe gallant anions* it is to be fuppofed he is well acquainted 5 fome of them equipped
and fitting on horfeback, in the fame bright and (hining armour they were ufed to wTear when they performed
thofe glorious afrions which gave them a didinguiflied place in the Britilh annals.
Y ou now come to the line of kings, which your conductor begins by reverfing the order of chronology j fo
that in following them we mud place the lad fird.
In a dark, drong done room, about 20 yards to the eadward of the grand dorehoufe, or new armoury,
the crown jewels are depofited. 1. The imperial crown, with wffiich it is pretended that all the kings of
England have been crowned fince Edward the Confeffor in 1040. It (is of gold, enriched with diamonds,
rubies, emeralds, fapphires, and pearls : the cap within is of purple velvet, lined with white taffetv, turned
up with three rows of ermine. I hey are, however, midaken in (bowing this as the ancient imperial diadem
of St Edward $ for that, with tne other mod ancient regaiia of this kingdom, was kept in the arched room
in the cloiders in Wedminder Abbey till the civil war: when, in 1642, Harry Martin, by order of the
parliament, broke open the iron ched in which it was fecured, took it thence, and fold it, together with the
3 robes,
London.
49
Cuftom-
lioufe.
LON [i
In Tower ward is alfo tlie Cujlomhoufe, a large,
handfome, and commodious building of brick, and ftonc.
It Hands upon the bank of the Thames, and is ac¬
commodated with large wharfs, keys, and warehoufes.
On this fpot is the bufy concourfe of all nations, who
pay their tribute towards the fupport of Great Hvr-
tain. About the year 1559, t^ie to t^e revenue5
by collefting it in different part* of the city, was firfl
difcovered, and an a6f paffed to compel people to land
1 ] LON
their goods in fuch places as were appointed by the
comminioners of the revenue } and this was the ipct
fixed on : A cuftomhoufe was erefted *, which, ^being
deftroyed by the great fire, was rebuilt by Charles 11.
In 1 y 18 it underwent the fame fate, and was reilored
in its prefent form. Before the cuffomhoufe was
eftabliIhed here, the principal place for receiving the
duties was at Billingfgate. In 1268 the half year’s
cuftoms for foreign merchandife in the city of London
came
robes, fword, and fcepTe, of St Edward. However, after the Reftoration, King Charles II. had one made
in imitation of it, which is that now fliown. 2. The golden orb, or globe, put into the king’s right hand
before he is crowned : and borne in his left hand, with the fceptre in his right, upon his return into Weft-
minfter-hall after he is crowned. It is about fix inches in diameter, edged with pearl, and enriched with, pre¬
cious ftones. On the top is an amcthyfi, of a violet colour, near an inch and a half in height, fet with a
rich crofs bf gold, adorned with diamonds, pearls, and precious ftones. The whole height of the ball, and
cup is ix inches. 3. The golden fceptre, with its- crofs fet upon a large amethyft of great value, garniftied
round with table diamonds. Lhe handle of the fceptre is plain, but the pummel is fet round w-ith rubies, eme¬
ralds, and fmall diamonds. The top rifes into a Jleur de Us of fix leaves, all enriched with precious ftones,
from whence iffues a mound or ball, made of the amethyft; already mentioned. The crofs is quite covered
with precious ftones. 4. The fceptre, with the dove, th(? emblem of peace, perched on the top of a fmall
Jerufalem crofs, finely ornamented with table diamonds and jewels of great value. This emblem, was firft uied
by Edward the Confeffor, as appears by his feal j but the ancient fceptre and dove was fold with the reft of
the regalia, and this now in the Tower was made after the Reftoration. 5* St Edward’s ftaff, four feet feven
inches and a half in length, and three inches three quarters in circumference, all of beaten gold, which is
carried before the king at his coronation. 6. The rich crown of ftate, worn by his majefty in paniament $
in which is a large emerald feven inches round ; a pearl efteemed the fineft in the world \ and a ruby of inefti-
mable value, y. The crown belonging to his royal highnefs the prince of Wales. Ihe king wears his crown
on his head when he fits upon the throne j but that ox the prince of Wales is placed before him, to fhow that
he is not yet come to it. 8. The late Queen Mary’s crown, globe, and fceptre, with the diadem ftie wore
at her coronation with her confort King William III. 9. An ivory fceptre, with a dove on the top, made
for King James IL’s queen, whofe garniture is gold, and the dove on the top gold enamelled with white.
10. The curtana, or fword of mercy, which has a blade of 32 inches long, and near two broad, is without
a point, and is borne naked before the king at his coronation, between the two (words of juftice, fpiritual
and temporal. 11. The golden fpurs, and the armillas, which are bracelets for the wrifts. Ihefe, though
very antique, are worn at the coronation. 12. The ampulla, or eagle of gold, finely engraved, which holds
the holy oil the kings and queens of England are anointed with *, and the golden fpoon that the biihop pours
the oil into. Thefe are two pieces of great antiquity. The golden eagle, including the pedeftal, is about
nine inches high, and the wings expand about feven inches. The whole weighs about ten ounces. The head
of the eagle fcrews off about the middle of the neck, which is made hollow fpr holding the holy oil ; and
when the king is anointed by the biihop, the oil is poured into the fpcon out of the bird’s bill. 13. A rich
faltfeller of ftate, in form like the fquare White Tower, and fo exquifitely wrought, that the workmanlhip of
modern times is in no degree equal to it. It is of gold, and ufed only on the king’s table at the coronation.
14. A noble filver font, double gilt, and elegantly wrought, in which the royal family are chriftened. 15. A
large filver fountain prefented to King Charles II. by the town of Plymouth, very curioufiy wrought 5 but much
inferior in beauty to the above. Befides thefe, which are commonly fhown, there are in the jewel office ail the
crown jewels worn by the princes and princefles at coronations, and a great variety of curious old plate.
The record office conftfts of three rooms, one above another, and a large round room, where the rolls are kept.
Thefe are all handfomely wainfcotted, the wainfcot being framed into preffes round each room, within which are
Ihelves and repofttories for the records j and for the eafier finding of them, the year of each reign is infcribed on
the infide of thefe preffes, and the records placed accordingly. Within thefe preffes, which amount to 56 in
number, are depofited all the rolls, from the firft year of the reign of King John to the beginning of the reign of
Richard III. but thofe after this laft period are kept in the Rolls Chapel. The records in the Tower, among
other things, contain the foundation of abbeys and other religious houfes j the ancient tenures of all the lands in
England, with a furvey of the manors j the original of laws and ftatutes j proceedings of the courts of common
law and equity •, the rights of England to the dominion of the Britiffi feas j leagues and treaties with foreign
princes: the achievements of England in foreign wars 5 the fettlement of Ireland, as to law and dominion 5 the
forms of fubmiffion of fome Scottiffi kings for territories held in England j ancient grants of our kings to their
fubjeiBs; privileges and immunities granted to cities and corporations during the period above mentioned j enrol¬
ments of charters and deeds made before the conqueft 5 the bounds of all the forefts in England, with the feveral
refpeiftive rights of the inhabitants to common pafture, and many other important records, all regularly difpofed,
and referred to in near a thoufand folio indexes. This office is kept open, and attendance conftcintly given, from
feven o’clock till one, except in the months of December, January, and February, when it is open only from eight
to one, Sundays and holidays excepted. A fearch here is half a guinea, for which you may perufe any one fub*
jeft a year.
London.
L O N
. 5°
Trinity
Houfe.
51
The Mi-
52
India Com¬
pany’s
'warehoufe:
came only to 75I. 6s. lod. ; the annual produce of
the cuftoms, ending in April 1789, amounted to
3,7M,T 261.
In Water-lane, a little to the north-wed: of the
Cuflomhoufe, is the Irimty Iloije ; a fociety founded in
1515, at a period in which the Brititidi navy began to
a flume a fyftem. The founder was Sir Thomas Spert,
comptroller of the navy, and commander of the great
fhip Henry Grace de Dieu. It is a corporation,
confiding of a mailer, four wardens, eight affiit-
ants, and eighteen elder brethren ; feledted from com¬
manders in the navy and the merchants fervice j
and now and then a compliment Is paid to one or
two of our firil nobility. They may be confidered
as guardians of our ihips, military and commercial.
Their powers are very extenfive : they examine the ma-
thematicial children of Chrift’s hofpital, and the maders
of his majedy’s (hips ; they appoint pilots for the river
l names; fettle the general rates of pilotage 5 eredt
light houfes and fea marks ; grant licenfes to poor
feamen, not free of the city, to row on the Thames;
prevent foreigners from ferving on board our ihit s
without licenie ; puniih feamen for mutiny and defer-
Lion ; hear and determine complaints ot officers and
men in the merchants fervice, but liable to appeal to
the judge of the court of admiralty ; fuperintend the
deepening and cleanfing of the river Thames, a d
have under their juriidicfion the ballad office ; have
powers to buy lands, and receive donations for chari¬
table ufes ; and in confequence, relieve annually many
thoufands of poor feamen, their widows, and orphans.
It is in this houfs the bufinefs of the inditution is
carried on : but the mother houfe'is at Deptford, the
corporation being named, “ the mader, wardens, and
affidants of the guild or fraternity of the mod glori¬
ous and undivided Trinity, and of St Clement, in
the pariffi of Deptford Strond, in the county of
Kent.”
Between Aldgate and the Tower is the dreet called
the Minor;es, from fame poor ladies of the order of
St Clare, or minorefles. They had been invited to
London by Blanch queen of Navarre, and wife to Ed¬
mund earl of Lancader, who founded a convent for
them in 1293. On the fuppreffion of the monaderies
it was converted into a dwelling houfe for ffime of the
nobility, and is now in ‘he pofieffion of the Dartmouth
family, dill of late years, the Minories were but a
defpicable dreet} but have now been excellently re-
builtv and are as elegant as any in the city.
On the wed fide of the city walls at this place, dood
the houfe of the Crunched or CroJJed Friars, an order
inflituted at Bologna in 1169, and of which a branch
fettled in England in 1 244, where they were accom¬
modated with a houfe in this place by two citizens
named Ralph Hqfler and William Sabernas, who became
members of their order. Henry VIII. granted their
houfe to Sir Thomas Wyat the elder, who built a
handfome manfion on part of the ground where it
dood. This manfion became afterwards the refidence
of John Lord Lumley, a celebrated warrior in the
time of Henry VIII. In procefs of time, it was con¬
verted into a navy office : but this office being remov-
’ed to Somerfet-houfe, the India Company have erect¬
ed in its place a med magnificent warehoufe, in form
of an oblong fquare of about 250 feet by 160, enclof-
L 192 ]
L O N
ing a court or 130 by 60 feet, the entrance to which London.
is by an arched gateway. ' 
.-Billingfgate vvai'd is didinguiffied by its market, •
Bii/ingfgate was a imall port for the reception of fhip-gate!^
ping, and for a confiderable time the mod important
place for the landing of aimed every article of com¬
merce. In the time of King William, Eiilingfgate
began to be celebrated as a ftth-mavket. In 1699 it
was by act of parliament made a free port for fith to
be fold there every day except Sunday •, but Mr Pen¬
nant informs us, that the objeft of this has long been
frudrated, and that fifli are now no longer to be had
there in perfeclion. The fame author gives a lid of
the fiffi which in the time of Edward HI. were
brought to the London market; the monarch himfelf
having condefcended to regulate the prices, that his
fubjefts might not be irnpofed upon by thofe who
foid them. Among thefe were the conger-eel and
porpoife, neither of which is now admitted to any
table. A pike at that time cod 6r. 8d.; whence cur
author concludes, that it was an exotic fiffi, and brought
oyer at a vad expence. Some fifties are mentioned^in
his Hit with which this naturalid owns himfelf unac¬
quainted, viz. the barkey, b?’an, batrile, cropling, and
rumb. In Archbiffiop Nevill’s great fead is mention¬
ed alfo a fitffi named thirle-poole, unknown at prefent.
Seals were formerly accounted a filli ; and thefe, to¬
gether with the durgeon and porpoife, were the only
freffi fidi permitted by the 3^ of Henry VIII. to be
bought of any dranger at fea between England, France
Flanders, and Zealand. ° ’ ^
Limedreet ward is remarkable for a very large build- Leaatlihall.
ing of great antiquity, called Leadenha/l, with fiat
battlements leaded on the top, and a fpacious fquare
in the middle. In 1309 it was the houfe of Sir Hugh
Nevill, knight; in 1384, of Humphry Bohun earl of
Hereford ; in 1408 it became the property of the ce¬
lebrated Whittington, who prefented it to the mayor
and commonalty of London; and in 1419, a public
granary was erefted here by Sir Sifnon Eyre, a citi¬
zen and draper, who built it with done in its prefent
form. This granary was defigned as a prefervative
againd famine, and to be kept always full of corn,
whnffi defign was ror fome time happily anfwered. The
houfe came to be ufed for many other purpofes befides
that of a granary ; as for keeping the artillery and
arms, of the city. Preparations for any kind of pageantry
or ti’umph were alfo made here ; .and from its drength
the place was confidered as the chief fortrefs within
the city in cafe of any popular infurre&ion, and was
likewife the place from whence alms were didributed.
In this edifice are warehoufes for the fale of leather, Col-
cheder baize, meal, and wool. Adjoining to Leaden-
hall is a market, thence called Leadenhallmarket con-
diting of five confiderable fquares or courts, and rec¬
koned one of the greated markets in Europe for
fiedi and other prpvifions; as well as for leather
green hides, and wool. • A little to the eadward is --
the India lloufe, built in 1726, on the fpot occupied The India--
by Sir William Craven, mayor in 1610. AccordingHoufe-
to Mr Pennant, this houfe “ is not worthy of the lords
of Indodan.”
In Broad-dreet is the Bank of England, a done build- Bam?of
ing, which occupies one fide of Threadneedle-drcet.England.
I he centre, and the building behiijd, were founded
LON
londcti. in the year 1733 > the architedl Georg<
—y ; jvefore that time the bufinefs was tranfaCted in Gro-
cers-hall. The front is a fort of veitibule 5 the bafe
ruliic, the ornamental columns above Ionic. Within
is a court leading to a fecond elegant building, which
contains a hall and offices, where the debt of above
250 mil liens is punftually difeharged. Of late years
two wings of uncommon elegance, detigned by Sir
Robert Taylor, have been added, at the expence of
a few houfes, and of the church of St Chriftopher’s
le Stocks. “ T he name of the projector of this national
glory (fays Mr Pennant), was Mr James Paterfon of
Scotland. This palladium of out country was in
17 So laved from the fury of an infamous banditti
by the virtue of its citizens, who formed fuddenly a
volunteer company, and overawed the mifereants ;
while the chief magiRrate ikulked trembling in his
manlion-houfe, and left his important charge to its
fate. This important building has ever fince been
very properly guarded by the military ; who, in paf-
fing through the city, have often given offence to
many bufy charadlers who would drive to preferve the
city rights at the expence of the national deftrudfion.
A lord mayor was the laft who interefted himfelf by
applying to Mr Grenville, who gave him to under-
11 and, that if the guards were not quietly permitted
to difeharge their duty, the bank would be removed
to Somerfet-houfe.”
At the extremity of Tbreadneedle-ffreet is Mer-
chant- Taylors Hall. In this ilreet alfo is the South Sea
Houfe, firil eflablilhed in 1711 for the purpofe of an
exclulive trade to the South fea, and for fupplying
Spanidi America with negroes.
Near the junction of Throgmorton-dreet with
Broad-dreet dcod a magnificent houfe built by Crom¬
well earl of Effex ; after whole fall, the houfe and
gardens were bought by the Drapers company. The
houfe u’as dedroyed in the great tire, but rebuilt for the
ufe of the company in a magnificent manner.
Mr Pennant informs us, that St Giles's church in the
fields, and a few houfes to the wed of it, in the year
1600, were barely feparated from Broad-drert. The
church is fuppofed to have belonged to an hofpital for
lepers, founded about the year' 1117, by Matilda queen
to Henry I. In ancient times it was cudomary here
to prefent to malefaftors, on their wTay to the gallows
(which, about the year 1413, was removed from
Sraithfield, and placed between St Giles’s high-dreet
and Hog lane (c), a great bowl of ale, as the lad
refrelhment they were to receive in this kfe. On
the door to the churchyard is a curious piece of
feulpture, reprefenting the lad day, containing an
amazing number of figures, let up about the year
Vol. XII. Part I.
f 193 - ] L O N'
Sampfon. 1686. This church was rebuilt in 1625. By the Tor.Ioa.
amazing railing of the ground by filth nnd vari-
ous adventitious matter, the door in the year 173°
57
Merchant-
Taylors
Hall, Sic.
5s
St Giles’s.
* -rr • r . ,
order. On the diffolution ol the mo-Winchefter
great part of the houle was granted to
eight feet below the furface acquired in the
intervening time. This alone made it neceffary to re¬
build the church in the prefent century. The fird
done was laid in I’jgo } it was finilhed in 1734. at the
expence' of io,oool.— In the churchyard is a great
fquare pit, witb many rows of coffins piled one upon
the other, all expofed to fight and frnell, the latter of
which is highly offenfive il not dangerous.
On the wed dde of Broad dreet dood the houfe of
the Augudines, founded by Humphrey Bohun earl
of Somerfet in 1253, for friars and hermits of the
Augudine
naderies,
William Lord St John, afterwards marquis of Win-
cheder, and lord treafurer, who founded a magni¬
ficent houfe named Winchejler-houfe. The wed end of
the church wTas granted in 1551 to John & Lafco for
the ule of the Germans and other fugitive Protedants,
and afterwards to the Dutch as a place for preach¬
ing. A part of it was alfo converted into a glafs-
houfe for Venice glafs, in which the manufadlure was
carried on by artids from that city, and patronifed by
the duke of Buckingham. The place was afterwards
converted into Pinners-ha/l, belonging to the company
ol pinmakers. ^
To the eadward of Winchefler-dreet dood the houfe Qre^rMH
of that very eminent merchant Sir Thomas Greffiam, af- College,
terwards known by the name of Grepsarn college: (See
Gresham:) It has been pulled down not many years gj
ago ; and the Excife Office, a mod magnificent and at Excife
the lame time dnople building, rofe in its place. Mr Office.
Pennant informs us, that from the 5th of January 1786
to January 5th 1787, the payments into this office
amounted to no lefs than 5,33 1,11 4I. 6s. io-§-d.
The Royal Exchange, which is the meeting place of Royal Ex
the merchants of London, Hands in the ward of^ange.
Cornhill, and is the fined and dronged fabric of
the kind in Europe. It was founded in the year
1566. Sir Thomas Grediam merchant in London,
made an bffer to the lord mayor and citizens, to build,
at his own expence, a commodious edifice for mer¬
chants to meet and tranfaft bufinefs, provided the city
would find him a convenient fituation for the fame.
Mr Pennant informs us, that one Richard Clough a
Weldunan, originally Sir Thomas’s fervant, fird put
him on this defign by a letter from Antwerp, in which
he reproached the London merchants with having no
place to tranfaft their bufinefs, but walking about in
the rain, more like pedlars than merchants. The ci¬
tizens, in compliance with Sir Thomas’s defire, pur-
B b chafed,
(c) Lhis late place of execution, according to Mr Pennant, was called in the time of Edward III. when
the gentle Mortimer finilhed his days here, the Elms: but the original as well as the prefent name wras Ty-
hourne ; not from tye and burn, as if it were called fo from the manner of capital puniihments •, but from bourne,
the Saxon word for a “ brook,” and Tye the name of that brook, which joined gave name to a manor before
the conqued. Here was alfo a village and church denominated St John the Evangelif, which fell to decay,
and vvas fucceeded by that of Mnry bonrne, corrupted into Mary la-bonne. In 1626, Queen Henrietta
Maria was compelled by her prie' * • r,ke walk bv way of penance to Tyburn. What her offence was we
are not told ; but Charles was f gtulcu a-, this infoknee, that he foon after lent them and all her maiedy’g
French fervants out of the kingdom.
LON [194 ] L O N
London, clvafed, fov the furti of 3532I. So lioufes in the two
v alleys called New St Chriftopher1 s and Swan-alley, lead¬
ing out of Cornhill into Threadneedle-flreet, The
materials of thofe houfes were fold for 47 81. and the
ground, when cleared, was conveyed to Sir Thomas
Grelham, w’ho, accompanied by feveral aldermen, laid
the firft brick of the new building on the 7th of June
that year. Each alderman alfo laid his brick, and
left a piece of gold for the workmen ; who fet about
it with fuph affiduity and refolution, that the whole
fabric wTas roofed by the month of November 1567,
and was foon after completed under the name of the
Eurfe. This building was totally deftroyed by the
j&re in 1666; and in its place the prefent magnificent
ftrufture was eredled at the expence of 8o,oool.
which Hands upon a plat of ground 203 feet in length
and 171 in breath, containing an area in the middle,
of 61 fijuare perches, furrounded with a fubftantial
and regular Hone building, wrought in ruftic. It has
two fronts, north and fouth, each of which is a piaz¬
za j and in the centre are the grand entrances into
the area, under a very lofty and noble arch. The
fouth front in Cornhill is the principal; on each fide
of which are Corinthian demi-columns, fupporting a
compafs pediment; and, in the intercolumniation on
each fide, in the front next the ftreet, is a niche, with
the ftatues of King Charles I. and II. in Roman ha¬
bits, and well executed. Over the aperture, on the
cornice between the two pediments, are the king’s
arms in relievo^ on each fide of this entrance is a
range of windows placed between demi-columns and
pilaifers of the compofite order, above which runs a
baluftrade. This building is 56 feet high ; and from
the centre, in this front, rifes a lanthorn and turret
178 feet high, on the top of which is a vane of gilt
brafs made in the ftiape of a gralhopper, the creft
of Sir Thomas Grelham’s arms. The north front in
Threadneedle-ftreet is adorned with pilafters of the
eompofite order j but has neither columns nor ftatues
on the outfide j and has triangular, inftead of com¬
pafs, pediments. The in fide of the area is alfo fur- Londc
rounded with piazzas, forming ambulatories for mer- ''•“'"v*
chants, &c. to fhelter themfeives from the weather,
when met there upon bufinefs. Above the arches
of this piazza is an entablature with curious orna¬
ments : and on the cornice a range of pilafters with
an entablature extending round, and a compafs pedi¬
ment in the middle of the cornice of each of the four
fides. Under the pediment on the north fide are the
king’s arms; on the fouth, the city’s arms 5 on the
eaft, Sir Thomas Greftiam’s arms ; and on the weft,
the mercers arms, with their refpeftive enrichments.
In thefe intercolumns are 24 niches, 20 of which are
filled with the ftatues of the kings and queens of Eng¬
land. Under thefe piazzas, within the area, are 28
niches, all vacant but that in which Sir Thomas Gre¬
ftiam’s ftatue is placed in the north-weft angle, and
that in the fouth-weft, wdiere the ftatue of Sir John
Barnard w7as placed in his lifetime by his fellow-citi¬
zens to exprefs their fenfe of his merit. The centre
of this area alfo is ornamented with a ftatue of King
Charles II. in a Roman habit, Handing upon a marble
pedeftal about eight feet high, and encompalfed with
iron rails; which pedeftal is enriched on the fouth
fide with an imperial crown, a feeptre, fword, palm-
branches, and other decorations, with a very flattering
infeription to the king. On the weft fide is a Cupid
cut in relievo, refting his right hand on a ftiield, wuth
the arms of France and England quartered, and hold¬
ing a rofe in his left hand. On the north fide is an¬
other Cupid fupporting a ftiield, with the arms of
Ireland j and on the eaft fide are the arms of Scot¬
land, with a Cupid holding a thiftle ; all done in re¬
lievo: the whole executed by that able ftatuary Mr
Gibbon.
In this area, merchants, and fuch as have bufinefs
with them, meet every day at change hours } and for
the more regular and readier defpatch of bufinefs, they,
difpofe of themfeives into feparate walks, according to
the following plan.
North.
Threadneedle-Street.
Eaft country
walk.
Iriih
walk.
Scotch
walk.
Dutch and
Jewellers.
Clothiers
walk.
Silkmens
walk.
Turkey
walk.
Hamburgh
walk.
Salters
walk.
Grocers
and
Druggifts
walk.
Virginia
walk.
Jamaica
walk.
Brokers
of Stock,
&c. walk.
Italian
walk.
?r
Spanilh
wTalk.
Jew§
walk.
CZJ
§.
5* t5*
Cornhill.
'South.
In
^3
General
Poft Office,
64
-The Man-
fion-houfe.
LON [19
London. In building this expenfive Itruchire there was an eye
—■' not only to magnificence, and to accommodate the
merchants, but alfo to reimburfe the expence. For
this reafon a gallery was built over the four fides of
the Royal Exchange. This was divided into 2CO lliops,
which were let out to haberdalhers, milliners, &c. and
which for feveral years were well occupied. But thefe
lliops have now for a long time been deferted, and the
galleries are let out to the Royal Exchange Affurance-
Olfice, the Merchant-feamen’s Office, the Marine So¬
ciety, and to audfioneers, &c. Under the whole area
there are the fineft dry vaults that can be found any¬
where, which are let out to the Eaft-India Company
to depofite their pepper. In the turret is a good clock,
with four dials, which is well regulated every day, fo
that it becomes a ftandard of time to all the mercan¬
tile part of the town 5 and it goes with chimes at
three, fix, nine, and twelve o’clock, playing upon
twelve bells. The outfide of this grand fabric fuffers
very much in its elegance from the fhops that furround
it, and are built within its w^alls j and which are occu¬
pied by bookfellers, toymen, cutlers, hofiers, watch¬
makers, &c.
South of the Royal Exchange, and near the wreft
. extremity of Lombard-ftreet, is the General Pojl Office,
which is a handfome and commodious building.
In Walbrook ward is the Manjion-houfe, for the re-
fidence of the lord mayor. This edifice was begun in
1739, and finifhed in 1753. It is built of Portland
ftone, with a portico of fix fluted columns, of the
Corinthian order, in the front. The bafement ftory
is very mafly, and confifts of ruftic work ; in the centre
«f it is the door, w'hich leads to the kitchen, cellars,
and other offices. On each fide riles a flight of fteps,
leading up to the portico, in the middle of wdiich is
the principal entry. The ftone baluftrade of the flairs
is continued along the front of the portico, and the
'Columns fupport a large angular pediment, adorned
with a group of figures in bas relief, reprefenting the
dignity and opulence of the city of London. It is an
extremely heavy building, of an oblong form, and its
depth is the long fide, having feveral magnificent apart¬
ments, which are not, however, wTell lighted, on account
of the houfes that furround it.
„ Behind the Manfion-houfe is St Stephen's Church,
in Walbrook, juftly reputed the mafterpiece of the
celebrated Sir Chriftopher Wren, and is faid to ex¬
ceed every modern ftrudlure in the world in proportion
and elegance.
The Manfion-houfe, and many adjacent buildings,
ftand on the place where the Stocks-market once flood.
This took its name from a pair of flocks eretted near
the fpot in 12815 and was the great market of London
gg for provifions during many centuries.
London- In this ward is fituated one of the moft remarkable
ftone. pieces of antiquity in London. It is a great ftone,
now ftanding in a cafe on the north fide of Canon-
flreet, clofe under the fouth wall of St Swithin’s
church. It is called Lotidon-Jione; and was formerly
pitched edgeways on the other fide of the ftreet, oppo-
fite to wrhere it now Hands, fixed deeply in the ground,
and ftrongly faftened with iron bars *, but for the con-
veniency of wheel-carriages it was removed to its pre-
fent fituation. This ftone is mentioned fo early as
the time of Athelflan, king of the Weft Saxons, and
65
St Stephen
Church.
5 3 L O N
has been carefully prefcrved from age to tige. Of the London,
original caufe of its ereftion no memorial remains; but ' ^ J
it is conjeflured, that as London was a Roman city,
this ftone might be the centre, and might ferve as an
objeft from wdiich the diftance was computed to the
other confiderable cities or ftations in the province. ^
In Dowgate ward is a noted academy, called .Mi?/*-Merchant-
chant-Taylors School, from its having been founded by laylors
the merchant-taylors company, in the year 15614 Iti,c ‘'J0“
was deftroyed by the fire of London in 1666, but was
rebuilt, and is a very large ftruflure, with commodi¬
ous apartments for the mafters and ulhers, and a fine
library. Sir Thomas White, lord mayor of this city,
having founded St John’s college in Oxford in 1557*
appointed this fchool as a feminary for it, and efta-
blifhed at Oxford 46 fellowlhips for fcholars elecled
from this fchool. 68
The church of St Mary le Bow, in Cordwainers- St Mary k
ftreet ward, is the moft eminent parochial church in the Low.
city. It wras originally built in the reign of William
the Conqueror ; and being the firft church the fteeple
of which was embelliflied with ftone arches or bows,
took thence its denomination of le Bow. It was burnt
down in the fire of 1666, but foon afterwards rebuilt.
The fteeple of this church is reckoned the moft; beauti¬
ful of its kind in Europe.
In Cheap w7ard is Guildhall, or the tovvnhoufe of Guildhall.
London. This was originally built in 1411, but fo
damaged by the great fire already mentioned, as to
be rebuilt in 1669. The front has a Gothic appear¬
ance ; and this chara&er is alfo due to the two gi¬
gantic effigies which ftand within the hall. The hall
is 153 feet long, 50 broad, and 55 high, adorned with
the royal arms, and thofe of the city and its compa¬
nies, as well as with feveral portraits of Englifti fove-
reigns and judges. In this building are many apart¬
ments for tranfa<Eling the bufinefs of the city, befides
one for each of the judicial courts, namely, that of the
King’s Bench, the Common Pleas, and the Exchequer. 70
In the year 1246 Cheapfide was an open field, Cheapfide,
named Crown field, from an inn writh the fign of the
crown. At that time, and even for 200 years after¬
wards, none of the ftreets of London were paved ex¬
cepting Thames-llreet, and from Ludgate-hill to Cha-
ring-Crofs.
Goldfmiths Hall Hands in Fofter-lane, which opens Goldimiths
into the weft end of Cheapfide.—In this lane alfo is Hall.
St Martin’s le Grand, which, though furrounded by^^^
the city, was yet fubje£l, near three centuries, toi, Grancp
Weftminfter Abbey. A fine college was built here
in 700 by Wythred king of Kent 5 and, about the
year 1056, rebuilt and chiefly endowed by Ingelric
and Edward, two noble brothers. In 1068, it was con¬
firmed and made independent of every other ecclefiafti-
cal jurifdi£lion, even that of the pope himfelf not ex¬
cepted 5 and its privileges were confirmed by fucceed-
ing monarchs. It was governed by a dean, and a
number of fecular canons. In this jurifdiclion a mag¬
nificent church w7as eredled, but pulled down in 1548,
when the college was furrendered 5 after which a tavern
was ere£led on the fpot.
A little to the weftward of Mary le Bow church
(in the adjoining ward), flood the Crofs and Conduit and Con--
in the middle of the ftreet. The former was built "by duit.
Edward I. in 1 290, in memory of his queen Eleanor,
B b 2 whole
London.
74
Mercers
Hall,
75
CM Jewry.
L O N
wTiofe body was refled on that fpot in its way to be
buried. Originally it had the ftatue of the queen at
full length, relerabling exaflly that at Northampton.
Having at length fallen to decay, it was rebuilt in
14^1 by John Hutherby mayor of the city, at the ex¬
pence of feveral citizens, being now ornamented with
various images, as thofe of the Rcfurreclion, the Vir¬
gin Mary, &c. As the magnificent proceflions took
this road, it was new gilt'at every public entry. After
the Reformation, the images gave fo much offence,
that it was thought proper to fubftitute that of Diana
in place of the Virgin Mary. This, however, w’as
relented by Queen Elizabeth, who offered a reward
for the difcovery of the offenders. As fire imagined
that a crofs, the fymbol of the Chriftian religion,
could not juftly give offence to any profeffor of that
religion, fhe ordered a crofs to be placed on the fum-
mit and gilt *, but in 1643, ^ Parliament ordered the
demolition of all croffes and other marks of Romifh fu-
perflition.
Splendid tournaments were held between the Crofs
and Sopers-lane in the year 1331 ; but as Queen Phi¬
lippa and a great number of other ladies, dreifed in rich
attire, were fitting on the upper fcaffolding to behold
’the fports, the feat gave way, and they fuddenly fell
down among the knights and others who flood below j
many of whom were grievoufly hurt. The carpenters
were faved from punifliment by the intercefflon of the
queen •, but the king, to prevent accidents of the like
nature, ordered a building of flone to be erected near
Bow church, from whence the queen and other ladies
might behold fuch fpeftacles in fafety. This w^as ufed
for the fame purpofe till the year 1410, when Henry IV.
granted it to certain mercers, who converted it into
ihops, warehonfes, and other places neceffary for their
trade.
A fmall diftance eaftward from the Crofs flood the
Conduit, which ferved to fill the Itfler ones with wa¬
ter brought by pipes from Paddington.—This flood on
the Ipot where the old conduit was fituated, which was
founded in 1285, conftrudled of ftone lined with lead,
and rebuilt in 1479 ^7 Thomas Ilan, one of the fheriffs.
On feme grand occafions, thefe conduits have been
made to run with claret j as at the coronation of Anna
Bullen.
On the north fide of Cheapfide flood the Ilofpilal of
St Thomas of slcon, founded by Fitz-Theobald de Hel-
les, and his wife Agnes, After to the famous Thomas
a Becket. The hoipital was built 20 years after the
murder of Thomas 5 and fuch was his reputation for
fanftity, that it was dedicated to him even before he
w'as canonized, and that in conjundlion with the Vir¬
gin Mary herfelf. The wdiole was granted by King
Henry VIII. to the company of mercers. It was
deftroyed by the great fire in 1666 ; but rebuilt by the
mercers company, who ^have their hall here.—Imme¬
diately to the eaft is a narrow^ ftreet called the Old
fewry, which took its name from a great fynagogue
which flood here till the Jews were expelled the king-
LON
dom in 1291. After them an order of friars najned London.
Fi ati cs de facca^ or de pemtentia^ took polfelhon of the 
fynagogue : and in 1305, Robert Fitzwalter, the great
banner-bearer of the city, requefled that the friars
might aflign it to him ; the realon of which probably
was, that it flood near to his houfe, which w;as fttu-
ated in the neighbourhood of the preient Grocers-hall.
The chapel was bought by the grocers from Fitzwalter
in 1411 for 320 marks.
In Bafli.haw or Bafinghall ward, is Blackwell or j. 4 ,^41
Baeewell hall, which adjoins to Guildhall, and is the Hall
greateft mart of woollen cloth in the world. It was
purchafed of King Richard II. by the city j and has
cvei fince been ufed as a weekly market for broad and
narrow woollen cloths, brought out of the country.
Formerly proclamations were iffued to compel people to
bring their goods into the hall, to prevent deceit in
tne manufatlures, which might be produdlive of dif-
credit in foieign markets, and likewiie be the means
of defrauding the poor children of Chrift’s hofpital of
part of the revenue which arofe from the hallage of
tnis great magazine. It fullered in the general devafta-
tion m J 666 ; but was rebuilt in 1672, and is now
a fpacious editsce, with a ftone front adorned with co¬
lumns,
Cripplegate ward is remarkable for a college, called H>
Sion College, founded in 1627, on the fite of Elfing-iege.
hofpital (d) or priory, by Dr Thomas White, vicar of
St Dunflan’s in the Weft, for the improvement of
tne Eondon clergy j and with alms houfes, under their
care, for 20 poor perfons, 10 men and 10 women. In
the year 1631, a charter was procured for incorporating
the clergy of London, by which they were conftituted
fellows of the college •, and out of the incumbents are
annually elected, on Tuefday three wrecks after Eafter,
a preftdent, two deans, and four ■ afliftants, who are
to meet quarterly, to hear a Latin fermon, and after¬
wards be entertained at dinner in the college-hall at
the expence of the foundation. John Simpfon, redlor
of St Olaves, who fuperintended the building, added,
at his own expence, for the ufe of the ftudious part of
the London clergy, a library 1 20 feet long, and amply
filled with bocks.
In this w'ard is a hall which belonged to the com- 7s
pany of barber-burgeons, the profeflions of barber and h^13
furgeon being formerly exercifed by the fame perfon.
It was built by the celebrated Inigo Jones, and the
upper end is formed out of one of the tovrers or bar¬
bicans of London wall. The anatomical theatre is
elliptical, and very finely contrived. This hall is now
called Barbers hall; the furgeons, who difdained to be
any longer affociated with their ancient brethren, hav¬
ing obtained a feparate charter, and built themfelves
a new hall in the Old Bailey.
Farringdon w'ard within, is diflinguilhed by the c,
moft magnificent Proteftant church in the world, the cathedral,
cathedral of St Paul. The belt authority we have for
the origin of this church, is from its great reftorer Sir
Chriftopher Wren. His opinion that there had been
[ rp6 1
(D) This was founded by \\iliiam Elfing mercer in 1329 (on of a decayed nunnery), for the fup-
port of 100 blind men. He afterwards changed it into a priory, and became himfelf the firft prior, who with
four canons-xegular were to fuperintend the miferable ebje&s.
\
L^don.
\
LON
[ 107 1
LON
a cburch on this Ipot, built by the Cbriflians in the
time of the Romans, was confirmed : when he fearch-
ed for the foundations for nis own delign, he met
with thofe of the original prtjbi/teriuni, or femicircular
chancel, ti^e
old church. They confided only of
Kentish rubble done, artfully worked, and conlolidated
with exceedingly hard mortar, m the Roman manner,
much excelling the fuperftruilure. He explodes the
notion of there having been here a ten.pie of Diana,
and the difeovery of the horns of animals ufed in the
fierifices to that goddefs, on which the opinion had
been founded, no fuch having been difeovered in all his
fe arches.
The fir ft church is fuppofed to have been deftroyed
in the Diocletian perfecution, and to have been re¬
built in the reign of Conftantine. This was again
bemoliihed by the pagan Saxons; and reftcred, in
60s, by Sebert, a petty prince, ruling in thefe parts,
under Ethelbert king of Kent, the firft_ Chriftian
monarch of the Saxon race j who, at the inftance of
St Auguftine, appointed IMelitus the firft biftrop of
London. Evkemvald, the fon of King Ofta, fourth
in fuoceftion from Melitus, ornamented his cathedral
very highly, and improved the revenues with his own
patrimony. He was moft defervedly canonized : for
the very litter, in which he was carried in his laft ill-
nefs, continued many centuries to cure fevers by the
touch ; and the very chips, carried to the fick, reftored
them to health !
When the city of London was deftroyed by fire, in
1086, this church was burnt ; the biihop Mauritius
began to rebuild it, and laid the foundations, which
remained till its fecond deftruftion, from the fame
caufe, in the laft century. Notwithftanding Mauri¬
tius lived twenty years after he had begun this pious
work, and Bithop Beauvages enjoyed the fee twenty
more, yet fuch was the grandeur of > the defign, that
it remained unfinilhed. The firft had the ruins of
the Palatine Tower beftowed on him, as materials for
the building ; and Henry I. beftowed on Beauvages
part of the ditch belonging to the Tower, which,
with purchafes made by himfelf, enabled him to en-
clofe the whole with a wall. The fame monarch grant¬
ed, beudes, that every ihip which brought ftone for the
church, ftiould be exempted from tell j he gave him
alfo all the great fiih taken in his precin&s, except the
tongues j and, laftly, he fecured to him and his fuccef-
Tor the delicious tythes of all his venifon in the county
of LiYex.
The ftyle of the ancient cathedral was a moft beau¬
tiful Gothic } over the eaft end was an elegant cir¬
cular window; alterations were made in the ends of
the two tranfepts, io that their form is not delivered
down to us in the ancient plans •, and from the central
tower rofe a lofty and moft graceful fpire. 1 he dimen-
fions, as taken in 1309, were thefe: I ne length fix
hundred and ninety feet ; the breadth a hundred and
twenty 5 the height of the roof of the weft part, from
the floor, one hundred and two ; oi the eaft part, a
hundred and eighty-eight; of the tower, two hundred
and fixty j of the fpire, which was made of wood cover¬
ed with lead, two hundred and feventy-four. d. he
whole fpace the church occupied was three acres, three
roods, and twenty-one perches.
We may be aftoniftied at this amazing building, and
naturally inquire what fund could fupply money to
fupport fo vaft an expence. But monarchs refigneif
their revenues reflating from the cuftoins due for the
materials, which were brought to the adjacent wharfs •,
they furniilied wood from the royal forefts : prelates
gave up much of their revenues and, what was more
than all, by the pious bait of indulgences, and remif-
fions of penance, brought in from the good people ot
this realm moft amazing fums. Pope Innocent HI.
in 1252, gave a releafe oi fixty days penance j the
archbitiiop of Cologne gave, a few years before, a re¬
laxation of fifty days} and Boniface archbiihop ot
Canterbury, forty days.
The high altar dazzled with gems and gold, the
gifts of its numerous votaries. John king of France,
when prifaner in England, firft paying his refpedis to
St Erkenwald’s fhrine, offered four bafons of gold :
and the gifts at the obfequies of princes, foreign and
Britifh, were of immenfe value. On the day of the
converfion of the tutelar faint, the charities were pro¬
digious, firft to the fouls, when an indulgence of forty
days pardon was given, vere pcEnttenlibur, contntis et
confe/jis; and, by order of Henry III. fifteen hundred
tapers were placed in the church, and fifteen thoufand
poor people fed In the churchyard.
The holinefs of this place did not prevent thieves
and profligates of all denominations from lurking within
the precincts, and committing, under the favour of the
night, murders and every fort of crime. Edward I.
gave the dean and canons permiflion to enclofe the
whole within a wall \ and to have gates to be fhut
every night, to exclude all diforderly people. Within
thefe walls, on the north-weft fide, was the bifhop’s
palace. Froiffart tells us, that after the great tour¬
nament in Smithfield, King Edward III. and his queen
lodged here, on occafion of their nuptials (e).—In
3561, the’noble fpire was totally burnt by lightning,
and never reftored.
In confequence of the refolutions taken in 1620, by
James L
London.
(e) Before this cathedral was the famous Paul's Grofs, a pulpit formed of wood, mounted upon fteps of
ftone, and covered with lead, in which the moft eminent divines were appointed to preach every Sunday in the
forenoon. To this place, the court, the mayor and aldermen, and principal citizens, ufed to refort. I he
greateft part of the congregation fat in the open air ; the king and his train had covered galleries •> and the bet¬
ter fort of people were alio protected from the injury of the weather 5 but the far greater part flood expofed in
the open air: for which reafon the preacher went in very bad weather to a place called the Shrouds; a covered
fpace on the fide of the church, to protect the congregation in inclement feafons. Coniiderable contributions were
raifed among the nobility and citizens, to fupport fuch preachers as were (as was often the cafe) called to town
from either of the univerfities. In particular, the lord mayor and aldermen ordered that every preacher, who
came from a diftance, fhould be freely accommodated, during five days, with fweet and convenient lodgings, fire,
candle,-,
LON [ i
-• James I. to repair the cathedral, the celebrated Inigo
Jones was appointed to the work. But it was not at¬
tempted till the year 1633, w^en Laud laid the firft
ftone, and Inigo the fourth. That great architeft
begun with a moft notorious impropriety, giving to
the well end a portico of the Corinthian order, beau¬
tiful indeed, to this ancient Gothic pile ; and to the
ends of the two tranfepts Gothic fronts in a moll hor¬
rible llyle. The great fire made way for the reltoring
of this magnificent pile in its prefent noble form by
Sir Chriltopher Wren, an architect worthy of fo great
a defign.
It is built of fine Portland Hone, in form of a crofs.
On the outfide are two ranges of pilafters, confiding
of a hundred and twenty each ; the lower range of
the Corinthian order, and the upper of the compofite.
The fpaces between the arches of the windows and
the architrave of the lower order, are filled with a
great variety of curious enrichments, as are alfo thofe
above. On the north fide is a portico, the afcent to
which is by twelve deps of black marble, and its dome
iupported by fix very large columns. Over the dome
is a pediment, the face of which is engraved wfith the
royal arms, regalia, and other ornaments. On the
fouth is a portico, the afcent to which is by twenty-
five deps, and its dome fupported by fix columns, cor-
refpending with thofe on the north fide. The wed
front is graced with a mod magnificent portico, fup¬
ported by twrelve lofty Corinthian columns: over thefe
are eight columns of the compofite order, which fup-
port a noble pediment, crowmed with its acroteria, and
in this pediment is the hidory of St Paul’s converfion,
boldly carved in bas relief. The afcent to this portico
is by a flight of deps of black marble, extending the
whole length of the portico $ and over each corner of
the wed front is a beautiful turret. A vad dome, or
cupola, rifes in the centre of the building. Twenty
feet above the roof of the church is a circular range
of thirty-two columns with niches, placed exactly
againd others within. ,Thefe are terminated by their
entablature, which fupports a handfome gallery, adorn¬
ed rvith a done baludrade. Above the columns lad
mentioned is a range of piladers, with windows be¬
tween them : and from the entablature of thefe, the
diameter of the dome gradually decreafes. On the
fummit of the dome is an elegant balcony, from the
centre of which runs a beautiful lanthorn, adorned
with Corinthian columns. The whole is crowned
with a copper ball, fupporting a crofs, both finely gilt.
Within, the cupola dands on eight dupendous pillars,
curioufly adorned : the roof of the choir is fupported
'tiy fix pillars, and that of . the church by two ranges,
98 ] LON
confiding of twenty more. The roof of the church
and choir is adorned with arches and fpacious periphe¬
ries of enrichments, admirably carved in done. Quite
round the infide of the cupola, there is a whifpering
iron balcony, or gallery, the top of which is richly
painted by Sir James Thornhill.
The fird done of this fuperb edifice was laid on
June 21, 1675 > and the building was completed in
1710 j but the whole decorations were not finiflied till
1723. It wras a mod fingular circumdance, that, not-
withdanding it was 35 years in building, it w'as begun
and finiflied by one architpfl, and under one prelate,
Henry Compton bilhop of London. The church of
St Peter’s was 135 years in building, in the reigns of
19 popes, and went through the hands of twelve archi¬
tects. It is not, as often midaken, built after the mo¬
del of that famous temple : it is the entire conception
of our great countryman, and has been preferred in
fome refpe&s, by a judicious writer, to even the Ro¬
man Bafilica. Its dimenfions are lefs. The compa¬
rative view is given in the Parentalia, and copied in
London and its Environs. The height of St Peter’s,
to the top of the crofs, is 437 feet and an half j that
of St Paul’s 340 feet; fo that, from its fituation, it is
lofty enough to be feen from the fea. The length
of the fird is 729 feet; of the latter, 500. The great-
ed breadth of St Peter’s is 364; of St Paul’s, 180.
In the reigns of James I. and Charles I. the body
of this cathedral was the common refort of the poli¬
ticians, the news-mongers, and idle in general. It
was called Par/Z's ’ivalh; and is mentioned in the old
plays and other books of the times.
Nothwithdanding the magnificence of this noble pile,
however, it is remarked to have many defefts. Its
fituation is fuch, that it cannot be viewed at a didance.
The divifion of the porticos, and the whole druflure,
into two dories on the outfide, certainly indicates a like
divifion wfithin, which is acknowledged to be a f^ult.
The dome, it has alfo been obferved, bears too great a
proportion to the red of the pile, and ought to have
been raifed exactly in the centre of the building ; be-
fides that, there ought to have been two deeples at the
ead end, to correfpond with thofe at the wed. On
entering this church, we indantly perceive an obvious
deficiency, not only of elevation but length, to aflid
the perfpe(5live; and the columns are heavy and clumfy,
rather encumbering the profpecl than enriching it.
St Paul’s occupies an area of fix acres, and is railed
all round with iron baludrades, each about five feet
and a half high, fixed on a dwarf wall of hewn
ftone. In the weft end of this area is a marble ftatue
of Queen Anne, holding a fceptre in one hand, and a
globe
Londojj.
candle, and all necefiaries. And notice was given by the biflhop of London, to the pfeacher appointed by him, of
the place he was to repair to.
\\ e hear of this being in ufe as early as the year 1 259. It was ufed, as Mr Pennant obferves, not only for
the inftrudion of mankind by the doflnne of the preacher, but for every purpofe political or ecclefiaftical ; for
giving force to. oaths, for promulging of laws, or rather the royal plealure, for the emidion of papal bulls,
for anathematizing finners, for benedictions, for expofing of penitents under cenfure of the church, for recan¬
tations, for the private ends of the ambitious, and for the defaming of thofe who had incurred the difpleafure of
crowned heads.
It.was. demolithed in 1643 by order of parliament, executed by the willing hands of I fa ac-Pennington the
fanatical lord mayor of that year, who died in the Tower a conviCled regicide.
'.London.
So
College of
Phyficians.
Si
Chrift’s
Holpital.
Sa
Doclors
Commons.
83 ,
College of
Heralds.
LON f 1
glube in ihe other, furrounded with four emblematical
' figures reprefenting Great Britain, France, Ireland,
and America.
Befides very large contributions for carrying on
this edifice, the parliament granted a duty on fea-coal,
which, at a medium, produced 50C0I. a-year; and the
whole expence of the building is iaid to have amount¬
ed to 736,752!. 2s. 3d.
On the call fide of the cathedral is St Pau/'s School,
founded in 1509 by Dr John Collet dean of this
church, who endowed it for a principal mailer, an un-
der-maller, a chaplain, and 153 fcholars.
In Warv.ick-lane, in the fame ward, Hands the Col¬
lege of Physicians, eredled in 1682 by Sir Chriftopher
Wren. It is built of brick, and has a fpacious Hone
frontifpiece. Near the fouth extremity of the Old
Bailey, on the eaft fide, is the hall of the Company of
Surgeons, with a theatre for difleftion.
Adjoining to Chrift-church in Newgate-ftreet is
ChriJPs Hofpital, which, before the diffolution of mo-
nafteries by Henry VIII. was a houfe of Gray-friars.
The hofpital was founded by King Edward VI. for
fupporting and educating the fatherlefs children of
poor freemen of this city; of whom io©o of both
fexes are generally maintained in the houfe or out at
nurfe, and are likewife clothed and educated. In
1673, a mathematical fchool wras founded here by
Charles II. endowed with 320I. a-year*, and a w?rit-
ing fchool was added in 1694 by Sir John Moor, an
alderman of the city. After the boys have been feven
or eight years on the foundation, fome are Cent to the
univerfity and others to fea; while the reft, at a pro¬
per age, are put apprentices to trades at the charge of
the hofpital. At firft their habit was a ruffet cotton,
but was foon after changed for blue, which has ever
fince continued to be their colour *, and on this account
the foundation is frequently called the Blue-coat hofpital.
The affairs of this charity are managed by a prelident
and about 300 governors, befides the lord mayor and
aldermen. The fabric, which is partly Gothic and
partly modern, was much damaged by the fire of 1666,
but was foon repaired, and has been fince increafed
with feveral additions. The principal buildings, which
form the four fides of an area, have a piazza round them
with Gothic arches, and the w7alls are fupported by
abutments. The front is more modern, and has Doric
pilafters fupported on pedeftals.
In Caftle-Baynard ward is a large ftrufture called
Doffors Commons. It confifts of feveral handfome pa¬
ved courts, in w>hich the judges of the court of admiral¬
ty, thofe of the court of delegates, of the court of arches,
and the prerogative court, with the dodlors that plead
caufes, and the profiors of the place, all live in a col¬
legiate way y and from commoning together, as in
other colleges, the name of Dodlors Commons is de¬
rived. Here courts are kept for the trial of civil and
ecclefiaflical caufes under the archbifhop of Canterbury
and the bifhop of London. The college has an excel¬
lent library, every bifhop at his confecration giving
25I. or 50J. towards purchafing books for it.
Near Dodlors Commons, on St Bennet’s Hill, is the
College of Heralds, who w'ere incorporated by King
Richard HI*. Befides the chief officer, who is the
earl-marfhal of England, here are three kings at arms,
London,.
84
99 ] L O N
viz. Garter, Clarencieux, and Norroy, with fix herald*,
four purfuivants, and eight proctors. Garter attends
the inftalments of knights of that order, carries the
garter to foreign princes, regulates the ceremonies at
coronations, and the funerals of the royal family and
nobility : Clarencieux directs the funeral ceremonies
of thofe under the degree of peers fouth of Trent 5
and Norroy performs the like office for thoie north of
Trent. This building was originally the houfe of the
earl of Derby. It is a fpacious quadrangle, built of
brick, and has convenient apartments. Here are kept
records of the coats of arms of all the families snd
names in England, with an account when they were
granted, and on what occafion.
In Farringdon ward without, is a large building
called Bridewell, from a fpring foim rly known by the
name of St Bridget’s or St Bride’s Well. It was ori¬
ginally a royal palace, and occupied all the ground
from Fleet-ditch on the eaft to Water-lane on the weft.
That part of it now called Saiifhury-court was given to
the biftiops of Salilbury for their town refidence *, and
the eaft part, which was rebuilt by King Henry VIII.
is the prefent Bridewell. It w*as granted to the citv
by Edward VI. as an hofpital; and he endowed it for
the lodging of poor travellers, and for the corredlion
of vagabonds, ftrumpets, and idle perfons, as well as
for finding them work. In one part of the building
20 artificers have houfes j and about 150 boys, di-
ftinguifhed by white hats and blue doubtlets, are put
apprentices to glovers, ftaxdrefiers, weavers, &c. and
when they have ferved their time are entitled to the
freedom of the city, with tol. towards carrying on
their refpeftive trades. The other part of Bridewell
is a receptacle for diforderly perfons, who are kept at
beating hemp and other hard labour.
Near Bridewell is St Bride's Church, a ftately fabric
in feet long, 57 broad, and 41 high, with a beautiful
fpire 234 feet in altitude, and haS a ring of 12 bells in
its tower.
Oppofite to Fleet-ditch, over this part of the river, Blackfriars
Hands B lad friars Bridge; a moft elegant ftruclure, Bridge,
built after the defign of Mr Robert Mylne. The
fituation of the ground on the two ftrores obliged the
arebiteft to employ elliptical arches y which, however,
have a very fine effedl. The number of arches is nine j
of which the centre one is 100 feet wide. The whole
length is 995 feet; the breadth of the carriage-way is
28 feet, and that of the two foot ways 7 each. Over
each pier is a recefs *, an apology for the beautiful
Ionic pillars which fupport them, and which have a
moft beautiful effeft from the river. This bridge was
begun in 17605 and finiihed in 1768, at the expence
of 152,840!. to be difekarged by a toll upon the paf-
fengers. It is fituated almoft at an equal diftance be¬
tween thofe of Weftminfter and London, commands a
view of the Thames from the latter to Whitehall, and
dilcovers the majefty of St Paul’s in a very ftriking
manner.
Wefl Smithfeld. In this ward is an area containing Smithfiekf.
three acres of ground, called in old records Smithfeld-
Pond or Horfe-Pool, it having been formerly a watering
place for horfes. It was in ancient times the common
place of execution y and at the fouth-w'eft corner there
was a gallows called the Elms, from ^number of elm-
trees
London.
S7
St Bartho¬
lomew’s
.Hofpital.
88
Old Bailey
Sp
Newgate.
po _
Bleet-pri-
fon.
LON [ 200
trees that grew in the neighbourhcoc!. It was like-
wife the fcene of public jults and tournaments, and has
been a market-place for cattle above 500 years.
On the fouth fide of this area, and contiguous to
Chrill’s hofpital, is St Barlholemew's Hofpital. It was
originally founded foon aber the acceflion of Henry I.
by Rahere the king’s jeiter, ks an infirmary for the
priory of St Bartbolemew the Great, which then Hood
near the fpot. But upon the difiblution of religious
houfes, Henry VIII. refounded it, and endowed it
with 500 marks a-ycar, on condition that the citizens
{liquid pay the fame fum annually for the relief of 100
lame and infirm patients. The endowments of this
charity have fince been fo much enlarged, that it now
receives the diftreffed of all denominations. In 1702,
a beautiful frontifpiece was erefted towards Smithfield,
adorned with pilaflers, entablature, and a pediment of
the Ionic order, with a ftatue of King Henry VIII.
Handing in a niche in full proportion, and thofe of two
cripples on the top of the pediment over it. In 1720,
a plan was formed for rebuilding the reft of this hoipi-
tal, in confequence ®f which a magnificent edifice has
been ere&ed.
Among many other privileges granted by Henry I.
to the prior and canons of the monaftery of St Bar¬
tholomew the Great, and to the poor of the infirmary,
was that of keeping a fair in Smithfield on the eve,
day, and morrow, of St Bartholomew. This fair,
called Bartholomew-fair, has been held annually ever
fince : and by the indulgence of the magiftrates of
London, to whom the privilege of keeping it devolved
upon the diflblution of the priory, it ufed to continue
a fortnight. A great number of booths was erefled
in it by the acfors of the theatres, for the exhibition
of dramatic performances of various kinds; and it be-
game at length a fcene of fo much licenticufneis and
riot, that Sir John Barnard when lord mayor of Lon¬
don reduced the time of the fair to its original dura¬
tion of three days. This laudable example has been
followed ever fince *, and the magiftrates have likewife
prohibited all public exhibitions which had been for¬
merly accompanied with fo much diforder.
In a ftreet in this wrard, called the Old Baiky, is a
hall named fujlice hall, or the Sejfiotfs hoife, where a
court is held eight times a-year by the king’s com-
miflion of oyer and terminer for the trial of criminals
for offences committed within the city of London and
county of Middlefex. The judges of this court are
the lord mayor, thofe of the aldermen that have ferved
that office, and the recorder 5 who are attended by the
ftieriffs and by one or more of the national judges.
In this ftreet is alfo the great criminal prifon, lately
built in a much more convenient fituation, and on a
more enlarged plan, than the former prifon, called
Newgate: by which name it is ftill diftinguilhed.
Here the unfortunate debtor will no longer be an¬
noyed by the dreadful rattle of chains, or by the more
horrid founds iffuing from the lips of thofe wretched
beings who fet defiance to all lavrs divine and human 5
and here alfo, the offender, whofe crime is not capital,
may enjoy all the benefits of a free open air.
In this ward is likewife a prifon called the Fleet
Prifon, from a fmall river named the Fleet which for¬
merly ran by it : this building is large, and reckoned
the belt in the city for good rooms and other conve-
2
LON
niences. It has the benefit of a large yard, which is Lcndovi.
enclofed with a very high wall. This prilon is as an-' v~ ■“
cient as the reign of Richard I. and belongs to the
court of ehancery, &.c.
In Chancery-lane, in this ward, is, an office ccnfift-The Rolls,
ing of a houfe and chapel, called the othce and chapel
of the Rolls, from being' the great repofitory of the
modern public rolls and records of the kingdom. This
building was originally tbe lioufe of an eminent Jew j
but being forfeited to the crown, King Henry III. in
the year 1223 converted it into a hofpital for the
reception and accommodation of Jewifti and other pro-
lelytes. In 1377, Ldvtard III. granted this hofpital
and its chapel to William Burftall mafter of the rolls,
to whofe fucceffors in that office it has ever fince be¬
longed. Round this office there is a fmall diftrict
confiding of about 200 houfes, called the Liberty of
the Rolls, over which the magiftrates of London have
no authority, it being under the government of the
mafter of tbe rolls.
In this ward are feveral Inns of court and chancery,
particularly the Inner and Middle Temple, Serjeants
Inn, Clifford’s Inn, Barnard’s Inn, Staple’s Inn, and
Furnival’s Inn.
The T< triple received its name from being originally The Tem-
founded by the Knights Templars, who lettled here pie.
in 1185. It was at firft called the New Temple, to
diftinguifti it from the former houfe of the Knights
Templars, which flood in Holborn near Chancery
lane.
The original building was divided into three parts •,
the Inner, the Middle, and the Outer Temple. The
Inner and the Outer Temple were fo called, becaufe
one was within and the other was without the Bar-,
and the Middle derived its name from being fituated
between them. Upon the diffolution of the order of
K fights Templars, the New Temple devolved to the
K-iights Hofpitallers of St John of Jerufalem, who
granted a leafe of it to the ftudents of the common law,
and converted that part of it called Inner and Middle
Temple into txvo inns of court for the ftudy and prac¬
tice of the common lawn The Outer Temple became a
houfe for tbe earl of EPfex.
The buildings of tbe Temple efcaped the fire in
1666. but w*ere molt of them deftroyed by fubfeouent
fires, and have iince been rebuilt. The tw?o Temples
are each divided into feveral courts, and have pleafant
gardens on the banks of the Thames. They are ap¬
propriated to diftinft focieties, and have feparate halls,
where the members dine in common during term-time.
The Inner Temple hall is Lid to have been built in
the reign of Edward III. and the middle Temple hall,
which is a magnificent edifice, w-as rebuilt in T 972
in form of a college hall. The Middle Temple gate,
Mr Pennant informs us, was erected by Sir Annas
Powlet on a fingular occafion. It ieems that Sir A-
mias, about the year 1501 thought fit to put Cardi¬
nal Wolfey, then parfon of Lymington, into the flocks.
In 153 5, being fent for to London by the cardinal on
account of that ancient grudge, he was commanded
not to quit town till farther orders. In confequence,
he lodged five or fix years in this gatew ay, which he
rebuilt -, and to pacify his eminence, adorned the front
w’ith the cardinal’s cap, badges, cognifance, and other
devices of this butcher’s fon j fo low were the great
mtn
LON [
London, men obliged to ftoop to that meteoi* of the times .
—v 1 Each temple has a good library, adorned with^ paint¬
ings, and well furnilhed with books. An aflembly,
called a parliament, in which the affairs of the fociety
of the Inner Temple are managed, is held there every
term. Both Temples have one church, firft founded
in nSy, by the Knights Templars; but the prefent
edifice is fuppofed to have been built in 1420. It is
fupported by neat (lender pillars of Suffex marble, and
is one of the moft beautiful Gothic flruflures in Eng¬
land. In this church are many monuments, particu¬
larly of nine Knights Templars cut in marble in full
proportion, Tome of them (even feet and a half long ;
fix are crofs-legged, and therefore fuppofed to have
been engaged in the crufades. The minifter of this
church, who is ufually called the majler of the Temple,
is appointed by the benchers or fenior members of both
focieties, and prefented by a patent from the crown.
Shakefpeare (whether from tradition or hiftory) makes
the Temple garden the place in which the badge of the
white and red rofe originated ; the diftinftive badge of
the houfes of York and Lancafler, under which the
refpedtive partizans of each arranged themfelves in the
fatal quarrel which caufed fuch torrents of Englifh
blood to flow.
Near the Temple bar is the Devil''s Tavern, fo called
from its fign of St Dunllan feizing the evil fpirit by
the nofe with a pair of hot tongs. Ben Johnfon has im¬
mortalized it by his Leges Conviviales, which he wrote
for the regulation of a club of wits held in a room he
dedicated to Apollo; over the chimney-piece of w’hich
they are preferved. The tavern was in his days kept
by Simon Wadloe ; whom, in a copy of verfes over the
door of the Apollo, he dignified wfith the title of King
of Skinhers.
Serjeants Inn is a fmall inn in Chancery-lane, where
the judges and ferjeants have chambers, but not houfes,
as they had in another inn of this name in Fleet-ftreet,
which they abandoned in 1730; but in each of them
there is a hall and a chapel. Clifford's Inn is an inn of
chancery belonging to the Inner Temple. It wras ori¬
ginally a houfe granted by Edward II. to the family
of the Cliffords, from which it derived its name ; but
wTas afterwards let upon leafe to the ftudents of the
law, and in the reign of Edward III. fold to the mem¬
bers of this fociety. Bernard's Inn is likewife an inn
of chancery belonging to Gray’s Inn. It Bands in
Holborn, and v/as the houfe of John Mackworth, dean
of Lincoln, w'ho gave it to the profeffors of the law.
Staple's Inn belongs alfo to Gray’s Inn, and is fituated
in Holborn. It was once a hall for the merchants of
the fbple for wool, whence it derives its name ; but it
was purchafed by the benchers of Gray’s Inn, and has
been an inn of chancery fince the year 1415. Fur-
nival's Inn is an inn of chancery belonging to Lincoln’s
Inn, and was once the houfe of the family of the Furni-
vals, by whom it w’as let out to the profeffors of the law.
It is a large old building,with a hall and a pleafant garden.
Bethlehem In Coleman-ftreet ward, on the fouth fide of a large
Hbfpital. fquare called Moorfelds, flood Bethlehem Hofpital, found¬
ed in 1675 by the lord mayor and citizens of London
for the reception and cure of poor lunatics. It was a
noble edifice, built with brick and Hone, and adorned
with pilaflers, entablatures, and fculpture ; particularly
with the figures of two lunatics over the grand gate,
Vol. XII. Part h
London.
93
Inns of
Chancery,
201 ] L O N
which are well executed. This building was 543 feet
long and 40 broad, exclufive of two wings of a later v
eredlion, intended for the reception of fuch lunatics as
were deemed incurable. This hofpital contained a great
number of convenient cells or apartments, where the
patients wrere maintained and received all medical affifi>
ance without any other expence to their friends than
that of bedding. The ftruQure was divided into two
ftories, through each of which ran a long gallery from
one end of the houfe to the other. On the fouth fide
were the cells, and on the north the windows that -gave
light to the galleries, which wrere divided in the middle
by handfome iron gates, to keep the men and wminen
feparate. This hofpital being pulled down, it is intend¬
ed to ereft another building for the ufe of the fame
charity, a ta fliort diftance from the metropolis. Anew
road is to be opened from the fite of the old hofpital to
the Royal Exchange. 95
Oppofite to Bethlehem hofpital flood that of St St Luke’s
Luke, a long plain building, till of late appropriated to
the lame purpofes, but wholly independent of the for¬
mer. It was founded on the humane confideration
that Bethlehem was incapable of receiving all the mi-
ferable objedls which were offered. Of late years the
patients were removed from the old hofpital to a new
one erefled under the fame name in Old-llreet, on the
plan of the former, extending in front 492 feet. The
old hofpital is now pulled down, and replaced by a
handfome row of houfes. Uncured patients may be
taken in again, by a very liberal regulation, on the pay¬
ment of five (hillings a week; fo that their friends may,
if they choofe, try a fecond time the force of medicine
on their unhappy relations or acquaintances. 96
Befides the three markets already mentioned atDifferent
Smithfield for cattle and hay, at Leadenhall for but-mar^etl'
chers meat, wool, hides, and Colchefter baize, and
at Billingfgate for fifh; there are in this city the fol¬
lowing other markets, which are all very confiderable,
viz. Honey-lane, NewTgate, and Fleet-market, chiefly
for fielh, though with feparate divifions for fi(h, but-
ter, eggs, poultry, herbs, and fruit; and the Three-
Cranes market, for apples and other fruit. The princi¬
pal corn-market is held in a neat exchange fituated in
Market-lane, and that for flour at ()ueenhithe. In
Thames-ftreet, near Billingfgate, there is an exchange
for dealers in coals and mafters of veffels in that trade
to tranfaft their bufinefs. 97
II. The Borough of Sovtbjvark. It wras called by 2-B0rough
the Saxons Suth, or the “ South wTork,” in refpeft
to fome fort or fortification bearing that afpedt from junfdio
London. It was alfo called the Borough, or Burg, tiov,
probably from the fame reafon. It was long inde¬
pendent of the city of London : but, in confideration
of the inconveniences arifing from the efcape of ma-
lefaflors from the great capital into this place, it was
in 1327 granted by Edward III. to the city, cm pay¬
ment of 10I. annually. It was then called the village
of Southwark ; it was afterwards ftyled the bailiwick
of Southwark, and the mayor and commonalty of Lon¬
don appointed the bailiff. This power, however, not
being fufficient to remedy the evil, a more intimate
connexion was thought neceffary ; and in the reign of
Edward VI. on a valuable confideration paid to the
crown, it was formed into a 26th ward, by the title of
Bridge-Ward Without; with a refervation of certain
C c privileges
London.
, 98
Courts.
99
Pa ilt ns.
100
Pariflies,
&c.
LON [20
privileges enjoyed there by the archbifhop of Canter¬
bury and forr.e other ecclefiaftics. In confequence of
this, it was fubje&ed to the-lord mayor of London,
with the fteward and bailiff. But Southwark being
divided into two parts, this is to be underffood of the
divifion called the Borough Liberty, which confifts of
three of the parifhes belonging to the town, with the
greater part of a fourth parilh. For the city divifion,
the lord mayor by his fteward holds a court of record
every Monday at the feffions-houfe on St Margaret’s
Hill in this borough for all debts, damages, and tref-
paffes within the limits of his jurifdicHon. The other
divifion is called the Clink, or the Manor of Southwark,
and is fubdivided into the Great Liberty, the Guild¬
hall, and the King’s Manor ; for each of which fubdi-
vifions a court-leet is held, where the conftables, ale¬
conners, and flefh-tafters, are chofen, and other bufi-
nefs of this kind tranfadled. A court-houfe, called
Union Hall, has lately beea built in the new ftreet
called Union-Jlreet, which leads in a direfl: line from
the high-ftreet in the Borough to Great Surry-ftreet
Blackfriars road. The Clink liberty is under the ju-
nfdidlion of the bifhop of Winchefter, who, befides a
court-leet, keeps here a court of record on the Bank-
fide near St Saviour’s church by his fteward or bailiff,
for pleas of debt, damages, and trefpaffes. Court-
leets are alfo kept at Lambeth, Bermondfey, and Ro-
therhjthe, three fmall diftridls adjoining to the Borough.
—There is a compter for the imprifonment of offen¬
ders in the bailiw ick, and another for the Clink liberty ;
to which may be added the Surry workhoufe for va¬
grants. Befides thefe, there is the Marftialfea-prifon,
which is the county gaol for felons, and the admiralty
gaol for pirates (g) ; in which is a court firft eredled
for trials of caufes between the king’s domeftics or me¬
nial fervants, of which the knight-marlhal is prefident,
and his fteward judge, to wrhom belong four counfellors
and fix attorneys ; and the court is held every Friday
by him or his deputy, for debt, damages, and tref¬
paffes, in caufes for 10 miles round Whitehall, except¬
ing London. In this quarter is alfo the King’s Bench
prifon, the rules of which are above two miles in cir¬
cuit, and comprife the greateft part of St, George’s
Fields. Here was committed Henry prince of Wales,
afterwards King Henry V. by the fpirited and honeft
Judge Gafcoigne, for ftriking or infulting him on the
bench. In this prifon the allowance is fomewhat bet¬
ter than that of the common prifons j for which rea-
fon, many debtors remove themfelves hither by habeas
corpus. It is properly a place of confinement in all
cafes triable in the King’s Bench court.—The firft
time that Southwark is mentioned in hiftory is on oc-
cafion of Earl Goodwin’s failing up the river to at¬
tack the royal navy of 50 fhips lying before the palace
of Weftminfter : this was in 1052, when we are told
he went ad Suthweorce, and ftaid till there the re¬
turn of the tide.
Southwark confifts of the parithes of St Olave,
1
LON
St Saviour, St George, and St Thomas ; the parifti of London.
Chrift-church, though contiguous to the borough, is' 
in the county of Surry.
The principal church in Southwark is ,that of St
Saviour, which was formerly a priory of regular ca¬
nons. Being dedicated to the Virgin Mary, and fi-
tuated near the bank of the Thames, it w’as called
St Mary Over Ree, or Overy, by which appellation it is
commonly known. This church is built in the man¬
ner of a cathedral, with three aifles from eaft to welt,
and a crofs aifle. It is reckoned the largeft parifti-
church in England, the three aides firft mentioned
meafuring 269 feet in length, and the crofs aide icp
feet. The height within is 47 feet, and it has a tower
with four fpires 150 feet high.
Not far from St George’s church flood the magni¬
ficent palace of Charles Brandon duke of Suffolk, the •
deferved favourite of Henry VIII. After his death, in
1345, it came into the king’s hands, who eljablidied
here a royal mint. It at that time was called South-
zvark P/ace, and in great meafure prelerved its dig¬
nity. Edward VI. once dined in it. His fifter and
fucceffor prefented it to Fleath archbidrop of York,
as an inn or refidence for him and his fucceffors when¬
ever they repaired to London. As to the Mint, it
became a fandluary for infolvent debtors -, but at length
becoming the pert of the neighbourhood, by giving
flicker to villains of every fpecies, that awakened the
attention of parliament; which by the ftatutes 8 and
9 Will. III. 9 George I. and 11 George I. entirely
took aw’ay its abufive privileges. IOI
In the pariflr of Chrift-church, near the water on Ancient
Bankfide, flood Paris-garden, one of the ancient play_ places of di-
houfes of our metropolis. Ben Johnfon is reproachedvcrll0n'
by one Decker, an envious critic, with his ill fuccefs
on the ftage, and in particular with having performed
the part of Zuliman at Paris-garden. It feems to
have been much frequented on Sundays. This pro¬
fanation (Mr Pennant obferves) w-as at length fully
punifhed by the dire accident which befel the fpedta-
tors in 1582, when the fcaffolding fuddenly fell, and
multitudes of people were killed or miferably maimed.
The omen feems to have been accepted; for in the
next century the manor of Paris-garden was ere£ted
into a parifti, and a church founded under the name of
Chrift’s.
Beyond this place of amufement were the Bear-gar¬
den and place for baiting of bulls, the Britijh circi;
“ Herein (fays Stow) were kept beares, bulls, and
other beafts to be bayted j as alfo maftives in feveral
kennels nourifhed to bayt them. Thefe beares and
other beafts are there kept in plots of ground fcaffolded
about for the beholders to ftand fafe.” This was then
an amufement for perfons of the firft rank : eur great,
if not good, Elizabeth caufed the French ambafiadors
to be carried to this theatre, to divert them with thefe
bloody fpe&acles. io5
Not far from thefe fcenes of cruel paftime was the The Stews,
Bordello
(g) In 1377 ppf°n was broken open by a mob of failors, who murdered a gentleman confined in it for
killing one of fheir comrades, and who had been pardoned by the court. It was again broken open by W at Tyler
and his followers in 1381. It efcaped in the infamous riots of 1780 , while the King’s Bench, the Borough Pri-
fon, and the Clink Prifon,^ were nearly at the fame inftant facrificed to their %y.
LON [
London, bordello or Stews, permitted and openly licenfed
v government, under certain laws or regulations. They
were farmed out. Even a lord mayor did not difdain
to own them : but rented them to the Yroes, that is,
“ the bawds,” of Flanders. Among other fingular
regulations, no ftewholder was to admit married wo¬
men y nor were they to keep open their houfes on Sun¬
days ; nor were they to admit any women who had on
them the perilous infirmity of burning. Thefe infamous
houfes wrere very properly fuppreffed in the reign of
Henry VIII.
The biihop of Winchefter had formerly a palace
here with a park (the fame that is now called Sout/i-
wark-fiark), which is fince converted into warehoufes
and tenements, held by leafe from the bilhops of that
103 lee.
St Thomas’s Befides feveral alms-houfes, there are here St Tho-
Hofpital. mas's and Guy's Hofpitals, two of the noblefl: endow¬
ments in England. The former was firft ere&ed in
1215 by Peter de Rupibus bilhop of Winchefter, who
endowed it with land to the amount of 343k a-year j
from which time it was held of the abbots of Bermond-
fey, one of whom in 1428 granted a right to the^mafter
of the hofpital to hold all the lands it was then in pof-
feflion of belonging to the faid abbot and convent, the
whole revenue of which did not exceed 266I. 17s*
per annum. In the year 155*» after the citizens of
London had purchafed of Edward VI. the manor of
Southwark and its appurtenances, of which this hof¬
pital was a part, they expended iiool. in repairing
and enlarging the edifice, and immediately received
into it 260 patients j upon which the king in 1553
incorporated this hofpital with thofe of Chrift-church
and Bridewell in the city of London. 1 he building
being much decayed, three beautiful fquares adorned
with colonnades were eretled by voluntary fubfeription
in 1693, to which in 1732 the governors added a mag¬
nificent building, confiding or feveral wards with pro¬
per offices. The annual dilhurfements of this hofpital
have for many years amounted to 8000I. Ihe houfe
is divided into 19 wards, and is faid to contain 474
beds.
Adjoining to St Thomas’s Hand Guy's Hofpital, per¬
haps the^moft extenfive charitable foundation that ever
was eftablilhed by one man in private life. The found¬
er of this hofpital was Thomas Guy, a bookfeller in
Lombard-ftreet, London, who lived to fee the edifice
roofed in ; and at his death, in 1724, left 238,292!.
16s. including the expence of the building, to finifti
and endow it. This hofpital confifts of two capacious
fquares, containing 12 wards and 435 beds. It was
incorporated by charter from parliament, and the firft
governors were appointed in 1725•
In St George’s Fields, weftward of the King’s Bench
prifon, is the Magdalen Hofpttal for the reception of
penitent proftitutes •, a little farther is fituated the Afy-
lum for orphan girls-, and not far diftant is the Weft-
minfter Lying-in Hofpital : Inftitutions, of which the
following feeling and animated account is given by
Mr Pennant.
“ The Hfylum is an inftitution of a moft heavenly
nature, calculated to fave from perdition of foul and
body the brighter part of the creation •, fuch on whom
Providence hath'bellowed angelic faces and elegant
forms, defigned as bleffings to mankind, but too often
104
Guy’s Ho¬
fpital.
i°5
The Afy-
lum.
203 ] LON
by debafed to the vileft ufes. The hazard that thefe inno- London.
cents conftantly are liable to from a thoufand tempta- ~
tions, from poverty, from death of parents, from the
diabolical procurefs, and often from the ftupendous
wickednefs of parents therafelves, who have been known
to fell their beauteous girls for the purpofe of proftitu-
tion, induced a worthy band to found in the year
1758 the Afylum or Houfe of Refuge. Long may it
flounlh, and eternal be the reward of thofe into whofe
minds fo amiable a conception entered ! 106
“ To afford means of falvation to thofe unhappy'Tie Mag-
beings who had the ill fortune to lofe the benefits of Ho
this divine inftitution, the Magdalen Hofpital was infti- d
tuted for the reception of the penitent proftitutes. To
fave from vice, is one great merit. To reclaim and re-
ftore to the dignity of honeft rank in life, is certainly
not lefs meritorious. The joy at the return of one fin*
ner to repentance is efteemed by the higheft authority
worthy of the heavenly hoft. That eeftafy, I truft, this
inftitution has often occafioned. Since its foundation in
the fame year with the former, to December 25. 1786,
not fewer than 2471 have been admitted. Of thefe (it
is not to be wondered that long and evil habits are often
incurable) 300 have been difeharged, uneafy under con-
ftraint $ 45 proved lunatics, and afflifted with incurable
fits j 6o have died 5 52 never returned from hofpitals
they were fent to j 338 difeharged for faults and irre¬
gularities. How to be dreaded is the entrance into the
bounds of vice, fince the retreat from its paths is fo
difficult! Finally, J608 prodigals have been returned
to their rejoicing parents j or placed in reputable fer-
vices, or to honeft trades, banes to idlenefs and fecuri-
ties againft a future relapfe.” Into this charity, every
woman who has been feduced (and is not pregnant or
difeafed), whether recommended or not, may apply for
admiflion to the committee, who meet for that purpofe
on the firft Tuefday in every month. toy
Akin to thofe charities is that of the Lying-in Hofpi- Lying-in
tal: which is not intended merely for the reception 01 a°
“ the honeft matron who can depolite her burden with
the confcioufnefs of lawful love -, but alfo for the un¬
happy wretches wdiom fome villain in the unguarded
moment has feduced, and then left a prey to defertion
of friends, to poverty, want, and guilt.—Left fuch
‘ may be driven to defpair by fuch complicated mifery,
and be tempted to deftroy themfelves and murder their
infants,’ here was founded in 1765 this humane preven¬
tive, the Weftminfter New Lying-in Hofpital, in which
every affiftance and accommodation requilite in fuch fi-
tuations are provided in the moft attentive and liberal
manner. To obviate all objection to its being an en¬
couragement to vice, no one is taken in a fecond time :
but this moft excellent charity is open to the w'orthy
diftrefled matron as often as neceffity requires. None
are rejected who have friends to recommend. And of
both defer!ptions upwards of 4000 have experienced its
falutary effeft.” lag
St George’s Fields are now almoft covered with new St George’s
erefled buildings, from the ditch at the end of Great Fields.
Surry-ftreet, or Burrow-’s Buildings, to the Fiftimong-
ers alms-houfes, in one dire&ion •, and from the Mar-
ffialfea prifon to the Dog and Duck, in the other direc¬
tion •, with feveral irregular indentations in its circumfe¬
rence : And where the principal roads meet, an obelilk
has been ere&ed, pointing out the diftance it hands
C c 2 from
London.
109
Lambeth
Palace,
LON [ 204 ] LON
from different parts of London, Weftminfter, and Black-
friars bridges. Among the' buildings which ferve to
embellith and improve this entrance to London, Cha-
tham-fquare and Bridgeftreet-Blackfriars may be parti¬
cularly fpecified.
At Lambeth, the archbifhops of Canterbury have had
a palace. According to Mr Pennant, it was in the
earlier times a manor, poffibly a royal one : for the
great Hardiknut died here in 1042, in the midft of the
jollity of a wedding dinner •, and here, without any for¬
mality, the ufurper Harold is faid to have fnatched the
crown and placed it on his own head. At that period
it was part of the edate of Goda, wife to Walter earl
of Mantes, and Eufface earl of Boulogne; who pre-
lented it to the church of Rochefter, but referved to
herfelf the patronage of the church. It became in
j 197 the property of the fee of Canterbury, by ex¬
change tranfadfed between Glanville bifliop of Rochef-
ter and the archbilhop Hubert Walter. The building
was improved by Langton the fucceffor of Walter ; but
it was afterwards negledled and became ruinous. “ No
pious zeal (fays Mr Pennant) reflored the place, but
the madnefs of prieftly pride. Boniface, a wrathful and
turbulent primate, eledted in 1244, took it into his
head to become a vifitor of the priory of St Bartholo¬
mew, to which he had no right. The monks met him
with reverential refpedi, but affured him the office did
not belong to the bifhop. The meek prelate ruffied on
the fub-prior, knocked him down, kicked, beat, and
buffeted him, tore the cope off his back, and ftamped
on it like one poffeffed, while his attendants paid the
fame compliments to all the poor monks. The people
enraged at his unprieftly conduft wmuld have torn him
to pieces; when he retired to Lambeth, and, by way
of expiation, rebuilt it with great magnificence. At a
fubfequent period it was very highly improved by the
munificent Henry Chichely, who enjoyed the primacy
from 1414 to 4443. I lament to find fo wmrthy a man
to have been the founder of a building fo reproachful to
his memory as the Lollards tower, at the expence of
near 280I. Neither Proteftants or Catholics ffiould
omit vifiting this tower, the cruel prifon of the unhappy
follow'ers of Wickliffe. The vaft ftaples and rings to
which they T.vere chained before they were brought to
the flake, ought to make Proteflants blefs the hour
which freed them from fo bloody a religion.” During London.
the civil wars of the laid century* this palace fuffiered ' v" '
greatly ; but at the Refloration, the whole was repaired
by Archbiihop Juxton. IIO
The pariih church of Lambeth (h), which is at a and Church,
fmall difiance from the palace, has a plain tower; and
the architedlure is of the Gothic of the time of Ed¬
ward IV. It has very little remarkable in it, except
the figure of a pedlar and his dog, painted in one of
the windows; and tradition fays, that the parifh wras
obliged to this man for the bequefi of a piece of land,
which bears the name of the Ped/ar's )lcre. In the
churchyard is the tomb of old Tradefcant. Both father
an d fon were great travellers ; and the former is fuppo-
fed to have vifited Ruffia and moil parts of Europe,
Turkey, Greece, many of the eaftern countries, Egypt,
and Barbary ; out of which he introduced multitudes
of plants and flowers, unknown before in our gardens.
The monument is an altar tomb ; embellifhed with em¬
blematical fculptures ; and bearing the following in-
fcription, which is both Angular and hiilorical:
Know, ftranger, ere thou pafs, beneath this Hone
Lye John Tradefcant, grandfire, father, fon ;
The laft dy’d in his fpring ; the other two
Liv’d till they had travell’d Art and Nature through.
As by their choice colleftions may appear,
Of what is rare, in land, in fea, in air;
Whilft they (as Homer’s Iliad in a nut)
A world of wonders in one clofet fliut :
Thefe famous Antiquarians, that had been
Both gardeners to the Rofe and Lily Queen,
Tranfplanted now' themfelves, fleep Here ; and when
Angels (hall with their trumpets waken men,
And fire (hall purge the world, thefe hence ffiall rife,
And change this garden for a paradife.
From Lambeth, eaftw'ard along the river fide, Lambeth
was-once a long trafl of dreary marffi, and fliH Marfti.
in parts called Lambeth Marjh; about the year
1560, there w'as not a boufe on it from Lambeth pa- II2
lace as far as Southwark. In a ftreet called A^r-Great Ma-
row-voall (from one of the ancient embankments) isnufactories,
Mrs Conde’s noted manufaclory of artificial flone (1) :
And at a fmall diftance, Meff. Beaufoy’s (k) great
work
(h) In defcribing this church, Mr Pennant takes occafion to mention the fad example of fallen majefty in the
perfon of Alary d’Efle, the unhappy queen of James II.; who, flying with her infant prince from the ruin im¬
pending over their houfe, after croffing the Thames from the abdicated Whitehall, took Ihelter beneath the an¬
cient walls of this church a whole hour, from the rain of the inclement night of December 6. 1688. Here fhe
waited with aggravated mifery, till a common coach, procured from the next inn, arrived, and conveyed her to
Gravefend, from whence ffie failed, and bade an eternal adieu to thefe kingdoms.
(1) Her repofitory confifts of feveral very large rooms filled with every ornament, which can be ufed in
archite&ure. The ftatue, the vafe, the urn, the rich chimney pieces, and in a few words, every thing
which could be produced out of natural ftone or marble by the moll elegant chifel, is here to be obtained at an
eafy rate.
(k) “ Where (fays Air Pennant) the foreign wines are moll admirably mimicked. Such is the prodigality
and luxury of the age, that the demand for many forts exceeds in a great degree the produce of the native vine¬
yards. We have fkilful fabricators, who kindly fupply our wants. It has been eftimated, that half of the
port, and five-fixths of the white wines confumed in our capital, have been the produce of our home wine
preffes. The produfl of duty to the flate from a Angle houfe wTas in one year, from July 5. 1785 to July 5.
1786, not lefs than 73^3^* 9s* 84-d. "I he genial banks of the Jhames pppofite to our capital, yield almoft
every fpecies of white wine ; and, by a wondrous magic, Meff. Beaufoy pour forth the materials for the rich
Frontiniac,
LON
[ 205 ]
LON
London.
”3
3. City and
Liberties of
Weftn.in-
fter.
114
Govern¬
ment of
Weftmin-
fter.
work for making wines, and that for making vine¬
gar (l).
This ground, fo profitable to the proprietors, and
fo produftive of revenue to the date, was within me¬
mory the fcene of low ditTipation. Here Hood Cuper’s
garden, noted for its fireworks, and the great refort of
the profligate of both fexes. This place was ornament¬
ed with feveral of the mutilated ilatues belonging to
Thomas earl of Arundel, which had been for that pur-
pofe begged from his lordfhip by one Boyder Cuper, a
gardener in the family. The great timber yards be¬
neath which thefe antiquities were found, are very rvell
worthy of a vifit. One would fear that the foreds of
Norway and the Baltic would be exhauded, to fupply
the wants of our overgrown capital, were we not affured
that the refources will fuccedively be increafed equal to
the demand of fucceeding ages.—In this pariih are alfo
vad didilleries, formerly the property of Sir Jofeph
Mawbey ; where are feldom lefs than 2000 hogs, which
are fed entirely on grains.
III. City and Liberties of Westminster. The city
of Wedminder derives its name from a minfter, or ab¬
bey, and wef, on account of its fituation with refpeft
to St Paul’s cathedral, which was formerly called Eajl-
minjler. In ancient times this didridl dood upwards of
a mile from the city of London, and contained only
two parhhes, which were thofe of St Margaret and St
John, with two chapels of eafe ; but at prefent it has
feven other parochial churches, viz. St Clement’s
Danes, St Paul’s Covent garden, St Mary’s le Strand,
St Martin’s in the Field’s, St Anne’s, St James’s, and
St George’s Hanover-fquare.
Wedminder was anciently called Thorny If and, from
its having been covered with thorn budies, and encom-
paffed by a branch of the Thames, which is faid to have
run through the ground now called St James's Park,
from wed to ead, and to have rejoined the river at
Whitehall.
Till the general diffolution of religious houfes, Wed-
minder was fubjefl to the arbitrary rule of its abbot and
monks; but in 1541, upon the furrender of Wil¬
liam Benfon the lad abbot, Henry VIII. not only
turned it into an honour, but created it the fee of a
bifhop, and appointed for a diocefe the whole coun¬
ty of Middlefex, except Fulham, which belonged
to the bhhop of London. This bifhoprick, how¬
ever, foon after its inditution, was diiiblved by Ed¬
ward VI.
The city of Wedminder is governed by a high
deward, an office of great dignity, who is ufually one London,
of the fird peers in the realm ; and is chofen for life ' v"
by the dean and chapter of the collegiate church of
St Peter. There is alfo a deputy dewajrd and a high
bailiff, wrho alfo hold their offices for life \ being no¬
minated by the dean and chapter, and confirmed by
the high deward.
The dean and chapter are inveded with an ecclefiaf-
tical and civil jurifdiclion within the liberties of Wed¬
minder, St Martin’s le Grand, near Cheapfide, in the
city of London, and fome towns in Effex, which are
exempted from the jurifdiftion of the biffiop of London
and the archbiffiop of Canterbury. u-
St Margaret's Church was founded by Edward the Churches.
Confeffbr, fince which time it has been frequently re¬
built. In the ead end of this church is a window cu-
rioudy painted, with the hidory of the crucifixion,
and with the figures of feveral apodles and faints finely
executed. It formerly belonged to a private chapel at
Copt-hall, near Epping in Eflex, and was purchafed
by the officers of this pariih, fome years ago for 400
guineas. In this church the houfe of commons attends
divine fervice on date holidays.
The church of St John the Evangelif was erefled in
1728, and having funk confiderably whild it was build¬
ing, occafioned an alteration of the plan. On the north
and fouth fides are magnificent porticoes, fupported by
vad done pillars, as is alfo the roof of the church ; at
each of the four corners is a beautiful done tower and
pinnacle, which were added with the view of making
the whole dnnffure fink equally. The parts of this
building are held together by iron bars, which run
acrofs even the aides. II(j
The mod remarkable dru£lure in Wedminder is the Weftmin-
abbey-church of St Peter. On its fite 'dood once a ^er Abbey,
temple of Apollo, which according to tradition was ^
thrown down by an earthquake in the time of Antoni- 1
nus Pius •, and from the ruins of which Sebert king of
the Wed Saxons raifed a Chriffian church, which was
ruined by the Danes. It was repaired by Edward the
Confeffbr, and given to a few monks; and this fpot he
chofeLor his burial-place. Henry III. 160 years after,
took down this fabric of Edward’s, and eredled a new
church, which was 50 years in building. It fuffered
much by fire in 1274, but was repaired by Edward I.
Edward II. and the abbots. In 1700 this church being
much decayed, the parliament granted money for re¬
pairing it, and has frequently repeated the bounty fince
that time. The form of the abbey is that of a long
crofs :
Frontiniac, to the more elegant tables ; the Madeira, the Calcavella, and the Lifbon, into every part of the
kingdom.”
(l) “ There is a magnificence of bufinefs (our author remarks) in this ocean of fweets and fours that cannot
fail exciting the greateft admiration ; whether we confider the number of veflels or their fize. The boafted tun
at Heidelberg does not furpafs them. On firft entering the yard,, two rife before you, covered at the top with a
thatched dome ; between them is a circu’ar turret, including a winding ftaircafe, which brings you to their fum-
mits, which are above 24 feet in diarrieter. One of thefe confervatories is full of fweet wine, and contains
,-8,109 gallons, or 1811; barrels of Winchefter meafure. Its fuperb affbciate is full of vinegar, to the amount of
56,799 s?al]ons> or 1774 barrels of the fame ffandard as the former. The famous German veflel yields even to
the laff by the quantity of 40 barrels.—Befides thefe, is an avenue of leffer veflels, which hold from 32,500 to
16,974 gallons each. After quittinor this Brobdignagian fcene, we pafs to the acres covered with common bar¬
rels : we cannot diminilh our ideas fo fuddenly, but at firft we imagine we could quaf
ver did the little hogfheads of the kingdom of Lilliput.”
quaff them off as eafily as GullL
'London.
”7
Henry
VII.’s cha¬
pel.
L O N [ 2 c
crofs : its greateft length is 489 feet, and the breadth
' of the weft front 66 feet $ the length of the crofs aille
is 1 89 feet, and the height of the roof 92 feet. At
the weft end are two towers : the nave and crofs aide
are fupported by 50 (lender pillars of Suffex marble, ex-
clufive of pilafters. In the upper and lowTer ranges
there are 94 wdndows, all which, with the arches, roofs,
and doors, are in the Gothic tafte. The hftide of this
church is much better executed than the outfide : and
the perfpeftive is good, particularly that of the grand
aide. The choir, from which there is an afcent by fe-
veral fteps to a fine altar-piece, is paved with black and
white marble 5 having 28 (tails on the north, the fame
number on the fouth, and eight at the weft end. The
altar is made of a beautiful piece of marble, the gift
of Queen Anne, enclofed by a curious baluftrau^ and
upon a pavement of porphyry, jafper, Lydian, and
ferpentine (tones, laid in the mofaic (tyle, at the ex¬
pence of Abbot Ware, A. D. 1272 j and is faid to be
one of the melt beautiful of its kind in the world.
On each fide of this altar a door opens into St Ed¬
ward’s chapel ; round w'hich are 10 other chapels,
ranging from the north to the fouth crofs aides, and
are dedicated, 1. To St Andrew. 2. To St Michael.
3. To St John Evangelift. 4. Idip’s chapel. 5. To
St John Baptift. 6. To St Paul. 7. Henry V.’s cha¬
pel. 8. To St Nicholas. 9. To St Edmund. 10. To
St Benedhft.
In St Edward’s chapel are (till to be feen the remains
of his (hrine •, which, though now in obfeurity, and
robbed of all its riches and luftre, wTas once efteemed
the glory of England, fo far as art and riches could
make it. Here are the tombs of King Edward I. and
feveral other kings and queens of England j and here
alfo is drown the famous chair in which the kings of
Scotland ufed to be crowned at Scoone. Henry V.’s
chapel is divided from St Edward’s by an iron fereen,
on each fide of which are ftatues as big as life.—St
Andrew’s chapel, which is next the north crofs, and
the others which furround the choir, are crowded with
the monuments of noble perfonages, wrorthy the atten¬
tion of the curious.—At the corner of St Benedift’s
chapel, an iron gate opens into the fouth crofs aide;
which from the number of monuments eredfted therein
to celebrated Englidr poets, has obtained the name of
the Poets corner: though here we find a moft magnifi¬
cent monument erefled at the fouth end in memory of
the late John duke of Argyle and Greenwich ; another
to William Camden the antiquarian ; and others to
the celebrated divine Dr Ifaac Barrow, to Thomas
Parr who died at the age of 152 years, &c.—The
fouth aide is adorned with 19 curious monuments of the
pious, the brave, and the learned ; and turning north¬
ward from the weft door, wre view a great number
more.
On the eaft of the abbey, and which, though fepa-
rate from the other chapels in the choir, feems to be
one and the fame building with the abbey, (lands the
chapel of King Henry VII. which that king founded
in the year 1502, and was at that time ftyled the won-
der of the world, and is now one of the moft expenfive
remains of the ancient Englifh tafte and magnificence.
There is no looking upon it without admiration : it
conveys an idea of the fine tafte of Gothic architec-
,ture in that age; and the infide is fo noble, majeftic,
6 1 LON
and of fuch curious workmanlhip, that it would take London,
a volume to deferibe each part with juftice and pro- 1
priety.
Its original intention was to be a dormitory for the
royal blood : and fo far the will of the founder has
been obferved, that none have been interred therein
but fuch as have traced their defeent from ancient
kings. The tomb of King Henry VIE is moft magni¬
ficent, enclofed with a fereen of cart brafs, moft admi¬
rably defigned, and as well executed. Within the rails
are the figures of that king and his royal confort, in
their robes of (late, on a tomb of black marble : and
at the head of this tomb lie the remains of Edward VI.
In different parts of this chapel are the monuments of
Lewis Stuart duke of Richmond, George Villars duke
of Buckingham, John Sheffield duke of Buckingham,
Charles Montague marquis of Halifax, Edward V. and
his brother Richard ; the vault of James I. and his
queen Anne and daughter Mary, on which is a fmall
tomb adorned with the figure of a child ; a lofty mo¬
nument of Queen Elizabeth, and another of Mary
queen of Scots; the monuments for Margaret Douglas
daughter of Margaret queen of Scots, Margaret coun-
tefs of Richmond mother to Henry VII. the vault of
King Charles II. and William III. Queen Mary his
confort, Queen Anne, and Prince George. Over thefe
royal perfonages are their effigies (except that of
Prince George) in wainfeot preffes, made of w’ax-to
referable life, and dreffed in their coronation robes.
And at the corner of the great eaft window, in another
wainfeot prefs, (lands the effigy of Mary duchefs of
Richmond, daughter to James duke of Richmond and
Lenox, dreffed in the very robes (lie wore at the coro¬
nation of Queen Anne. On leaving the aide, you are
(hown another prefs, containing the effigy of General
Monk, who, on account of his loyalty, and the part
he took in the reftoration of King Charles II. had a
vault appropriated to him and his family amongft the
royal blood.
In a fine vault under Henry the VII.’s chapel, is
the burying place of the prefent royal family, erefted
by his late majefty King George II. Adjoining to
the abbey are the cloifters, built in a quadrangular
form, with piazzas towards the court, where feveral of
the prebendaries have their houfes. IlS
Near the abbey church is the King’s fchool, ufually Weftmin-
called Wejlminfer fchool. It was originally founded in fter School.
1070, and a fecond time by Queen Elizabeth in 1560,
whence it is fometimes called the Queen's College; and
is at prefent one of the greateft fchools in the king¬
dom. The learned antiquary Mr Camden wras once
mailer of it, and Ben Johnfon one of his fcholars.
Dr Bufby, who was mailer upwards of 50 years,
greatly contributed to keep up its reputation, formed
its mufeum, and improved both the mafter’s and his
prebendal houfe.—This fchool, inftead of one mailer
and one uffier as at firll, has now an upper and under
mafter, and five uftrers, who have about 400 youths
under their tuition. A plan was fet on foot when the
prefent archbilhop of York was mafter, for building
a college for the ufe of the ftudents, but this did not
fucceed.
On the north-eaft fide of the abbey is an old Go- Weftmin-
thic building called Wejlminfer-hall, firft built by Wil-fter-hall.
liam Rufus as an addition to a royal palace, and after¬
wards
LON
[ 207 ]
LON
120
Houfe of
Commons.
121
Houfe of
Lords.
London, wards rebuilt by Richard II. in the year 1397. It
—* ’ is reckoned one of the largeft rooms in Europe, being
200 feet long, 70 broad, and 90 high, fupported
only by buttreffes. The roof is of timber, and was
fome years ago Hated, the old covering of lead being
reckoned too heavy. It is paved with Hone. In this
fpacious room the kings of England have generally
held their coronation and other folemn feafts j and it
is ufed for the trial of peers. Since the reign of
Henry III. the three great courts of Chancery, King’s
Bench, and Common Pleas, have been held in feparate
apartments of this hall j and the court of Exchequer
above flairs.
Adjoining to the fouth-eafl angle of Weflminfler-
hall is a building formerly called St Stephen's Chapel,
from its having been dedicated to that faint. It was
founded by King Stephen j and in 1347 was rebuilt
by King Edward III. who converted it to a collegiate
church ; but fmce it was furrendered to Edwrard VI.
it has been ufed for the aflembly of the reprefentatives
of the commons of England, and is now generally
called the Houfe of Commons. The benches, which
afcend behind one another as in a theatre, are covered
with green cloth ; the floor is matted j and round the
room are wainfcot galleries, fupported by cantilevers
adorned with carved w'ork, in which flrangers are often
permitted to fit and hear the debates.
On the fouth fide of the hall is the Houfe of Lords,
fo called from being the place where the peers of
Great Britain affemble in parliament. It is an oblong
room, not quite fo large as the houfe of commons $
and is hung w’ith fine old tapeflry, reprefenting the
defeat of the Spanifh Armada in 1588. The defign
was drawn by Cornelius Vroom, and the tapefiry exe¬
cuted by Francis Spiering. It was not put up till
the year 1650, two years after the extinflion of mo¬
narchy, when the houfe of lords was ufed as a com¬
mittee room for the houfe of commons. The heads
of the naval heroes who commanded on the glorious
day form a matchlefs border round the work, animat¬
ing poflerity to emulate their illuflrious example.
Here is a throne for the king, with feats on the right
and left for fuch peers of the realm as are of the
blood royal. Before the throne are three broad feats j
on the firft of which, next the throne, fits the lord
chancellor, or keeper of the great feal, who is fpeaker
of the houfe of peers ; and on the other twro fit the
judges, the mafter of the rolls, or the mailers in chan¬
cery, who attend occafionally to give their opinions on
points of law. The two archbifhops fit at fome di¬
ll ance from the throne on the right hand, and the
other bilhops in a row under them. All the benches
are covered with red cloth fluffed with w7ool. Plere
likewife, by an order of the houfe, a gallery for flran¬
gers has been eredled.
Adjoining to the houfe of lords is the Prince's
Chamber, where the king is robed when he comes to
the parliament. On the other fide is the Painted
Chamber, which is faid to have been Edward the Con-
feffor’s bedchamber, and the room in which the par¬
liaments were anciently opened. Here conferences
are often held between the two houfes, or their com¬
mittees. Contiguous to thofe is an apartment called
the Court of Requejls, where fuch as have bufinefs in ei¬
ther houfe may attend.
122
Prince’s
Chamber,
See.
the 123
ine Weftmin-
Near thefe buildings is a bridge over the Thames, London,
called Weflminfler Bridge, accounted one of the molt
complete and elegant flrudlures of the kind in
known world. It is built entirely of Hone, and ex- fteTbndge,
tends over the river at a place where it is 1223 feet
broad: which is above 380 feet broader than at Lon¬
don bridge. On each fide is a fine baluflrade of
flone, with places of fhelter from the rain. The width
of the bridge is 44 feet, having on each fide a fine
foot way for paffengers. It confifls of 14 piers, and
13 large and two fmall arches, all femicircular, that
in the centre being 76 feet wide, and the reft decreaf-
ing four feet each from the other, fo that the two
leaft arches of the 13 great ones are each 52 feet.
It is computed that the value of 40,000!. in Hone
and other materials is always under wTater. This
magnificent ftru£lure was begun in 1739, and finiftied
in 1750, at the expence of 389,000!. defrayed by the
parliament. It was built after the defign of M. Labelye,
an ingenious architect, a native of France. r2^
On the bank of the Thames, at the eaft confines of Whitehall.
St Margaret’s parifh, was a palace called Whitehall,
originally built by Hubert de Burgh earl of Kent, be¬
fore the middle of the 13th century. It afterwards
devolved to the archbiftiop of York, whence it receiv¬
ed the name of 'York Place, and continued to be the
city refidence of the archbiihops till it was purchafed
by Henry VIII. of Cardinal Wolfey in 1530. At
this period it became the refidence of the court ; but
in 1697 was deftroyed by accidental fire, all except
the Banqueting-houfe, which had been added to the
palace of Whitehall by James I. according to a defign
of Inigo Jones. This is an elegant and magnificent
ftruflure of hewn ftone, adorned with an upper and
lower range of pillars, of the Ionic and Compofite or¬
ders j the capitals are enriched with fruit and foliages,
and between the columns of the windows. The roof
is covered with lead, and furrounded with a baluftrade.
The building chiefly confifts of one room of an oblong
form 40 feet high, and a proportionable length and
breadth. The cieling is painted by the celebrated Sir
Peter Paul Rubens. It is now ufed only as a chapel-
royal, and the other part of the houfe is occupied with
with ftate offices. I2^
Oppofite to the Banqueting-houfe ftands the HorfeHoxk
Guards, fo called from being the ftation where that
part of his majefty’s troops ufually do duty. It is a
ftrong building, of hewm ftone, confiding of a centre
and two wings. In the former is an arched paffage
into St James’s Park *, and over it, in the middle, rifes
a cupola. In a part of the building is the War Office.
Near the Horfe-guards is the Treafury ; a large build¬
ing, which fronts the Parade in St James’s park j and
where the board of treafury is kept. 126
Eaftward of the Horfe Guards is the Admiralty Office,
a large pile, built wdth brick and ftone. The front Ce'
towards Whitehall has two deep wdngs, and a lofty
portico fupported by four large ftone pillars. A
piazza, confiding of beautiful columns, runs almofl:
from one end to the other. The wall before the court
has been lately built in an elegant manner, and each
fide of the gate is ornamented with naval emblems.
Befides a hall, and other public apartments, here are
fpacious houfes for feven commiffioners of the admiralty.
At a little diftance from the Admiralty, where three
capital
LON
[ 208 ]
LON
IZJ
Charing-
crofs.
128
Queen’s
Palace.
129
St James’s
London, capital ftreets terminate, is a large opening called
Charing-crofs, from one of the croffes which King Ed¬
ward I. caufed to be ere£ted in memory of his queen
Eleanor, and Charing the name of a village in which
it was built. The crofs remained till the civil wars in
the reign of Charles I. when it was deftroyed by the
fanatics, as a monument of popifli fuperllition *, but
after the Refloration, an equeftrian llatue of Charles I.
wras fet up in its dead. This, which is of brafs, and
finely executed, continues to be an ornament to the
place. It was made in 1633, at the expence of the
Howard-Arundel family. The parliament fold it to a
brazier in Holborn, with drift orders to break it to
pieces •, but he concealed it under ground till the Re-
doration, when it was fet up in 1678.
At the wed end of the Mall, in St James’s park,
which begins near Charing-crofs, dands the ^ueeti’s
Palace. It was originally knowm by the name of Ar¬
lington Hon/e ; but being purchafed by the late duke of
Buckingham’s father, who rebuilt it from the ground
in 1703, it was called Buckingham Houfe, till the year
1762, when it wras purchafed by his majedy for a
royal refidence. It is built of brick and done, having
in the front two ranges of piladers of the Corinthian
and Tufcan orders. It has a fpacious court yard, en-
clofed with iron rails, fronting St James’s park, with
offices on each fide, with two pavilions, feparated from
the manfion houfe by colonnades of the Tufcan, Do¬
ric, and Ionic orders. His majedy has here built a
fine library, in an oftagonal form, befides feveral other
additions.
Eadwards of the queen’s palace dands St James's,
an old building, which, till the former was purchafed
by the crown, had been the town refidence of the roy¬
al family fince the burning of Whitehall in 1697.
This palace was built by Henry VIII. and obtained
its name from an hofpital which formerly dood on the
fpot. It is an irregular building, of a mean appearance
without, but contains feveral magnificent apartments.
Here the court and levees are dill kept, and mod of
the perfons belonging to the houfehold have their re-
fiience. The chapel of the hofpital was converted to
the ufe of the royal family, as it now remains, and is
a royal peculiar, exempted from all epifcopal jurifdic-
tion. When this palace was built, it abutted in the
fouth-wTed upon an uncultivated fwampy traft of
ground, which the king enclofed and converted into
a park, called from the palace St James's park. He
alfo laid it out into walks, and collefted the wrater into
one body. It was afterwards much enlarged and im¬
proved by King Charles II. who planted it with lime
trees, and formed a beautiful vida, near half a mile in
length, called the Mall, from its being adapted to a
play at bowds didinguifhed by that name. He alfo
formed the wrater into a canal 100 feet broad and
2800 feet long *, and furniffied the park with a decoy,
and other ponds for water-fowd ; but thefe have lately
been dedroyed, on account of the unwholefome vapours
which they excited.
In a line with St James’s palace, on the ead fide,
is Marlborough-houfe, "which belongs to the duke of
Marlborough, and is a large brick edifice, ornamented
The Strand ^one*
when firft ’ Eadward from Charing-crofs, runs that fine dreet
formed. the Strand, which terminates at Temple-bar. In the
3
130
The Park
and Mall.
year 1353 the whole of it was an open high way, with London,
gardens to the water-fide. In that year it was fo
ruinous, that Edward III. by an ordinance direfted a
tax to be railed upon wool, leather, wine, and goods
carried to the daple at Wellminder, from Temple-bar
to Wedminder abbey, for the repair of the road •, and
that all owners of houfes adjacent to the high way
fhould repair as much as lay before their doors.
Before the above period, it entirely cut off Wedmin¬
der from London ; nothing intervened except the
fcattered houfes, and a village which afterwards gave
name to the whole 5 and St Martin’s dood literally in
the fields. But about the year 1560 a dreet wTas form¬
ed, loofely built •, for all the houfes on the fouth fide
had great gardens to the river, were called by their
owners names, and in after-times gave name to the
feveral dreets that fucceeded them, pointing down to
the Thames •, each of them had dairs for the con-
veniency of taking boat, of which many to this day
bear the names of the houfes. As the court was for
centuries either at the palace of Wedminder or White¬
hall, a boat wras the cudomary conveyance of the great
to the prefence of their fovereign. The north fide
w’as a mere line of houfes from Charing-crofs to
Temple-bar ; all beyond was country. The gardens
which occupied part of the fite of Covent-garden w^ere
bounded by fields, and St Giles’s was a didant country
village. Our capital found itfelf fo fecure in the vigo¬
rous government of Queen Elizabeth, that, by the
year 1600, mod confiderable additions were made .to
the north of the long line of dreet jud deferibed. St
Martin’s-lane was built on both fides. St Giles’s
church was dill infulated : but Broad-dreet and Hol¬
born wyere completely formed into dreets with houfes
all the way to Snow-hill. Covent-garden and Lin-
coln’s-inn-fields w-ere built, but in an irregular manner.
Drury-lane, Clare-dreet, and Long-acre, arofe in the
fame period.
Almod contiguous to Charing-crofs, and upon the Northuia-
fouth fide of the Strand, is that noble palace called berland
Northumberland Houfe, which dands on the fite 0f ^ou^e'
the hofpital of St Mary Rounceval. Henry VIII.
granted it to Sir Thomas Caverden. It wras after¬
wards transferred to Henry Howard earl of Northamp¬
ton 5 wrho, in the time of James I. built here a houfe,
and called it after his own name. He left it to his
kinfman the earl of Suffolk, lord treafurer : and by the
marriage of Algernon Percy earl of Northumber¬
land, w’ith Elizabeth daughter of Theophilus earl of
Suffolk, it paffed into the houfe of the prefent noble
owmer. The greater part of the houfe w7as built by
Bernard Janfen, an architeft in the reign of James I.
The front next the dreet was begun by Algernon in
1748, and finiffied by the prefent duke, who married
his daughter. Two additional wings to the front next
the Thames, and a variety of other improvements both
in building and furniture, have contributed to render
this houfe the larged and mod magnificent in London.
It contains a gallery of 106 feet long by 26 wide, mod
fuperbly furnifhed. ' 132
A diort way eadward, on the fame fide, dood Durham
ham Yard, which took its name from a palace built ori-Yanh
ginally by the illudrious Thomas de Hatfield, elefted
bidiop of Durham in 1345 j defigned by him for the
towm refidence of him and his fucceffors. At this place,
in
LON
[ 209 ]
LON
London,
134 ,
The Adel-
phi.
r35
The Savoy^
136
Somerfet
Houfe.
in 154O, was held a moft magnificent feaft, given by
the challengers of England, who had caufed to be
proclaimed, in France, Flanders, Scotland, and Spain,
a great and triumphant jufting to be holden at Weft-
minfter, for all comers that would undertake them.
But both the challengers and defendants were Eng-
liih. After the gallant fports of each day, the chal¬
lengers rode into this Durham-houle where they kept
open houfehold, and feafted the king and queen (Anne
of Cleves) with her ladies, and all the court. In the
reign of Edward VI. the Mint was eftablhhed in this
houfe, under the management of Sir William Shar-
rington, and the influence of the afpiring Thomas
Seymour, lord admiral. Durham-houfe was reckon¬
ed one of the royal palaces belonging to C^ueen Eliza¬
beth •, who gave the ufe of it to the great Sir Walter
Raleigh.
Durham-yard is now filled with a moft magnificent
mafs of building, called the Adelplu, in honour of two
brothers, the ingenious Adams, its archite&s. Be-
fides its fine lodgings, it is celebrated for its enchant¬
ing profpeff, the utility of its wdiarfs, and its fubter-
raneous apartments anfwering a variety of purpofes of
general benefit.
Farther on Hand the ruins of the Savoy. Henry III.
had granted to Peter of Savoy, uncle to his queen
Eleanor, daughter of Berringer of Provence, all the
houfes upon the Thames w’here this building now
Hands, to hold to him and his heirs, yielding yearly
at the Exchequer three barbed arrows for all fervices.
This prince founded the Savoy, and bellowed it on
the foreign hofpital of Montjoy. Queen Eleanor pur-
ehafed it, and bellowed it on her fon Edmund earl
of Lancafter. It was rebuilt in a moll magnificent
manner by his fon Henry. It was made the place of
confinement of John king of France in >356, after
he was taken prifoner at the battle of Poitiers. In
1381 it was entirely dellroyed by Wat Tyler, out of
fpleen to the great owner John of Gaunt. Henry VII.
began to rebuild it, with a defign of forming it into
an hofpital for a hundred diltreffed people, and Hen¬
ry VIII. completed the defign. The revenues, at the
fupprellion by Edward VI. amounted to above 500^-
a-year. Queen Mary rellored it 5 and her maids of
honour, with exemplary piety, furnifhed it with all ne-
ceffaries. It w7as again lupprelfed by Queen Elizabeth ;
and at prefent part ferves as lodgings for private people,
for barracks, and a fcandalous infedtious prifon for
the foldiery and for tranfport-convi&s.
A little to the eallward Hood Somerfet Houfe, a pa¬
lace built by Somerfet the proteftor in the time of
Edward VI.; and to make way for which he demo-
lithed a great number of buildings without making any
recompenfe to the owners. Part of the church of St
John of Jerufalem and the Tower were blown up for
the fake of the materials •, and the cloiIters on the north
fide of St Paul’s, with the charnel-houfe and chapel,
underwent the fame fate •, the tombs being deitroyed,
and the bones thrown into Finibury-fields. This hap¬
pened in I 549; but it is probable that he did not live
to inhabit the palace he built, as he was executed in
the year 1552 After his death the palace fell to the
crown ; and it became an occafidnal place of refidence,
firft to Queen E izabeth, and afterwards to Catherine
queen to King Charles II. It was built in a flyle of
Vol. XII. Part I.
Loudon.
architeflure compounded of the Grecian and Gothic •,
and the back, front, and water gate, were done from v
a defign of Inigo Jones, about jthe year 1623. A
chapel was begun the fame year by that architect, and
finiihed fome time after. The whole of this llrudlure
was demolilhed in 1775, in confequence of an a£l of
parliament j and a moll magnificent edifice, from a
defign by Sir William Chambers, has been eredled
for the accommodation of all the public offices,—thofe
of the Trenfury, the Secretary of State, the Admi¬
ralty, the War, and the Excife, excepted. The
Royal Society, and the Society of Antiquarians, hold
their meetings here, in apartments which have been
allotted to them by royal munificence 5 and here alfo
are annually exhibited the wTorks of the Britifh painters
and fculptors. The terrace on the fouth fide is a walk
bounded by the Thames, and unparalleled for grandeur
and beauty of view. I37. t
The church of St Martin is diflinguilhed by the *
name of St Martin's in the Fields, from its fituation, ciuirches.
which was formerly a field, with only a few fcattered
houfes. The church being decayed, was rebuilt by
Henry VIII. and again by James I. but not being
large enough to accommodate the inhabitants of the
parilh, it was augmented in 1607, at t^ie charge of
Prince Henry, eldelt fon of James I. and feveral of
the nobility. After many expenfive reparations, how¬
ever, it was entirely taken down in 1720, and a
new church begun, which was finilhed in 1726. This
is an elegant edifice, built of Hone. On the weft
front is a noble portico of Corinthian columns, fup-
porting a pediment, in which are repreiented the royal
arms in bas relief. The afeent to the portico is by a
flight of very long Heps. The length of this church
is about 140 feet, the breadth 60, and height 45. It
has a fine arched roof fuftained by Itone columns of
the Corinthian order. The fteeple has a beautiful
fpire, and one of the bell rings of bells in London.
St James's Church was built in the reign of Charles
II. at the expence of Henry earl of St Alban’s, and
other neighbouring inhabitants. The building is of
brick and Hone, about 85 feet long, 60 broad, and
45 feet high, with a handfome fteeple 150 feet in
height.
St George's Church, near Hanover-fquare, is a beau¬
tiful ftruclure. This was one of the fifty new churches
eredted within the reign of Queen Anne. The ground
for the edifice was given by the late Lieutenant-general
Stewart, who alfo left 4000I. to the pariih, towards
erecting and endowing a charity fchool \ which, by
additional benefadlions and fubicriptions, is become
very confiderable.
The greater part of the parifti of SV Paul's Covent-
garden, was anciently a garden, belonging to the ab¬
bot and convent of Weftminfter, and was then called
Convent-garden, a name corrupted into Covent, and 13S
more generally Common-garden. In 1552, Edward VI.
gave it to the earl of Bedford, with an adjoining field,
formerly called the Seven Acres, but now, being turned
into a long llreet, called Long-acre. The church of
St Paul’s, Covent-garden, was built by Inigo Jones,
and was efteemed one of the moll Ample and perfect
pieces of architecture in England. It was burnt by
accident a few years ago •, but has fince been rebuilt in
a very plain ttile. In the area before the church, of about
D d three
Gardes.
LON
London.
139
St Mary
le Strand,
140
Found Ling
and other
Hofpitals.
- ,4I
Cray’s Inn,
three acres of ground, is Covent garden mar'kst, which
is the befl in England for herbs, fruit, and flowers.
On the north, and part of the eaft fide, is a magnificent
piazza, defigned by Inigo Tones.
Next to the parifh of St Paul, Covent-garden, is
that en St Ivlary le Strand. 1 his is alfo one of the fifty
new churches built in the reign of Queen Anne, and
is a handiome piece of architefture, though not very
^xtenfive. At the entrance, on the weft fide, is an
afeent by a flight of fteps, in a circular form, which
leads to a fimilarly ftiaped portico of Ionic columns,
covered with a dome, that is crowned with a vafe.
I he columns are continued along the body of the
church, with pilafters of the fame order at the corners ;
and in the intercolumniations are niches handfomely
ornamented. Over the dome is a pediment fupported
by Corinthian columns, which are alfo continued round
the body of the ftru£Iure, over thofe of the Ionic order.
A handfome baluftrade is carried round the top of the
church, and adorned with vafes.
r A httle eaftward from the preceding church is that
of St Clement's Danes, fituated likewife in the Strand.
church is faid to have flood in this place fince about
the year 700 } but the prefent ftru6Iure was begun in
i6bo, defigned by Sir Chriftopher Wien. It is built
of ftone, with two rows of windows, the lower plain,
but the upper ornamented ; and the termination is by
cn attic, the pilafters of which are covered with vafes.
On the iouth fide is a portico, covered with a dome
fupported by Ionic columns $ and oppofite to this is
another. The fteeple is beautiful, and of a great
height.
The church of St George, Bloomfbury, is alfo one of
the fifty new churches eredled by act of parliament.
It is difiinguiftied from all the reft by Handing fouth
and north, and by the ftatue of King George I. at
the top of its pyramidal fteeple.
In Lamb’s Conduit-fields, on the north fide of the
town, is a large and commodious ftru&ure called the
Foundling Hofpital, for the reception of expofed and
deferted children. This laudable charity was project¬
ed by feveral eminent merchants in the reign of Queen
Anne but was not carried into execution till many
years afterwards, when a charter for its eftablifhment
was obtained, through the indefatigable afliduity of
Mr Thomas Coram, the commander of a merchant
vefiel, who fpent the remainder of his life in promoting
this defign. From the time of its inftitution, the par¬
liament has occafionally granted confiderable fums for
its fupport 5 and in fome years upwards of 6900 infants
have been received.
Not far from hence is an Hofpital for the Smallpox;
and in different parts of the town there are others, either
for the fick of all kinds, or thofe in particular circum-
ftances. Of the latter are feveral Lying-in hofpitals,
and the Loch Hofpital for female patients in the venereal
difeafe. Of the former are St George's and Middlefex
Hofpitals, befides feveral infirmaries.
Gray's Inn is one of the four principal inns of court;
which, though fituated within the limits of the pariih
of St Andrew, Holborn, is yet without the liberties
of the city of London. It took its name from an
ancient family of the name of Gray, which formerly
refided here, and in the reign of Edward III. demifed
U to fome ftudents in the law; but it is faid to have
[ 210 3
L O N
been afterwards conveyed to the monks of Shene, near London
Richmond in Surry, who leafed it to the fociety of v—
the Inn. It was held by this tenure till the diffolution
of the monafteries, when Henry VIII. granted it to
the fociety in fee-farm. This inn confifts chiefly of
two quadrangles, and has an old hall well built of tim¬
ber, with a chapel in the Gothic ftyle. Here is alfo a
good library, and the inn is accommodated with a fpa-
cious garden.
Lincoln's Inn, another of the four principal inns of Lincoln'*
court, was originally the palace of Ralph Neville bilhoplnn.
of Chichefter, and chancellor of England about the
year 1226. It afterwards devolved to the earl of Lin¬
coln, who converted it into a court for the ftudents of
law about the year 1310. From him it received the
name of Lincoln's Inn, and confifted only of what is
now called the old fquare, which is entered from Chan¬
cery-lane. At prefent this fquare contains, befides
buildings for the lawyers, a large hall where the lord
chancellor hears caufes in the fittings after term. To
this inn belongs likewife a fine garden, which has late¬
ly been diminiihed by the building of fome large and
commodious offices, for the ufe of the fix clerks in the
court of chancery, &c.
In the parith of St lames, Clerkenwell, is an hofpi- charter
tfil called the Charter-houfe, which is a corruption ofhoufe.
the word chartreux, a name formerly ufed for a con¬
vent or priory of the Carthufians, which this place
formerly was. After the diffolution of monafteries it
fell to the earl of Suffolk, who difpofed of it to Tho¬
mas Sutton, Efq. a citizen of London, in the time of
King James I. for 13,000!. The purchafer intend¬
ing it for an hofpital, applied to the king for a patent,
which he obtained in i6n,and the grant was con¬
firmed by parliament in 1623. Sutton having ex¬
pended 7000I. in fitting up the buildings, gave ifc
the name of King James's Hofpital, and endowed it
with lands to the amount of near 4500I. a-year, for
the maintenance of 80 gentlemen, merchants or fol-
diers, wffio ffiould be reduced to indigent circumftances ;
and 40 boys, to be inftrufted in claflical learning. The
men are provided with handfome apartments, and all
the neceffaries of life except clothes; inftead of which
each of them is allowed a gown, and 7I. a-year. Of
the boys, 29 are at a proper time fent to the univer-
lity, where each has an allowance of 20I. a-year for
eight years. Others, who are judged more fit for
trade, are put out apprentices, and the fum of 40I.
is given with each of them. As a farther encourage¬
ment to the fcholars, there are nine ecclefiaftical pre¬
ferments in the gift of the governors. It is alfo by
the recommendation of the latter that all penlioners
and youths are received into the hofpital. They corr-
fift of 16, of which number the king is always one, and
the others are generally noblemen of the firft rank. To
this hofpital belong a mafter, a preacher, two fchool-
mafters, a phyfician, a regifter, a receiver, a treafurer,
a ftewrard, an auditor, and other officers; and the an¬
nual revenues of it being now increafed to upwards of
6000I. five men and four boys have been added to the
original number.
In the parifli of St Luke Hands the Haberdaffiers Afke’s
alms-houfe, or sljhe's Hofpital, fo called from having Hofpita&
been eredled by the company of haberdaffiers, purfuant
to the will of Robert Alke, Efq; one of their mem¬
bers,
LON [ 21
London.
fioufes of
the nobili¬
ty.
t4d
.Britifh
Muieum.
bers, wlio left 30,000!. for the building and the re¬
lief of 20 poor members of the company 5 befides the
maintenance and education of 20 boys, fons of decay¬
ed freemen of the fame company. This is a large edi¬
fice of brick and ftone, 400 feet long, with a piazza in
front 340 feet in length, confining of ftone columns
of the Tufcan order. In the middle of the building
is a chapel, adorned with columns, entablatures and
pediment, of the Ionic order j under the pediment
is a niche with a ftatue of the founder. In the fame
pariih is the Ironmongers hofpital, likewife a large
building.
In the parifh of St Mary, Whitechapel, ftands the
London Hofpital, for the reception of the fick. It is a
large building, and was erefted a few years fince by vo¬
luntary contribution. Here are alfo fome confiderable
alms-houfes.
Within the precin&s of Weftminfter are feveral ftate-
ly houfes belonging to the nobility, fome of which have
been already mentioned. Of the others, the moft re-,
markable at prefent are, Burlington-houfe, Devon(hire-
houfe, Egremont-houfe, and Bedford-houfe •, Carleton-
houfe, the magnificent abode of the prince of Wales;
and the fuperb refidence ere&ed by the duke of York
between the Treafury and the Horfe-guards.
To thefe may be added, Montagu-houfe (now the
Britilh Mufeum) ; which was built on a French plan
by the firft duke of Montagu, who had been ambaf-
fador in France. The ftaircafe and ceilings were paint¬
ed by Rouffeau and La Fofle : the apotheofis of Iris,
and the aflembly of the gods, are by the laft. It was
purchafed of the duke’s heirs by parliament, for uniting
together the Royal, Cottonian, Harleian, Sloanian,
and other colleftions of books, MSS. coins, antiqui¬
ties, fubje£b in natural hiftory, &tc. &c. for the public
ufe, for which it is excellently adapted. The firft of
thefe libraries contains the Books and MSS. of our
princes from Henry VII. to Charles II. $ the fecond
the MSS. collefled by Sir John Cotton, his fon,
and grandfon Sir John, which laft gave it to the public
by aft 12 and 13 William III. c. 7. The Harleian
collection of MSS. was formed by Edward earl of
Oxford, and purchafed by government in 1753, at the
fame time with the library, MSS. and natural curiofi-
ties, of Sir Hans Sloane. This laft; coft Sir Hans
50,000!.; and he left it by will, to the ufe of the
public, on condition that the parliament would pay
20,0001. to his executors. It comprehends an amaz¬
ing number of curiofities: among which are, the li¬
brary, including books of drawings, MSS. and prints,
amounting to about 50,000 volumes; medals and coins,
ancient and modern, 20,000; cameos and intaglios,
about 700; feals, 268; veffels, &c. of agate, jafper,
&c. 542; antiquities, 1125; precious ftones, agates,
jafper, 8tc. 2256; metals, minerals, ores, &x. 2725;
cryftal, fpars, &c, 1864; foffils, flints, ftones, 1275;
earths, fands, falts, 1035; bitumens, fulphurs, ambers,
&c. 399', talcs, micse, 8cc. 388 ; corals, fponges, &c.
1421; teftacea, or (hells, &c. 5843 ; echini, echinitae,
&c. 659 ; afteriae, trochi, entrochi, &c. 241 ; crufta-
ceae, crabs, lobfters, See. 363 ; ftellae marinse, ftar-fhhes,
&c. 173 ; fifli, and their parts, &c. 1555 ; birds, and
their parts, eggs, and nefts of different fpecies, 1172;
quadrupeds, &c. 1886; vipers, ferpents, &c. 521 ; in-
feds, &c. 54395 vegetables, 12,5065 hortus ficcus
I end01*.
147
148
i ] LON
or volumes of dried plants, 334 5 humani, as calculi,
anatomical preparations, 756 5 mifcellaneous things,
natural, 2098; mathematical inftruments, 55. A ca¬
talogue of all the above is written in a number of large
volumes. It is a large and magnificent building 5 and
has behind it a garden, confifting nearly of nine acres.
The Britith Mufeum has of late been very much en¬
riched by an acceftion of Egyptian curiofitics, chiefly
taken from General Menou at Alexandria. In the
mean time they are laid in the court-yard, but will foon
be depofited in a building which is to be erefted for
that partiular purpofe.
Befides a great number of fpacious ftreets, which Principal
are daily increafing, this part of the metropolis is or-f(luares>^'
namented with feveral magnificent fquares, viz. Grof-
venor-fquare, Berkeley-fquare, Portman-fquare, Ca-
vendifli-fquare, Hanover-fquare, St James’s-fquare, So-
ho-fquare, Bloomfbury-fquare, Oueen’s-fquare, Lin¬
coln’s-Inn-Fields, Leicefter-fquare, Red-Lion-fquare,
fome of which have been particularly deferibed 5 not
to mention others that are at prefent building. In
general, the new buildings in the liberty of Weftmin¬
fter have increafed to a prodigious degree 5 infomuch
that they reach as far as Marybone to the north, Pic¬
cadilly to the fouth, and Hyde-Park wall to the weft.
Before the conflagration in 1666, London (which b°ndon
like moft; other great cities, had arifen from fmall be- arrcient 7!
gmnmgs) was totally inelegant, inconvenient, and rin-eIlt an(i un^,
healthy, of which latter misfortune many melancholy healthy,
proofs are authenticated in hiftory, and which, with¬
out doubt, proceeded from the narrownefs of the
ftreets, and the unaccountable proje&ions of the build¬
ings, that confined the putrid air, and joined with
other circumftances, fuch as the want of water, ren¬
dered the city feldom free from peftilential devaftation.
The fire which confumed the greateft part of the
city, dreadful as it was to the inhabitants at that time,
was productive of confequences which made ample
amends for the lofles fuftained by individuals ; a new
city arofe on the ruins of the old 5 but, though more
regular, open, convenient, and healthful, than the
former, yet it by no means anfwered to the characters
of magnificence or elegance, in many particulars ; and
it is ever to be lamented (fuch was the infatuation of
thofe times), that the magnificent, elegant, and ufefui
plan of the great Sir Chriftopher Wren, was totally
difregarded, and facrificed to the mean and felfifla
views of private property 5 views which did irreparable
injury to the citizens themfelves and to the nation in
general: for had that great archite&’s plan been fol¬
lowed, what has often Seen afferted muft have been the
refult 5 the metropolis of this kingdom would incon-
teftably have been the moft: magnificent and elegant
city in the univerfe 5 and of confequence muft, from,
the prodigious refort of foreigners of diftinftion and
tafte who would have vilited it, have become an in-
exhauftible fund of riches to this nation. But as the
deplorable blindnefs of that age has deprived us of
fo valuable an acquifition, it is become abfolutely he-
ceffary that fome efforts (hould be made to render
the prefent plan in a greater degree anfwerable to the
charaCler of the richeft and moft powerful people in
the world. ~ ^
The plan of London, in its prefent (late, will in Its plan ftill
many inftaHces appear to very moderate judges to be defective.
D d 2 tfs
»
London.
LON [21
as injudicious a difpofitton as can eafdy be conceived
for a city of trade and commerce, on the borders of
fo noble a river as the Thames. The wharfs and quays
on its banks are extremely mean and inconvenient;
and the w-ant of regularity and uniformity in the
flreets of the city of London, and the mean avenues
to many parts of it, are alfo circumftances that greatly
lelfen the grandeur of its appearance. Many of the
churches and other public buildings are likewife thruft
up in corners, in fuch a manner as might tempt fo¬
reigners to believe that they were defigned to be con¬
cealed. The improvements of the city of London for
fome years paft have, however, been very great •, and
the newr ftreets, which are numerous, are in general
more fpacious, and built with greater regularity and
elegance.
The very elegant and neceffary method of paving
this vaft.
metropolis.
I.'O
Great im¬
provements, enlightening the ftreets is alfo felt in the moft fen-
fible manner by all ranks and degrees of people. The
roads are continued for feveral miles around upon the
fame model ; and, exclufive of lamps regularly placed
on each ftde, at ftiort diflanceB, are rendered more fe-
cure by watchmen ftationed w'ithin call ®f each other.
Nothing can appear more brilliant than thofe lights
when view'ed at a diftance, efrecially where the roads
run acrofs; and even the principal ftreets, fuch as Pall-
Mall, New Bond-ftreet, Oxford ftreet, &c. convey an
yjj idea of elegance and grandeur.
Wealth and London, then, in its large fenfe, including Weft-
grandeur of minder, Southwark, and part of Middlefex, forms
one great metropolis, of vaft extent and of prodi¬
gious w’ealth. When conlidered with all its advan¬
tages, it is nowT what ancient Rome once was ; the
feat of liberty, the enccurager of arts, and the admi¬
ration of the whole world. It is the centre of trade ;
h-as an intimate connexion with all the counties in the
kingdom ; and is the grand mart of the nation, to
which ail parts fend their commodities, from whence
they are again fent back into every town in the nation
and to every part of the world. From hence innumer¬
able carriages by land and w’ater are conflantly em¬
ployed : and from hence arifes that circulation in the
rational body which renders every part healthful, vigo¬
rous, and in a profperous condition ; a circulation that
is equally beneficial to the head and the moft diftant
members. Merchants are here as rich as noblemen ;
witnefs their incredible loans to government : and
there is no place in the world where the ihops of tradef-
men make fuch a noble and elegant appearance, or are
lc.2 better ftocked.
Its excellent The Thames, on the banks of which London is ft-
fituation tuated, is a river which, though not the largeft, is
the richeft and moft commodious for commerce of any
in the world. It is continually filled with fleets, fail¬
ing to or from the moft diftant climates) and its banks,
from Lcndon-bridge to Blackwall, form almoft one
continued great magazine of naval ftores) containing
numerous wet docks, dry docks, and yards for the
building of (hips, for the ufe of the merchants) befides
the places alloted for the building of boats and lighters,
and the king’s yards lower down the river for the
building of men of war.
The Weft India Docks are defigned to receive all
the {hips trading to the Weft Indies, and will, when
finifhed, juftly claim a place among the curicfities
for com-
naerce.
] LON
of Great Britain. By virtue of an a£t of parliament W.don.
they were undertaken in 1799, the entrances irdo which ‘ y—-J"
are by Blackwall and Limehoufe-hole. The proprie¬
tors began with a capital of 500,000!. with parliamen¬
tary authority to increafe it to 6co,ocq1. if they fliould
find it requifite, and they are to be indemnified by a
tonnage of 6s. upon the burden of every fliip entering
the dock.
The docks at Wapping muft be allowed to be an
important improvement. The prodigious one w’hich
goes by the name of St George’s dock, is capable of
containing 200 {hips, and Shadwell dock will contain
about 50 veflels. The company projecting and carry¬
ing thefe into execution, pofiefs a capital of 1,200,000!.
and the (hares bear a premium. The foundation of
the entrance bafon was laid on the 26th of June, 1802,
and at the lame time the firft ftone of a tobacco ware-
houfe, which is the largeft in the world
As the city is about 60 miles diftant from the tea, it
enjoys, by means of this beautiful river, all the bene¬
fits of navigation, wdthout the danger of being fur-
prifed by foreign fleets, or of Being annoyed by the
moift vapours of the fea. It rifes regularly from the
water fide, and, extending itfelf on both fides along its
banks, reaches a prodigious length from eaft to weft in
a kind of amphitheatre towards the north, and is conti¬
nued for near 20 miles on ail fides, in a fucceffion of
magnificent villas and populous villages, the country-
feats of gentlemen and tradefmen 5 whither the latter
retire for the benefit of frefti air, and to relax their
minds from the hurry of bufinefs. The regard paid
by the legiftature to the property of the fubjeCt, has
hitherto prevented any bounds being fixed for its ex-
tenfion.
The irregular form of London makes it difficult toIt
afeertain its extent. However, its length from eaft to
weft is generally allowed to be above feven miles f^om
Hyde-park corner to Poplar ; and its breadth in fome
plac'-s three, in others two, and in others again not much
above half a mile. Hence the circumference of the
whole is almoft 18 miles j or, according to a later mea-
furement, the extent of continued buildings is 35 miles
two furlongs and 39 roods. But it is much eafier to
form an idea of the large extent of a city To irregularly
built by the number of the people, wdio are computed
to be near a million ) and from the number of edifices
devoted to the fervice of religion.
Of thefe, befide St Paul’s cathedral and the colle- General
giate church at Weftminfter, there are 114 parhh-enumera-
churches and 62 chapels, of the eftablilhed religion) don of
17 foreign Proteftant chapels) 11 chapels belonging c|mrcjies» ^
to the Germans, Dutch, Danes, &c.) 26 Independent 1£t^e S’ *
meetings ) 34 Prefhytevian meetings) 20 Baptift meet¬
ings ) 11 Popifh chapels, and meeting-houfes for the
ufe of foreign ambaffadors and people of various fefls)
and 6 Jew’s fynagogues. So that there are above 300
places devoted to religious worfhip in the compafs of
this vaft pile of buildings, without reckoning the 21
out-parifhes ufually included in the bills of mortality,
and a great number of Methodift tabernacles. ] ,c
There are alfo in and near this city too alms-houfes,Hofpitals,,
about 20 hofpitals and infirmaries, 3 colleges, 10 public fchools, -
prifons, 15 flefh-markets ) one market for live cattle ) hQUfes, See.
two other markets more particularly for herbs) and 23
other markets for corn, coals, hay, &c. 5 15 inns of
court;
LON [2i
London, court} 27 public fquares, befides thofe within fingle
u—V”—buildings, as the Temple, &c. 3 bridges, 55 halls
for companies, 8 public fchools, called free-fchools j
and 131 charity-fchools, which provide education for
5034 poor children 5 207 inns, 447 taverns, 551 cof-
feehoufes, 5975 alehoufes ; 1000 hackney-coaches j
400 ditto chairs j 7000 ftreets, lanes, courts, and al-
'^.5 leys, and 150,000 dwelling houfes, containing, as has
Number of been already obferved, about 1,000,000 inhabitants j
inhabitants, who, according to a moderate eftimate, are luppofed
to conlume the following provifions weekly :
iS7
Weekly
confumpt
of provi-
lions.
150°
25O
175
125
166
225
l6l
525
200
25O
M.583
O
l3
o
5
6 8
L. 3645 t6
3645 16 8
loco Bullocks, at 61. a-piece - L. 6000 o O
6000 Sheep, at 12s. a-piece - 3600 o o
2000 Calves, at il. 4s. a-piece - 2400 o o
3000 Lambs, at 8s. a-piece, for fix
months - - - 1200 O O
1500 Hogs in pork and bacon, at
20s. for fix months
2000 Pigs, at 2s. 6d. a-piece
1000 Turkeys, at 3s. 6d. a-piece for
fix months -
1000 Geefe, at 2s. 6d. a-piece, for
fix months -
2000 Capons, at is. 8d. a-piece
500 Dozens of chickens, at 9s. per
dozen
4300 Ducks at 9d. a-piece
1500 Dozens of rabbits, at 7s. per
dozen, for eight months
2000 Dozens of pigeons, at 2 s. per
dozen, for eight months
700 Dozens of wild fowl, of feveral
forts, for fix months
In fait and frelh filh, at 1 d. a-day, for
half a million of people for a week.
In bread of all forts, white and brown
at id. a-day, for one million of
people for a week - - 29,166 13 4
300 Tons of wine, of all forts, at 50I.
a ton, one fort with another, for
one week ... 15,000 o o
In milk, butter, cheefe, &.c. at id.
a-day, for a million of people for
a week ... 29,166 13 4
In fruit of all forts, at one farthing
a-day, for a million of people for a
week - - - 7291134
In eggs of hens, ducks, geefe, &c. at
half a farthing a-day, for a million
of people for a w7eek 3^45 4
In beer and ale, ftrong and fmall, at
2d. a-day, for a million of people
for a week - - 58,333 6 8
In fugar, plums, and fpice, and all
forts of grocery, at a halfpenny a-
day, for a million of people for a
week ... 14,583 6 8
In wheat-flour, for pies and pud¬
dings, oat-meal and rice, &c. at half
a farthing a-day, for a million of
people for a w^eek - - 3645 16 8
In fait, oil, vinegar, capers, olives,
and other fauces, at half a farthing
3 ] LON
a-day, for a million of people for a
week -
In roots and herbs of all forts, both
for food and phyfic, at half a far¬
thing a-day, for a million of people
for a week ...
In fea-coal, charcoal, candles, and
fire wood, of all forts, at id. a-day,
for a million of people for a week 29,166 13 4
In paper of all forts (a great quantity
being ufed in printing) quills, pens,
ink, and wax, at a farthing a-day,
for a million of people for a week
In tobacco, pipes, and fnuff, at half
a farthing a-day, for a million of
people for a week
In clothing, as’ linen and woollen,
for men, women, and children,
ftioes, ftockings, &c. at 3s. 6d. per
week, for a million of people for
a week
Expences for horfe meat, in hay, oats,
beans, 1000 load of hay a-wTeek, at
40s. a load, comes to 2000I. in oats
and beans the like value, 2000I.
which is in all, for one wreek
Cyder, mum, brandy, rtrong waters,
coffee, chocolate, tea, &c. at id.
a-day, for a million of people for
one week -
London.
7291 13 4
3645 16 8
- 175,000 o o
4000
29,166 13 4
15s
The common firing is pit coal, commonly called feaTh-ing,
coa/, of which there are confumed upwards of 766,88oPorter> &-c’
chaldrons every year. The annual confumption of oil
in London and Wellminfter for lamps, amounts to
400,000!. In 1787, the quantity of porter brewed
in London for home confumption and foreign exporta¬
tion, amounted to 1,176,856 barrels. In 1805 it a-
mounted to 1,200,000 barrels of 56 gallons each.
The above was the weekly confumption of the arti¬
cles fpecified a few years ago. The following is the
annual confumption of fome of them eftimated fince the
year 1800. Bullocks, 110,000 : (keep and lambs
776,000: calves 210,000: hogs 210,000: fucking
pigs 60,000 : milk in gallons 6,980,000 ; for which
the inhabitants pay 481,666]. and this is the produce
of 8,500 cows : vegetables and fruit 3,000,000k : fpi-
rituous liquors and compounds 11,146,782 gallons:
wine 32,500 tons : butter 16,600,000 pounds : cheefe
21,100,000 pounds.
This great and populous city is happily fupplied <5u]ndy 0f
with abundance of frelh water from the Thames and water!
the New River: which is not only of inconceivable
fervice to every family, but by means of fire plugs
everywhere difperfed, the keys of which are depofited
with the parilh officers, the city is in a great meafure
fecured from the fpreading of fire ; for thefe plugs are
no fooner opened, than there are vaft quantities of wa¬
ter to fupply the engines. This plenty of water has i6q
been attended with another advantage, it has given infurance .
rife to feveral companies, who enfure houles and companies,
goods from fire ; an advantage that is not to be met
with in any other nation on earth : the premium is
fmall and the recovery in cafe of lofs is eafy and cer¬
tain,.
London,
London¬
derry.
161
Places of
tliverfion,
Sec.
LON f 21
tain. Every one of thefe offices keeps a fet of men in
pay, who are ready at all hours to give their affiftance
_i in cafe of fire ; and who are on all occafions extremely
bold, dexterous, and diligent : but though all their la¬
bours fhould prove unfuccefsful, the perfon who fuffers
by this devouring element has the comfort that mull;
arife from a certainty of being paid the value (upon
oath) of what he has eafured.
The places for diverfion are, Vauxhall, Ranelagh-
gardens, the two play-houfes, the Pantheon, and the
little theatre in the Hay Market, with Sadlers-wells,
Hughes’s Circus, and Aflley’s Royal-Grove, &c. The
fineft repofitories of rarities and natural hiflory, are
Sir Hans Sloane’s, in the Britilh Mufeum, already
deferibed ; and another colledled by Sir Afhton Lever,
afterwards the private property of Mr Parkinfon, and
depofited in apartments for public infpedtion, near the
fouth end of Blackfriars bridge, was fold in 1806.
The Royal Inflitution owyed its origin to a number of
noblemen and gentlemen, wdio held meetings for the
avowed purpofe of ameliorating the condition of the
poor. They firfl proje&ed the plan of its foundation,
which was matured by the exertions and talents of the
indefatigable Count Rumford. The meetings began in
1800, ihortly before which his majefly granted the
proprietors a charter of incorporation by the name of
the Royal Jnjlitution of Great Britain, for the purpofe
of facilitating the general introdudlion of ufeful mecha¬
nical inventions and improvements, and for teaching,
by courfes of philofophical lectures and experiments,
the application of fcience to the common purpofes of
life.
The government of the fociety confifts of the prefi-
dent, 15 managers, and the fecretary, chofen by and
from among the proprietors. Of the 15 managers, one-
third is elected annually, on the firfl of May. The
houfe is fituated in Albemarle-flreet, is extremely fpa-
cious, and well adapted to the purpofes to which it is
applied.
The London Inftitution was formed in the autumn
of 1805, by the indefatigable exertions of a few fpiri-
ted individuals. The houfe in the mean time is in the
Old Jewry, till the managers can procure a more fuitable
place. The defign of it is to promote the difl'emination
of fcience, literature, and the arts: its view at prefent
being confined to three objefts, viz. the acquifition of a
a valuable and extenfive library 5 the diffufion of ufeful
knowledge by the means of leisures and experiments j
and the eftablilhment of a reading room, where the
foreign and domeftic journals are provided for the ufe
of the proprietors and fubferibers. The government of
the inftitution is veiled in a prefident, four vice-preli-
dents, twenty managers, and the fecretary. The num¬
ber of proprietors is limited to ioco, each of whom
paid 75 guineas for a lhare, and the life fubferibers pay
25 guineas.
LONDONDERRY, or Colerain, a county of
Ireland, in the province of Ulfter. It is bounded on
the fouth and fouth-w’eft by the county of Tyronne ;
by Antrim on the eaft, from which it is parted by the
river Bann : by Donegal on the weft j and that county
and the Deucaledonian ocean on the north. Its
greateft length is about 36 miles, its breadth 30, con¬
taining about 251,510 acres. The bogs and heaths
.of this county are manured with fca-lhells, as thofe
3
4 1 LON
of Donegal, Like that, too, it is pretty champaign,
and not unfruitful. It is particularly noted for a very
clear river called the Bann, abounding with falmon, a
fiih faid to delight in limpid ftreams. This river, to
diftinguifli it from a leffer of the fame name, is called
the Greater or Lower Bonn. In order to cultivate,
fettle, and civilize this county, King James I. granted
it, by letters-patent, to a fociety, by the name of the
Governor and AJJiJlants at London of the new plantation
of Uljler in the realm of Ireland. It contains fix ba¬
ronies ; and, belides the two knights of the ftrire, fends
to parliament two members for the city of London¬
derry, and two each for Colerain and Newton-Lima-
vady or Lamnevady.
Londonderry, or Derry, the capital of the county,
and the fee of a bilhop, ilands at the bottom of Lough-
Foyle. This city has a very good port, to w7hich flrips
of the greateft: burden have accefs, and a conliderable
trade. It will be ever famous for the gallantry and
perfeverance with which it defended itfelf in three
memorable fieges, in defiance of the greateft hardihips
and difeouragements, namely, ill, In 1641, when the
rebels could not reduce it either by fraud or force.
2dly, In 1649, when it was belieged by the lord Ardes,
and reduced almoft to extremity by famine, till at lafi:
relieved by troops fent from England. 3dly, When
it held out againll the French and Irilh from the 7th
of December 1688 to the laft day of July 1689,
though it was neither well fortified nor provided with
a garrifon or ftores of provifion and ammunition, and
hardly any attempt made to relieve it during fo long a
time. Though the city is 20 miles up the river, yet
very large Ihips can come up to the quay, where there
are four ox five fathoms of w’ater. It is now well for¬
tified with a ftrong w7all, befides outwmrks j and along
the banks of the river are feveral caftles and a fort.
This city is of no great antiquity, having been built
and planted in the reign of James I. by a colony fent
by the fociety above mentioned. The trade of the
towrn is very confiderable, having not only a large
lhare in the herring fifhery, but fending {hips alfo to
the Weft Indies, New England, and Newfoundland,
for which they are fo advantageoufly fituated, that a
veffel bound from thence to America often arrives
there before a London (hip can get clear of the found¬
ings, or arrive in the latitude of Londonderry. Though
there are a great many {hallows in Lough-Foyle,
which ferves it inftead of a road } yet they are eafily
avoided, as there are deep channels between them.
Thefe points called Emifone, Ruflerhull or Caldy head,
which lie a little to the w7eft of the mouth of the har¬
bour, are counted the moft northerly ot Ireland. The
inhabitants of this city are almoft all Proteftants. It
gave title of earl and baron to a branch of the family
of Pitt, which became extindi in 1764; but part of
the title was revived in Robert Stewrart, who wras creat¬
ed Baron Londonderry in 1789. A late traveller
fays, “ Derry is, perhaps, the cleaneft, beft built, and
moft beautifully fituated town in Ireland ; and except¬
ing Corke, as convenient as any for commerce, foreign
and domeftic.” The lake almoft; furrounds it; and the
whole ground-plot both of it and its liberties belongs to
the j 2 great companies of London. Great quantities
of falmon, falted and barrelled, are exported from
hence to America. It contains 10,000 inhabitants,
and
London¬
derry.
LON [2
'tong. and has a wooden bridge 1068 feet long, which was
ere&ed in 1791. Long. 70 3' W. Lat. 550 4' N.
LONG, an epithet given to whatever exceeds the
ufual ftandard of length.
LoNG-Boat, the largeft and ftrongeft boat belonging
to any fhip. It is principally employed to carry great
burdens, as anchors, cables, ballaft, &c. See Boat.
LONG, Roger, D. D. matter of Pembroke-ball in
Cambridge, Lowndes’s profeffor of aftronomy in that
univerfity, recttor of Cherryhinton in Huntingdonlhire,
and of Bradwell juxta mare in Eflex, was author of a
well known and much approved treatile of aftronomy,
and the inventor of a remarkably curious attronomical
machine, thus defcribed by himfelf. “ I have, in a
room lately built in Pembroke-hall, ere<fted a fphere of
18 feet diameter, wherein above 30 perfons may fit con¬
veniently •, the entrance into it is over the fouth pole by
fix fteps ) the frame of the fphere confifts of a number
of iron meridians, not complete femicircles, the north¬
ern ends of which are fcrewed to a large round plate of
brafs, with a hole in the centre of it 5 through this
hole, from a beam in the ceiling, comes the north pole,
around iron rod, about three inches long, and fupports
the upper parts of the fphere to its proper elevation for
the latitude of Cambridge •, the lower part of the fphere,
fo much of it as is invifible in England, is cut off 5 and
the lower or fouthern ends of the meridians, or trunca¬
ted femicircles, terminate on, and are fcrewed down to,
a ftrong circle of oak, of about 13 feet diameter;
which, when the fphere is put into motion, runs upon
Ikrge rollers of lignum vitae, in the manner that the
tops of fome windmills are made to turn round. Upon
the iron meridians is fixed a zodiac of tin painted blue,
whereon the ecliptic and heliocentric orbits of the pla¬
nets are drawn, and the conftellations and ftars traced :
the Great and Little Bear and Draco are already paint¬
ed in their places round the north pole ; the reft of the
conftellations are propofed to follow7 : the whole is
turned round with a fmall winch, with as little labour
as it takes to wind up a jack, though the weight of the
iron, tin, and wmoden circle, is about 1000 pounds.
When it is made ufe of, a planetarium wall be placed in
the middle thereof. The whole, with the floor, is well
fupported by a frame of large timber.” Thus far Dr
Long, before this curious piece of mechanifm was per-
fedled. Since the above was written, the fphere has
been completely finifhed ; all the conftellations and ftars
of the northern hemifphere, vifible at Cambridge, are
painted in their proper places upon plates of iron joined
together, which form one concave furface. Dr Long
publifhed a Commencement Sermon 1728; and an an
fwer to Dr Galley’s pamphlet on Greek Accents ; and
died December 16th 1770, at the age of 91. As the
materials for this article are fcanty, we fliall fubjoin,
Ter 1783, from the Gentleman’s Magazine *, a few traits of him,
jp. ^83. as delineated in 1769 by Mr Jones. “ He is now in
the 88th year of his age, and for his years vegete and
a£!ive. He w7as lately (in Odftober) put in nomination
for the office of vice-chancellor. He executed that
truft once before, I think in the year 1737 ; a very in¬
genious perfon, and fometimes very facetious. At the
public commencement in the year 1713. Dr Greene
(mafter of Bennet college, and afterwards bilbop of
Ely) being then vice-chancellor, Mr Long was pitched
15 ] LON
upon for the tripos-performance ; it was witty and hu- Longevity,
morous, and has palled through divers editions. Some
that remembered the delivery of it, told me, that in
addrefling the vice-chancellor (whom the univerfity
wags ufually ftyled Mifs Greene}, the tripos-orator, be¬
ing a native of Norfolk, and afluming the Norfolk dia¬
led!, inftead of faying, Dotnine. Vice-Cancel/ant, did
very archly pronounce the words thus, Doming Vice-
Cance/laria; which occafioned a general fmile in that
great auditory. His friend the late Mr Bonfoy of Rip-
ton told me this little incident, 1 That he and Dr Long
walking together in Cambridge in a dulky evening,
and coming to a fhort pq/l fixed in the pavement, which
Mr B. in the midft of chat and inattention, took to be
a boy Handing in his way, he faid in a hurry, ‘ Get
out of my way, boy.’ ‘ That boy, Sir,' faid the doc¬
tor very calmly and llily, is a poftboy, who turns out
of his way for nobody'—I could recoiled!, feveral other
ingenious repartees if there were occafion. One thing
is remarkable, he never was a hale and hearty man, al¬
ways of a tender and delicate conllitution, yet took
great care of it. His common drink w7ater. He always
dines with the fellow’s in the hall. Of late years he
has left off eating flefh-meats ; in the room thereof,,
puddings, vegetables, &c. fometimes a glafsortwo of
wine.”
LONGEVITY, length of life.
_ From the different longevities of men in the begin¬
ning of the world, after the flood, and in thefe ages,.
Mr Derham draws an argument for the interpofition of
a divine Providence.
Immediately after the creation, when the world was¬
te be peopled by one man and one wroman, the ordinary
age was 900 and upwards.—Immediately after the
flood, when there were three perfons to ftock the world,
their age was cut Ihorter, and none of thofe patriarchs,
but Shem, arrived at 500. In the fecond century we
find none that reached 240 : in the third, none but Te-
rah that came to 200 years; the W’orld, at lead a part
of it, by that time being fo w7ell peopled, that they had
built cities, and were cantoned out into diftant nations.
—*By degrees, as the number of people increafed, their
longevity dwindled, till it came down at length to 70.
or 80 years: and there it flood, and has continued to
Hand ever fince the time of Mofes.—This is found a
good medium, and by means hereof the world is neither
overftocked, nor kept too thin ; but life and death keep
a pretty equal pace.
That the common duration of man’s life has been the
fame in all ages fince the above period, is plain both .
from facred and profane hiftory. Xo pafs by others,
Plato lived to 8j, and was accounted an old man : and
the inftances of longevity produced by Pliny, lib. vii.
c. 48. as very extraordinary, may molt of them be
matched in modern hiftories.—In the following Tables
are collefled into/one point of view the moft memorable
inftances of long-lived perfons of whofe age’w’e have any
authentic recoids. Xhe firft and fecond are extra6!ed
from Mr VJaitehurf's Inquiry into the Origin and Strata
of the Earth, with fome additions by Dr Foihergill;
w ho inferred them, accompanied by a third, together
w’ith a number of ufeful obfervations, in the firft vo¬
lume of the Memoirs of the Manchefter Literary So?-
ciety,.
LON
[ 216 ]
LON
longevity.
Names of the Perfons.
iAge-j
Places of Abode.
Thomas Parre
Henry Jenkins
Robert Montgomery
James Sands
His Wife
Countefs of Defmond
 Eclefton
J. Sagar
—Laurence
Simon Sack
Col. Thomas Window
Francis Confift
Chrift. J. Drakenberg
Margaret Forfter
her daughter
Francis Bons
John Brookey
James Bowels
John Tice
John Mount
A. Goldfmith
Mary Yates
John Bales
William Ellis
Louifa Truxo, a Negrefs
Margaret Patten
Janet Taylor
Richard Lloyd
Sufannah Hilliar
Ann Cockbolt
James Hay ley
William Walker, aged
!52
169
126
140
1 20
140
>43
112
140
141
146
IJJO
146
136
104
121
L34
152
125
136
140
128
126
I3°
>75
JS8
108
>33
100
105
112
Shropfhire
Y orklhire
Ditto
Staffordlhire
Ditto
Ireland
Ditto
Lane a (hire
Scotland
Trionia
Ireland
York lhi re
Norway
Cumberland
Ditto
France
Devondiire
Killingworth
Worcefterdiire
Scotland
Fiance
Shropdure
Northampton
Liverpool
Tucomea, S. America
Lockneugh near Paidey
Fintray, Scotland
Montgomery
Piddington, Northampdi
Stoke-Br,uerne, lb.
Middlewich, Chethire
112, not mentioned above,
at the battle of Edgehill.
Living or Dead.
f Died November lb. 1635.
| Phil. Tranf. N° 44.
f Died December 8. 1670.
\ Phil. Tranf. N° 22 x.
Died in 1670.
C Do. Fuller’s Worthies,
I . P- 47-
Raleigh’s Hilt. p. 166.
Died — — 1691. (a)
  — — 1668. fB)
Living — —
Died May 30. *764.
  Aug. 26. 1766.
  Jan.— 1768.
  June 24. I770,
^ Both living I771*
Died Feb. 6.
Living — — t???*
Aug. 15. 1656.
March 1774.
Feb. 27. 1766.
June — 1776-
— — I776-
Died
lc)
(»)
00
00
(G)
(H)
O)
00
April 5. 1776. (l)
  Aug. 16. 1780. (m)
Living Oft. 5. 1780 (n)
Lynche’s Guide to Health.
Died Oft. 10. 1780.
Lynche’s Guide to Health.
Died. Feb. 19. 1781. (o)
  April 5. 1775. (?)
  March 17. 1781.(q_)
who was a foldier
If we look back to an early period of the Chridian
era, we (hall find that Italy has been, at lead about that
time, peculiarly propitious to longevity. . Lord Ba¬
con obferves that the year of our Lord 76, in the reign
of Vefpafian, was memorable ; for in that year was a
taxing which afforded the mod authentic method of
knowing the ages of men. From it, there were found
in that part of Italy lying between the Apenmne moun¬
tains and the river Po, I 24 perfons who either equalled
or exceeded 100 years of age, namely—
54 perfons of too years each.
4 perfons of 130 years
In Parma
In Brulfels
In Placentia
In Faventia
In Rimino
Longevity.
57
I TO
i *3 r
136
140
120
130
I25
131
132
110
120
150 years, viz.
Marcus Aponius,
Mr
(a) Fuller’s Worthies, p. 140.
(b) Phil. Tranf. abridged by Lowthorp, vol iii.
p. 30, 6.
(c) Derham’s Phyfico-Theology, p. 173.
(d) Annual Regifier.
(e) Duly Advertifer, Nov. 18. 1777.
(e) Warwickdrire.
(g) Daily Advertifer, March 1774.
(H) Morning Pod, Feb. 29. 1776.
(I) Daily Advertifer, June 24. 1776.
(K) Daily Advertifer, Aug. 2 2. 1776-
(l) ' See Infcription in the portico of All-Saints
church.
(m) London Even. Pod, Aug. 22. 1780.
(n) London Chronicle, Oft. 5. 1780.
(o) Northamp. Mercury, Feb. 19. 1781.
(?) Well known to perfons of credit in Northamp¬
ton.
(q) Gen. Evening Pod, March 24. 1781.
1
LON [2
longevity. Mr Careu*, in his Sutvey of Cornwall, allures us,
  that it is no unufual thing with the inhabitants of that
county to reach 90 years of age and upwards, and
even to retain their ftrength of body and perfect ufe
of their fenfes. BefideS Brown, the Cornilh beggar,
who lived to 120, and one Polezew to 130 years of
age, he remembered the deceafe of four perfons in his
own pariih, the fum of whofe years, taken colledtively,
amounted to 340. Now, although longevity evident-
7 ] LON
ly prevails more in certain diltri&s than in others, yet Longevity,
it is by no means confined to any particular nation or
climate j nor are there wanting initances of it in al-
moft every quarter of the globe, as appears from the
preceding as w7ell as the fubfequent Table j which
might have been confiderably enlaiged, had it ap¬
peared neceffary j but we have only added, in the
laft, three recent inllances that are peculiarly remark¬
able.
Names of the Perfons.
Age.
Places of Abode.
Where recorded.
Hippocrates, Phyfician
Democritus, Philofopher
Galen, Phyfician
Albuna, Marc
Dumitur Raduly
Titus Fullonius
Abraham Paiba
L. Tertulla
Lewis Cornaro
Robert Blackeney, Efq.
Margaret Scott
W. Gulftone
J. Bright
William Poftell
Jane Reeves
W. Paulet, Marquis
of Winchefter j
John Wilfon
Patrick Wian
M. Laurence
Evan Williams
John Jacobs (r)
Matthew' Tait (s)
Donald Macleod (t)
104
109
140
150
140
lS°
142
137
100
114
I25
140
!05
I 20
103
I06
I l6
140
i45
121
123
104
Bland of Cos
Abdera
Pergamus
Ethiopia
rHaromfzeck, Tranfyl-
\ vania
Bononia
Charleftown, South-Car
Ariminum
Venice
Armagh, Ireland
Dalkeith, Scotland
Ireland
Ludlow
France
Effex
Hamplhire
Suffolk
Lefbury, Northumberd.
Orcades
T Caermarthen work-
\ houfe, ftill alive
Mount Jura
Auchinleck, Ayrfhire
f Ifle of Sky. Alive
\ Jan. 1792.
Lynche on Health, chap. 3.
Bacon’s Hiftory, 1095.
Volf. Inft. lib. hi.
Hakewell’s Ap. lib. i.
Died Jan. 18.1782. General
Gazetteer, April 18.
Fulgofus, lib. viii.
General Gazetteer.
Fulgofus, lib. viii.
Bacon’s Hid. of Life, p. 134.
General Gazetteer.
Infcription on her tomb there.
Fuller’s Worthies.
Lynche on Health.
Bacon’s Hiftory, p. 134.
St James’s Chron. June 14.1781.
Baker’s Chron. p. 502.
Gen. Gaz. 061. 29. 1782.
Plemp. Fundam. Med. § 4. c. 8.
Buchanan’s Hid. of Scotland.
General Gazetteer, 061. 12th
1782.
All the public prints, Jan. 1790.
T Died Feb. 19. 1792. Edin.
\ Even. Cour. Mar. 8. 1792.
All the public prints at the end
of 1790 ; and Memoirs, &c.
Vol. XII. Part I.
E e
A
(r) This man, in 1789, at the age of 120, quitted his native hills, and from the fummit of Mount Jura un¬
dertook a journey to Verfailles, to behold and return thanks to the national affembly for the vote which had
freed him and his poor countrymen from the feudal yoke. In the early part of his life, he was a fervant in
the family of the prince de Beaufremont. His memory continued good to the lad day of his life ; and the
principal inconveniences which he felt from his great age were, that his fight was weakened, and the natural
heat of his body was fo diminifhed, that he fhivered wfith cold in the middle of the dog-days if he was not fit¬
ting by a good fire. This old man was received in the body of the houfe by the national affembly, indulged
with a chair, and dire6ted to keep on his hat led he fhould catch cold if he was to fit uncovered. A colle6tion
was made for him by the members, which exceeded 500I. derling ; but he lived not to return to Mount Jura.
He was buried on Saturday the 3 id of January 1790, with great funeral pomp, in the parilh-church of St Eudace
at Paris.
(s) He ferved as a private at the taking of Gibraltar in 1704.
(t) Memoirs of the Life and gal!nnt Exploits of the Old Highlander Serjeant Donald Macleod, &c. publifhed
1791, in the 103d year of his age.—This old gentleman, for it appears that he really is a gentleman both
by birth and by behaviour, was born in the year of the Revolution, in the parifh of Bracadill, in the ifle of
Sky and county of Invernefs, North Britain. He is a cadet of the family of Ulinifh in Sky •, and defeended,
through his mother, from Macdonald of Slate, the ancedor of the prefent Lord Macdonald. The earlier
part of his life coincided with the famine of feven years in Scotland j which was fo great as to fugged, even
to the patriotic Mr Fletcher, the idea of the people felling themfelves as flaves for imi&ediate fubfidence. He
was
\
LON [ 218 ] LON
A certain author mentions a lift colle&ed by bim-
felf of 107 perfons, who all died at the age of 120 and
upwards. Two of them attained the age of 150, three
of 15 2, one of 154, one of 169, and another 175. In
1763 there were found in Sweden 988 females above
90 years of age. We have feen a lift of 104 perfons,
none of whom died under 1 20 years of age, anti one of
them, it is faid, lived to the prodigious age of 180.
Forty-one of them belonged to England, 16 to Scot¬
land, and 24 to Ireland.
The antediluvians are purpofely omitted, as bearing
too little reference to the prefent race of mortals, to af¬
ford any fatisfaftory concluftonsj and as they have been
already taken notice of in a feparate article •, (fee An¬
tediluvians). As the improbable ftories of fome
perfons who have almoft rivalled them in modern
times, border too much upon the marvellous to find
a place in thefe tables, the prefent examples are a-
bundantly fufficient to prove, that longevity does not
depend, fo much as has been fuppofed, on any par¬
ticular climate, fituation, or occupation in life : for
we fee, that it often prevails in places where all
thefe are extremely diffimilar j and it would, moreover,
be very difficult, in the hiftories of the feveral perfons
above mentioned, to find any circumflance common to
them all, except, perhaps, that of being born of heal¬
thy parents, and of being inured to daily labour, tem¬
perance, and fimplicity of diet. Among the inferior
ranks of mankind, therefore, rather than among the
fons of eafe and luxury, ftiall we find the moft numer^
ous inftances of longevity 5 even frequently, when o-
ther external circumitances feem extremely unfavour¬
able ; as in the cafe of the poor fexton at Peterbo¬
rough, who, notwithftanding his unpromifing occupa¬
tion among dead bodies, lived long enough to bury two
crowned heads, and to furvive two complete genera¬
tions. The livelihood of Henry Jenkins and old
Parre is faid to have confifted chiefly of the coarfeft '
fare, as they depended on precarious alms. To which
may be added the remarkable inftance of Agnes Mil-
bourne, who, after bringing forth a numerous off-
fpring, and being obliged, through extreme indigence,
to pafs the latter part of her life in St Luke’s wrork-
houfe, yet reached her 106th year in that fordid and
unfriendly fi'tuation. The plain diet and invigorating
employments of a country life are acknowledged on
all hands to be highly conducive to health and longe¬
vity, while the luxury and refinements of large cities
are allowed to be equally deftruflive to the human fpe-
cies; and this confideration alone, perhaps, more than
counterbalances all the boafted privileges of fuperior
elegance and civilization refulting from a city life.
From country villages, and not from crowded ci¬
ties, have the preceding inftances of longevity been
chiefly fupplied. Accordingly it appears, from the
London bills of mortality, during a period of 30 years,
viz. from the year 1728 to 1758, the fum of the
deaths amounted to 750,322, and that, in all this
prodigious number, only 242 perfons furvived the
1 ooth year of their age ! This overgrown metropo¬
lis is computed by Dr Price to contain a ninth
part of the inhabitants of England, and to con-
fume annually 7000 perfons, who remove into it
from the country every year, wdthout increafing it.
He moreover obferves, that the number of inhabitants
in England and Wales has diminiffied about one-fourth
part fince the Revolution ; and fo rapidly of late, that
in 11 years, near 200,000 of our common people have
been loft. If the calculation be juft, however alarming
it may appear in a national view, there is this confo-
lation, wffien confidered in a philofophical light, that
without partial evil, there can be no general good *,
and
-ongevity.
was bred in the midft of want and hardffiips, cold, hunger, and for fhe years of his apprenticeffiip with a
mafon and ftone-cutter in Invernefs, in inceffant fatigue. He inlifted, wdien a boy, in the Scottiffi fervice,
in the town of Perth in the laft year of the reign of King William. The regiment into which he inlifted
was the Scots Royals, commanded by the earl of Orkney. That old military corps, at that time, ufed bows and
arrows as well as fwords, and wore fteel caps. He ferved in Germany and Flanders under the duke of Marlborough;
under the duke of Argyle, in the rebellion 1715-, in the Highland Watch, or companies raifed for enforcing
the laws in the Highlands 5 in the fame companies when, under the name of the 42d regiment, they were
lent abroad to Flanders, to join the army under the duke of Cumberland j in the fame regiment in Ireland,
and on the breaking out of the French war, 1757, in America. From the 42d he was draughted to a£t as
a drill ferjeant in the 78th regiment, in which he ferved at the reduffion of Louifhurg and Quebec : After
this he became an out-penfioner of Chelfea Hofpital. But fuch was the fpirit of this brave and hardy ve¬
teran, that he ferved in 1761 as a volunteer in Germany under the marquis of Granby ; and offered his
fervices in the American war to Sir Henry Clinton j who, though he declined to employ the old man in the
fatigues and dangers of war, treated him with great kindnefs, allowed him a liberal weekly penfion out of his
own pocket, and fent him home in a ftiip charged with defpatches to government.—T he ferjeant, “ as his
memory, according to the obfervation of his biographer, is impaired, does not pretend to make an exaff enu¬
meration of all his offspring : but he knowrs of 16 fons now living, 14 of. whom are in the army and navy, be-
fides daughters ; the eldeft of whom by his prefent wife is a mantuamaker at Nervcaftle.—His eldeft fon is now
83 years old, and the youngeft only nine. Nor, in all probability, would this lad clofe the rear of his immedi¬
ate progeny, if his prefent wife, the boy’s mother, had not attained to the 49th year of her age.”—In his
prime, he did not exceed five feet and feven inches. He is now inclined through age to five feet five inches.
He has an interefting phyfiognomy, expreffive of fincerity, fenfibility, and manly courage. His biographer
very properly fubmits it to the confideration of the Polygraphic Society, whether they might not do a thing
worthy of themfelves and their ingenious art, if they ffiould multiply likeneffes of this living antiquity, and cir¬
culate them at an eafy rate throughout Britain and Europe. They would thus gratify a very general cunolity y
a.curiofity not ^confined to the prefent age.
■.LON I 21
longevity, and tViat what a nation lofes in tlie fcale of population
" v ’ gt; one period, it gams at anOi.Iier ^ and thus prooably,
the average number of inhabitants on the furface
of the globe continues at all times nearly the fame.
By this medium, the world is neither overltocked with
inhabitants nor kept too thin, but life and death keep
a tolerably equal pace. The inhabitants of this ifland,
comparatively fpeaking, are but as the dull of the ba¬
lance ; yet inftead, of being diminilhed, we are aflured
by other writers, that within thefe 30 years they are
greatly increafed.
The defire of felf-prefervation, and of protraftitig
the (hort fpan of life, is fo intimately interwoven with
our conllitution, that it is juftly efteemed one of the
firft principles of our nature, and, in fpite even of pain
and mifery, feldom quits us to the laft moments of
our exiftence. It feems, therefore, to be no lefs our
duty than our intereft, to examine minutely into the
various means that have been confidered as conducive
to health and long life: and, if poffible, to diftinguilh
fuch circumftances as are effential to that great end
from thofe which are merely accidental. But here it
is much to be regretted, that an accurate hiftory of
the lives of all the remarkable perfons in the above
table, fo far as relates to the diet, regimen, and the
ufe of the non-naturals, has not been faithfully handed
down to us £ without which it is impoflible to draw
the neceflary inferences. Is it not then a matter of
aflonifhment, that hiftorians and philofophers have hi¬
therto paid fo little attention to longevity ? If the pre-
fent imperfed! lift fhould excite others, of more leifure
and better abilities, to undertake a full inveftigation
of fo interefting a fubjedl, the inquiry might prove not
only curious but highly ufeful to mankind. In or¬
der to furniftr materials for a future hiftory of longe¬
vity, the bills of mortality throughout the kingdom
ought firft to be revifed, and put on a better footing,
agreeable to the fcheme of which Manchefter and Chef-
ter have already given a fpecimen highly worthy of
imitation. The plan, however, might be further im¬
proved with very little trouble, by adding a particular
account of the diet and regimen of every perfon who
dies at 80 years of age or upwards; and mentioning
whether his parents were healthy, long-lived people,
&c. An accurate regifter, thus eftablilhed through¬
out the Britifh dominions, wdiould be produclive of
many important advantages to fociety, not only in a
medical and philofophical, but alfo in a political and
moral view.
All the circumftances that are moft effentially necef-
fary to life, may be comprifed under the fix follow¬
ing heads: 1. Air and climate j 2. Meat and drink;
3. Motion and reft ; 4. The fecretions and excretions ;
5. Sleep and notching ; 6. Affeftions of the mind.
Thefe, though all perfeflly natural to the conftitu-
tion, have by waiters been ftyled the non-naturals, by
a ftrange perverfion of language ; and have been all
copioully handled under that improper term. How¬
ever, it may not be amifs to offer a few fhort obferva-
tions on each, as they are fo immediately connefted
with the prefent fubjeft.
1. AVr, &c. It has long been known that frefti air is
more immediately neceffary to life than food; for a man
may live two or three days without the latter, but not
many minutes without the former. The vivifying
9 1 LON
principle contained in the atmofphere, fo effential to Longevity.^
the fupport of flame, as well as animal lile, concern¬
ing wrhich authors have propofed fo many conjedlureSj
appears now to be nothing elfe but that pure dephlo-
gifticated Huid lately difeovered by that ingenious phi-
lofopher Dr Prieftley. The common atmofphere may
well be fuppofed to be more or lefs healthy in propor¬
tion as it abounds with this animating principle. As
this exhales in copious fleams from the green leaves
of all kinds of vegetables, even from thofe of the moft
poifonous kinds, may we not, in fome meafure account
why inftances of longevity are fo much more frequent
in the country than in large cities ; where the air, in¬
ftead of partaking fo largely of this.falutary impregna¬
tion, is daily contaminated with noxious animal effluvia
and phlogifton ?
With refpedt to climate, various obfervations con-
fpire to prove, that thofe regions wrhich lie within the
temperate zones are beft calculated to promote long
life. Hence, perhaps, may be explained, why Italy
has produced fo many long livers, and why itlands in
general are more falutary than continents; of which
Bermudas and fome others afford examples. And it
is a pleafing circumftance that our own illand ap¬
pears from the above table (notwithftanding the hid¬
den vicifiitudes to which it is liable) to contain far
more inftances of longevity than could well be imagin¬
ed. The ingenious Mr Wfflitehurft affures us, from
certain fads, that Engliftimen are in general longer
lived than North Americans; and that a Britilh con-
ftitution will laft longer, even in that climate, than a
native one. But it muft be allowed in general, that
the human conftitution is adapted to the peculiar ftate
and temperature of each relpective climate, fo that no
part of the habitable globe can be pronounced too hot
or too cold for its inhabitants. Yet, in order to pro¬
mote a friendly intercourfe between the moft remote
regions, the Author of nature has wifely enabled the
inhabitants to endure great and furprifing chnges of
temperature with impunity.
2. Foods and drinh. Though foods and drink of
the moft fimple kinds are allowed to be the beft cal¬
culated for fupporting the body in health, yet it can
hardly be doubted but variety may be fafely indulged
occafionally, provided men would reftrain their appe¬
tites within the bounds of temperance : for bounti¬
ful Nature cannot be fuppofed to have poured forth
fuch a rich profufion of provifions, merely to tantalize
the human fpecies, without attributing to her the part
of a cruel ftepdame, inftead of that of the kind and
indulgent parent. Befides, we find, that by the won¬
derful powers of the digeftive organs, a variety of ani¬
mal and vegetable fubftances, of very difeordant prin¬
ciples, are happily affimilated into one bland homoge¬
neous chyle ; therefore it feems natural to diftruft thofe
cynical writers, who would rigidly confine mankind to
one fimple difh, and their drink to the mere water of
the brook. Nature, it is true, has' pointed out that mild
infipid tluid as the univerfal diluent, and therefore moft;
admirably adapted for our daily beverage. But expe¬
rience has equally proved, that vinous and fpirituous
liquors, on certain occafions, are no lefs falutary and
beneficial, whether it be to fupport ftrength againft
ficknefs or bodily fatigue, or to exhilerate the mind^
under the preffure of heavy misfortunes. But, a^as .
E e 2 what
LON r 220 ] LON
Hongitu^e. wliat Nature meant for innocent and ufeful cordials,
w—“V 1 to be ufed only occafionally, and according to the di-
reftion of reafon, cuftom and caprice have by degrees
rendered habitual to the human frame, and liable to
the mod enormous and deftru&ive abufes. Hence it
may be judly doubted, whether gluttony and intem¬
perance have not depopulated the world more than
even the fword, pedilence, and famine. True, there¬
fore, is the old maxim, “ Modus atcndi ex veneno facit
medic amentum, ex medicamento venenurn.
3. and 4. Motion and rejl, Jleep and watching. It
is allowed on all hands, that alternate motion and red,
and deep and watching, are neceffary conditions to
health and longevity j and that they ought to be adapt¬
ed to age, temperament, conditution, temperature of
the climate, &.c. 5 but the errors which mankind daily
commit in thefe refpefts become a fruitful fource of
difeafes. While fome are bloated and relaxed wdth
eafe and indolence, others are emaciated, and become
rigid through hard labour, watching, and fatigue.
5. Secretions and excretions. Where the animal
fun£lions are duly performed, the fecretions go on re¬
gularly 5 and the different evacuations fo exaftly cor-
refpond to the quantity of aliment taken in, in a given
time, that the body is found to return daily to nearly
the fame weight. If any particular evacuation happen
to be preternaturally diminidied, fome other evacua¬
tion is proportionally augmented, and the equilibrium
is commonly preferved ; but continued irregularities,
in thefe important functions, cannot but terminate in
difeafe.
6. AffeEiions of the mind. The due regulation of
the paffions, perhaps, contributes more to health and
longevity than that of any other of the non-naturals.
The animating pafiions, fuch as joy, hope, love, &c.
when kept within proper bounds, gently excite the
nervous influence, promote an equable circulation, and
are highly conducive to health •, while the deprefling
affedlions, fuch as fear, grief, and defpair, produce the
contrary effect, and lay the foundation of the moil for¬
midable difeafes.
From the light which hiftory affords us, as well as
from fome inftances in the above table, there is great
reafon to believe, that longevity is in a great meafure
hereditary •, and that healthy long-lived parents would
commonly tranfmit the fame to their children, were it
' not for the frequent errors in the non-naturals, which
lb evidently tend to the abbreviation of human life.
Where is it, but from thefe caufes, and the unnatu¬
ral modes of living, that, of all the children which are
born in the capital cities of Europe, nearly -one half
die in early infancy ? To what elfe can we attribute
this extraordinary mortality ? Such an amazing pro¬
portion of premature deaths is a circumftance unheard
of among favage nations, or among the young of other
animals! In the earlieft ages, we are informed, that
human life was protrafted to a very extraordinary
length} yet how few perfons, in thefe latter times,
arrive at that period which nature feems to have de-
figned ! Man is by nature a field animal, and feems de-
flined to rife with the fuu, and to fpend a large por¬
tion of his time in the open air, to inure his body to
rebuff exercifes and the inclemency of the feafons,
and to make a plain homely repaft only when hunger
di&ates. But art has ffudioufly defeated the kind
intentions of nature ; and by enflaving him to all the I^n-ford,
blandhhments of fenfe, has left him, alas ! an eafy vie-
tim to folly 'an,d caprice. To enumerate the various _ ' ,
abufes which take place from the earlieft infancy, and
which are continued through the fucceeding ftages of
modifh lifej would carry us far beyond our prefent
intention. Suffice it to obferve, that they prevail more
particularly among people wdio are the moft highly
polilhed and refined. To compare their artificial mode
of life with that of nature, or even with the long-livers
in the lift, would probably afford a very ftriking con-
traft ; and at the fame time fupply an additional reafon
why, in the very large cities, inftances of longevity are.
fo very rare.
LONGFORD, a county of Ireland, in the pro¬
vince of Leintler, bounded by the counties of Leitrim
and Cavan on the north, Meath on the eaft and fouth,
and Rofcommon on the weft. It contains 143,700
Irifti plantation acres, 24 pariihes, 6 baronies, and 4
boroughs 5 and returns 10 members to parliament. It
is fmall, and much encumbered whh bog, intermixed
with a tolerable good loil \ and is about 25 miles long
and 1 5 broad.
Longford, a town of Ireland, fituated on the ri¬
ver Cromlin, in the county of Longford and province
of Leinfter, 64 miles from Dublin } which river falls
a few miles below this place into the Shannon. It is
a borough, poft, market, and fair town 5 and returns
two members to parliament 5 patron, Lord Longford.
It gave title of earl to the family of Aungier ; oiyif
count, to the family of Micklethwaite ; and now gives
that of baron to the family of Packenham. Within a
mile and a half of the town is a charter-fchool for
above 40 children. This place has a barrack for a
troop of horfe. It is large and wrell built j and in a
very early age an abbey was founded here, of wdiich
St Idus, one of St Patrick’s difciples, was abbot. In
the year 1400, a fine monaftery was founded to the
honour of the Virgin Mary, for Dominican friars, by
O’Ferral prince of Annaly. This monaftery being de-
ftroyed by fire, Pope Martin V. by a bull in the year
1429, granted an indulgence to all who ftiould contri¬
bute to the rebuilding of it. In I433> P°Pe Ej1*
gene IV. granted a bull to the fame purpofe ; and in
1438 he granted another to the like effefl. I he
church of this friary, now the parith church, is in the
diocefe of Ardagh. T he fairs are four in the year..
LONG-island, is an ifland of North .America,
belonging to the ftate of New-York, which is feparat-
ed from the continent by a narrow channel. . It ex¬
tends from the city of New7-York eaft 140 mdes, tei-
minating wdth IVIontauk point 5 and is not more than
10 miles in breadth on a medium. It is divided into
three counties, King’s, Queen’s, and Suffolk. I he
fouth fide of the ifland is flat land, of a light fandy
foil, bordered on the fea-coaft with large trails of fait
meadow, extending from the weft point of the ifland
to Southampton. This foil, however, is well calcu¬
lated for raifing grain, efpecially Indian corn, ft he
north fide of the ifland is hilly., and of a ftrong foil,
adapted to the culture of grain, hay, and fruit. A
ridge of hills extends from Jamaica to South-hold.
Large herds of cattle feed upon Hampftead plain and
on the fait marfhes upon the fouth fide of the ifland.
Hampftead plain in Queen’s county is a curiofity. It
LON. [2
tongime- is 16 miles in length, caft and weft, and 7 or 8 miles
try wide. The foil is black and to appearance rich, and
11. yet it was never known to have any natural growth,
ongnais.^ a i^r} 0f grafs and a few fhrubs. It is fre¬
quented by vaft numbers of plover. Rye grows toler¬
ably w’ell on fome parts of the plain. The mcrft of
it lies common for cattle, horfes, and ftieep. As there
is nothing to impede the profpeft in the whole length
of this plain, it has a curious but tirefome effedt upon
the eye, not unlike that of the ocean. The illand
contains 30,863 inhabitants.
LONGIMETRY, the art of meafuring lengths,
both accellible and inaccefiible. See Geometry and
Trigonometry.
LONGING, is a preternatural appetite in pregnant
w'omen, and in fome fick perfons wrhen about to recover.
It is called pica, from the bird of that name, which is
faid to be fubjeft to the fame diforder. The diforder
confifts of both a defire of unufual things to eat and
drink, and in being foon tired of one and wanting
another. It is called • 77ztf/<2£7h, from “ w7eak-
nefs.” In pregnant women it is fomewhat relieved by
bleeding, and in about the fourth month of their preg¬
nancy it leaves them. Chlorotic girls, and men wdio
labour under fuppreffed hemorrhoids, are very fubjeft
to this complaint, and are relieved by promoting the
refpecfive evacuations. In general, whether this dif¬
order is obferved in pregnant women, in perfons re¬
covering from an acute fever, or thofe w’ho labour un¬
der obftrucfions of the natural evacuations, this craving
of the appetite fhould be indulged.
LONGINICO, a town of Turkey in Europe, in
the Morea, anciently called Olympia, famous for being
the place where the Olympic games were celebrated,
and for the temple of Jupiter Olympus, about a mile
diftant. It is now but a fmall place, feated on the
river Alpheus, 10 miles from its mouth, and 50 fouth
of Lepanto. E. Long. 22. o. N. Lat. 37. 30.
LONGINUS, Dionysius, a celebrated Greek cri¬
tic of the third century, was probably an Athenian.
His father’s name is unknown, but by his mother he
was allied to the celebrated Plutarch. His youth was
fpent in travelling with his parents, which gave him an
opportunity to increafe his knowledge, and improve
his mind. After his travels, he fixed his refidence at
Athens, and with the greateft aftiduity applied to ftudy.
Here he publifhed his Treatife on the Sublime ; wdiich
railed his reputation to fuch a height, and gave the
Athenians fuch an opinion of his judgement and tafte,
that they made him fovereign judge of all authors, and
every thing was received and reje£ted by the public
according to his decifions. He feems to have ilaid at
Athens a long time j here he taught the academic phi-
lofophy, and among others had the famous Porphyry
for his pupil. But it was at length his fortune to be
drawn from Athens, and to mix in more aftive fcenes •,
to train up young princes to virtue and glory j to guide
the bufy paflions of the great to noble objefts 5 to
ftruggle for, and at laft to die in, the caufe of liberty.
Zenobia, queen of the Eaft, prevailed on him to un¬
dertake the education of her fons : and he foon gained
an uncommon ftiare in her efteem : (he fpent the vacant
hours of her life in his converfation, and modelled her
fentiments and condudl by his inftruflions. That prin-
cefs was at war with Aurelian j and being defeated by
11 ] LON
him near Antioch, was compelled to (hut herfelf up in Lorglffi-
Palmyra, her capital city. The emperor wrote her a 11
letter, in which he ordered her to furrender \ to which
(he returned an anfwer, drawn up by Longinus, which
filled him with refentraent. The emperor laid fiege to
the city j and the Palmyrians were at length obliged
to open their gates and receive the conqueror. The
queen and Longinus endeavoured to fly into Perfia ;
but were unhappily overtaken and made prifoners when
they were on the point of eroding the Euphrates. The
queen, intimidated, weakly laid the blame of vindicat¬
ing the liberty of her country on its true author j and
the brave Longinus, to the difgrace of the conqueror,
was carried wray to immediate execution. The wnit-
ings of Longinus were numerous, fome on philofophi-
cal, but the greater part on critical fubjefts. Dr
Pearce has colledled the titles of 25 treadles, none of
which, excepting that on the Sublime, have efcaped
the depredations of time and barbarians. On this im-
perfeft piece the great fame of Longinus is railed,
wTho, as Pope exprefies it—“ is himfelf the great fu-
blime he draws.” The beft edition of his vvoiks is
that by Tollius, printed at Utrecht in 1694, cutn noth
variorum. It has been tranflated into Englifti by Mr
Smith.
LONGISSIMUS dorsi. See Anatomy, Table
of the Mufcles.
LONGITUDE, in Geography and Navigation, is
the diftance of any place from another eaftward or weft-
ward, counted in degrees upon the equator : but when
the diftance is reckoned by leagues or miles and not in
degrees, or in degrees on the meridian, and not of the
parallel of latitude, in which cafe it includes both lati¬
tude and longitude, it is called departure.
To find the longitude at fea, is a problem to which
the attention of navigators and mathematicians has
been drawn ever fince navigation began to be improv¬
ed.—The importance of this problem foon became fo
well knowm, that, in 1598, Philip III. of Spain of¬
fered a reward of 1000 crowns for the folution ; and •
his example was foon follow’ed by the Spates General,
who offered 10,000 florins. In 1714 an aft was paf-
fed in the Britilh parliament, empowering certain com-
miflioners to make out a bill for a fum not exceeding
2000I. for defraying the neceffary expences of expe¬
riments for afeertaining this point $ and likewdfe grant¬
ing a reward to the perfon who made any progrefs in
the folution, proportionable to the degree of accuracy
with which the folution was performed : 10,000k was
granted if the longitude (hould be determined to one
degree of a great circle, or 60 geographical miles ;
15,000!. if to two thirds of that diftance j and 20,000k
if to half the diftance.
In confequence of thefe proffered rewards, innumer¬
able attempts were made to difeover this important fe-
cret. The firft was that of John Morin profeffor of ma¬
thematics at Paris, who propofed it to Cardinal Riche¬
lieu ; and though it was judged infufticient on account
of the imperfeftion of the lunar tables, a penfion of
2000 livres per annum was procured for him in 1645
by Cardinal Mazarine. Gemma Frifius had indeed, in
1530, projefted a method of finding the longitude by
means of watches, which at that time were newly in¬
vented : but the ftrufture of thefe machines w’as then
by far too imperfeft to admit of any attempt; aor even
in
LON [22:
}/jfrgitu*e. in 1631, when Metius made an attempt to this purpofe,
c 'T—* were they advanced in any confiderable degree. About
the year 1664, Dr Hooke and Mr Huygens made a
x very great improver„ent in watchmaking, by the appli¬
cation of the pendulum fpring. Dr Hooke having
quarrelled with the minittry, no experiment was made
with any of his machines 5 but many were made with
thofe of Mr Huygens. One experiment particularly,
made by Mapr Holmes, in a voyage from the coalt of
Guinea in 1665, anfwered fo well, that Mr Huygens
was encouraged to improve the ftru&ure of his watches :
but it was found that the variations of heat and cold
produced fuch alterations in the rate of going of the
watch, that unlefs this could be remedied, the watches
could be of little ufe in determining the longitude.
In 1714 Henry Sully, an Englidiman, printed a
fmall traft at Vienna upon the fubje£l of watchmaking.
Having afterwards removed to Paris, he applied himfelf
to the improvement of time-keepers for the difcovery of
the longitude. He taught the famous Julian de Roy :
and this gentleman, with his fon, and M. Berthoud,
are the only perfons who iince the days of Sully, have
turned their thoughts this wTay. But though experi¬
ments have been made at fea with fome of their watch¬
es, it does not appear that they have been able to ac-
compliih any thing of importance with regard to the
main point. The firfl: who fucceeded in any confider¬
able degree was Mr John Harrifon •, who, in 1726,
produced a watch which went fo exaftly, that for ten
years together it did not err above one fecond in a
•month. In 1736 it was tried in a voyage to Lilbon
and back again, on board one of his majefty’s fliips ;
during which it corredled an error of a degree and a
half in the computation of the (hip’s reckoning. In
confequence of this he received public encouragement
to go on : and by the year 1761 had finifhed three
time-keepers, each of them more accurate than the
former. The laft turned out fo much to his fatisfaflion,
that he now applied to the commiffioners of longitude
lor leave to make an experiment with his watch in a
voyage to the Weft Indies. Permiftion being granted,
his fon Mr William Harrifon fet out in his majefty’s
fhip the Deptford for Jamaica in the month of Novem¬
ber 1761. This trial wras attended with all imaginable
fuccels. The longitude of the ifland, as determined by
the time-keeper, differed from that found by aftrono-
mical obfervations only one minute and a quarter of the
equator ; the longitudes of places feen by the way be¬
ing alfo determined with great exaftnefs. On the (hip’s
return to England, it was found to have erred no more
during the whole voyage than 1' 54^-" in time, which
is little more than 28 miles in diftance •, which being
within the limits prefcribed by the aft, the inventor
claimed the whole ’20,0001. offered by government.
Objeftions to this, however, were foon darted. Doubts
w'ere pretended about the real longitude of Jamaica,
as well as the manner in which the time had been
found both there and at Portfmouth. It w?as alleged
alfo, that although the time-keeper happened to be
flight at Jamaica, and after its return to England, this
was by no means a proof that it had always been fo
in the intermediate times *, in confequence of which al¬
legations, another trial was appointed in a voyage to
Barbadoes. Precautions were now taken to obviate as
many of thefe objeftions as poffible. The commif-
2 ] LON
(loners fent out proper perfons to make aftronomical Longitude:
obfervations at that ifland : which, when compared't—
with others in England, wTould afcertain beyond a doubt
its true fituation. In 1 764 then,, Mr Harrifon junior
fet fail for Barbadoes *, and the refult of the experi¬
ment wras, that the difference of longitude betwixt
Portfmouth and Barbadoes was drown by the time¬
keeper to be 3b. 55' 3" j and by aftronomical obfer¬
vations to be 3b. 54' 20"; the error being now only
43" of time, or 10' 45" of longitude. In confequence
of this and the former trials, Mr Harrifon received one
half of the reward promifed, upon making a difcovery
of the principles upon which his time-keepers were con-
ftrufted. He w^as likewife promifed the other half of
the reward as foon as time-keepers fhould be conftruft-
ed by other artifts which (hould anfwer the purpofe as
well as thofe of Mr Harrifon himfelf. At this time he
delivered up all his time-keepeis, the laft of which was
fent to Greenwich to be tried by Mr Nevil Malkelyne,
the aftronomer-royal. On trial, howTever, it was found
to go with much lefs regularity than had been expeft-
ed j but Mr Harrifon attributed this to his having
made fome experiments with it which he had not time
to finifh w hen he was ordered to deliver up the watch.
Soon after this, an agreement was made by the com¬
miffioners with Mr Kendall to conftruft a watch upon
Mr Harrifon’s principles ; and this upon trial w^as found
to anfwer the purpofe even better than any that Har¬
rifon himfelf had conftrufted. This watch was fent
out with Captain Cook in 1772 ; and during all the
time of his voyage round the world in I772> I773»
1774, and 1775, never erred quite 144- feconds per
day : in confequence of which, the houfe of commons,
in 1774, ordered the other io,oool. to be paid to
Mr Harrifon. Still greater accuracy, however, has
been attained. A w-atch was lately conftrufted by
Mr Arnold, which, during a trial of 1 3 months, from
February 1779 to February 1780, varied no more
than’ 6.69" during any two days •, and the greateft
difference between its rates of going on any day and
the next to it was 4.11". The greateft error it wmuld
have committed therefore in the longitude during any
(ingle day would have been very little more than one
minute of longitude } and thus might the longitude be
determined with as great exaftnefs as the latitude gene¬
rally can.—This watch, however, has not yet been
tried at fea.
Thus the method df conftrufting time-keepers for
difcovering the longitude feeras to be brought to as
great a degree of perfeftion as can well be expefted.
Still, however, as thefe watches are fubjeft to acci¬
dents, and may thus alter the rate of their going with¬
out any poflibility of a difcovery, it is neceffary that
fome other method (hould be fallen upon, in order to
correft from time to time thofe errors which may arife
either from the natural going of the w^atch, or from
any accident which may happen to it. Methods of
this kind are all founded upon celeftial obfervations of
fome kind or other •, and for thefe methods, or even
for an improvement in time-keepers, rewards are dill
held out by government. After the difcoveries made
by Mr Harrifon, the aft concerning the longitude
was repealed, excepting fo much of it as related to the
conftrufting, printing, publifliing, &c. of nautical al¬
manacks and other ufeful tables. It was enafted al fb,
that
LON { 2:
Longitude, that-any perfon who (hall difcover a method for find-
l" ing the longitude by means of a time-keeper, the prin¬
ciples of which have not hitherto been made public,
fhall be entitled to a reward of 5000I. if, after cer¬
tain trials made by the commiffioners, the faid method
fliall enable a (hip to keep her longitude, during a voy-
' age of fix months, within 60 geographical miles, or a
degree of a great circle. If the fhip keeps her longi¬
tude within 40 geographical miles' for that time, the
inventor is entitled to a reward of 7500I. and to
10,cool, if, the longitude is kept within half a de¬
gree. If the method is by improved afironomical
tables, the author is entitled to 5000I. when they
{how the diflance of the moon from the fun and ftars
within 15 feconds of a degree, anfwerlng to about
7 minutes of longitude, after allowing half a degree for
errors of obfervation and under certain reftridiions,
and after comparifon with aftronomical obfervations
for a period of 184- years, during which the lunar ir¬
regularities are fuppofed to be completed. The fame
rewards are offered to the perfon who fhall wdth the
like accuracy difcover any other method of finding the
longitude.
Thefe methods require celeftial obfervations ; and
any of the phenomena, fuch as the different apparent
places of ftars with regard to the moon, the beginning
and ending of eclipfes, &c. wall anfvver the purpofe :
only it is abfolutely neceffary that fome variation fhould
be perceptible in the phenomenon in the fpace of tw'o
minutes 5 for even this (hort fpace of time will pro¬
duce an error of 30 miles in longitude. The moft
proper phenomena therefore for determining the lon¬
gitude in this manner are the eclipfes of Jupiter’s fa-
tellites. Tables of their motions have been conftrudl-
ed, and carefully corredled from time to time, as the
mutual attradlions of thefe bodies are found greatly to
difturb the regularity of their motions. The difficulty
here, however, is to obferve thefe eclipfes at fea ; and
this difficulty has been found fo great, that no perfon
feems able to furmount it. The difficulty arifes from
the violent agitation of a (hip in the ocean, for which
no adequate remedy has ever yet been found, nor pro¬
bably will ever be found. Mr Chriftopher Irwin in¬
deed invented a machine which he called a marine
chair, with a view to prevent the effeifls of this agita¬
tion ; but on trying it in a voyage to Earbadoes, it was
found to be totally ufelefs.
A whimfical method of finding the longitude was
propofed by Meffrs Whifton and Ditton from the re¬
port and flaffi of great guns. The motion of found is
known to be nearly equable, from whatever body it pro¬
ceeds or whatever be the medium. Suppofing there¬
fore a mortar to be fired at any place the longitude of
which is known, the difference between the moment
that the flaffi is feen and the report heard will give
the diftances between the two places; whence, if we
know the latitudes of thefe places, their longitudes
muft alfo be known. If the exafl time of the explo-
fion be known at the place where it happens, the
difference of time at the place where it is heard will
likewife give the difference of longitude. Let us next
fuppofe the mortar to be loaded with an iron ffiell
filled with combuftible matter, and fired perpendicu¬
larly upward into the air, the ftiell wdll be carried to
the height of a mile, and will be feen at the diftance of
3 ] LG N
near 100 j whence* fuppoftng neither the flaffi of the Longitude,
mortar ffiould be feen nor the report heard, ftill the
longitude might be determined by the altitude of the
ftiell above the horizon.
According to this plan, mortars were to be fired at
certain times and at proper ftations along all frequented
coafts for the dire£lion of mariners. This indeed might
be of ufe, and in ftormy weather might be a kind of
improvement in lighthoufes, or a proper addition to
them $ but with regard to the determination of longi¬
tudes, is evidently ridiculous.
We fliall now proceed to give fome pradlical direc¬
tions for finding the longitude at fea by proper ce¬
leftial obfervations ; exclufive of thofe from Jupiter’s
fatellites, which, for reafons juft mentioned, cannot
be praclifed at fea. In the firft place, however, it will
be neceffary to point out fome of thofe difficulties
which ftand in the way, and which render even this
method of finding the longitude precarious and uncer¬
tain. Thefe lie principally in the redudlion of the ob¬
fervations of the heavenly bodies made on the furface of
the earth to fimilar obfervations fuppofed to be made at
the centre ; which is the only place where the celeftial
bodies appear in their proper fituation. It is alfo verv
difficult to make proper allowances for the refraction of
the atmofphere, by which all objedls appear higher than
theyr really are ; and another difficulty arifes from their
parallaxes, which make them, particularly the moon,
appear lower than they would otherwife do, excepting
when they are in the very zenith. It is alfo well known,
that the nearer the horizon any celeftial body is, the
greater its parallax will be ; and as the parallax and
refradlion aft in oppofite ways to one another, the for¬
mer depreffing and the latter raifing the objeft, it is
plain, that great difficulties muft arife from this circum-
ftance. The fun, for inftance, whofe parallax is lefs
than the refraftion, muft always appear higher than he
really is but the moon, whofe parallax is greater than
her refraftion, muft always, appear lower.
To render obfervations of the celeftial bodies more
eafy, the commiffioners of longitude have caufed an.
Ephemeris or Nautical Almanack to be publiffied an¬
nually, containing every requifite for folving this im¬
portant problem which can be put into the form of ta¬
bles. But whatever may be done in this way, it will
be neceffary to make the neceffary preparations concern¬
ing the dip of the horizon, the refraftion, femidiame-
ters, parallax, &c. in order to reduce the apparent to
the true altitudes and diftances ■, for which wTe ffiall here
fubjoin two general rules.
The principal obfervation for finding the longitude
at fea is that of the moon from the fun, or from
fome remarkable ftar near the zodiac. To do this,
the operator muft be furniftied with a watch which
can be depended upon for keeping time within a mi¬
nute for fix hours; and with a good Hadley’s qua¬
drant, or, which is preferable, a fextant : and this laft
inftrument will ftill he more fit for the purpofe if it be
furniftied with a ferew for moving the index gradually j
likewife an additional dark glafs, but not fo dark as
the common kind, for taking off the glare of the moon’s
light in obferving her diftance from a ftar. A fmall
telefcope, wffiich may magnify three or four times, is
alfo necefiary to render the contaft of a ftar with the
moon’s limb more difcernible. A magnifying glafs of
one
%
LON ' [ 224 ] . LON
Xongitnde. one and a half or two inches focus will likewife affift
  v 1 the operator in reading off his obfervations with the
greater facility.
1. To make the obfervation. Having examined and
adjufted his inftrument as well as poflible, the obferver
is next to proceed in the following manner ; If the di-
ftance of the moon from the fun is to be obferved, turn
down one of the fcreens *, look at the moon direftly
through the tranfparent part of the horizon-glafs ; and
keeping her in view, gently move the index till the
fun’s image be brought into the filvered part of that
glafs. Bring the neareft limbs of both objefts into
contacl, and let the quadrant librate a little on the lu¬
nar ray •, by which means the fun will appear to rife
and fall by the fide of the moon j in which motion the
neareft limbs muft be made to touch one another exaft-
ly by moving the index. Ihe obfervation is then
made ; and the divifion coinciding with that on the
Vernier fcale, will fhow the diftance of the neareft limbs
of the objefts.
When the diftance of the moon from a ftar is to be
obferved when the moon is very bright, turn down the
lighteft fcreen, or ufe a dark glafs lighter than the
fcreens, and defigned for this particular purpofe} look
at the ftar diredtly through the tranfparent part of the
horizon-glafs j and keeping it there, move the index
till the moon’s image is brought into the filvered part
of the fame glafs. Make the quadrant librate gently
on the ftar’s ray, and the moon will appear to rife and
fall by the ftar : move the index between the librations,
until the moon’s enlightened limb is exa&ly touched
by the ftar, and then the obfervation is made. In
thefe operations, the plane of the quadrant muft alwrays
pafs through the two objects, the diftance of which is
to be obferved ; and for this purpofe it muft be placed
in various pofitions according to the fituation of the
objefts, which will foon be rendered eafy by prac¬
tice.
The obfervation being made, fomebody at the very
inftant that the operator calls muft obferve by the
watch the exa£t hour, minute, and quarter minute, if
there be no fecond hand, in order to find the apparent
time; and at the fame inftant, or as quick as poflible,
* two afliftants muft take the altitudes of thofe objedls
the diftance of which is obferved j after w’hich, the ob¬
fervations neceffary for finding the longitude are Com¬
pleted.
The Ephemeris (hows the moon’s diftance from the
fun, and likewife from proper ftars, to every three
hours of apparent time for the meridian of Greenwich $
and that the greater number of opportunities of obferv-
ing this luminary may be given, her diftance is gene¬
rally fet dowm from at le&ft one objeef on each fide of
her. Her diftance from the fun is fet dowm wTile it is
between 40 and 1 20 degrees ; fo that, by means of a
fextant, it may be obferved for two or three days after
her firft and before her laft quarter. When the moon
is between 40 and 90 degrees from the fun, her diftance
is fet down both from the fun and from a ftar on the
contrary fide : and, laftly, when the diftance is above
120 degrees, the diftance is fet down from tw'o ftars,
one on each fide of her. The diftance of the moon
from objedls on the eaft fide of her is found in the Ephe¬
meris in the 8th and 9th pages of the month ; and her
diftance from objects on the weft is found in the Ioth Long
and 1 ith pages of the month.
WThen the Ephemeris is ufed, the diftance of the
moon muft only be obferved from thofe ftars the di¬
ftance of which is fet down there ; and thefe afford a
ready means of knowing the ftar from which her di¬
ftance ought to be obferved. The obferver has then
nothing more to do than to fet his index to the di¬
ftance roughly computed at the apparent time, efti-
mated nearly for the meridian at Greenwich j after
which he is to look to the eaft or weft of the moon,
according as the diftance of the ftar is found in the
8th or 9th, or in the 10th or nth, pages of the
month •, and having found the moon upon the hori¬
zon-glafs, the ftar will eafily be found by fweeping
with the quadrant to the right or left, provided the-air
be clear and the ftar be in the line of the moon’s thort-
eft axis produced. The time at Greenwich is efti-
mated by turning into time the fuppofed longitude
from that place, and adding it to the apparent time
at the fhip, or fubtrafting it from it as cccafion re¬
quires. The diftance of the moon from the fun, or a
ftar, is roughly found at this time, by faying, As i8o
minutes (the number contained in three hours) is to
the difference in minutes between this nearly eftimated
time and the next preceding time fet down in the
Ephemeris j fo is the difference in minutes between the
diftance in the Ephemeris for the next preceding and
next following times, to a number of minutes ; which
being added to the next preceding diftance, or fub-
trafted from it, according as it is increafing^ or de-
creafing, will give the diftance nearly at the time the
obfervation is to be made, and to which the index mull
be fet.
An eafier method of finding the angular diftance is
by bringing the obje£ts nearly into contact in the
common wTay, and then fixing the index tight to a
certain degree and minute •, waiting until the objefls
are nearly in contafl, giving notice to the afliftants to
get ready with the altitudes, and when the objeifts are
exa&ly in contasft to call 'for the altitudes and the exaft
time by the w^atch. The obferver may then prepare
for taking another diftance, by fetting his index three
or four minutes backwards or forwards, as the objedls
happen to be receding from or approaching to each
other *, thus proceeding to take the diftance, altitudes,
and time by the watch, as before. "Ihus the obferver
may take as many diftances as he thinks proper $ but
four at the diftance of three minutes, or three at. the
diftance of four minutes, will at all times be fufficient.
Thus not only the eye of the obferver will be lefs fa¬
tigued, but he will likewife be enabled to manage his
inftrument with much greater facility in every direc¬
tion, a vertical one only excepted. If in taking the
diftances the middle one can be taken at any even di¬
vifion on the arch, fuch as a degree, or a degree and
20 or 40 minutes, that diftance will be independent of
the Nonius divilion, and confequently free of thofe
errors which frequently arife from the inequality of
that divifion in feveral parts of the graduated arch.
The obfervation ought always to be made about two
hours before or after noon 5 and the true time may be
found by the altitude of the fun taken at the precife
time of the diftance. If three diftances are taken,
' then
LON [2
Longitude, then find the time by the altitude correfponding with
V"“”"v ' the middle diftance j and thus the obfervation will be
fecured from any error arifing from the irregularity of
the going of the watch. As the time, however,
found by the altitude of a ftar cannot be depended up¬
on, becaufe of the uncertainty of the horizon in the
night, the beft wmy of determining the time for a night
obfervation will be by twTo altitudes of the fun ; one
taken on the preceding afternoon, before he is within
fix degrees of the horizon ; and the other on the next
morning, when he is more than fix degrees high. It
muft be obferved, how'ever, that in order to follow
thefe diredtions, it is neceffary that the atmofphere
fhould be pretty free from clouds ; otherwile the ob-
ferver muft take the obfervations at fuch times as he
Can beft obtain them.
2. To reduce the olferved Dijlance of the Sun or a
Star from the Moon to the true Di/lance, i. Turn the
longitude into time, and add it to the time at the {hip
if the longitude be weft, but fubtrad! it if it be eaft,
which will give the fuppofed time at Greenwich ; and
this we may call reduced time. 2. Find the neareft
noon or midnight both before and after the reduced
time in the feventh page of the month in the Ephemeris.
3. Take out the moon’s femidiameter and horizontal
parallaxes correfponding to thefe noons and midnights,
and find their differences. Then fay, As 12 hours is
to the moon’s femidiameter in 1 2 hours, fo is the redu¬
ced time to a number of feconds; which, either added
to or fubtradled from the moon’s femidiameter at the
noon or midnight juft mentioned, according as it is in-
creafing or decreafing, wdll give her apparent femidia¬
meter 3 to which add the correftion from Table VIII.
of the Ephemeris, and the fum will be her true femidia¬
meter at the reduced time. And as 12 hours is to the
difference of the moon’s horizontal parallax in I 2 hours,
fo is the reduced time to a fourth number 3 which, be¬
ing added to or fubtrafted from the moon’s horizontal
parallax at the noon or midnight before the reduced
time, according as it is increafing or decreafing, the
fum or difference wall be the moon’s horizontal parallax
at the reduced time. 4. If the reduced time be nearly
any even part of 12 hours, viz. -gth, |th, &c. thefe
parts of the difference may be taken, and either added
or fubtraffed according to the direftions already given,
without being at the trouble of working by the rule of
proportion. 5. To the obferved altitude of the fun’s
Iowrer limb add the difference betwixt his femidiameter
and dip 3 and that fum will be his apparent altitude.
6. From the fun’s refradlion take his parallax in alti¬
tude, and the remainder will be the correftion of the
fun’s altitude. 7. From the ftar’s obferved altitude take
the dip of the horizon, and the remainder will be the
apparent altitude. 8. The refratlion of a ftar will be
the corre61ion of its altitude. 9. Take the difference
between the moon’s fem diameter and dip, and add it
to the obferved altitude if her lowTer limb was taken, or
fubtratft it if her upper limb was taken 3 and the fum or
difference will be the apparent altitude of her centre.
to. hrom the proportional logarithm of the moon’s ho¬
rizontal parallax, taken out of the nautical almanack
-(increafing its index by 10), take the logarithmic co¬
fine of the moon’s apparent altitude, the remainder will
be the proportional logarithm of her parallax in alti-
Vou XII. Part I.
15 ] LON
tude 3 from which take her refraftion, and the remain¬
der will be the correftion of the moon’s altitude. 11.
To the obferved diftance of the moon from a ftar add
her femidiameter if the neareft limb be taken, but fub-
traft it if the fartheft limb was taken, and the fum or
difference will be the apparent diftance. 12. To the
obferved diftance of the fun and moon add both their
femidiameters, and the fum will be the apparent di¬
ftance of their centres.
3. To find the true Difance of the Objects, having
their apparent Altitudes and Dijlances. 1. To the pro¬
portional logarithm of the correction of the fun or
ftar’s altitude, add the logarithmic cofine of the fun
or liar’s apparent altitude 3 the logarithmic fine of the
apparent diftance of the moon from the fun or ftar )
and the logarithmic cofecant of the moon’s apparent
altitude. The fum of thefe, rejefting 30 from the
index, will be the proportional logarithm of the firft
angle. 2. To the proportional logarithm of the cor-
redion of the fun or ftar’s altitude, add the loga¬
rithmic cotangent of the fun or ftar’s apparent alti¬
tude, and the logarithmic tangent of the apparent
diftance of the moon from the fun or ftar. The fum
of thefe, rejedling 20 in the index, will be the pro¬
portional logarithm of the fecond angle. 3. Take
the difference between the firft and fecond angles,
adding it to the apparent diftance if it be lefs than
93, and the firft angle be greater than the fecond 3
but fubtradling it if the fecond be greater than the
firft. If the diftance be greater than 90, the fum of
the angles muft be added to the apparent diftance,
which will give the diftance corrected for the refrac¬
tion of the fun or ftar. 4. To the proportional lo¬
garithm of the corredlion of the moon’s altitude add
the logarithmic cofine of her apparent altitude 3 the
logarithmic fine of the diftance corredted for the fun
or ftar’s refradtion and the logarithmic cofecant of
the fun’s or ftar’s apparent altitude. The fum, rejedl-
ing 30 in the index, will be the proportional loga¬
rithm of the third angle. 5. To the proportional
logarithm of the corredfion of the moon’s apparent
altitude, add the logarithmic cotangent of her appa¬
rent altitude, and the tangent of the diftance cor-
redled for the fun or ftar’s refradtion 3 their fum, re-
jedling 20 in the index, will be the proportional lo¬
garithm of the fourth angle. 6. Take the difference
between the third and fourth angles, and fubtradl it
from the diftance corredled for the fun or ftar’s re-
fradtion if lefs than 90, and the third angle be great¬
er than the fourth 3 or add it to the diftance if the fourth
angle be greater than the third : but if the diftance be
more than 90, the fum of the angles muft be fubtradl-
ed from it, to give the diftance corredled for the fun
or ftar’s refradlion, and the principal effedls of the
moon’s parallax. 7. In Table XX. of the Ephemeris,
look for the diftance corredled for the fun and ftar’s
refradlion, and the moon’s parallax in the top column,
and the corredlion of her altitude in the left-hand fide
column 3 take out the number of feconds that Hand
under the former, and oppofite to the latter. Look
again in the fame table for the corredled diftance in
the top column, and the principal effedls of the moon’s
parallax in the left-hand fide column, and take out the
number of i’econds. The difference between thefe two
F f uumbers
LON [2
Longitude, numbers muft be added to tbe corrected diftance if lefs
^—    than 90, but fubtrafted from it if greater j and the
fum or dift'erence will be the true diilance.
4. 2b determine the Longitude after having obtain¬
ed the true Dijlance. Look in the Ephemeris among
the diilances of the objebfs for the computed diftance
betwixt the moon and the other object obferved on
the given day. If it be found there, the time at
Greenwich wall be at the top of the column j but if
it falls between tw'O diftances in the Ephemeris which
ftand immediately before and after it, and alfo the
difference between the diftance Handing before and
the computed diftance j then take the proportional
logarithms of the firft and fecond differences, and the
difference between thele two logarithms will be the
proportional logarithm of a number of hours, minutes,
and feconds ; which being added to the time ftanding
over the firft diftance, will give the true time at Green¬
wich. Or it may be found by faying, As the firft
difference is to three hours, fo is the fecond difference
to a proportional part of time : which being added as
above directed, will give the time at Greenwich. The
difference between Greenwich time and that at the
ftiip, turned into longitude, will be that at the time
the obfervations were made j and wall be eaft if the
ijme at the ftiip Is greateft, but weft if it is leaft.
Having given thele general diredions, we ftiall next
proceed to ihow fome particular examples of finding the
longitude at fea by all the different methods in w'hich
it is ufually tried. ^
I. Tofind the Longitude by Computation from the Ship's
Courfe.—Were it poflible to keep an accurate account
of the diftance the flap has run, and to meafure it ex-
f See Log, a^]y by the log * or any other means, then both lati-
Perpetual. tu(je anj iong|tuc}e vvould eafily be found by fettling
the Ihip’s account to that time. For the courfe and
diflance being knowm, the difference of latitude and
departure is readily found by the Traverfe Table : and
the difference of longitude being known, the true
longitude and latitude will alfo be known. A variety
of caufes, however, concur to render this computa¬
tion inaccurate $ particularly the Ihip’s continual de-
fle&ion from the courfe fet by her playing to the
right and left round her centre of gravity : the un¬
equal care of thofe at the helm, and the diftance fup-
pofed to be failed being erroneous, on account of
ftormy feas, unfteady winds, currents, &c. for which
it feems impoffxble to make any allowance. The place
of the Ihip, however, is judged of by finding the la¬
titude every day, if poflible, by obfervations j and if
the latitude found by obfervation agrees with that by
the reckoning, it is prefumed that the (hip’s place is
properly determined ; but if they difagree, it is con¬
cluded that the account of the longitude ftands in need
of correflion, as the latitude by obfervation is always
to be depended upon.
Currents very often occafion errors in the compu¬
tation of a fhip’s place. The caufes of thefe in the
great depths of the ocean are not well known, though
many of the motions near the ftrore can be accounted
for. It is fuppofed that fome of thofe in the great
oceans are owing to the tide following the moon, and
a certain libration of the waters arifing from thence }
likewife that the unfettled nature of thefe currents
may be owing to the changes in the moon’s declina-
26 ] LON
tion. In the torrid zone, how'ever, a confiderable cur- Longitude,
rent Is occafioned by the trade winds, the motion be- '’““"’V" 1
ing conftantly to the w'eft, at the rate of eight or ten
miles per day. At the extremities of the trade wands
or near the 30th degree of north or fouth latitude,
the currents are probably compounded ol this motion
to the weftward, and of one towards the equator j
whence all (hips failing within thefe limits ought to
allow a courfe each day for the current.
When the error is fuppofed to have been occafioned
by a current, it ought if poflible to be tried whether
the cafe is fo or not $ or we muft make a reafonable
eftimate of its drift and courfe. Then with the fel¬
ting and drift, as a courfe and diftance, find the difo
ference of latitude and departure ; with which the
dead reckoning is to be increafed or diminiflied ; and
if the latitude thus corrected agrees with that by ob¬
fervation, the departure thus corrected may be fafely
taken as true, and thus the (hip’s place with regard to
the longitude determined.
Exam. Suppofe a ftiip in 24 hours finds, by her
dead reckoning, that (he has made 96 miles of dif¬
ference of latitude north and 38 miles of departure
weft ) but by obfervation finds her difference of lati¬
tude 112, and on trial that there is a current which
in 24 hours makes a difference of 16 miles latitude
north and 10 miles of departure eaft : Required the
(hip’s departure.
Miles.
Diff. lat. by account 96 N.
Diff. lat. by current 16 N.
True diff. lat. 112
Departure by 1
account j
Departure by ’)
current \
Miles.
38 w.
10
28 w.
Here the dead reckoning corredted by the current gives
the difference of latitude 112 miles, which is the fame
as that found by obfervation j whence the departure 28^
is taken as the true one.
When the error is fuppofed to arife from the courfes
and diftances, we muft obferve, that if the difference
of latitude is much more than the departure, or the
direft courfe has been within three points of the me¬
ridian, the error is moft probably in the diftance. But
if the departure be much greater than the difference
of latitude, or the direft courfe be within three points
of the parallel, or more than five points from the me¬
ridian, the error is probably to be aferibed to the
courfe. But if the courfes in general are near the mid¬
dle of the quadrant, the error may be either in the
courfe, or in the diftance, or both. This method ad¬
mits of three cafes.
x. When, by the dead reckoning, the difference of
latitude is more than once and a half the departure j
or when the courfe is lefs than three points : Find
the courfe to the difference of latitude and departure.
With this courfe and the meridional difference of la¬
titude by obfervation, find the difference of longitude.
2. When the dead reckoning is more than once
and a half the difference of latitude j or when the
courfe is more than five points : Find the courfe and
diflance, w’ith the difference of latitude by obfervation,
and departure by account j then with the co-middle
latitude by obfervation, and departure by account, find
the difference of longitude.
3. When
Longitude.
LON f '227 ] LON
3. When the difference of latitude and departure
by account is nearly equal, or the direct courfe is be¬
tween three and five points of the meridian : Find the
courfe with the difference of latitude and departure by
account fince the laft obfervation. With this courfe
and the difference of latitude by obfervation find ano¬
ther departure. Take half the fum of thefe departures
for the true one. With the true departure and differ-
ance of latitude by obfervation find the true courfe;
then with the true courfe and meridional difference of
latitude find the difference of longitude.
2. To find the Longitude at Sea by a Variation-chart
Dr Halley having colle&ed a great number of obfer-
vations on the variation of the needle in many parts
of the world ; by that means was enabled to draw
certain lines on Mercator’s chart, (hewing the varia¬
tion in all the places over which they paffed in the
year 1700, at which time he firft publifhed the chart;
whence the longitude of thofe places might be found
by the chart, provided its latitude and variation were
given. The rule is, Draw a parallel of latitude on the
chart through the latitude found by obfervation ; and
the point where it cuts the curved line marked with the
variation that was obferved will be the (hip’s place.
Exam. A (hip finds by obfervation the latitude to
be 18° 20' north, and the variation of the compafs to
be 40 tveft. Required the (hip’s place.—Lay a ruler
over 18° 20' north parallel to the equator; and the
point where its edge cuts the curve of 4* weft varia¬
tion gives the (hip’s place, which will be found in about
27® 10' weft from London.
This method of finding the longitude, however, is
attended with two inconveniences. 1. That when the
variation lines run eaft or weft, or nearly fo, it cannot
be applied ; though as this happens only in certain parts
of the world, a variation chart may be of great ufe for
the reft. Even in thofe places indeed where the varia¬
tion curves do run eaft or wTeft, they may be of con-
jiderable ufe in correcting the latitude when meridian
obfervations cannot be had; which frequently happens
on the northern coafts of America, the Weftern ocean,
and about Newfoundland ; for if the variation can be
found exactly, the eaft and weft curve anfwering to it
will (how the latitude But, 2. The variation itfelf is
fubjeCt to continual change ; whence a chart, though
ever fo perfeCt at firft, muft in time become totally ufe-
lefs ; and hence the charts conftruCted by Dr Halley,
though of great utility at their firft publication, became
at length almoft entirely ufelefs. A newr one w^as pub¬
lifhed in 1746 by Meffrs Mountaine and Dodfon,
which was fo well received, that in 1756 they again
drew variation lines for that year, and publiftied a third
chart the year following. They alfo prefented to the
Royal Society a curious paper concerning the variation
of the magnetic needle, with a fet of tables annexed, con¬
taining the refult of more than 50,000 obfervations, in
fix periodical reviews from the year 1700 to 1756 in-
clufive, adapted to every five degrees of latitude and
longitude in the more frequented oceans 5 all of which
were publifhed in the Philofophical Tranfaftions for
I757-
3. To find the Longitude by the Sun's Declination.—
Having made fuch obfervations on the fun as may
enable us to find his declination at the place, take the
difference between this computed declination and that
(hown at London by the Ephemeris ; from which take
alfo the daily difference of declination at that time ;
then fay, as the daily difference of declination is to the
above found difference, fo is 360 degrees to the dif¬
ference of longitude. In this method, however, a
fmall error in the declination will make a great one in
the longitude.
4. To find the Longitude by the Moon's culminating.—
Seek in the Ephemeris for the time of her coming to
the meridian on the given day and on the day follow¬
ing, and take their difference ; alfo take the difference
betwixt the times of culminating on the fame day as
found in the ephemeris and as obferved ; then fay, as
the daily difference in the ephemeris is to the difference
between the ephemeris and obfervation ; fo is 360 de¬
grees to the difference of longitude. In this method
alfo a fmall difference in the culmination will occafion
a great one in the longitude.
5. By Eclipfes of the Moon.—This is done much ia
the fame manner as by the eclipfes of Jupiter’s fatel-
lites : For if, in two or more diftant places where an
eclipfe of the moon is vifible, we carefully obferve the
times of the beginning and ending, the number of di¬
gits eclipfed, or the time when the ffradow touches fome
remarkable fpot, or when it leaves any particular fpot
on the moon, the difference of the times when the ob¬
fervations were made will give the difference of longi¬
tude. Phenomena of this kind, however, occur too
feldom to be of much ufe.
6. In the 76th volume of the Philofophical Tranf-
aftions, Mr Edward Pigot gives a very particular ac¬
count of his method of determining the longitude
and latitude of York ; in which he alfo recommends
the method of determining the longitude of places by
obfervations of the moon's trunfit over the meridian.
The inftruments ufed in his obfervations were a gridiron
pendulum clock, a two feet and a half refledlor, an
eighteen inch quadrant made by Mr Bird, and a tranfil
in ft rumen t made by Mr S’(Ton.
By thefe inftruments an obfervation wras made, ou
the 10th of September 1783, of the occultation of a
ftar of the ninth magnitude by the moon, during an
eclipfe of that planet, at York and Paris. Befides
this, there were obfervations made of the immerfions
of <p Aquarii and S Pificium ; the refult of all w’hich
was, that between Greenwich and York the difference
of meridians was 4' 27".
In 1783, Mr Pigot informs us, that he thought of
finding the difference of meridians by obferving the
meridian right afeenfions of the moon’s limb. This he
thought had been quite original : but he found it after¬
wards in the Nautical Almanack for 1769, and in
1784 read a pamphlet on the fame fubjefl by the abbe
Toaldo ; but (till found that the great exadtnefs of this
method was not fufpe&ed ; though he is convinced that
it muft foon be univerfally adopted in preference to that
from the firft fatellite of Jupiter.
After giving a number -of obfervations on the fatel-
lites of Jupiter, he concludes, that the exatlnefs ex*
pefled from obfervations, even on the firft fatellite, is
much over-rated. “ Among the various objeftions
(fays he), there is one I have often experienced, and
rvhich proceeds folely from the difpofition of the eye,
that of feeing more diftinftly at one time than another.
It may not be improper alfo to mention, that the obfer-
F f 2 vatio^
Longitude.
%
LON [ 228 ] LON
Loirgitnde. vaticn I fhould have relied on as the beft, that of
'' v Augutf 30. 1785, marked excellent, is one of thofe moft
dillant from the truth.”
After giving a number of obfervations on the eclipfe
of the moon September 10. 1783, our author concludes,
that the eclipfes of the moon’s fpots are in general too,
much neglected, and that it might be relied upon much
more were the following circumftances attended to:
I. To be particular in fpecifying the clearnefs of the
Iky. 2. To choofe fuch fpots as are w'ell defined, and
leave no hefitation as to the part eclipfed. 3. That
every obferver ihould ufe, as far as poflible, telefcopes
equally powerful, or at leaft let the magnifying powers
be the fame. “ A principal objedtion (fays he) may
ftill be urged, viz. the difficulty of diftinguilhing the
true ihadow from the penumbra. Was this obviated,
I believe the refults would be more exadl than from Ju¬
piter’s firft fatellite : Undoubtedly the fliadow appears
better defined if magnified little ; but I am much in¬
clined to think, that, with high magnifying powers,
there is greater certainty of choofing the fame part of
the ihadow, which perhaps is more than a fufficient
compenfation for the lofs of diftindlnefs.”
The following rule for meridian obfervations of the
moon’s limb is next laid down : “ The increafe of the
moon’s right afcenfion in twelve hours (or any given
time found by computation), is to 12 hours as the
increafe of the moon’s right afcenfion between twro
places found by obfervation is to the difference of meri¬
dians.
h.
Example.
November 30. 1782.
13 12 Sl'^2 Meridian tranfit of moon’sT g clock at
fecond limb r r- -l
13 13 29.08 Ditto of« J ieenvucla
31.46 Difference of right afcenfion.
*3
*3
J4
8.05 Meridian tranfit of moon’s
fecond limb
30.13 Ditto of « tig
}
By clock
at York.
32.08 Difference at York )
31.46 Difference at Greenwich, |
9.38 Increafe of the moon’s ap- ^
parent right afcenfion
between Greenwich asd
York, by obfervation.
The clocks
going near¬
ly fidereal
time,nocor-
redtion is re¬
quired.
341'' in feconds of a degree, ditto, ditto, ditto.
Tne increafe of the moon’s right afcenfion for 12 hours,
by computation, is 23,340 feconds •, and 12 hours
reduced into feconds is 43,200. Therefore, accord¬
ing to the rule ftated above,
23,340" : 43,200": diff. of merid.—261"
“ Thefe eafy .obfervations and fhort redudfion (fays
Mr Pigoi) are the whole of the bufinefs. Inflead of
computing the moon’s right afcenfion for I 2 hours,
I have conftantly taken it from the Nautical Alma¬
nacks, wffiich give it fufficiently exadl, provided fome
attention be paid to the increafe or decreafe of the
njocn’s motion. Were the following circumhances
attended to, the refults would be undoubtedly much Longitude,
more exadt.
“ 1. Compare the obfervations with the fame made
in feveral other places. 2. Let feveral and the fame
ffars be obferved at thefe places. 3. Such liars as are
neareft in right afcenfion and declination to the moon
are infinitely preferable. 4. It cannot be too ftrongly
urged, to get, as near as poffible, an equal number of
obfervations of each limb, to take a mean of each fet,
and then a mean of both means. This will in a great
meafure corredt the error of telefcopes and fight.
5. The adjullment of the telefcopes to the eye of the
obferver before the obfervation is alfo very neceffary,
as the fight is fubjedl to vary. 6. A principal error
proceeds from the obfervation of the moon’s limb,
wffiich may be confiderably leffened, if certain little
round fpots near each limb were alfo obferved in fettled
oblervatories j in which cafe the libration of the moon
will perhaps be a confideration. <7. When the differ¬
ence of meridians, or of the latitudes of places, is very
confiderable, the change of the moon’s diameter be¬
comes an equation.
“ Though fuch are the requifites to ufe this method
with advantage, only one or two of them have been em¬
ployed in the obfervations that I have reduced. Two
thirds of thefe obfervations had not even the fame liars
obferved at Greenwich and York j and yet none of the
refults, except a doubtful one, differ 15" from the
mean j therefore I think we may expebt a Hill greater
exablnefs, perhaps within I o", if the above particulars
be attended to.
“ When the fame liars are not obferved, it is necef¬
fary for the obfervers at both places to compute their
right afcenfion from tables, in order to get the appa¬
rent right afcenfion of the moon’s limb. Though
this is not fo fatisfablory as by actual obfervation, llill
the difference will be trilling, provided the liar’s right
afeenfions are accurately fettled. I am alfo of opi¬
nion, that the fame method can be put in pradtice by
travellers with little trouble, and a tranfit inltrument,
conltrubted fo as to fix up with facility in any place.
It is not neceffary, perhaps, that the inltrument Ihould
be perfebtly in the meridian for a few feconds of time,
provided liars, nearly in the fame parallel of declina¬
tion with the moon, are obferved •, nay, I am inclined
to think, that if the inltrument deviates even a quarter
or half a degree, or more, fufficient exabtnefs can be
attained j as a table might be computed, Ihowing the
moon’s parallax and motion for fuch deviation •, which
lalt may eafily be found by the well-known method of
obferving liars whofe difference of decimation is con¬
fiderable.
“ As travellers very feldom meet with fituations to
obferve liars near-the pole, or find a proper objebt for *
determining the error of the line of collimation, I
Ihall recommend the following method as original.—
Having computed the apparent right afcenfion of
four, fix, or more liars, which have nearly the fame
parallel of declination, obferve half of them with the
inllrument inverted, and the other half when in its
right pofition. If the difference of right afeenfions
between each fet by obfervation agrees with the com¬
putation, there is no error j but if they difagree, half-*
that difagreement is the error of the line of collima¬
tion. The fame obfervations may alfo ferve to deter¬
mine,.
LON [2
Longitude, mine, whether the diftances of the correfponding wires
-V’—' are equal. In cafe of neceflity, each limb of the fun
might be obferved in the fame manner, though proba¬
bly with lefs precifion. By a Angle trial I made above
two years ago, the refult was much more exadt
than I expedled. Mayer’s catalogue of ftars will
prove of great ufe to thofe that adopt the above me¬
thod.—I am rather furprifed that the immerfions of
known liars of the fixth and feventh magnitude, be¬
hind the dark limb of the moon, are not conftantly ob-
ferved in hxed obfervatories, as they would frequent¬
ly be of great ufe.
The annexed rule for finding the (hip’s place, with
the mifcellaneous obfervations on different methods,
were drawn up by Mr John M‘Lean of Edinburgh.
1. With regard to determining the (hip’s place by the
help of the courfe and dillance failed, the following rule
may be applied.—it will be found as expeditious as any
of the common methods by the middle latitude or meri¬
dional parts and is in fome refpetts preferable, as the
common tables of fines and tangents only are requi-
fite in applying it.—Let a and b be the diifances of
two places from the lame pole in degrees, or their com¬
plete latitude; c the angle which a meridian makes
with the rhumb line pafling through the places; and L
the angle formed by their meridians, or the difference
of longitude in minutes : then A and B being the lo¬
garithmic tangents oi ^ a and i S the fine of C, and
S the fine of (C-j-0> we have the following e-
quation: L~ (a). Alfo, from a well known
O —o
property of the rhumb line, we have the following
equation :
S-j_E^:R-}-D, where S is the logarithmic cofine of
C, E the logarithm of the length of the rhumb line, or
diftance, D the logarithm of the minute’s difference of
latitude, and R the logarithm of the radius.
By the help of thefe two equations, we {hall have
am eafy folution of the feveral cafes to which the
middle latitude, or meridional parts, are commonly ap¬
plied.
Exam. A (hip from a port in latitude 56° N*fails
S. W. by W. till (he arrives at the latitude of 40® N :
Required the difference of longitude ?
Here fl=34#, b=so°, 0=56° 15", A=r9.43534,
B—9.56107, S':=9.91993o8, 8=9.9198464; there¬
fore, L=--^— — 897 the minutes differ-
’ S'—b 844
ence of longitude. Alfo, 8=9.74474, 0=2.98227;
therefore E= R-J-D—S —3.23753, to which the na¬
tural number is 1728, the miles in the rhumb line fail¬
ed over.
2. The common method of finding the difference
of longitude made good upon feveral courfes and di-
dances, by means of the difference of latitude and de¬
parture made good upon the feveral courfes, is not ac¬
curately true.
For example : If a (hip (hould fail due fouth 600
miles, from a port in 6o° north latitude, and then due
weft 600 miles, the difference of longitude found by the
29 ] LON
common methods of folution would be 1053 ; whereas Longitede.^
the true difterence of longitude is only 933? lefs than
the former by 120 miles, which is more than one eighth
of the whole. Indeed, every confiderable alteration in
the courfe will produce a very fenlible error in the dif¬
ference of longitude. Though, when the feveral rhumb
lines failed over are nearly in the fame direction, the
error in longitude will be but (mall.
The reafon of this will eafily appear from the annexed
figure, in which the (hip is fuppoled to fail from Z to
A, along the rhumb lines ZB, BA; for if the meri¬
dians PZ,PkoeBL be drawn ; and very near the latter
other two meridians PhlD, Pmn ; and likewife the pa¬
rallels of latitude Bn, De, mo, hk ; then it is plain
that De is greater than hk (tor De is to hk as the
fine of DP to the fine of hP) : and fince this is the
cafe everywhere, the departure correfponding-to the
diftance BZ and courfe BZC, will be greater t an
the departure to the diftance oZ and courfe oZC.
And in the fame manner, we prove that nB is great¬
er than mo; and confequently, the departure corre¬
fponding to the diftance AB, and courfe ABL, is
greater than the departure to the diftance Ao, and
courfe AoL. Wherefore, the fam of the turn depar¬
tures correiponding to the courfes ABL and BZC,
and to the diftances AB and BZ, is greater than the
departure correfoonding to the diftance AZ and
courfe AZC : therefore the courfe anfwering to this
fum as a departure, and CZ as a difference or latitude,
(AC being the parallel of latitudes palling through
A), will be greater than the true courfe AZC made
good upon the whole. And hence the difference of
longitude found by the common rules will be greater
then the true difference of longitudes ; and the error
will be greater or lefs according as BA deviates more
Or lefs from the direition of BZ.
Y
3. Of determining the drip’s longitude by lunar ob¬
fervations.
Several rules for this purpofe have been lately pub-
lifhed, the principal objedl of vrhLh feems to have been
TO
(a) Ago B fignifies the difference between A and B.
LON
Longitude., to abbreviate the computations requifits for determin-
the true diftance of the fun or ftar from the moon’s
centre. This, however, fhould have certainly been
lefs attended to than the inveftigation of a folution, in
which confiderable errors in the data may produce a
fmall error in the required diftance. When either of
the luminaries has a fmall elevation, its altitude will
be affeded by the variablenefs of the atmofphere;
likewife the altitude, as given by the quadrant, will
be affeded by the inaccuracy of the inftrument, and
the uncertainty neceffarily attending all obfervations
made at fea. The fum of thefe errors, when they all
tend the fame way, may be fuppofed to amount to at
lead: one minute rt altitude j which, in many cafes, ac¬
cording to the common rules for computing the true
diftance, will produce an error of about 30 minutes in
the longitude. Thus, in the example given by Monf.
Callet, in the Tables Fortatives, if we fuppofe an error
of one minute in the fun’s altitude, or call it 6° 26' 34",
inftead of 6° 27' 34"; we fhall find the alteration in
diftance according to his rule to be 54", producing an
€rror of about 27 minutes in the longitude \ for the
angle at the fun will be found, in the fpherical triangle
whofe fides are the complement of the fun’s altitude,
complement of the rUoon’s altitude, and obferved di-
llance, to be about 26° ; and as radius is to the cofine of
26°, fo is 16 the fuppofed error in altitude, to 54" the
alteration in diftance. Perhaps the only method of de¬
termining the diftance, fo as not to be affedled by the
errors of altitude, is that by firft finding the angles at
the fun and moon, and by the help of them the correc¬
tions of diftance for parallax and refradlion. The rule
is as follows :
Add together the complement of the moon’s appa¬
rent altitude, the complement of the fun’s apparent al¬
titude, and the apparent diftance of centres 5 from half
the fum of thefe fubftradl the complement of the fun’s
altitude, and add togecher the logarithmic cofecant
of the complement of the moon’s altitude, the loga¬
rithmic cofecant of the apparent diftance of centres,
the logarithmic fine of the half fum, and the logarith¬
mic fine of the remainder ; and half the fum of thefe
four logarithms, after rejecting 20 from the index,
[ 230- ]
LON
is the logarithmic cofine of half the angle at the Longitude,
moon. —j
As radius is to the cofine of the angle at the moon ;
fo is the difference between the moon’s parallax and
refradtion in altitude to a corredlion of diftance; which
is to be added to the apparent diftance of centres when
the angle at the moon is obtufe; but to be fubtradfed
when that angle is acute, in order to have the diftance
once corrected.
In the above formula, if the word fun be changed
for moon, and vice verfa, wherever thefe terms occur, we
fhall find a fecond corredtion of diftance to be applied
to the diftance, once corredted by fubtradtion when the
angle at the fun is obtufe, but by addition wdien that
angle is acute, and the remainder or fum is the true di-
ftance nearly.
In applying this rule, it will be fufficient to ufe the
complement, altitude, and apparent diftances of cen¬
tres, true to the neareft minute only, as a fmall errof
in the angles at the fun and moon will very little affedfc
the corredtions of diftances.
If D be the computed diftance in feconds, d the
difference between the moon’s parallax and refradfion
in altitude, S the fine of the angle at the moon, and
</* S*
R the radius; then —will be the third corredlion
2DR
of diftance, to be added to the diftance twice corredl-
ed : But it is plain, from the nature of this corrediion,
that it may be always rejedled, except when the diftance
D is very fmall, and the angle at the moon nearly equal
to 90®.
This folution is likewife of ufe in finding the true
diftance of a ftar from the moon, by changing the word
fun into far, and ufing the refradlion of the ftar, inftead
of the difference between the refradlion and parallax in
altitude of the fun, in finding the fecond corredlion of
diftance.
Ex. Given the obferved diftance of a ftar from the
centre of the moon, 50° 8' 41" ; the moon’s altitude,
J5° 58' 5,/» the ftar’s altitude, 190 18' 5"; and the
moon’s horizontal parallax, i° o' 5" : Required the tru«
diftance.
Bine
*’s co. alt.-
5’s co. alt.-
obf. dift. 
-70° 42'
-34 4-
-50 9-
2)154 55
77 27-
Rem. 6 45-
2)19.96629
Cofec. 9-98314—
Rad. ; Cofec. 1170 48'
Rad. • Cofec. 310 48'
3
54-
2
-Cofec."
-Cofec .-
-Sine-
-Sine-
-O.25 169
-o.i 1479
-9.98950
-9.070x8
Rem. 43 23
2)19.42616
-Cofec.——9.71308-
"58° 54'
2
117 48= D’s angle.
31 48=*’s angle.
J’s diff. parall. &. refradl. 1980" : 923"=: ill corredl. of diftance.
ftar’s refradl. 162" : 138"=: 2d corredl. of diftance.
Here
LON [ ] LOO
Longitu- Here the firfl: correftion of diflance is additive,
riinal fince angle at the moon is obtufe; and the fe-
’■ cond corredlion is alfo additive, fince the angle at the
'ST ftar is acute : therefore their fum 923'/-f
—  ~\~j' 4i//, being added to 50° 8' 41", the apparent
diftance of the ftar from the moon’s centre, gives
co* 26' 21" for the true diftance of centres nearly ;—
and 2xL (d + S)—L (2 L R + L 2+L D) = L 8",
which, being added to the diftance twice corrected,
gives 50° 26' 29" for the true diftance. By compar¬
ing this diftance with the computed diftances in the
ephemeris, the time at Greenwich correfponding to
that of obferving the diftance will be known 5 and the
difference of thofe times being converted into degrees
and minutes, at the rate of 15 degrees to the hour,
■will give the longitude of the place of obfervation ;
which will be eaft if the time at the place be greater
than that at Greenwich, but wTeft if it be lefs.
LONGITUDINAL, in general, denotes fomething
placed lengthwife : thus fome of the fibres in the vef-
fels of the human body are placed longitudinally, others
tranfverfely or acrofs.
LONGOBARDL See Lombards.
LONGOMONTANUS, Christian, a learned a-
ftronomer, born in a village of Denmark in 1562. He
was the fon of a ploughman •, and was obliged to fuffer
during his ftudies all the hardfhips to w’hich he could
be expofed, dividing his time, like the philofopher Cle-
anthes, between the cultivation of the ^arth and the
leflbns he received from the minifter of the place. At
laft, when he w^as 15, he ftole away from his family,
and went to Wiburg, w’here there wras a college, in
which he fpent 11 years $ and though he was obliged
to earn a livelihood, he applied himfelf to ftudy with
fuch ardour, that among other fciences he learned the
mathematics in great perfection. He afterwards went
to Copenhagen j where the profeffors of that univerfity
in a ftiort time conceived fo high an opinion of him,
that they recommended him to the celebrated Tycho
Brahe. Longomontanus lived eight years with that
famous aftronomer, and wras of great fervice to him in
his obfervations and calculations. At length, being
extremely defirous of obtaining a profeffor’s chair in
Denmark, Tycho Brahe confented, though with fome
difficulty, to deprive himfelf of his fervice ; gave him
a difcharge, filled with the higheft teftimonies of his
efteem ; and furnifhed him with money for the expence
of his long journey. He obtained a profefforfhip of
mathematics in the univerfity of Copenhagen in 1605 ;
and difcharged the duty of it worthily till his death,
which happened in 1647. He wrote many learned
works 5 amufed himfelf with endeavouring to fquare the
circle, and pretended that he had made that difcovery j
but Dr John Pell, an Englifh mathematician, attack¬
ed him warmly on that fubjeft, and proved that he
was miftaken.
LONGTOWN, a town of Cumberland, on the
Scots borders, near the conflux of the Elk and Kirk-
fop, 10 miles from Carlifie, and 313 miles from Lon¬
don ; it has a market on Thurfday, and a charity fehool
for 60 children, with two fairs in the year.
LONGUEVILLE, a town of France, in the de¬
partment of Lower Seine, and in the territory of Caux,
ieated on the final 1 river Lee, 17 miles north of Rouen.
It has the title of a duchy. E. Long. 1. 10. N. Lat. Lcngwy
46- . r
LONGW Y, a town of France, in the department of. .
Mofelle, with a caftle, divided into the old and new
towns. This laft w?as built and fortified by Louis XIV.
It is feated on an eminence. It was taken by the king
of Pruflia in 1792, but retaken tw7o months after. E.
Long. 5. 58. N. Lat. 49. 32.
LONGUS, a Greek fophift, author of a book en¬
titled or Paftorals, or a romance containing
the loves of Daphnis and Chloe. Huetius, biftiop of
Avranches, fpeaks very advantageoufly of this work j
but he cenfures the obfcene touches with which it is
interfperfed. None of the ancient authors mention
him, fo that the time w'hen he lived cannot be certainly
fixed. There is an Englilh tranllation of this author,
which is afcribed to Mr J. Craggs, once fecretary of
ftate.
LONICER A, Honeysuckle, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the pentandria clafs. See Botany Index,
LONSDALE, or Kirkby Lonsojis, a town of
Weftmorland, feated on the river Lon, in a pleafant
and rich valley of the fame name. It is a large well
built town, has a handfome church, and a fine ftone
bridge over the river. It is well inhabited ; and is the
beft town in the county except Kendal- It gives title
of earl to the Lowther family. W. Long. 2. 27.
N. Lat. 54. 10.
LOO, a town of the United Provinces, in Gaelder-
land, eight miles iveft of Deventer, wrhere the prince
of Orange has a fine palace. E. Long. 6. o. N. Lat.
52. 18.
LOOF, the after part of. a ftiip’s bow ; or that part
of her fide forward where the planks begin to be incur-
vated into an arch as they approach the ftem.
Loof, or Luff. See Luff.
LOOK-OUT, in the fea-language, a -watchful at¬
tention to fome important objeft or event which is ex¬
pected to arife from the prefent fituation of a ftiip, &c.
It is principally ufed in navigation when there is a
probability of danger from the real or fuppofed proxi¬
mity of land, rocks, enemies, and, in ftiort, whatever
peril {he may encounter through inattention, which -
might otherwife have been avoided by a prudent and
necelfary vigilance.
There is always a look-out kept on a (hip’s fore-
caftle at fea, to watch for any dangerous objects lying-
near her track, and to which (he makes a gradual ap¬
proach as ftie advances : the mate of the watch accord¬
ingly calls often from the quarter-deck, “ Look out afore
there !” to the perfons appointed for this fervice.
LOOKING-GLASSES, are nothing but plain mir¬
rors of glafsq which, being impervious to the-light,
refleCt the images of things placed before them. See
the articles Mirror and Optics.
For the catting, grinding,. and pqlifhing of looking-
glafles, fee the article Glass.
For foliating of looking-glaffes. See' the article
Foliating.
LOOL, in Metallurgy, a veffel made to receive the
wra{hings of ores of metals. The heavier or more me¬
talline parts of the ores remain in. the trough in which
they are waihed j the lighter and more earthy run off
with the water, but fettle in-the look
LOOM,
LOR [ 252 ] -LOR
7 Lornn LOOM, the weaver’s frame; a machine whereby
^ ; feyeral diftind threads are w’oven into one piece.
»■ ^ . Looms are of various ftrudures, accommodated to
the various kinds of materials to be woven, and the va¬
rious manner of weaving them ; viz. for woollens, filks,
linens, cottons, cloths of gold, and other works, as
tapeflry, ribbands, ftockings, &c. divers of which will
Jbe found under their proper heads. See Weaving.
The weaver’s loom-engine, otherwife called the
Dutch loom-engine, was brought into ufe from Hol¬
land to London, in or about the year 1676.
Heir-LeoM, in Law. See HEiR-Loom.
Loom, at fea. If a fhip appears big, when at a
diftance, they fay (lie looms, or appears a great fail:
the term is alfo ufed to denote the indiftincl appear¬
ance of any other dillant objeds.
Loou-ga/e, at fea, a gentle eafy gale of w:ind, in
which a (hip can carry her top-fails a-trip.
LOOP, in the iron works, is a part of a fow or
block of caft iron broken or melted off from the reft,
and prepared for the forge or hammer. The ufual
method is, to break off the loop of about three quar¬
ters of a hundred wreight. This loop they take up
with their flinging-tongs, and beat it wdth iron fledges
upon an iron plate near the fire, that fo it may not
fall to pieces, but be in a condition to be carried un¬
der the hammer. It is then placed under the hammer,
and a little water being drawn to make the hammer
move but foftly, it is beat very gently, and by this
means the drofs and foulnefs are forced off; and after
this they draw more and more water by degrees, and
beat it more and more till they bring it to a four-fquare
mafs, of about twm feet long, which they call a bloom.
LOOPING, in Metallurgy, a word ufed by the
miners of fome counties of England, to exprefs the
running together of the matter of an ore into a mafs,
in the roafting or firft burning, intended only to cal¬
cine it fo far as to make it fit for powdering. This
accident, which gives the miners fome trouble, is ge¬
nerally owing to the continuing the fire too long in
this procefs.
LOOSE-strife. See Lysimachia, Botany Index.
LOPEZ de vega. See Vega.
Lofez, or Indian Root, in the Materia Medico.
The plant to which this article belongs is unknown.
Neither the woody nor cortical part of the root has
any remarkable fenfible quality. A flight bitternefs
is perceptible ; and it is recommended, like fimarouba,
in diarrhoeas even of the colliquative kind, in half¬
dram dofes four times a-day. Little of this root has
been brought to Europe : but fome of thole wdio have
had an opportunity of employing it, fpeak in very high
terms of the effedls obtained from it.
LOPHLUS, Fishing-frog, Toadjijh, or Sea-devil;
a genus of the branchioftegous order of fifties. See Ich¬
thyology Index.
LORANTHUS, a genus of plants belonging to the
bexandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 48th order, slggregatce. See Botany Index.
LGRARH, among the Romans, officers whofe
bufinefs it was, with whips and fcourges, to compel
the gladiators to engage. The lorarii alfo punifhed (laves
who difobeyed their maflers.
LORD, a title of honour given to thofe who are
pcble either by birth or creation. In this fenfe, it
I
amounts to much the fame as peer of the realm, cr Lord.
lord of parliament. The title is by courtefy alio given
to all the fons of dukes and marquifes, and to the
eldeft fons of earls : and it is alfo a title of honour be¬
llowed on thofe who are honourable by their employ¬
ments ; as lord advocate, lord chamberlain, lord chan¬
cellor, Isfc. The word is Saxon, but abbreviated from
two fyllables into one; for it was originally Hlaford,
which by dropping the afpiration became Laford,
and afterwards by contiadlion Lord. “ The etymo¬
logy of the word (fays J. Coates) is well worth ob-
ferving ; for it was compofed of hlaf “ a loaf of
bread,” and ford “ to give or afford fo that Hla¬
ford, now Lord, implies “ a giver of bread j” becaufe,
in thofe ages, fuch great men kept extraordinary
houfes, and fed all the poor ; for wdiich reafon they
were called givers of bread, a thing now much out of
date, great men being fond of letaining the title, but
few regarding the pradlice for which it was firit given.
See Lady.
Houfe of Lords, one of the three eftates of parlia¬
ment, and compofed of the Lords Spiritual and Tem¬
poral.
1. The Spiritual Lords confiftof two archbilhops and
24 bifhops; and, at the diffolution of monafteries by
Henry VIII. confifted likewife of 26 mitred abbots
and tw*o priors; a very confiderable body, and in
thofe times equal in number to the temporal nobility.
All thefe hold, or are fuppofed to hold, certain ancient
baronies under the king : for William the Conqueror
thought proper to change the fpiritual tenor of frank¬
almoign or free alms, under which the bilhops held
their lands during the Saxon government, into the
feodal or Norman tenure by barony ; which fubjedbed
their eftates to all civil charges and affeffments, from
which they were before exempt ; and in right of fuc-
ceffion to thofe baronies, w'hich were unalienable from
their refpedlive dignities, the biftiops and abbots wrere
allowed their feats in the houfe of lords. But though
thefe lords fpiritual are in the eye of the law' a diftindl
eftate from the lords temporal, and are fo diftinguiftied
in moft of our ads of parliament ; yet in pradice they
are ufually blended together under the name ot the lords:
they intermix in their votes, and the majority of fuch
intermixture joins both eftates. And from this want
of a feparate affembly, and feparate negative of the
prelates, fome waiters have argued very cogently, that
the lords fpiritual and temporal are now in reality only
one eftate : which is unqueftionably true in every ef-
fedual fenfe, though the ancient diitindion between
them (fill nominally continues. For if a bill ftiould
pafs their houfe, there is no doubt of its validity,
though every lord fpiritual (hould vote againft it; of
which Selden and Sir Edward C’oke give many in-
ftances : as, on the other hand, doubtlefs it would be
equally good, if the lords temporal prefent were infe¬
rior to the biihops in number, and every one of thofe
temporal lords gave his vote to rejed the bill; though
this Sir Edward Coke feems to doubt of.
2. The Temporal Lords confilt of all the peers of the
realm (the biftiops not being in ftridnefs held to be
fuch, but merely lords of parliament), by whatever
title of nobility diitinguifhed ; dukes, marquifes, earls,
vifeounts or barons *. Some of thefe fit by deicont, * ^go-
as do all ancient peers ; fome by creation, as do all bility.
new
LOR [ 233 ] LOR
Lord. new made ones j others, fince the union with Scotland,
“““'v by election, which is the cafe of the 16 peers who
reprefent the body of the Scots nobility. Their num¬
ber is indefinite, and may be increafed at will by the
power of the crown : and once, in the reign of Queen
Anne, there was an inifance of creating no lefs than
12 together; in contemplation of which, in the reign
of King George I. a bill paffed the houfe of lords, and
was countenanced by the then miniftry, for limiting
the number of the peerage. This wras thought by
fome to prcmife a great acquifition to the conftitution,
by reftraining the prerogative from gaining the afcen-
dant in that auguft alterably, by pouring in at plea-
fure an unlimited number of neiv-created lords. But
the bill wjas ill relilhed, and mifcarried in the houfe of
commons, whofe leading members were then defirous
to keep the avenues to the other houfe as open and eafy
as poffible.
The dillindlion of ranks and honours is necefiary in
every w7ell governed ftate : in order to reward fuch as
are eminent for their fervices to the public, in a manner
the moft delirable to individuals, and yet without burden
to the community ; exciting thereby an ambitious yet
laudable ardour and generous emulation in others. And
emulation, or virtuous ambition, is a fpring of aftion
which, however dangerous or invidious in a mere repu¬
blic or under a defpotic fway, will certainly be attended
with good effects under a free monarchy ; tvhere, with-
out deftroying its exiftence, its exceffes may be conti¬
nually reftrained by that fuperior power from which
all honour is derived. Such a fpirit, when nationally
diffufed, gives life and vigour to the community ; it
fets all the wheels of government in motion, which,
under a wife regulator, may be direfted to any bene-
# ficial purpofe ; and thereby every individual may be
made fubfervient to the public good, wdiile he prin¬
cipally means to promote his own particular views.
A body of nobility is alfo more particularly neceffary
in our mixed and compounded conftitution, in order to
fupport the rights of both the crown and the people,
by forming a barrier to withftand the encroachments
of both. It creates and preferves that gradual fcale
of dignity which proceeds from the peafant to the
prince ; riling like a pyramid from a broad founda¬
tion, and diminilhing to a point as it rifes. It is this
afeending and contrafling proportion that adds liabi¬
lity to any government ; for when the departure is
fudden from one extreme to another, wTe may pro¬
nounce that ftate to be precarious. The nobility
therefore are the pillars, which are reared from
among the people, more immediately to fupport the
throne ; and, if that falls, they muft alfo be buried
under its ruins. Accordingly, when in the laft cen¬
tury the commons had determined to extirpate mo¬
narchy, they alfo voted the houfe of lords to be ufelefs
and dangerous. And fince titles of nobility are thus
expedient in the ftate, it is allb expedient that their
owners Ihould form an independent and feparate
branch of the legiflature. If they were confounded
wdth the mafs of the people, and like them had only
a vote in elefling reprefentatives, their privileges would
foon be borne down and overwhelmed by the popular
torrent, which, would efteffually level all diftinfHons.
It is therefore highly neceffary that the body of nobles
Ihould have a diftinft affemblv, diftinfl deliberations,
Vol. XII. Part I.
and diftincl powers from the commons. See alfo J-ord
King, Nobility, Parliament, Commons, and r
’ Lorcttc
Commonalty. t ^ 
As to the peculiar laws and cuftoms relating to the
houfe of lords : One very ancient privilege is that de¬
clared by the charter of the foreft, confirmed in parlia¬
ment 9 Hen. III. ; viz. that every lord fpiritual or
temporal fummoned to parliament, and pafting through
the king’s forefts, may, both in going and returning,
kill one or two of the king’s deer without warrant ;
in view of the forefter if he be prelent^ or on bloxving
a horn if he be abfent ; that he may not feem to take
the king’s venifon by Health.
In the next place, they have a right to be attended,
and conftantly are, by the judges of the court of
king’s bench and common pleas, and fuch of the
barons of the exchequer as are of the degree of the
coif, or have been made ferjeants at law ; asTikewffe
by the king’s learned counfel, being ferjeants, and by
the mailers of the court of chancery ; for their ad¬
vice in point of law, and for the greater dignity of
their proceedings. The fecretaries of ftate, wbth the
attorney and folicitor general, were alfo ufed to attend
the houfe of peers, and have to this day (together
with the judges, &lc.) their regular writs of fummons
iffued out at the beginning of every parliament, ad trac-
tandum et conjilium impendendum, though not ad confen-
tienduju, but, whenever of late years they have been
members of the houfe of commons, their attendance
here hath fallen into difufe.
Another privilege is, that every peer, by licenfe
obtained from the king, may make another lord of
parliament his proxy, to vote for him in his abfence :
A privilege, which a member of the other houfe can
by no means have, as he is himfelf but a proxy for a
multitude of other people.
Each peer has alfo a right, by leave of the houfe,
when a vote paffes contrary to his fentiments, to en¬
ter his diffent on the journals of the houfe, with the
reafons for fuch diffent ; which is ufually ftyled his
proteft.
All bills likewife, that may in their confequences any
way affedl the rights of the peerage, are by the cuftom
of parliament to have their firft rife and beginning in
the houfe of peers, and to fuffer no changes or amend¬
ments in the houfe of commons.
There is alfo one ftatute peculiarly relative to the
houfe of lords; 6 Ann. c. 23. which regulates the
eledlion of the 16 reprefentative pikers of North Britain,
in confequence of the 2 2d and 23d articles of the Union :
and for that purpofe preferibes the oaths, See. to be
taken by the eleftors ; diredls the mode of balloting ;
prohibits the peers electing from being attended in an
unufual manner ; and exprefsly provides, that no other
matter (hall be treated of in that affembly, fave only
the eledlion, on pain of incurring a praemunire. See
alfo the articles Nobility and Peers.
LORDOSIS, (of bent inwards), in the me¬
dical waitings, a name given to a diftempered ftate of
the fpine, in which it is bent inwrards, or towards the
anterior parts. It is ufed in oppofition to gibbous, or
hump-backed. See Surgery.
LORETTO, a town of Italy, in the Marca or
Marche of Ancona, with a biftiop’s fee. It is fmall
but fortified ; and contains the famous cafa fanta, or
G g holy
\
LOR
Loretto. holy chapel, fo much vifited by pilgrims.
pg]^ according to the legend, was originally a fmall
houfe in Nazareth, inhabited by the virgin Mary, in
which fhe was fainted by the angel, and where lire
bred our Saviour. After their deaths, it was held in
great veneration by all believers in Jefus, and at length
confecrated into a chapel, and dedicated to the Virgin •,
upon which occafion St Luke made that identical
image, which is Hill preferred here, and dignified with
the name of our Lady of Loretto. This fandlified
edifice was allowed to fojourn in Galilee as long as that
didrift was inhabited by Chridians j but when infidels
got pofTeflion of the country, a band of angels, to fave
it from pollution, took it in their arms, and conveyed
it from Nazareth to a .caftle in Dalmatia. This faft
might have been called in quedion by incredulous
people, had it been performed in a fecret manner ;
but, that it might be manifed to the mod fhort-fighted
fpeftator, and evident to all who were not perleftly
■deaf as well as blind, a blaze of celedial light, and a
concert of divine mufic, accompanied it during the
whole journey ; befides, wdien'the angels, to red them-
felves, fet it down in a little wood near the road, all
the trees of the fored bowed their heads to the ground,
and continued in that refpeftful podure as long as the
facred chapel remained among them. But not having
been entertained with fuitable refpeft at the cadle above
mentioned, the dime indefatigable angels carried it over
the fea, and placed it in a field belonging to a noble
lady called Lauretta, from whom the chapel takes its
name. This field happened unfortunately to be fre¬
quented at that time by highwaymen and murderers:
a circumdance with which the angels undoubtedly were
not acquainted when they placed it there. After they
were better informed they removed it to the top of a
hill belonging to twm brothers, where they imagined
it would be perfeftly fecure from the dangers of rob¬
bery or aflaffination ■, but the two brothers, the pro¬
prietors of the ground, being equally enamoured of
their new vifitor, became jealous of each other, quar¬
relled, fought, and fell by mutual wounds. After
this fatal cataftrophe, the angels in waiting finally
moved the holy chapel to the eminence where it now
Hands, and has dood thefe 400 years, having lob all
relidr for travelling.
The facred chapel bands due eab and wed, at the
farther end of a large church of the mod durable done
of Idria, which has been built around it. This may
be conddered as the external covering, or as a kind
of great coat to the cafa Junta, which lias a fmaller
coat of more precious materials and workmandiip
nearer its body. This internal covering or cafe is of
the choiced marble, after a plan of San Savino’s, and
ornamented with baffb relievos, the workmandiip of
the bed fculptors which Italy could furnidi in the reign
of Leo X. The fubjeft of thefe baflb relievos are
the hidory of the Blefled Virgin, and other parts of
the Bible. The whole cafe is about 50 feet long, 30
in breadth, and the fame in height: but the real houfe
it felt is no more than 32 feet in length, 14 in breadth,
and at the fides about 18 feet in height; the centre
of the roof is four or five feet higher. The walls of
this little holy chapel are compofed of pieces of a
reduifh fubdance, of an oblong fquare diape, laid one
upon a' other, in the manner of brick. At fird fight, on
[ 234 ] l o K
This cha- a fuperficial view, thefe red-coloured oblong fubdances
appear to be nothing elfe than common Italian bricks ;
and, which is dill more extraordinary, on a fecond and
third view, with all podible attention, they dill have the
fame appearance. Travellers, however, are allured
with great earnednefs, that there is not a dngle par¬
ticle of brick in their whole compofition, being en¬
tirely of a done, which, though it cannot now be
found in Palebine, was formerly very common, parti¬
cularly in the neighbourhood of Nazareth.
The holy hou!e is divided within into two unequal
portions, by a kind of grate-work of filver. The di-
vifion towards the wed is about three fourths of the
whole ; that to the ead is called the SanBuanj. In
the larger dividon, which may be coniidered as the
main body of the houfe, the walls are left bare, to
fhow the true original fabric of Nazareth done ; for
they mud not be fuppofed to be bricks. At the
lower or wedern wall there is a window, the lame
through which the angel Gabriel entered at the An¬
nunciation. The architraves of this window are co¬
vered with filver. There are a great number of gold¬
en and filver lamps in this chapel ; one of the former,
a prefent from the republic of Venice, is faid to weigh
37 pounds, and fome of the filver lamps weigh from
1 20 to 130 pounds. At the upper end of the larged
room is an altar, but fo low, that from it you may
fee the famous image which Hands over the chimney
in the fmall room or fanftuary. Golden and filver
angels, of confiderable lize, kneel around her, fome
offering hearts of gold, enriched with diamonds, and
one an infant of pure gold. The wall of the fanc-
tuary is plated with filver, and adorned with cruci¬
fixes, precious dones, and votive gifts of various kinds.
The figure of the Virgin herfelf by no means corre-
fponds with the fine furniture of her houfe : She is a
little woman, about four feet in height, with the fea¬
tures and complexion of a negro. Of all the fculp¬
tors that ever exided, affuredly St Luke, by whom
this figure is faid to have been made, is the lead of a
datterer; and nothing can be a ftronger proof of the
Blelfed Virgin’s contempt for external beauty than
her being fatisfied with this reprefentation of her.
The figure of the infant Jefus, by St Luke, is of a piece
with that of the Virgin : he holds a large golden globe
in one hand, and the other is extended in the aft of
bleffing. Both figures have crowns on their heads,
enriched with diamonds : thefe were prefents from
Ann of Audria, queen of France. Both arms of the
Virgin are enclofed within her robes, and no part but
her face is to be feen *, her drefs is mod magnificent,
but in a wretched bad tade : this is not furprifing, for
die has no female attendant. She has particular
clothes for the dilferent feads held in honour of her,
and, which is not quite fo decent, is always dreffed
and undreffed by the prieds belonging to the chapel ;
her robes are ornamented with all kinds of precious
Lovetto.
dones down to the hem of her garment.
There is a fmall place behind the fanftuary, in
which are diown the chimney, and fome other furni¬
ture, which they pretend belonged to the Virgin when
die lived at Nazareth ; particularly a little earthen
porringer, out of which the infant ufed to eat. The
pilgrims bring rofaries, little crucifixes, and agnus
dei’s, which the obliging pried fhakes for half a mi¬
nute
LOR [ 2;
Loretto. nute in tins di(h j after which it is believed they ac-
“~~v ^ <juire the virtue of curing various difeafes, and prove
an excellent preventive of all temptations of Satan.
The gown which the image had on when the chapel
arrived from Nazareth is of red camblet, and carefully
kept in a glafs (brine.
Above 100 maffes are daily faid in this chapel, and
in the church in which it (lands. The jewels and
riches to be feen at any one time in the holy chapel
are of fmall value in comparifon of thofe in the trea-
fury, which is a large room adjoining to the veflry of
the great church. In the preflfes of this room are
kept thofe prefents which royal, noble, and rich bigots
of all ranks, have, by oppreding their fubjefts and
injuring their families, fent to this place. To enume¬
rate every particular would (ill volumes. They confilt
of various utenfils and other things in Silver and gold •,
as lamps, candlefticks, goblets, crowns, and crucifixes ;
lambs, eagles, faints, apoftles, angels, virgins, and
infants : then there are cameos, pearls, gems, and pre¬
cious (tones, of all kinds and in great numbers. What
is valued above all the other jewels is, the miraculous
pearl, wherein they affert that Nature has given a faith¬
ful delineation of the Virgin fitting on a cloud with
the infant Jefus in her arms. There was not room in
the prefles of the treafury to hold all the filver pieces
which had been prefented to the Virgin. Several other
prefles in the veflry are completely full. It is laid
that thofe pieces are occafionally melted down by his
holinefs for the ufe of the (late : and alio that the
moll precious of the jewels are picked out and fold
for the fame purpofe, falfe (tones being fuhftituted in
their room.
Pilgrimages to Loretto are not fo frequent with fo¬
reigners, or with Italians of fortune and difhnftion,
as formerly} nineteen out of twenty of thole who
make this journey now are poor people, who depend
for their maintenance on the charity they receive on
the road. To thofe who are in fuch a rank in life as
precludes them from availing themfelves of the cha¬
ritable infHtutions for the maintenance of pilgrims,
fuch journeys are attended with expence and inconve-
rdency ; and fathers and hufbands, in moderate or con¬
fined circumflances, are frequently brought to difagree-
able dilemmas, by the rath vows of going to Loretto
which their wives or daughters are apt to make on any
fuppofed deliverance from danger. To refufe, is con-
fidered by the whole neighbourhood as cruel, and even
impious ; and to grant, is often highly diftrefiing, par¬
ticularly to fuch hufbands as, from affeelion or any
other motives, do not choofe that their wives (hould
be long out of their fight. But the poor, who are
maintained during their whole journey, and have no¬
thing more than a bare maintenance to expefl from
their labour at home, to them a journey to Loretto
is a party of pleafure as well as devotion, and by much
the mod agreeable road they can take to heaven. The
greate't concourfe of pilgrims is at the feafons of Eader
and Whitfuntide. The rich travel in their carriages :
A greater number come on horfeback or on mules 5
or, what is dill more common, on afl'es. Great num¬
bers of females come in this manner, with a male
Triend walking by them as their guide and protettor :
but the greated number of both fexes are on foot.
The pilgrims on foot, as foon as they enter the fuburbs,
5 ] LOU
begin a hymn in honour of the Virgin, which they
continue till they reach the church. I he poorer fort
are received into an hofpital, where they have beu and
board for three days.
The only trade of Loretto c enfids of fofaries, cru¬
cifixes, little madonas, agnus dei’s, and medals,
which are manufactured here, and fold to pilgrims.
There are great numbers of (hops full of thefe com¬
modities, feme of them of a high price 5 but infinite¬
ly the greater pait are adapted to the purfes of the
buyers, and fold for a mere trifle. The evident po¬
verty of thofe manufacdurers and traders, and of the
inhabitants of this town in general, is a fufficient proof
that the reputation of our Lady of Loretto is greatly
on the decline.
In the great church which contains the holy chapel
are confeffionals, where the penitents from every coun¬
try of Europe may be confeffed in their own language,
priefls being always in waiting for that purpofe : each
of them has a long white rod in his hand, with which
he touches the heads of thofe to whom he thinks it
proper to give abfolution. They place themfelves on
their knees in groupes around the confeffional chair 5
and when the holy father has touched their heads with
the expiatory rod, they retire, freed from the burden
of their fins, and with renewed courage to begin a
frefh account.
In the fpacious area before this church there is an
elegant marble fountain, fupplied with water from an
adjoining hill by an aqueduft. Few even of the mod
inconliderable towns of Italy are without the ufeful
ornament of a public fountain. The embellilhments
of fculpture and architediure are employed with great
propriety on fuch works, which are continually in the
people’s view j the air is refreflied and the eye delight¬
ed by the dreams of water they pour forth ; a fight
peculiarly agreeable in a warm climate. In this area
there is alfo a datue of Sixtus V. in bronze. Over
the portal of the church itfelf is a datue of the Vir¬
gin ; and above the middle gate is a Latin infeription,
importing that within is the houfe of the mother of
God, in which the Word was made flefh. The gates
of the church are likevvife of bronze, embellifhed with
baflcK relievos of admirable workmanlhip : the fubjefls
taken partly from the Old and partly from the New
Tedament, and divided into different compartments.
As the gates of this church are dmt at noon, the pil¬
grims who arrive after that time can get no nearer the
fanta cafa than thefe gates, which are by this means
fometimes expofed to the fird violence of that holy
ardour which was defigned for the chapel itfelf. All
the fculpture upon the gates which is within reach of
the mouths of thofe zealots, is in fome degree effaced
by their kiffes.
There are alfo feveral paintings to be feen here,
fome of which are highly edeemed, particularly two
in the treafury. The fubjeid of one of thefe is the
Virgin’s Nativity, by Annibal Caracci •, and of the
other, a Holy Family by Raphael. There are fome
others of confiderable merit which ornament the altars
of the great church. Thefe altars, or little chapels,
of which this fabric contains a great number, are lined
with marble and embellifiied by fculpture •, but nothing
within this church intereds a traveller of fenfibility fo
much as the iron grates before thofe chapels, which
G g 2 were
Loretto.
L O R [ 2.
were made of the fetters and chains of the Chriftian
fiave'i, ’.vho were freed from bondage by the glorious
vidlory of Lepanto.
The palace where the governor refides flands near
the church, and the ecclefiaitics who are employed in
it lodge in the fame palace, where they receive the
pilgrims of high diftindlion. The environs of this
town are very agreeable, and in fine weather the high
mountains of Croatia may be feen from hence. It is
feated on a mountain, in E. Long. 13. 50. N. Eat.
43- 3 4*
LORICA, was a cuirafs, brigantine, or coat of
mall, in ufe among the Roman foldiers. It was gene¬
rally made of leather, and is fuppofed to be derived
from lorum.—The loricae were fet with plates of metal
in various forms ; fometimes in hooks or rings like a
chain, fometin.es like feathers, and fometimes like the
feales of ferpents or fifhes, to which plates of gold
were often added. There were other lighter cuirafies
confiding only of many folds of linen cloth, or of flax
made lliong enough to refill weapons. Such foldiers
as were rated under 1000 drachms, inftead of the lorica
now deferibed, wore a peBorale.—The Roman lorica
was made like a fliirt, and defended the wearer both
before and behind, but was fo contrived that the back
part could be occafionaliy feparated from the front.
Some of the loricae were made of cords of hemp or flax,
clofe fet together ; whence they are called thoraces, bi-
hces, tri/ices, &c. from the number of the cords fixed
one upon another ; but thefe were ufed rather in hunt¬
ing than in the field of battle.
LORIS, in Zoology. See Lemur, Mammalia
Index.
LORIMERS, one of the companies of London,
that, make bits for bridles, fpurs, and fuch like fmall
iron ware. They are mentioned in ftatute 1 Rich. II.
c. 1 2.—The word feems derived from the Latin word
lorum, “ a thong.”
LORME, Philibert de, one of the moft celebrat¬
ed architedls in the 16th century, was born at Lyons.
Queen Catherine de Medicis gave him the fuperintend-
ance of buildings ; and he had the direction of thofe of
the Louvre, the Thuilleries, the caflle of St Anet,
St Germains, and other edifices erefted by her orders.
He alfo wrote feveral books on architeflure. He died
about the year 1577.
LORNE, a divifion of Argylllhire in Scotland,
which gives the title of marquis to the duke of Argyll.
It extends above 30 miles in length from north to
Ibjuth, and about nine at its utmoft breadth 5 bounded
on the eaft by Braidalbin •, on the welt by the iflands j
on the north, by Lochaber ; and is divided from Knap-
dale on the fouth by Loch Etive, on the banks of
which flands the caftle of Bergomarn, wherein the
courts of juflice wTere anciently held. This diftri£I,
abounding with lakes, is the moft pleafant and fertile
part of Argyllfliire, producing plenty of oats and
barley. It once belonged to the ancient family of
Macdougal, ftill refiding on the fpot *, but devolved to
the lords of Argyll in confequence of a marriage with
the heirefs, at that time a branch of the Stuart family.
The chief place of note in this diftrift is the caftle of
Dunftaffnage, a feat of the Scortilh kings previous to
the conqueft of the Pi61s in 843 by Kenneth II. In
this place was long prelerved the famous Hone, the pal-
6 ] L O R
ladium of North Britain ; brought, fays legend, out of Lon
Spain, where it was firft ufed as a feat of juilice by Ga- '“""“•v
thelus, coeval with Mofes. It continued here as the
coronation chair till the reign of Kenneth II. who re¬
moved it to Scone, in order to fecure his reign j for,
according to the infeription,
\ A7z fallal fat inn, Scoti quocunyue locatum,
Invenient lapidem, regnare teneantur ibidem.
Some of the ancient regalia were preferved till the pre-
fent century, when the keeper’s fervants, during his
infirm years, embezzled them for the filver ornaments *,
and left only a bhttleaxe, nine feet long, of beautiful
workmanftnp, and ornamented with filver.
The caftle is fquare ; the infide only 87 feet ; partly
ruinous, partly habitable. At three of the corners
are round towers ; one of them proje6ls very little.
The entrance is towards the fea at prefent by a ftair-
cafe, in old times probably by a drawbridge, which
fell from a little gateway. The mafonry appears verv
ancient 5 the tops battlemented. This pile is feated on
a rock at the mouth of Loch Etive, whofe waters'
expand within to a beautiful bay, where ftiips may
fafely ride in all weather. Of this building, the found¬
er of which is unknown, nothing remains except the
outer walls, which, though rooflefs, are ftill in good
order j and within which fome buildings have been
eredled, which ferve as the refidence of the laird.
The duke of Argyll is hereditary keeper under the
crown.— At a fmall diftance from the caftle is a ruined
chapel, once an elegant building •, and at one end an
enclofure, a family cemetery. Oppofite to thefe is a
high precipice, ending abrupt, and turning fuddenly
toward the fouth-eaft. A perfon concealed in the re-
cefs of the rock, a little beyond the angle, furprifes
friends ftationed at fome diftance beneath the precipice
with a very remarkable echo of any word, or even fen-
tence, he pronounces j which reaches the laft diftindl
and unbroken. The repetition is Angle, but remarkably
clear.
In 1307, this caftle was poffefled by Alexander
Macdougal lord of Argyll, a friend to the Englifti :
but was that year reduced by Robert Bruce, when
Macdougal fued for peace with that prince, and was re¬
ceived into favour.
We find, about the year 1455, this to have been a
refidence of the lords of the ifles j for here James laft
earl of Douglas, after his defeat in Annandale, fled to
Donald, the Regulus of the time, and prevailed on him
to take arms and carry on a plundering war againft his
monarch James II.
The fituation of this regal feat was calculated for
pleafure as well as ftrength. The views of mountains,
valleys, waters, and iflands, are delightful. On the
north fide of Loch Etive flood the town of Berego-
nium, fuppofed to have been the capital of the Weft
Highlands. It feems from certain mounds, excava¬
tions, and other appearances, to have been a ftrong
fortrefs, to prevent invafion, or to fecure a retreat, as
occafions might require. On the bank of the fame
loch is the fite of Ardchattan, a priory of monks of
Vallifcaullium in Burgundy, founded in 1230 by Do¬
nald Maccoul, anceftor of the Macdougals of Lome.
Here Robert Bruce, who remained mailer of this country
before he got entire pofietlion of Scotland, held a par¬
liament
LOT [ 237 ] LOT
, liaraent or council.—The country afcounds in Druidical,
Danilli, and other monuments.
LORRAIN, a fovereign Rate of Europe, bounded
on the north by Luxemburg and the archbilhopric of
Treves, on the eaft by A)face and the duchy of Deux
Fonts, on the fouth by Tranche Comte, and on the
wed. by Champagne and the duchy of Barr. It is about
loo miles in length, and 75 in breadth j and abounds
in all forts of corn, wine, hemp, flax, rape-feed, game
and fifh, with which it carries on fome trade, and in
general all the neceffaries of life. There are fine mea-
doivs and large forefts, with mines of iron, filver, and
copper, as alio fait pits. There are a great number of
rivers ; of which the principal are the Maefe or Meufe,
the Mofelle, the Scille, the Meure, and the Sarre. It
is divided into three parts ; the duchy of Lorrain, pro¬
perly fo called, which was heretofore a fovereign ftate ;
the duchy of Barr, which formerly belonged to the
dukes of Lorrain, but afterwards came under the go¬
vernment of Trance •, and the third comprehends the
three bifhoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, which
have belonged to France ever fince the year 1552. In
1733, the emperor of Germany being at war with
France, this lafl got polleffion of the duchy of Lor¬
rain : and when there was a peace made in 1735, it
was agreed, that Staniflaus king of Poland, father-in-
law to the king of France, fhould poffefs thefe duchies,
and that after his death they fhould be united for ever
to the crown of France. It was alfo then agreed, that
Francis Stephen, duke of Lorrain, and the emperor’s
fon-in-law, fhould have the grand duchy of Tufcany as
an equivalent for Lorrain. After the death of the great
duke of Tufcany, in 1737, King Staniflaus and the
duke of Lorrain took polfellion of their refpeflive do¬
minions, and the ceffion was confirmed and guaran¬
teed by a treaty in 1738. The trade confifts in corn
and linen cloth. Nanci is the capital town.
Lorrain, Robert /<?, an eminent fculptor, born at
Paris in 1666. From his infancy, he made fo rapid a
progrefs in the art of defigning, that at the age of 18
the celebrated Girardon intrulled him with the care of
teaching his children and correfling his difciples. He
committed to him alfo, in conjunffion with Noulifibn,
the execution of the famous tomb of Cardinal Richelieu
in the Sorbonne, and his own tomb at St Landres in
Paris. On his return from Rome, he finilhed feveral
pieces at Marfeilles, which had been left' imperfefl by
the death of M. Puget. He was received into the aca¬
demy of fculpture in 1701. ~H\s chef d'auvre \s Ga-
latea, a work univerfally admired. Lorrain afterwards
made a Bacchus for the gardens at Verfailles, a Faun
for thofe of Marly ; and feveral bronzes, among which
is an Andromeda; all in an excellent tafle. This ar-
tift fucceeded chiefly in heads •, and more particularly
in that of young girls, which he performed with incom¬
parable delicacy and truth.
Lorrain, Claude. See Claude.
L01 EN, John, a good landfcape painter of the
Englifh fchool j though a native of Switzerland. His
tafte led him to folemn and dreary feenes, as land-
ftorms accompanied with fhowers of rain, &c. and he
feldom omitted to introduce oak trees in his profpefls :
his landfcapes are generally large ; and he painted with
nature, truth, and force. But the effedt of his compo-
fition had been much greater if he had been lefs cold
in his colouring : for the judicious eye is not pleafed
with the darkilh tint that predominates in it. He died
in London about 1681.
LOTHIAN, a name given to three counties of
Scotland, viz. Haddingtonlhire, Edinburghfhire, ami
Linlithgowfhire) otherwife called Eqjly Mid, and Wef,
Lothian s..
Lothian.
1. Ealt Lothian, or Haddingtonlhire, is bounded on
the north-weft by the frith of Forth ; and on the' eaft by
the German fea ; on the fouth-eall by Berwicklhire ;
and on the weft by the county of Edinburgh. It ex¬
tends about 25 miles from eaft to weft, and where broad-
eft, nearly 15 from north to fouth. The coaft, advan¬
cing northward into the frith, forms an irregular curve.
—This is one of the molt fruitful counties in Scotland,
producing great quantities of wheat and all forts of
grain, well watered, and plentifully fupplied with fiih,
fowl, fuel, and all the neceffaries of life. It abounds
with towns, villages, and farms, interfperfed with a
great number of agreeable houfes belonging to perfons
of rank and fortune. For cultivation, populoufnefs, and
fertility, this {hire may vie with any tract of land in the
iiland of Great Britain. Befide fanning, which is fuc-
cefsfully carried on, the people towards the fea-coaft
employ themfelves in the fifnery, falt-making, and in
foreign trade ; and fome of the more inland inhabitants
engage in the linen and woollen manufactures. Lime-
ftone and coal are found in molt parts of the county,
and great numbers of Iheep are fed on the hills of Larri-
mermuir.
2. Edinburghfhire, or Mid Lothian, is about 35
miles long, but varies in its breadth in different places
from five to 16 miles. It is bounded on the eaft by
Haddingtonfhire ; on the weft by the fliire of Linlith¬
gow *, on the fouth, by Tweeddale or Peeblesfliire •,
and on the north, by part of Weft Lothian and the
frith of Forth. The afpect of the country is in general
level and pleafant, interfperfed with a few hills, that
help to exhibit agreealsle profpe&s. It is well watered
with rivers, and fhaded with woods. It produces plenty
of coal, limeftone, a foft black marble, and fome cop¬
per ore. The foil, of itlelf fertile, is finely cultivated,
and yields as plentiful harvefts of excellent wheat as are
found in any part of Great Britain. The whole fhire is
interfperfed with noble houfes and plantations belonging
to noblemen and gentlemen of fortune. The farmers,
in general, are Ikilful and wealthy. The country is
well inhabited, and prefents us with a good number of
towns and populous villages. Along the fea coaft the
common people fubfift by fittiing, and traffic in coals
and fait, and fome few carry on a fmuggling com¬
merce. Thofe in the inland are employed in farming,
and fome branches of the weaving manufacture. Edin¬
burgh is a county within itfelf.
3. The (hire of Linlithgow, or Weft Lothian, is
bounded on the north by the frith of Forth. The final!
river Almond divides it from Edinburghlltire on the
eaft. On the fouth-weft it joins the county of Lanark 5
and on the weft, it is parted from Stirlinglhire by Avon,
a finall river. Its form, though irregular, approaches
to a parallelogram. It meafures from north-eaft to
fouth-weft, nearly 20 miles. Its breadth, except on.
the fhore of the frith, does not exceed 12.—-The coun-
tryc
LOT [238
Lotion try is pleafarit and fertile, abounding with corn and
j! padurage. Here is found plenty of coal, limeftone,
.,h ■■ and lead ore ; nay, in the reign of James VI. it produ¬
ced a rich mine of lilver.
LOTION is, ftriffly fpeaking, fuch wafiling as con¬
cerns beautifying the fkin, by cleanfing it of thofe de¬
formities which a dillempered blood throws upon it.
Medicines of this kind, however, are for the mod part
infignificant, and iometimes very dangerous; the only
proper method of treating thefe diforders is, by admini-
ilering fuch medicines as tend to correct the morbid
Ifate of the conftitution from whence they arife.
Lotiok, in Pharmacy, denotes a preparation of me¬
dicines, by wafhing them in ibme liquid, either made
very light, fo as to take away only the dregs •, or fharp,
lb as to penetrate them, in order to clear them of fome
fait, or corrofive fpirit, as is done to antimony, precipi¬
tates, magifteries, &tc. or intended to take away fome
foulnefs or ill quality, or to communicate fome good one.J
LOTOPHAGI, in Ancient Geography, a people of
the Regio Syrtica (fo called from their living on the
lotus) ; inhabiting between the two Syrtes from the Ci-
nyphus to the Triton. The lotus was faid to be a food
fo lufcious, as to make Itrangers forget their native
country.- A fweet wine was expreffcd from it, which
did not keep above ten days, (Pliny).
Lotophagi of Homer. See Meninx.
LOTTERY, a kind of public game at hazard, fre¬
quent in Britain, France, and Holland, in order to raife
money for the fervice of the ftate ; being appointed with
us by the authority of parliament, and managed by
commiffioners appointed by the lords of the treafury for
that purpofe. It confifts of feveral numbers of blanks
and prizes, which are drawn out of wheels, one of
which contains the numbers, and the other the corre-
fponding blanks or prizes.
The Romans invented lotteries to enliven their Sa¬
turnalia. This feftival began by the ditfribution of
tickets which gained fome prize. Auguftus made
lotteries which confilled of things of little value;
but Nero eftablilhed fome for the people, in which
1000 tickets were diilributed daily, and feveral of
thofe who were favoured by Fortune got rich by them.
Heliogabalas invented fome very fingular : the prizes
were either of great value or of none at all ; one gain¬
ed a prize of fix flaves, and another of fix flies 5 fome
got valuable vales, and others vafes of common earth.
A lottery of this kind exhibited an excellent picture of
the inequality with which Fortune difiributes her fa¬
vours.
The firfl: Englifli lottery we find mentioned in hiftory
was drawn A. D. 1569. It confided of 40,000 lots,
at r os. each lot: the prizes were plate ; and the profits
were to go towards repairing the havens of this king¬
dom. It was drawn at the weft door of St Paul’s ca¬
thedral. The drawing began on the nth of January
1569, and continued inceffantly, day and night, till the
6th of May following j as Maitland, from Stowe, in¬
forms us in his hiftory, vol. i. p. 2^7. There were
then only three lottery offices in London. The propo-
fals for 'his lottery were publifhed in the years 1567
and 1568. It was at firft intended to have been drawn
at the houfe of Mr Dericke, her majefty’s fervant, i. e.
her jeweller, but was afterwards drawn as above men¬
tioned.
] LOT
DrRawlinfon (bowed the Antiquarian Society, 1748, Lottery,
A propofal for a very rich lotteiy, general without Lol:us-
any blankes, contayning a great number of good prizes,
as well of redy money as of plate and certain forts of
merchandizes, having been valued and prifed by the
commandment of the queene’s moft excellent majellie’s
order, to the entent that fuch commodities as may
chance to arife thereof after the charges borne may be
converted towards the reparations of the havens and
ftrength of the realme, and towards fuch other public
good workes. The number of lotts (hall be foure hun¬
dred thoufand, and no more •, and every lott (hall be
the fum of tenne (hillings rterling, and no more. To
be filled by the feaft of St Bartholomew. The (hew of
prifes are to be feen in Cheapfide, at the fign of the
Queene’s Armes, the houfe of Mr Dericke, goldfmith,
fervant to the queene. Some other orders about it in
1567-8. Printed by Hen. Bynneyman.”
“ In the year 1612, King James, in fpecial favour
for the prefent plantation of Engliih colonies in Virgi¬
nia, granted a lottery, to be held at the weft end of St
Paul’s j whereof one Thomas Sharplys, a taylor of
London, had the chief prize, which was 4000 crowns
in fair plate.” Baker’s Chronicle.
In the reign of Queen Anne, it was thought necef-
fary to fupprefs lotteries, as nuifances to the public.
Since that time, however, they have been licenfed by
an aft of parliament, under various regulations. The
aft palled in 1778 reftrains any perfon from keeping an
office for the fale of tickets, (hares, or chances, or for
buying, felling, enfuring, or regiftering, without a li-
cenfe ; for which licenfe each office-keeper muft pay
50I. to continue in force for one year, and the produce
to be applied towards defraying the expences of the lot¬
tery. And no perfon is allowed to fell any (hare or
chance lefs than a fixteenth, on the penalty of 50I.
All tickets divided into (hares or chances are to be de-
pofited in an office, to be eftablifhed in London by the
commiffioners of the treafury, who are to appoint a
perfon to conduft the bufinefs thereof; and all (hares
are to be damped by the faid officer, who is to give a
receipt for every ticket depofited with him. The num¬
bers of all tickets fo depofited are to be entered in a
book, with tiie names of the owners, and the number’
of (hares into which they are divided ; and twopence
for each (hare is to be paid to the officer on depofiting
fuch tickets, who is therewith to pay all expences inci¬
dent to the office. All tickets depofited in the office
are to remain there three days after the drawing. And
any perfon keeping an office, or felling (hares, or who
(hall publifti any fcheme for receiving moneys in confi-
deration of any intereft to be granted in any ticket in
the faid lottery, &c. without being in poffellion of fuch
ticket, (hall forfeit 500I. and fuffer three months impri-
fonment. And no bufinefs is to be tranfafted at any
of the oifices after eight in the evening, except on the
evening of the Saturday preceding the drawing. No
perfon is to keep any office for the fale of tickets, See.
in Oxford or Cambridge, on penalty of 20I. Before
this regulating ftatute took place, there were upwards
of 400 lottery offices in and about London only ; but
the whole number afterwards, for all Britain, as ap¬
peared by the lift publilhcd by authority, ^mounted to
no more than 5 i.
LOTUS, or eird’s-foot trefoil-, a genus of
plants
L O V L 239 ] L O V
plants belonging to the diadelphia clafs j and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 3 2J order, Papilionacece.
  , See Botany Index.
Lotus of Homer. See Diospyros,")
Egyptian Lotus. See Nymphtea, [Botany
Libyan Lotus. See RhamnOS, [ Index.
LOVAGR. See Ligusticum, J
LOVE, in a large fenfe of the word, denotes all
thofe affefb'ons of the pleafing kind which objefts and
incidents raiie in us ; thus we are faid to love not only
intelligent agents of morally good difpofitions, but alfo
fenfual pleafures, riches, and honours. But
Love, in its ufual and more appropriate lignification,
may be defined, “ that affedfion which, being com¬
pounded of animal defire, cfteem, and benevolence, be¬
comes the bond of attachment and union between indi¬
viduals of the different fexes ; and makes them feel in
the fociety of each other a fpecies of happinefs which
they experience no where elfe.” We call it an afcc-
twn rather than a pajjion, becaufe it involves a defire of
the happinefs of its objedt : And that its conflituent
parts are thofe wdiich have been juft enumerated, we
fhall firft endeavour to prove, and then proceed to trace
its rife and progrcfs from a felfifh appetite to a generous
fentiment.
Animal defire is the adhial energy of the fenfual ap-
pietite : and that it is an eflential part of the complex
aftedh’on, which is properly called love, is apparent
from this confideration, that though a man may have
fentiments of efteem and benevolence towards women
who are both old and ugly, he never fuppofes himfelf
to be in love of any woman, to whom he feels not the
fenfual appetite to have a ftronger tendency than to
other individuals of her fex. On the other hand, that
animal defire alone cannot be called the aftedlion of love
is evident ; becaufe he who gratifies fuch a defire with¬
out efteeming its objedf, and wifhing to communicate
at the fame time that he receives enjoyment, loves not
the woman, but himfelf. Mere animal defire has nothing
in view but the fpecies and the fex of its object; and
before it make a feledtion, it muft be combined wdth
fentiments very different from itfelf. The firft fenti¬
ment with which it is combined, and by wdrich a man
is induced to prefer one woman to another, feems to
be that by vrhich we are delighted with gracefulnefs
of perfon, regularity of features, and beauty of com¬
plexion. It is not indeed to be denied that there is
Something irrefiftible in female beauty. The moft fe-
vere will not pretend that they do not feel an imme¬
diate prepofteftion in favour of a handfome wmman :
but this prepofleffion, even when combined with ani¬
mal. defire, does not conftitute the wdrole of that af-
feflion which is called love. Savages feel the influ¬
ence of the fenfual appetite, and it is extremely pro¬
bable that they have fome ideas of beauty ; but among
lavages the affeClion of love is feldom felt. Even among
the lower orders in civil fociety it feems to be a very
grofs paffion, and to have in it more of the felfifhnefs
of appetite than of the generofity of efteem. To
thefe obfervations many exceptions will no doubt be love,
found (a) : but we fpeak of favages in general, and 0f
the great body of the labouring poor, who in the choice
of their mates do not ftudy—who indeed are incapable
°f ftudying, that reefitude of mind, and thofe delicacies
of fentiment, without which neither man nor woman
can deferve to be efteemed.
^In the favage ftate, and even in the firft ftages of
lennement, the bond of union betw7een the fexes Ifecnrs
to confitf of nothing more than mere animal defire
and inftindHve tendernefs for their infant progeny.
I he former impels them to unite for the propagation
of the fpecies 5 and the latter preferves the union, till
the childien, who aie the fruit of it, be able to provide
for their owm fubfiftence. That in fuch unions, whe¬
ther cafual or permanent, there is no mutual efieem and
benevolence, is apparent from the ftate of fubje&ion in
which wmmen are held in rude and uncultivated na¬
tions, as well as from the manner in which marriages
are in fuch nations contra£ted.
Sweetnefs of temper, a capital article with us in the
female charafter, difplays itfelf externally in mild looks
and gentle manners, and is the firft and perhaps the
moft powerful inducement to love in a cultivated
mind. “ But fuch graces ((ays an ingenious writer *) * Sketches
are fcarce difcernible in a female favage; and exewofthe Hif~
in the moft polifhed woman w?ould not be perceived tory °f
by a male lavage. Among favages, ftrength and boU-Man'
nefs are the only valuable qualities. In thefe, females
are miferably deficient ; for which reafon they are con¬
temned by the males as beings of an inferior order..
The North American tribes glory in idlenefs: the
drudgery of labour degrades a man in their opinion,
and is proper for women only. To join young perfons
in marriage is accordingly the bufinefs of the parents;
and it would be unpardonable meannefs in the bride¬
groom to fhow any fond nefs for the bride. In Guiana
a woman never eats with her hufband, but after every
meal attends him with water for vvalhing ; and in the
Caribbee ifiands (he is not even permitted to eat in the
prefence of her hufband. Dampier obferves in general,
that among all the wild nations with which he w:as ac¬
quainted, the women carry the burdens, while the men
walk before and carry nothing but their arms ; and
that women even of the higheft rank are not better
treated. In Siberia, and even in Ruftia, the capital
excepted, men till very lately treated their wives in
every refpedf like Haves. It might indeed be thought,
that animal defire, were there nothing elfe, ftiould have*
railed w'omen to fome degree of eftimation amonp- men ;
but male favages, utter ftrangers to decency and°refine-
ment, gratify animal defire with as little ceremony as
they do hunger or thirft.
“ lienee it was that in the early ages of fociety a
man pur chafed a woman to be his wife, as one purchafes
an ox or a (Keep to be food ; and valued her only as
[he contributed to his fenfual gratification. Inftances
innumerable might be colle&ed- from every nation of
which we are acquainted with the early hiftory ; but
we
(a) Such as the negroes whofe ftory is fo pathetically told by Addifon in N° 215 of the Speftator ; the two
lovers who were killed by lightning at Staunton-Harcourt, Auguft 9. 1718,^(fee Pope's Letters); and many
others which will occur to every reader. y 7 *
L O V [ 240
Love, we (hall content ourfelves with mentioning a few. A-
^ braham bought Rebekah and gave her to his fon Ifaac
* Gen. xxiv. for a wife *. Jacob having nothing elfe to give, ferved
f Gen. xxix. Laban 14 years for two wives f. To David, demand¬
ing Saul’s daughter in marriage, it was faid, ‘ The
king defireth not any dowry, but an hundred forelkins
f 1 Sam. of the Philiftines J;.’ In the Iliad Agamemnon offers
xvni. 28. his daughter to Achilles for a wife ; and fays that he
§ Lib. ix. would not demand for her any price By the laws
of Ethelbert king of England, a man who committed
adultery with his neighbour’s wife was obliged to pay
j| Se<fb 32. the hufhand a fine, and to buy him another But
it is needlefs to multiply inftances 5 the pradiice has
prevailed univerfally among nations emerging from the
favage ftate, or in the rudeft ftage of fociety : and
wherever it prevailed, men could not pofiibly have for
the fair fex any of that tender regard and efieem which
eonftitute fo elfential a part of the complex affe&ion
of love.
Accordingly we find the magnanimous Achilles an
abfolute ftranger to that generous affeftion, though his
heart was fufceptible of the v-armeft and pureft friend-
fhip. His attachment to Patrcclus was fo heroically
difinterefled, that he willingly facrificed his own life to
revenge the death of his friend ; but w’hen Agamemnon
threatened to rob him of his favourite female captive,
though he felt the infult offered to his pride, he never
fpoke of the woman but as a flave whom he was con¬
cerned to preferve in point of honour, and as a teilimo-
ny of his glory. Hence it is that wo never hear him
mention her but as his fpoil, the reward of war, or the
gift which the Grecians gave him.
“ And dar’ft thou threat to fnatch my prize away,
“ Due to the deeds of many a dreadful day ?
“ A prize as ftnall, O tyrant ! match’d with thine,
“ As thy own aftions if compar’d with mine.
“ Thine in each conqueft is the wealthy prey,
“ Tho’ mine the fweat and danger of the day.
“ Some trivialprefent to my {hips I bear,
“ Or barren praifes pay the wrounds of war.”
And again, after upbraiding the general with his ty¬
ranny and want of regard to merit, he adds, with the
greateft indifference as to the charms of the woman,
“ Seize on Brifei's, whom the Grecians doom’d
“ My prize of war, yet tamely fee refuni’d;
“ And feize fecure ; no more Achilles draws
“ His conquering fword in any woman’s caufe.
1 L O V
The gods command me to forgive the pafi: j Love.
But let this firft invajion be the laft : ' “!r V"
For know, thy blood, when next thou dar’ft invade.
Shall ftream in vengeance on my reeking blade.”
Pope has made the language of thiff rough wrarrior lefs
inconfiftent with the peculiar refentment natural to an
injured lover than it is in the original (b) j but from
the laft quoted paffage, even as tranflated by him, it is
apparent that Achilles would have been equally hurt
had Agamemnon threatened to deprive him of any
other part of his plunder. Accordingly he yields up
Brifeis, not in grief for a mittrefs whom he lofes, but in
fullennefs for an injury that is done him. Nor let it be
imagined, that this coldnefs proceeded from the pride
of the hero, which would not permit him to acknowr-
ledge his love of a captive. With the generous affec¬
tion of love captives and princeffes were equally inca¬
pable of infpi.ing him. He repeatedly affirmed indeed
that he delighted in his fair Lyrneffian Have, but it was
only as an inftrument of fenfual gratification ; for as to
every thing elfe in a woman, he was fo totally indiffer¬
ent, that he declared he would not, when he ffiould be
difpofed to marry, give hirofelf the trouble to make a
choice, but leave the whole matter to his father.
“ If heav’n reftorc me to my realms with life,
“ The rev’rend Peleus (hall elect my wife.”
Even Agamemnon, of whom Pope and Madame Da-
cier think more favourably as a lover, fpeaks the very
fame language when mentioning his favourite captive
Chryfeis. In his furious debate with Achilles he calls
her indeed—
“ A maid, unmatch’d in manners as in face,
“ Skill’d in each art, and crown’d with ev’ry grace.”
And adds,
“ Not half fo dear were Clytemneftra’s charms,
“ When firft her blooming beauties bleft my arms.”
But this was faid merely to enhance the value of the
prize, which for the public good he w^as about to re-
fign •, for that (lie was dear to him only as miniftering to
his pleafure, is paft difpute from the language which he
had previoufiy held with her father, as well as from his
requiring grateful Greece to pay a juft equivalent, and
to repair his private lofs. A man who really lovea
wmuld have thought nothing an equivalent for the object
of his love ; much lefs would he have inlinuated to her
father
(b) The original paffages are :
Kcli ctvlog ct<pixigYiirstr$cii XTrttXtt?,
'£2 i7ri vroXd ipioyvirx, dotretv {■coi vn$
Ov y.iv <roc noli itrov yipas. otctcot Ayctioi
1?QMMV SV>Xl6fCSI>»V TfloXlli^OV.
AAAse to jStsy TeXuov ttoXvxhcos Trotepoio
Xupii ifteti 'btiTrovd' xreg riv ttoIz ISa.'ry.oi; ixyleci,
!Eoi to yegxc ttoXv yu^ov, iyt>> oXiyov rs <f>iXov re
Epyof niyMv tTTi wix;, MW KSKctpa
Iliad, lib. i.
And, AXXo ^8 TOt (TV iVl fiaXXiO
Xi^rt y.iv ovTt tywyi ftxyrieoy.xt, unxet xov^s.
OuTl cot, ov]i tu ooXXw, iirn (A ottpiXiirQi yi 5oyjsi.
Tuv ci’aXXav, a /not i<f\t 6oy) m {tiXxivv,
Tm ovk xv ti Qigcts xviXwv, xixoflos ipito’
E< xyi y.vtv, viignrxt, tvx yvuunrt text oiSs.
Af\x rot ulfjox r-i/.xi’jcv ega/imt vn^t oov^t.
In this latter paffage the hero fays exprefsly, “ I will
not fight with you or with any other man for the iake
of a girl; but you fhall not rob me of any other part of
my propertywhich is furely the language of a
man to whofe heart love muft have been an utter
ftranger.
L O V
father a poflibility of his difmifling from his embrace a
woman whom he eiteemed, when time Ihould have rob¬
bed her of every youthful grace.
Since, then, it is fo apparent, that in the heroic age
of Greece even princes and kings were ftrangers to
the generous afteftion of love, it needs not occafion
much furprife that the fame affe&ion has very little
influence upon mankind in the lowed ranks of the mod
polidied focieties of modern Europe. That this is
a&ually the cafe, that among the generality of une¬
ducated men and women there is no other bond of at¬
tachment than the fenfual appetite, every year furniihes
multiplied proofs. We daily fee youths, rejesded by
their midrefles, paying their addrefles without delay
to girls who, in looks, temper, and difpofition, are
diametrically oppofite to thofe whom fo lately they
pretended to love : We daily fee maidens, flighted by
their lovers, receiving the addreffes of men,' who, in
nothing but their fex, referable thofe to whom a week
before they wilhed to be married : and we believe it
is not very uncommon to find a girl entertaining feveral
lovers together, that if one or more of them fliould prove
falfe, die may dill have a chance not to be totally de-
ferted. Did efleem and benevolence, placed on man¬
ners and character, conflitute any part of vulgar love,
thefe people would aft very differently $ for they would
find it impoflible to change their lovers and their mi-
ftrefles with the fame eafe that they change their
elothes.
To this account of love, as it appears in favage
nations, fome one may perhaps oppofe the paintings
of the fofter paflion in the poems of Oflian. That
bard deferibes the female charafter as commanding re-
fpeft and efl:eern,^ and the Caledonian heroes as cheridi-
ing for their midrefles a flame fo pure and elevated as
never was furpaffed, and has feldom been equalled,
in thofe ages which we commonly call mod enlightened.
This is indeed true : and it is one of the many reafons
which have induced Johnlbn and others to pronounce
the whole a modern fiftion. Into that debate we do not
enter. We may admit the authenticity of the poems,
without acknowledging that they furnifh any exception
to our general theory. They furnilh indeed in the man¬
ners which they deferibe a wonderful anomaly in the
general hidory of man. All other nations of which we
read were in the hunter date favage and cruel. The
Caledonians, as exhibited by Oflian, are gentle and mag¬
nanimous. T he heroes of Homer fought for plunder,
and felt no clemency for a vanquilhed foe. The heroes
of Oflian fought for fame 5 and when their enemies
were fubdued, they took them to their bofoms. The
firfl of Greeks committed a mean infult on the dead
body of the firfl of Trojans. Among the Caledonians
infults offered to the dead, as well as cruelty to the
^.v*ng> were condemned as infamous. The heroes of
Oflian appear in no inflance as favages. How they
came to be. polifhed and refined before they were ac¬
quainted with agriculture and the mod ufeful arts of
life, it is not our bufinefs to inquire y but fince they
unqueflionably were fo, their treatment of the female
lex, inflead of oppofing, confirms our theory j for we
never conceived rich clothes, fuperb houfes, highly-
drefled food, or even the knowledge of foreign tongues
to be neceflary to the acquifition of a generous fenti-
ment. Luxury indeed appears to be as inimical to love
Vol. XII. Part I.
t 241 ]
I. 0 V
as barbariim : and we believe, that in modern nations, Love,
the tender and exalted affeftion vvhich deferves that —“”"V“
name is as little known among the highefl orders of life
as among the lowed. Perhaps the Caledonian ladies
°f Oflian refembled in their manners the German ladies
of Tacitus, who accompanied their hufbands to the
chafe,, fought by their fides in battle, and partook
with them of every danger. If fo, they could not fail
to be refpefted by a race of heroes among whom cou¬
rage took place of all other virtues: and this Angle
circumdance, from whatever caufe it might proceed
will fufficiently account for the eflimation of the female
charafter among the ancient Germans and Caledoni¬
ans, fo different from that in which it has been held in
almofl every other barbarous nation.
But if. among favages and the vulgar, love be un¬
known, it cannot poffibly be an inflinftive affeftion :
and therefore it may be alked, How it gets poffeflion
of the human heart; and by what means we can judge-
whether in any particular inflance it be real or imagi¬
nary ? Ihefe queflions are of importance, and deferve
to. be fully anfwered 5 though many circumdances con-
fpire to render it no eafy talk to give to them fuch an-
fwers as lhall be perfeftly fatisfaftory. Love can fub-
fift only between individuals of the different fexes,
A man can hardly love two women at the fame time j
and we believe that a woman is Hill lefs capable of lov*
ing at once more than one man. Love, therefore, has
a natural tendency to make men and women pair, or,
in other wrards, it is the fource of marriage : but in
polifhed fociety, wfliere alone this affeftion has any
place, fo many things befides mutual attachment are
neceffary to make the married life comfortable, that
we rarely fee young perfons uniting from the impulfe
of love, and have therefore but few opportunities of
tracing the rife, progrefs, and confequences of the af-
feftion. We (hall, however, throw together fuch re¬
flections as have occurred to us on the fubjeft, not
without indulging a hope, that they may be ufeful to
the younger part of our readers when forming the
mod important connexion in life.
We have faid, that the perception of beauty, com¬
bined with animal defire, is the firfi inducement which
a man can have to prefer one woman to another. It
may be added, that elegance of figure, a placid maf-
culine countenance, with a perfon which indicates
ftrength and agility, are the qualities which firfl tend
to attach any woman to a particular man. Beauty
has been defined*, “That particular form, which is * % Vert
the mod common of all particular forms to be met [Buffier in
with in the fame fpecies of beings.” Let us apply am)
this, definition to our own fpecies, and try, by means Sir Jothua
of it, to afeertain what conftitutes the beauty of the Reynolds
human face. It is evident, that of countenances we'n the
find a number almofl infinite of different forms, oiIdler'
which forms one only conflitutes beauty, whilfl^he
red, however numerous, conflitute what is not beauty,
but deformity or uglinefs. To an attentive obferver’
however, it is evident, that of the numerous particular
forms of uglinefs, there is not one which includes fo
many faces as are formed after that particular cad
which, conditutes beauty. Every particular fpecies of
the animal as wrell as of the vegetable creation, may be
faid to have a fixed or determinate form, to w hich, as
to a centre, nature is continually inclining. Or it may
H h Jag
L O V [ 242 ] L O V
Love.
* Sketches
c(f Man.
be compared to pendulums vibrating in different di¬
rections over one central point •, and as they all crofs
the centre, though only one paffes through any other
point ; fo it will be found that perfeB beauty is oftener
produced by nature than deformity : we do not mean
than deformity in general, but than any one bind and
degree of deformity. To inftance in a particular part
of a human feature : the line which forms the ridge of
the nofe is deemed beautiful wrhen it is Jlraight; but this
is likewife the central form, which is oftener found
than any one particular degree of concave, convex, or
any other irregular form that fhall be propofed. As we
are then more accuftomed to beauty than deformity,
we may conclude that to be the reafon why we approve
and admire it, juft as we approve and admire fafhions
of drefs for no other reafon than that we are ufed to
them. The fame thing may be faid of colour as of
form : it is cuftom alone which determines our prefer¬
ence of the colour of the Europeans to that of the Ethio¬
pians, and which makes them prefer their own colour
to ours; fo that though habit and cuftom cannot be the
eaufe of beauty (fee Beauty), they are certainly the
caufe of our liking it.
That we do Wee it cannot be denied. Every one is
•eonfcious of a pleafmg emotion when contemplating
beauty either in man or woman ; and when that plea-
fure is combined with the gratification of the fenfual
appetite, it is obvious that the fum of enjoyment muft
be greatly inCreafed. The perception of beauty,
therefore, neceffarily direfts the energy of the fenfual
appetite to a particular objeft ; but ftill this combina¬
tion is a mere felfifli feeling, which regards its objedl
only as the bejl of many Jimilar inftruments of pleafure.
Before it can deferve the name of love, it muft be com¬
bined with efteem, which is never beftowed but upon
moral chara&er and internal worth ; for let a rvoman
be ever fo beautiful, and of courfe ever fo defirable as
an inftrument of fenfual gratification, if ftie be not
poffeffed of the virtues and difpofitions which are pe¬
culiar to her fex, (he will infpire no man with a gene¬
rous affe&ion. With regard to the outlines, indeed,
whether of internal difpofition or of external form,
men and women are the fame ; but nature, intending
them for mates, has given them difpofitions, which
though concordant, are, however, different, fo as to
produce together delicious harmony. “ The man,
more robuft, is fitted for fevere labour, and for field
exercifes; the woman, more delicate, is fitted for fe-
dentary occupations, and particularly for nurfing chil¬
dren. The man, bold and vigorous, is qualified for
being a prote&or * ; the woman, delicate and timid,
requires proteftion. Hence it is, that a man never
admires a woman for poffefling bodily ftrength or per-
fonal courage ; and women always defpife men who are
totally deftitute of thefe qualities. The man, as a protec¬
tor, is direfted by nature to govern; the woman, confci-
ous of inferiority, is difpofed to obey. Their intelleftual
powers correfpond to the deftination of nature. Men
have penetration and folid judgement to fit them for
governing; w’omen have fufficient underftanding to
make a decent figure under good government: a great¬
er proportion would excite dangerous rivalftiip between
the fexes, which nature has avoided by giving them
different talents. Women have more imagination and
fenfibility ^han men, which n^ahe all their enjoyment*
more exquifite; at the fame time that they are better
qualified to communicate enjoyment. Add another
capital difference of difpofition : the gentle and infi-
nuating manners of the female fex tend to foften the
roughnefs of the other fex ; and wdierever women are
indulged with any freedom, they poliih fooner than
Love.
men.
“ Thefe are not the only particulars that diftinguilh
the fexes. With refpedl to the ultimate end of love,,
it is the privilege of the male, as fuperior and protec¬
tor, to make a choice : the female, preferred, has no
privilege but barely to confent or to refufe. Whether
this diftinftion be the immediate refult of the original¬
ly different difpofitions of the fexes, or only the effett
of affociations inevitably formed, may be queftioned ;
but among all nations it is the pradfice for men to
court, and for women to be courted : and were the
moft beautiful woman on earth to invert this practice,
ftie would forfeit the efteem, however by her external
grace ftie might excite the defire, of the man whom
ftie addreffed. The great moral virtues which may
be comprehended under the general term integrity, are
all abfolutely neceffary to make either men or women
eftimable; but to procure efteem to the female charac¬
ter, the modefty peculiar to their fex is a very effential
circumftance. Nature hath provided them with it as
a defence againft the artful felicitations of the other
fex before marriage, and alfo as a fupport of conjugal
fidelity.
A woman, therefore, whofe difpofitions are gentle,
delicate, and rather timid than bold, who is pofleffed
of a large (hare of fenfibility and modefty, and whofe
manners are foft and infinuating, muft, upon moral
principles (fee Moral Philosophy), command the
efteem and benevolence of every individual of the other
fex who is poffefl'ed of found underftanding; but if
her perfon be deformed, or not luch as to excite fome
degree of animal defire, ftie will attradl no man’s love*
In like manner, a man whofe moral charadter is good,
whofe underftanding is acute, and whofe converfation
is inflrudlive, muft command the efteem of every fen-
fible and virtuous woman ; but if his figure be dif-
agreeable, his manner unpoliftied, his habits flovenly,
and above all, if he be deficient in perfonal courage,
he will hardly excite defire in the female bread. It is
only rvhen the qualities which command efteem are,
in the fame perfon, united •with thofe which excite de¬
fire, that the individual fo accompliftied can be an ob-
jeft of love to one of the other fex ; but when thefe
qualities are thus united, each of them increafes the
other in the imagination of the lover. The beauty of
his miftrefs gives her, in his apprehenfion, a greater
fnare of gentlenefs, modefty, and every thing which
adorns the female charadler, than perhaps ftie really pof-
feffes; whilft his perfuafion of her internal worth makes
him, on the other hand, apprehend her beauty to be ab¬
folutely unrivalled.
To this theory an objedlion readily offers itfelf,
which it is incumbent upon us to obviate. Men and
women fometimes fall in love at firft fight, and very
often before they have opportunities of forming a juft
eftimate of each other’s moral character : How is thi*
circumftance to be reconciled with the progreflive ge¬
neration of love ? We anfwer, By an affociation of
ideas which is formed upon principles of phyfiogno-
my.
Love.
* Sketches
if Man.
L O V [
mv. Every paflion and habitual difpofition of mind
gives a particular caft to the countenance, and is apt
to difcover itfelf in fome feature of the face. This we
learn by experience •, and in time, without any effort
of our own, the idea of each particular caft of counte¬
nance comes to be fo clofely affociated in our minds
with the internal difpofition which it indicates, that
the one can never afterwards be prefented to our view
without inftantly fuggefting the other to the imagi¬
nation. (See Metaphysics and Physiognomy).
Hence it is that every man, who has been accuftomed
to make obfervations, naturally forms to himfelf, from
the features and lineaments of a ftranger’s face, fome
opinion of his chara&er and fortune. We are no
fooner prefented to a perfon for the firft time, than we
are immediately impreffed with the idea of a proud, a
referved, an affable, or a good-natured man •, and upon
our going into a company of abfolute ftrangers, our
benevolence or averfion, our awe or contempt, rifes
inftantly towards particular perfons, betore we have
heard them fpeak a word, or know fo much as their
names or defignationS. The fame thing happens
when we are prefented to the fair fex. If a woman,
feen for the firft time, have that particular caft of
countenance, and that expreffion of features, to which
we have affociated notions of gentlenefs, modejly, and
other female virtues, (he inftantly commands oxxxejleem;
and if ftre have likewife fo much beauty as to make her
an objefl of particular defire, efteem and defire become
fuddenly combined $ and that combination conftitutes
the affe&ion of love. Such, too, is the nature of all
mental affociations, that each part of which they are
compofed adds ftrength and vividnefs to the other parts;
lo that, in the prefent inftance, defire makes us imagine
virtues in the woman which her countenance perhaps
does not indicate ; and the virtues w’hich are there ac¬
tually vifible, make us apprehend her beauty as more
perfedl than it is.
The affedftion thus generated is more or lefs pure,
and will be more or lefs permanent, according as the
one or the other part of which it is compounded pre¬
dominates. “ Where defire of poffeflion * prevails over
our efteem of the perfon and merits of the defirable
objett, love lofes its benevolent chara&er : the appe¬
tite for gratification becomes ungovernable, and tends
violently to its end, regardlefs of the mifery that muft
follow. In that ftate love is no longer a fweet agree¬
able affe&ion; it becomes a felfiih, painful paflion,
which, like hunger and thirft, produceth no happi-
nefs but in the inftant of fruition ; and when fruition
is over, difguft and averfion generally fucceed to defire.
On the other hand, where efteem, founded on a virtu¬
ous charafter and gentle manners, prevails over animal
defire, the lover would not for the world gratify his
appetite at the expence of his miftrefs’s honour or
peace of mind. He wifhes, indeed, for enjoyment;
and to him enjoyment is more exquifite than to the mere
fenfual lover, becaufe it unites fentiment with the gra¬
tification of fenfe ; at the fame time that, fo far from
being fucceeded by difguft or averfion, it increafes his
benevolence to the woman, whofe chara&er and man¬
ners he efteems, and who has contributed fo much to
his pleafure. Benevolence to an individual, having a
general end, admits of a£ts without number, and is fel-
dom fully accomplifhed. Hence mutual love, which is
2+3 1 L O V
compofed chiefly of efteem and benevolence, can hard-
ly be of a fhorter duration than its objects. Frequent
enjoyment endears fuch lovers to each other, and makes
conllancy a plealure ; and when the days ol fenfual en¬
joyment are over, efteem and benevolence will remain
in the mind, making fweet, even in old age, the focie-
ty of that pair, in whom are colledled the affections of
hulband, wife, lover, friend, the tendereft affections ot
human nature.”
From the whole of this inveftigation, we think it
appears, that the affeftion between the fexes which
deferves the name of love, is inseparably connected
with virtue and delicacy ; that a man ot loole morals
cannot be a faithful or a generous lover ; that in the
breaft of him who has ranged from woman to woman
for the mere gratification of his fenfual appetite, de¬
fire muft have effaced all efteem for the female charac¬
ter ; and that, therefore, the maxim too generally re-,
ceived, “ that a reformed rake makes the belt huf-
band,” has very feldom a chance to be true. We
think it may likewife be inferred, that thoufands fan¬
cy themfelves in love who know not what love is, or
how it is generated in the human breaft : and there-
Love.
fore we beg leave to advife fuch of our readers as may
imagine themfelves to be in that ftate, to examine their
own minds, with a view to difcover, whether, if the ob-
je£ls of their love were old or ugly, they would ftill
efteem them for the virtues of their chara&er, and the
propriety of their manners. This is a queftion which
deferves to be wrell w'eighed by the young and the
amorous, who, in forming the matrimonial connexion,
are too often blindly impelled by the mere animal defire
inflamed by beauty. “ It may indeed happen f, after
the pleafure of gratifying that defire is gone (and if
not refined by efteem and benevolence, go it muft with
a fwift pace), that a new bond of attachment may be
formed upon more dignified and more lafting princi¬
ples ; but this is a dangerous experiment. Even fup-
pofing good fenfe, good temper, and internal worth of
every fort, yet a new attachment upon fuch qualifica¬
tions Is rarely formed ; becaufe it corntnonly or rather
always, happens, that fuch qualifications, the only folid
foundation of an indiffoluble connexion, if they did not
originally make efteem predominate over animal defire,
are afterwards rendered altogether invifible by fatiety
of enjoyment creating difguft.”
Love, in Medicine. The fymptoms produced by
this paflion as a difeafe, according to medical writers,
are as follow : The eyelids often twinkle ; the eyes
are hollow, and yet appear as if full with pleafure:
the pulfe is not peculiar to the paflion, but the fame
with that which attends folicitude and care. When
the objeft of this affe&ion is thought of, particularly
if the idea is fudden, the fpirits are confufed, the pulfe
changes, and its force and time are very variable: in
fome inftances, the perfon is fad and watchful; in
others, the perfon, not being confcious of his ftate,
pines away, is flothful, and regardlefs of food; though
the wifer, when they find themfelves in love, feek
pleafant company and a&ive entertainments. As the
force of love prevails, fighs grow deeper ; a tremor af-
fe<fts the heart and pulfe; the countenance is alternate¬
ly pale and red ; the voice is fuppreffed in the fauces ;
the eyes grow dim ; cold fweats break out; fleep ab-
fents itfelf, at leaft until the morning.; the fecretions
H h a become
L O V [ 244 ] LOU
Love. become diflurbed $ and a lofs of appetite, a he&ic fe-
ver> melancholy, or perhaps madnefs, if not death, con-
ftitutes the fad cataftrophe. On this fubjeft the curi¬
ous may confult iEgineta, lib. iii. cap. 17. Oribat. Sy-
nop. lib. viii. cap. 9. or a treatife profeffedly written on
love, as it is a diftemper, by James Ferrard, Oxford,
printed 1640.
The manners of the Greeks and Romans were fimi-
lar to each other in the affairs of love. They general¬
ly made a difcovery of their pafiion by writing upon
trees, walls, doors, &c. the name- of their beloved.
They ufually decked the door of their dulcinea with
flowers and garlands, made libations of wine before their
houfes, fprinkling the pofts with the fame liquor, as if
the objeft of their affe&ion vras a real goddefs. For a
man’s garland to be untied, and for a woman to com-
pofe a garland, were held to be indubitable indications
of their love.
When their love was without fuccefs, they ufed fe-
veral arts to excite affe&ion in the objeft of their de¬
fire. They had recourfe to enchantreffes, of whom the
Theffalian were in the higheft eftimation. The means
made ufe of were mofl comrjionly philtres or love po¬
tions, the operation of which was violent and danger¬
ous, and frequently deprived fuch as drank them of their
reafon. Some of the moft remarkable ingredients of
which they were compofed were : the hippomanes, the
jynx, infefts bred from putrefadlion, the fifh remora,
the lizard, brains of a calf, the hairs on the tip of a
wolf’s tail, his fecret parts, the bones of the left fide of
a toad eaten with ants, the blood of doves, bones of
fnakes, feathers of fcreech-owls, twifted cords of wool
in -which a perfon had hanged himfelf, rags, torches,
reliques, a neft of fwallows buried and familhed in the
earth, bones fnatched from hungry bitches, the marrow
of a boy familhed in the midfl: of plenty, dried human
liver ; to thefe may be added feveral herbs growing
out of putrid fubftances. Such were the ingredients that
entered into the compofition of that infernal draught a
/ove potion.
But, befides the philtres, various other arts were
ufed to excite love, in w hich the application of certain
fubftances was to have a magical influence on the per-
fcn againft whom they levelled their Ikill. A hyaena’s
udder worn under the left arm, they fancied would
draw the affeSions of whatever woman they fixed
their eyes upon. That fpecies qf olives called ■xflvgx,
and barley-bran made up into a pafle, and thrown into
the fire, they thought would excite the flame of love.
Flour was ufed with the fame intention. Burning lau¬
rel, and melted wax, were fuppofed to have the like
effe£l. When one heart was to be hardened, and ano¬
ther mollified, clay and wax were expofed to the fame
fire together. Images of wax were frequently ufed, re-
prefenting the perfons on whom they wiflied to make
an impreflion } and whatever was done to the fubftitute
of wax, they imagined was felt by the perfon repre-
fented. Enchanted medicaments were often fprinkled
on (ome part of the houfe where the perfon refided.
Love pledges were fuppofed to be of fingular ufe and
efficacy : thefe they placed under their threihold, to
preferve the affe&ions of the owner from wandering.
Love knots were of fingular pewter, and the number
three v as particularly obftrved in all they did. But
no good effect was expe&ed, if the ufe of thefe things
was not attended with charms or magical verfes and Love-apple,
forms of words. Spe Magic. II
Having mentioned their arts of exciting love, it
may not be amifs to take notice, that the ancients -C*8- ' .<
gined, that love excited by magic may be allayed by
misre powerful fpells and medicaments, or by applying
to demons more powerful than thofe who had been
concerned in raifing that paffion. But love infpired
without magic had no cure ; Apollo himfelf could find
no remedy, but cried out
Hei mihi quod nullis amor eft medicabilis herbis.
The antidotes againft love were generally agnus cqftus,
which has the power of weakening the generative facul¬
ty ; fprinkling the duft in which a mule had rolled her-
felf 5 tying toads in the hide of a beaft newly fiain 5 ap¬
plying amulets of minerals or herbs, which were fup¬
pofed of great efficacy in other cafes ; and invoking the
affiftance of the inferior deities. Another cure for love
was bathing in the waters of the river Selemnus *, to
which we may add the lover’s leap, or jumping down
from' the Leucadian promontory.
Love-Apple. See Solanum, Botany Index.
LOVENTINUM, or Luentinum, in Ancient Geo¬
graphy, a town of the Demeta in Britain, near the
mouth of the Tuerobis or Tivy. Suppofed to have
been afterwards fwallowed up by an earthquake, and to
have flood where is now the lake called Llin Savatan
in Brecknockftiire.
LOUGHBOROUGH, a town of Leicefterfhire in
England, no miles from London. It is the fecond
town in the county, and was in the Saxons time a royal
village. Its market is on Thurfday *, and its fairs are
on April 25th, May 28th, Auguft ift, and Novem¬
ber 2d. It has a large church, and a free fchool •, be¬
fides a charity fchool for 80 boys, and another for 20
girls. It has been very much reduced by fires *, but
is ftill a very agreeable town, with rich meadow-ground,
on the foffe, which runs here almoft parallel with the
river Soar. The new canal has made the coal trade
here very extenfive.
LOUGHBRICKLAND, a town of Ireland, fitu-
ated in the county of Down, and province of Ulfter, 58
miles from Dublin. The name fignifies the lake of
the fpefttled trout; and it was fo called from a lake near
it, which abounds with thofe fiffi. It confifts of one
broad ftreet, at the end of which is the parifti church,
faid to have been built by Dr Taylor when bifliop of
Dromore, foon after the Reftoration. The linen manu-
fadlure is carried on here very extenfively j and the
town is a great thoroughfare, the turnpike road from
Dublin to Belfaft paffing near it.
LOUGH-DERG, anciently Derg-abhan, i. e. “ the
river of the woody morafs,” from a river which iffues
out of this lake. This lough is fituated in the county
of Donegal and province of Ulfter in Ireland, and is
famous for having in it the ifland that contains St
Patrick’s purgatory, which is a narrow' little cell,
hewn out of the folid rock, in which a man could
fcarce ftand upright. There is alfo a lake of this
name fituated between the counties of Galway and
Tipperary.
LOUGH-NEAGH, a loch or lake of Ireland, fi¬
tuated in the counties of Armagh, Down, Derry, and
Antrim, and province of Ulfter. It is the largeft in
Europe,
AVl’ARATV S LUNGS
Plate CCXCVlll
C^z/3.
<S4^3{M ru//ih' >* frfit .
LOU [ 245 ] LOU
lough. Europe, thofe of Ladoga and Onega in Ruflia, and
^eagh. that 0f Geneva in Switzerland, excepted ; being 20
Strand ra,’es i°ng an^ tS broad. The area of this lake is
computed to be 100,oco acres. It is remarkable for
a healing virtue ; and likewife for petrifying wood,
which is not only found in the water but in the adja¬
cent foil at a confiderable depth. On its lho«es fe-
veral beautiful gems have been difcovered. Its an¬
cient name was Loch Eacha, or Loch-Neach, from loch,
“ a lake,” and Neach, “ wonderful, divine, or emi¬
nent.” Its petrifying powers are not inftantaneous, as
feveral of the ancients have fuppofed, but require a
long feries of ages to bring them to perfection, and
appear to be occalioned by a fine mud or fand, which
infinuates itlelf into the pores of the wood, and which
in procefs of time becomes hard like Hone. On the
borders of this lake is Shane’s caftle, the elegant feat
of Lord O’Neil. Dr Smyth feems to doubt whether
the healing quality in this lake is not to be confined to
one fide of it, called the Jifhing-banh ; and he informs us,
that this virtue wTas difcovered in the reign of Charles
II. in the inftance of the fon of one Mr Cunningham,
w7ho had an evil which run on him in eight or ten
places j and notwithftanding all applications, feemed
incurable : at length he was perfectly healed, after
bathing in this lough about eight days. Hence that wri¬
ter gives us another derivation of the name Loch-Neach,
which (he fays) feems to him to hint at this quality ;
Neafg ox Neas, in Irilh, fig^nifying a fore or ulcer,” which
might not improbably be corrupted into Neagh; Hence
he apprehends, this lake was remarked at a much earlier
period for its healing property. As to its petrifying
power, it is mentioned by Nenius, a waiter of the 9th
century, who fays, “ Eft aliud ftagnum quod facit lig-
na durefcere an lapides. Homines autem findunt lig-
na, et poftquam formaverunt, projiciunt in ftagnum, et
manent in eoufque ad caput anni, et in capite anni lapis
invenitur ; et vocatur ftagnum Luch-EchachN Lough-
Neach gives title of baron to the family of Sheffington.
LOUGH-STRANGFORD, a lake of Ireland,
fituated in the county of Down and province of Ul-
fter. It takes its prefent name from a fmall port-
town called Strangford, feated cn the w’eft fide of the
narrow entrance into the fea. It w'as formerly known
by the name of Lough-Cone or Lough-Coyne. It is a
deep bay or inlet of the fea, about 17 miles long and
four or five broad j it goes weft as far as Downpatrick,
and north as far as Comber and New'ton, and by
computation covers 25,775 acres> Ifilh plantation
meafure. It abounds with excellent fifh, particularly
fmelts ; and off the bar there is a periodical herring
filhery in or about Auguft. The bar or entrance
into this lough is about three miles below Strang-
« ford. There is a long rock at the entrance in the
middle of the paffage, dangerous to ftrangers on ac¬
count of the current ; yet there is a broad paffage on
either fide, and deep water. The current here is very
ftrong and rapid, running at the rate of fix or feven
miles an hour. There are but few veffels that go
higher up than Strangford. A good many veffels
bound up the Channel put in here, if the wind is un¬
favourable to their paffage. The iflands in this lake
are numerous; Doftor Boat enumerates them at 260.
But from an a61ual furvey, made at the time Dr Smyth
wrote his hiftory of that county, it appears, there are
54 iflands imall and great, known by particular names, Louis,
and many others namelefs j the contents of thefe 54 Lomfiana.
iflands added together amount to 954 acres and a
half. The great and profitable manufaflure carried
on in thefe iflands, and the flat ftony coafts furround¬
ing the lake, is the burning of fea-weed into kelp,
which employs a number of hands, and has been com¬
puted to produce to the feveral proprietors a neat
profit of xoool. per annum and upwards. Four of the
iflands here are called Swan ijlands from the number
of fwans that frequent them.
LOUIS, or St Louis, Knights of, the name of a
military order in France, inftituted by Louis XIV. in
1693. Their colours were of a flame colour, and pafs
from left to right j the king was their grand mafter.
There were in it eight great croffes, and 24 comman¬
ders ; the number of knights wTas not limited. At the
time of their inftitution, the king charged his revenue
wdth a fund of 900,000 livres for the penfions of the
commanders and knights.
Louis, Lewis, Louis d'or, or Lewidore, a French
coin, firft flruck in 1640, under the reign of Louis XI11,
and which has now a confiderable currency. See
Money-To Zi/?.
LOUISIANA, formerly a Spanifti province of N
America, now belonging to the United States, is bound¬
ed on the eaft by the Miffiflippi, on the fouth by the
gulf of Mexico, on the weft by Newr Mexico, and on
the north by boundaries which have not been defined.
It is interfered by a number of fine rivers, and the
greater part of the inhabitants are faid to be Roman
Catholics. They are chiefly the defcendants of the
French and Canadians ; but in different fettlements of
this extenfive country there are likewife to be met with
the defcendants of people froni Germany, as wTell as
numbers of Acadians and Americans. The population
in 1785, when a cenfus was taken, amounted to more
than 50,000 fouls; but different authors are of opinion
that this is much below the proper eftimate, notwith¬
ftanding the population bears no proportion to the ex¬
tent of the country. According to another eftimate
there are 89,970. The inhabitants have often attempt¬
ed to cultivate the fugar cane, but they found the cli¬
mate rather unfavourable to the culture of that plant.
They chiefly export indigo, cotton, rice, beans, myrtle,
wax, and lumber. But if the climate is unfriendly to
the fugar-cane, it is faid to be favourable to the health
of the people, and to the culture of fruits and garden
vegetables. The total value of the exports from Loui-
fiana in 1802 is faid to have amounted 102,158,000
dollars, and of the imports to about 342,000 dollars ,
above that fum.
There are but few domeftic manufafiures of any im- -
portance in Louifiana, but fuch of the inhabitants as
are denominated Acadians, manufa&ure fome cotton
into quilts and cottonades j and in the remote parts of
the province, thofe planters who are poor, are in the
habit of fpinning cloth mixed with wool for the ufe of
the negroes. In the parifh of Iberville there is a ma¬
chine for fpinning cotton, and another in the Opeloufas,
but neither of them very extenfive ; a confiderable ma¬
nufacture of cordage, twelve diftilleries for making taf-
fia, and a fugar refinery which manufactures about
200,000 lbs. of loaf fugar annually. The trade by
fea is confiderable, for in the year 1802 there entered 5
LOU
r 246 ]
LOU
•Loutfiana. tlic river Mifliflippi 268 veflels of all defcriptions, one
r v of which belonged to France, 97 to Spain, and 170 to
America 5 and 265 failed from the Mifliflippi in the
fame year, three of which belonged to France, 104 to
Spain, and 158 to America. The coalfing trade is
alfo confiderable from Penfacola, Mobille, and the
creeks and rivers falling into Lake Pontchartrain, from
whence (hip timber, charcoal, lime, pitch and tar, are
conveyed to New Orleans, in which about 500 (loops
and fchooners from eight to 50 tons are frequently em¬
ployed.
A return of the militia of Louifiana was made by
the baron of Carondelet to the court of Spain, which
made them amount to j 0,340 men j but in this efti-
tnate were included feveral companies of volunteers,
negroes, and even companies of privileged horfe, or ca¬
valry. There are not kbove 930 native Indians in this
vaft country, fome of whom are employed by the fettlers
as boatmen on the Red river, and much elleemed for
their friendlhip to the whites, for their bravery and
generofity.
The fortifications which have been eredfed in Louifi¬
ana fcarcely merit our attention. Fort St Louis is com¬
manded by a lieutenant-colonel, with ahandfbl of troops j
Baton Rouge is extremely ill conftrudfed, and contains
about 50 men; Fort Plaquemines, about 12 leagues
from the fea, is an irregular work built of bricks, and
badly conflrudfed, on the eaft fide of the river Miffiflip-
pi, having a ditch in front of the river, and defended
on the lower fide by a deep creek. It is defencelefs be¬
hind, as thofe by whom it was eredled had placed too
much confidence in the fw'ampinefs of the ground,
which is every day growing harder. It would be no
difficult matter to take it by efcalade, for by the negli¬
gence of the people it is fall falling into ruins. The
fmall redoubt called Fort Bourboti, is generally under
the command of a ferjeant, with a very fmall company.
Should a vtffel attempt to pafs without fending a boat
on (bore, (he would be inllantly fired upon.
When Louifiana was firft ceded to Spain, it preferv-
ed many of the regulations peculiar to France ; but the
province afterwards came to be governed by the laws
of Spain, and the ordinances formed exprefsly for the
colony. The governor’s court has a civil and military
jurifdi&ion throughout the province. That of the
lieutenant-governor has the fame extent in civil cafes
only. There are two alcades, whofe jurifdidion, civil
and criminal, extends through the city of New Orleans
and five leagues around it, where the parties have no
fuero mi/itar, or military privilege ; thofe who have
can transfer their caufes to the governor. The tribunal
of the alcade provincial has cognizance of criminal
caufes, where offences are committed in the country, or
when the criminal takes refuge there, and in other fpe-
cified cafes. The ectlefiaftical tribunal has jurifdi61ion
in all matters refpe£!ing the church.
Tl ere are no colleges in Louifiana, and but one pub¬
lic fchool, which is at New Orleans, the mafters of
which receive their falary from the king. They teach
nothing but the Spaniffi language, and there are a few
private fchools for the benefit of children. It is re¬
markable that not more than one-half of the inhabitants
are fuppofed qualified to read and write, and of thefe
it is faid that not above 200 are capable of doing it
well.
Louth.
The clergy confiff of a biffiop, who does not refide Louifiana
in the province, and whofe falary of 4000 dollars is
charged on the revenue of certain biffioprics in Mexico v,
and Cuba ; two canons have each a falary of 600 dol¬
lars ; and 25 curates, five for the city of New Orleans,
and 20 for as many country pariihes, wrho receive about
400 dollars each. Thefe falaries, exclufive of that of
the biffiop, are paid by the treafury at New Orleans,
and their annual amount has been elfimated at 13,000
dollars.
Inftead of paying local taxes, each inhabitant is
bound to make and repair roads, bridges, and embank¬
ments through his own land. A duty of fix per cent,
is payable at the cuflomhoufe, on the transfer of (hip¬
ping. It is afeertained upon the fum the buyer and
feller declare to be the real confideration. As no oath
is required from either, they feldom report more than
half the price. Two per cent, is payable on legacies
and inheritances, comirig from collaterals, and exceed¬
ing 2000 dollars ; four per cent, on legacies given to
perfons who are not relatives of the teftator. A tax on
civil employments, if their falaries exceed 300 dollars.
A tax is levied of 40 dollars per annum for licenfes to
fell liquors, and fix per cent, on all imports and ex¬
ports, which amounts to about 1 20,000 dollars, while
the amount of all the other taxes does not exceed 6000
dollars.
The expences of the government of Louifiana are
faid to amount to 650,000 dollars, to pay which there
are 400,000 dollars fent annually from Vera Cruz, in
confequence of which deficiency the debt is faid at pre-
fent to amount to 450,000 dollars, bearing no intereff,
and depreciated 30 per cent.
Soon after Louifiana was ceded to the United States,
there were two focieties ellabliffied for the promotion
of fcience and literature, one of them at New Orleans,
and another at Natchez. The former defigns to pub-
li(h a monthly magazine for the purpofe of diffufing a
knowledge of the country, and to amufe the readers
of it with a variety of ufeful fubje&s. The latter,
which was eftabliffied in 1803, called the Miffiffippi
Society for the Acquirement and Diffemination of ufe¬
ful Knowledge, confifts of near 40 members, and has
correfpondents in various parts of the United States.
The American government has granted it a charter of
incorporation.
LOUSE. See Pediculus, Entomology Index.
LOUSY disease. See Medicine Index.
LOUTH, a town of Lincolnfhire in England, 156
miles from London. It is a town corporate 5 and
one of the handfomeft and gay eft in the county, there
being in it not only frequent affemblies, concerts, &c.
but even mafquerades. Here are feveral handfome
houfes. From hence there is a canal to the fea at
Tilney, about eight miles. Befides a charity fchool
for 40 children, it has a free fchool founded by Ed¬
ward VI. with a large church, and a fine fteeple,
which fome think is as high as Grantham fpire, which
is 288 feet.
Louth, a county in the eaftern part of Ireland,
which extends in the form of a bow or half-moon, on
the fide of the ocean, being much longer than it is
broad ; it is bounded on the fouth and fouth-weft by
the county of Eaft Meath, on the north-weft by Mo-
naghan, on the north by Armagh, and on the north-
eaft
2
LOU [ 247 ] LOW
Louth, eaft by t]ie bay of Carlingford, which parts it from
^ouvam- , the county of Down : it is watered by feveral fmall ri-
vers which fall into the fea •, and its fouth frontiers are
watered by the river Boyne. Its chief towns are Dun¬
dalk and Carlingford •, unlefs we include Drogheda, a
part whereof is in this county. It is the fmalleft
county in the kingdom ; but very fertile and pleafant,
and abounding with many remains of antiquities,
of which Mr Wright, in his Louthiana, has given a
very ample defcription. It contains 111,180 Iriih
plantation acres, 50 parifhes, five baronies, and five
boroughs j and formerly returned 10 members to par¬
liament : it is about 22 miles long, and 14 broad.
Louth, a towm in the above county, having a
yearly fair.
LOUVAIN, a city in the Auftrian Netherlands, in
the province of Brabant, pleafantly feated on the river
Dyle, in a plentiful and agreeable country. The walls
are about eight or nine miles in circumference ; but they
include feveral fields and vineyards. The caftle Hands
on a high hill, furrounded wdth fine gardens, and has
a charming profpeft all over the country. This town
contains nine market places, 14 water-mills, I 26 ftreets,
16 flone bridges, and feveral handfome palaces. The
townhoufe is a venerable old building, adorned with
ftatues on the outfide •, and the churches are very hand¬
fome, particularly the collegiate church of St Peter j
but the principal ornament is the univerfity, founded
only in 1426 by John IV. duke of Brabant, with the
concurrence of Pope Martin V. It contains about 40
colleges, four of which are called Petfagogia. There
is in the number alfo an Englilh college of friars-
preachers, which owres its eftablilhment to the liberali¬
ties of Cardinal Philip Howard, brother to the duke
of Norfolk, who, before he was railed to the purple,
had been private chaplain to Queen Catherh*, con-
fort to Charles II. The Iriih have likewife a femi-
nary, erefted in part uuder the care of Eugenius Mat-
theus, titular archbilhop of Dublin, anno 1623, which
receives its appointments from the Propaganda at
Rome. Befides the above, there are two convents for
the Iriih, one of Recolledts and the other of Domini¬
cans, where divinity and the mathefis are taught. In the
laft century the number of fcholars exceeded 4000 $ but
in the year 1744 the inhabitants amounted to 12,000,
including 2000 ftudents only.—At the beginning of
the 14th century, under John III. it flourilhed con-
fiderably in the manufafture of woollen cloth : 400
houfes were then occupied by fubftantial clothiers, who
gave employment to an incredible number of weavers,
fo great, it is faid, that a bell was rung to prevent any
injuries which the children in the ftreet might receive
from the crowd and hurry on their returning from work.
In 1382, thefe weavers, however, took up arms, and
rebelled again!! theiy fovereign Prince Wencellaus,
throwing from the windows of the town hall 17 of the
aldermen and counfellors, and afterwards proceeded to
lay wrafte great part of Brabant; but being befieged
and reduced to great extremities, they fubmilfively im¬
plored his clemency ; which was granted after the exe¬
cution of fome of the principal ringleaders. The
weavers, the chief inftigators to this revolt, were ba-
nilhed, the greater part of whom took refuge in Eng¬
land 5 where they firl! introduced, or at leaft augment¬
ed very much, the woollen xnanpfadture. The town,
by this circumfiance, being almoft depopulated, the Louvain
univerfity was eltablilhed to fupply in fome meafure the II ,
lofs of the rebellious clothiers. Since that time the , 0^'^e' *
manufacture gradually declined, no cloth of any ac¬
count being made there at prefent. This impolitic
Hep of the duke Wenceflaus fent treafures to England,
through the hands of thole exiled people : an import¬
ant leffon to governors, that they Ihould deal with
great precaution refpeCling fuch ufeful members of the
community. Upon the ruins of thefe looms was form¬
ed the cloth manufacture of Limbourg, which is car¬
ried on with good advantage to this day. There is yet
Handing at Louvain part of the old drapers-hall, now-
converted into four public fchools, where leCtures in
divinity, philofophy, law, and phyfic, are given, and
the public aCts are made. Adjoining to the fchools
is the univerfity library, wdiich altogether compofe
a large pile of building. Over the door of the chief
entrance we read thefe words, Sapientia cedificavit Jibi
domum. The principal church is collegiate, dedicated to
St Peter, which had formerly three very large towers
with elevated fpires, one confiderably higher than the
two collaterals; thefe were blown down in the year re¬
corded by this chronogram, oMnla CaDVnt. From
the name of this church the burghers have acquired
the nickname of Petermen, whofe anceHors having cloth¬
ed the back by a noble woollen manufacture, the mo¬
dern Petermen now compofe an ignoble mixture for the
belly, called after them Peterman beer, a fort of whitilh
muddy ale, which they notwithflanding fend in large
quantities to all parts of the country, as well as to Hol¬
land, by the canals. Louvain was anciently the capital
of the province, long before Bruffels had any claim to
that title. It was'taken by the French in 1792, after¬
wards loft, and retaken in 1794. E. Long. 4. 40. N.
Lat. 51. 12.
LOUYS, or Louis, John, an engraver of con-
fiderable eminence, who flourilhed about the middle of
the 16th century. According to Bafan he was a
native of Flanders. He learned the art of engraving
from Peter Soutman, at the time that Suyderhoef Hu-
died under the fame mailer; and his ufual ftyle of en^
graving bears fome refemblance to that of his mafter’s.
One of his beft prints is Diana, writh her nymphs, re-
pofing after the chafe ; a middling-fized plate, length-
wife, from Rubens.
LOW-bell, in birding, a name given to a bell, by
means of which they take birds in the night, in open
champaign countries, and among Hubble, in Octo¬
ber. The method is to go out about nine o’clock at
night in a Hill evening, when the air is mild and the
moon does not Ihine. The low-bell Ihould be of a deep
and hollow found, and of fuch a fize that a man may
conveniently carry it in one hand. The perfon who
carries it is to make it toll all the way he goes, as
nearly as may be, in that manner in which the bell on
the neck of a Iheep tolls as it goes on and feeds..
There muft alfo be a box made like a large lanthorn,.
about a foot fquare, and lined with tin, but with one
fide open. Two or three great lights are to be fet in
this; and the box is to be fixed to the perfon’s breaft,
with the open fide forwards, fo that the light may be
caft forward to a great diftance. It will fpread as it
goes out of the box; and will diftinCtly ftiow to the per- 3
(on that carries it whatever there is iu the large fpace :
LOW [ 248 ] LOW
Low, of ground over which it extends, and confequently all
Lower, the birds that rood: upon the ground. Two perfons
mull follow him who carries the box and bell, one ©n
each fide, fo as not to be within the reach of the light
to (how themfelves. Each of thefe is to have a hand-
net of about three or four feet fquare, faftened to a long
flick or pole ; and on whichever fide any bird is feen
at rood, the perfon who is neareft is to lay his net
over it, and take it with as little noife as poflible.
When the net is over the bird, the perfon wyho laid it
is not to be in a hurry to take the bird, but muft (lay
till he who carries the light is got beyond it, that the
motions may not be difcovered. The blaze of the
light and the noife of the bell terrify and amaze the
birds in fuch a manner that they remain dill to be
taken ; but the people wdio are about the work mud
keep the greated quiet and dillnefs that may be.
Some people are fond of going on this fcheme
alone. The perfon then fixes the light box to his
bread, and carries the bell in one hand and the net
in the other •, the net in this cafe may be fomewhat
fmaller, and the handle (horter. When more than
one are out at a time, it is always proper to carry a
gun *, as it is no uncommon thing to fpy a hare when
on this expedition.
LOW, East, a town of Cornwall in England,
231 miles from London, in the pod road from Ply¬
mouth. It is an ancient borough by prefcription,
made a corporation by charter of Queen Elizabeth,
confiding of nine burgeffes (one of w-hom is yearly
chofen mayor), a recorder, aldermen, &c. ; and the
mayor, magidrates, and freemen, who are about 68,
choofe the members of parliament. This being a ma¬
nor of the duchy of Cornwall, was fettled by Ming
William on Lord Somers, and is now held by the cor¬
poration at the fee-farm rent of 20s. a-year. It is feat-
ed pretty commodioufiy on a creek of the fea, over
which there is a large done bridge, fupported by 15
arches, which leads to Wed Low, danding between
two hills. The chief benefit which the inhabitants
have is in their filhery. Here is a battery of four
guns and a fmall chapel.
Loiv, Weft, called alfo Port Pigham, a town of
Cornwall, divided from Ead Low by a done bridge
of 15 arches over the river Low, from whence both
towns receive their name, as the river does from the
lownefs of its current between its high banks. The
corporation, by charter of Queen Elizabeth, confids
of 12 burgeffes, one of whom is annually chofen
mayor, and, with the other burgeffes, has power to
choofe a deward. Its members, whom it has fent to
parliament ever fince the 6th of Edward VI. are eleft-
ed by the corporation and freemen, who are about
60. There was a chapel of eafe here in the reign of
Henry VIII. which was afterwards converted into a
towmhall; and the towm lying in the parifh of Tal-
land, the people go thither to church. There is a
pretty little harbour here ; near the mouth of which
is a fmall idand called St George's, which abounds
with fea pies. The river here is navigable for veffels
of 100 tons.
LOWER, Richard, an eminent Englidi phyfician
in the d ^th century, was born in Cornwall, and edu¬
cated at Wedminder fchool and Oxford. He entered
on the phyfic line j and praflifed under Dr Thomas
1
Willis, whom he indru&ed in fame parts of anatomy, Lowering,
efpecially when the latter was writing his Cerebri Ana- Lowth.
tome. He, with Dr Willis, in 1674, difcovered the v--
medicinal waters at A(hop in Northampton (hire j
which, upon their recommendation, became very much
frequented. In 1666 he followed Dr Willis to Lon¬
don j pradtifed phyfic under him *, and became fellow
of the Royal Society, and of the College of Phyficians.
In 1669 he publifiied his TraElatus de Corde; and, af¬
ter the death of Dr Willis in 1675, he was edeemed
the mod eminent phyfician in London. Upon the
breaking out of the Popilh plot in 1678, fays Mr
Wood in his Athence Oxonienjis, he clofed with the
Whigs, fuppofing that party would carry all before
them $ but, being midaken, he lod his credit and
pradlice. He died in 1691.
LOWERING, among diilillers, a term ufed to
exprefs the debafing the drength of any fpirituous
liquor, by mixing water with it. The dandard and
marketable price of thefe liquors is fixed in regard to
a certain drength in them called proof; this is that
drength which makes them, when diaken in a phial or
poured from on high into a glafs, retain a froth or
crown of bubbles for fome time. In this date, fpirits
confid of about half pure or totally inflammable fpirit,
and half water; and if any foreign or home fpirits are
to be expofed to fale, and are found to have that
proof wanting, fcarce any body will buy it till it has
been diddled again and brought to that drength j and
if it is above that drength, the proprietor ufually adds
water to it to bring it down to that dandard. See the
article Proof.
There is another kind of lowering among the re¬
tailers of fpirituous liquors to the vulgar, by reducing
it under the dandard proof. Whoever has the art of
doing tlfis without dedroying the bubble proof, which
is eafily done by means of fome addition that gives a
greater tenacity to the parts of the fpirits, will de¬
ceive all that judge by this proof alone. In this cafe,
the bed w7ay to judg§ of liquors is by the eye and
tongue, and efpecially by the indrument called Hy*'
DROMETER.
LOWTH, William, D. D. a learned divine, born
at London in 1661, was the fon of an apothecary, and
took his degrees at Oxford. His eminent worth and
learning recommended him to Dr Mew bifliop of
Wincheder, who made him his chaplain, gave him
two livings in Hampfliire, and conferred on him a
prebend in the cathedral of Wincheder. He acquired
an unufual fliare of critical learning. Thus fituated
in life, the labours of Mr Lowth appear to have been
driflly confined within the limits of his own province,
and applied folely to the peculiar duties of his func¬
tion : yet, in order that he might acquit himfelf the
better in theology, he had purfued his ftudies with a
more general and extenfive view. Few7 were more
deeply verfed in critical learning ; there being fcarcely
any ancient author, Greek or Latin, profane or eccle-
fiadical, efpecially the latter, but wrhat he had read
with accuracy, conflantly accompanying his reading
with critical and philological remarks. Of his col-
leftions in this way he was upon all occafions very
communicative. Hence his notes on Clemens Alexan¬
drians, which are to be met with in Potter’s edition
of that father. Hence his remarks on Jofephus, com-
naunicated
LOW v [ 249 ] LOW
Lowth. nmnicated to Hudfon for his edition, and acknow-
•—v—* ledged in the preface j as alfo thofe larger and more
numerous annotations on the Ecclefiaftical Hiflorians,
inferted in Reading's edition of them at Cambridge.
The author of Bibliotheca Biblica was indebted ^to him
for the fame kind of affiftance. Chandler, late bifhop
of Durham, while engaged in his “ Defence of Chrilti-
anity, from the Prophecies of the Old Teftament, a-
gainft the Difcourfe of the Grounds and Realons of
the Chriftian Religion,” and in his “ Vindication of
the Defence, in anfwer to The Scheme of Literal
Prophecy confidered,” held a conftant correfpondence
with him, and confulted him upon many difficulties
that occurred in the courfe of that work. The moft
valuable part of his character was that which leaft ap¬
peared in the eyes of the world, the private and re¬
tired part, that of the good Chriftian and the ufeful
parifh prieft. His piety, his diligence, his hofpitali-
ty and beneficence, rendered his life highly exem¬
plary, and greatly enforced his public exhortations.
He married Margaret, daughter of Robert Pitt, Efq.
of Blandford, by whom he had two fons and three
daughters. (See the next article). Pie died in 1732,
and was baried by his own orders in the churchyard
at Buriton. He publiftied, 1. A Vindication of the
Divine Authority and Infpiration of the Old and New
Teftaments ; 2. Dire&ions for the profitable reading
of the Ploly Scriptures j 3. Commentaries on the Pro¬
phets ; and other works.
LoWTH, Robert, D. D. fecond fon of the preced¬
ing Dr William Lowtb, and bilhop fucceflively of
St David’s, Oxford, and London, was born on the
29th of November 1710, probably at Buriton in the
county of Plants. He received the rudiments of his
education at Winchefter college, where his fchool ex-
ercifes were diftinguilhed by uncommon elegance *,
and having refided the requifite number of years in
that feminary, in 1730 he fucceeded on the founda¬
tion at New College, Oxford. He took the degree
of M. A. June 8. 1737* Though his abilities muft
have been known to thofe with whom he was connect¬
ed, he was not forward to appear before the world as a
writer. At Oxford he continued many years improv¬
ing his talents, with little notice from the great, and
with preferment fo fmall as to have at prefent efcaped
the diftinCt recolleCtion of fome of his contemporaries.
He was not, however, fuffered to languifh for ever
in obfcurity. His genius and his learning forced them-
felves upon the notice of the illuftrious fociety of
which he was a member j and he was placed in a fta-
tion where he was eminently qualified to ftrine. In
1741 he was eleCled by the univerfity to the profef-
forlhip of poetry, re-elecled in 1743* an^ whilft he
held that office he read his admirable leClures De facra
poeji Hebneorum. In 1744 BHhop Hoadley collated
him to the redlory of Ovington in the county of
Hants *, added to it, nine years afterwards, the reftory
of Eaft Weedhay in the fame county ; and in the in¬
terim railed him to the dignity of archdeacon of Win¬
chefter. Thefe repeated favours he fome years after¬
wards acknowledged in the following manly and re-
fpeCtful terras of gratitude : “ This addrefs, My Lord,
is not more neceifary on account of the fubjeCf, than
it is in refpedl: of the author. Your Lordihip, unfo-
liclted and unf lked, called him from one of thofe col-
Vol. XII. Part I.
leges to a ftation of the firft dignity in your diocefe, Lowth.
and took the earlieft opportunity of accumulating your
favour upon him, and of adding to that dignity a luit-
able fupport. Thefe obligations he is now the more
ready thus publicly to acknowledge, as he is removed
out of the reach of further favours of the like kind.
And though he hath relinquilhed the advantages lo
generoufty conferred on him, yet he (hall always efteem
himfelf highly honoured in having once enjoyed the
patronage of the great advocate of civil and religious
liberty.”'
On the 8th of July 1754 the univerfity of Oxford
conferred upon him the degree of D. D. by diploma •,
an honour which, as it is never granted but to diilin-
guiftied merit, was probably conferred on Mr Lowth
in confequence of his preledlions ©n the Plebrew poetry,
which had then been lately publilhed. Having in 1749
travelled with Lord George and Lord Frederick Ca-
vendifh, he had a claim upon the patronage of the
Devonftiire family j and in I755> t^ie ^ate ^u^-e being
then lord lieutenant of Ireland, Dr Low'th w7ent to
that kingdom as his grace’s firft chaplain. Soon after
this appointment he wTas offered the biftiopric of Li¬
merick j but preferring a lefs dignified ftation in his
own country, he exchanged it with Dr Leflie, pre¬
bendary of Durham and redtor of Sedgefield, for thefe
preferments. In November 1765 he was chofen F. R. S.
In June 1766 he wras, on the death of Dr Squire,
preferred to the biftiopric of St David’s ; which, in the
Odtober followung, he refigned for that of Oxford,
vacant by the tranflation of Biftiop Hume to Salifbury.
In April 1777, he was tranftated to the fee of Lon¬
don, vacant by the death of Biftiop Terrick ; and in
1783 he decliAed the offer of the primacy of all England.
Having been long afflidled with the ftone, and having
long borne the fevereft fufferings of pain and ficknefs
with the moft exemplary fortitude and refignation, this
great and good man died at Fulham, Nov. 3. 17^7 5
and on the 12th his remains were privately interred in
a vault at Fulham church, near thofe of his predecef-
for. He had married in 1752, Mary, the daughter of
Laurence Jackfon of Chrift-church, Hants, Efq. by
whom he had two fons and five daughters. His lady
and two children only furvived him.
His literary charafler may be eftimated from the
value and the importance of his works ; in the account
of w hich we may begin with his Prele&tons on the He¬
brew Poetry. The choice of fo interefting a fubje£t
naturally attracted general attention j and the work
has been read with equal applaufe abroad and at home.
In thefe preledfions the author has acquitted himfelf
in the moft mafterly manner, as a poet, a critic, and
a divine ; and fuch is the claffic purity of his Latin
ftyle, that though we have read the work with the
clofeft attention, and with no other view than to dif-
cover, if poflible, an Anglicifm in the compofition,
we never found a fingle phrafe to which, we believe,
a critic of the Auguftan age could poffibly have ob¬
jected. This is an excellence to which neither Milton
nor Johnfon has attained •, to which indeed no other
Englifti writer of Latin with whom we are acquainted
has attained, unlefs perhaps Atterbury muft be ex¬
cepted. To the preledlions was fubjoined a ftiort con¬
futation of Bilhop Hare’s fyftem of Hebrew metre ;
which occafioned a Latin letter from Dr Edwards of
I i Clare-half,
LOW
Clare-hall, Cambridge, to Dr Lowth, in vindication
of the Harian metre. To this the author of the
prele61ions replied in a larger confutation, in which Bi-
fliop Hare’s fyItem is completely overthrown, and the
fallacy upon which it was built accurately inveftigated.
After much attentive confideration, Bilhop Lowth has
pronounced the metre of the Hebrews to be perfectly ir¬
recoverable.
In 17 5 8 he publithed The life of William of Wyke-
ham, hijhop of Winch eft er, with a dedication to Bilhop
Hoadley ; which involved him in a difpute concerning
a decihon which that bilhop had lately made refpedting
the wardenfhip of Winchelter college. This contro-
verfy w*as on both fides carried on with fuch abilities,
that, though relating to a private concern, it may yet
be read, if not with pleafure, at lead; with improvement.
The life of Wykeham is drawn from the moft authentic
fources *, and affords much information concerning the
manners, andfome of the public tranfaclions, of the period
in wdiich Wykeham lived, whilft it difplays forne private
intelligence refpeCing the two literary focieties of which
he ryas the founder. In thefe two focieties Dr Lowth
was educated, and he gratefully exprefles his obligations
to them.
In 1762 was fir ft publi fined his Short IntroduElion to
Englijh Grammar, which has fince gone through many
editions. It was originally deftgned only for private
and dorneftic ufe : but its judicious remarks being too
valuable to be confined to a few, the book was given to
the world ; and the excellence of its method, which
teaches what is right by fhowing what is wrong, has
infured public approbation and very general ufe. In
1765 Dr Lowth was engaged with Bilhop Warburton
in a controverfy, which made much noife at the time,
which attradled the notice even of royalty, and of
v which the memory is ftill recent. If we do not wilh
to dwell on the particulars of this eontroverfy, it is
becaufe violent literary contention is an evil, which,
though like other war it may fometimes be unavoid¬
able, is yet always to be regretted •, and becaufe the
charaflers of learned, ingenious, and amiable men,
never appear to lefs advantage than under the form
'which that ftate of hoftility obliges them to affume.
The two combatants indeed engaged with erudition
and ingenuity fuch as is feldom brought into conflidl )
but it appears that, in the opinion of Dr Johnfon,
Warbnrton had the moft fcholaftic learning, and that
Lowth was the moft correct fcholar ; that, in their con¬
ceit with each other, neither of them had much argu¬
ment, and that both were extremely abufive. We
have heard, and we hope it is true, that they were af¬
terwards reconciled, and exprelfed mutual regret for
the violence of their paft condutft.
In 1778 Bilhop Lowth publilhed his lart great work,
Tranjlation of Ifaiah. To his literary and theological
abilities, the tranllator joined the moft critical know¬
ledge ©f the chara&er and fpirit of the eaftern poetry 5
and, accordingly, the prophecies of Ifaiah (xvhich,
though almoft always fublime or elegant, are yet fome¬
times obfeure) were tranllated in a manner adequate
to the higheft expeftations of the public. Several
©ccafional difeourfes, which the bilhop, by his ftation,
was at different times called upon to deliver, were of
courfe publilhed, and are all worthy of their excellent
author 3 but there is one on the kingdom of God, on the
LOW
extenfion and progrelTive improvement of Chiift’s re¬
ligion, and on the means of promoting thefe by the
advancement of religious knowledge, by freedom of
inquiry, by toleration, and mutual charity, which
may be diftinguilhed above the reft, as exhibiting a
moft comprehenfive view of the fucceftive ftates of the
Chriftian church, and containing the trueft principles
of Chriftianity.
Of the bilhop’s poetical pieces, none difplay greater
merit than Verfes on the Genealogy of Chrift, and the
Choice of Hercules, both written very early in his life.
He wrote a fpirited Imitation of an Ode of Horace,
applied to the alarming lituation of this country in
3 745 5 and likewife fome Verfes on the death of Frede¬
ric prince of Wales, with a few fmaller poems. The
following infeription on the tomb of his daughter,
beautifully difplays his paternal affedlion and clallic
tafte. As it is (hort, and, in our opinion, has all the
merit of the ancient epitaph, the reader will probably
be pleafed with fuch a fpeeimen of his lordftiip’s Lati-
nity.
Cara, vale, ingenio prafans, pietate, pudore,
Et plufquam natec nomine cara, vale.
Cara Maria, vale. At veniet felicius cevum,
fitando iterum tecum, fm rnodo dignus, ero.
Cara, redi, Lcta turn dicam voce, paternos,
Eja, age in amplexus, cara Maria, redi.
Learning and tafte, however, did not conftitute Bifhop
Lowth’s higheft excellence. Eulogium itfelf can fcarce-
ly afeend to extravagance when fpeaking of him
either as a private man or as a paftor of the church of
Chrift. His amiable manners rendered him an orna¬
ment to his high ftation, whilft they endeared him to
all with whom he converfed 3 and his zeal for the in-
terefts of true religion made him eager to promote to
places of truft and dignity fuch clergymen as he knew
were beft qualified to fill them. Of his modefty,
gentlenefs, and pleafing converfation, we have the tefti-
mony of one whofe decifion will hardly be difputed.—
“ It would anfvver no end (fays Bilhop Warburton) to
tell you what I thought of the author of Hebrew poe¬
try, before I faw him. But this I may fay, I was never
more furprifed, when I did fee him, than to find him of
fuch amiable and gentle manners, of fo modeft, fenlible,
and difengaged a deportment.” He united, indeed,
in an eminent degree, the qualities of the gentleman
with thofe of the fcholar : he converfed with elegance,
as he wrote with accuracy. As a hufhand, a father,
or the mafter of a family, he was as nearly faultlefs as
the imperfections of humanity will eafily permit. His
temper, when roufed by what he thought improper con-
duCf was indeed fufceptible of confiderable warmth 3
but if he could be highly offended, upon a flight con-
ceftion he could likewife forgive. His heart was ten¬
der and fympathetic. He poffeffed a mind which felt
its own ftrength, and decided on whatever came before
it with promptitude and firmnefs. In thofe trials
where affliction was to be fuffei ed or fubdued, he be¬
haved as a man and a Chriftian. His piety had no
tinCIure of morofenefs 3 his charity no leaven of often-
tation. To his whole diocefe he was endeared by
his laudable diferetion and his ufeful zeal. To the
world he was a benefit by bis exemplary life and his
fplendid abilities. And whilft virtue and learning are
reverenced
[ 25° 1
L U B [ 2ci ] L U B
Loxia reverenced amon^ men, the memory of Lowth will be
I! relpefted and admired.
^ubec- LOXIA, a genus of birds of the order of palTeres.
See Ornithology Index.
LOYOLA, Ignatius. See Ignatius.
LOZENGE, in Heraldry, a four-cornered figure,
refembling a pane of glafs in old cafements. See He¬
raldry. Though all heralds agree, that fingle ladies
are to place their arms on lozenges, yet they differ with
refoeft to the caufes that gave rife to it. Piutarch fays,
in the life of Thefeus, that in Megara, an ancient town
of Greece, the tomb-flones, under which the bodies of
the Amazons lay, were fliaped after that form ; which
fome conjecture to be the caufe why ladies have their
arms on lozenges. -S'. Pelra SanEla will have this
fhield to reprefent a cujhion, whereupon wromen ufed to
fit and fpin, or do other houfewifery. Sir J. Feme
thinks it is formed from the fhield called tejfera, which
the Romans finding unfit for war, did allow to women
to place their enfigns upon, with one of its angles always
upper moft.
Lozenges, among jewellers, are common to bril¬
liant and rofe diamonds. In brilliants, they are form¬
ed by the meeting of the fkill and {far facets on the
bezil ; in the latter, by the meeting of the facets in the
horizontal ribs of the crown. See Facets.
Lozenge is alfo a form of medicine, made into
fmall pieces, to be held or chewed in the mouth till
they are melted there : the fame with what are other-
wife called trochifci, “ troches.”
LUEEC, a city and port-town of Germany, in the
circle of Lower Saxony and duchy of Holllein, in
E. Long. io. 35. N. Lat. 54. 20. It Hands at the
conflux of feveral rivers, the largeft of which is the
Trave, 12 miles from the Baltic, where it has a fine
harbour, and 40 north-eaft of Hamburgh. By the Stec-
kenitz, another of thofe rivers, it has a communica¬
tion with the Elbe, and confequently with the Ger¬
man ocean. The city lies on the fide of a hill, with
the Trave, increafed by the Steckenitz on the one fide,
and the Wakenitz on the other; and is ftrongly for¬
tified with baflions, moats, wxdls, and ramparts ; the
laft of which are planted with trees, and form an a-
greeable walk. Lubec being formerly the chief of the
Hanfe towns, was very powerful in confequence of
the vaft trade it carried on ; but a great part of that
trade is now transferred to Hamburgh ; however, it is
Hill faid to employ 150 of its own fhips, and has a
great fhare of the Baltic trade. It is about two miles
in length, and more than one in breadth. The houfes
are all of ftone, but old fafliioned. Several of the
ftreets have on each fide rows of lime trees, with canals
in the middle, like thofe of Holland. The public
ftruftures confift of the ancient cathedral of the bifliop-
ric ol Lubec, and feveral other Lutheran churches ; a
nunnery for 22 ladies, with an abbefs and priorefs; a
poor-houfe, an alms-houfe, and houfe of correction ;
an orphan-houfe, an hofpital dedicated to the Holy
Gholt ; a houfe in which poor travellers are entertain¬
ed three days, and then fent forward with a pafs ; but
fuch as happen to be fick, are provided with all necef-
faries till they recover or die; the city armoury, a
grammar fchool of feven clafl'es, the Calvinift church,
and the Popifh chapel. The deputies of the Hanle-
towas tued to meet here formerly in the tcwnhoufe.
An alliance ftiil fubfifts between Lubec, Hamburgh,
and Bremen ; and thefe cities, under the name of
Hanfe towns, negotiate treaties with foreign powers.
Flere are divers manufactures, and the city’s territory
is about 60 miles in cempafs. In the diet of the em¬
pire Lubec is poffelfed of the third feat among the Rhe-
nifli imperial cities ; and among thofe of the circle, has
the firfi. In the matricula, its affelfment is 480 flo¬
rins, and to the chamber of Wetzlar it pays 557 rix-
dollars and 88 kruitzers. The chy is a republic with¬
in itfelf, and both makes and executes laws in regard
to civil and criminal matters, &c. A father and fon,
or two brothers, cannot be in the regency at the fame
time. The famous league of the Hanfe-towns was be¬
gun here in 1164. This city had its charter of privi¬
leges from the emperor Frederic II. Formerly it car¬
ried on wars, both offenfive and defenfive, for feveral
years, not only again!! the dukes of Mecklenburg, but
again!! the kings of Sweden and Denmark ; particu¬
larly in 1428, when it fitted out 250 fhips of force
again!! Eric X. king of Denmark. There are about
20 churches in Lubec, with lofty fleeples or fpires.
The Trave brings fhips of burden into the very heart
of the city ; but the large!! unload at Travemunde,
i. e. the mouth of the Trave,.eight or ten miles di-
llant. Formerly it is faid to have employed no lefs
than 600 flops. In the famous cellar here, it is faid,
there is wine 200 years old. The church of St Ma¬
ry’s, a noble lofty pile, is fupported by tall pillars,
all of one Hone each, and has a high fpire, covered
with gilt lead. The town’s garrifon confifts of about
700 or 800 men. The revenue of its Lutheran biftiop,
though he is a prince of the empire, is faid not to ex¬
ceed 3000I. Lubec fell into the hands of the French
in 1806, when Bonaparte overran the Pruflian domi¬
nions ; and many of the inhabitants were cruelly maf-
facred and plundered.
LUBEN, a town of Germany, in the marquifate of ^
Lower Lufatia. It is fituated on the river Spree, and
is the capital of a fmall circle of the fame name. It is
the feat of the diets, and of the chief tribunals and of¬
fices ; and has feveral churches, with a noble land-
houfe and hofpital. E. Long. 14. 25. N. Lat. 52.
LUBIENIETSKI, Stanislaus, a Polifli gentle¬
man, defcended from a noble family, and born at
Cracow in 1623, was educated by his father with
great attention. He became a celebrated Socinian mi-
nifter ; and took great pains to obtain a toleration
from the German princes for his Sacinian brethren.
Flis labours, however, were ineffe&ual; being himfelf
peifecuted by the Lutheran minifters, and baniflied
from place to place ; until at length he was baniflied
out of the world, with his two daughters, by poifon,
his wife narrowly efcaping, in 1675. We have of his
writing A Hiftory of the Reformation in Poland ; A
Treatife on Comets; with other works, in Latin.
LUBIN, ElLHARD, was profeffor of poetry in the
univerfity of Roftock in 1595 ; and ten years afterwards
was promoted to the profelforlhip of divinity. He
wrote notes on Anacreon, Juvenal, Perfius, &c. and
feveral other works; but that which made the moft
r» ife is a treatife on the nature and origin of evil, en-
ti’led Phofphorus de Caufa pfifna et Katina Mali,
printed at Roftock in 159^ ’ which we have a cu¬
rious hypothclis to account for the origin of moral evd,
I i 2 Be
LUC [25
Lublin IJe fuppofed two co-eternal principles, not matter and
T ^ vacuum, as Epicurus did: but God, and Nihilum or
1 v— ' Nothing. This being publilhed againft by Grawer, wTas
defended by Lubin ; but after all he is deemed Getter
acquainted with polite literature than with divinity.
He died in 1621.
LUBLIN, a handfome and confiderable town of
Poland, capital of the palatinate of the fame name,
with a citadel, a bifhop’s fee, an univerfity, and a
handfome Jewilh fynagogue. Here the judicial courts
for all Poland are held. It has three fairs, frequented
by merchants from all nations. It is feated on the ri¬
ver Byftrzna. E. Long. 22. 31. N. Lat. 51. 26.
LUCA, in Nncicnt Geography, a town of Etruria,
on the river Aufer ; a colony and a municipium. Now
Lucca, capital of the republic of that name, near the
river Sechia. E. Long. 11. 20. N. Lat. 43. 45.
LUCANIA, a country of Italy, and a part of
Magna Graecia; bounded on the north by the river
Silarus by wdiich it was feparated from the Picentini,
and by the river Bradanus by which it was parted
from the Apuli Peucetii, on the fouth by the Laus,
which feparated it from the Bruttii j on the eaft by
the Sinus Tarentinus ; and on the w7e(l by the Tufcan
fea. Lt/cani, the people, defcendants of the Samnites.
Laic anus the epithet, (Horace). Lucce boves denoted
elephants; firfh feen in Pyrrhus’s wars in Lucania,
whence the appellation (Pliny).
LUCANUS, Marcus Axnjeus, a Latin poet, born
at Corduba in Spain, about A. C. 39. He was the
fon of Annaeus Mela, the youngeft brother of Seneca 5
and was conveyed to Roms from the place of his na¬
tivity at the age of eight months j a circumtlance, as
his more indulgent critics obferve, which fufficiently
refutes the cenfure of thofe who conlider his language
as provincial. At Rome he was educated under the
Stoic Cornutus, fo w’armly celebrated by his difciple
Perlius the fatirift, who was the intimate friend of our
poet. In the clofe of his education, Lucan is faid to
have paffed fome time at Athens. On his return to
Rome he rofe to the oflice of quseftor, before he had
attained the legal age. He was afterwards enrolled
among the augurs j and married a lady of noble birth,
and of a moll amiable charafrer. Lucan had for fome
time been admitted to familiarity with Nero, when
the emperor chofe to contend for poetical honours by
the public recital of a poem he had compofed on Niobe j
and fome verfes of his imperial produ&ion are fup¬
pofed to be preferved in the firft fatire of Perfius. Lu¬
can had the hardinefs to repeat a poem on Orpheus,
in competition with that of Nero j and, what is more
remarkable, the judges of the conteil were jufi: and
bold enough to decide againft the emperor. From
hence Nero became the perfecutor of his fuccefsful ri¬
val, and forbade him to produce any poetry in public.
The well known confpiracy of Pifo againft the tyrant
loon followed ; and Tacitus, wdth his ufual farcaftic
feverity, concludes that Lucan engaged in the enter-
* In the Pr‘k fr°m t^le poetical injuries he had received : “ a
Notes to hisreinai ^ (fays Mr Hayley*, w7ho has endeavoured to
Second E- refute the imputation) which does little credit to the
candour of the hiftorian j who might have found a
much nobler, and, I will add, a more probable motive
for his conduft in the generous ardour of his chara&er,
and his paflionate adoration of freedom. In the fequel
pi/lle on
Epic Poe
try.
2 ] LUC
of his narration, Tacitus alleges a charge againft our Li
poet, which, if it tvere true, muft lead us to deleft
him as the mod abjeft of mankind. The hiftorian af-
ferts, that Lucan, when accufed of the confpiracy, for
fome time denied the charge j but corrupted at la ft by
a promife of impunity, and deftrous to atone for the
tardinefs of his confeflion, accufed his mother Atilla
as his accomplice. This circumftance is fo improbable
in itfelf, and fo little confonant to the general charaffer
of Lucan, that fome writers have treated it with con¬
tempt, as a calumny invented by Nero, to vilify the
object of his envious abhorrence. But the name of
Tacitus has given fuch an air of authority to the ftory,
that it may feem to deferve a more ferious difcuflion,
particularly as there are two fubfequent events related
by the fame hiftorian, which have a tendency to inva¬
lidate the accufation fo injurious to our poet. The
events I mean are, the fate of Annteus, and the efcape
of Atilla, the two parents of Lucan. The former died
in confequence of an accufation brought againft him,
after the death of his fon, by Fabius Romanus, who
had been an intimate with Lucan, and forged fome let¬
ters in his name, with the defign of proving his father
concerned in the confpiracy. Thefe letters were pro¬
duced to Nero, who fent them to Annaeus, from an
eager deftre, fays Tacitus, to get poffeftion of his wealth.
From this fa£t two inferences may be drawn, accord¬
ing to the different lights in which it may be confider-
ed :—If the accufation againft Annaeus was juft, it is
clear that Lucan had not betrayed his father, and he ap¬
pears the lefs likely to have endangered by his con-
feftion the life of a parent, to whom he owed a ftill ten¬
derer regard :—If Annaeus was not involved in the con¬
fpiracy, and merely put to death by Nero for the fake
of his treafure, we may the more readily believe, that
the tyrant who murdered the father from avarice, might
calumniate the fon from envy. But the efcape of A-
tilla affords us the ftrongeft reafon to conclude that
Lucan was perfe&ly innocent of the abjecft and unna¬
tural treachery of which Tacitus has fuppofed him
guilty. Had the poet really named his mother as an
accomplice, wrould the vindictive and fanguinary Nero
have fpared the life of a woman whofe family he de-
tefted, particularly when other females were put to death
for their (hare in the confpiracy ? That Atilla was not
in that number, the hiftorian himfelf informs us in the
following remarkable fentence, “ Atilla mater Annaei
Lucani, fine abfolutione, fine fupplicio, diffimulata j”
thus tranflated by Gordon : “ The information againft
Atilla, the mother of Lucan, w7as diffembled ; and,
without being cleared, fhe efcaped unpunifhed.”
The preceding remarks will, our author hopes, vin¬
dicate to every candid mind the honour of Lucan,
whofe firmnefs and intrepidity of charafter are indeed
very forcibly difplayed in that pifture of his death
which Tacitus himfelf has given us. He was condemned
to have his veins cut, as his uncle Seneca had before
him. Lucan, “ while his blood iffued in ftreams, per¬
ceiving his feet and hands to grow cold and ftifl'en,
and life to retire by little and little from the extremities,
while his heart was ftill beating with vital warmth,
and his faculties ftowife impaired, recolleClcd fome
lines of his own, which deferibed a wounded foldier
expiring in a manner that refembled this. The lines
themfelves he rehearfed ^ and they were the laft words
he
LUC [2
Lueanus. he ever uttered.” The critics differ concerning the
verfes of the Pharfalia which the author quoted in fo
memorable a manner. The two paffages he is fuppof-
ed to have repeated are the following ; of which Lip-
fius contends for the latter.
Sanguis erant lachrymae: qux’cunqueforamina nova
Humor, ab his largus manat cruor: ora redundant,
Et patulse nares : fudor rubet: omnia plenis
PTembra Huunt venis : totum eft pro vulnere corpus.
• l^ib. ix. v. 814.
Now the warm blood at once, from every part
Ran purple poifon down, and drain’d the fainting heart.
Blood falls for tears; and o’er his mournful face
The ruddy drops their tainted paffage trace.
Where’er the liquid juices find a -way,
There ftreams of blood, there crimfon rivers ftray,
His mouth and gufhing noftrils pour a flood,
And e’en the pores ooze out the trickling blood 5
In the red deluge all the parts lie drown’d,
And the wdiole body feems one bleeding wound. Rowe.
Scinditur avulfus; nec ficut vulnere fanguis
Emicuit lentus; ruptis cadit undique venis,
Difcurfufque animae, diverfa in membra meantis,
Interceptus aquis. Lib. Hi. v. 638.
No fingle wound the gaping rupture feems,
Where trickling crimfon wells in llender ftreams j
But, from an op’ning horrible and wide,
A thoufand veffels pour the burfting tide :
(A) ;
At tu, feu rapidum poli per axem
Eamte curribus arduis levatus,
Qua furgunt animae potentiores,
Terras defpicis et fepulchra rides:
Seu pacis meritum nemus reclufte
Felix Elyfiis tenes in oris,
Quo Pharfalica turba congregatur ;
Et te nobile carmen infonantem
Pompeii comitantur et Catones :
Tu magna facer et fuperbus umbra*
Nefcis Tartaron, et procul nocentum
Audis verbera, pallidumque vifa
Matris lampade refpicis Neronem.
Adfis lucidus; et vocante Polla
Unam, quaefo, diem decs filentum
Exores 5 folet hoc patere limen
Ad nuptas redeuntibus maritis.
Heec te non thiafis procax dolofis
Falii numinis induit figuras;
Ipfum fed colit, et frequentat ipfum
Imis altips infitum medullis j
Ac folatia vana fubminiftrat
V ultus, qui fimili notatus, auro
Stratis pnenitet, excubatque fomno
Securse. Procul hinc abite mortesj
Haec vitae genitalis eft origo j
Cedat lutftus atrox, genifque manent
Jam dulces lachrymae, dolorque feftus
Quicquid fleverat ante nunc adoret.
But you, O ! whether to the Ikies
On Fame’s triumphant car you rife,
Sl LUC
At once the winding channel’s courfe was broke, Lucanus.
Where wand’ring life her mazy journey took j \r*"
At once the currents all forgot their way,
And loft their purple in the azure fea. Rowe.
Such was the death of Lucan before he had completed
his 27th year.—_His wife, Polla Argentaria, is faid to
have tranfcribed and corredfted the three firft books of
the Pharfalia after his death. It is much to be re¬
gretted (Mr Hay ley obferves) that we pollefs not the
poem which he wrote on the merits of this amiable
and accomplifhed woman •, but her name is immorta¬
lized by two furviving poets of that age. The vene¬
ration which ftie paid to the memory of her hufband
is recorded by Martial j and more poetically deferibed
in that pleaftng and elegant little produttion of Statius,
Genethliacon Lucam, a poem faid to have been written
at the requeft of Argentaria. The author, after in¬
voking the poetical deities to attend the ceremony,
touches with great delicacy and fpirit on the compo-
fitions of Lucan’s childhood, which are loft, and the
Pharfalia, the produftion of his early youth : he then
pays a fhort compliment to the beauty and talents of
Argentaria ; laments the cruel fate which deprived her
fo immaturely of domeftic happinefs; and concludes
with an addrefs to the (hade of Lucan, which, with
Mr Hayley’s tranflation, we (hall fubjoin in a Note,
as it feems to furnifh a ftrong prefumption of Lucan’s
innocence in regard to 'one of the accufations mention¬
ed above (a). “ Had he been really guilty of bafely
endangtring
(Where mightier fouls new life aflume)
And mock the confines of the tomb ^
Or whether in Elyfium bleft
You grace the groves of facred reft,
Where the Pharfalian heroes dwell;
And, as you ftrike your epic fhell,
The Pompeys and the Catos throng
To catch the animating fong;
Of Tartarus the dread controul
Binds not your high and hallow’d foul;
Diftant you hear that wailing coaft,
And fee the guilty Nero’s ghoft
Grow pale with anguhh and affright,
His mother flaftiing on his fight.
Be prefent to your Polla’s vows,
While to your honour’d name fhe bows !
One day let your entreaties gain
From thofe who rule the Ihadowy train !
Their gates have op’d to blefs a wife,
And given a hulband back to life.
In you the tender fair invites
No fancied god with frantic rites :
You are the object of her prayers,
You in her inmoft heart {he bears:
And ftampt on mimic gold, your head
Adorns the faithful mourner’s bed,
And fooths her eyes before they clofe,
The guardian of her chafte repofe.
Away with all funereal ftate !
From hence his nobler life we date :
Let mourning change the pang fevere.
I o fond devotion’s grateful tear !
And feftal grief, its anguifli o’er,
What it lamented, now adore.!
LUC [ 254 ] LUC
Taucamis endangering the life of hh mother (fays Mr Hayley),
ii . it is not probable that his wife would have honoured
llcAua' , his memory with fuch enthufiaftic veneration ; or that
Statius, in verfes defigned to do him honour, would
have alluded to the mother of Nero. If his chara&er
as a man has been injured by the hiftorian (continues
Mr Hayley), his poetical reputation has been treated
not lefs injurioufly by the critics. Quintilian, by a
frivolous diftindlion, difputes his title to be claffed
among the poets ; and Scaliger fays, with a brutality
of language difgraceful only to himfelf, that he feems
rather to barh than to Jing. But thefe infults may ap¬
pear amply compenfated, when we remember, that in
the moil poliihed nations of modern Europe, the molt
elevated and poetic fpirits have been his warmed: ad¬
mirers •, that in France he was idolized by Corneille,
and in England tranflated by Rowe.—The fevered
cenfures on Lucan have proceeded from thofe who
have unfairly compared his language to that of Virgil :
but how unjuft and abfurd is fuch a comparifon ! it is
’comparing an uneven block of porphyry, taken rough
from the quarry, to the moft beautiful fuperficies of
polifhed marble. How differently ftiould we think of
Virgil as a poet, if we poffeffed only the verfes which
he wrote at that period of life when Lucan compofed
his Pharfalia ! In the difpofition of his fubjeft, in the
propriety and elegance of diftion, he is undoubtedly
far inferior to Virgil 5 but if we attend to the bold
originality of his defign, and to the vigour of his fen-
timents; if we cOnfrder the Pharfalia as the rapid and
uncorre&ed Iketch of a young poet, executed in an age
when the fpirit of his countrymen was broken, and
their tafle in literature corrupted ; it may "juftly be
efteemed as one of the moft noble and moft wonderful
productions of the human mind.”—Lucan wrote feve-
ral poems j but we have none remaining beftde his
Pharfalia, of which an excellent Englifti verfion has
been given by Mr Nicholas Rowe.
Lucanus, the Stag-Beetle, a genus of infeCts of the
order of coleoptera. See Entomology Index.
LUCAR DE Barameda (St), a handfome and
confiderable town of Spain, with a very good harbour,
» well defended, in Andalufia. It was once the greateft
port in Spain, before the galleons unloaded their trea-
fure at Cadiz. It is feated at the mouth of the river
Guadalquiver. W. Long. 6. 5. N. Lat. 36. 40.
Lvcar dc Guadiana (St), a ftrong town of Spain,
in Andalufia, on the confines of Algarve ; feated on
the river Guadiana, with a little harbour. W. Long.
.5. 59. N. Lat. 37. 32. r , .
Lvcar la Major (St), a fmall town of Spam, in
Andalufia, with the title of a duchy. It is feated on
the river Guadiana, in W. Long. 6. 32. N. Lat. 37. 21.
LUCARIA, a feaft celebrated at Rome on the
rSth of July, in memory of the flight of the Romans
into a great wood, where they found an afylum, and
faved themfelves from deftruClion. This wood, in
■ which they found proteClion, was fituated between the
Tyber and the Via Solaria. The enemies from whom
the Romans fled were the Gauls.— On this feftival,
Plutarch tells us, it was cuftcmary to pay the adders,
•and fuch as contributed to the public amufement, with
the money arifing from the felling of wood. This
money was called lucar. It is obvious, from what has
been obferved, that lucar and lucana are derived from
lucus, a grove.
LUCAS Jacobs, an eminent artift, more gene¬
rally known by the name of Lucas van Lrydew, or
Hugenfe, was born at Leyden in 1494. He received
his firft inftruclions in the art of painting from his fa¬
ther Hugues Jacobs •, but completed his ftudies in
the fchool of Cornelius Engelbrecht. He gained
much money by his profeftion } and being of a gene¬
rous turn of mind, he fpent it freely, dreffed well, and
lived in a fuperior ftyle. It is faid, that, a few years
before his death, he made a tour into Zealand and
Brabant ; and during his journey, a painter of Flulh-
ing, envious of his great abilities, gave him poifon at
an entertainment •, which, though very flow, was too
fatal in its effedd, and put an end to his life, after fix
years languifhing under its cruel influence. Others,
denying the ftory of the poifon, attribute his death
to his inceffant induftry. The fuperiority of this
artift’s genius manifefted itfelf in his infancy : for his
works, even from the age of nine, w7ere fo excellent
as to excite the admiration of all cotemporary artifts j
and when he w'as about 15, he painted a St Hubert,
wEich gained him great applaufe. His tone of colour¬
ing (Mr Pilkington obferves) is good j his attitudes
(making a reafonable allowance for the ftiff German
tafte) are wTell chofen j his figures have a confiderable
expreffion in their faces, and his piddures are very
highly finifhed. He endeavoured to proportion the
ftrength of his colouring to the different degrees of
diftance in which his objefts were placed : for in that
early time, the true principles of perfpedtive were but
little known, and the praftice of it was much lefs
obferved. In the town hall at Leyden, the moft ca¬
pital piddure of Lucas, the fubjeft of which is the Laft
Judgement, is preferved wfith great care •, the magi-
ftrates having refilled very large fums which have been
offered for it.
This artift painted not only in oil, but alfo in dif-
temper and upon glgfs. Nor w-as he lefs eminent for
his engraving than for his painting. He carried on a
familiar and friendly correfpondence with Albert Du-
rer, who w7as his cotemporary ; and, it is faid, that as
regularly as Albert Durer publilhed one print, Lu¬
cas publilhed another, without the leaft jealoufy on
either fide, or wilh to depreciate each other’s merit.
And wrhen Albert came into Holland upon his travels,
he w^as received by Lucas in a moft cordial and affec¬
tionate manner. His ftyle of engraving, however, ac¬
cording to Mr Strutt, differed confiderably from that of
Albert Durer, “ and feems evidently to have been found¬
ed upon the works of Ifrael van Mechlen. His prints
are very neat and dear, but without any powerful
effed. The ftrokes are as fine and delicate upon the
Lucas.
objeds in the front, as upon thofe in the diftances;
and this want of variety, joined with the feeblenefs of
the maffes of ftiadow, give his engravings, with all
their neatnefs, an unfinifhed appearance, much unlike
the firm fubftantial effed which we find in the works
of Albert Durer. He was attentive to the minutiae
of his art. Every thing is carefully made out in his
prints, and no part of them is negleded. He gave great
charader and expreffion to the heads of his figures j
but on examination of his works, we find the fame
heads
1
LUC [2
Lucas, heads too often repeated. The hands and feet are
v rather mannered than corredl; and when he attempted
to draw the naked figure, he fucceeded but very indif¬
ferently. He affected to make the folds of his dra¬
peries long and Howing ; but his female figures are
frequently fo exceffxvelyffoaded with girdles, bandages,
and other ornamental trappings, that much of the ele¬
gance of the defign is loft. He engraved on wood, as
well as on copper ; but his works on t *3 former are by
no means numerous. They are, however, very fpirited 5
though not equa?, upon the whole, to thole of his friend
Albert. The prints of this mafter are pretty numerous,
but very feldom met with complete ; efpecially fine
impreflions of them. For though they are, generally
fpeaking, executed with the graver only, yet, from
the delicacy of the execution, they foon fuffered in the
printing. Of his engravings the few following may
be mentioned as among the principal, r. Mahomet
Jlcefnng, with a bnej} murdered by his fide, and another
figureJleahng hisfiivord, a middling-fized upright plate,
dated ijo8, laid to be one of his moft early produc¬
tions. 2. An ecce homo, a large plate, lengthwife,
dated 1510. 3. The crucifixion on Mount Calvary,
the fame. 4. I he wife men's offering, the fame,
dated 1513. 5. Return of the prodigal fan, a mid¬
dling (ized plate, lengthwife, dated 1518. 6. A
large print lengthwife, called the dance of Magdalen,
aated 15/9. 7. His own portrait, a finall upright
plate, dated 1525. 8. David playing before Saul, a
middling-fized upright plate, datedf . This is a
very fine print ; the exprefiion of Saul’s countenance,
in particular, is admirable. 9, A print known by
the name of Ulefipiegle, which is the fcarceft of all the
works of this mafter. It is in the colledtion of the
king of France j and faid by Marolles, and other
mailers, to be unique. But Bafan informs us, that
M. Mariette had alfo an impreffion of this plate ; and
it has been fince found in one or two other colledfions.
It reprefents a travelling bagpiper with his family ;
himfelf playing as he goes along, and carrying two
cnildren in a balket at his back j his wife trudging by
his fide, fupporting with one hand an infant on her
fhoulder, and with the other leading an afs loaded
with two balkets, having two children in each ; and
another child going before, with a little dog, completes
the lingular groupe. This rare print is dated 1520,
and is knovvn to have been fold for 16 louis d’ors. 
It is nearly inches high by 4^- broad ; and has
been twice copied. One of the copies is the reverfe
way : but the other is the fame way with the origi¬
nal ; and though not fo well executed, might without
a comparifon be miftaken for it.
Lucas, Richard, D. D. a learned Englifh divine,
was born in 1648, and ftudied at Oxford j after which
he entered into holy orders, and was for fome time
mafter of the free fohool at Abergavenny. Being ef-
teemed an excellent preacher, he became vicar of St
Stephen s, Coleman ftreet, in London, and lecturer of
St Olave s in Southwark. He was doctor of divinity 5
aud in 1696 was inftalled prebendary of Weftminfter ;
His fight.began to fail him in his youth j and he total¬
ly loft it in his middle age. He was greatly efteemed
for his piety and learning; and publilhed feveral works,
particularly, 1. Praftical Chriftianity. 2. An Inquiry
after Happinefs. 3. Several fermons. 4. A Latin
55 ] LU G
tranftation of the Whole Duty of Man. He died in Lue.a
I!
Lo CCA, a fmall republic of Italy on the coaft of '
tne Mediterranean, between the territory of Genoa
on the weft, Modena on the north, and Tufcany on
tne eaft. .According to Keyfler, it is only about 30
miles in circumference, but is exceeding fertile and po¬
pulous. It contains, befides the city of Lucca, 150 vil¬
lages. The. number of inhabitants is computed at
120,000. I he government is lodged in a gonfalonier,
whole power is much the fame with that of the dooes
oi Venice and Genoa. He is afiifted by nine coun-
follors: but the power of all the ten continues only for
two months: during which time they live in the ilate-
palace, and at the public expence. I hey are chofon
out of the great council, which conftfts of’240 nobles;
but even this council is changed by a new eledlion
every two years. The revenues of the republic are
about 400,000 foudi or crowns ; out of which thev
maintain 500 men by way of regular force, and 70
Swils as a.guard to their afting magiftrates. The city
of Lucca is fituated in a plain, terminating in moft de¬
lightful^ eminences, adorned with villas, fummer-houfes,
corn-fields, and plantations of every kind ; fo that no-
thing either for ufe or for pleafure is here wanting. The
city, which is about three Italian miles in circumfe-
lence, has regular well-lined fortifications ; and its
ftreets though irregular, are wide, well paved, and full
of handfome houfes. The number of its inhabitants is
computed to be above 40,000 ; and they carry on large
manufactures, efpecially of filk Huffs. Lucca has a bi-
fliop, who enjoys feveral extraordinary privileges; and
its cathedral is Gothic. The city ftands in E. Long.
11. 27. N. Lat. 43. 52.
LUCEN 11, Lucentia, or Lucentum, a town of
the Hither Spain, now Alicant, a fea-port of Va¬
lencia. W. Long. 32'. Lat. 38°. 37k
LUCERES, in Roman antiquity, the third in order
of txie three tribes into which Romulus divided the
people; including all foreigners: fo called from the lucus
or grove, where Romulus opened an afylum.
. LUCERIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Apu¬
lia in .Italy ; which in Strabo’s time ftill exhibited marks
of Diomed’s fovereignty in thofe parts. Ptolemy has
iSuceria; whether from miftake, or the cuftom of
his time, uncertain. Now Nocera de Pagani, in the
kingdom of Naples. E. Long. 15. o. N. Lat. 40. 40.
. LUCERIUS, in Mythology, a name given to Ju¬
piter, as Luceria was given to Juno, as the deities
which gave light to the world.
LUCERNE, one of the 13 cantons of Swiffer-
land. It holds the third place among the 13 ; and is
the head of the Catholic cantons. Though lefs than
Zurich, and confequently much lefs than Berne, it is
however, far more e.xtenfive than any of the reft, be¬
ing 15 or. 16 leagues long, and eight broad. The po¬
pulation is eftimated at 100,000. Even the moun¬
tainous part is not barren, but abundant in tvood and
pafture, furniihing cattle, hides, cheefe, and butter,
for.exportation. All the north part is fertile in grain,
fruit, and hay ; fupplying fufficient for the confump-
tion of the inhabitants; but as the mountaineers of
tne little cantons come to their mapket for corn, the
people of Lucerne purchafe this commodity from other
parts of Swifierland, but efpecially from Alface and
Suabig»,
L U G [2
Lucerne, Suabia. Their manufadures are very iuconfiderable ;
T'" v " ' confifting only in a little lilk and cotton thread.—The
government is oligarchical. The councils are chofen
from among joo citizens only. The great council of
64 members is the nominal fovereign; but in fa£t the
power r&mes in the fenate, or little council of 36,
having for their chiefs the two avoyers.—The whole
canton profeifes the Roman Catholic religion. The
pope’s nuncio, with the title of legate a latere, ufually
refides at Lucerne.—They threw off the Auftrian yoke
in 1352, and by entering into a perpetual alliance
with the three ancient cantons, they gave fuch weight
to the confederacy, as to enable it in 1386 to refill
all the efforts of the enemy at the bloody battle of
Sempach.
The town of Lucerne is fituated at the extremity of
a moll beautiful lake of the fame name, where the
river Reufs iffues from it. The buildings are ancient,
and the llreets narrow ; nor is Lucerne populous in
proportion to its extent, the inhabitants being only
between 3000 and 4000. Since this is the great palfage
to Italy by Mount St Gothard, and the merchandife
which palfes the Alps on mules, and is to be tranf-
ported by the rivers Reufs, Aar, and Rhine, is all
depofited here, it might have a flourifhing trade if
arts and manufadfures were attended to. The Reufs
feparates the town into two unequal parts, w-hich are
connedled by three bridges : one wide for carriages j
and two narrow covered ones for foot paffengers : be-
fxdes thefe, there is a fourth over an arm of the lake,
to pafs to the cathedral. Three of thefe bridges have
old bad paintings of the Dance of Death, and the Hi-
llory of the Bible, and of Swifferland. They make
a commodious dry walk for the inhabitants.—Of re¬
ligious edifices, the principal are the cathedral, or col¬
legiate church of St Leger; the convent of Corde¬
liers j the college of the Jefuits; the convent of Capu¬
chins , and two convents of nuns. Of the fecular
buildings, the hotel de ville is the principal. The
arfenal is well furnilhed. The water tower is remark¬
able only for its pofition and antiquity ; it is faid to
have been a pharos or lighthoufe. What greatly
attradls the notice of mod llrangers is, a plan in
relief of part of the cantons of Lucerne, Zug, and
Berne, and the whole of Schw'eitz, Uri, and Under-
wald, executed by General Pfiffer on a large fcale.
He has completed about 60 fquare leagues j the plan
is 12 fact long, and nine and a half broad : every
mountain is accurately meafured; and every objeft
diftin&ly placed.
The lake of Lucerne exhibits greater variety and
more pi&urefque fcenery than any other of the Swifs
lakes. It is feven leagues long in a right line, and
three wide about Kuffhacht ; but the lhape is very ir¬
regular. The whole fouth fide is bordered by high
mountains} but the north exhibits hills of no great
height. The narrow gulf that extends towards the
weft, is bordered on the weft and north weft by Mount
Pilat, wdftch is a fingle mountain rifing boldly more
than 6000 feet above the lake ; and on the fouth by
Mount BurgenLerg. Stanz Stadt, belonging to the
canton of Underwald, is on this fide ; and hereabouts
the lake is dtepeft. Kuffnacht is on the point of the
other gulf, w'hicli extends towards the eaft, and is
jvider than the former. All the country to the wreft
2
56 ] LUC
of thefe gulfs, and part of it to the north of the
latter, belongs to the canton of Lucerne j but that
which is to the louth and north-eaft is dependant on the
canton of Zug. All the mountains on the left ftiore of
the lake belong to the canton of Underwald ; thofe on
the right, partly to the canton of Uri, partly to that
of Schweitz, partly to the little republic of Gerfaw,
but principally to the canton of Lucerne.
Lucerne, in Botany. See Medicago, Botany
Index.—For the culture of this plant, fee Agricul¬
ture Index.
LUCIA, St, one of the Caribbee idands in the
Weft Indies, about 22 miles long, and 11 broad, the
middle of it lying in N. Lat. 39. 14. W, Long. 27. c.
It was firft fettled by the French in 1650; but was
reduced by the Englilh in 1664, w’ho evacuated it in
1666. The French immediately refettled the illand,
but were again driven away by the Caribbs. As foon
as the favages were gone, the former inhabitants re¬
turned, but only for a fhort time ; for being afraid of
falling a prey to the firft privateer that (hould vifit
their coafts, they removed either to other French fet-
tlements that were rtronger, or which they might ex-
peift to be better defended, There was then no re¬
gular culture or colony at St Lucia j it was only fre¬
quented by the inhabitants of Martinico, who came
thither to cut wood, and to build canoes, and who
had confiderable docks on the illand. In 1718 it
W'as again fettled by the French ; but four years af¬
ter, it was given by the court of London to the duke
of Montague, who was fent to take pofleftion of it.
T his occalioned fome difturbance between the tw7o
courts $ which was fettled, however, by an agreement
made in 1731, that, till the refpeftive claims flrould
be finally adjufted, the illand fhould be evacuated by
both nations, but that both Ihould wood and water
there. This precarious agreement furnilhed an op¬
portunity for private intereft to exert itfelf. The
Englilh no longer molefted the French in their habi¬
tations $ but employed them as their afliftants in car-
rying on with richer colonies a fmuggling trade, which
the fubje6ts of both governments thought equally ad¬
vantageous to them. This trade has been more or
lefs confiderable till the treaty of 1763, when the
property of St Lucia w7as fecured to the crown of
France. After that time the colony fiourilhed consi¬
derably. In the beginning of the year 1772, the
number of white people amounted to 2018 fouls, men,
women, and children j that of the blacks to 663 free
men, and 12,795 Haves. The cattle confifted of 928
mules or horfes, 2070 head of horned cattle, and 3184
flieep or goats. There were 38 fugar plantations,
which occupied 978 pieces of land 5 5,595,889 coffee-
trees j 1,321,600 cocoa plants 5 and 367 plots of cot¬
ton. There were 706 dwelling places. The annual
revenue at that time was about 175,000!. which, ac¬
cording to the Abbd Raynal, muff have increafed one-
eighth yearly for fome rime. It was taken by the
Britilh in 17785 reftored to France in 1783. It fell
again into the hands of the Britifti in 1794, was evacu¬
ated m 1795, anft was again retaken in 1796.
The foil of St Lucia is tolerably good, even at the
fea fide 5 and is much better the farther one advances
into the country. The whole of it is capable of cul¬
tivation, except fome high and craggy mountains which
bear
LUC [
lAicia bear evident marks of old volcanoes. In one deep
valley there are Hill eight or ten ponds, the water of
no in O r! rl Til I manner* on ri i-/afotnc
^ uciam s. boil, Up in a dreadful manner, and retains fome
of its heat at the diftance of 6000 toifes from its re-
fervoirs. The air in the inland parts, like that of all
other uninhabited countries, is foul and unwholefome j
but grows lefs noxious as the woods are cleared and
the ground laid open. On fome parts of the fea
coaft, the air is Hill more unhealthy, on account of
fome fmall rivers which fpring from the foot of the
mountains, and have not fufficient dope to wafh down
the fands wuth which the influx of the ocean Hops
up their mouths, by wdiich means they fpread them-
felves into unwholefome marlhes on the neighbouring
grounds.
Lucia, St, a high and mountainous ifland of Africa,
and one of thofe of Cape Verde, is about nine leagues
long, and lies in the latitude of 160 18' N. according
to the Englifh geographers; but according to all
others, it is a degree farther to the northward. On the
eaft-fouth-eaft lide is a harbour, with a bottom and
fliore of white fand 5 but its bell road is oppofite to St
Vincent’s to the fouth-weft, where there are at leaf! $o
fathoms of water. On the weft fide there is no water :
it abounds with goats, fea and land fowl, tortoiles, &c.
but whether it hath any inhabitants is not certainly
known.
LUCIAN, a celebrated Greek author in the firft
century, was born at Samofata, of obfcure parents, in
the reign of the emperor Trajan. He ftudied law, and
pradliled fome time as an advocate} but growing weary
of the wrangling oratory of the bar, he commenced
rhetorician. He lived to the time of Marcus Aure¬
lius, wTho made him regifter of Alexandria in Egypt j
and, according to Suidas, he was at laft worried by
dogs. Lucian was one of the fineft wnts in all anti¬
quity. His Dialogues, and other works, are written
in Greek. In thefe he has joined the ufeful to the
agreeable, inftru&ion to fatire, and erudition to ele¬
gance $ and we everywhere meet with that fine and
delicate raillery which charafterizes the Attic tafte.—
Thofe who cenfure him as an impious fcofter at reli¬
gion, have reafon on their fide, if religion confifted in
the theology of the Pagan poets, or in the extravagant?
opinions of philofophers •, for he perpetually throws
fuch ridicule on the gods and philofophers, with their
vices, as infpires hatred and contempt for them ; but
it cannot be faid that he writes anywhere againft an
overruling providence.
LUC I AN I STS, or Lucanists, a religious fe£l:,
fo called from Lucianus, or Lucanus, a heretic of the
fecond century, being a difciple of Marcion, whofe
errors he followed, adding fome new ones to them. Epi-
phanius fays he abandoned Marcion ; teaching that
people ought not to marry, for fear of enriching the
Creator : and yet other authors mention that he held
this error in common with Marcion and other Gno-
ftics. He denied the immortality of the foul; affert-
ing it to be material.
I here was another fe6t of Lucianifts, wfbo appear¬
ed fome time after the Arians. They taught, that the
Father had been a father always, and that he had the
name even before he begot the Son ; as having in him
the power or faculty of generation ; and in this mar.jer
they accounted for the eternity of the Son.
Vol. XII. Part I.
Lucid
Intervals
257 ] LUC
LUCID INTERVALS, the fits of lunatics or maniacs,
wherein the phrenzy leaves them in poffeflioa of their
reafon. " .
LUCIFER, according to the poets, was the fon 1
of Jupiter and Aurora. In aftronomy, Lucifer is the
bright planet Venus, which either goes before the fun
in the morning, for 290 days, and is our morning
ftar ; or in the evening follows the fun, during the
fame time, and then is called Hejperus or the evening
ftar.
LUCIFERA, in Mythology, a furname given to
Diana, under which title the was invoked by the
Greeks in childbed. She was reprefented as covered
wuth a large veil, interfperfed with ftars, bearing a cref-
cent on her head, and holding in her hand a lighted
flambeau.
LUCIFERIANS. a religious feift, who adhered
to the fchilm of Lucifer, bithop of Cagliari, in the
fourth century, who was baniihed by the emperor
Conftantius, for having defended the Nicene dodlrine
concerning the three Perfons in the Godhead.—St Au-
guftine feems to intimate, that they believed the foul,
which they confidered as of a carnal nature, to be
tranfmitted to the children from their fathers. Theo-
doret fays, that Lucifer was the author of a new error.
The Luciferians increafed mightily in Gaul, Spain,
-^gyPL A he occafion of the fchifm was, that Lu¬
cifer would not allow' any ads he had done to be abo-
lilhed. There were but two Luciferian bilhops, but a
great number of priefts and deacons. The Luciferians
bore a peculiar averfion to the Arians.
LUCILIUS, Caius, a Roman knight, and a La¬
tin poet, was born at Suelfa in Italy, about 140 B. C.
He ferved under Scipio Africanus in the war with the
Numantines j and was in great favour with that cele¬
brated general, and w’ith Laelius. He wrote 30 books
of fatires, in which he laftred feveral perfons of quality
very Iharply. Some learned men aferibe the invention
of fatire to him ; but M. Dacier has maintained, with
great probability, that Lucilius only gave a better
turn t® that kind of poetry, and wrote it with more
wdt and humour than his predeceflbrs Ennius and Pa-
cuvius had done. His fragments have been carefully
collected by Francis Douza at Leyden in 1599, with
notes. But they require ftill to be better illuftrated by
fome learned critic.
LUCINA, a goddefs among the Romans, who
prefided over women in labour. Some take her to be
Diana, others Juno. She w'as called Lucina, becaufe file
brought children to the light ; from the Latin word
lux, “ light.”
LUCIUS, the fpecific name of the pike. See Esox,
Ichthyology Index.
LUCONIA. See Manilla.
LUCRETIA, the famous Roman matron, wife of
Collatrnus, and the caufe of the revolution in Rome
from a monarchy to a republic : this lady being ravilh-
ed by Sextus, the eldeft fon of Tarquin king of Rome,
ftabbed herfelf, 509 B. C. See the article Chastity!
The bloody poniard, with her dead body expofed to
the fenate, was the fignal of Roman liberty ; the ex-
pnlfion of the Tarquins, and abolition of the regal dig-
nhy, was inftantly refolved on, and carried into exe-
tion. See Rome,
XUCRETIXTS, or Titus Lucretius, Caius, one
K k
or
I.ucriiuis
J.acus
Lucus.
L UC [ 25
of trie moft celebrated of the Latin poets, was born of
an ancient and noble Roinan family, and ftudied at
Athens, where he became one of Epicurus’s lecf. He
acquired great reputation by his learning and elo¬
quence 5 but in the flower of his age fell into a frenzy,
occafloned by a philtre given him by his wife, who
was diftradledly fond of him. Lucretius, daiing the
intervals of his madnefs, put Epicurus’s doctrines into
verfe, and compofed liis fix books De Rerum No turn,
which are full extant. It is faid that he killed him-
felf in a fit of madnefs, in the 54th year before the
Chriftian era, when 51 years old. The molt corredt
edition of Lucretius is that of Simon de Coline. The
cardinal de Polignac has refuted Lucretius’s arguments,
in his excellent Latin poem entitled Anti-Lucre tins.
His poem De Rerum Natura has been tranflated into
Engliih by Mr Creech.
LUCRINUS lacus, in Ancient Geography, a lake
of Campania, between Baige and Puteoli, famous for
its oyiters (Horace, Martial, Juvenal) •, Lucnnenfes
(Cicero), the people dwelling on it. Now a perfect
bay fince the earthquake in 1538.
LUCULLUS, Lucius Lucinius, a Roman gene¬
ral celebrated for his eloquence, his victories, and his
riches. In his youth he made a figure at the bar •, and
being afterwards made quaeflor in Alia, and praetor in
Africa, governed thofe provinces with great modera¬
tion and juftice. Scarce was he known as a military
man, when he twice beat the fleet of Hamilcar, and
gained trvo great vi£lories over him. His happy ge-
Hus was greatly improved by ftudy j for he employed
his leifure in reading the bell authors on military af¬
fairs. Being made conful with Aurelius Cotta, dur¬
ing the third war with Mithridates king of Pontus,
he was fent againft this prince : and this expedition
was attended wJth a feries of vidlories, which did him
lefs honour than an aft of generofity towards his col¬
league j who, walling to take advantage of his abfence
to fignalize himfelf by fome great exploit, hailened to
fight Mithridates •, but was defeated and fliut up in
Chalcedonia; where he mull have perilhed, if Lucullus,
facrificing his refentment to the pleafure of faving a
Roman citizen, had not flown to his affiftance, and
difengaged him. All Pontus then fubmitted to Lu¬
cullus ; who being continued in his government of
Afia, entered the territories of Tigranes, the moll
powerful king in Afia. That prince marched with a
formidable army againfl Lpcullus: who defeated him
with a handful of men, and killed great numbers of
bis forces} took Tigranocertes, the capital of his king¬
dom j and was ready to put an end to the wTar, when
the intrigues of a tribune got him depofed, and Pompey
nominated in his room. Lucullus having brought home
prodigious riches, now gave himfelf up to exceffive lux¬
ury ; and his table was ferved with a profufion till
that time unknorvn. He brought from the Eaft a great
number of books, which he formed into a library,
and gave admittance to all men of learning, wdio fre¬
quented it in great numbers. Toward the end of his
life, he fell into a kind of madnefs j and Lucullus, his
brother was appointed his guardian. He is faid to
have been the firft who brought cherries into Europe,.
having brought the grafts from the kingdom of Pon¬
tus.
L;UCUS, In general, denotes a wood or grove fa-
B j L U D
cred to a deity ; fo called a lucendo, bccaufe a great Lud
number of lights were ulually burning in honour of II.
the god (Ifidorus) j a practice common wuth idola-, 'Llu^'
ters, as we learn from Scripture : hence Homer’s
ciyXciOV /x.'k'ro$.
LCD, a Britifh king mentioned in our old chro¬
nicles, and faid to have reigned about the year of the
wmrld 3878. He is reported to have enlarged and wall¬
ed about Troynovant, or New Troy, where he kept his
court, and made it his capital. The name of London
is hence derived from Lad's town ; and Ludgate from
his being buried near it : but this is only one among
many other derivations of the name of London ; which
are at leaft equally probable. See London.
LUDAMAR, a Moorifh kingdom in the interior
part of Africa, the capital of which is fituated in N.
Lat. 15. o. W. Long. 60 50. which Mr Park con-
fiders as little fuperior to a deiert. The Moors of Lu-
damar fubfift chiefly on the flefli of their cattle.
The barrennefs of the country is fuch, that it fur-
niflies few materials for manufadlure : but the inhabi¬
tants contrive to weave a ftrong cloth, with which their
tents are covered \ the thread is fpun by the women
from goats hair, and with the hides of their cattle they
furnilh faddles, bridles, pouches, and other articles of
leather. They can alfo convert the native iron pro¬
cured from the negroes into fpears, knives, and pots for
boiling their food ; but they purchafe their fire-arms
and other w eapons of a fimilar nature from the Euro¬
peans, in exchange for Haves.
Their ideas of female perfection are truly Angular,
fince a w'oman, to have the fmalleft pretenfions to
beauty, mull be one who requires a Have under each
arm to fupport her as Ihe wTalks •, and a perfect beauty,
according to Mr Park, is a load for a camel.
The wealth of the Moors chiefly confiits in their
numerous herds of cattle, yet the majority of the people
fpend their days in a Bate of idlenefs. The tent of the
king is the common place of rendezvous for the indo¬
lent, where they appear to enjoy an unlimited liberty
of fpeech •, yet in the praife of their foverdgn they are
wholly unanimous, finging fongs to his honour, which
never fail to be filled with the groffell adulation. The
king fometimes eats out of the fame bafon with the
driver of his camels, and during the heat of the day re-
pofes himfelf upon the fame bed.
^ Cavalry conllitute the chief military flrength of Lu-
damar, which are w7ell mounted, and are very expert
in attacking by furprife. The horfe of every ibldier is
furnifhed by himfelf, as alfo his military, implements,
confiding of a large fabre, a double-barrelled gun, a
red leather bag for holding his balls, and a powder*
horn flung over his (boulder. He has no pay, and his
only compenfation arifes from plunder.
They have no intercourfe with civilized nations, yet
they boafl: an advantage over the negroes, as they pof-
fefs, though in a very limited degree, the knowledge
of letters. They are efleemed the vaineft, proudell,
and moft bigotted, ferocious, and intolerant of all the
nations of the earth, blending in their character the
blind fuperftition of the negro with the favage cruelty
and treachery of the Arab. It W'as with the utmoit
difficulty that Mr Park made his efcape from this cruel
and inhofpitable people.
LUD I, a term ufed for (hows and public represen¬
tations.
Luctius,
Ludlow.
L U D
tatlons made by the Romans, for the
of the people. See Games.
J For an account of the particular games of Greece
and Rome, as the Ifchmian, NemEean, Olympic, &c.
fee Isthmian, &c.
LUDIUS, a celebrated painter, lived in the reign
of Auguilus Csefar, and excelled in grand compofitions.
He was the firft who painted the fronts of houfes in
the ilreets of Rome j which he beautified with great
variety of kndfcapes, and many other different fub-
jedls.
LUDLOW, Edmund, fon of Sir Henry Ludlow,
was born at Maidenhead, and educated in Trinity
college, Oxford. His father oppofing the king’s in-
tereft, Mr Ludlow joined with the fame party, and
was prefent at the battle of Edgehill as a volunteer un¬
der the earl of Elfex. Upon the death of his father,
he was chofen knight of the {hire for Wilts, and ob¬
tained the command of a regiment of horfe for the de¬
fence of that country. He was one of King Charles I.’s
judges : after whofe death he was fent by the parlia¬
ment into Ireland, in quality of lieutenant-general of
the horfe; which employment he difcharged with di¬
ligence and fuccefs till the death of the lord-deputy
Ireton, when he afted for fome time as general, though
without that title 5 Cromwell, who knew him to be
fincerely in the interefl of the commonwealth, always
finding out fome pretext to hinder the conferring of
that charadfer upon him. The laft ftroke had been
given by Ludlow to the Irifh rebellion, if the ufurpa-
tion of Cromwell had not prevented it. Under his
power he never adled ; and though Cromwell ufed his
utmoft efforts, he remained inflexible. After Crom-
well’s death, he endeavoured to reftore the common¬
wealth 5 but Charles II. being recalled, he thought
proper to conceal himfelf, and efcaped into Switzer¬
land, where he fettled. After the revolution, he came
over into England, in order to be employed in Ire¬
land againtt King James : but appearing publicly in
London, it gave great offence ; and an addrefs was
prefented by Sir Edward Seymour to King William III.
for a proclamation in order to apprehend Colonel
Ludlowq attainted for the murder of King Charles I.
Upon this he returned to Switzerland, where he
died. During his retirement in Switzerland he wurote
his Memoirs.
Ludlow, a town of Shropfhire in England, fitua-
ted at the conflux of the Teme and Corve, 18 miles
from Shrewfbury, and 138 from London. The pre-
iident of the council of the marches, eifabli tiled by
Henry VIII. generally kept his courts in it, by which
the town was much benefited, thefe courts not having
been abolifhed till the iff of William and Mary. Its
neighbourhood to Wales makes it a great thorough¬
fare, and engages many of the Welfh to lend their
children of both fexes to it for education. It was in¬
corporated by Edward IV. and among other privi¬
leges has that of trying and executing criminals within
itfelf. It is one of the neateft towns in England,
with w7alls and feven gates. It is divided into four
wards \ and is governed by 2 bailiffs, 1 2 aldermen, 25
common-councilmen, a recorder, a town-clerk, fteward,
chamberlain, coroner, &c. From the caftle on the top
of the hill on which the town ftands is a moll delight¬
ful profpect. In an apartment of the outer gatehoufe
[ 259 1
entertainment Sflmuel Butler
L U - D
is faid to have written the firft part of Ludolph
Hudibras. Of this caftle, which was befieged and ta-
ken by King Stephen, fome of the offices are fallen
down, and great part of it turned into a bowling-green j
but part of the royal apartments and the fword of
ftate are ftill left. The walls were at firft a mile in
compafs, and there was a lawn before it for near two
miles, of which much is now enclofed. The battle¬
ments are very high and thick, and adorned with
towers. It has a neat chapel, where are the coats of
arms of abundance of Wellh gentry, and over the
ftable-doors are the arms of Queen Elizabeth, the earls
of Pembroke, Sec. This caftle was a palace of the
prince of Wales, in right of his principality. The
river Teme has a good bridge over it, feveral wears a-
crofs it, and turns a great many mills. Here is a
large parochial church, which was formerly collegiate ;
in the choir whereof is an infcription relating to Prince
Arthur, elder brother to King Henry VIII. who died
here, and whofe bowels were here depofited, though
it is faid his heart was taken up fome time ago in a
leaden box. In this choir is a clofet, commonly call¬
ed God's Houfe, where the priefts ufed to keep their
confecrated utenfils ; and in the market-place is a con¬
duit, with a long ftone crofs on it, and a niche wherein
is the image of St Laurence, to whom the church was
dedicated. On the north fide of the town there was a
rich priory, whereof there are few’ ruins to be feen ex¬
cept thofe of its church. Here are an alms-houfe for
30 poor people, and two charity-fchools where 50 boys
and 30 girls are both taught and clothed. It has a
market on Monday, and three leffer ones on WTednef-
day, Friday, and Saturday. Its fairs are on the Tuef-
day Eafter, Whit-Wednefday, Auguft 21. Sept. 28.
and Dec. 8. Provifions are very cheap here ; and at
the annual horfe races there is the bell; of company.
The country round is exceedingly pleafant, fruitful, and
populous, efpecially that part called the Corvefdale, be¬
ing the vale on the banks of the river Corve. Ludlow
fends two members to parliament.
LUDOLPH, Job, a very learned writer of the
17th century, was born at Erfurt in Thuringia. He
travelled much, and was mafter of 25 languages, vi-
fited libraries, fearched after natural curiofities and an¬
tiquities everywhere, and converfed with learned men
of all nations. He published a Hiftory of Ethiopia,
and other curious books.
LuDOLPH, Henry William, nephew of Job above
mentioned, was born at Erfurt in 1655. He came
over to England as fecretary to M. Lenthe, envoy from
the court of Copenhagen to that of London \ and be¬
ing recommended to Prince George of Denmark, was
received as his fecretary. He enjoyed this office for
xome years, until he was incapacitated by a violent dif-
order ; when he was difcharged with a handfome pen-
fion : after he recovered, lie travelled into Mufcovy,
where he was well received by the czar, and where
his knowledge made the Mufcovite priefts fuppofe him
to be a conjurer. On his return to London in 1694,
he was cut for the ftone \ and as foon as his health
would permit, in acknowledgement of the civilities he
had received in Mufcovy, he wrote a grammar of their
language, that the natives might learn their own tongue
in a regular method. He then travelled into the Eaft,
to inform himfelf of the ftate of the Chriftian church
K k 2 in
Luge us
Lac us.
LUG [ 260 ] L U L
the deplorable condition of^ which m- the water being fo redundant as to refufe receiving anyLuggerfliall
more, they regurgitate, and return the water with
ludwidgla in the Levant,
duced him, after his return, with the aid of the bidiop
of Worcefter, to print an edition of the New Tefta-
ment in the vulgar Greek, to prefent to the Greek
church. In 1709, when fuch numbers of Palatines
came over to England, Mr Ludolph was appointed by
Queen Anne one of the commillioners to manage the
charities railed for them ; and he died early the fol-
lownng year. His collected works were publiflied in
1712
„ „ ex¬
traordinary celerity, which thus fpreading itfelf, forms
a lake, in moft places 18 cubits deep. Thefe waters
afterwards retire with no lefs celerity than they came
on, not only through the furrows, but pafs through
the whole of the bottom, as through a fieve ; which
when perceived by the inhabitants, they direftly Hop
up the larger apertures, and thus take large quantities
of filh : when the lake is dry, they cut dowm their har-
LuUi.l
LUDWIDGIA, a genus of plants belonging to the . veft on the fpot where they' lowed, and fow again be-
tetrandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 17th order, Calycdnthemce. See Botany
Index.
LUES, among phyficians, is in general ufed for a
difeafe of any kind $ but in a more particular fenfe is
reftrained to contagious and peftilential difeafes 5 thus
the lues Ga/lica7 or venerea, fignifies the venereal dif¬
eafe. See Medicine Index.
LUFF, the order from the pilot to the Iteerfman
to put the helm towards the /ee-fide of the ihip, in
order to make the Ihip fail nearer the direftion of the
wind. Hence, luff round, or luff a-lee, is the excefs
of this movement, by which it is intended to throw
the (hip’s head up in the wind, in order to tack her,
&c. A (hip is accordingly faid to fpring her luff
when Hie yields to the effort of the helm, by failing
nearer to the line of the wind than (he had done before.
See alfo Hauling the Wind.
LuFF-Tcck/e, a name given by failors to any large
tackle that is not deflined for a particular place, but
may be varioully employed as occalion requires. It
is generally fomewhat larger than the jigger tackle,
although fmaller than thofe wThich ferve to .hoift the
heavier materials into and out of the veffel, which lat¬
ter are the main and fore tackles, the ftay and quarter
tackles, &c.
LUG-saie, a fquare fail, hoilted occafionally on the
maft of a boat or fmall veffel upon a yard wThich hangs
nearly at right angles with the maft. Thefe are more
particu’arly ufed in the barca longas, navigated by the
Spaniards in the Mediterranean.
LUGDUNUM, in /Indent Geography, the capital
«f the Sgguiiani in Gallia Celtica, fituated at the con¬
flux of the Arar and Rhodanus, on an eminence, as the
Celtic term dune fignifies $ built by Manutius Plancus
under Augullus, while commanding in that part of
Gaul; and whither he led a colony. Now Lyons, ca¬
pital of the Lyonnois.
Lugdunum Batavorum, in Ancient Geography, a
tiwn of the Batavi in Gallia Belgica. Now Leyden in
Holland.
Lugdunum Converarum, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Gaul in Aquitain, at the foot of the Pyrenees.
No w .S'. Bertrand, in Gafcony.
LUGE US lacus, in Ancient Geography, a lake
of Japydia, the weftmoft diftrift of Illyricum, to the
fouth of the Save, and near the head of the Arfia.
Now commonly called the Zirichnitv, Lake, from a
fmall adjoining town. It is locked on every fide with
mountains j from which fcanty currents run down 5 the
lefs in quantity their waters, becaufe drank up by the
earth ; till at length they are fvvallowed up in rocky
furrows, fo formed as to refemble artificial. In thefe
fore the inundation comes on : and grafs (hoots fo quick
on it, that it may be cut down in three weeks time,
(Lazius, Wernherus).
LUGGERSHALL, a borough of Wiltftiire, 12
miles north of Salifbury, and 75 north by weft of Lon¬
don. It is an ancient borough by prefcription, though
but a fmall hamlet, near the foreft of Chute, in a de¬
lightful country 5 and was the refidence of feveral
kings. It had formerly a caftle. It is governed by a
bailiff chofen yearly at the lord of the manor’s court-
leet. On the neighbouring downs there ufed to be
horfe-races.
LUKE, St, the evangelift, and the difciple of the
apoftles, was originally of Antioch in Syria, and by
profeflion a phyfician. He particularly attached him-
felf to St Paul, and was his faithful companion in his
travels and labours. He went with him to Troas in
Macedonia about the year 51. He wrote his gofpel
in Achaia about the year 53 ; and, ten years after,
the afts of the Apoftles, which contains a hiftory of
30 years. Of all the infpired writers of the New Te-
ftament, his works are written in the mod elegant
Greek. It is believed that St Luke died at Rome, or
in Achaia.
Gofpel of St Luke, a canonical book of the New
Teftament. Some think that it was properly St
Paul’s Gofpel} and that, when the apoftle fpeaks of
his Gofpel, he means what is called St Luke's. Ire-
naeus fays, that St Luke digefted into writing what St
Paul preached to the Gentiles j and Gregory Nazian-
zen tells us, that St Luke wrote with the afliitance of
St Paul.
St Luke's the Evangelif's Day. a feftival in the Chri-
ftian church, obferved on the 18th of October.
LULA, a town of Swedifii Lapland; feated at the
mouth of the river Lula, on the weft fide of the gulf
of Bothnia, 42 miles fouth-weft of Tornea. E. Long,
21. o. N. Lat. 64. 30.
Lula Lapmark, a province of Swedifii Lapland ;
bounded by that of Tornea on the north, by the Both-
nic gulf on the eaft, by Pithia Lapmark on the fouth,
and Norway on the weft.
LULLI, John Baptist, the mod celebrated and
mod excellent mufician that has appeared in France
fince the revival of learning, was born at Florence. He
was taken to France when very young by a perfon of
quality ; and he carried the art of playing on the vio¬
lin to the higheft perfedion. Louis XIV. made him,
fuperintendant of mufic. Some time after Perinna
having introduced operas into France, and quarrelling
with his company, he refigned his privilege to Lulli.
Operas were then carried to the utmoft perfedion by
this celebrated mufician, and were attended with conti¬
nual.
4
L U N [ 261 ] L U N
LuI!y nual applaufe. Lulli every year, after this time, gave
T a piece of his own compofition, till his death, w’hich
happened in 1687.
LULLY, Raymond, a writer on alchemy, fur-
named the Enlightened DoBor, was born in the illand
of Majorca in I 225. He applied himfelf with indefa¬
tigable labour to the ftudy of the Arabian philofophy,
to chemiflry, phyfic, and divinity ; and acquired great
reputation by his works. He at length went to preach
the gofpel in Africa ; and was Honed to death in Mau¬
ritania, at the age of 80. He is honoured as a martyr
at Majorca, whither his body was carried. He wrote
many treatifes on all the fciences, in which he fhows
much ftudy and fubtility, but little judgement or folidi-
ty. A complete edition of his works has been printed
at Mentz.—He ought not to be confounded with Ray¬
mond Lully of Terraca, furnamed Neophytaf who from
being a Jew turned Dominican friar. This laft Lully
maintained feveral opinions that were condemned by
Pope Gregory XL
LUMBAGO, a fixed pain in the fmall of the back.
See Medicine Index.
, LUMBAR1S, a name given to the arteries and veins
which fpread over the loins.
LUMBRICAL, a name given to four mufcles of
the fingers and to as many of the toes.
LUMBRICUS, the Worm, a genus of animals be¬
longing to the order of vermes inteftina. See Helmin¬
thology Index.
LUMELLO, a village in Italy, which gives name
to the Lumellin, a fmall diftrift in the duchy of Mi¬
lan, lying along the river Po, and of which Mortaria
and Valencia are the principal places. It was ceded
to the duke of Savoy in 1707, and confirmed by the
treaty of Utrecht in 1713. E. Long. 8. 42. N. Lat.
45* 5-
LUMINOUS, an epithet applied to any thing that
ftiines or emits light.
Luminous Emanations have been obferved from hu¬
man bodies, as alfo from thofe of brutes. The light
arifing from currying a horfe, or from rubbing a cat’s
back, are known to moft. Inftances of a like kind
have been known on combing a wmman’s head. Bar¬
tholin gives us an account, which he entitles mnlier
fplendens, of a lady in Italy wdrofe body would ftiine
whenever llightly touched wdth a piece of linen. Thefe
effluvia of animal bodies have many properties in com¬
mon with thofe produced from glafs 5 fuch as their
being lucid, their fnapping, and their not being ex¬
cited without fome degree qf friflion; and are un¬
doubtedly eleflrical, as a cat’s back has been found
ftrongly eleftrical whtn ftjroaked. See Electricity
and Light.
LUMINOUSNESS of the Sea. See Light
and Sea.
Luminousness of Putrefcent SubJIances. See Light.
LUMP-eish. See Cyclopterus, Ichthyology
Index.
LUNA, in Ancient Geography, a foreft of Germany,
at no great diftance from the Hercynian ; below which
were the Boemi: it was therefore in Moravia, near the
fprings of the Marus, now' March, which runs into the
Danube over againft Carnutum.
Luna, or Lunna, a town of Gallia Celtica. Now
C/ugny in Burgundy.
Luna, a town and port of Liguria, at the mouth kuna
of the Macra. The town was but fmall, but the port ^ ^ ^
large and beautiful, according to Strabo. Now exthuft,, vrj
and its ruins called Luna Di/irutta. It wTas famous for
its quarries of white marble, thence called Lunenfe;
and for its cheefe, remarkable rather for its lize than
goodnefs, each being a thoufand weight.
Luna, in AJlronomy, the moon. See Astronomy,
pafim.
Luna, in the jargon of the alchemifts, fignifies JiL
ver ; fo called from the fuppofed influence of the moon-
thereupon.
Luna Cornea, in Chemifiry, is a compound of muria¬
tic acid with filver. See Silver, muriate of, Che¬
mistry Index.
LUNACY, a fpecies of madnefs. See Lunatic,
and Medicine Index.
Lunacy, in Law. See Idiocy and Lunatic.
LUNiE MONS, in Ancient Geography, a promontory
of Lufitania. Now Rock of Lijbon. W. Long. ic.
N. Lat. 38. 50.—Another Lunce Mans of Ethiopia,
from which the Nile w'as fuppofed to take its rife.
Lunje Portus, a very extenfive port, or more truly
a bay, of Liguria, between Portus Veneris and Portus
Ericis, 20 miles in compafs. Now' il Go/fo della dpe%ia,
on the eaft coaft of the territory of Genoa.
LUNAR, fomething relating to the Moon.
Lunar Month. See Month.
Lunar Tear, confifts of 354 days, or 12 fynodical
months. See Year.
Lunar Dial. See Dialling.
L UN ARE os, in Anatomy, is the fecond bone in
the firft row of the carpus. It has its name from the
Latin, luna, “ the moon,” becaufe one of its fides is in
form of a crefcent.
LUNARIA, Satin-flower, or Moonwort; a genus
of plants belonging to the tetradynamia clal’s ; and in
the natural method ranking under the 39th order, SHE
quofce. See Botany Index.
LUNARIUM, in Ancient Geography, a promon¬
tory of the Hither Spain, between Blanda and Baetulo.
Commonly called el Cabo de Palafugel, in Catalonia,
on the Mediterranean ; or Cabo de Tofa, on the fame
coaft, and in Catalonia, 15 miles from the former, to
the w'eft.
LUNATIC, a perfon affefled with that fpecies of
madnefs termed lunacy. The word is indeed properly
applied to one that hath lucid intervals; fometimes
enjoying his fenfes, and fometimes not ; and that
frequently fuppofed to depend on the influence of the
moon.
Lunatic, in Law. Under the general term of non
compos mentis (which Sir Edward Coke fays is the moft
legal name), are comprifed not only lunatics, but per-
fons under frenzies, or who lofe their intelledis by dif-
eafe ; thofe that grow deaf, dumb, and blind, not be¬
ing born fo; or fuch, in ftiort, as are judged by the
court of chancery incapable of conducting their own af¬
fairs. To thefe alfo, as well as idiots, the king is guar¬
dian, but to a very different purpofe. For the law al¬
ways imagines, that thefe accidental misfortunes may
be removed j and therefore only conftitutes the crown a
truftee for the unfortunate perfons, to proteCl their pro¬
perty, and to account to them for all profits received,
if they recover, or after their deceafe to their reprefen-.
tativea,
L U N - [ 262 1 L U N
tatives. And therefore it is declared by the ftatute
17 Edw. II. c. 10. that the king (hall provide for the
cuitody and fuftentation of lunatics, and preferve their
lands, and the profits of them, for their ufe when they
come to their right mind 5 and the king (hall take
nothing to his own ufe : and if the parties die in
fuch eftate, the refidue fhall be diftributed for their
fouls by the advice of the ordinary, and of courfe (by
the fubfequent amendments of the law of adminiftra-
tions) (hall now go to their executors or adminiftrators.
On the fiiA attack of lunacy, or other occalional in-
fanity, when there may be hopes of a fpeedy rellitution
of reafon, it is ufual to confine the unhappy objects in
private cuftody under the diredtion of their neareft
friends and relations j and the legiflature, to prevent all
abufes incident to fuch private cudody, hath thought
proper to interpofe its authority, by 1 4 Geo. III. c. 49.
for regulating private mad-houfes. But when the dif-
order is grown permanent, and the circumftances of the
party will bear fuch additional expence, it is thought
proper to apply to the royal authority to warrant a lad¬
ing confinement.
The method of proving a perfcn non co?nf>os is very
fimilar to that of proving him an idiot. The lord
chancellor, to whom, by fpecial authority from the
king, the cuttody of idiots and lunatics is intruded,
upon petition or information, grants a commiflion in
nature of the writ de idiota inquirendo, to inquire into
the party’s date of mind ; and if he be found non com¬
pos, he ufually commits the care of his perfon, wfith a
fuitable allowance for his maintenance, to fome friend,
who is then called his committee. However, to pre¬
vent finifter pradiices, the next heir is feldom permitted
to be of this committee of the perfon ; beeaufe it is his
intered that the party fhould die. But it hath been faid
there lies not the fame objeftion againd his next of kin,
provided he be not his heir •, for it is his intered to pre¬
ferve the lunatic’s life, in order to increafe the perfonal
edate by favings, which he or his family may hereafter
be entitled to enjoy. The heir is generally made the
manager or committee of the eftate, it being clearly his
intered by good management to keep it in condition :
accountable, however, to the court of chancery, and to
the non compos himfelf, if he recovers $ or otherwife, to
his adminidrators. See Idiocy.
LUNATION, the period or fpace of time between
one new moon and another j alfo called fyuodicalmonth.
See Cycle and Epact.
LUNDEN, or Lund, a confidcrable town of Swe¬
den, in Gothland and capital of the territory of Scho-
nen, with an archbilhop’s fee and an univerfity. It was
ceded to the Swedes by the Danes in 1658. E. Long.
13. 25. N. Lat. 55. 40.
LUNDY island, fituated 50 miles in the fea, off
the north-wed coad of Devonfhire, is five miles long
and two broad, but fo encompafied with inacceflible
rocks, that it has but one entrance to it, fo narrow that
two men can fcarcely go abread. It is reckoned in the
hundred of Brandon. It had once both a fort and a
chapel. The fouth part of it is indifferent good foil,
but the north part of it is barren, and has a high pyra¬
midal rock called the Con/lable. Here are horfes, kine,
hogs, and goats, with great dore of dieep and rabbits j
but the chief commodity is fowl, w'ith which it abounds
much, their eggs being very thick on the ground at
3
their feafon of breeding. No venomous creature will
live in this ifiand. In the reign of Henry VIII. one
William Morifco, who had confpired to murder him at
Wooddock, ded to this idand, which he fortified, turn¬
ed pirate, and did much damage to this coaft; but was
taken by furprife at length, with 16 of his accomplices,
and put to death.
LUNE, Lunula, in Geometry, a plane in form of
a crefcent or half-moon, terminated by the circumfe¬
rence of two circles, that interfeft each other wfitbin.
LUNENBURG, or Lunenburg Zell, a principa¬
lity of Germany, bounded to the fouth by that of Ca-
lenberg, the diocefe of Hildedieim, and the duchy of
Brunfwic ; to the north, by the duchy of Lauenburg
and the Elbe, by the lad of which it is feparated from
the territory of the imperial city of Hamburgh ; to the
cad, by the duchy of Brunfwic, the Alte Mark, and
the duchy of Mecklenburg •, and to the wed, by the
duchies of Bremen and Verden, the county of Hoya,
and the principality of Calenberg. The foil, except
along the Elbe, Aller, and Jetz, is either fand, heath,
or moor. In the more fruitful parts of it are produced
wheat, rye, barley, oats, peafe, buck-wheat, flax, hemp,
hops, pulfe, oak, beech, firs, pines, birch, and alder,
together with black cattle and horfes. The heaths
abound with bees and honey, and a fmall kind of ftieep
whofe wool is long and coarfe. Lunenburg is well fur-
nhhed wdth fait fprings and limeftone, and the foreft of
Gorde with venifon. The rivers Elbe, Umenau and
Aller, are navigable; and confequently very advanta¬
geous to the country, independent of the fifli which
they yield. The general diets of this principality are
convened by the fovereign twice a-year, and held at
Zell. They confift of the deputies of the nobility and
the towns of Lunenburg, Uelzen, and Zell, who have
the nomination of the members of the high colleges, and
other officers, jointly with the fovereign. There are
near 200 Lutheran churches in the country, under two
general and 15 fubordinate fuperintsndants, feveral
grammar-fchools, two Calvinift churches at Zell, and
an academy of exercifes at Lunenburg. The manufac¬
tures are chiefly linen cloth, cottons, ribbons, ftockings,
hats, ftarch, bleached wax, refined fugar, gold and
filver wires, all kinds of wooden wares, barges, boats,
and {hips. The exports of thefe to Hamburgh, Lubec,
and Altona, are confiderable. The neighbourhood of
thefe cities, with the facility of conveying goods and
merchandife to them and other places, either by land
or water, is very advantageous to this country, and
contributes greatly to its fubfiftence. On account of
this principality, the king of Great Britain has a feat
ancl voice both in the college of the princes of the em¬
pire and of the circle of LowTer Saxony. Its quota in
the mfitricula is 20 horfe and 120 foot, or 7 20 florins
in lieu of them. The revenues of the principality arife
chiefly from the demefnes, tolls on the Elbe, contribu¬
tions, duties on cattle, beer, wine, brandy, and other
commodities, which all together muff be very confider¬
able, fome bailiwics alone yielding upwards of 20,coo
rix-dollars.
Lunenburg, the capital of the principality of the
fame name, is a pretty large town of Germany, on the
river Elmen, or the Umenau, wffiich is navigable from
the towm to the Elbe, at the diftance of 13 miles. It
is 27 miles from Hamburgh, 43 from Zell, 65 from
Brunfwic,
Lune,
Lunenburg
L U N L 203 ] L U N
Lunenburg, Brur.fvvic, 76 from Bremen, 68 liom Hanover j and
Lunenfe ftands in E. Long. xo. 40. N. Lat. 53. 28. Its in-
(Marmor. ]ia););t;ajlt:s are reckoned at between 8000 and 9000.
v ' ]pormeriy this town was one of the Hanfc, and an im¬
perial city. Some derive its name from Lina, the
ancient name of the llmenau others from Luna, the
moon, an image of which is faid to have been wor-
fhipped by the inhabitants in the times of Paganilm.
Here were anciently feveral convents, viz. one of Mi¬
nims, another of Premonftratenfians, another of Be-
nediftines, and a fourth of Minorites. Gut of the
revenues of the Benedictine monaftery was founded an
academy for the martial exercifes, where young gentle¬
men of the principality of Lunenburg are maintained
gratis, and taught French, fencing, riding, and dan¬
cing \ but foreigners are educated at a certain fixed
price. A Latin fchool was alfo founded, confifting of
four claffes, and wTell endowed out of thefe revenues.
The fuperintendancy and management of thefe, and the
eftates appropriated to their maintenance, belongs to
the landfchaft dire&or, and the aufreiter, who are both
chofen from among the Lunenburg nobility. The firft
came in place of the Popifh abbot, and as fuch is head
of the ftates of the principality, and prefident of the
provincial college. He has the title of excellency ; and
in public inftruments ftyles himfelf, by the grace of God
landfchaft direBor, and lord of the manfon of St Michael
in Lunenburg. The chief public edifices are three pa-
rilh-churches, the ducal palace, three hofpitals, the
town-houfe, the falt-magazine, the anatomical theatre,
the academy ; the conventual church of St Michael, in
which lie interred the ancient dukes, and in which is
the famous table eight feet long, and four wide, plated
over with chafed gold, with a rim embellifhed with
precious ftones, of an immenfe value, which was taken
from the Saracens by the emperor Otho, and prefented
to this church : but in 1698, a gang of thieves dripped
it of 200 rubies and emeralds, together with a large
diamond, and moft of the gold, fo that at prefent but a
fmall part of it remains. Here are fome very rich fait
fprings. Formerly, when there was a greater demand
for the fait, upwards of 120,000 tons have been an¬
nually boiled here, and fold off; but fince the com¬
mencement of the prefent century, the fait trade hath
declined greatly. A fifth of the fait made here belongs
to the king, but is farmed out. It is faid to excel all
the other fait made in Germany. This town is wrell
fortified 5 and has a garrifon, which is lodged in bar¬
racks. In the neighbourhoood is a good limedone
quarry •, and along the llmenau are warehoufes, in
which are lodged goods brought from all parts of Ger¬
many, to be forwarded by the llmenau to Hamburgh,
or by the Afche to Lubec, from whence other goods
are brought back the fame w’ay. The towm itfelf carries
on a confiderable traffic in wax, honey, wool, fiax, linen,
fait, lime, and beer.
LUNENSE marmor, in the natural hidory of the
ancients, the name of that fpecies of white marble
now known among us by the name of the Carrara
marble, and didinguidxed from the datuary kind by its
greater hardnefs and lefs fplendour. It w7as ever great¬
ly edeemed in building and ornamental works, and is
fo dill. It is of a very clofe and fine texture, of a very
pure white, and much more tranfparent than any
other of the white marbles. It has^ always been found Lunette,
in great quantities in Italy, and is fo to this day. See ^imSs’ ,
Luna. v
LUNETTE, in Fortification, an enveloped counter¬
guard, or elevation of earth, made beyond the fecond
ditch, oppofite to the places of arms 5 differing from
the ravelins only in their fituation. Lunettes are ufually
made in ditches full of water, and ferve to the fame
purpofe as faudebrayes, to difpute the padage of the
ditch. See Fortification.
Lunette, in the manege, is a half horfe-fhoe, or
fuch a fhoe as wants the fponge, i. e. that part of the
branch which runs towards the quarters of the foot.
Lunette is alfo the name of twm fmall pieces of
felt, made round and hollow, to clap upon the eyes
of a vicious horfe that is apt to bite, and drike with
his fore feet, or that will not fuffer his rider to mount
him.
LUNGS, in Anatomy, a part of the human body,
ferving for refpiration. See Anatomy, N° 117.
In the Journal dc Medicine for June 1789 is a de-
feription of an
Injlrument for Inflating the Lungs, invented by M.
Gorcy, phyfician to the military hofpital at Neufbrifack,
which appears to be extremely w'ell adapted to the pur¬
pofe,-whild it may be ufed with the greated eale and
facility.
This indrument, which the inventor dyles apodopic,
that is, “ redorer of refpiration,” confids of a double piatfi
pair of bellows, BCLM, fig. 1. the two different parts CCXCVilft
of which have no communication with each other. In
the low’er fide BM, is an aperture A for a valve con-
drufted on the principles of thofe of Mr Nairne’s air-
pump. It condds of a rim of copper, clofed at one
end by a plate of the fame metal, in which plate are fe-
ven fmall holes placed at equal didances. This plate is
covered with pieces of dlk coated with eladic gum, in
which are fix tranfverfe incifions of two or three lines in
length. Each incifion is fo made as to be fituated be¬
tween two of the holes, and at au equal didance from
each : flee D, fig. 2. The filk mud be made very fe-
cure, by a thread palfing feveral times round the rim.
It is obvious, that a dream of air applied to that dde of
the plate which is oppofite the filk, will pafs through
the holes, and, lifting up the filk, efcape through the
incifions. On the contrary, a dream of air applied to
the other fide will prefs the filk upon the plate, and thus
clofe the holes, fo that it will be impollible for it to
pais through them. This valve opens internally, fo as
to admit the air from without. At B is another valve, on
the fame condruflion, but opening in a contrary direc¬
tion, thus permitting the air to efcape out of the lower
part into the tube EF, but preventing its entrance. At
C is another valve, opening internally to admit the air
from the tube EF j and at D there is a fourth, opening
externally to difeharge the air from the upper part.
The flexible tube EF, ferewed on at the end CB,„
being introduced into one of the nodrils, whild the
mouth and the other nodril are clofed by an aflidant,
if we feparate the two handles LM, which were clofe
together at the introduction of the tube, it is evident,
that the air in the lungs will rufh into the upper part
through the valve C, whild the external air will fill
the lower part through the valve A : the two handles
being
L U P [ 264 ] L U S
being again brought into contaft, the atmofpheric air ing under the 3 2d order, Pabilionacece.
will be forced into the lungs through the valve B, and
at the fame time the air in the upper part will be dif-
charged at the valve D. Thus by the alternate play of
the double bellows, the lungs wTill be alternately filled
and emptied as in refpiration. In ufing the inftrument
care Ihould be taken not to be too violent j as the more
perfetlly the natural motion of refpiration is imitated,
the better.
To prevent any fubflances from without injuring the
valves AD, fig. x. the rim is made with a fcrew% B, fig. 3.
in order to receive a cap AA, fig. 3. full of fmall holes.
Ibis fcrew has alfo another ufe. If air or oxygen
gas be preferred, a bladder filled with it, fig. 4. may,
by means of the fcrew A, be faftened to the valve A,
fig. 1. ; and, to prevent wafte, as this air may ferve fe-
veral times, a flexible tube maybe fcrewed on the valve
D, fig. 1. communicating with the bladder by means of
the opening </, fig. 4.: thus it may be employed as of¬
ten as the operator thinks proper.
There is a handle K to the partition in the middle,
in order that, if it be at any time necelfary to ufe either
of the divifions alone, the other may be confined from
afling. c, b, fig. 5. reprefent the two valves to be ap¬
plied at the end of the inftrument C, B, fig. 1. ; and
fig. 6. is a fedflion of the end CB, fhowing the valves in
their proper places.
It is proper to add, that the capacity of the inftru¬
ment ftiould be proportioned to the quantity of air re¬
ceived into the lungs in infpiration, which Dr Goodwyn
has afcertained to be twelve cubical inches or fomewhat
more. Each divifion of the inftrument, therefore,
fhould be capable of containing that quantity.
Lung-Wort. See Pulmonaria, Botany Index.
LUNISOLAR YEAR, in Chronology, the fpace of
532 common years ; found by multiplying the cycle of
the fun by that of the moon.
LUNULA. See Lune.
LUPERCALIA, feafts inftituted in ancient Rome,
in honour of the god Pan. The wrord comes from Lu-
percal, the name of a place under the Palatine moun¬
tain, where the facrifices wTere performed.
The Lupercalia were celebrated on the T5th of the
kalends of March, that is, on the 15th of February, or,
as Ovid obferves, on the third day after the ides. They
are fuppofed to have been eftabliftied by Evander.
On the morning of this feaft, the Luperci, or priefts
of Pan, ran naked through the ftreets of Rome, ftrik-
ing the married women they met on the hands and
belly with a thon<? or ftrap of goats leather, which was
held an omen promifing them fecundity and happy de¬
liveries. See Luperci.
This feaft w^as abolilhed in the time of Auguftus ;
but afterwards reftored, and continued to the time of
•the emperor Anaftafius—Earonius fays it was aboliftted
by the pope in 496.
LUPERCI, a name given to the priefts of the god
Pan. See .Lupercalia.
The luperci were the mcft ancient order of priefts in
Rome •, they were divided into two colleges cr compa¬
nies, the one called Yahi and the other To
thefe Cm far added a third, which he called Julii.
LUP1NUS, lupine 5 a genus of plants be’onging
to the diadelphia clafs; and in the natural method rank-
See Humulus, Bo- Lllfat‘a-
Canis, Mammalia
_ See Botany
Index
LUPULUS, the hop plant.
TANY Index.
LUPUS, the wolf. See
Index.
Lupus-Marinus, the Sea-wolf, a fifti. See Anar-
rhicas, Ichthyology Index.
Lupus, in AJlronomy. See Astronomy Index.
LURCHER, a kind of hunting-dog, much like a
mongrel greyhound with pricked years, a ftiagged coat,
and generally of a yellowilh white colour: they are
very fwift runners, fo that if they get between the
burrows and the conies they feldom mifs; and this
is their common pra&ice in hunting : yet they ufe
other, fubtilties, as the tumbler does, fome of them
bringing in their game, and thofe are the beft. It is
alfo obfervable, that a lurcher will run down a hare at
ftretch.
LURE, in falconry, a device of leather, in the Ihape
of two wings, ftuck with feathers, and baited with a
piece of flefh, to call back a hawk when at confiderable
diftance.
LURGAN, a town in the county of Armagh and
province of Ulfter in Ireland, 67 miles from Dublin.
It is a flouriihing town, agreeably fituated in the midft
of a much improved country ; and the inhabitants are
extenfively engaged in the linen manufacture. It ftands
on a gentle eminence, about two miles from Lough-
Neagh, of which it commands a molt beautiful and ex-
tenfive profpeCt. N. Lat. 54. 35. W. Long. 6. 31. <1
Lurgan-green, a town of Ireland, in the county
of Louth and province of Leinfter, 37 miles from Dub¬
lin \ a mile beyond wfliich is a handfome feat of the earl
of Charlemont.
LURIDiE, the name of the 28th order in Lin¬
naeus’s fragments of a natural method. See Botany,
Natural Orders.
LUSATIA, a marquifate of Germany, in Upper
Saxony; bounded to the eaft by Silefia, to the w^elt by
Mifiiia, to the fouth by Bohemia, and to the north by
the marquifate of Brandenburgh. Till towards the
middle of the 13th century, the Upper Lufatia was
called the Mark, i. e. the marquifate or the land of Bu-
difzin and Gorlitz ; and the Lower only Lufatia, which
it is faid, in the Sclavonic, Signifies “ a woody or
marlhy country.” The air of the Upper Lufatia,
which is hilly or mountainous, is better than that of
the Lower, a great part of which is moorilh and bog¬
gy. Both abound in wood, efpecially the Lower, and
turf for fuel. The heathy and mountainous trafts are
generally barren 5 but the lower champaign and marlh
lands are tolerably fertile, producing pafture, wheat,
rye, oats, barley, buck-wheat, peafe, lentils, beans,
and millet 5 together with flax, hops, tobacco, fome
white and red wine, and what is called manna. Of
feveral of thefe articles, however, confiderable quan¬
tities are imported. In this country are found alfo
quarries of ftone, medicinal fprings, baftard diamonds,
agates, and jafpers, earths and clays for tobacco-
pipes and all forts of earthen ware, alum, good iron
ftone, vitriolic and copper water 5 nor is it deftitute
of cattle, fifti, and venifon. The rivers Spree, the
Schwarze or Black Elfter, and the Pulznitz, have
their
Lupulus
I
L U S [ 265 j L U S
Lufatiii. their fources in the Lufatias, which are alro watered
—■"V—by the Neiffe and Queis. The ancient inhabitants of
this country were the Saxons, who were fucceeded by
the Vandals, and thefe by the Sober-Wends, a Scla-
vonian people. The prefent inhabitants, the defcen-
dants of the Wends, have an odd drefs ; and the lan¬
guage is fo inarticulate and guttural, that it hath been
(laid, it might be pronounced without lips, teeth, or
tongue ; but the towns are almoft wholly peopled by
Germans.
In the Upper Lufatia are fix towns which appear
at the land-diets, 16 fmaljer country towms, and four
market towns. In the Lower are four diet towns, 1 3
country towns, and two market ones. Both marqui-
fates were formerly fubjeft either to the kings of Bo¬
hemia, the archdukes of Auftria, or eleftors of Bran-
denburgh •, but, in 1636, both were abfolutely ceded
to the eledtor of Saxony, in lieu of the 72 tons of
gold which he expended in afiifting the emperor Fer¬
dinand II. again!! the Bohemians.
Chriftianity was firft planted in Lufatia in the fe-
venth century ; but it was feveral centuries after that
before Popery was fully eftablifired. In the nth Cen¬
tury many cloiflers were eredled in the country; but
at the Reformation fuch numbers embraced Lutheran-
ifni, that it became the predominant religion, and ftill
continues, though there are liill feveral Roman Ca¬
tholic foundations, churches, market-towns, and vil¬
lages. The enthufiaftic fed! of Hernhuters pofTefies
a great influence and efleem here. There are con-
fiderable manufadlures of woollen and linen fluffs in
the Lufatias, efpecially the Upper. At Budiifen, and
in the adjacent country, prodigious quantities of dock¬
ings, fpatterdafhes, caps, and gloves are made. The
linen manufadlures alfo flourifh here, chiefly in the Up¬
per Lufatia, where all forts of linen are made, print¬
ed, and dyed. Exclufive of thefe, there are confider-
able manufadlures of hats, leather, paper, gunpowder,
iron, glafs, bleached wax, &c. Though the demand
and exportation of thefe commodities, particularly li¬
nens and woollens, is not fo great as formerly, yet it
is ft ill confiderable, and more than overbalances their
importations in wool, yarn, filk, wines, fpices, corn,
frefh and baked fruits, garden fluff, and hops. Dif-
putes of many years Handing have fubfifled between
the country artificers and linen manufadlurers on the
one fide, and the diet towns on the other •, the latter
unjuftly feeking to exclude the former from any fhare
in the linen trade. The natives of this country are faid
to have quick natural parts, but to be fordidly penu¬
rious. We are told they obferve the Saxon laws much
better than they did the Bohemian. Learning hath
been much efteemed and encouraged in both marqui-
fates fince the Reformation. The fchools in the fix
diet towns of Upper Lufatia, particularly at Gorlitz,
Budiffen, and Zittau, greatly diflinguifh themfelves,
having handfome flipends. In Lower Lufatia alfo are
fome good fchools, with flipends for the maintenance
of Hudents. Printing is faid to be much folkwed,
and brought to great perfedlion in this country.
In Upper Lufatia, the flates confift, ifl, of thofe
called 2dly, of the prelates-, 3dly, of the
gentry and commonalty, under which are comprehend¬
ed the counts, barons, nobles, and burgeffes, poffef-
fors of fe*=s and fief-effates} and, 4thly, of the repre-
Vol. XII. Part I.
fentatives of the fix principal towns. Without the Lufatia
confent of thefe flates no taxes can be impofed, nor any ^ | (
thing of importance, that regards the public, tranf-, ""
acled. The diets are ordinary or extraordinary. The
ordinary meet once in three years, and the extraordi¬
nary when fummoned by the fovereign upon particular
emergencies. As to ecclefiaftical matters, the dean of
Budiffen and his confiflory exercife all manner of epif-
copal jurifdidlion ; and among the Proteflants, the
jurifdiblion belongs either to the fuperior, the upper-
office, or the patrons. The revenues arifing to the
fuperior or fovereign, from Upper Lufatia, confifl
partly of the fubfidies granted by the flates, among
which, at prefent, are reckoned capitation and eftate-
money ; and partly of the beer-tax, excife, tolls, &c.
—Upper Lufatia is divided into two great circles, viz.
thofe of Budiffen and Gorlitz, which are again divided
into leffer circles.
The land Hates of Lower Lufatia confift:, like thofe
of the Upper, of prelates, lords, and knights, and
the repre'entatives of the flate towns, which are Luc-
kau, Gubben-Lubben, and Kalau. Two land diets
are yearly held at Lubben, called voluntary-diets; but
wrhen the fuperior caufes the Hates to be fummoned
together at his diferetion, and propofitions to be laid
before them, by commiffaries deputed for that pur-
pofe, fuch convention is called a great land diet. The
marquifate is divided into five circles, each of which
holds a circle aflembly in its circle town. The chief
officers appointed either by the fuperior or the Hates
are, the prefident of the upper office, the land captain,
and the land judge. The principal tribunals are, the
land court, and the upper office, to which lie appeals
from the inferior judicatories. There are alfo officers
for the feveral circles. Spiritual matters belong here
to a confiflory, erefled in 1668. The ordinary taxes
are paid into the chefl of the circle j and from thence
configned to the general cheft, of which the upper
tax-receiver is fuperintendant. By him an annual ac¬
count of the receipts is made out, which is examined
and pafled by the deputies of the Hates.
LUSITANIA, in Ancient Geography, one of the
divifions of Spain, extending to the north of the Ta¬
gus, quite to the fea of Cantabria, at leaf! to the Pro-
montorium Celticum. But Auguftus, by a new regu¬
lation, made the Anas its boundary to the fouth, the
Durius to the north 5 and thus conflituting only a part
of the modern Portugal. Lujitani the people, (Dio¬
dorus, Stephanus).
LUSTRAL, an epithet given by the ancients to
the water ufed in their ceremonies to fprinkle and pu¬
rify the people. From them the Romanitls have bor¬
rowed the holy water ufed in their churches.
Lvstral Day (Dies Lujiricus), that whereon the
luflrations were performed for a child, and its name
given; which was dually the ninth day from the birth
of a boy, and the eighth from that of girl. Though
others performed the ceremony on the lall day of that
week wherein the child was born, and others on the
fifth day from its birth.
Over this feaft-day the goddefs Nundina was fup-
pofed to prefide ; the midwives, nurfes, and domeflics
handed the child backwards and forwards, around a
fire burning on the altars of the gods, a^ter which they
fprinkled it with water ; hence this feaft had the name
LI of
L U S [ 2t
of atnpJudromia. The old women mixed fall vs and dull
with the water. The whole ended with a fumptuous
entertainment. The parents received gifts from their
friends on this occaiion. If the child was a male, their
door was decked with an olive garland j if a female,
with wool, denoting the work about which women
w7ere to be employed.
LUSTRATION, in Antiquitij, facrinces or cere¬
monies by which the ancUnts purified their cities,
fields, armies, or people, defiled by any crime or im¬
purity. Some of thefe luftrations wrere public, others
private. There were three fpecies or manners of per¬
forming luftration, viz. by fire and fulphur, by water,
and by air 5 which laid was done by fanning and agi¬
tating the air round the thing to be purified. Some
of thefe luftrations were neceffary, i. e. could not be
difpenfed with ; as luftrations of houfes in time of a
plague, or upon the death of any perfon : others again
were done out of choice, and at pleafure. The public
luftrations at Rome were celebrated every fifth year j
in which they led a viflim thrice round the place to
be purified, and in the mean time burnt a great quan¬
tity of perfumes. Their country luftrations, which
they called ambarvalia, w7ere celebrated before they
began to reap their com: in thofe of the armies, which
they called armilujlria, icme chofen ioldiers, crowned
with laurel, led the victims, which were a cow, a ftieep,
and a bull, thrice round the army ranged in battle-
array in the field of Mars, to which deity the viftims
u7ere afterwards faciificed, after pouring out many
imprecations upon the enemies of the Romans. The
luftrations of their flocks were performed in this man¬
ner: the fliepheid fprinkled them with pure water,
and thrice furreunded his flieepfold with a compofition
of favin, laurel, and brimftone fet on fire ; and after-
w7ards facrificed to the goddefs Pales an offering of
milk boiled, wine, a cake, and millet. As for private
houfes, they were luftrated with water, a fumigation
of laurel, juniper, olive tree, favin, and fuch like *, and
the viclim commonly w7as a pig. Luftrations made
for particular perfons were commonly called expiations,
and the vidtims piacula. There was alfo a kind of
luftration ufed for infants, by which they were purified,
girls the third, and boys the ninth, day after their
birth 5 which ceremony was performed with pure water
and fpittle. See the article Ambarvalia.—In their
luftratory facrifices, the Athenians lacrificed two men,
one for the men of their city, and the other for the
women. Divers of thefe expiations were auftere : fome
failed ; others abftained from all fenfual pleafures;
ar.d fome, as the priefts of Cybele, caftrated them-
felves. The poftures of the penitents were different
according to the different facrifices. The priefts
changed their habits according to the ceremony to be
performed ; white, purple, and black, were the moft
ufual colours. They call into the river, or at leaft out
cf the city, the animals or other things that had ferved
for a luftration or facrifice of atonement ; and thought
themfelves threatened with fome great misfortune when
by chance they trod upon them. Part of thefe cere¬
monies wTere aboliflied by the emperor Conftantine and
his fucceffors .* the reft fubfifted till the Gothic kings
were mafters of Rome j under whom they expired,
excepting what the popes thought proper to adopt
and bring into the church.
6 ] L U T
For the luftration, or rather expiation, of the an- buftre
cient Jews, fee Expiation’. J|
LUSTRE, the glofs or brightnefs appearing on, Lute,
anything, particularly ©n manufaflures of fi!k, wool,
or ftuft. It is likewife ufed to denote the compofition
or manner of giving that glofs.
The luftre of filks is given them by waftiing in foap,
then clear water, and dipping them in alum water cold.
To give fluffs a beautiful luftre: For every eight pounds
of fluff allow a quarter of a pound of linfeed •, boil it
half an hour, and then ftrain it through a cloth, and
let it Hand till it is turned almoft to a jelly : after¬
wards put an ounce and a half of gum to diffolve 24
hours 5 then mix the liquor, and put the cloth into
this mixture 5 take it out, dry it in the ftiade, and prefs
it. If once doing is not fufficient, repeat the operation.
Curriers give a luftre to black leather firft with juice
of barberries, then with gum-arabic, ale, vinegar, and
Flanders glue,, boiled together. For coloured leather,
they ufe the white of an egg beaten in water. Mo-
roccoes have their luftre from juice of barberries, and
lemon or orange. For hats, the luftre is frequently-
given writh common water : fometimes a little black
dye is added : the fame luftre ferves for furs, except
that for very black furs they fometimes prepare a luftre
of galls, copperas, Roman alum, ox’s marrow, and other
ingredients.
Lustre, an appellation given to a branched candle-
ftick, wrhen made of glafs. See Branch and Jesse.
LUSTRINGS. A company was incorporated for
making, drafting, and luftrating alamodes and luftrings
in England, who were to have the foie benefit thereof,
by flat. 4 and 5 William and Mary. And no foreign
filks known by the name of lujlrings or alamodes are to
be imported but at the port of London, &c. Stat.
9 and 10 William III. c. 43. See Silk.
LUSTRUM, in Roman antiquity, a general mufter
and review7 of all the citizens and their goods, w7hich
was performed by the cenfors every fifth year, who
afterwards made a folemn luftration. See the article
Lustration.
This cuftom was firft inftituted by Servius Tullius,
about 183 years after the foundation of Rome. In
courfe of time the luftra w7ere not celebrated fo often;
for we find the fifth luftrum celebrated at Rome only
in the 574th year of that city.
LUTE, or Luting, among chemifts, a mixed, te¬
nacious, duftile fubftance, which grows folid by drying,
and, being applied to the jundture of veffels, flops them
up fo as to prevent the air from getting either in or out.
Lute, is alfo a rnufical inilrument with firings.—
The lute conftils of four parts, viz. the table, the body
or belly, which has nine or ten fides : the neck, which
has nine or ten flops or divifions, marked with firings :
and the head or crofs, where the ferews for raifing and
lowering the firings to a proper pitch of tone are fixed.
In the middle of the table there is a rofe or paffage for
the found •, there is alfo a bridge that the firings are
faftened to, and a piece of ivory between the head and
the neck to which the other extremities of the firings
are fitted. In playing, the firings are ftruck w7ith the
right hand, and with the left the flops are preffed.
The lutes of Bologna are efteemed the beft on account
of the wood, wdiich is faid to have an uncommon dif-
pofition for producing a fweet found.
LUTETIAj
#
Xute'aa,
Luther.
L U T l
LUTETIA PARISIORUM, in ^rtcienl Geography, a
town of the Panfix, in Gallia Celtica, fituated in an
ifiand in the Setjuana or Seine. It received its name,
as fome fuppofe, from the quantity of clay, lututn, which
is in its neighbourhood. J. Caefar fortified and embel-
lillied it. from which circumftance fome authors call it
pfulii Chit as. Julian the apoftate relided there for
lome time. It is nowf Pjris, the capital of France j
fo called from its name Paryis in the lower age.
LUTHER, Martin, the celebrated author of the
Reformation, w’as a native of Eifleben m Saxony, and
born in 1483. Though his parents were poor, he re-,
ceived a learned education ; during the progrefs oi
which, he gave many indications of uncommon vigour
and acutenefs of genius. As his mind was naturally
fufceptible of ferious impreffions, and tin&ured with
fomew’hat of that religious melancholy which delights
in the folitude and devotion of a monaftic life, he re¬
tired into a convent of Auguflinian friars j where he
acquired great reputation, not only for piety, but for
love of knowdedge and unwearied application to ftudy.
The caufe of this retirement is faid to have been, that
he wTas once ftruck by lightning, and his companion
killed by his fide by the fame flalh. Fie had been taught
the fcholaftic philofophy wdiich was in vogue in thofe
days, and made confiderable progrefs in it : but hap¬
pening to find a copy of the Bible which lay negletted
in the library of his monaftery, he applied himfelf to
the ftudy of it with fuch eagernefs and afliduity, as
quite aftoniftied the monks ; and increafed his reputa¬
tion for fanfrity fo much, that he was chofen profef-
for firft of philofophy, and afterwards of theology, at
Wittemberg on the Elbe, where Frederic eledfor of
Saxony had founded an univerfity.
While Luther continued to enjoy the higheft repu¬
tation for fandlity and learning, Tetzel, a Dominican
friar, came to Wittemberg in order to publifti indul¬
gences. Luther beheld his iuccefs wuth great con¬
cern 5 and having firft inveighed againft indulgences
from the pulpit, he afterwards publifhed 95 thefes,
containing his fentiments on that fubjedl. I hefe he
propofed, not as points fully eftablifhed, but as fub-
jecls of inquiry and difputation. He appointed a day
on which the learned were invited to impugn them ei¬
ther in perfon or by writing •, and to the whole he
fubjoined folemn proteftations of his High refpedt for
the apoftolic fee, and of his implicit fubmiflion to its
authority. No opponent appeared at the time pre¬
fixed j the thefes fpread over Germany with aftonifh-
ing rapidity, and were read with the greateft eager-
wefs.
Though Luther met with no oppofition for fome
little time after he began to publifti his new doftrines,
it was not long before many zealous champions arofe
to defend tliofe opinions with which the wealth and
power of the clergy wTere fo ftriclly connecfed. I heir
caufe, hoxvever, was by no means promoted by thefe
endeavours •, the people began to call in queftion even
the authority of the canon law and of the pope him¬
felf.—-The court of Rome at firft defpifed thefe new
doctrines and difputes ; but at laft the attention of
the pope being raifed by the great iuccefs of the re¬
former, and the complaints of his adverfaries, Luther
fummoned in the month of July 1518, to ap-
was
267 ] L U T
pear at Rome, within 60 days, before the auditor or i Fntaer.
the chamber. One of Luther’s adverfaries, named
Prierias, who had written againft; him, W’as appointed
to examine his doctrines, and to decide concerning
them. The pope wrote at the fame time to the elec¬
tor of Saxony, befeeching him not to prote£b a man
whole heretical and profane tenets wTere fo (hocking to
pious ears j and enjoined the provincial of the Au-
guftinians to check by his authority the raftinefs of an
arrogant monk, which brought difgrace upon their '
order, and gave offence and difturbance to the whole
church.
From thefe letters, and the appointment of his open
enemy Prierias to be his judge, Luther eafily faw
W'hat fentence he might expect at Rome j and there¬
fore difcovered the utmoft folicitude to have his caufe
tried in Germany, and before a lefs fuipefted tri¬
bunal. He wrote a fubmiflive letter to the pope, in
which he promifed an unreferved obedience to his will,
for as yet he entertained no doubt of the divine ori¬
ginal of the pope’s authority j and by the interceftion
of the other profeflbrs, Cajetan the pope’s legate in
Germany was appointed to hear and determine the
caufe. Luther appeared before him wuthout hefita-
tion : but Cajetan thought it below his dignity to
difpute the point with a perfon fo much his inferior
in rank ; and therefore required him by virtue of the
apoftolic powers wdth which he was clothed, to retraft
the errors which he had uttered with regard to indul¬
gences and the nature of faith, and to abftain for the
future from the publication of new and dangerous
opinions ; and at the laft forbade him to appear in his
prefence, unlefs he propofed to comply with what had
been required of him.
This haughty and violent manner of proceeding,
together with fome other circutn(lances, gave Luther’s
friends fuch ftrong reafons to fufpedl that even the
imperial fafe-condu£f would not be able to protect
him from the legate’s power and refentment, that
they prevailed on him fecretly. to withdraw from
Auglburg, where he had attended the legate, and to
return to his own country. But before his departure,
according to a form of which there had been fome
examples, he prepared a folemn appeal from the pope,
ill-informed at that time concerning his caufe., to the
pope, when he ftiould receive more full intimation
with refpefl to it.—Cajetan, enraged at Luther’s
abrupt retreat, and at the publication of his appeal,
wrote to the elector of Saxony, complaining of both ;
and requiring him, as he regarded the peace of the
church, or the authority of its head, either to fend
that feditious monk a prifoner to Rome, or to banifti
him out of his territories. Frederic had hitherto, from
political motives, protefled Luther, as thinking he
might be of ufe in checking the enormous power of
the fee of Rome j and though all Germany refounded
with his fame, the ele&or had never yet admitted
him into his prefence. But upon this demand made
by the cardinal, it became necelfary to throw off
fomewhat of 'his former referve. He had been at
great expence and beftowed much attention on found¬
ing a new univerfity, an obje£t of confiderable import¬
ance to every German prince 5 and fdrefeeing how
fatal a blow7 the removal of Luther w7ould be to its
L 1 2 reputation,
L U T f 268 ] L U T
Luther, reputation, he not only declined complying with either
of the pope’s requefts, but openly difcovered great
concern for Luther’s fafety.
The fituation of our reformer, in the mean time,
became daily more and more alarming. He knew
very well what were the motives which induced the
elector to afford him proteftion, and that he could by
no means depend on a continuance of his frier,dfliip.
If he fhould be obliged to quit Saxony, he had no
other afylum, and muff ftand expofed to whatever
punifhment the rage or bigotry of his enemies could
inflift j and fo ready were his adverfaries to condemn
him, that he had been declared a heretic at Rome
before the expiration of the 60 days allowed him in
the citation for making his appearance. Notwith-
ifanding all this, however, he difcovered no fymptoms
of timidity or remiffnefs 5 but continued to vindicate
his own condudt and opinions, and to inveigh againft
thofe of his adverfaries with more vehemence than
ever. Being convinced, therefore, that the pope w*ould
foon proceed to the molt violent meafures againft
him, he appealed to a general council, which he
affirmed to be the reprefentative of the Catholic church,
and fuperior in powder to the pope, who being a fallible
man, might err, as St Peter, the moft perfedt of his pre-
deceffors, had done.
The court of Rome were equally affiduous in the
mean time to cruffi the author of thefe new dodtrines
which gave them fo much unealinefs. A bull was
ifl'ued by the pope, of a date prior to Luther’s ap¬
peal, in which he magnified the virtues of indulgences,
and fubjedted to the heavieft ecclefiaftical cenfures all
who prefumed to teach a contrary dodtrine. Such a
clear decifion of the fovereign pontiff againft him
might have been very fatal to Luther’s caufe, had not
the death of the emperor Maximilian, which happened
on January 17. 1519, contributed to give matters a
different turn. Both the principles and intereft of
Maximilian had prompted him to fupport the authori¬
ty of the fee of Rome : but, in confequence of his
death, the vicariate of that part of Germany which is
governed by the Saxon laws devolved to the eledtor
of Sa'xony 5 and, under the ffielter of his friendly ad-
miniftration, Luther himfelf enjoyed tranquillity ; and
his opinions took fuch root in different places, that
they could never afterwards be eradicated. At the
fame time, as the eledlion of an emperor was a point
more interefting to the pope (Leo X.) than a theolo¬
gical controverfy which he did not underftand, and of
which he could not forefee the confequences, he was
fo extremely felicitous not to irritate a prince of fuch
confiderable influence in the eledtoral college as Fre¬
derick, that he difcovered a great umvillingnefs to pro¬
nounce the fentence of excommunication againft Lu¬
ther, which his adverfaries continually demanded with
the moft clamorous importunity.
From the reafon jufl now given, and Leo’s natu¬
ral averfion to fevere meafures, a fufpenfion of pro¬
ceeding againft Luther took place for 18 months,
though perpetual negociations were carried on during
this interval in order to bring the matter to an ami¬
cable iffue. The manner in which thefe were con¬
ducted having given our reformer many opportunities
of obferving the corruption of the court of Rome, its
obftinacy in adhering to eftablifhed errors, and its in¬
difference about truth, however clearly propofed or Luther.
ftrongly proved, he began, in 1520, to utter fome ' 
doubts with regard to the divine original of the papal
authority, which he publicly difputed with Eccius,
one of his moft learned and formidable antagonifts.
The difpute wTas indecifive, both parties claiming the
victory ; but it muft have been very mortifying to the
partizans of the Romith church to hear fuch an effen-
tial point of their doCtrine publicly attacked.
The papal authority being once fufpeCted, Luther
proceeded to pulh on his inquiries and attacks from
one doCtrine to another, till at laft he began to ftiake
the firmeft foundations on which the wealth and power
of the church were eftabliftied. Leo then began to
perceive that there were no hopes of reclaiming fuch
an incorrigible heretic 5 and therefore prepared to de¬
nounce the fentence of excommunication againft him.
The college of cardinals wras often affembled, in order
to prepare the fentence with due deliberation ; and the
ableft canonifts were confulted how it might be ex-
preffed with unexceptionable formality. At laft it was
iffued on the 15th of June 1520. Forty-one propoft-
tions, extracted out of Luther’s works, wrere therein
condemned as heretical, fcandalous, and offenfive to
pious ears j all perfons were forbidden to read his writ¬
ings, upon pain of excommunication : fuch as had any
of th em in their cuftody v/ere commanded to commit
them to the flames j he himfelf, if he did not, within
60 days, publicly recant his errors, and burn his books,
was pronounced an obftinate heretic, excommunicated,
and delivered to Satan for the deftruition of the fleffi:
and all lecular princes wrere required, under pain of in¬
curring the fame cenfure, to feize his perfon, that he
might be punifhed as his crimes deferved.
Luther was not in the leaft difconcerted by this fen¬
tence, which he had for fome time expeCted. He re-
newed his appeal to a general council} declared the
pope to be that antichrift, or man @f fin, vffiofe ap¬
pearance is foretold in the New Teftament; declaim¬
ed againft his tyranny with greater vehemence than
ever 5 and at laft, by wray of retaliation, having affem¬
bled all the profeffors and ffudents in the univerfity
of Wittemberg, with great pomp, and in the pre¬
fence of a vaft multitude of fpeCtators, he caft the vo¬
lumes of the canon law, together with the bull of ex-
communication, into the flames. The manner in which
this action w-as juftified gave ftill more offence than
the action itfelf. Having collefted from the canon law
fome of the moft extravagant propofitions with regard
to the plenitude and omnipotence of the pope’s power,
as w^ell as the fubordination of all fecular jurifdiction
to his authority, he publiihed thefe with a commen¬
tary, pointing out the impiety of fuch tenets, and their
evident tendency to fubvert all civil government.
On the acceffion of Charles V. to the empire, Lu¬
ther found himfelf in a very dangerous fituation.
Charles, in order to fecure the pope’s friendfhip, had
determined to treat him with great feverity. His ea-
gernefs to gain this point, rendered him not averfe to
gratify the papal legates in Germany, who infifted, that
without any delay or formal deliberation, the diet then
fitting at Worms ought to condemn a man whom the
pope had already excommunicated as an incorrigible
heretic. Such an abrupt manner of proceeding, howr-
ever; being deemed unprecedented and unjuft by the
members
L U T [ 269 ] L U T
Luther, members of the diet, they made a point of Luther’s
—v appearing in perfon, and declaring whether he adhered
or not to thofe opinions which had drawn upon him
the cenfures of the church. Not only the emperor, but
all the princes through rvhofe territories he had to
pafs, granted him a fafe-conduft ; and Charles wrote
to him at the fame time, requiring his immediate at¬
tendance on the diet, and renewing his promifes of pro-
teftion from any injury or violence. Luther did not
hefitate one moment about yielding obedience ; and
fet out for Worms, attended by the herald who had
brought the emperor’s letter and fafe-conduct. While
on his journey, many of his friends, whom the fate of
Hufs, under fimilar circumftances, and notwithitand-
ing the fame fecurity of an imperial fafe-condudl, fill¬
ed with folicitude, advifed and entreated him not to
rufli wantonly into the midft of danger. But Luther,
fuperior to fuch terrors, filenced them with this reply,
“ I am lawfully called (faid he) to appear in that
city ; and thither will I go in the name of the Lord,
though as many devils as there are tiles on the houfes
were there combined againft me.”
The reception which he met with at Worms, was
fuch as might have been reckoned a full reward of all
his labours, if vanity and the love of applaufe had been
the principles by which he was influenced. Greater
crowds affembled to behold him than had appeared
at the emperor’s public entry ; his apartments were
daily filled with princes and perfonages of the higheft
rank ; and he was treated with an homage more fin-
cere, as well as more flattering, than any which pre¬
eminence in birth or condition can command. At his
appearance before the diet, he behaved with great de¬
cency, and with equal firmnefs. He readily acknow¬
ledged an excefs of acrimony and vehemence in his
controverfial writings ^ but refufed to retraft his opi¬
nions unlefs he were convinced of their falfehood, or
to confent to their being tried by any other rule than
the word of God. When neither threats nor intreaties
could prevail on him to depart from this refolution,
fome of the ecclefiaftics propofed to imitate the ex¬
ample of the council of Conftance, and, by punithing
the author of this peftilent herefy, who was now in
their power, to deliver the church at once from fuch
an evil. But the members of the diet refufing to ex-
pofe the German integrity to freflr reproach by a fe-
cond violation of public faith, and Charles being no
lefs unwilling to bring a ftain upon the beginning of
his adminiftration by fuch an ignominious a£Hon, Lu¬
ther was permitted to depart in fafety. A few days
after he left the city, a fevere edift was publifhed in
the emperor’s name, and by authority of the diet, de¬
priving him, as an obftinate and excommunicated cri¬
minal, of all the privileges which he enjoyed as a fub-
je<5i of the empire, forbidding any prince to harbour
or protect him, and requiring all to feize his perfon as
foon as the term fpecified in his protection fhould be
expired.
But this rigorous decree had no confiderable eflfeCt j
the execution of it being1 prevented partly by the mul¬
tiplicity of occupations which the commotions in Spain,
together with the wars in Italy and the Low Coun¬
tries, created to the emperor j and partly by a pru¬
dent precaution employed by the eleCtor of Saxony,
Luther’s faithful patron. As Luther, on his return
from Worms, was pafling near Altenftrain in Thurin- Lather.
gia, a number of horlemen in malks ruthed fuddenly
out of a wood, where the eleClor had appointed them
to lie in w7ait fpr him, and furrounding his company,
carried him, after difmiiTing all his attendants, to
Wortburg, a flrong caftle not far ddlant. There the
ele&or ordered him to be fupplied with every thing
neceflary or agreeable 5 but the place of his retreat was
carefully concealed, until the fury of the prefent {form
againft him began to abate, upon a change in the po¬
litical fyftem of Europe. In this folitude, where he
remained nine months, and which he frequently called
his PatJ?ios, after the name of that iiland to which the
apoftle John was banilhed, he exerted his tiiual vigour
and induftry in defence of his dodrines, or in confu¬
tation of his adverfaries, publiftting feveral treatifes,
which revived the fpirit of his followers, aftonithed to
a great degree and diiheartened at the fudden difap-
pearance of their leader.
Luther, weary at length of his retirement, appeared
publicly again at Wittemberg, upon the 6th of March
r522. He appeared indeed without the eledlor’s leave;
but immediately wTrote him a letter to prevent his tak¬
ing it ill. The edicl of Charles V. as fevere as it was,
had given little or no check to Luther’s dodlnne ; for
the emperor was no fooner gone to Flanders, than
his edift was neglefted and defpifed, and the dosftrine
feemed to fpread even failer than before. Carolofta-
dius, in Luther’s abience, had pulhed things on fafter
than his leader ; and had attempted to abolifti the ufe
of mafs, to remove images out of the churches, to fet
afide auricular confefiion, invocation of faints, the ab-
ftaining from meats; had allowed the monks to leave
their monafteries, to negleift their vows, and to marry;
in ftiort, had quite changed the dodlrine and difcipline
of the church at Wittemberg : all which, though not
againft Luther’s fentiments, was yet blamed by him,
as being raflily and unfeafonably done. Lutheranifm
was ftill confined to Get many : it w7as not got to
France ; and Henry VIII. of England made the moft
rigorous a£ts to hinder it from invading his realm.
Nay, he did fomething more : to ftiow his zeal for reli¬
gion and the holy fee, and perhaps his {kill in theo¬
logical learning, he wrote a treatife Of the /even fcicra-
merits, againft Luther’s book Of the captivuij of Babylon ;
which he prefented to Leo X. in October 1521. Tjie
pope received it very favourably ; and was fo well
pleafed with the king of England, that he compliment¬
ed him with the title of Defender of the Faith. Luther,
however, paid no regard to his kingfliip : but anfwer-
ed him with great iharpnefs, treating both his perfon
and performance in the moft contemptuous manner.
Henry complained of Luther’s rude ulage of him to
the princes of Saxony ; and Fiftier, biftiop of Rochef-
ter, replied to his anfwer, in behalf of Henry’s treatife ;
but neither the king’s complaint, nor the biftiop’s re¬
ply, was attended w'ith any vifible eftedfts.
Luther, though he had put a flop to the violent
proceedings of Caroloftadius, now made open war with
the pope and biftiops ; and, that he might make the
people defpife their authority as much as poftible,
he w7rote one book againft the pope’s bull, and
another againft the order falfely called the order of bi-
fbops. The fame year, 1522, he wrote a letter, dated
July the 29th to the affembly of the ftates of Bohemia ;
inn
Luther.
L U T [ 270 ] L U T
m which he affured them that he was labouring to
ehabliih their doctrine in Germany, and exhorted them
not to return to the communion of the church of Rome
and he publifhed alfo this year, a tranflation of the
New Teftament in the German tongue, which was af¬
terwards corredhed by himfelf and Melandlhon. This
tranflation having been printed feveral times, and be¬
ing in every body’s hands, Ferdinand archduke of Au-
ftria, the emperor’s brother, made a very fevere edidf,
to hinder the farther publication of it 5 and forbade all
the fubjefts of his imperial majefty to have any copies
of it, or of Luther’s other books. Some other princes
followed his example j and Luther was fo angry at it,
that he wrote a treatife, Of the fecular power, in which
he accuses them of tyranny and impiety. The diet of
the empire was held at Nuremberg, at the end of the
year; to which Hadrian VI. fent his brief, dated No¬
vember the 25th : for Leo X. died upon the 2d of De¬
cember 1521, and Hadrian had been elecled pope up¬
on the 9th of January following. In this brief, among
other things, he obferves to the diet, how he had heard
with grief, that Martin Luther, after the fentence of
Leo X. which was ordered to be executed by the edidt
of Worms, continued to teach the fame errors, and
daily to publifh books full of herefies : that it appear¬
ed ftrange to him, that fo large and fo religious a na¬
tion could be feduced by a wretched apoftate friar :
that nothing, however, could be more pernicious to
Chriltendom ; and that therefore he exhorts them to
ufe their utmoft endeavours to make Luther, and the
authors of thefe tumults, return to their duty : or, if
they refufe and continue obftinate, to proceed againft
them according to the laws of the empire, and the fe-
verity of the laft edidt.
T he refolution of this diet was publilhed in the form
of an edidf, upon the 6th of March 1523 : but it had
no effedi in checking the Lutherans, who Hill went on
in the fame triumphant manner. This year Luther
wrote a great many pieces : among the reft, one upon
the dignity and office of the fupreme magiftrate;
•which Frederic eledlor of Saxony is faid to have been
highly pleafed with. He fent, about the fame time
a writing in the German language to the Waldenfes,
or Pickards, in Bohemia and Moravia, who had ap¬
plied to him “ about worfhipping the body of Chrift
in the eucharift.” He wrote alfo another book, which
he dedicated to the fenate and people of Prague,
“ about the inftitution of miniiters of the church.”
He drew up a form of faying mafs. He wrote a piece,
entitled, Jin example of popijh doclmne and divinity ;
which Dupin calls a fatire agaivji nuns and thofe who
profcfs a monajlic life. He wrote alfo againft the vows
of virginity, in his preface to his commentary on
i Cor. viii. And his exhortations here were, it feems,
followed with effedls ; for foon after, nine nuns, among
whom was Catharine de Bore, eloped from the nun¬
nery at Nimptfchen, and were brought, bv the affift-
ance of Leonard Coppen, a burgefs of Torgau, to Wit-
temberg. Whatever offence this proceeding might give
to the Papifts, it was highly extolled by Luther; who,
in a book written in the German language, compares
the deliverance of thefe nuns from the flavery of a mo-
naftic life to that of the fouls which Jefus Chrift has
delivered by his death. This year Luther had occa-
fton to canonize two o( his followers, who, as Melchior
3
Adam relates, were burnt at Bruffels in the beginning
of July, and were the firft who fuffered martyrdom for
his doiftrine. He rvrote alfo a confolatory epiftle to
three noble ladies at Mifnia, who were banifhed from
the duke of Saxony’s court at Friburg, for reading his
books.
In the beginning of the year 1524, Clement VIL
fent a legate into Germany to the diet, which was to
be held at Nuremburg. Hadrian VI. died in Oblober
1523, and was fucceeded by Clement upon the 19th of
November. A little before hi^ death he canonized
Benno, who was biffiop of Mdffen in the time of Gre¬
gory VII. and one ef the moft zealous defenders of
the holy fee. Luther, imagining that this was done
diredfly to oppofe him, drew up a piece with this title,
Jlgainjl the New Idol and Old Devilfet up at Meiflen ;
in which be treats the memory of Gregory with great
freedom, and does not fpare even Hadrian. Cle¬
ment VII.’s legate reprefented to the diet of Nurem¬
burg the neceffity of enforcing the execution of the
edidt of Worms, which had been ftrangrly negledled
by the princes of the empire ; but, notwithftanding
the legate’s folicitations, which were very preffing, the
decrees ©f that diet were thought fo ineffectual, that
they were condemned at Rome, and rejedted by the
emperor. It was in this year that the difpute between
Luther and Erafmus, about free-will, began. Erafmus
had been much courted by the Papifts to w’rite againft
Luther ; but he wras all along of opinion, that writing
would not be found an effectual way to end the differ¬
ences and eftabliih the peace of the church. Howt-
ever, tired out at length with the importunities of the
pope and the catholic princes, and denrous at the fame
time to clear himfelf from the fufpicion of favouring
a caufe which he would not feem to favour, he re-
folved to w'rite againft Luther, though, as he tells Me-
landthon, it was wdth fome reluctance, and chofe free¬
will for the fubjedt. His book was intitled, Jl Dial ri¬
ba, or Conference about Free-will; and was written with
much moderation, and without perfonal reftedtions.
He tells Luther in the preface, “ That he ought not
to take his diffenting from him in opinion ill, becaufe
he had allowed himfelf the liberty of differing from the
judgement of popes, councils, univerfities, and dodtors
of the church.” Luther wras fome time before he an-
fwered Erafmus’s book ; but at laft publiffied a treatife
De Servo Arbitrio, or Of the Servitude of Man's Will;
and though Melandthon had promifed Erafmus, that
Imther fhould anfwer him with civility and modera¬
tion, yet Luther had fo little regard to Melandthon’s
promife, that he never wTrote any thing (harper. He
accufed Erafmus of being carelefs about religion, and
little felicitous what became of it, provided the world
continued in peace ; and that his notions were rather
philofophical than Chriftian. Erafmus immediately re¬
plied to Luther, in a piece called Hyperafpiftes ; in the
firft part of which he anfwers his arguments, and in
the fecond his perfonal reflections.
In October 1524, Luther threw off the monaftic ha¬
bit ; which, though not premeditated and defigned,
was yet a very proper preparative to a ftep he took
the year after; we mean, his marriage with Catharine
de Bore. Catharine de Bore was a gentleman’s daugh¬
ter, who had been a nun, and was taken, as we have
obferved, out of the nunnery of Nimptfchen, in the
year
Luther;
L U T . C 27
year 1523. Luther had a defign, as Melchior Adam
related, to marry her to Glacius, a minifler of Orta-
munden ; but Are did not like Glacius ; and fo Luther
married her himfelf upon the 13th of June 1525.
This conduft of his vras blamed not only by the Ca¬
tholics, but, as Melanfthon lays, by thofe of his own
party. He was even for fome time alhamed of it him¬
felf j and owns, that his marriage had made him fo
defpicable, that he hoped his humiliation would rejoice
the angels, and vex the devils. Melan£!hon found him
fo affii&ed with what he had done, that he wrote fome
letters of confolation to him. It was not fo much the
marriage, as the circumflances of the time, and the pre¬
cipitation with which it was done, that occafioned the
cenfures paffed upon Luther. He married all of a hid¬
den, and at a time when Germany tvas groaning under
the miferies of a war which was faid at lead to be
owing to Lutheranifm. Then, again, it was thought
an indecent thing in a man of 42 years of age, who
was then, as he pretended, reftoring the Gofpel, and
reforming mankind, to involve himfelf in marriage with
a woman of 26, either through incontinence, or any
account whatever. But Luther, as foon as he had re¬
covered himfelf a little from this abalhment, affumed
his former air of intrepidity, and boldly fupported what
lie had done with reafons. “ I took a wife (fays he),
in obedience to my father’s commands ; and haftened
the confummation, in order to prevent Impediments,
and flop the tongues of llanderers.” It appears from
his own confeflion, that this reformer was very fond
of Mrs de Bore, and ufed to call her his Catharitie,
which made profane people think and fay wicked
things of him : “ And therefore (fays he) I mar¬
ried of a fudden, not only that I might not be obliged
to hear the clamours which I knew wmuld be railed
againft me, but to flop the mouths of thofe w7ho re¬
proached me with Catharine de Bore.” Luther alfo
gives us to underhand, that he did it partly as con¬
curring with his grand fcheme of oppoling the Catho¬
lics.
Luther, notwithftanding, wTas not himfelf altogether
fatisfied with thefe reafons. He did not think the hep
he had taken could be fufhciently juftified upon the
principles of human prudence •, and therefore wre find
him, in other places, endeavouring to account for it
from a fupernatural impulfe. But w'hether there was
any thing divine in it or not, Luther found himfelf
extremely happy in his new ftate, and efpecially after
his wife had brought him a fon. “ My rib Kate (fays
he in the joy of his heart) defires her compliments to
you, and thanks you for the favour of your kind let¬
ter. She is very well, through God’s mercy. She is
obedient and complying with me in ad things •, and
more agreeable, I thank God, than I could have ex¬
pelled j fo that I wmuld not change my poverty for
the wealth of Croefus.” He rvas heard to fay (Seck-
endorf tells us,) that he would not exchange his wife
for the kingdom of France, nor for the riches of the:
Venetians j and that for three reafons: Becaufe fine had
been given h m by God, at the time when he implored
the affiAance of the Holy Ghofl in finding a good
■wife ; fecondly, Becaufe, though (he was not without
faults, yet (he had fewer than other women ; and,
thirdly, Becaufe (lie religiouOy obferved the conjugal
fidelity fhe owed him. There went at firft a report,
i ) L U T
that Catharine de Bore was brought to bed foon alter L
her marriage with Luther j but Erafmus, who had
wrote that news to his friends, acknowledged the
falfity of it a little after.
His marriage, however, did not retard his aflivity
and diligence in the work of reformation. He revifed
the Augfburg confeffion of faith, and apology for the
Protellants, when the Proteilant religion was firft efta-
blilhed on a firm balls. See Protestants and Re¬
formation.
After this, Luther had little elfe to do than to fit
down and contemplate the mighty work he had finifh-
ed : for that a fingle monk (hould be able to give the
church fo rude a lltock, that there needed but fuch a-
nother entirely to overthrow it, may very well feem a
mighty work. He did indeed little elfe : for the re¬
mainder of his life was fpent in exhorting princes,
ftates, and univerfities, to confirm the reformation
which had been brought about through him ) and pub-
lilhing from time to time fuch writings as might en¬
courage, direct, and aid, them in doing it. The em¬
peror threatened temporal punidiment with armies, and -
the pope eternal with bulls and anathemas ; but Luther
cared for none -of their threats. His friend and co¬
adjutor Melanflhon was not fo indifferent ; for Me-
lanflhon had a great deal of foftnefs, moderation, and
diffidence in his make, which made him very uneafy,
and even forrowful, in the prefent diforders. Hence
wre find many of Luther’s letters written on purpofe to
fupport and comfort him under thefe feveral diftreffes
and anxieties.
In the year 1533, Luther wrote a confolatory
epxftle to the citizens of Ofchatz, who had fuffered
fome hardfhips for adhering to the Augfburg confef¬
fion of faith ; in which, among other things, he fays j
“ The devil is the hoft, and the world is his inn j fo
that wherever you come, you {hall be lure to find this
ugly hoft.” He had alfo about this time a terrible
controverfy with George duke of Saxony, who had
fuch an averlion to Luther’s dotlrine, that he obliged
his fubje£ls to take an oath that they would never em¬
brace it. However, 60 or 70 citizens of Leipfic were
found to have deviated a little from the Catholic way
in fome point or other, and they were known previ-
oufiy to have confulted Luther about it j upon which
George complained to the ele£lor John, that Luther
had not only abuled his perfon, but alfo preached up
rebellion among his lubjedls. The elefilor ordered Lu¬
ther to be acquainted with this ; and to be told at the
fame time, that if he did not clear himfelf of the
charge, he could not poflibly efcape punilhment. But
Luther eafily refuted the accufation, by proving, that
he had been fo far from ftirring up his fubje£ls againft,
him, on the fcore of religion, that on the contrary, he
had exhorted them rather to undergo the greateft hard-
llfips, and even fuffer themfelves to be banilhed.
In the year 1534, the Bible tranllated by him into
German was firft printed, as the old privilege, dated
at Bibliopolis, under the eledlor’s hand, Ihows : and
it was publilhed the year after. He alfo publifhed
this year a book againft maffes and the confecration of
priefts, in which he relates a conference he had with
the devil upon thofe points ■, for it is remarkable in
Luther’s whole hiftory, that he never had any conflicts
oi any kind within, but the devil was always his anta-
L U T [ 272 ] L U T
.Xuther. gonift. In February 1537, an affembly was held at
Smalkald about matters of religion, to which Luther
and Melandlhon were called. At this meeting Lu¬
ther was feized with fo grievous an iilnefs, that there
were no hopes of his recovery. He was afflicted with
the done, and had a ftoppage of urine for 11 days. In
this terrible condition he would needs undertake to tra¬
vel, notwithftanding all that his friends could fay or do
to prevent him : his refolution, however, was attend¬
ed with a good effect; for the night after his departure
he began to be better. As he teas carried along, he
made his will, in which he bequeathed his deteilation
of Popery to his friends and brethren; agreeably to
what he often ufed to fay : Pefiis cram vivus, martens
ero mors tua, papa; that is, “ I was the plague of
Popery in my life, and lhall continue to be fo in my
death.”
This year the pope and the court of Rome, finding
it impoffible to deal with the Proteftants by force, be¬
gan to have recourfe to ftratagem. They affe&ed
therefore to think, that though Luther had indead car¬
ried things on with a high hand and to a violent ex¬
treme, yet what he had pleaded in defence of thefe
meafures was not entirely without foundation. They
talked wdth a feeming fliow of moderation : and Pius
III. who fucceeded Clement VII. propofed a reforma¬
tion firft among themfelves, and even went fo far as to
fix a place for a council to meet at for that purpofe.
But Luther treated this farce as it deferved to be treat¬
ed ; unmafked and detected it immediately \ and, to
ridicule it the more ffrongly, caufed a pifture to be
drawn, in which was reprefented the pope feated on
high upon a throne, fome cardinals about him with
foxes tails on, and feeming to evacuate upwards and
downwards Qfurfum deorjum rcpurgare, as Melchior
Adam expreifes it). This was fixed over againft the
title-page, to let the readers fee at once the fcope and
defign of the book 5 which w'as, to expofe that cunning
and artifice with which thofe fubtle politicians affeft-
ed to cleanfe and purify themfelves from their errors
and fuperftitions. Luther publifhed about the fame
time A Confutation of the pretended Grant of Con-
ftantine to Sylvefter Bifhop of Rome $ and alfo fome
letters of John Hufs, written from his prifon at Con-
fiance to the Bohemians.
In this manner was Luther employed till his death,
which happened in the year 1546. That year, accom¬
panied by Melandthon, he paid a vifit to his own coun¬
try, which he had not feen for many years, and re¬
turned again in fafety. But foon after he was called
thither again by the earls of Mansfeldt, to compofe
lome differences which had arifen about their bounda¬
ries. Luther had not been ufed to fuch matters \ but
becaufe he was born at Eifleben, a town in the territory
of Mansfeldt, he was willing to do his country what
fervice he could, even in this way. Preaching his laft
fermon therefore at Wittemberir, upon the 17th of
January, he fet off on the 23d ; and at Hall in Saxony
lodged with Juftus Jonas, with whom he ftaid three
days, becaufe the waters were out. Upon the 28th,
he paffed over the river with his three fens and
Dr Jonas ; and being in fome danger, he faid to the
Do£tor, “ Do not you think it would rejoice the
devil exceedingly, if I and you, and my three fons,
fhould be drowned ?” When he entered the territories
2
of the earls of Mansfeldt, he was received by 100 Luther,
horfemen or more, and conducled in a very honour-
able manner •, but wras at the lame time fo very ill,
that it was feared he would die. He faid, that thefe
fits of ficknefs often came upon him when he had any
great bufinefs to undertake : of this, however, he did
not recover j but died upon the 18th of February, in
the 63d year of his age. A little berore he expired,
he admonifhed thofe that w’ere about him to pray to
God for the propagation of the Golpel : “ becaufe
((aid he) the council of Trent, which had fat once or
twice, and the pope, would devife ftrange things again ft
it.” Soon after, his body was put into a leaden cof¬
fin, and carried with funereal pomp to the church at
Eifleben, when Dr Jonas preached a fermon upon the
occallon. The earls of Mansfeldt defired that his
body fhould be interred in their territories but the
eledtor of Saxony infilled upon his being brought back
to Wittemberg which was accordingly done : and
there he wras buried with the greateft pomp that
perhaps ever happened to any private man. Princes,
earls, nobles, and Undents without number, attended
the proceffion j and Melanclhon made his funeral ora¬
tion.
A thoufand lies were invented by the PapiUs about
Luther’s death. Some faid that he died fuddenly j
others, that he killed himfelf •, others, that the devil
Urangled him •, others, that his corpfe Uunk fo abomi¬
nably, that they were forced to leave it in the way, as
it was carried to be interred. Nay, lies were invented
about his death, even while he was yet alive. Luther,
however, to give the moU effectual refutation of this
account of his death, put forth an advertifement of his
being alive; and, to be even with the PapiUs for the
malice they had Ihown in this lie, wrote a book at the
fame time to prove, that “ the papacy w’as founded by
the devil.”
Luther’s works were collefled after his death, and
printed at Wittemberg in 7 vols folio. Catharine de
Bore furvived her hufband a few years ; and continued
the firU year of her widowhood at Wittemberg, though
Luther had advifed her to feek another place of reli-
dence. She went from thence in the year 1547, when
the town was furrendered to the emperor Charles V.
Before her departure, Uie had received a prefent of 50
crowns from Chrillian III. king o( Denmark ; and
the eleefor of Saxony, and the counts of Mansfeldt,
gave her good tokens of their liberality. With thele
additions to what Luther had left her, ihe had where¬
withal to maintain herfelf and her family handfomely.
She returned to Wittemberg, when the town was re-
Uored to the elettor ; where fhe lived in a very devout
and pious manner, till the plague obliged her to leave
it again in the year 1552. She fold what Uie had at
Wittemberg : and retired to Torgau, with a refolu¬
tion to end her life there. An unfortunate mifchance
befel her in her journey thither, which proved fatal to
her. The horfes growing unruly, and attempting to
run away, Uie leaped out of the vehicle the was convey¬
ed in ; and, by leaping, got a fall, of which Uie died
about a quarter of a year after, at Torgau, upon the
20th of December 1552. She was buried there in the
great church, where her tomb and epitaph are Uill to
be feen 5 and the univerfity of Wittemberg, which was
then at Torgau becaufe the plague raged at Wittem-
Lntfa
LUX
Lutheran- berg, made a public programma concerning the funeial
pomp. # ,
Jl LUTHERANISM, the fentiments of Martin Lu-
JiTZL ther with regard to religion. See Luther.
Lutheran!fm has undergone fome alterations fince
the time of its founder.—-Luther rejeSed the epiftle of
St James as inconfiftent with the doftrine of St Paul,
in relation to jutlification ; he alfo fet afide the Apoca-
lypfe : both which are now received as canonical in the
Lutheran church.
Luther reduced the number of facraments to two,
viz. baptifm, and the eucharift : but he believed the
impanation, or confubftantiation, that is, that the
matter of the bread and wine remain with the body
and blood of Chrift j and it is in this article that the
main difference between the Lutherans and Englith
churches confifts.
Luther maintained the mafs to be no facrifice 5 ex¬
ploded the adoration of the holt, auricular confeffion,
meritorious works, indulgences, purgatory, the worlhip
of images, &.c. which had been introduced in the cor¬
rupt times of the Rcmifh church. He alfo oppofed tne
dodtrine of free will, maintained predeilination, and af¬
fected our juftification to be folely by the imputation
of the merits and fatisfadtion of Chrift. He alfo op¬
pofed the fallings in the Roman church, monaftical
vows, the celibate of the clergy, &c.
LUTHERANS, the Chriftians who follow the opi¬
nions of Martin Luther, one of the principal reformers
of the church in the 16th century. See Luther.
The Lutherans, of all Proteftants, are thofe who
differ lead from the Romilh church ; as they affirm,
that the body and blood of Chrift are materially pre-
fent in the iacrament of the Lord’s fupper, though in
an inconiprehenlible manner *, and likewile reprefeut
fome religious rites and inftitutions, as the ufe of
images in churches, the diflinguilbing veftments of the
clergy, the private confeftion of fins, the ufe of wTafers
in the adminiftration of the Lord’s fupper, the form of
exorcifrn in the celebration of baptilm, and other ce¬
remonies of the like nature, as tolerable, and fome of
them as ufeful. The Lutherans maintain, with regard
to the divine decrees, that they refpedl the falvation
or mifery of men, in confequence of a previous know¬
ledge of their fentiments and charadlers, and not as
free and unconditional, and as founded on the mere
will of God. Towards the clofe of the laft century,
the Lutherans began to entertain a greater liberality
of fentiment than they had before adopted ; though
in many places they perfevered longer in fevere and
defpotic principles than other Proteftant churches.
Their public teachers now enjoy an unbounded liberty
of diffenting from the decifions of thofe fymbols or
creeds which were once deemed almoft infallible rules
of faith and pra^Hce, and of declaring their diffent in
the manner they judge the moft expedient. Mofheim
attributes this change in their fentiments to the maxim
which they generally adopted, that Chriftians were ac¬
countable to God alone for their religious opinions }
and that no individual could be juftly punfthed by the
magiftrate for bis erroneous opinions, while he con-
ducled bimfelf like a virtuous and obedient fubjedf,
and made no attempts to difturb the peace and order
of civil fociety.
LUTHERN, in ^rchiteBure^ a kind of window
Vol. XII. Part I.
LUX
over the cornice, in the roof of a budding; ftandmg
perpendicularly over the naked of a wall, and ferving J ^
to illuminate the upper ftory. burg.
Lutberns are of various forms ; as fquare, femicir-—y—
cular, round, called builds eijes,Jlat arches, fee.
LUTRA, in 'Zoology. See Mustela, Mammalia
Index.
LUTTI, BeneDITTO, an eminent painter, born at
Florence in 1666. He was the difciple of Antonio
Dominico Gabiani, and his merit was judged equal to
that of his mafter : he painted few befide eafel pieces \
and his works were much valued and fought for in
England, France, and Germany. The emperor knight¬
ed him } and the ele&or of Mentz, together v.nth his
patent of knighthood, fent him a crols let with dia¬
monds. Lutti was never fatisfied in finiftiing his pic¬
tures •, yet though he often retouched them, they never
appeared laboured. He died in 1724.
LUTZEN, a town of Upper Saxony in Germany j
famous for a battle fought here in 1632, when Gufta-
vus Adolphus king of Sweden was killed. It is fituated
on the river Elfter, in E. Long. 12. 37. N. Lat. 51. 20.
LUXATION, is when any bone is moved out of
its place of articulation, fo as to impede or deftroy its
proper office or motion. See Surgery. <
LUXEMBURG, a city of the Auftrian Nether¬
lands, and capital of a duchy of the fame name. It is
feated partly on a hill, and partly on a plain j it is
very ftrong both by art and nature. It is but indiffer¬
ently built, though there are fome good ftone houfes in
it. There is nothing very remarkable among the ftruc-
tures but the Jefuits church j which is a handfome
edifice, after the modern tafte. It was taken by
Louis XIV. in 16843 who fo augmented the fortifica¬
tions, that it is now one of the ftrongeft towns in Eu¬
rope. It was ceded to Spain by the treaty of Ryf-
wick 3 but the French took it again in 1701, and gave
it up to the houfe of Auftria by the treaty of Utrecht.'
It is 25 miles foutb-weft of Treves, and 100 weft of
Mentz. E. Long. 6. 10. N. Lat. 49. 52.
Luxemburg, the duchy of, is one of the 17 pro¬
vinces of the Netherlands. It is bounded on the call
by the archbilhopric of Treves 3 on the fouth by
Lorrain 3 on the weft, partly by Champagne, and
partly by the bifliopric of Liege, which likewife, with
part of Limburg, bound it on the north. It lies in
the foreft of Ardenne, which is one of the moft famous
in Europe. In fome places it is covered with moun¬
tains and woodst, and in general it is fertile in com
and wine ; and here are a great number of iron mines.
The principal rivers are the Mofelle, the Sour, the
Ourte, and the Semoy. It belongs partly to the houfe
of Auftria, and partly to the French ; and Thionville
is the capital of the French part.
Luxemburg, Franpois Henry de Montmorenci, duke
of, and marffial of France, a renowned general in the
fervice of Louis XIV. was born in 1628. He was
with the prince of Conde at the battle of Rocroy, in
1643 i and in 1668 diftinguithed himfelf at the con-
queft of Franche Compte. In 1672, he commanded
in chief the French army in Holland 3 when he de¬
feated the enemy near Woerden and Bodegrave, and
was univerfally admired for the fine retreat he made ■'
in 1673. He became marffial of France in i6nc $
gained the battle of Fleurs in 1690, that of Steen*,i.k
M n* in
[ 273 1
t U X [ 274 ] LUX
Lusm-ians, m 1692, and that of Nenvind in 1693. He died in
t ! »va-ry. Verfailles in 1695.
LUXURIANS Flos, H a luxuriant or double
flo’.ver a flower, fome of wliofe parts are increafed
in number, to the diminution or entire exclufion of
others.
The parts that are augmented or multiplied in luxu¬
riant flowers, are the flower-cup and petals, which
Linnaeus conflders as the teguments or covers of the
flower ; the parts that are diminifhed, or entirely ex¬
cluded, are the ftamina or chives, which the fame au¬
thor denominates the male organs of generation.
Luxuriance in flowers is capable of the three follow¬
ing varieties,
1. A flower is faid to be multiplied (yZo.f multipli-
c/7/wj'), when the increafe of the petals is not fuch as to
exclude all the ftamina: in this ienfe, flowers are pro¬
perly faid to be double, triple, or quadruple, according
to the number of multiplications of the petals.
2. A flower is faid to be full (JIqs plertus), when,
by the multiplication of the petals, all the ftamina are
excluded. Such are moft of the double flowers that
engage the attention of florifts.
3. A flower is faid to be PROLIFIC (Jlosprolifer'),
which produces flowers, and fometimes leaves, from its
centre.
For a particular defeription of each of thefe kinds
of luxuriance in flowers, fee the articles Multiplica-
tvs Flos, Plenus Flos, and Prolifer Flos.
Many natural orders of plants do not in any circum-
ftances produce luxuriant flowers. Of this kind are
the mafqued flowers of Tournefort, excepting calve’s-
fnout *, the rough-leaved, umbelliferous, ftarry plants,
and fuch as flower at the joints, of Ray : fome umbel¬
liferous flowers, however, are prolific.
I he pea-bloom, or butterfly-fliaped flowers, are rare¬
ly rendered double ; fome inflances, however, of luxu¬
riance, are obferved in a fpecies of lady’s Anger, coro-
nilla, and broom.
All luxuriant flowers are vegetable monfters. Such
as are pcrfeflly full, by which we mean the greateft
degree of luxuriance, cannot be propagated by feeds j
becaufe thefe, for want of impregnation, can never ri¬
pen. Full flowers therefore are very properly deno¬
minated by Linnaeus eunuchs. This higheft degree of
luxuriance is very common in carnation, lychnis, ane¬
mone, ftock, Indian crefs, rofe, marflr marigold, ra¬
nunculus, violet, peony, and narciffus.
Flowers which do not exclude all the ftamina, per¬
fect their feeds. Of this kind are poppy, fennel flower,
campanula, and fome others.
Some flowers, as thofe of the water-lily, fig-mari¬
gold, and cafhrs, have many rows or feries of petals,
without the number of ftarnina being in the leaft dimi-
nithed. Such flowers are by no means to be reckoned
luxuriant, in the flighteft degree.
Luxuriance in flowers is generally owing to excefs of
ncurifhment.
LUXURY ; voluptuoufnefs, or an extravagant in¬
dulgence in diet, drefs, and equipage.
Luxury, among the Romans, prevailed to fuch a
degree, that feveral laws were made to fupprefs, or
at leaft limit it. The extravagance of the table be¬
gan about the time of the battle of A<ftium, and con¬
tinued in great excefs till the reign of Galba. Pea¬
cocks, cranes of Malta, nightingales, venifon, wild Luxury.
and tame fowl, were confidered as delicacies. A pro- ' y——
fufion of provifions wras the reigning tafte. Whole
wild boars were often ferved up, and fometimes they
were filled with various fmall animals, and birds of
different kinds: this difli they called the Trojan horfe,
in allufion to the wooden horfe filled with foldiers.
Fowls and game of all forts were ferved up in whole
pyramids, piled up in diflies as broad as moderate
tables. Lucullus had a particular name for each
apartment ; and in whatever room he ordered his fer^
vants to prepare the entertainment, they knew by the
direction the expence to which they were to go.
When he flipped in the Apollo, the expence w?as fix¬
ed at 50,000 drachms:, that is 1250I. M. Antony
provided eight boars for 12 guefts. Vitellius had a
large filver platter, faid to have coft a million of fe-
Jlerces, called Minerva's buckler. In this he blended
together the livers of gilt-heads, the brains of phea-
fants and peacocks, the tongues of phenicopters, and
the milts of lampreys. Caligula ferved up to his guefls
pearls of great value diffolved in vinegar ; the fame
was done alfo by Clodius the fon of yEfop the trage¬
dian. Apicius laid afide 90,000,000 of fejlerces, be-
fides a mighty revenue, for no other purpofe but to be
facrificed to luxury 5 finding himfelf involved in debt,
he looked -'over his accounts, and though he had the
Aim of 10,000,000 of fejlcrces ftill left, he poifoned
himfelf for fear of being ftarved to death.
The Roman laws to reftrain luxury were Lex Or chi a,
Fannia, Didia, Licinia, Cornelia, and many others :
But all thefe were too little ; for as riches increafed
amongft them, fo did fenfuality.
What were the ideas of luxury entertained in Eng¬
land about two centuries ago, may be gathered from
the following paffage of Holinlhed j who, in a difeourfe
prefixed to his Hiftory, fpeaking of the increafe of
luxury, fays, “ Neither do I fpeak this in reproach
of any man, God is my judge 5 but to (how, that
I do rejoice rather to fee how God has bleffed us with
his good gifts, and to behold how that in a time
wherein all things are grown to the moft exceflive
prices, wTe yet do find means to obtain and atchieve
fuch furniture as heretofore was impofiible. There
are old men yet dwelling in the village where I remain,
which have noted three things to be marveloufly al¬
tered in England within their found remembrance. One
is the multitude of chimneys lately eredled ; whereas
in their young days there were not above two or three,
if fo many, in moft uplandifh towns of the realm (the
religious houfes, and manor places of their lords, al¬
ways excepted, and peradventure fome great perfon-
ages), but each made his fire againit a reredofs
[ikreen] in the hall where he dreifed his meat and
dined.—The fecond is the great amendment of lodg¬
ing $ for, faid they, our fathers and we ourfelves have
lain full oft upon ftraw pallets covered only with a
ftieet, under coverlits made of a dogfwaine or horhar-
riots (to ufe their own terms), and a good log under
their head inftead of a bolfter.—If it were fo that
the father or goodman of the houfe had a mattrafs,
or flock bed and ftieets, a fack of chaff to reft his
head upon, he thought himfelf to be as well lodged
as the lord of the town. So well were they con¬
tented, that pillows (faid they) were thought meet
qnly
LUX [ 275 ] LUX
Luxury-, only for women in childbed; as for fervants, if they
—"v—had any ftieet above them, it was well; for feldom had
they any under their bodies to keep them from prick¬
ing flraws, that ran oft through the canvas and their
hardened hides.—The third thing they tell of, is the
exchange of treene [wooden] platters into pewter, and
wooden fpoons into lilver or tin j for fo common were
all forts of treene veffels in old times, that a man (hould
hardly find four pieces pewter (of which one was per-
adventure a fait) in a good farmer’s houfe. Again, In
times paft, men were contented to dwell in houfes
builded of fallow, willow, &c. fo that the ufe of oak
was in a manner dedicated wholly unto churches, reli¬
gious houfes, princes palaces, navigation, &c. But
now willow, &c. are rejected, and nothing but oak
anywhere regarded ; and yet fee the change, for when
our houfes were builded of willow, then had we oaken
men 5 but now that our houfes are come to be made of
oak, our men are not only become willow, but a great
many altogether of draw', which is a fore alteration.
In thefe the courage of the owner was a fufficient de¬
fence to keep the houfe in fafety ; but now the aflurance
of the timber muft defend the men from robbing. Now
have we many chimneys, and yet our tenderlins com¬
plain of rheums, catarrhs, and pofes; then had wre
none but reredofes, and our heads did never ach. For
as the fmoke in thofe days w^ere fuppofed to be a fuffi¬
cient hardening for the timber of the houfe 5 fo it was
reputed a far better medicine to keep the goodman and
his family from the quacks or pofe ; wherewith, as then,
very few were acquainted. Again, Our pewterers in
time pall employed the ufe of pewter only upon diffies
and pots, and a few other trifles for fervice 5 w-hereas
now they are grown into fuch exquifite cunning, that
they can in a manner imitate by infufion any form or
falhion, of cup, diffi, fait, bowl, or goblet, which is
made by the goldfmith’s craft, though they be ever fo
curious and very artificially forged. In fome places
beyond the fea, a garniffi of good flat Engliffi pewter
(I fay flat, becaufe diffies and platters in my time be¬
gan to be made deep, and like bafons, and are indeed
more convenient both for fauce and keeping the meat
warm) is efteemed fo precious as the like number of
veflels that are made of fine filver.”
Particular inftances of luxury, in eating, howrever,
might be adduced from an earlier period, furpaffing
even the extravagance of the Romans. Thus, in the
10th year of the reign of Edward IV. (1470), George
Nevill, brother to the earl of Warwick, at his inftal-
ment into the archiepifcopal fee of York, entertained
moft of the nobility and principal clergy, when his
bill of fare was 300 quarters of wheat, 350 tuns of
ale, 104 tuns of wine, a pipe of fpiced wine, 80 fat
oxen, fix wild bulls, 1004 weathers, 300 hogs, 300
calves, 3000 geefe, 3000 capons, 300 pigs, 100 pea¬
cocks, 200 cranes, 200 kids, 2GOQ chickens, 4000
pigeons, 4000 rabbits, 204 bitterns, 4000 ducks, 200
pheafants, 500 partridges, 200 woodcocks, 400 plo¬
vers, 100 curlews, 100 quails, 1000 egrets, 200 rees,
400 bucks, does,, and roebucks, 1506 hot venifon paf-
ties, 4000 cold ditto, 1000 difties of ielly parted, 4000
diffies of jelly plain, 4000 cold cuflards, 2000 hot cuf-
tards, 3co pikes, 3®® breams, eight feals, four porpuf-
fes, 400 tarts. At this feaft the earl of AVarwick wras
fteward, the earl of Bedford treafurer, and Lord Haf-
tings comptroller, with many more noble officers 5 Luxury.
1000 fervitors, 62 cooks, 515 menial apparitors in the
kitchen.—But fuch was the fortune of the man, that
after his extreme prodigality he died in the moft abjedt
but unpitied poverty, vin&us jacuit in fumtna inopia.
And as to drefs, luxury in that article feems to have
attained a great height long before Holinfhed’s time :
For in the reign of Edward III. we find no fewer than
feven fumptuary laws paffed in one feffion of parliament
to reftrain it. It was enabled, that men fervants of
lords, as alfo of tradefmen and artifans, ffiall be content
with one meal of fiffi or fleffi every day ; and the other
meals, daily, ffiall be of milk, cheefe, butter and the
like. Neither ffiall they ufe any ornaments of gold,
filk, or embroidery; nor their wives and daughters any
veils above the price of twelvepence. Artifans and
yeomen fliall not wear cloth above 40s. the whole piece
(the fineft then being about 61. per piece), nor the or¬
naments before named. Nor the women any veils of
filk, but only tljofe of thread made in England. Gen¬
tlemen under the degree of knights, not having icol.
yearly in land, fhall not wear any cloth above 44-
marks the whole piece. Neither ffiall they or their fe¬
males ufe cloth of gbld, filver, or embroidery, &c.
But efquires having 200I. per annum or upwards of
rent, may wear cloths of five marks the whole piece of
cloth ; and they and their females may alfo wear fluff
of filk, filver, ribbons, girdles, or furs. Merchants,
citizens, burghers, and artificers or tradefmen, as well
of London as elfewhere, who have goods and chattels
of the clear value of 500I. and their females, may wear
as is allowed to gentlemen and efquires of look per an¬
num. And merchants, citizens, and burgefles, worth
above 1000I. in goods and chattels, may (and their fe¬
males) wear the lame as gentlemen of 200I. per annum.
Knights of 200 marks yearly may wear cloth of fix
marks the cloth, but no higher j but no cloth of gold,
nor furred with ermine : but all knights and ladies ha¬
ving above 400 marks yearly, up to 1000I. per annum,
may wear as they pleafe, ermine excepted 5 and they
may wear ornaments of pearl and precious ftoncs for
their heads only. Clerks having degrees in cathedrals,
colleges, &c. may wear as knights and efquires of the
fame income. Plowmen, carters, (hepherds, and fuch
like, not having 40s. value in goods or chattels, ffiall
wear no fort of cloth but blanket and rutTet lawn of 1 2d.
and ffiall wear girdles and belts ; and they ffiall only
eat and drink fuitable to their ftations. And whofo-
ever ufes other apparel than is prefcribed by the above
laws ffiall forfeit the lame.
Concerning the general utility of luxury to a Hate,
there is much controverfy among the political writers.
Baron Montefquieu lays it down, that luxury is necef-
fary in monarchies, as in France ; but ruinous to de¬
mocracies, as in Holland. With regard therefore to
Britain, whofe government is compounded of both fpe-
cies, it is held to be a dubious queftion, how far private
luxury is a public evil 5 and, as fuch, cognizable by
public laws. And indeed our legiflators have feveral
times changed their fentiments as to this point ; for for¬
merly there were a number of penal laws exifting to re¬
ftrain excefs in apparel, chiefly made in the reigns of
Edward III. IV. and Henry VIII. a fpeciroen of which
we have inferted above. But all of them it appeared
expedient to repeal at an after period. In fad, although
Mm2 luxury
L Y C [ 276 ] L Y C
Luxury luxury will of neceflity increafe according to the influx
II of wealth, it may not be for the general benefit of com-
>7ca°n. merce to ;mp0fe> as jn tlie above cited laws, an abfo-
lute prohibition of every degree of it: yet, for the good
of the public, it may be neceffary that, fuch as go be¬
yond proper bounds in eating, drinking, and wearing,
wdiat by no means is fuitable to their Hation, fhould be
taxed accordingly, could it be done without including
thofe who have a better title to fuch indulgence. This
is certainly, however, a point which ftiould be maturely
weighed before executed j and, in mercantile countries
at leaft, fuch reftraints may be found prejudicial, moft
likely impradlicable, efpecially where true liberty is
cftablilhed. Sir \Villiam Temple obferves, fpeaking
of the trade and riches, and at the fame time of the
frugality of the Hollanders, “ That fome of our max¬
ims are not fo certain as current in politics : as that en¬
couragement of excefs and luxury if employed in the
confumption of native commodities, is of advantage to
trade. It may be fo to that which impoveriilies, but
not to that which enriches a country. It is indeed lefs
prejudicial, if it lies in native than in foreign w-ares :
but the humour of luxury and expence cannot flop at
certain bounds 5 what begins in native will proceed to
foreign commodities *, and though the example arife
among idle perfons, yet the imitation will run into all
degrees, even of thofe men by whofe indufiry the na¬
tion fubfifts. And befides, the more of our own we
fpend, the lefs (hall we have to fend abroad ; and fo it
will come to pafs, that while we drive a vaft trade,
yet, by buying much more than wTe fell, we (hall come
to be poor at daft.”
LYBIA, or Libya, a name anciently given to all
that part of Africa lying between the border of E-
gypt and the river Triton *, and comprehending Cyre-
rtaica, Marmarica, and the Regio Syrtica. See thefe
articles.
LYCiEUM, AvTiuov, in antiquity, the name of a
celebrated fchool or academy at Athens, where Ari-
ftotle explained his philofophy. The place was com-
pofed of porticoes and trees planted in the quincunx
form, where the philofophers difputed walking. Hence
philofophy of the Lyeceum is ufed to fignify the philofo¬
phy of Ariftotle, or the Peripatetic philofophy. . Suidas
obferves, that the Lycaeum took its name from its hav¬
ing been originally a temple of Apollo Lycaeus $ or
rather a portico or gallery built by Lycaeus fon of
Apollo } but others mention it to have been built by
Pififtratus or Pericles.
LYCiEUS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of
Arcadia, facred to Jupiter ; whence Jupiter Lycwus
(Pliny). Sacred alfo to Pan (Virgil) ; and hence Ly-
ccea, the rites performed to Pan on this mountain $
which Evander carrying wdth him to Latium, were
called Lupercalia (Virgil).
LYCAON, in fabulous hiftory, the firft king of
Arcadia, fon of Pelafgus and Meliboea. He built a
town called Lycofura, on the top of Mount Lycaeus,
In honour of Jupiter. He had many wives, by wdiom
he had a daughter called Callifto, and 50 fons. He
was fucceeded on the throne by Nydtimus, the eldeft of
his fons. He lived about 1820 years before the Chrif-
tian era.—Another king of Arcadia, celebrated for his
cruelties. He was changed into a wolf by Jupiter, be-
caufe he offered human vi&ims on the altar of the god
Pan. Some attribute this metamorphofis to another Lycaonia
caufe. The fins of mankind, as they relate, were be- II
come fo enormous, that Jupiter vifited the earth to pu-.
nifh wdckednefs and impiety. He came to Arcadia,
where he was announced as a god, and the people be¬
gan to pay proper adoration to his divinity. Lycaon,
however, who ufed to facrifice all ftrangers to his ivan-
ton cruelty, laughed at the pious prayers of his fubjedlsj
and to try the divinity of the god, he ferved up human
fleflr on his table. This impiety fo irritated Jupiter,
that he immediately deftroyed the houfe of Lycaon,
and changed him into a w'olf.
LYCAONIA, in Ancient Geography, a fmall coun¬
try of the Hither Afia, contained between Pamphylia
to the fouth, Cappadocia to the north, Pilidia and Pnry-
gia to the w'eft, and Armenia Minor to the eaft. Ly-
caones, the people. This country, though fituated
very near Mount Taurus, and part of it on it, yet the
Rpmans reckoned it in Afia intra Taurum. Arca¬
dia, anciently called Lycaonia (Stephanus.)—Alfo an
iftand in the Tiber, joined to Rome by a bridge, and
to the land by another, namely, the Ceilius and Fabric
cius.
LYCHNIS, campion, including alfo the Bache¬
lor's-button, Catch-fly, &c. ; a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the pentandria clafs j and in the natural method
ranking under the 22d order, Caryophyllce. See Bo¬
tany Index.
LYCIA, a country of Afia Minor, bounded by the
Mediterranean on the fouth, Caria on the wreft, Pam¬
phylia on the eaft, and Phrygia on the north. It was
anciently called Milyas and Tremile, from the Milyae,
or Solymi, a people of Crete, who came to fettle there.
The country received the name of Lycia from Lycus
the fon of Pandion, wdio eftabliftied himfelf there.
The inhabitants have been greatly commended by all
the ancients for their fobriety and juftice. They were
conquered by Croefus king of Lydia, and afterwards
by Cyrus. Though they were fubjeft to the power of
Perfia, yet they were governed by their own kings,
and only paid a yearly tribute to the Perfian monarch.
They became part of the Macedonian empire when A-
lexander came into the eaft, and afterwards were ceded
to the houfe of the Seleucidae. The country was
reduced into a Roman province by the emperor Clau¬
dius.
LYCIUM, a genus of plants belonging to the pen¬
tandria clafs ; and in thf natural method ranking under
the 28th order, Lurid*. See Botany Index.
LYGODONTES, the petrified teeth of the lupus-
pifcis, or wolf-filh, frequently found foflile. They are
of different ftiapes ; but the moft: common kind rife into
a femiorbicular form, and are hollow' withint fomewhat
refembling an acorn-cup \ this hollow is found fome-
times empty, and fometimes filled with the ftratum in
which it is immerfed. Many of them have an outer
circle, of a different colour from the reft.
LYCOMEDES, in fabulous hiftory, a king of Scy-
ros, an ifland in the iEgean fea. He w as fon of Apollo
and Parthenope. He w'as fecretly intrufted with the
care of young Achilles, wdiom his mother Thetis had
difguifed in woman’s clothes, to remove him from the
Trojan war, where {he knew he muft unavoidably pe-
rifli. Lycomedes has rendered himfelf famous for his
treafhery to Thefeus, who had implored his protedlion
whsn
L Y C [ 277 ] L Y D
Lycoperdon when driven from his throne of Athens by the ufurper
II Mneftbeus. Lycomedes, as it is reported, either en-
■ - vious of the fame of his illuftrious gueft, or bribed by
the emiflaries of Mneftheus, led Thefeus to an elevated
place, on pretence to (how him the extent of his domi¬
nions, and perfidioully threw him down a precipice,
where he was killed.
LYCOPERDON, a genus of plants belonging to
the cryptogamia clafs. See Botany Index.
LYCOPERSICON. See Solanum, Botany
Index.
LYCOPHRON, a famous Greek poet and gram¬
marian, born at Colchis in Euboea, flourhhed about
304 B. C. and, according to Ovid, was killed by an
arrow. He wrote 20 tragedies; but all his works are
loft, except a poem entitled Cajfandra, w’hich contains
a long train of predictions, w’hich he fuppofes to
have been made by Caffandra, Priam’s daughter.
This poem is extremely obfcure. The belt edition of
it is that of Dr Potter, printed at Oxford in 1697,
folio.
LYCOPODIUM, or Club-moss *, a genus of plants
belonging to the cryptogamia clafs. See Botany
Index.
LYCOPOLIS, or Lycon, in Ancient Geography,
fo called from the worfhip of wolves. Lycopo/itee, the
people } Lycopolites, the diftriCt. There were two
towns of this name, one in the Delta, or Lower Egypt,
near the Mediterranean ; the other in the Thebais, or
Higher Egypt, in the northern part, to the weft of the
Nile.
LYCOPSIS, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking
under the 41 ft order, Afperifolice. See Botany Index.
LYCOPUS, a genus of plants belonging to the
diandria clafs •, and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 42ft order, Verticillatce. See Botany Index.
LYCURGIA, a feftival obferved by the Spartans,
in memory of their lawgiver Lycurgus, whom they ho¬
noured with a temple and anniverfary facrifice.
LYCURGUS, the celebrated legiflator of the Spar¬
tans, was the fon of Eunomes king of Sparta. He
travelled to Greece, to the ifte of Crete, to Egypt, and
even to the Indies, to converfe with the fages and learn¬
ed men of thofe countries, and to learn their manners,
their cuftoms, and their laws. After the death of his
brother PolydeCtes, who w7as king of Sparta, his wi¬
dow7 offered the crown to Lycurgus, promiftng that fhe
wrould make herfelf mifcarry of the child of which fhe
was pregnant, provided he would marry her j but Ly¬
curgus nobly refufed thefe advantageous offers, and af¬
terwards contented himfelf with being tutor to his ne¬
phew Charillus, and reftored to him the government
when he came of age ; but notwuthftanding this regular
and generous conduCI, he wras accufed of a defign to
ufurp the crown. This calumny obliged him to retire
to the ifland of Crete, wdiere he applied himfelf to the
ftudy of the laws and cuftoms of nations. At his return
to Lacedemon, he reformed the government: and, to
prevent the diforders occafioned by luxury and the love
of riches, he prohibited the ufe of gold and filver j pla¬
ced all the -citizens in a ftate of equality 5 and intro¬
duced the ftridfteft temperance, the moft exadt dif-
cipline, and thofe admirable laws wftiich (a few except¬
ed) have been celebrated by all hiftorians. It is faidj
that, to engage the Lacedemonians to obferve them Lydd
inviolably, he made them promife with an oath not to Jl
change any part of them till his return ; and that he ‘ A
afterwards went to the ifland of Crete, where he killed
himfelf, after having ordered that his afhes fhould be
thrown into the fea, fcV fear leaf! if his body fhould be
carried to Sparta the Lacedemonians would think them-
felves abfolved from their oath. He flourished about
870 B. C.
LYDD, a town of England, in Kent, twro miles
and a half fouth-weft of Romney, of which town and
port it is a member, and 7 1 miles from London. It is
a populous towrn, and is incorporated by the name o-’ a
bailiff, jurats, and commonalty. In the beach near
Stone-end, is a heap of ftones, fancied to be the tomb
of Crifpin and Crifpianus ; and near the fea is a piace
called Holmjlone, confifting of beach and pebble-ftones,
which abounds w7ith holm trees.
LYDGATE, John, called the Monk of Bury ; not,
as Cibber conjectures, becaufe he was a native of that
place, for he w7as born about the year 1380, in the vil¬
lage of Lydgate : but becaufe he was a monk of the
BenediCtine convent at St Edmund’s-Bury. After ftu-
dying fome time in our Englifh univerfities, he travel¬
led to France and Italy : and, having acquired a com¬
petent knowledge of the languages of thofe countries,
he returned to London, where he opened a fchool, in
wftiich he inftruCted the fons of the nobility in polite li¬
terature. At what time he retired to the convent of
St Edmund’s-Bury, does not appear •, but he w7as cer¬
tainly there in 1415. He was living in 1446, aged
about 66 ; but in wftiat year he died is not known.
Lydgate, according to Pits, was an elegant poet, a
perfuafive rhetorician, an expert mathematician, an
acute philofopher, and a tolerable divine. He w7as a
voluminous writer; and, confidering the age in which
he lived, an excellent poet. His language is lefs obfo-
lete, and his verfification much more harmonious, than
the language and verfification of Chaucer, who w7rote
about half a century before him. He wnote, 1. Pliftory
of the Theban war, printed at the end of Chaucer’s
works, 1561, 1602, 1687. 2. Poemation of good
counfel j at the end of Chaucer’s works. 3. The life
of Hecftor ; London 1 594, folio, printed by Grofs, de¬
dicated to Henry V. 4, Life of the Blefled Virgin ;
printed by Caxton. 5. The proverbs of Lydgate upon
the fall of princes •, printed by Wink. Word. London,
410. 6. Difpute of the horfe, the Iheep, and the goofe ^
printed in Caxton’s Colledf. qto. 7. The temple of
brafs 5 among the w-orks of Chaucer. 8. London lick-
penny j vide Stow7’s hiftory, &c. &c. Befides an in¬
credible number of other poems and tranflations prefer-
ved in various libraries, and of which the reader will
find a catalogue in Biftrop Tanner.
LYDIA, in Ancient Geography, a celebrated king¬
dom of Afia Minor.—All the ancient writers tell us,
that Lydia was firft called Meeonia or Meonia, from
Meon king of Phrygia and Lydia ; and that it was
known under no other denomination till the reign of
Atys, when it began to be called Lydia from his fon
J--ydus. Bochart finding in his learned colle&ion of
Phoenician w7ords the verb lu%, fignifying “ to wind,”
and obferving that the country we are fpeaking of is
wratered by the Maeander fo famous for its windings,
concludes that it w7as thence named Lydia, or Ludia.
As.
L Y D [ 278 ]
As to the ancient nanie of Mceonia, he takes it to be a phale a queen of
L Y D
Greek tranfiation of the Phcenician word lud; wherein
he agrees in fome meafure with Stephanus, who derives
the name of Maeonia from Mteon the ancient name
of the Mseander. Some take the word meeonia to be
a t ran flat ion of a Hebrew word flgnifying “ metal,”
becaufe that country, fay they, was in former times
enriched above any other with mines. Though Lydia
and Majonia are by moft authors indifferently ufed for
one and the fame country, yet they are fometimes
diftinguiflied ; that part where Mount Tmolus flood,
watered by the Pa&ohis, being properly called M<ro-
ma; and the other, lying on the coaft, Lydia. This
diftinftion is ufed by Homer, Callimachus, Dionyfius,
and other ancient writers. In after ages, when the
lonians, who had planted a colony on the coaft of the
Egean fea, began to make fome figure, that part was
called Ionia, and the name of Lydia given to the an¬
cient Maeonia.—Lydia, according to Pliny, Ptolemy,
and other ancient geographers, was bounded by My-
lia Major on the north, by Caria on the fouth, by
Phrygia Major on the eaft, and Ionia on the weft, ly¬
ing betwreen the 37th and 39th degrees of north lati¬
tude. What the ancients ftyle the kingdom of Lydia
was not confined within thefe narrow boundarie-s, but
extended from Halys to the Egean fea. Pliny’s de-
fcription includes iEolia, lying between the Hermus
and the Caicus.
As to the origin of the Lydians, Jofephus, and
after him all the ecclefiaftical writers, derive them
from Lud, Shem’s fourth fon •, but this opinion has
no other foundation than the fimilitude of names.
Some of the ancients will have the Lydians to be a
mixed colony of Phrygians, Myfians, and Carians.
Others finding fome conformity in religion and reli¬
gious ceremonies between the Egyptians and Tufcans
who were a Lydian colony, conclude them, without
any farther evidence, to be originally Egyptians. All
we know" for certain is, that the Lydians w'ere a very
ancient nation, as is manifeft from their very fables;
for Atys, Tantalus, Pelops, Niobe, and Arachne, are
all faid to have been the children of Lydus. And Zan-
thus in his I.ydiaca, quoted by Stephanus, informs us,
that the ancient city of Afcalon, one of the five fa-
trapies of the Pbiliftines, mentioned in the books of
Jolhua and the Judges, wjas built by one Afcalus a Ly¬
dian, whom Achiamus king of Lydia had appointed to
command a body of troops which he fent, we know’
not on what occafion, into Syria. The Heraclidm,
or kings of Lydia defcended from Hercules, began to
reign before the Trojan w’ar 5 and had been preceded
by a long feries of fovereigns fprung from Atys, and
hence fly led Atyadce; a flrong proof of the antiquity of
that kingdom.
The Lydians began very early to be ruled by kings,
whofe government fi ems to have been truly defpotic,
and the crown hereditary. We read of three diftindl
races of kings reigning over Lydia, viz. the Atyadse,
the Heraclidae, and the Mermnada?.
1 he Atyada: were fo called from Atys the fon of Co-
tys, and grandfon of Manes the firft Lydian king. But
the hiftory of this family is obfcure and fabulous.
1 he Atyadae were fucceeded by the Heraclidce, or
the defendants of Hercules. For Hercules being,
by the direftion of the oracle, fold as a flave to Om-
3
Lydia, to expiate the murder of
Iphitus, had, during his captivity, by one of her'-
flaves, a fon named C/eo/aus, whofe grandfon Argon
was the firft of the Heraclidae that afcended the throne
of Lydia. This race is faid to have reigned 505
years, the fon fucceeding the father for 22 genera¬
tions. They began to reign about the time of the
Trojan war. The laft of the family was the unhappy
Candaules, who loft both his life and kingdom by' his
imprudence : An event of wfliich we have the following
account by Herodotus. Candaules had a wife whom
he paffionately loved, and believed the moft beautiful
of her fex. He extolled her charms to Gyges his fa¬
vourite, w'hom he ufed to intruft with his moft import¬
ant aftairs ; and the more to convince him of her beau¬
ty, refolved to (how her to him quite naked : he accord-
ingly placed him in the porch of her chamber where
the queen ufed to undrefs when (he w-ent to bed, or¬
dering him to retire after he Ihould have feen her,
and take all poflible care not to be obferved. But
notwfitbftanding all the caution he could ufe, (he plain¬
ly difcovered him going out; and though ftie did not
doubt but it was her hufband’s contrivance, yet Ihe
paffed that night in a feeming tranquillity, fuppref-
ftng her refentment till next morning, when ftie fent
for Gyges, and refolutely told him that he mult either
by his death atone for the criminal a6tion he had been
guilty of, or put to death Candaules the contriver of
it, and receive both her and the kingdom of Lydia
for his reward. Gyges at firft earneftly begged of
her that ftie would not drive him to the neceflity of
fueh a choice. But finding that he could not prevail
with her, and that he muft either kill his mafter or
die himfelf, he chofe the former part of the alterna¬
tive. Being led by the queen to the fame place where
her hufband had polled him the night before, he flab-
bed the king while he was afleep, married the queen,
and took polfeflion of the kingdom, in which he was
confirmed by the anfwer of the Delphic oracle. The
Lydians having taken up arms to revenge the death
of their prince, an agreement v/as made between
them and the followers of Gyges, that if the oracle
ftiould declare him to be lawful king of Lydia, he fhould
be permitted to reign-, if not, he fhould refign the
crown to the Heraclidae. The anfwer of the oracle pro¬
ving favourable to Gyges, he was univerfally acknow¬
ledged for lawful king of Lydia. Candaules is faid to
have purchafed a pielure painted by Bularchas, re-
prefenting a battle of the Magnetes, for its weight in
gold 5 a circumftance which fliows how early the art
of painting began to be in requeft, for Candaules was
cotetnporary with Romulus.
Gyges having thus poffeffed himfelf of the kingdom
of Lydia, fent many rich and valuable prefents to
the oracle of Delphos, among others, fix cups of
gold weighing 30 talents, and greatly efteemed for
the workmanflflp. He made war on Miletus and
Smyrna, took the city of Colophon, and fubdued the
whole country of Troas. In his reign, and by his
permiflion, the city of Abydus was built by the Mi-
lefians. Plutarch and other writers relate his accef-
fion to the crown of Lydia in a quite different man¬
ner, and tells us, without making any mention of the
queen, that Gyges rebelled againft Candaules and flew
him in an engagement. In Gyges began the third
Lydia
L Y D [ 279 ] L Y D
race called MermnacLe ; who were alio, properly fpeak-
lug, Heraclidee, being defcended from a ion of Her¬
cules by Omphale. Gyges reigned 38 years, and was
fucceeded by his fon Ardyes.
This prince carried on the war againfl: the Mile-
iians which his father had begun, and poffeiTed him-
felf of Priene, in thofe days a ilrong city. In his
reign the Cimmerians invaded and overran all Aiia Mi¬
nor 5 but what battles were fought between the Ly¬
dians and thefe invaders, and with what fuccefs, we
find no where mentioned. Herodotus only informs us,
that in the time of Ardyes they poffefled themfelves
of Sardis, the metropolis of Lydia, but could never
.reduce the caftle. Ardyes reigned 49 years, and was
fucceeded by his fon Sadyattes, who reigned 12 years,
and warred moft part of his reign with the Milefians.
After him came his fon Alyattes, who for the fpace
of five years continued the rvar which his father had
begun againlt the Milefians, ravaging their country,
and about harveit time carrying away all their corn
yearly^, in order to oblige them, for want of provi-
fions, to furrender their city, w'hich he knew he could
not reduce any other way, the Milefians being at that
time mailers of the fea. In the 1 2th year of this war
the Lydians having fet fire to the corn in the fields,
the flames wrere carried by a violent wind, which hap¬
pened to blow at that time, to the temple of Minerva
at Affefus, and burnt it down to the ground. Not
long after, Alyattes falling fick, fent to confult the
oracle at Delphos ; which refufed to return any an-
fwer till fuch time as the king Ihould rebuild the temple
of Minerva at Affefus. Alyattes, thus warned, de-
fpatched ambaffadors to Miletus, enjoining them to
conclude a truce with the Milefians till the temple
ihould be rebuilt. On the arrival of the ambaffadors,
Thrafybulus, then king of Miletus, commanded all
the com that w7as at that time in the city to be brought
into the market-place, ordering the citizens to ban¬
quet in public, and revel as if the city were plentiful¬
ly ftored with all manner of provifions. This ftratagem
Thrafybulus praftifed, to the end that the ambaffadors
feeing fuch quantities of corn, and the people every¬
where diverting themfelves, might acquaint their mailer
with their affluence, and divert him from purfuing the
war. As Thrafybulus had defigned, fo it happened *,
for Alyattes, who believed the Milefians gieatly diflreff-
ed for provifions, receiving a different account from his
ambaffadors, changed the truce into a laliing peace, and
ever afterwards lived in amity and friendthip with Thra¬
fybulus and the Milefians. He wTas fucceeded, after a
reign of 57 years, by his fon Crcefus, whofe uninterrupt¬
ed profperity, in the firli years of his reign, far eclipfed
the glory of all his predeceffors. He was the firll that
made war on the Ephefians, whofe city he befieged and
took notwithftanding their confecrating it to Diana, and
fafiening the ivalls by a rope to her temple, which wras
feven lladia diflant from the city. After the redudlion
of Ephelus he attacked, under various pretences, the
lonians and /Eolians, obliging them, and all the other
Greek Hates of Alia, to pay him a yearly tribute.
Elaving met with fuch extraordinary fuccefs by land,
the Lydian prince determined to render his povver e-
qually confpicuous by fea. Tor this purpofe he thought
ferioufly of equipping a fleet •, with which he purpofed
to invade and conquer the Grecian iflands direftly front¬
ing his dominions. But this defign, which, confidering
the flow' progreis in maritime power among the nations
moft diligent to attain it, w’ould probably have failed
of fuccefs, was prevented by the advice of a philofoplu-
cal traveller conveyed in fuch a lively turn of wit, as
eaiily changed the refolution of the king. Bias of
Priene in Ionia, fume fay Pittacus of Mitylene in the
ille of Lelbos, while he travelled after the Grecian cuf-
tom, from curiofity and a love of know ledge, was pre-
fented to Croefus at the Lydian court ; and being afked
by that prince what news from Greece j he aniwered
wdth a republican freedom, that the iflanders had col-
ledted powerful fquadrons of cavalry with an intention
of invading Lydia. “ May the gods grant (find Croe-
fus), that the Greeks, who are unacquainted with horfe-
manlhip, fliould attack the difciplined valour of the Ly¬
dian cavalry j there w7ould foon be an end to the con-
tert.” “ In the lame manner (replied Bias), as if the
Lydians, wrho are totally unexperienced in naval affairs,
Ihould invade the Grecians by fea.” Struck by the
aeutenefs of this unexpected oblervation, Crcefus de-
filted from his intended expedition again!! the iflands,
and inftead of employing new means for extending
his conquefts, determined peaceably to enjoy the lau¬
rels which he had won, and to difplay the grandeur
which he had attained. But his happinefs was foon
after allayed by the death of his favourite fon Atys,
who was unfortunately killed at the chafe of a wild
boar. For this lofs he continued difconfalate for two
years and in a ftate of inadtion, till the conquefts of
Cyrus, and growing power of the Perfians, roufed up
his martial fpirit, and diverted his mind to other
thoughts. He apprehended that the fuccefs which
attended Cyrus in all his undertakings, might at lalt
prove dangerous to himfelf, and therefore refolved to
put a Hop, if poflible, to his progrefs. In taking this
refolution, which might probably be attended wdth
the molt important confequences, he was defirous to
learn the will of heaven concerning the iffue of the w7ar.
The principal oracles w7hich he confnlted were thofe
oi Branchis in Ionia, of Hammon in Libya, and of
Delphi in Greece. Among thefe refpedted Ihr-ines,
the oracle of Delphi maintained its afcendant, as
the molt faithful interpreter of fate. Crcefus wras
fully perfuaded of its veracity ; and defirous generoully
to compenfate for the trouble which he had already
given, and Hill meant to give, the priefts of Apollo,
he facriflced 3000 oxen to the god, and adorned his
Ihrine wdth dedications equally valuable for the work-
manfhip and for the materials j precious veffels of
fiiver, ew'ers of iron beautifully inlaid and enamelled ;
various ornaments of pure gold, particularly a golden
lion weighing ten talents, and a female figure three
cubits or near five feet high. In return for thefe mag¬
nificent prefents, the oracle, in ambiguous language,
flattered Crcefus with obtaining an eafy victory over
his enemies, and wdth enjoying a long life and a pro-
fperous reign. The god at the fame time enjoined
him to contract an alliance wdth the molt powerful of
the Grecian Hates.
Elevated with thefe favourable predictions of Apollo,
Croefus prepared to yield a ready obedience to the on¬
ly condition required on his part for the accomplilh-
ment oi his alpiring purpofe. Not deeming him-
fell fufficiently acquainted with the affairs of Greece,
to
L Y D [
Lydia, to know what particular republic was meant by the
^ oracle, he made particular inquiry of thofe beft in¬
formed concerning the Hate of Europe ; and difcovered,
that among all the members of the Grecian confede¬
racy, the Athenians and Lacedemonians were juftly
•entitled to the pre-eminence. In order to learn which
of thcl'e communities deferved the epithet of mojl power¬
ful, it was neceffary to fend ambaffadors into Greece.
The Lydians defpatched with this important commif-
fion, foon difcovered that the Athenians after having
been long harafled by internal diflenfions, were a&unlly
governed by the tyrant Pilillratus. The Spartans, on
the other hand, though anciently the worll regulated
of all the Grecian communities, had enjoyed domeftic
peace and foreign profperity ever fince they had a-
dopted the wife inftitutions of Lycurgus. After that
memorable period, they had repeatedly conquered the
warlike Argives, triumphed over the hardy Arcadians j
and notwithllanding the heroic exploits of Ariftomenes,
fubdued and endaved their unfortunate rivals of Mef-
fene. To the Lydian ambaifadors therefore, the Spar¬
tan republic appeared to be pointed out by the oracle
as the community whofe alliance they were enjoined
to folicit. Having repaired accordingly to Sparta,
they were introduced not only to the kings and fe¬
rrate, but, as the importance of the negociation re¬
quired, to the general aflembly of the Lacedemonians,
to whom they, in few words, declared the objeft of
their commiffion ; “ We are lent, O Lacedemonians !
by Croefus, king of the Lydians and of many other na¬
tions, who being commanded by the oracle of Apollo
to feek the friendlhip of the moft powerful people of
Greece, now fummons you, who juftly merit that epi¬
thet, to become his faithful allies, in obedience to the
will of the god whofe authority you acknowledge.”
The Lacedemonians, pleafed with the alliance of a
warlike king, and ftill more with the fame of their va¬
lour, readily accepted the propofal. To the ftridt con¬
nexion of an offenfrve and defenfrve league, they joined
the more refpefted ties of facred hofpitality. A few
years before this tranfaftion, they had fent to purchafe
gold at Sardis for making a ftatise of Apollo. Croefus
had on that occafion gratuitoufly fupplied their want.
Remembering this generofity, they gave the Lydian
ambaffadors at their departure, as a prefent for their
mafter, a veffel of brafs containing 300 amphoras
(above 12 hogfheads), and beautifully carved on the
outfide with various forms of animals.
Croefus, having thus happily accompliflred the de-
fign recommended by the oracle, was eager to fet out
upon his intended expedition. He had formerly en¬
tered into alliance with Amafis king of Egypt, and
Labynetus king of Babylon. He had now obtained
the friendfhip of the moft warlike nation of Europe.
The newly railed powder of Cyrus and the Perfians
feemed incapable of refilling fuch a formidable confe¬
deracy.
Elevated with thefe flattering ideas of his own in¬
vincible greatnefs, Croefus waited not to attack the
Perfian dominions until he had collected the ftrength
of his allies. The fanguine impetuolity of his temper,
unexperienced in adverfity, unfortunately precipitated
him into meafures no lefs ruinous than daring. At¬
tended only by the arms of Lydia, and a numerous
band of mercenaries, whom his immenfe wealth enabled
2
280 ] L Y D
him at any time to call into his fervice, he marched
towards the river Halys •, and having croffed with
much difficulty that deep and broad ftream, entered
the province of Cappadocia, which formed the weftern
frontier of the Median dominions. That unfortunate
country foon experienced all the calamities of invafion.
The Pterian plain, the moft beautiful and the moft
fertile diftridl of Cappadocia, was laid wafte ; the
ports of the Euxine, as wTell as feveral inland cities,
w7ere plundered •, and the inoffenlive inhabitants were
either put to the fword or dragged into captivity.
Encouraged by the unrefifting foftnefs of the natives
of thofe parts, Crcefus was eager to pufh forwards ;
and if Cyrus did not previoufly meet him in the field,
he had determined to proceed in triumph to the moun¬
tains of Perfia. Againft this dangerous refolution
he wras in vain exhorted by a Lydian named Sandanis 5
who, wben alked his opinion of the war, declared it
with that freedom which the princes of the eaft have
in every age permitted, amidft all the pride and ca¬
prices of defpotic power, to men diftinguilhed by the
gifts of nature or education. “ You are preparing,
O king, to march againft a people who lead a labo¬
rious and a miferable life ; whofe daily fubfiftence is
often denied them, and is always-fcanty and precarious;
who drink only water, and who are clothed with the
fkins of wild beafts. What can the Lydians gain by
the ccnqueft of Perfia ; they who enjoy all the ad¬
vantages of which the Perfians are deftitute ? For my
part, I deem it a bleffing of the gods, that they have
not excited the warlike poverty of thefe miferable bar¬
barians to invade and plunder the luxurious wealth of
Lydia.” The moderation of this advice w^as rejected
by the fatal prefumption of Crcefus; who confounding
the didates of experienced wifdom with the mean fug-
geftions of pufillanimity, difmiffed the counfellor with
contempt.
Meanwhile, the approach of Cyrus, who was not of
a temper to permit his dominions to be ravaged wdth
impunity, afforded the Lydian king an opportunity of
bringing the war to a more fpeedy iffue than by his in¬
tended expedition into Perfia. The army of Cyrus
gradually augmented on his march : the tributary
princes cheerfully contributing with their united
ftrength towards the affiftance of a mafter whofe va¬
lour and generofity they admired, and who now took
arms to proted the fafety of his fubjeds, as well as to
fupport the grandeur of his throne. Such was the ra¬
pidity of his movement, efpecially after being inform¬
ed of the deftrudive ravages of the enemy in Cappa¬
docia, that he arrived from the fliores of the Cafpian
to thofe of the Euxine fea before the army of Crcefus
had provided the neceffaries for their journey. That
prince, wherr apprifed of the neighbourhood of the
Perfians, encamped on the Pterian plain ; Cyrus like-
wife encamped at no great diftance ; frequent Ikirmilhes
happened between the light troops ; and at length a
general engagement was fought with equal fury and
perfeverance, and only terminated by the darknefs of
night. The lofs on both fides hindered a renewal of
the battle. The numbers, as well as the courage of
the Perfians, much exceeded the expedation of Croe¬
fus. As they difcovered not any intention to harafs
his retreat, he determined to move back towards Sar¬
dis, to fpend the winter in the amufements of his pa¬
lace ;
Lydia.
L Y D [ 281 ] L Y D
Lydia, lace •, and after fummoning his numerous allies to his
tlandard, to take the field early in the fpring with fuch
increafe of force as feemed fufhcient to overpower the
Perfians.
But this defign was defeated by the careful vigilance
of Cyrus. That experienced leader allowed the ene¬
my to retire without moleftation j carefully informing
himfelf of every ftep which they took, and of every
meafure which they feerned determined to purfue.
Patiently watching the opportunity of a juft revenge,
he waited until Croefus had re-entered his capital, and
had dilbanded the foreign mercenaries, who compofed
the moft numerous divifion of his army. It then feem¬
ed the proper time for Cyrus to put his Perfians in
motion 5 and fuch w’as his celerity, that he brought
the firft news of his own arrival in the plain of Sardis.
Croefus, whofe firmnefs might well have been lhaken
by the imminence of this unforefeen danger, was not
wanting on the prefent occafion to the duties which he
owed to his fame and the luftre of the Lydian throne.
Though his mercenaries were dilbanded, his own fub-
jedls, who ferved him hom attachment, who had been
long accuftomed to vidlory, and who were animated
with a high fenfe of national honour, burned with a
defire of enjoying an opportunity to check the daring
infolence of the invaders. Croefus indulged and en¬
couraged this generous ardour. The Lydians in that
age fought on horfeback, armed with long fpears -y the
ftrength of the Perfians confifted in infantry. They
were fo little accuftomed to the ufe of horfes, that ca¬
mels were almoft the only animals which they employ¬
ed as beafts of burden. This circumftance fuggefted
to a Mede, by name Harpagus, a ftratagem, which
being communicated to Cyrus, was immediately adopt¬
ed with approbation by that prince. Harpagus, hav¬
ing obferved that horfes had a ftrong averfion to the
ftiape and fmell of camels, advifed the Perfian army to
be drawn up in the following order: All the camels
which had been employed to carry baggage and pro-
vifions were collefled into one body, arranged in a long
line fronting the Lydian cavalry. The foot foldiers of
the Perfians were ported immediately behind the line,
and placed at a due diftance. The Median horfe (for
a few fquadrons of thefe followed the ftandard of Cy¬
rus) formed the rear of the army. As the troops on
both fides approached to join battle, the Lydian caval¬
ry, terrified at the unufual appearance of the camels,
mounted with men in arms, wrere thrown into difor-
der, and turning their heads, endeavoured to efcape
from the field. Crcelus, who perceived the confufion,
was ready to defpair of his fortune ; but the Lydians,
abandoning their horfes, prepared with uncommon
bravery to attack the enemy on foot. Their courage
deferyed a better fate j but unaccuftomed as they were
to this mode of fighting, they were received and repel¬
led by the experienced valour of the Perfian infantry,
and obliged to take refuge within the fortified ftrength
of Sardis, where they imagined themfelves fecure. The
walls of that city bid defiance to the rude art of at¬
tack, as. then praaifed by the moft warlike nations.
If the Perfian army ftrould invert it, the Lydians were
provided with provilions for feveral years; and there
was reafon to expetfl, that in a few months, and even
weeks, they would receive fuch afliftance from Egypt,
Babylonia, and Greece (to which countries they "had
Vol. XII. Part L
already fent ambafladors), as tvould oblige the Per¬
fians to raife the fiege.
The Lydian minifters defpatched into Greece met
with great fympathy from the Spartans. That people
were particularly obfervant of the faith of treaties j
and while they punilhed their enemies with unexamp¬
led feverity, they behaved with generous compaftion
towards thole whom they had once accepted for allies.
1 hey immediately refolved therefore to fend him a
fpeedy and effeftual relief j and for this purpofe af-
fembled their troops, made ready their veffels, and
prepared every thing neceffary for the expedition.
The valour of the Spartans might perhaps have
upheld the finking empire of Lydia; but before their
armament could fet fail, Croefus wras no longer a fove-
reign. Notwithftanding the ftrength of Sardis, that
city had been taken by ftorm on the 20th day of the
fiege ; the walls having been fcaled in a quarter, which,
appealing altogether inacceflible, was too carelefsly
guarded. This was effedled by the enterprife of Hy-
reades a Mede, who accidentally obferved a centinel
defcend part of the rock in order to recover his hel¬
met. Hyreades was a native of the mountainous pro¬
vince of Mardia, and being accuftomed to clamber
over the dangerous precipices of his native country,
refolved to try his activity in pafling the rock upon
which he had difcovered the Lydian. The defign was
more eafily accompli (lied than he had reafon to ex ¬
pert : emulation and fuccefs encouraged the braveft of
the Perfians to follow his example j thefe were fup-
ported by greater numbers of their countrymen ; the
garrifon of Sardis was furprifed ; the citadel ftormed ;
the rich capital of Lower Afia fubjected to the venge¬
ful rapacity of an indignant vidtor. Thus ended the
ancient kingdom of Lydia, which continued fubjeft to
the Perfians till they alfo were conquered by the Mace¬
donians. For the fate of the Lydian monarch, fee the
article Croesus.
LYDIAT, Thomas, a learned Englifh divine,
born in 1572, and educated at Oxford. About the
year 1609, ^le became acquainted with Dr James
Uftier, afterwards archbifhop of Armagh, who carried
him to Ireland. He was at Dublin college for about
two years, after which he returned to England ; and
the reclory of Alkrington becoming vacant, be was
prefented to it : but at length, being engaged for the
debts of a near relation, which for the prefent he was
unable to pay, having before fpent his patrimony in
printing feveral books, he wTas fent to prifon •, and was
confined at Oxford, in the King’s Bench, and elfe-
where, till Sir William Bofwell, a generous patron of
learned men, Dr Robert Pink, warden of New college,
Bifhop Ufher, and Dr Laud difcharged the debt. In.
the civil wars, he fuffered much in his reclory of Alk-
nngton from the parliament party; was four times
pillaged to the value of at leaf! 70I. ; and was forced
for a quarter of a year together to borrow a fhirt to
fhift himfelf. He died in 1646. He wrote fome pieces
in Englilh, and many works in Latin, on chronology
and natural hiftory.
LYDHJS LAPIS, in the natural hiftory of the an¬
cients ; the name of the ftone ufed by way of touchftone
for the trial of gold and filver, and called by fome He-
rac/ius lapis ; both of which names were alfo applied
by' the ancients to the loadftone •, and hence has arifen
N n n©
I
L Y M ' [ 282 ] L Y N
Lygeum no fmall mifunderftanding of their works. Pliny has
II . obferved, that both the loadftone and touchllone were
Lyme-regi-.. ^ caned Lydius and Heraclius lapis.
The true lapis Lydius, or the touchflone, was an¬
ciently found only in the river Tmolus; but was after¬
wards found in many other places, and is now very
common in many of the German rivers. The ancients
give us very remarkable and circurallantial accounts of
the ufes they made of it ; and it is plain they were able
to difcern the alloys of gold by means of it with very
great exaclnefs. We at prefent ufe feveral different
ftone>, under this name, and for the fame purpofe. In
Italy, a green marble called verdello, is moft frequently
ufed ; and with us, very frequently fmall pieces of ba-
fak.
LYGEUM, a genus of plants belonging to the tri-
andria cl '.fs 5 and in the natural method ranking under
the fourth order. Gramma. See Botany Index.
LYGII, Lion, Lugii, or Logiones, in Ancient Geo-
grap/iy, a people of Germany, to the weft of the Viftu-
la, where it.forms a bend like a crefcent 5 Zzjj-zz, (Dio) ;
Lugii, (Strabo) j Logiones, (Zofimus). Their name
Lugii is coniedtured to be derived from their mutually
clofe confederacy or league. The Viftula was their
boundary to the north, eaft, and fouth, with Mount
Afciburgius to the weft. Now the whole of that coun¬
try lies in Poland, on this lide the Viftula.
LYING-in women. See Midwifery.
Lying-to, or Lying-by, the fituation of a (hip, when
fire is retarded in her courfe, by arranging the fails in
fuch a manner as to counteradt each other with nearly
an equal effort, and render the thip almoft immoveable,
with reipedt to her progreffive motion, or headway.
A ftiip is ufually brought-to by the main and fore top
fails, one of which is laid aback, whilft the other is full j
fo that the latter puihes the Ihip forward, whilft the
former refftts this impulfe, by forcing her aftern. This
is particularly pradlifed in a general engagement, when
hoftile fleets are drawn up in two lines of battle oppo¬
site each other. It is alfo ufed to ivait for fome other
Ihip, either approaching or expedled •, or to avoid pur-
fuing a dangerous courfe, eipecially in dark or foggy
weather.
LYM E-regis, a fea port town of Dorfetlhire in
England, 148 miles from London. It lies near the
fea, on the very borders of Devonlhire, in a cavi¬
ty between two rocky hills, which makes it diffi¬
cult of accefs. It is about five furlongs long, and
contains about 200 houfes. As it lies on the decli¬
vity of a hill, the houfes make a good Ihow, one
above another } and fome of them are built of free-
ftone, and covered with blue flate. The corporation
confifts of a mayor (who is juftice of peace during bis
v mayoralty and the year after, and in the third year both
juft:ce and coroner), a recorder, 15 capital burgeffes,
and a town clerk. This place had formerly a very
flourifhing trade to France, Spain, the Straits, New¬
foundland, and the "Weft Indies 5 during which, the
euftoms amounted fome years to 16,cool. But it ftands
on fuch a high fteep rock, that the merchants are ob¬
liged to load and unload their goods at a place a quar¬
ter of a mile off, called the Cobb, originally built in
the reign of Edward III. which cofts a great fum to
maintain, but forms fuch a harbour as perhaps is not
to be equalled in the world, the fliips being flieltered
by a high thick ftone wall, raifed in the main fea Lymington
a good way from the ftiore, broad enough for car- II.
riages and warehoufes, and the cuftomhoufe officers Lyncurimm
have one upon it. The cellars of the low part of the
town, near the fea, are however often overflowed by
the fpring tides 10 or 12 feet. There are guns planted
for defence both of the Cobb and the town, the ffiore
here being very proper for batteries. The cuftomhoule
ftands on pillars, with the corn market under it. There
is an alms-houfe in Church ftreet, alfo Prelhyterian and
Anabaptift meeting-houfes. The town hall is near
Broad-ftreet. The church ftands at the eaft end of
the town on a riling ground. The market here is
Friday, and there are two fairs in the year. -We read,
that in 774, the Saxon king Kinwulf gave land here¬
abouts to the church of Sherborn, for the boiling of fait
there to fupply its neceffities. At this place the duke
of Monmouth landed in 1685. A few years ago above
2000I. worth of gold and filver coin of Char. I. and II.
were dilcovered by fome labourers.
LYMINGTON, a borough town of Hamplhire in
England, 97 miles fouth-weft of London. It ftands
about a mile from the channel running between the
main land and the ifle of Wight j and has a harbour
far veffels of confiderable burden. The tide flows near
a mile above the town. It has a market on Satur¬
days, and tvro fairs in the year : and fends two mem¬
bers to parliament.
LYMPH, a fine colourlefs fluid, feparated in the
body from the mafs of blood, and contained in pecu¬
liar veffels called lymphatics. See Anatomy.
LYMPHiEA, were artificial caves or grottos a-
mongft the Romans, furnilhed with a great many
tubes, canals, and various hydraulic apparatus, through
which the water gufhed out upon the fpeftators un-
expeftedly whilft they were admiring the beautiful
arrangement of the {hell-work in the grotto.
LYMPH ATI, was a name given by the Romans
to fuch as were feized with madnefs. It is iuppofed
to be ufed for Nymphati, becaule the ancients imagined
that every perfon who had the misfortune to fee a
Nymph was inftantly ftruck with phrenzy. Lymphati
may indeed lignify “ madmen,1’ as derived from lym-
pha, “ water,” over which element the Nymphs were
thought to prefide : But it appears moft likely, that
diftradled people w^ere called lymphati, from the cir-
cumftance of madmen’s being affefted with the hydrC’-
phobia or dread of water after the bite of a mad dog ;
for this peculiarity, in cafes of canine madnefs, was
not unknown to the Remans.
LYNCEUS, in fabulous hiftory, one of the 50 fons
of iEgeus, married Hypermneftra, one of the 50 daugh¬
ters of Danaus. See Hypermnestra.
LynCEUS, in fabulous hiftory, one of the Argo¬
nauts, who went with Jafon in the expedition to ob¬
tain the golden fleece. He was of great ufe to the
Argonauts, by enabling them to avoid the fand banks
and rocks they found in their way. 1 he poets (ay, that
Lynctus had fo piercing a fight, that it could not only
penetrate to the bottom of the fea, but even to hell.
Some mythoiogifts fuppofe, that this table is taken
from Lynceus’s {kill in obferving the ftars, and diico-
vering the mines of gold and filver concealed in the
earth.
JLYNCURIUM, a ftone thought to be the fame
with
Y N [ 283 ] L Y N
Ly»curius, witli tlie tourmalin. The name is derived from Avy|,
lapis. u lynx,” and “ urine.”
LYNCUR1US lapis, a (tone capable ot produ¬
cing mufhrooms. .
in the Ephemerides of the Curious, we find men¬
tion made of a ftone, fo called by Dr John George
Wolckamerus, who faw one in Italy, wdiich never
ceafes to produce in a few days mulhrooms of an
excellent flavour by the moft Ample and eafy pro-
cefs imaginable. “ It is (fays he) of the bignefs ot
an ox’s head, rough and uneven on its furtace, and
on which alfo are perceived fome clefts and crevices.
It is black in fome parts, and in others of a lighter
and grayilh colour. Internally it is porous, and near¬
ly of the nature of the pumice-Hone, but much. hea¬
vier 5 and it contains a fmall piece of flint, which is
fo incorporated with it as to appear to have been form¬
ed at the fame time the ftone itfelf received its form.
This gives room to judge, that thofe ftones have been
produced by a fat and vifeid juice, which has the pro¬
perty of indurating whatever matter it filtrates, into.
The ftone here fpoken of, wdien it has been lightly
covered with earth, and fprinkled with warm .wjater,
produces mufhrooms of an exquifite flavour, which are
ufually round, fometimes oval, and whofe borders, by
their inflexions and different curvities, reprefent in fome
meafure human ears. The principal colour, of thefe
mufhrooms is fometimes yellowifh, and fometimes of a
bright purple; but they are always diffeminated with
different fpots, of a deep orange colour, or red brown ;
and when thefe fpots are recent, and ftill in full bloom,
they produce a very agreeable effeft to the fight. But
what appears admirable is, that the part of the ftalk
which remains adhering to the ftone, when the mufti-
room has been feparated from it, grows gradually hard,
and petrifies in time, fo that it feems that this fungites
reftores to the ftone the nutritive juice it received from
it, and that it thus contributes to its increafe.” John
Baptift Porta pretends, that this ftone is found in fe-
veral parts of Italy *, and that it is not only to be met
with at Naples, taken out of Mount Vefuvius, but al¬
fo on Mount Pantherico, in the principality of Arel-
lino ; on Mount Garganus, in Apulia ; and on the
fummits.of fome other very high mountains. He adds,
that the mufhrooms which grow on thofe forts of ftones,
and are ufually called fungi lyncuru, have the property
of diffolving and breaking the ftone of the kidneys and
bladder ; and that, for this purpofe, nothing more is
required than to dry them in the fhade, and being re¬
duced to powder, to make the patient, Efting, take
a fufficient quantity of this powder in a glafs of white
wine, which will fo cleanfe the excretory du6ts of the
urine, that no Hones will ever after be collected in
them. As to the form of thofe mufhrooms, their root
is liony, uneven, divided according to its longitudinal
direftion, and compofed of fibres as fine as hairs, in¬
terwoven one with another. Their form, on firft Ihoot-
ing out, •refembles a fmall bladder, fcarce then larger
than the bud of a vine \ and if in this ftate they are
fqueezed between the fingers, an aqueous fubacid li¬
quor iffues out. When they are at their full growth,
their pedicle is of a fingers length, larger at top than
at bottom, and becomes infenfibly flenderer in propor¬
tion as it is nearer the earth, Thefe muftirooms are
alfo formed in an umbella, and variegated with an in¬
finity of little fpecks fituated very near one another. Lynn-regts.
They are fmooth and even on the upper part, but un-' v""~"
derneath leafy like the common muftirooms. Their
tafte is likewife very agreeable, and the fick are not
debarred eating of them when they have been dreffed in
a proper manner. Curiofity having prompted fome
naturalifts and phyficians to fubmit thefe ftones to a
chemical analyiis, in order to be more competent judges
of the ufes they might be put to in medicine, there
firft came forth, by diftillation, an infipid water, and
afterveards a fpirituous liquor. The retort having been
heated to a certain point, there arofe an oil, which had
nearly the fmell and tafte of that of guaiacum j and a
very acrid fait w'as extrafted from the allies.
LYNN-kegis, a town of Norfolk, in England,
diftant 98 miles from London. It is a handfome,
large, well-built place, and fends two members to par¬
liament. It was a borough by prefeription in 1298.
King John, on account of its adherence to him againft
the barons, made it a free^ borough, with large pri¬
vileges. He appointed it a provoit, and gave it a
large filver cup of 73 ounces doubly gilt and enamel¬
led, and a large filver fword that is carried before the
mayor; though this laft, according to fome, is Hen¬
ry VIII.’s fword, which he gave to the town when it
came into his hands by exchange with the bilhop of
Norwich -y after which it was called King’s Lynn,
whereas before it was Biftiop’s Lynn. Henry III. made
it a mayor town, for its ferving him againft the barons.
It has had 15 royal charters ; and is governed by a
mayor, high-fteward, under lie ward, recorder, 12 aider-
men, and 18 common-council men. It has two churches,
befides St Nicholas, a chapel of eafe to St Margaret’s,
a Prefbyterian and a Quakers meeting-houfe, with a
bridewell or workhoufe, and feveral alms-houfes, and
a free fchool. In September 1741 the fpires of its
two churches were both blown down by a ftorm of
wind •, and that of St Margaret’s, which was 193 feet
in height, having1 beat in the body of the church, it
has been fince rebuilt, towards which King George II.
gave 1 cool, and the late earl of Orford, then Sir
Robert Walpole, 300I. This church was formerly
an abbey, and afterwards one of the largeft pariih-
churches in England. The town-houfe, called Tri¬
nity-hall, is a noble old fabric ; and fo is the Exchange,
which is of free-ftone, with two orders of columns.
St Nicholas’s chapel is very ancient, and reckoned
one of the faireft and largeft of the kind in England.
It has a bell-tower of free-ftone, and an octagonal
fpire over it, both which together are 170 feet from
the ground. There is a library in it that was credited
by fubfeription •, and there is another at St Marga¬
ret’s. Here have been formerly feveral monalteries $
but the only fabric remaining that belongs to any re¬
ligious order is the Gray-friars fteeple, a noted fea-
mark. The fituation of this town, near the fall of
the Oufe into the fea, after having received feveral
other rivers, of which fome are navigable, gives it an
opportunity of extending its trade into eight different
counties j by which many confiderable cities and
towns, viz. Peterborough, Ely, Stamford, Bedford,
St Ives, Huntingdon, St Neot’s, Northampton, Cam¬
bridge, St Edmundfbury, and the north parts of Bucks,
as well as the inland parts of Norfolk and Suffolk, are
fupplied with heavy goods, not only from our own
N n 2 produce.
L Y N [2;
r.ynn-regis. produce, as coals and fait from NeweaSIe, but alfo of
v ^ merchandiie imported from abroad, efpecially wine ;
of which two articles, viz. coals and wine, this is the
greateft port for importation of any place on all the
eailern coaft of England j and thofe wherein the TLynn
merchants deal more largely than any town in England,
except London, Briltol, and N-wealtle. In return
for this, Lynn receives back all the corn which the
counties juft mentioned produce, for exportation ; and
therefore fends more ot it abroad than any port except
Hull. Ihe foreign trade of the merchants here, is
very confiderable, efpecially to Holland, Norway, and
the Baltic, and alio to Spain and Portugal; and for¬
merly they drove a good trade to France, till it was
turned off, by treaties on one hand, and by prohibi¬
tions, high duties, &c. on the other, to Spain and
Portugal. Ihe harbour is fafe when (hips are in it,
but difficult to enter by reafon of the many flats asid
fhoals in the paffage ; which, howrever, are well buoyed,
and good pilots are always4ready. The town confifts of
about 2400 houfes j and appears to have been very
ftrong, by the luins of the works demoliffied in the
civil wars. St Ann’s platform at the north end mounts
12 great guns, and commands all the {hips paffing near
the harbour : and towards the land, befides the wall,
there is a ditch. Four rivulets run through the town ;
and the tide of the Oufe, which is about as broad
here as the Thames at London bridge, rifes 20 feet
perpendicular. In the great market-place a ftatue
was erefted in 1686 to the honour of King James II.
There is another Ipacious market-place, adorned with
a ftatue of King William III. and a fine crofs with a
dome and gallery round it, fupported by 16 pillars.
Ihe market-hcule is of free-ftone, fupported by 16
columns, and is 70 feet high, erefled on four fteps, neat¬
ly adorned with flatues, &c. Every firlf Monday in the
month, the mayor, aldermen, preachers, &c. meet to
hear and determine all controverfies amicably, for pre¬
venting law-luits. This was firlf eftablilhed in 1 t;88, and
is called The Feajl of Reconciliation. The markets are
on Tuefdays and Saturdays j and it has two fairs;
one of which, beginning Feb. 14. lafts for a fortnight,
and is called Lynn mart j the other is a cheefe fair on
OH. 6. The adherence of this town to King John
and to Henry VIII. as above mentioned, are not the
only inftances of its loyalty to its fovereigns *, for, in
the late civil wars, it held out for King Charles I. and
iuftamed a formal fiege of above 18,000 men of the
parliament army for above three weeks; but, for
want of relief, was obliged to furrender, and fubmit
to the terms of paying 10s. a-head for every inhabi¬
tant, and a month’s pay to the loldiers, to fave the
town from plunder. There are more gentry, and con-
fequently more gaiety, in this town than in Yarmouth
or even Norwich ; there being fuch plenty of eatables
and drinkables, that Spelman fays, Ceres and Bacchus
feem to have ellabliffied their magazines at this place j
the eail fide abounding with corn, fheep, rabbits, hares,
&c. the weft fide with cheefe, butter, black cattle,
fwans, and the wild fowl common to mrrfhes, befides
the abundance of fea and river fifli ; fo that he thinks
there is no place in Great Britain, if in Europe, has
fuch a variety in fo fmall a compafs of ground. At
a fmall diftance from the town, Hands a mount, called
the Lady’s or Red Mount, which wTas once a chapel
>4 1 L Y O
dedicated to the Virgin Mary, which was a refting- Lynx
place for pilgrims on their way towards her convent II
a* Walftnghara. The king’s ftaith-yard, or quay, L>'onet-
where the greateft part of the imported wines is land- '
ed and put into large vaults, is a handfome fquare,
with brick buildings, in the centre whereof is a ftatue
of King James I. People pais hence into the fen-
country, and over the famous w7afhcs into Tnncolnffiirc
in boats, which are often loft, by venturing out at au
improper feafon and without guides.
LYNX. See Felis, Mammalia Index.
LYON King of Arms. See King ; and Law
N0clviii. 16. ’
This office is of great antiquity and refpecl in Scot¬
land ; and although the precife time of its inftitution
is unknown, yet it muft have been as early as the in¬
troduction of armorial figures as hereditary marks of
gentility and diftinHion into this country, which was
in the I 2th century.. His regalia are, a crown of gold,
with a crimfon velvet cap, a gold taffel, and an ermine
lining : a velvet robe reaching to his feet, with the arms
of the kingdom embroidered thereon before and be¬
hind in the proper tindures j a triple row of gold chain
round his neck, w'ith an oval gold medal pendant there¬
to, on one fide of which is the royal bearing, and on
the other St Andrew with his crofs enamelled in pro¬
per colours, and a baton of gold enamelled green, pow¬
dered with the badges of the kingdom. The lord
lyon’s rank is fuperior to that of any other king of
arms, as he holds his office immediately from the fove-
reign by commiffion under the great feal 5 whereas the
kings of arms in England are deputies to the earl
marlhal, and aH under his authority. Formerly Scot¬
land was divided into two provinces, the one on the
north and the other on the louth fide of Forth ; and
thefe provinces were under the management of two de¬
puties appointed by the lord lyon, to fuperintend the
execution of all the bufinefs of his office. Before the
Revolution, the lord lyon, at his admiffion into office,
was moft folemnly crowmed by the fovereign or his
commitfioner, in prefence of the nobility, the officers
of ftate, and other great men, after a fuitable fermon
preached in the royal chapel ; and his crown wTas of
the fame form with the imperial crown of the king¬
dom. On folemn occafions he wears the regalia above
deferibed ; at all other times he wears the oval gold
medal or badge on his bread, fufpended by a broad
green ribbon. He has the abfolute difpofal of all the
offices in his owm court, and of the heralds and pur-
fuivants places. The meffengers at arms throughout
Scotland are alfo created by him, and are amenable to
his jurifdiflion. And the powTers veiled in him by
his commiffion are the fame with thofe of the fovereign
in all matters relative to the marks of gentilitv.
LYONET, Peter, an ingenious na’turalift, and
member of feveral learned focieties, was born at Maef-
tricht, and was dt feended from a very ancient and re-
fpeHable family of Lorrain. He had fcarcely attained
his feventh year before he difplayed an uncommon
ftrength and agility in all bodily exercifes 5 but he was
not lefs diligent in the improvement of his mind. Be¬
ing placed at the Latin fchool, he learned chronology,
and exercifed himfelf in Latin, Greek, and French
poetry, as alfo in Hebrew, logic, and the Carteiian
phyfics. He was particularly fond of the ftudy of lan-
guagesj
L Y O [ 285 ] L Y O
lyonet. guages, whereof he underftood no lefs than nine, li-
ving and dead. Having entered the univerlity of Ley¬
den, he ftudied the Newtonian philofophy, geometry,
algebra, &c. •, but his father (who was a clergyman),
defiring he fhould attach himfelf to divinity, he reluc¬
tantly abandoned the former ftudies, as his paffion for
them was not eafily to be overcome. He at the fame
time applied himfelf to anatomy, and alfo to mufic and
drawing. He began afterwards to pra£!ife fculpture :
and performed fieveral pieces in wood, fome of which
are preferved, and have been greatly admired by the
artifts. After this, he betook himfelf to drawing
portraits of his friends from life ; rvberein, after three
or four months practice, he became a great proficient.
Having attained the degree of candidate in divinity,
he refolved to ftudy law, to which he applied him¬
felf with fo much zeal, that he was promoted at the
end of the firft year. Arrived at the Hague, he un¬
dertook the (ludy of decyphering ; and became fecre-
tary of the cyphers, tranllator of the Latin and French
languages, and patent-mafler to their High Mighti-
neffes. Meanwhile, having taken a Itrong liking to
the ftudy of infetfts, he undertook an hiftorical de-
fcription of fuch as are found about the Hague, and
to that end collected materials for feveral volumes ; and
having invented a method of drawing adapted thereto,
he enriched this work with a great number of plates,
univerfally admired by all the connoiffeurs who had
feen them. In the year 1724 was printed at the
Hague a French tranflation of a German work, the
4 Theology of Infedls,’ by Mr Lefler. Love of truth
engaged Mr Lyonet to defer the publication of his a-
bove-mentioned defcription, and to make fome obfer-
vations on that work, to which he has added two mod:
beautiful plates, engraved from his deiigns. This per¬
formance caufed his merit to be univerfally known and
admired. The celebrated M. de Reaumur had the
above tranflation reprinted at Paris, not fo much on
account of the work itfelf as of Mr Lyonet’s obfer-
vations ; and beftowed on it, as did alfo many other
authors, the higheft encomiums. He afterwards exe¬
cuted drawings of the freih water polypus for Mr
Trembley’s beautiful wmrk, 1744. The ingenious
Wandelaar had engraved the firft: five plates •, when Mr
Lyonet, w7ho had never witnefled this operation, con¬
cerned at the difficulties he experienced in getting the
remaining eight finilhed in the fuperior ftyle he requir¬
ed, refolved to perform the talk himfelf. He’ ac¬
cordingly took a lelfon of one hour of Mr Wandelaar,
engraved three or four fmall plates, and immediately
began upon the work himfelf, which he performed in
fuch a manner as drew on him the higheft: degree of
praife, both from Mr Trembley and from many
other artifts, particularly the celebrated Van Gool j
who declared that the performance aftonilhed not
only the amateurs, but alfo the moft experienced
artifts. In ^748 he was chofen member of the Royal
Society of London. In 1749 he began (by mere
chance) his amazing colleblion of horns and fhells,
which, according to the univerfal teftimony of all tra-
vellers and amateurs who have vifited it, is at prefent
the moft beautiful, and certainly one of the moft valu¬
able, in Europe. In 1753 he became member of the
newly-eftablilhed Dutch Society of Sciences at Haer-
1cm; and in I757> after the celebrated M. le Cat, Lyouet
profeflor in anatomy and furgery, and member of al- H
moft all the principal focieties in Eurnpe, had feen ^^Lns'
Mr Lyonet’s incomparable Traite Anatomique de la Che¬
nille qui range le Bois de Saule, with the drarvings be¬
longing to it (which work was afterwards publiihed),
he was ele&ed member of the Royal Academy of Sci¬
ences of Rome, wffiereof M. le Cat was perpetual fe-
cretary. After the publication of this treatife, he be¬
came, in 1760, member of the Royal Academy of
Sciences of Berlin; in 1761, of the Imperial Acade¬
my of Naturalifts ; and, in 1762, of the Imperial Aca¬
demy of Sciences at St Peterfburgh. In order to en¬
able fuch as might be defirous of following him in his
intricate and moft aftoniffilng difcoveries xefpedling the
ftrudfure of this animal, Mr Lyonet publiihed, in the
rI ranlactions of the Dutch Society of Sciences at Haer-
lem, a defcription and a plate (as he alfo afterwards did
in French at the beginning of his Traite Anatomique') of
the inftrument and tools he had invented for the pur-
pofe of dilTe&ion, and likewife of the method he ufed
to afeertain the degree of ttrength of his magnifying
glafles. Notwithftanding all this labour, which was
confiderably increafcd by the extenfive correfpondence
which he for many years carried on with feveral learn¬
ed and refpectable perfonages, he ftill found means to
fet apart a large proportion of his time (as he himftlf
mentions it in his preface) for the immediate fervice
of his country ; but was not fortunate enough (as ap¬
pears by his writings) to get any other recompenfe
for his exertions than forrow and difappointment.—
During the laft fifteen or twenty years of his life, Mr
Lyonet added to the valuable treaiure he had already
collected of natural curiofities, a moft fuperb cabinet
of paintings, confifting of more than 560 performances;
among which are many of the moft eminent works of
the firft Dutch mailers. He did this with a view to
procure himfelf fome amufement during the latter part
of his life, when old age and infirmities muft weaken
his powers, and fet bounds to his activity. He had
always indeed accuftomed himfelf to employment, in-
fomuch that he has written fome pieces of Dutch poe¬
try ; and this difpofition remained with him , till with¬
in a fortnight of his death, when he was attacked with
an inflammation in his breaft, which, though apparent¬
ly cured, was, in the end, the caufe of his diffolution.
He died at the Hague in January 1789, aged 83 years,
leaving behind him a moft eftimable character. ’
LYONOIS, a large province of France; bound¬
ed on the north by Burgundy; on the eaft, by Dau-
phiny, Brefle, and the principality of Donahs , on
the louth, by Vivarais and Velay ; and on the weft by-
Auvergne and a fmall part of Bourbonnois. It com¬
prehends Lower Lyonois, Beaujolois, and Forez ;
and it produces corn, wine, fruits, and more efpeci-
ally excellent chefnuts. The principal rivers are the
Saone, the Rhone, and the Loire. Lyons is the ca¬
pital town.
LYONS, a large, rich, handfome, ancient, and fa-
mous town of France, being the moft confiderable in
the kingdom, next to Paris, with an archbifhop’s fee,
an academy of fciences and belles lettres, and an aca¬
demy of arts and fciences fettled here in 1736. It is
feated in the centre of Europe,, on the confluence of
the
L Y R r 286 T L Y R
I-yra, tlie rivers Rhone and Saone: on the fide of it are two
1 yie~ mountains j and the mountain of St Sebattian
ferves as a bulwark againft the north winds, which of¬
ten blow here with great violence. It contains about
I 50.000 inhabitants j and the houfes, in general, are
high and well built. It has fix gates, and as many
fuburbs. The town-houfe, the arfenal, the amphi¬
theatre built by the ancient Romans, the hofpital, and
the numerous palaces, are worthy of a traveller’s at¬
tention. The cathedral is a fuperb ftruflure, and the
canons that compofe the chapter are all perfons of di-
llintdion. It is a place of very great trade, which is
extended through Europe. It derives vaft advantages
from the rivers near it ; and is fituated in E. Long. 4.
55. N. Lat. 45. 46. Lyons was the fcene of lome
the horrid tranfaftions of the French revolution. See
France.
LYRA, a fpecies of filh. See Callyonimus, Ich¬
thyology Index.
Lyra, in Jljlronomy, a conftellation in the north¬
ern hemifphere. The number of its ftars, in Pto¬
lemy’s catalogue, is ten ; in Tycho’s eleven 5 in Heve-
lius’s feventeen 5 and in the Britannic catalogue twen¬
ty one.
LYRE, a mufical inftrument of the ftringed kind,
much ufed by the ancients.
Concerning the number of firings with which this in¬
ftrument w’as furnilhed, there is great controverfy. Some
aflert it to be only three 5 and that the founds of the
twTo remote were acute, and that of the intermediate
one a mean between thofe two extremes *, that Mercu¬
ry, the inventor, refembled thofe three chords to as ma¬
ny feafons of the year, which were all that the Greeks
reckoned, namely, fummer, winter, and fpring: af-
figning the acute to the firft, the grave to the fecond,
and the mean to the third. *
Others affert that the lyre had four firings 5 that the
interval between the firft and the fourth was an oftave 5
that the fecond w^as a fourth from the firft, and the fourth
the fame diftance from the third, and that from the fe¬
cond to the third was a tone.
Another clafs of writers contend that the lyre of
Mercury had feven firings. Nicomachus, a follower of
Pythagoras, and the chief of them, gives the follow¬
ing account of the matter : “ The lyre made of the
ft]ell was invented by Mercury 5 and the knowledge of
it, as it w-as conftrutted by him of feven firings, was
tranfmitted to Orpheus : Orpheus taught the ufe of it
to Thamyris and Linus; the latter of whom taught it
to Hercules, who communicated it to Amphion the
Theban, who built the feven gates of Thebes to the fe¬
ven firings of the lyrel” The fame author proceeds
to relate, “ That Orpheus was afterwards killed by the
Thracian women 5 and that they are reported to have
call his lyre into the fea, which was afterwards thrown
up at Antiffa, a city of Lefbos: that certain fifhers
finding it, they brought it to Terpander, who^ carried
it into Egypt, exquifitely improved, and, ftiowing it to
the Egyptian priefis, affumed to himfelf the honour of
its invention.”
This difference among authors feem to have arifen
from their confounding together the Egyptian and^ the
Grecian Mercuries.—The invention of the primitive
lyre with three firings was due to the firft Egyptian
Hermes, as mentioned under that art:cle.— The lyre Lyre,
attributed to the Grecian Mercury is defcribed by al- " *
moil all the poets to be an initrument of feven firings f.
Vincenzio Galilei has colledled the various opinions oi t 5ee
the feveral Greek writers who have mentioned the 'm-curI%
vention of the chelys or teftudo 5 and the late Mr
Spence has done the fame in a very circumftantial but
ludicrous manner. “ Horace talks of Mercury as a
wonderful mufician, and reprefents him with a lyre.
There is a ridiculous old legend relating to this inven¬
tion, which informs us, that Mercury, after Healing
fome bulls from Apollo, retired to a fecret grotto,
which he ufed to frequent, at the foot of a mountain
in Arcadia. Juft as he was going in, he found a tor-
toife feeding at the entrance of his cave : he killed the
poor creature, and perhaps ate the fleih of it. As he
was diverting himfelf with the (hell, he was mightily
plealed with the noife it gave from its concave figure.
He had poflibly been cunning enough to find out, that
a thong pulled firait and faftened at each end, when
firuck with the finger, made a fort of mufical found.
However that was, he went immediately to work, and
cut feveral thongs out of the bides he had lately
ftolen, and faftened them as tight as he could to the
fhell of this tortoife 5 and, in playing with them, made
a new kind of mufic with them to divert himfelf in his
retreat.” This, confidered only as an account of the
firft: invention of the lyre, is not altogether fo unna¬
tural.
The moft ancient reprefentations of this infirument
agree very well with the account of its invention : the
lyre, in particular on the old celeftial globes, was re-
prefented as made of one entire (hell of a tortoife 5 and
that of Amphion in the celebrated group of the Dirce or
Toro, in the Farnefe palace at Rome, which is of Greek
fculpture, and very high antiquity, is figured in the fame
manner.
There have, howrever, been many other claimants to
the feven-ftringed lyre. For though Mercury invent¬
ed this inftrument in the manner already related, it is
faid he afterwards gave it to Apollo, who was the firfl:
that played upon it with method, and made it the con-
ftant companion of poetry. According to Homer’s
account of this tranfa&ion, in his hymn to Mercury,
it was given by that god to Apollo, as a peace-offering
and indemnification for the oxen which he had ftolen
from him :
To Phoebus Maia’s fon prefents the lyre,
A gift intended to appeafe his ire.
The god receives it gladly, and effays
The novel infirument a thoufand ways ;
With dext’rous Ikill the ple&rum wields 5 and fings
With voice accordant to the trembling firings,
Such ftrains as gods and men approv’d, from whence
The fweet alliance fprung of found and fenfe.
Diodorus informs us, that Apollo foon repenting of
the cruelty with wliich he had treated Marfyas in con-
fequence of their mufical conteft, broke the firings of
the lyre, and by that means put a flop for a time to any
further progrefs in the praftice of that new inftrument.
“ The Mufes (adds he) afterwards added to this in¬
ftrument the firing called mcfe; Linus, that of hchanos;
1
L Y R [ 287 ]
Lyre, and Orpheus and Thamyris, thofe firings which are
named hypate and parJnjpate (a).
-Again, Many ancient and refp&able authors tell us,
that, before the time of Terpander, the Grecian lyre
had only four firings *, and, if we may believe Suidas,
it remained in this ftate 856 years, from the time of
Amphion, till Terpander added to it three new firings,
which extended the mufical fcale to a heptachord, or
feventh, and fupplied the player with two conjoint te-
trachords. It was about 150 years after this period,
that Pythagoras is laid to have added an eighth firing
to the lyre, in order to complete the o&ave, which con-
fifted of two disjoint tetrachords.
Boetius gives a different hiftory of the fcale, and
tells us, that the fyffem did not long remain in fuch
narrow limits as a tetrachord. Choraebus, the fon of
Athis, or Atys, king of Lydia, added a fifth firing •,
Hyagnis, a ffxth •, Terpander, a feventh *, and at length
Lychaon of Samos, an eighth. But all thefe accounts
are irreconcilable with Homer’s hymn to Mercury,
where the chelys, or teftudo, the invention of which he
afcribes to that god, is faid to have had feven firings.
There are many claimants among the muficians of an¬
cient Greece to the firings that were afterwards added
to thefe, by which the fcale, in the time of Arittoxenus,
was extended to two odlaves. Athenaeus, more than
once, fpeaks of the nine-ffringed inftrumerit 5 and Ion
of Chios, a tragic and lyric poet and philofopher, who
firfi recited his pieces in the 8 2d Olympiad, 452 B. C.
mentions, in fome verfes quoted by Euclid, the ten-
ftringed lyre ; a proof that the third conjoint tetrachord
w'as added to the fcale in his time, which was about 50
years after Pythagoras is fuppofed to have conftruiffed
the o&achord.
The different claimants among the Greeks to the
fame muffcal difcoveries, only prove that mufic was cul¬
tivated in different countries, and that the inhabitants
of each country invented and improved their own in-
ftruments, fome of which happening to refemble thofe
of other parts of Greece, rendered it difficult for hifto-
rians to avoid attributing the fame invention to differ¬
ent perfons. Thus the Angle flute was given to Mi¬
nerva and to Marfyas ■, the fyrinx or fiftula, to Pan
and to Cybele and the lyre or cithara, to Mercury,
Apollo, Amphion, Linus, and Orpheus. Indeed, the
mere addition of a firing or two to an inftrument with¬
out a neck, was fo obvious and eafy, that it is fcarce
L Y R
poffible not to conceive many people to have done it at i ^Je’_
the fame time.
With refpeft to the form of the ancient lyre, as little
agreement is to be found among authors as about the
number of firings. The belt evidences concerning it,
are the reprefentations of that inftrument in the hands of
ancient ftatues, bas-reliefs, &c. See Plate CCXCA 111.
where,
Fig. 1. is a reprefentation of the teftudo, or lyre of
Amphion, in front, as it appears on the bafe of the ce¬
lebrated Toro Farnefe at Rome. This admirable work,
confffting of four figures bigger than the life, hefides
the toro or bull, W'as found in Caracglla’s baths, where-
the Farnefe Hercules was likewife difcovc-red: and, ex¬
cept the Laocoon, is the only piece of Greek fculpture
mentioned by Pliny that is now remaining. The two
projections near the bottom, feem to have been fafien-
ings for the firings, and to have anfwered the purpofe
of tail-pieces in modern inftruments.
2. The lyre held by Terpfichore, in the piCIure of
that mufe dug out of Herculaneum.
3. The Abyffinian teftudo, or lyre in ufe at prefent
in the province of Tigre, from a drawing of Mr Bruce,
communicated to Dr Burney. “ This inftrument (fays
he) has fometimes five, fometimes fix, but molt fre¬
quently feven firings, made of the thongs of raw Iheep
or goat fkins, cut extremely fine, and twifted 5 they
rot foon, are very fubjeft to break in dry weather*
and have fcarce any found in wet. From the idea,
however, of this inftrument being to accompany and fuf-
tain a voice, one would think that it was better mounted
formerly. “ The Abyffinians have a tradition, that the
fiftrum, lyre, and tambourine, were brought from Egypt
into Ethiopia, by Thot, in the very firft ages of the
world. The flute, kettle-drum, and trumpet, they fay,
were brought from Paleftine, with Menelek, the Ion of
their queen of Saba by Solomon, who was their firfi:
Jew'ifir king,
“ The lyre in Amharic is called beg, ‘ the fheep ;
in Ethiopic it is called mejinko; the verb finho fignifies
to ftrike firings wdth the fingers : no ple&rum is ever
ufed in Abyffinia j fo that mefinko, being literally in¬
terpreted, will fignify the ‘ ftringed inftrument played
upon with the fingers.’
“ The Aides which conftitute the frame of the lyre,
were anciently compofed of the horns of an animal of the
goat kind, called aga%en, about the fize of a fmall cow,
(a) It has been already related, that the lyre invented by the Egyptian Mercury had but three firings 5 and,
by putting tbefe two circumftances together, Dr Burney obferves, we may perhaps acquire fome knowledge of the
progrefs of mufic, or, at leaft, of the extenfion of its fcale, in the higheft antiquity.
Mefe, in the Greek mufic, is the fourth found of the fecond tetrachord of the great fyftem, and firft tetrachord
invented by the ancients, anfwering to our A, on the fifth line in the bafe.. If this found then was added to the
former three, it proves two important points 5 firft, that the moft ancient tetrachord was that from E in tfcie bafe
to A •, and that the three original firings in the Mercurian and Apollonian lyre were tuned E, F, G, which the
Greeks called Hypate Mefon, Parhypate Mefon, Mefon Diatoms. The addition therefore of Mefe to thefe, com¬
pleted the firfi and mod: ancient tetrachord, E, F, G, A.
The firing /ichanos, then, being added to thefe, and anfwering to our D on the third line in the bafe, ex¬
tended the compafs downwards, and gave the ancient lyre a regular feries of five founds in the Dorian mode,
the moft ancient of all the Greek modes; and the two firings call Hypate and Parhypate, correfponding
W’ith our B and C in the bafe, completed the heptachord, or feven founds, B, C, D, E, F, G, A, a com¬
pafs that received no addition till after the time of Pindar, who Cfdls the infirument then in ufe the feve&~
tongued hjre.
L Y R
and common in the province of Tigre. I have feen feve-
ral of thefe inftruments very elegantly made of fuch
horns, which nature feems to have Ihaped on purpole.
Some of the horns of an African fpecies of this animal
may be feen in M. Buffon’s hifiory of the king of
kranee’s caoinet. I hey are bent, and lefs regular than
the Abyffinian 5 but after fire-arms became common in
the province of Tigre, and the woods were cut down,
this animal being more fcarce, the lyre has been made of
a light red wood ; however, it is always cut into a fpiral
twilled form, in imitation of the ancient materials of
whicn the lyre was compofed. The drawing I fend
you was one of thefe inflruments made of wood.
“ ^le kingdom of Tigre, which is the largeft and
moll populous province of Abyfilnia, and was during
many ages the feat of the court, was the firft which
received letters, and civil religious government ; it
extended once to the Red fea : various reafons and
revolutions have obliged the inhabitants to refign their
fea coail to different barbarous nations, Pagan and Ma¬
hometan : while they were poffeffed of it, they fay
that the Red lea furnifiled them with tortoife-lhells,
of which they made the bellies of their lyres, as the
Egyptians did formerly, according to Apollodorus
and Lucian ; but having now loft that refource, they
have adopted in its place a particular fpecies of gourd,
or pumpkin, very hard and thin in the bark, ftill imi¬
tating with the knife the fquares, compartments, and
figure of the ftiell of the tortoife.
“ The lyre is generally from three feet to three
feet fix inches high j that is, from a line drawn through
the point of the horns, to the lower part of the bafe of
the founding board. It is exceedingly light, and cafy
of carriage, as an inftrument Ihould naturally be in fo
rugged and mountainous a country.
“ When we confider the parts which compofe this
lyre, we cannot deny it the earlieft antiquity. Man in
his firft ftate was a hunter and a fiflier, and the oldeft
inftrument was that which partakes moft of that ftate.
The lyre, compofed of two principal pieces, owes the
one to horns of an animal, the other to the Ihell of
a filh.
“.It is probable, that the lyre continued with the
Ethiopians in this rude ftate as long as they confined
themfelves to their rainy, fteep, and rugged mountains 5
and afterwards, when many of them defeended along
the Nile into Egypt, its portability would recommend it
in the extreme heats and wearinefs of their way. Up¬
on their arrival in Egypt, they took up their habita¬
tion in caves, in the lides of mountains, which are in¬
habited to this day. Even in thefe circumftances, an
inftrument larger than the lyre muft have been in¬
convenient and liable to accidents in thofe caverns; but
when thefe people increafed in numbers and courage,
they ventured down into the plain, and built Thebes.
Being now at their eafe, and in a fine climate, all na¬
ture fmiling around them, mufic and other arts were
cultivated and refined, and the imperfect lyre was ex¬
tended into an inftrument of double its compafs and
volume. -The fize of the harp cotdd be now no long-
*r an objeflion ; the Nile carried the inhabitants every¬
where eafiily, and without effort; and we may naturally
fuppofe in the fine evenings of that country, that the
Nile was the favourite feene upon which this inftm-
L Y R
ment wras practifed ; at leaft the fphinx and lotus upon
its head, feem to hint that it was fomewray connected
with the overflowings of that river.” See Harp.
4. An Etrufcan lyre, with feven firings, in the col-
leflion of Etrufcan, Greek and Roman antiquities,
publilhed from the cabinet of the Hon. Sir William
Hamilton, Vol I. Naples 1766. Plate CIX. With re-
fpeft to this inftrument, it is worthy of obfervation,
that though the vafe upon which it is reprefented is of
fuch indifputable and remote antiquity, the tail-piece
briage, belly, and found-holes, have a very modern ap¬
pearance, and manifeft a knowledge in the conftruflion
of mufical inftruments among the Etrufcans fuperior to
that of the Greeks and Romans in much latter times.
1 he lower part of the inftrument has much the appear¬
ance of an old bals-viol, and it is not difficult to difi-
cover in it more than the embryo of the whole violin
family. I he firings lie round, as if intended to be
played on with a bow ; and even the crofs lines on the
tail-piece are fuch as we frequently fee on the tail¬
pieces of old viols.
5- 'I"*16 Tripodian lyre of Pythagoras the Zacyn-
thian, from a bas-relief in the Maffei palace at Rome
reprefenting the whole choir of the mufes. Atheneeus
gives the following account of this extraordinary in¬
ftrument, Lib. XIV. cap. xv. p. 637. Many ancient
inftruments are recorded (fays Artemon), of which
we have fo little knowledge, that we can hardly be
certain of their exiftence ; fuch as the tripod of Py¬
thagoras the Zacynthian, which, on account of its
difficulty, continued in ufe but a fhort time. It
refembled in form the Delphic tripod, whence it
had its name. The legs were equidiftant, and fixed
upon a moveable bafe that was turned by the foot
of the player : the firings were placed between the
legs of the ftool; the vafe at the top ferved for the
purpofe of a found-board, and the firings of the three
fides of the inftrument wrere tuned to three different
modes, the Doric, Lydian, and Phrygian, fhe per¬
former fat on a chair made on purpofe : flriking the
firings with the fingers of the left hand, and ufing the
ple&rum with the. right, at the fame time turning the
inftrument with his foot to whichever of the three
modes he pleafed : fo that by great pra&ice he was
enabled to change the modes with fuch velocity, that
thofe who did not fee him would imagine they heard
three difl'erent performers playing in three different
modes. After the death of this admirable mufician,
no other inftrument of the fame kind was ever con-
ftru6led.”
6. A lyre in the famous ancient pidlure dug out of
Herculaneum, upon which Chiron is teaching the
young Achilles to play. See Chiron.
LYRIC poetry, was fuch as the ancients fung to
the lyre or harp.—It w?as originally employed in ce¬
lebrating the praifes of gods and heroes, and its cha-
radleriftic was fweetnefs. Who w as the author of it is
not known. It w>as much cultivated by the Greeks :
and Horace was the firft who attempted it in the La¬
tin language. Anacreon, Alcaeus, Stefichorus, Sap¬
pho, and Horace, w’ere the moll celebrated lyric poets
of antiquity.
LYRODI, among the ancients, a kind of muficians
who played on the lyre, and lung at the fame time.
This
[ 288 J
L Y S [2
Lys This appellation was alio given to fuch as made it
H their employment to fing lyric poems compofed by
LyfiPPus-, others.
LYS, or Lis. See Lis.
Lys, the name of a meafure ufed by the Chinefe in
eftimating didances. Two hundered lys make 60 geo¬
graphical miles, which are equal to one degree.
LYSANDER, a famous Spartan general. See
Sparta.
LYSANDRIA, a Samian feltival, celebrated with
games and facrifices in honour of the Lacedemonian
general Lyfander. It was anciently called herea :
but this nartie the Samians abolilhed by a public de¬
cree.
LYSIARCH, an ancient magidrate, who fuperin-
tenied the facred games, and prelided in matters of
religion in the province of Lycia. He w7as created
in a council confiding of deputies from all the pro¬
vincial cities, in number 23. The lyfiarchs w'ere
both heads of the council and pontiffs of the pro¬
vince.
LYSIAS, an ancient Grecian orator, was born at
Syracufe in the 80th Olympiad. At 15, he went
to Thurion, a colony of the Athenians ; and when
grown up, adided in the adminidration of the go¬
vernment there many years. When about 47 years
of age, he returned to Athens 5 whence, being after¬
wards banidied by the 30 tyrants, he w’ent to Mega-
ra. Upon his return, Thrafybulus wTould have had
him employed again in date matters; but this not tak¬
ing place, he fpent the remainder of his life as a pri¬
vate man. He w7as very familiar with Socrates, and
other illuftrious philofophers. He profeffed to teach
the art of fpeaking ; not that he pleaded at the bar
himfelf, but he fupplied others w7ith fpeeches. “ Fuit
Lyfias in caufis forenfibus non verfatus (fays Cicero),
fed egregie fubtilis fcriptor atque elegans,” &c. Quin¬
tilian calls him, “ fubtilis atque elegans, et quo nihil, fi
oratorio iatis fit docere, quseras perfe&ius. Nihil
enim ed inane, nihil arceditum ; puro tamen font!,
quam magno dumini, proprior.” Plutarch and Pho-
tius relate, that 425 orations were formerly exhibited
under the name of Lyfias; of which 34 only are
now7 extant. The bed edition of them is by Dr John
Taylor at London, 1739, 4to; Cambridge, 1740,
8vo.
LYSIMACHIA, loosestrife, a genus of plants
belonging to the pentandria clafs ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 20th order, Rotaceev. See
Botany Index.
LYSIPPUS, a celebrated Greek datuary, was
born at Sicyone, and fird followed the bufinefs of
a lookfmith, which he quitted in order to praflife
painting : But he afterwards applied himfelf entirely
to fculpture ; in which he acquired an immortal re¬
putation, and made a great number of datues that
were the admiration of the people of Athens and Rome.
His grand datue of the Sun reprcfented in a car drawn
by four horfes, was wordiipped at Rhodes. He made
feveral datues of xViexander and his favourites, which
w7ere brought to Rome by Metellus after he had redu¬
ced the Macedonian empire ; and the datue of a roan
w iping and anointing himfelf after bathing, being par¬
ticularly7 excellent, was placed by Agrippa before his
baths in that city. He lived in the time of Alexan-
VOL. XII. Part I.
89 ] L Y T
der the Great, about 334 B. C.; and left three funs, Lythrum
who were all famous ftatuaries.
LYTHRUM, purple loosestrife, a genus of Lytt^ton'
plants belonging to the decandria clafs; and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 17th order, Cahjcan-
themce. See Botany Index.
LYTTELTON, Edward, Lord Lyttelton, keep¬
er of the great feal in the reign of Charles I. was emi¬
nent for his probity and his moderation at the com¬
mencement of that monarch’s difputes with his fubje&s.
Without forfeiting his fidelity to the king, he pre-
ferved the elteem of the parliament till 1644, when
he was made colonel of a regiment in the king’s army
at York. He died in 1645. Befides feveral of his
fpeeches which have been printed, he w-rote reports
in the common pleas and exchequer, printed at Lon¬
don in 1603, in folio ; feveral arguments and did
courfes, &c.
Lyttelton, George Lord, eldeft fon of Sir Thomas
Lyttelton, Bart, defcended from the great judge Lyt¬
telton, was born in 1700, at feven months; and the
midwfife fuppofing him to be dead, threw him carelefs-
ly into the cradle ; where, had not fome figns of life
been taken notice of by one of the attendants, he
might never have recovered. He received the elements
of his education at Eaton-fchool, where he fhow7ed an
early inclination to poetry. His paftorals and fome
other light pieces were originally written in that femi-
nary of learning ; from whence he was removed to the
univerfity of Oxford, where he purfued his claffical
fludies W'ith uncommon avidity, and iketched the plan
of his Perfian Letters; a w'ork which afterwards pro¬
cured him great reputation, not only from the elegance
of the language in which they were compofed, but
from the excellent obfervations they contained on the
manners of mankind.
In the year 1728, he fet out on the tour of Europe ;
and, on his arrival at Paris, accidentally became ac¬
quainted with the honourable Mr Poyntz, then our
minifter at the court of Verfailles ; who was fo ftruck
with the extraordinary capacity of our young travel¬
ler, that he invited him to his houfe, and employed
him in many political negotiations, which he execut¬
ed with great judgement and fidelity.
Mr Lyttelton’s conduft, while on his travels, w7as
a leffon of inftruftion to the red of his countrymen.
Inflead of lounging aw7ay his hours at the coffee-houfes
frequented by the Englilh, and adopting the fafhion-
able follies and vices of France and Italy, his time was
paffed alternately in his library and in the fociety of
men of rank and literature. In this early part of his
life, he wrote a poetical epifile to Dr Ayfcough, and
another to Mr Pope, which fhow fingular tafte and
corre&nefs.
After continuing a confiderable time at Paris with
Mr Poyntz, who, to ufe his own words, behaved like
a fecond father to him, he proceeded to Lyons and
Geneva; and from thence to Turin, where he was
honoured with great marks of friendihip by his Sardi¬
nian majefty. He then vifited Milan, Venice, Genoa,
and Rome, where he applied himfelf cloffly to the
ftudy of the fine arts ; and was, even in that celebrated
metropolis, allowed a perfeft judge of painting, fculp¬
ture, and archite&ure.
During his continuance abroad, h/e confiantly cor-
O o refponded
L Y T [ 290 ] L Y T
Lyttelton, refponded with Sir Themas, his father. Several of
his letters are yet remaining, and place his filial af¬
fection in a very diftinguilhed light. He foon after
returned to his native country, and was elefted re-
prefentative for the borough of Okehampton in De-
vonfhire j and behaved fo much to the fatisfa£lion
of his conftituents, that they feveral times re-ele&ed
him for the fame place without putting him to the
lead expence.
About this period, he received great marks of friend-
fhip from Frederic prince of Wales, father of his pre-
fent majefty j and was, in the year 1737, appointed
principal fecretary to his royal highnefs, and continued
in the drifted intimacy with him till the time of his
death. His attention to public bufinefs did not, how¬
ever, prevent him from exercifing Ins poetical talent.
A mod amiable young lady, Pv'Iifs Fortefcue, infpired
him wdth a paffion, which produced a number of little
pieces, remarkable for their tendernefs and elegance j
and he had a happy facility of driking out an extem¬
pore compliment, wThich obtained him no fmall (hare
of reputation. One evening being in company with
Lord Cobham and feveral of the nobility at Stowe,
his lordihip mentioned his defign of putting up a bud
of Lady Suffolk in his beautiful gardens ; and, turning
to Mr Lyttelton, faid, “ George, you mud furnidi
me with a motto for it.” “ 1 will, my lord,” an-
fwered Mr Lyttelton j and direftly produced the fol¬
lowing couplet :
Her wit and beauty for a court were made,
But truth and goodnefs fit her for a lhade.
When Mr Pitt, the late earl of Chatham, lod his
commillion in the guards, in confequence of his fpirit-
ed behaviour in parliament, Mr Lyttelton was in wait¬
ing at Lelceder-houfe, and, on hearing the circum-
dance, immediately wrote thefe lines :
Long had thy virtue mark’d thee out for fame,
Far, far fuperior to a cornet’s name 5
This generous Walpole faw, and griev’d to find
So mean a pod difgrace that noble mind •,
The fervile dandard from thy free-born hand
He took, and bade thee lead the patriot band.
In the year 1742, he married Lucy, the daughter
of Hugh Fortefcue, Efq. of Filleigh in the county
of Devon, the lady above-mentioned, whofe exemplary
conduft, and uniform praftice of religion and virtue,
edablidied his conjugal happinefs upon the mod folid
balls.
In 1744, he was appointed one of the lords com-
miffioners of the treafury •, and, during his continuance
in that dation, condantly exerted his influence in re¬
warding merit and ability. He was the friend and
patron of the late Henry Fielding, James Thomfon
author of the Seafons, Mr Mallet, Dr Young, Mr
Hammond, Mr Wed, Mr Pope, and Voltaire. On
the death of Thomfon, who left his affairs in a very
embarraffed condition, Mr Lyttelton took that poet’s
fider under his proteftion. He revifed the tragedy of
Coriolanus, which that writer had not put the lad
hand toy and brought it out at the theatre-royal,
Covent-garden, with a prologue of his own writing,
In which he fo affeftingly lamented the lofs of that
delightful bard, that ngt only Mr Quin, who fpoke
the lines, but almod the whole audience, fpontaneoufly Lyttelton,
burd into ears. L“ v**-—
In the beginning of the year 1746, his felicity was
interrupted by the lofs of his wife, who died in the
29th year of her age ; leaving him one fon, Thomas,
the late Lord Lyttelton ; and a daughter, Lucy, w-ho
fome time fince married Lord Vifcount Valentia. The
remains of his amiable lady were depofited at Over-
Arley in Worceflerfliire j and an elegant monument
was erefted to her memory in the church of Hagley,
which contains the following infeription written by
her hudrand :
Made to engage all hearts, and charm all eyes :
Tho’ meek, magnanimous ; tho’ witty, wife j
Polite, as all her life in courts had been 5
Yet good, as die the world had never feen ?
The noble fire of an exalted mind,
With gentled female teadernefs combin’d.
Her fpeech was the melodious voice of love,
Her fong the warbling of the vernal grove.
Her eloquence was fweeter than her fong,
Soft as her heart, and as her reafon drong.
Her form each beauty of her mind exprefs’d,
Her mind was virtue by the Graces drefs’d.
Befides thefe beautiful lines, Mr Lyttelton wrote a
monody on the death of his lady, which will be re¬
membered while conjugal affeftion and a tade for
poetry exifl in this country.
His maderly obfervations on the converfion and
apodleflrip of St Paul, wrere written at the defire of
Gilbert Wed, .Efq. in confequence of Mr Lyttelton’s
afferting, that, befide all the proofs of the Chridian
religion, w7hich might be drawn from the prophecies
of the Old Tedament, from the neceffary connec¬
tion it has with the whole fyfiem of the Jewifli
religion, from the miracles of Chrid, and from the
evidence given of his refurreftion by all the other
apoflles, be thought the converfion of St Paul alone,
duly confidered, w’as of itfelf a demondration fuflicient
to prove Chridianity to be a divine revelation. Mr
Wed was druck with the thought : and allured his
friend, that fo compendious a proof would be of great
ufe to convince thofe unbelievers that will not attend
to a longer feries of arguments ; and time has drown
he w’as not out in his coniefture, as the traft is edeemed
one of the bed defences of Chridianity which has hi¬
therto been publiflred.
In 1754, he refigned his office of lord of the trea¬
fury, and was made cofferer to his majedy’s houfe-
hold, and fworn of the privy-council : previous to
which, he married, a fecond time, Elizabeth daughter
of Field-marlhal Sir Robert Rich; whofe indifereet con¬
duft gave him great uneafinefs, and from whom he
was feparated, by mutual confent, a few years after his
marriage.
After being appointed chancellor and under trea-
furer of the court of exchequer, he was, by letters^
patent dated the 19th of November 1757, 31 Geo. II.
created a peer of Great Britain, by the dyle and title
of Lord Lyttelton, baron of Franhley, in the county of
Worcefler. His fpeeches on the Scotch and mutiny
bills in the year 1747, on the Jew bill in 1753» and
on the privilege’ of parliament in 1763, (bowed found
judgement, powerful eloquence, and inflexible inte-
Lvtte’ton.
L Y T [ 291 ] L Y T
ority. During the laft ten years he lived chiefly
fn retirement, in the continual exercife of all the
virtues which can ennoble private life. His laft
work was Dialogues of the Dead, in which the mo¬
rality of Cambray and the fpirit of Fontenelle are hap¬
pily united.
He was fuddenly feized with an inflammation of
the bowels, in the middle of July i773> at ^eat at
Hagley j which terminated in his death, on the 22d of
that month. His laft moments were attended with Lytt ten.
unimpaired underftanding, unaffected greatneis of * v
mind, calm refignation, and humble but confident
hopes in the mercy of God. As he had lived
univerfally efteemed, he died lamented by all parties.
A complete colleffion of his works has been pub-
lilhed fince his deceafe, by his nephew George Ayf-
cougkj Efq.
M.
M TV'f a liquid confonant, and the twelfth letter in
, lj lti.5 t-ke alphabet.
RTabnlon. _ ^ ^ ^ unvaried found, and is pronounced by
ftriking the upper lip again ft the lower •, in which the
pronunciation of this letter agrees with that of £;.the
only difference between the two confifting in a little
motion made in the nofe in pronouncing m, and not in
b : whence it happens that thofe who have taken cold,
for m ordinarily pronounce b ; the nofe in that cafe be¬
ing difabled from making the neceffary motion.
All confonants are formed with the aid of vowels j
in cm the vowel precedes, in be it follows j and m is
never mute.
Quintilian obferves, that the m fometimes ends Latin
words but never Greek ones; the Greeks always
changing it in that cafe into w, for the fake of the bet¬
ter found.
M is alfo a numeral letter, and among the ancients
was ufed for a thoufand ; according to the verfe,
M caput ejl numeric quern feimus tnille teneri.
When a dafh is added to the top of it, as m ; it fig-
nifies a thoufand times a thoufand.
M, as an abbreviature, Hands for Manlius, Marcus,
Martius, and Mucius: M. A. fignifies magijlcr artium,
or mafter of arts ; MS. manufeript, and MSS. manu-
feripts.
M, in aftronomical tables, and other things of that
kind, is ufed for meridional or fouthern ; and lometimes
for meridian or mid-day.
M, in medicinal prefeription, is frequently ufed to
fignify a maniple or handful ; and it is fometimes alfo
put at the end of a recipe, for mifee “ mingleor for
mixtura “ a mixture.” i hus m. f. julapwm, fignifies
. “ mix and make a julep.”
M, in Law, the brand or ftigma of a perfon convict¬
ed of manilaughter, and admitted to the benefit of
his clergy. It is to be burnt on the brawn of his left
thumb.
MAAT, John. See Blankof.
MABILLON, John, a very learned writer of
France in the 17th century, was born at Perremonte,
on the frontiers of Champagne, in 1632. He was
educated in the univerfity of Rheims, and afterwards
entered into the abbey of the Benediftines of St Remy.
In the year 1663, he was appointed keeper of the
treafures and monuments of France at St Dennis : but Macaco
having unfortunately broke a looking glafs there, _Vjacfi.;ari3
which was pretended to have belonged to Virgil, he
defired leave of his fuperiors to quit an employment
w’hich frequently obliged him to tell things he did not
believe. Next year he went to Paris ; and was very
ferviceable to Father d’Acheri, w7ho w7as defirous of
having fome young monk who could aflift him in com¬
piling his Spici/egium. This made him known. Soon
after, the congregation of St Maur having formed a
defign of publiihing new editions of the fathers, re-
vifed from the MSS. in the libraries of the Benedic¬
tines, Mabillon was charged with the edition of St
Bernard, which he prepared with extraordinary dili¬
gence. After that, he publiftied many other wmrks,
which are evidences of his vaft capacity and induftry.
In 1682, he was employed by Mr Colbert in examin¬
ing fome ancient titles relating to the royal family.
The year following he fent him into Germany, to
fearch the archives and libraries of the ancient abbeys,
for what was moft curious and proper to illuftrate the
hiftory of the church in general, and that of France
in particular. He has publiftied an account of this
journey. In 1685, he undertook another journey
into Italy, by order of the king of France ; and re¬
turned the year following with a very noble coliedlion.
He placed in the king’s library above 3000 volumes
of rare books, printed and in MSS. and compofed twa
volumes of the pieces which he had difeovered in that
country. He was highly efteemed for his virtues as
well as his learning.
MACACO, or Macauco. See Lemur, Mamma¬
lia Index.
MACAO, a town of China, in the province of
Canton, feated in an ivland at the mouth of the river
Tae. The Portuguefe have been in poffeflion of the
harbour for 150 years. Formerly they had a great
trade here ; but now they have only a fort with a fmall
garrifon. The houfes are built after the European
manner ; and there is a Chinefe mandarin, as well as a
Portuguefe governor, to take care of the town and
the neighbouring country. £. Long. 112. 13. N. Lat.
22. 12.
Macao. See Psittacus, Ornithology IndeM.
MACARIANS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, the fol¬
lowers of Macarius, an Egyptian monk, who was di-
O o 2 ftinguiftied
/
M AC [29
ftiiigunacd towards the dofe of the fourth century for
his fandity and virtue. In his writings there are feme
7 aiia virtue, in tus writings there are iome
fuperilitious tenets, and alfo certain opinions that feem
tainted with Origenifm. L !ie name has been alfo ap¬
plied to thofe who adopted the fentiments of Macarius
a native ol Ireland, r.'ho about the clofe of the ninth
century, propagated in France the error afterwards
maintained by Averrhoes, that one individual intelli¬
gence or foul performed the fpiritual and rational
fundions in all the human race.
MACARONI. See Folengio, and the next
article.
MACARONIC, or Macaroniak, a kind of bur-
lefque poetry, confiding of a jumble of words of differ¬
ent languages, with words of the vulgar tongue La¬
tinized; and Latin w'ords modernized. Macaroni
among the Italians, as has been obferved by Ccelius
Rhodiginus, fignifies a coarfe c/owni/h man ; and be-
caufe this kind of poetry is patched out of feveral
languages, and full of extravagant words, &c. the
Italians, among whom it had its rife, gave it the name
of macaronian cr macaronic poetry. Others choofe
to derive it a macarombus, from macaroons, a kind of
confection made of meal not boulted, fweet almonds,
iugar, and the white of eggs, accounted a great
dainty^ among the countiy people in Italy ; which,
from tneir being compofed of various ingredients, oc-
eafioned this kind of poetry, which con fills of Latin,
Italian, Spanifh, French, Englifh, &c. to be called
by their name.
Example.—A bold fellow in the macaronic flyle,
fays,
Enjilavt omnes fcadrones et regimandos, &c.
Another example:
jtrchelos piftoliferos furiamque manantum,
Et grandem efmeutam qua: inopinum facia ruelle cji :
Toxinumque alto troub/antem corda clochero, &c.
Theoph. Folengius, a Benediftine monk of Mantua,
was the firil who invented, or at lead cultivated, this
kind of verfe. See Folengio.
The bell pieces of this kind are, the Baldus of Fo¬
lengio, and Macaronis Forza by Stefonio a Jefuit,
among the Italians ; and the Reatus veritabilis, fuper
terribih efmeuta paifanarum de Ruelhs; among the
French. I he famous Rabelais firil transferred the
macaronic llyle out of the Italian verfe into French
profe : and on the model thereof formed fome of the
Lei.t things in his Pantagruel. We have litile in
Englifh in the macaronian w^ay ; nothing fcarce, but
fome little loofe pieces collected in Camden’s remains.
But the Germans and Netherlanders have had their
macaronic poets; witnefs the Ctrtamen Catholicism cum
Calvini/iis, of one Martinius Hamconius Frifius, which
contains about 1200 verfes, all the words whereof be¬
gin with the letter C.
MACARSKA, a town of Dalmatia, and capital
of Primogria, with a pretty good harbour, and a bi-
Ihop’s fee, feated on the gulf of Venice. E. Long.
17. 57. N. £at. 43. 42.
MACASSAR, a confiderable kingdom of the
ifland of Celebes, in the Eall Indies. The climate is
very hot; and would be intolerable,^ were it not for
the rains which fall when the fun is djueftly over their
^ ] M A C
heads. . The foil is extremely fertile, and there are
ripe fiuits at all times of t*ie year. There are great
numoers of monkies, who are devoured by nionflruus
ferpents; fome of which are fo large, that they will
fwallow one of thefe animals entire. The Macaffars
are large, roouft, courageous, and greatly addiffed to
war. They profefs the Mahometan religion.
Macassar, a large, lining, and handfome town,
o* the illand of Ceieoes, and capital of the kingdom
of the fame name, where the king relides. The
homes are all built of wood, and flipported by thick
polls; and tney have ladders to go up into them,
which they draw up as foon as they have entered.
The roofs are covered with very large leaves, which
prevent the rain from entering. It is feated near the
mouth of a large river, which runs through the king¬
dom from north to fouth. E. Long. 117. r j. S. Lat.
j. o.
Macassar Poifon, in Natural Hi/lory, called ippo in
the Macaffar and Malayan tongue, is the gum of a cer¬
tain tree, Aiming, brittle, black, and every way like
Hone pitch, growing in the ifland of Celebes, in the
South feas ; with which all the natives arm themfelves
in travel, having a long hollow trunk of a hard red
wood like bralil, accurately bored, and at one end is
fixed a large lance-blade of iron. Then they make a
fmall arrow, very ftraight, and fomewhat bigger than a
large wheaten draw': at one end they fix it into a
round piece of white, light, foft wood, like cork,
about the length of the little finger, juft fit for the
bore of the trunk, to pafs clear by the force of one’s
breath, and to fill it fo exaflly, that the air may net
pafs by, but again!! it, in order to carry it with the
greater force. At the other end they fix in it either
a fmall filh-toeth for that purpofe, or make a blade of
wood of the bignefs of the point of a lancet, about
three-quarters of an inch long, and making a little
notch in the end of the arrow, they flick it firm
therein, which they anoint with poifon. The poi-
fonous gum, when gathered, is put into hollow bam¬
boos or canes, flopped up very clofe, and thus brought
to Macaffar. When they fit it for ufe, they take a
piece of fmooth turtle-fliell, and a flick cut flat and
fmooth at the end : then they take green galangal root,
grate it, and with the addition of a little fair water,
prefs the juice into a clean china difli : then with a knife
feraping a little of the poifon upon the ftiell, dip the
end of the flick in the forementioned liquor, and with
this diflolve the poifon to the confiftence of a fyrup :
when this is done, they anoint the fifli-tooth or wooden
blade with the fame flick, and lay it in the fim, fo that
it may be baked hard. The pointed arrows thus pre--
pared, are put in hollow bamboos, clofe fliut, and in
this ftate they retain their virtue for a month.
MACCABEUS, Judas. See Judas.
MACCABEES, two apocryphal books of feripture,
containing the hiftory of Judas and his brothers, and
their wars again!! the Syrian kings in defence of their
religion and liberties, fo called from Judas Mattathias,
furnamed Maccabccus, as fome fay from the word "bua,
formed of the initials of mrr obio rrana -n, q. d. Who
is like unto thee, 0 Ford, among the gods ; which was
the motto of his ftandard ; whence thofe who fought
under his ftandard were called Maccabees, and the name
was generally applied to all who buffered in the caufe
of
MacalTar
II
Maccabees.
MAC [ 293 J M A C
Maccabees, of the true religion, under the Egyptian or Syrian
Macbeth, kings. The firtl book of the Maccabees is an excel-
U^v“"—' lent hiilory, and comes neareft to the ftyle and manner
of the facred hidorians of any extant. It was written
originally in the Chaldee language, of the Jerufalem
dialecf, and was extant in this language in the time of
Jerome. From the Chaldee it was tranllated into
Greek, from the Greek into Latin. It is fuppofed to
have been written by John Hyrcanus the fon of Si¬
mon, who was prince and high pried of the Jews near
50 years, and began his government at the time where
this hiftory ends. It contains the hidory of 40 years,
from the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes to the death
of Simon the high pried : that is, from the year of
the world 382910 the year 3869*, 131 years before
Chrid. The i’econd book of the Maccabees begins
with two epidles fent from the Jews of Jerufalem to
the Jews of Egypt and Alexandria •, to exhort them
to obferve the fead of the dedication of the new altar
ere£Ied by Judas on his purifying the temple. The firft
was written in the 169th year of the era of the Se-
leucidae, i. e. before Chrid 144 5 and the fecond in the
188th year of the fame era, or 125 before Chrid j
and both appear to be fpurious. After thefe epidles
follows the preface of the author to his hidory, which
is an abridgement of a larger work, comoofed by one
Jafon, a Je w of Cyrene, wdro wrote in Greek the hi-
ftory of Judas Maccabeus and his brethren, and the
wars againd Antiochus Epiphanes, and Eupator his
fon. The fecond book does not by any means equal
the accuracy and excellency of the fird. It contains
a hidory of about 15 years, from the execution of
Heliodorus’s commidion, who was fent by Seleucus
to fetch away the treafures of the temple, to the vic¬
tory obtained by Judas Maccabeus over Nicanor $
that is, from the year of the world 3828, to the year
3843, 147 years before Chrid.
There are in the Polyglot Bibles, both of Paris and
London, Syriac verdons of both thefe books j but
they, as well as the Engliih verfions which w-e have
among the apocryphal writers in our Bibles, are de¬
rived from the Greek. There is alfo a third book of
the Maccabees, containing the hidory of the perfecu-
tion of Ptolemy Philopator againd the Jews in E-
gy pt, and their fufferings under it 5 which feems to have
been written by fome Alexandrian Jew in the Greek
language, not long after the time of Siracides. It is
in mod of the ancient manufcript copies of the Gieek
Septuagaint j particularly in the Alexandrian and Va¬
tican, but was never inferted into the vulgar Latin
verdon of the Bible, nor confequently into any of our
Englifh copies. Moreover, Jofephus’s hidory of the
martyrs that fuffered under Antiochus Epiphanes, is
found in fome manufcript Greek Bibles, under the
name of the fourth book of the Maccabees.
MACBETH, a Scots nobleman in the 1 ith cen¬
tury, nearly allied to Duncan king of Scotland.—
Not contented with curbing the king’s authority, he
carried his pedilent ambition fo far as to put him to
death ; and, chadng Malcolm Canmore his fon and
heir into England, ufurped the crown. Siward earl
of Northumberland, whofe daughter Duncan had mar¬
ried, undertook, by the order of Edward the ConfetTor,
the proteftion of the fugitive prince.—He marched with
an army into Scotland j defeated and killed Macbeth ;
and redored Malcolm to the throne of his anceftors. Macbride.
Shakefpeare has made this t ran faction the fubjeit of one " v
of his bed tragedies.
MACBRIDE, D:i David, an eminent phyfician
and philofopher, was defcended from an ancient family
in the county of Galloway in Scotland. His grand¬
father, a clergyman, had fettled in Ireland about the
end of the lad century, as minider to a Prelbyterian
congregation at Belfad ; and his father, who followed
the fame line, was fettled at Bullymony in the county
of Antrim, w’here he married, and where our author
was bom in April 1726. After a proper fchool-educs-
tion, and having pafled fome time under the tuition
of an eminent furgeon in his native place, he was fent
to the univerfity of Glafgow. Having there completed
the ufual courfe of academical Iludies, he came to
Edinburgh for the further profecution of medical fci-
ence. After a diort day here, a war then prevailing
between France and Britain, he was induced to go on
board the navy in the dation of a furgeon’s mate. In
the fervice of his country he continued for feveral
years j and after difcharging for fome time the duties
of an adidant, he was raifed to the rank of furgeon.
In this dtuation, he fird turned his thoughts towards
the difcovery of a remedy for the fea-fcurvy. It was
not, however, at this period, that either chance or rea-
foning fuggeded to him the employment of an article
which has lince been attended with the mod beneficial
confequences. Here he had an opportunity only of ob-
ferving the fymptoms, of ftudying the nature, and of la¬
menting the confequences, of the difeafe.
The termination of the war by the peace of Aix-la-
Chapelle put a period to Dr Macbride’s employment
as a naval furgeon. He had now probably obtained
much medical knowledge in the fchool of experience ;
but he was fenfible that he had dill much to acquire
in that of fcience. An ardent keennefs to mingle in
atiive life had led him from the fchools of medicine at
an earlier period than could have been wiihed ; and an
earned defire to found his future pradtice in the bed
eRablidied principles led him back to them, when a
judgement, matured by years, and informed from the
observation of fadts, rendered him capable of hearing
teachers with greater advantage. He returned there¬
fore to Edinburgh, and again entered on the career of
academical purfuits, under the tuition of Dr Monro,
and thofe other teachers, whofe abilities raifed the
fame of the medical fchool at this place. But not fa-
tisfied with the indrudlions to be had from any one fet
of profeflbrs, the celebrity of the medical teachers in
London led him alfo to vifit that capital. There he
particularly became the pupil of thofe diftinguifhed
ledlurers, Dr Hunter and Dr Smellie. And while
from the former he laboured to acquire an accurate
chirurgical knowledge, from the latter he endeavoured
to obtain the true principles of midwifery confidered
as a fcience. At the fame time he was no lefs induf-
trious in improving himfelf in the fuccefsful practice of
both arts by attention at hofpitals.
Thus prepared for the exercife of his profeffion,
about the end of the year 1749 he fixed his refidence
in Dublin in the character of furgeon and accoucheur.
If amiable manners, and extenfive knowledge of his
profeflion, could alone have been fufficient introduc¬
tions to praflice, he might in a fiiort time have look-
MAC [ 294 ]
Macbride.^ ed for a competent fliare of bufinefs in that capital ;
f ^ but while he had to combat that obje61ion which very
generally arifes from youth, his progrefs was alfo not
a little retarded by an uncommon degree of modelty.
Hence for feveral years he remained almoft in a dale
of obfcurity, and was employed by but few people ei¬
ther of rank or fortune. But, if it is to be regretted
that for many years his time was not fo fully employed
in the lucrative part of his profeihon as was due to
nis merit, it ought ilill to be remembered, that this ef-
fentially. promoted the caufe of fcience : for by this
means his genius and induflry were directed to medical
refearches ; and were produftive of difcoveries which
will with honour tranfmit his name to lateft pofterity.
Thefe, though fome of them might have been fuccefs-
fuily turned to his orvn emolument, were freely com¬
municated to the world in ditferent publications ; and
he did not {how greater ingenuity in making difco¬
veries, than liberality of fentiment in publifhing them
for the advantage of others.—His firft publication,
entitled, “ Experimental Effays on Medical and Phi-
lofophical Subjects,” made its appearance in the year
1764-—Thefe effays are five in number: 1. On the
fermentation of alimentary mixture and the digeftion
of the food. 2. On the nature and properties of fixed
air. 3. On the different kinds of antifeptics. 4. Of
the diflblvent power of quicklime. 5. Of the fea-fcur-
vy. The merit of all thefe is fufficiently known and
acknowledged : but the laft of them is unqueftionably
the moft important \ the method therein propofed of
both the prevention and cure of that dreadful difeafe,
the fcurvy, having been confirmed by repeated and un¬
deniable obfervation.
_ Having thus equally diftinguilhed himfelf as an inge¬
nious philofopher and able pradlitioner, the world were
not now flow in bellowing upon him the tribute of ap-
plaufe to which he was entitled. His name was enrol¬
led with honour in the lifts of many learned focieties *,
aad the univerfity where his ftudies had firft been com¬
menced, W'ere proud to confer upon him the degree of
dodftor of medicine.
The reputation, however, of being a diftinguiftied
author, was to him but a fecondary objedl j and his
talents wTere not confined to the advancement of medi¬
cine alone. Having fuccefsfully difcovered a confider-
able improvement in the art of tanning, with that
fpirited generofity which is ever the concomitant of
real w'orth, he fpeedily and freely communicated it to
the public, by publifning, firft, “ An Account of a
New Method of Tanning and afterwards, “ Inftruc-
tions for carrying on the New Method of Tanning.”
As a mark of approbation for this liberal condudl, as
well as a teftimony of refpett for his ingenuity, prize-
medals were conferred upon him by the Societies of
Arts both in London and Dublin. But his laft and
moft extenfive publication w?as more immediately in
the line of his own profefiion : It is entitled, “ A Me¬
thodical Introduftion to the Theory and Pra&ice of
Medicine. * In that valuable work he has given a
concife and connefled view of the principles and prac¬
tice of the healing art, as beft eftablifhed by found
reafon, and confirmed by accurate obfervation. Moft,
if not all, of thefe publications, not only went through
various editions, but were tranflated into different lan¬
guages.
MAG
After the merit cr Dr hlacbride came to be proper- Nacbrkle
ly known, the public feemed to (how a defire of mak- „ il
ing compenfation for having fo long overlooked it. Mace'
His employment increafed fo rapidly, that he had more
bufinefs than he could tranfatl either with cafe or fafe-
ty. 1 his having kept him in perpetual agitation both
of body and mind, at laft induced an almoft total in¬
capacity of fleeping. From this circumftance his health
could not fail to be impaired. In this fituat on, after
accidental expofare to cold, he w7as attacked with a
fever, which put an end to his life on the 13th of De¬
cember 1778, in the 53d year of his age.
Thofe who w^ere his moft intimate acquaintance
wrere inclined to believe that his death wTas not a little
haftened by domeftic calamities. During his refidence
in Dublin he w'as twice married, and was as often lub-
jedled to that inexpreflible diftrefs which muft refult
from a final feparation in this world from the moft inti¬
mate and loving friends. By both of his wuves he
had feveral children ; but none of them furvived their
father. And on thefe calamitous events, although he
was able to conceal his feelings from the world, yet
they gave a fevere ftiock to his conftitution. After
his death, feveral of the playful trinkets of his infants,
with the fignature of dulces exuvia, were found in his
repofitories among papers on medical and other import¬
ant fubje&s : an incontrovertible proof, that in him at
leaft, the great mind of the philofopher was conjoin¬
ed with the feeling heart of the affeilionate father.
But if his abilities were remarkable as a philofopher
and phyfician, if his conducl wTas exemplary as a huf-
band and parent, his manners w’ere no lefs amiable as
a companion and friend. His polite and benevolent
condud, joined to his tafte for the fine arts, conciliated
the affections and eiteem of all who knew him. His
death was univerfally and fincerely lamented in the city
of Dublin.
MAT CLESFIELD, a town of Cheftiire in Eng¬
land, i 71 miles from London, is feated on the edge of
a foreft of the fame name, upon a high bank near the
river Bollin j and is a large handfome town, with a
fine church and a very high fteeple. It was ereCled
into a borough by King Edward III. is governed by
a mayor, and enjoys great privileges and jurifdiClions
by virtue of the court and the liberties of the foreft.
In its church are two brafs plates, on one of which
there is a promife of 26,000 years and 26 days pardon
for faying five Pater-Nofters and five Aves. Its chief
manufacture is mohair buttons. In Macclesfield fo¬
reft are many pits dug for the fake of the turfj in
which it is common to find fir-trees buried, which are
dug up for various ufes, but chiefly for fplinters that
ferve the poor for candles. W. Long. 2. 10. N. Lat.
53- I5*
MACE, an ancient weapon, formerly much ufed
by the cavalry of all nations. It was commonly made
of iron ; its figure much refembles a chocolate mill;
many fpecimens may be feen in the Tower. It was
with one of thefe that Walworth mayor of London
knocked the rebel Wat Tyler from off his horfe in
Smithfield for approaching the young KingRichard II.
in an iniolent manner 5 and as he fell, he dilpatehed
him with his dagger. The mace in modern times
changed its form \ and being no longer a wTar inftru-
ment, is made of copper or iilver gilt, ornamented with
Mace,
Macedor.
Situation,
See. of thej
country.
2
Different
names.
3
Kingdom
founded by
Caranus.
MAC [ 295
a crown, glebe, and crofs, and is now tbe cbicf infignia ii
of authority throughout Great Britain. Similar to
the ancient maces, were thofe fiaves at the end of
which iron or leaden balls armed with fpikes were fuf-
pended by chains : they were tiB lately carried by the
pioneers of the trained bands or city militia.
Mace, in the Materia Medica, the fecond coat or
covering of the kernel of the nutmeg, is a thin, mem¬
branaceous fubllance, of a yellowish colour 5 being met
with in flakes of an inch or more in length, which, are
divided into a multitude of ramifications. It is of an
extremely fragrant, aromatic, and agreeable flavour 5
and of a pleafant, but acrid oleaginous tafle. See Ma¬
teria Medic a Index.
MACEDON, or Macedonia, a moft celebrated
kingdom of antiquity, was bounded on the eaft by
the /Egean fea ; on the fouth by Theffafy and Epirus ;
on the weft by the Ionian fea or Adriatic ; on the
north, at firft by the river Strymon and the Scardian
mountains, but afterwards by tbe river Nefius or Nef-
tus. In a direft line the whole country extended
only 150 miles in length •, but the windings of the
coaft lengthened it out to three times that extent ; in
which almoft every convenient fituation was occupied
by a Grecian fea-port. The country rvas naturally
divided by the Thermaic and Strymonic gulrs, into
the provinces of Pieria, Chalcis, and Pangmus. 1 he
middle region, which took its name from a city of
Euboea from whence it was originally peopled, was
very fertile and pleafant; the inland country, being
diverfified by lakes, rivers, and arms of the fea, was
extremely convenient for inland navigation, while the
towns of Amphipolis, Potidaea, Acanthus, and many
others, afforded marts for the commerce of the republics
of Greece, as well as of Thrace and Macedon. On
one fide of this diftridl were the mountains of Pangaeus,
and on the other the plains of Pieria. The Pangtean
mountains, which extended 90 miles towards the eaft
and the river Neffus, though proper neither for corn
nor pafture, produced plenty of timber for ftfip-build-
ing j while the fouthern branches of the mountains
contained rich veins of gold and filver } but thefe,
though wrought fucceffively by the Thafians and the
Athenians, were only brought to perfeftion by Philip
of Macedon, who extrafled from them gold and filver
to the value of 200,000!. fterling annually. Pieria ex¬
tended 50 miles along the Thermaic gulf, to the
confines of Theffaly and Mount Pindus. The inland
part of the country was beautifully diverfified with
fhady hills and fountains; and fo admirably calculated
for folitary walks and retirement, that the ancients
looked upon it to be the favourite haunt of the Mufes,
and accordingly bellowed upon them the title of Pie-
rides.
In the moft early times this country was called JE.ma-
thia, from JEtnathius one of its princes. The name of
Macedon is faid to have been derived from Macedo a
defeendant of Deucalion •, though others fuppofe it
to have been only a corruption of Mygdonia a diftriit
of the country. In thofe remote ages of antiquity,
Macedon, like moft other countries of Europe, was
divided into a great number of petty principalities,
of which fcarce even the names are known at this
time. All authors agree, however,, that was
the firft who eftablffhed any permanent fovereignty
] MAG
in Macedon. He was an Argive, a defeendant of Macedon.,
Hercules, and about 800 years B. C. conduced a ' ^
fmall colony of his countrymen into the inland diftriil
of Macedon, at that time diftinguiftied by the name of
JE/nathia as already mentioned. This territory was
about 300 miles in circumference. On the fouth it
was feparated from the fea by a number of Greek re¬
publics, of which the moft confiderable were thofe of
Olynthus and Amphipolis 5 and on the north, eaft, and
weft, was lurrounded by the barbarous kingdoms of
Thrace, Poeonia, and lilyricum. According to the
traditions of thofe times, Caranus, having confulted
the oracle on the fuccefs of his intended expedition, '
was commanded to be direcled by the goats in the efta-
blifhment of his empire. For fome time he proceeded
at random, without knowing what to make of the ora¬
cle’s anfwer j but happening to enter the fmall kingdom-
of JEmathia, at that time governed by King Midas, he
obferved a herd of goats running towards EdeJJa the
capital. Recolle£ling then the anfwer of the oracle,
he attacked and took the city by furprife, foon after
making himfelf mafter of the whole kingdom. In me¬
mory of this remarkable event he called the city lEgea,
and the people JEgiates, from the goats who conduced
him, and made ufe of the figure of a goat in his ftand-
ard. From this fable alfo we fee why the figure of a
goat is fo frequently feen on the coins of Philip and his
fucceffors. 4
The little colony of Argives led into Aimathia by Policy of
Caranus would foon have been overwhelmed by the t!lis Pnncc>
barbarous nations who furrounded it, had not this prince
and his fubjefts taken care to ingratiate themfelves with
their neighbours, rather than to attempt to fubdue them
by force of arms. They inftrufted them in the Grecian
religion and government, and in the knowledge of many
ufeful arts •, adopting themfelves, in fome degree, the
language and manners of the barbarians ; imparting
to them in return fome part of the Grecian civiliza¬
tion and polite behaviour. Thus they gradually affo-
ciated with the fierce and warlike tribes in their neigh¬
bourhood 5 and this prudent conduff, being followed by
fucceeding generations, may be looked upon as one of
the caufes of the Macedonian greatnefs.
Caranus, dying after a reign of three years, left the
kingdom to his fon Cosnus; who having confiderably
enlarged his dominions, was fucceeded by Thurymas, 5-
and he by Perdiccas I. This laft prince is by Thucy-Perdiccas I.
dides and Herodotus accounted the founder of the Ma-ace'e^rjate<^
cedonian monarchy j though his hiftory is fo obfeuredmcmal
by fable, that nothing certain can now be known con¬
cerning it. In procefs of time, however, the good un-
derftandiug which had fubfifted between the Macedo¬
nians and their barbarous neighbours began to fuffer an
interruption ; and in 691 B. C. the kingdom was for
the firft time invaded by the Illyrians. At firft they ^
did confiderable damage by their ravages ; but the Ma- ',T;
cedonian monarch, Argseus, having decoyed them intorjans.
an ambufh, cut off great numbers, and obliged the re¬
mainder to leave the kingdom. In the reigns of his
fucceffors, however, they returned, and occafionally
proved very troublefome enemies till the reigns of Phi¬
lip and Alexander. int-rffr
In the mean time the kingdom of Macedon began toenCe 0f the
be affected by thofe great events which took place Periians
in other parts of.the world. Cyrus having overthrown and Mace-
the donians.»
MAC [2
Macedon. the Babylonian empire, and conquered all the weftern
part of Alia, eftablidied a mighty monarchy, which
threatened all the eaflern parts of Europe with fub-
jugation. The Greeks, however, having now emerged
from their barbarifm, and acquired great knowledge
in the art of war, w^ere able to refill; effectually this
very formidable power,*, but the kingdom of Macedon,
oblcure and unconnected, was obliged to yield, and
though not formally made a province of the Perfian
empire, was neverthelefs accounted in fome fort as un¬
der the vaflalage and protection of the Perlians. Al-
cetas, who afcended the Macedonian throne about the
time that the Perlian monarchy was founded, had the
dexterity to preferve his dominions from the encroach¬
ments of the Greeks on the one hand, and of the Per-
hans on the other; but in the reign of his fucceiTor
Amyntas, a formal demand was made of fubmitlion to
the great king Darius, by fending him a prefent of
earth and water. Seven ambafladors were fent on this
errand by Megabizus, one of the officers of Darius.
They were fumptuoufly entertained by Amyntas j but
having attempted to take fome indecent liberties with
the Macedonian women, Alexander the king’s fon
cauftd them all to be murdered. This raffi aftion
had almoft proved the ruin of the kingdom *, but
Alexander found means to pacify Bubaris the general
fent againft him by Megahizus, by ffiowing him his
filler Gygaea, a very beautiful woman, with whom the
Perfian fell in love at firll fight, and afterwards married
S her.
Advan- From this time the Macedonians were accounted
in^ToM™'the faithful allies of the Perfians *, and, through the
cedonfrom interell of his fon-in-law, Amyntas obtained the coun-
this inter- try in the neighbourhood of Mount Hcemus and Olym-
ference. pUSj at the fame time that the city of Alabanda in Phry¬
gia was given to Amyntas the nephew of Alexander.
The Macedonians dillinguiffied themfelves in the time
of the Perfian invafion of Greece, by furnifhing their
allies w ith 200,000 recruits; though fome cities, par¬
ticularly Potidsea, Olynthus, and Pallene, adhered to
the Grecian intereft. The twro lalt were taken and
rafed, and the inhabitants mafiacred by the Perfians j
but Potidaea efcaped by reafon of the fea breaking
into the Perfian camp, wffiere it did great damage.
Alexander, however, afterwards thought proper to
court the favour of the Greeks by giving them intel¬
ligence of the time wffien Mardonius defigned to attack
them. The remaining tranfadlions of this reign are
entirely unknown, farther than that he enlarged his
dominions to the river Neflus on the call and the Axius
9 on the weft.
JB,eign of Alexander I. was fucceeded by his fon Perdiccas II.
PerdiccasII according to Dr Gillies, “ inherited his father’s
abilities, though not his integrity.” But from his du¬
plicity above mentioned both to Greeks and Perfians,
it does not appear that he had much to boaft of as
to the latter quality. In the Peloponnefian war he
efpoufed the caufe of the Spartans againft the Athe¬
nians, from whom he wras in danger by reafon of their
numerous fettlements on the Macedonian coaft, and
their great power by fea. For fome time, however,
he amufed the Athenians with a ffiow of friendlliip ;
but at laft, under pretence of enabling Oiynthus and
fome other cities to recover their liberties, he affifted
yn deftroying the influence of the Athenians in thofe
3
96 ]
MAC
places, in hopes of eftabliihing that of the Macedo- Macedon,
nians in its ftead. But this defign failed of fuccefs ; the w~v——■
Olynthian confederacy was broken, and the members
of it became fubject to Sparta, until at laft, by the mis¬
fortunes of that republic, they became iufficiently power¬
ful not only to refift the encroachments of the Macedo¬
nians, but to make cenfiderable conquefts in their
country. I0
Perdiccas II. was fucceeded about 416 B. C. by Of Arche-
Archelaus I. Pie enlarged his dominions by the con-^ausP
queft of Pydna, and other places in Pieria, though his
ambition feems rather to have been to improve his do¬
minions than greatly to extend them. He facilitated
the communication between the principal towns of Ma¬
cedon, by cutting ftraight roads through moft part of
the country : he built walls and fortreiles in fuch places
as afforded a favourable fituation ; encouraged agricul¬
ture and the arts, particularly thofe fubfervient to war j
formed magazines of arms *, raifed and difeiplined a
confiderable body of cavalry $ and in a word, fays Df
Gillies, added more to the folid grandeur of Macedon
than had been done by all his predecelfors put together.
Nor wras he regardlefs of the arts of peace. His palace
was adorned by the works of Grecian painters. Euri¬
pides was long entertained at his court *, Socrates was
earneftly foliated to live there, after the example of
this philofophic poet, formed by his precepts and che-
rithed by his friendfhip : men of merit and genius in
the various walks of literature and fcience were invited
to refide in Macedon, and treated with diftinguiftied re¬
gard by a monarch duly attentive to promote his own
glory and the happinefs of his fubjefts.” 11
This great monarch died after a reign of fix years, The king-
a fpace by far too fhort to accomplifh the magnificent dom be-
projefts he had formed. After his death the k!ng-comes a .
dom fell under the power of ufurpers or weak and^^j^,^’
wicked monarchs. A number of competitors con- flons,
ftantly appeared for the throne j and thefe by turns
called in to their affiftance the Thracians, Illyrians,
Theffalians, the Olynthian confederacy, Athens, Sparta,
and Thebes. Bardyllis, an aflive and daring chief,
who, from being head of a gang of robbers, had be¬
come fovereign of the Illyrians, entered Macedon at
the head of a numerous army, depofed Amyntas II. the
father of Philip, and fet up in his place one Argasus,
who confented to become tributary to the Illyrians.
Another candidate for the throne, named Paufanias,
was fupported by the Thracians; but, by the affiftance
of the Theffalians and Olynthians, Amyntas was ena¬
bled to refume the government. After his reftoration,
however, the Olynthians refufed to deliver up feveral
places of importance belonging to Macedon which A-
myntas had either intrufted to their care, or which they ^
had taken from his antagonift. Amyntas complained war
to Sparta 5 and that republic, which had already form-the Olyn-
ed fchemes of very extenfive ambition, fo readily com-thians.
plied with the requeft, that it was generally fuppofed to
have proceeded from Spartan emifTaries fent into Mace¬
donia. They pretended indeed to hefitate a little, and
to take time to deliberate on the army winch ought to
be raifed for the purpofe ; but Cleigenes, the principal
ambaffador, reprefented the urgency of the cafe in
fuch a manner, that the troops which happened at
that time to be ready were ordered to take the field
without delay. Two thoufand Spartans, under the
command
MAC [ 297 ] MAC
Macedon. command of Eudamidas, were ordered Into Macedon, mit on very humiliating conditions. They formally re-
—V  while a powerful reinforcement under the command nounced all claim to the dominion ot Chalcisj they ^
of P'oebidas, brother to the general, was ordered to ceded the Macedonian cities to their ancient governor } The oly,.
follow him as foon as polTible. " By accident, Phoebidas and in confequence of this Amyntas left the city of JE- thians obli-
and his auxiliaries were detained till the feafon for ac- gaea or Edeffa, where till now he had held his royal ^ed to k b-
tion was paffed j but Eudamidas with his fmall army refidence, and fixed it at Pella,_ a city of great rtrenqth ■ ■ ^
performed very effential fervice. The appearance of a and beauty, fituated on an eminence, which, together Pella made
Suartan army at once encouraged the fubjecfs and allies with a plain of coniicierable extent, was defended oy t ,e a., ital
of the Olynthians to revolt j and the city of Potidaea, imnaffable moraffes, and by the rivers \xius and Ly-ofMace-
a place of great importance in the ifthmus of Pallene, dias. It was dhiant about 15 miles from the /Egean
furrendered foon after his arrival in the country. Be- fea, with which it communicated by means of the above-
ing too much elated with his fuccefs, however, Euda- mentioned rivers. It was originally founded by the
midas approached fo near the city of Olynthus, that he Greeks, who had lately conquered and ; eopled it *, but
was unexpectedly attacked, defeated, and killed, in a in confequence ot the misfortunes of Olynthus, it now
fally of the citizens. He was fucceeded by Teleutias became the capital of Macedon, and continued ever af-
the brother of Agefilaus, who had under his command ter to be to.
a body of 10,000 men, and was farther aflifted by A- Amyntas, thus fully eftabliflied in his dominions,
myntas king of Macedon, and Derdas his brother, the continued to enjoy tranquillity during the remaining
governor or foverdgn of the moft wefterly province of part of his life. The reign of his fon Alexander was
Macedon, which abounded in cavalry. By thefe for- Ihort, and difturbed by invafions ^ of the Illyrians j
midable enemies the Olvnthians were defeated in a from whom he was obliged to purchafe a peace. ^ He
number of battles, obliged to (hut themfelves up in their left behind him two brothers, Perdiccas and Philip, 1S
city, and prevented from cultivating their territory ; on both Very young ; fo that Paufanias again found means Paufamas
which Teleutias advanced with his whole forces t» in- to ufurp the throne, being fupported not only by the
Veil the city itfelf. His exceflive eagernefs to deflroy Thracians, but a confiderable number of Greek mer-
his enemies proved his ruin. A body of Olynthian cenaries, as well as a powerful party in Macedon it-
horfe had the boldnefs to pafs the river Amnias in fight felf. In this critical jundure, however, _ Iphicrates
of the allied army, though fo much fuperior in number, the Athenian happening to be on an expedition to Am-
Teleutias ordered his targeteers to attack them, the phipolis, was addreffed by Eurydice the widow of
Olynthians, having retreated acrofs the river, were Amyntas, fo warmly in behalf of her two !ons,. whom
clofely purfued by the Lacedemonians, great part of fhe prefented to him, that he interefted him'elf in their
whom alfo paffed the river •, but the Olynthians fud- behalf, and got Perdiccas the eldeft ellabliihed oft
denly turned upon them, killed upwards of 100, with the throne. He was induce ! aifo to this piece ci
Tlemonidas their leader. Teleutias, exafperated at this generofity by the kindnels which Eu ydice and her
difafter, ordered the remainder of the targeteers and hufband had formerly fhovvn to himfelf; and he like-
cavalry to purfue ; while he himfelf advanced at the wife faw the advantages which muft enfue to his coun- 15
head of the heavy-armed foot, ■with fuch celerity that try from a connexion with Macedon. During the Ptolemy
they began to fall into diforder. The Olynthians al- minority of the young prince, however, his brother ^throne,
lowed them to proceed, and the Lacedemonians very Ptolemy, who was his guardian, openly afpired to the L1
imprudently advanced juft under the towers and battle- throne-, but he was depofed by the Theban g-neral
ments of the city. The townfmen then mounted the Pelopidas, who reinftated Perdiccas in his dominions ;
walls, and difeharged upon them a (bower of darts, ar- and in order to fecure, in the moil effe&ual manner,
rorvs, and other miftile weapons, while the flower of the the dependence of Macedon upon Thebes, carried along
Olynthian troops, who had been purpofely polled be- with him thirty Macedonian youths as hoftages ; and
hind the gates, (allied forth and attacked them with among them Philip, the younger brother of the king,
great violence. Teleutias, attempting to rally his men, Perdiccas now, elated by the protection of fuch power-
was (lain in the firfl onfet the Spartans who attended ful allies, forgot Iphicratt s and the Athenians, and even
him were defeated, and the whole army at laft difperfed dil'puted with them the right to the city of Amphipolis,
with great (laughter, and obliged to (belter themfelves in which had been decreed to them by the general coun-
the towns of Acanthus, Apollonia, Spartolus, and Potidaea. cil of Greece, but which his oppofition rendered impof-
The Spartans, undifmayed by this terrible difafter, fible for them to recover. In confequence of the truft
next fent their king Agefipolis with a powerful rein- he put in thefe new allLs, alfo, it is probable that he
forcement into Macedon. His prefence greatly raifed refufed to Bardyllis the Illyrian the tribute which the
the {pints of the Lacedemonian allies, and his rapid fuc- Macedonians had been obliged to pay him ; which oc- 17
cefs feemed to promife a fpeedy termination to the war, cafioned a war with that nation. In this conteft the ^
when he himfelf died of a calenture. He was fucceeded Macedonians were defeated with the lofs of 4000 men,
in the throne by his brother Cleombrotus, and in the Perdiccas himfelf being taken prifoner, and dying foontheir king
-command of the army by Polybiades an experienced after of his wounds. killed by
general, who likewife brought along with him a power- The kingdom was now left in the moft deplorfblethe P'yd-
Tul reinforcement. Olynthus was now completely flate. Amyntas, the proper heir to the throne, was ’115*
.blocked up by land, while a fquadron of Lacede- an infant ; the Thebans, in whom Perdiccas had placed
xnonian galleys blocked up the neighbouring harbour fo much confident'*, were deprived of the fovereignty
of Myceberna. The Olynthians, however, held out of Greece ; the Athenians, juftly provoked at the un-
for nine or ten months, but at laft were obli'-md to fub- grateful behaviour of the late monarch, (bowed a hetf-
Vol. XII. Part I. ° P P tile
MAC [ 298
t Maceiaon. tile difpofitlon j the Illyrians ravaged the weft, and the
* Paeonians the north quarter of the kingdom ; the Thra¬
cians ftill fupported the caufe of Paufanias, and propofed
to fend him into Macedon at the head of a numerous
army 5 while Argaeus, the former rival of Amyntas,
renewed his pretenftons to the throne, and by flattering
the Athenians with the hopes of recovering Amphipo-
lis, eafily induced them to fupport his claims ; and in
confequence of this they fitted out a fleet, having on
board 3000 heavy-armed foldiers, which they lent to
TS the coaft of Macedon.
Philip ar- Philip, the late king’s brother, no fooner heard of
et'do 'n^a"his defeat and death, than he fet out privately from
Thebes j and on his arrival in Macedon found matters
in the fituation we have juft now7 defcribed. Fired
with an infatiable ambition, it is very probable that
from the very firft moment he had refolved to feize
the kingdom for himfelf} yet it was neceflary at firft
to pretend that he affumed the throne only to preferve
it for his nephew7. Philip, as has already been men¬
tioned, was carried off as a hoftage by Pelopidas,
but for a long time paft had rema>ined in liich obfcuri-
ty, that hiftorians difagree as to his place of refidence j
fome placing him in Thebes, and others in Macedon.
It is certain, however, that from the age of 15 he had
been very much in the family of Epaminondas, from
whofe leffons he could not but derive the greateft emo¬
lument. It is probable alfo that he attended this cele¬
brated general in many of his expeditions *, and it is
certain, that, wdth an attendance fuitable to his rank,
he vifited moft of the principal republics, and Ihowcd
an attention to their inftitutions, both civil and mili¬
tary, far fuperior to his years. Having eafy accefs to
whomfoever he pleafed, he cultivated the friendftiip of
the firft: people in Greece. Even in Athens, w7here no
good w7ill fubfifted with Macedon, the philofophers
Plato, Ifocrates, and Ariftotle, cultivated his acquaint¬
ance : and the connexion he formed wdth the principal
leaders of that republic in the early period of his life,
no doubt contributed greatly to the accomplilhment of
the defigns in which he afterwards proved fo fuccefsful.
His appearance in Macedon inftantly changed the face
of affairs: the Macedonian army, though defeated, was
not entirely deftroyed *, and the remainder of them fe-
cured themfelves in the fortreffes which had been built
by Archelaus. There wrere alfo confiderable garrifons
in the fortreffes, and willed towms fcattered over the
kingdom ; and the Illyrians, who had made war only
for the fake of plunder, foon returned home to enjoy
the fruits of their victory His other enemies, the Thra¬
cians and Paeonians, were much lefs formidable than
the Illyrians, being ftill in a very rude and uncivilized
ftate, incapable of uniting under one head in fuch a
manner as to bring any formidable army into the field.
While the Illyrians therefore gave up the campaign
through mere caprice and unfteadinefs, Philip himfelf
applied to the Paeonians, and by fair promifes and flat¬
tery prevailed upon them to defift. The king of Thrace,
by means of a fum of money, was eafily prevailed upon
to abandon the caufe of Paufanias; fo that Philip, freed
from thefe barbarians, w7as now7 left, at liberty to oppofe
the Athenians, who fupported Argaeus, and threatened
a very formidable invafion.
The appearance of the Athenian fleet before Me-
thone, with that of Argaeus.. at the head of a numerous
]
MAC
19
Retrieves
the affairs
©f the king¬
dom.
army in Pieria, filled the whole country wuth confter- Macedon.
nation ; and Philip, who w7as by no means deficient in " '
talents neceffary to recommend himfelf to the good
graces of the people, took the opportunity of getting 20
Amyntas fet alide, and himfelf declared king j for Takes up.
wrhich indeed the danger of the times afforded a veryon lA™ the
plaufible pretext. Argaeus, in the mean time, advan-ioveleiSntT
ced with his Athenian allies towards Edeffa or Atge,
the ancient capital of the Macedonian empire, where
he hoped to have been amicably received j but finding
the gates fhut againft him, he returned back to Me- 21
thone. Philip haraffed him in his retreat, cutting off ^efeats an(l
great numbers of his men, and afterwards defeated ^‘':s
him in a general engagement; in which Argaeus him-erianUlU1^~
felf, with the flower of his army, was cut in pieces, and
all the reft taken prifoners.
This firft inftanee of fuccefs contributed greatly to
raife the fpirits of Philip’s party •, and he himfelf took 22
care to improve it in the beft manner poflible. Hav-Pkfiip’spo-
ing taken a great number of prifoners, both Macedo-Iitlc treat-
nians and Athenians, he determined, by his treatment
of them, to ingratiate himfelf with both parties.
The former were called into his prefence, and, after
a gentle reprimand, admitted to (wear allegiance to
him ; after which they were diftributed through the
army : the Athenians w7ere entertained at his table,
difmiffed without ranfom, and their baggage reftored.
The prifoners were juft allowed time to return to their
native city and to fpread abroad the news of Philip’s
generofity, when they were followed by ambaffadors ,,
from Macedon with propofals for peace. As he knew Renounces
that the lofs of Amphipolis had greatly irritated them, his right to
he now thought proper to renounce his jurifdiftion 4-mkMp°"
over that city j and it w7as accordingly declared freeila'
and independent, and fubjedl only to the government
of its own free and equitable laws. This artful con-
duff, together with his kind treatment of the prifoners,
fo wrought upon the minds of the Athenians, that they
confented to the renewal of a treaty which had formerly
fubfifted between them and his father Amyntas. Thus
he found means to remove all jealoufy of his ambition
or the fchemes he might afterwards undertake to their
prejudice j and not only this, but to induce them to
engage in a ruinous war with their allies, which occu¬
pied their attention until Philip had an opportunity of
getting his matters fo well eftabliftied that it was impof-
fible to overthrow them.
The new king being thus left at liberty to regulate Reducestke
his domeftic concerns, began to circumfcribe the power power of the
of his chiefs and nobles j who, efpecially in the more nobility,
remote provinces, paid very little regard to the autho¬
rity of the kings of Macedon •, fometimes, even in
times of public calamity, throwing off their allegiance
altogether, and affuming an independent government 25
over confiderable trafls of country. To counteract Choofes a
the ambition of thefe chiefs, Philip chofe a body ofriumber0^
the braveft Macedonian youths, whom he entertained
at his own table, and honoured with many teftimoniesfQ^jjfs co^
of his friendftiip, giving them the title of his panions.
nionSy and allowing them conftantly to attend him in
war and hunting. Their intimacy with the fovereign,
which was ccnfidered as an indication of their merit,
obliged them to fuperior diligence iu all the fevere du¬
ties of military difeipline ; and the young nobility,
eager to participate fuch high honours, vied with each
other
M A C
[ 299 ]
MAC
Macedon.
2<S
Whether
he institut¬
ed the pha-
lau.s.
*7
Overcomes
the Paeoni-
ans and IS
lyrians.
other in their endeavours to gain admiffion into this
diftinguiihed order; fo that while on the one hand they
ferved as hoftages, on the other they formed an ufeful
feminary for future generals, by whom both Philip and
Alexander were afterwards greatly aflifted in their con-
quefts. .
Diodorus Siculus, and all the Roman writers who
have treated of the hiitory of Greece, affert that Phi¬
lip, in the firft year of his reign, inftituted the Mace¬
donian phalanx > a body of 6000 men armed with
Ihort fwords fitted either for cutting or {tabbing, hav¬
ing alfo ftrong bucklers four feet long and two and a
half broad, and pikes 14 feet long-, ufually marching
16 men deep. But this opinion is controverted by
others. Dr Gillies fuppofes that the opinion had
arifen from the Romans meeting with the phalanx in
its molt complete form in Macedon 5 and as they be¬
came acquainted with Greece and Macedon pretty
nearly at the fame time, it was natural for them to
fuppofe that it had been invented among the Macedo¬
nians. The phalanx, he fays, is nothing different
from the armour and arrangement which had always
prevailed among the Greeks, and which Philip adopt¬
ed in their molt perfeft form “ nor is there reafon
(fays he) to think that a prince, vcho knew the dan¬
ger of changing w7hat the experience of ages had ap¬
proved, made any alteration in the weapons or tallies
of that people. The improvement in the counter¬
march, to which Philip gave the appearance of advan¬
cing inftead of retreating, mentioned by ALlian in his
Tactics, cap. xxviii. was borrowed, as this author tells
us, from the Lacedemonians. If Philip increafed the pha¬
lanx, ufually lefs numerous, to 6000 men, this was far
from an improvement; and the latter kings of Mace¬
don, who fvvelled it to 16,000, only rendered that or¬
der of battle more unwieldy and inconvenient.” Inltead
of this, Philip, according to our author, employed him-
felf in procuring arms, horfes, and other neceflary ma¬
terials for wrar ; and in introducing a more fevere and
exa£t military difeipline than had formerly been known
in Macedon.
While the king thus took the bell methods to ren¬
der himfelf fecure at home and formidable abroad, the
Paeonians again began to make incurfions into the
kingdom. The death of Agis their king,, however,
who was a man of great military ikill, deprived them
almoft of every power of refiftance when they were
attacked. Philip, of confequence, overran their coun¬
try with little oppofition, and reduced them to the ftate
of tributaries to Macedon. No fooner w-as this accom-
piifired, than he undertook a winter’s campaign againft
the Illyrians, who had long been the natural enemies
of Macedon. They had now extended their territory
to the eaft ; by which means the Macedonians were ex¬
cluded from the harbours on the coaft of the Adriatic.
This was a grievance to Philip, who feems early to
have meditated the raifing of a naval power ; neither
could he hope to be in fafety, ftrould the kingdom be
left open to the incurfions of a barbarous enemy j for
which reafons he determined at once to humble thofe
enemies in fuch a manner that they ftrould no longer be
in a fituation to give him any difturbance. After an
ineffeflual negociation, he wras met by Bardyllis at the
head of a confiderable body of infantry, but with only
400 horfe. They made a gallant refiftance for forae
time j but being unable to cope wfith fucu a fkilful. ge- Macedoft,
neral as Philip, they were defeated with the Ids d
7000 men, among w-hom wras their leader Bardyllis,
WTho fell at the age of 90. _ 28
By this difafter the Illyrians were fo much dilheart- They are
ened, that they fent ambaffadors to Pmlip, humbly
begging for peace on any terms. I he con(lue_ror tributary,
granted them the fame conditions which had been im-
pofed upon the Paeonians, viz. the becoming tributary,
and yielding up to him a confiderable part of their
country. That part of it which lay to the eaftward
of a lake named Lychnidus he annexed to Macedon}
and probably built a town and fettled a colony there j
the country being fertile, and the lake abounding w7itu
many kinds of fifh highly efteemed oy the ancients.
This town and lake w7ere about jo miles diftant from
the Ionian fea 5 and fuch was the afcendancy which the
arms and policy of Philip acquired over his neighbours,
that the inhabitants of all the intermediate aiftrift foon
adopted the language and manners of their conquerors j
and their territory, hitherto unconne&ed with any fo¬
reign power, funk into fuch abfolute dependence upon
Macedon, that many ancient geographers fuppofed it to
be a province of that country. 29
Philip had no fooner reduced the Illyrians, than he great
began to put in execution greater dengns tnan any he
had yet attempted. The rich coafts to the fouthward
of Macedon, inhabited chiefly by Greeks, prefented
a ftrong temptation to his ambition and avarice. I he
confederacy of Olynthus, after having thrown off the
yoke of Sparta, was become more powerful than ever,
and could fend into the field an army of 10,000 heavy
armed troops, befides a pumber of cavalry in propor¬
tion. Moft of the towns in Chalcidice were become
its allies or fubjefts; fo that this populous and wealthy
province, together with Pangaeus on the right and
Pieria on the left, of both which the cities w7ere ei¬
ther independent or fubjedt to the Athenians, formed
a barrier not only fufficient to guard againft any in¬
curfions of the Macedonians, but which was even for-
midable to them. But though Philip was fenfible Plans the
enough of the importance of thofe places, he confi-conque.il
dered the conqueft of Amphipolis as more neceffary 0) ijl3‘np
at the prefent time. By the poffeflion of this place
Macedon would be conne&ed with the fea, and would
be fecured in many commercial advantages, which
could not but contribute greatly to the profperity of
the kingdom at large -, a road w7as likewife opened to
the w7oods and mines of Pangaeus, the former of which
were fo neceffary to the raifing of a naval power, and
the latter for the eftabliftrment of a proper military
force. This city had indeed been declared indepen¬
dent by Philip himfelf in the beginning of his reign $
but this was only to prevent a rupture with the Athe¬
nians, who ftill afferted their right to it as an ancient
colony ; though, by reafon of the perfidy of Chari-
demus, a native of Euboea, they had hitherto failed
in their attempts to recover it. The Amphipolitans,
however, having once enjoyed the fweets of liberty,
prepared to maintain themfelves in their independence.
In the mean time the hoftile defigns of Philip, which
all his precaution had not been able to conceal, alarm¬
ed the inhabitants to fuch a degree, that they thought
proper to put themfelves under the prote£fion of the
Olynthians. By them they were readily received in-
P P a to
Maceclon
Engages to
conquer it
for the A-
thenians.
3®
Amplupolis
furrenders.
M A C [
to the confederacy j and, trufting to the ftrength
their new allies, behaved in fuch an infolent manner
to Philip, that he was not long of finding a fpecious
pretext for hoflility ; at which the Olynthians, great¬
ly alarmed, fent ambafladors to Athens, requefling
their affidance againft fuch a powerful enemy. Philip,
however, juftly alarmed at fuch a formidable confpi-
racy, fent agents to Athens, with fuch expedition
that they arrived there before any thing could be con¬
cluded with the Olynthian deputies. Having gained
over tne popular leaders and orators, he deceived and
flattered the magistrates and fenate in fuch an artful
manner, that a negociation was inffantly fet on foot,
by which Philip engaged to conquer Amphipolis for
the Athenians, upon condition that they furrendered
to him the flrong fortrefs of Pytlna, a place which
he reprefented as of much lefs importance to them ;
promiling alio to confer upon them many other ad¬
vantages, which, however, he did not fpecify at that
time. ”1 hus the Athenians, deceived by the perfidy
of their own magiftrates, elated with the hopes of re¬
covering Aravhipolis, and outwitted by the fuperior
policy of Philip, reje£led with dildain the proffers of
the Olynthians.
T<;e ambaffadors of Olynthus returned home highly
dhgufted with the reception they had met with ; but
had icarce time to communicate the news to their coun¬
trymen, when the ambaffadors of Philip arrived at O-
lynthus. He pretended to condole with them on the
affront they had received at Athens $ but teftified his
furprife that they fhould court the affiftance of that dif-
tant and haughty republic, when they could avail them-
felves of the powerful kingdom of Macedon, which
wifhed for nothing more than to enter into equal and
lading engagements with their confederacy. As a proof
of his moderation and fincerity, he offered to put them
in poifelficn of Anthemus, an important town in the
neighbourhood, of which the Macedonians had long
claimed the jurifdiftion, making many other fair pro¬
miles •, and among the reft, that he would reduce for
them the cities of Pydna and Potidaea, which he chofe
rather to fee in dependence on Olynthus than Athens.
Thus he prevailed upon the Olynthians not only to
abandon Amphipolis, but to aftift him with all their
pow'er in the execution of his defigns.
Philip now loft no time in executing his purpofes on
Amphipolis ; and preffed the city fo clofely, that the
people were glad to apply to the Athenians for relief.
Accordingly they defpatched tw’o of their moft eminent
citizens, Hierax and Stratocles, to reprefent the dan¬
ger of an alliance betwixt Philip and the Olynthians,
and to profefs their forrew for having fo deeply offend¬
ed the parent ft ate. This reprefentation had fuch an
effedf, that though the Athenians w7ere then deeply
engaged in the Social war, they would probably have
paid feme attention to the Amphipolitans, had not Phi¬
lip taken care to fend them a letter with frefh affuran-
ces of friendftn’p, acknowledging their right to Amphi¬
polis, and which he hoped Shortly to put into their
hands in terms of his recent agreement. By thefe fpe¬
cious pretences the Athenians were perfuaded to pay as
little regard to the deputies of the Amphipolitans as
they had already done to thofe of the Olynthians ;
fo that the city, unable to defend itfelf alone againft fo
300' ] MAC
of powerful an enemy, furrendered at laft at diferetion hi Macedon.
the year 3 cy B. C. y—««f
Philip ftill proceeded in the fame cautious and poli¬
tic manner in which he had begun. Though the ob-
ftinate defence of the Amphipolitans might have fur-
nilhed a pretence for feverity, he contented himfelf
with baniftiing a few of the popular leaders from w hom
he had moft caufe to dread oppofttion, treating the
reft of the inhabitants with all manner of clemency ;
but took care to add Amphipolis to his own domi¬
nions, from which he was determined that it never
fhould be feparated, notwithftanding the promifes he
had made to the Athenians. Finding that it was not
his intereft at this time to fall out with the Olynthians,
he cultivated the friendfhip of that republic with great
affiduity; took the cities of Pydna and Potidaea,
wftiich he readily yielded to the Olynthians, though
they had given him but little afftftance in the reduFrion
of thefe places. Potidaea had been garrifoned by the
Athenians j and them the artful king fent back with¬
out ranfom, lamenting the neceflity of his affairs which
obliged him, contrary to his inclination, to oppofe their
republic. Though this w7as rather too grofs, the A-
thenians at prefent were fo much engaged with the So¬
cial war, that they had not leifure to attend to the affairs
of other nations. Philip made the beft ufe of his time,
and next projected the conqueft of the gold mines of ^
Thrace. That rich and fertile country was now held Makes him-
by one Cotys, a prince of fucb w7eak intelleftual facul-feIf mafter
ties, that the fuperftition of the Greeks, into w'hich of.the
he was new ly initiated, had almoft entirely fubverted ^hnure.
his reafon ; and he w andered about in queft of the
goddefs Minerva, with wThom he fancied himfelf in
love. The invafion of the Macedonians, however,
aw7aked him from his reverie ; and Cotys, finding him¬
felf deftitute of other means of oppofitlon, attempted
to Hop the progrefs of the enemy by a letter. To this
Philip paid no regard : the Thracians were inftantly
expelled from their pofleflions at Crenidse, where there
were very valuable gold mines. Thefe had formerly
been worked by colonies from Thafos and Athens; but
the colonifts had long fince been expelled by the barba¬
rous Thracians, w7ho knew not how to make ufe of
the treafure they were in poffeffion oft Philip took
the trouble to defeend into the mines himfelf, in order
to infpeff the w7orks; and having caufed them to be
repaired, planted a Macedonian colony at Crenida;,
bellowed upon it the name of Philippi, and drew
annually from the gold mines to the value of near
1000 talents, or 200,cool, fterling ; an immenfe fum
in thofe days. The coins ftruck here were likewife call¬
ed Philippi.
Philip having obtained this valuable acquifition, Settles the
next took upon him to fettle the affairs of Theffaly, affairs of
where every thing w7as in confufion. This country Tlieffaly
had been formerly oppvefied by Alexander tyrant of^^^0
Pherae; after whofe death three others appeared, viz.tage!
Tiffiphornus, Pitholaus, and Lycophron, the brothers-
in law of Alexander, w7ho had likewife murdered him.
By the united efforts of the Theffalians and Macedo¬
nians, however, thefe ufurpers were eafily overthrowm,
and effedlually prevented from making any difturbances
for the future ; and the Theffalians, out of a miftaken
gratitude, furrendered to Philip all the revenues arifing
from
Macedon.
35
Marries
Olympias.
36 >
A general
combina¬
tion of the
neighbour-
isg princes
formed a-
gainft him.
37
Defeats his
38
Birth of
Alexander
the Great.
. 39
Ariftotle
appointed
his precep¬
tor.
40
Extent of
the Mace¬
donian ter¬
ritories.
,4T
Projedls
the con-
queft of O-
lynthus
and of all
.Greece.
MAC [30
from their fairs and towns of commerce, as well as all
the conveniences of their harbours and {hipping j a
concellion which Philip took care to fecure in the moft
effeftual manner.
Having now not only eftablilhed his fovereignty in
the molt eft’e&ual manner, but rendered himfelf very
powerful and formidable to his neighbours, Philip de¬
termined to enjoy feme repofe from his fatigues. Hav¬
ing formed an alliance with Arybbas king of Epirus,
he, in the year 357 B. C. married Olympias the fi¬
lter of that prince ; a match thought the more eligible,
as the kings of Epirus were fuppofed to be defeended
from Achilles. The nuptials were folemnized at Pella
with great pomp, and feveral months were fpent
in fhows and diverlions; during which Philip {bowed
fuch an extreme pronenefs to vice of every kind, as
difgraced him in the eyes of his neighbours, and moft
probably laid the foundation of his future domeftic un-
happinefs. So much was this behaviour of the Mace¬
donian monarch taken notice of by the neighbouring
Hates, that the Pteonians and Illyrians threw off the
yoke, engaging in their febemes the king of Thrace :
and notwithftanding the infane ftate of that prince, their
defigns wpe now carried on with more judgement than
was ufual with barbarians. Philip, however, not¬
withftanding his diftipation, got warning of his dan¬
ger in fufficient time to prevent the bad confequences
which might have enfued had the confederates got
time to bring their matters to a proper bearing. Early
in the fpring 356 he took the field with the flower of
the Macedonian troops. Having marched in perfon
againft the Paeonians and Thracians, he defpatched
Parmenio his beft general into Illyria. Both enter-
prifes proved fuccefsful j and while Philip returned
viftorious from Thrace, he received an account of the
viftory gained by Parmenio a fecond meffenger in¬
formed him of a viftory gained by his chariot at the
Olympic games •, and a third, that Olympias had been
delivered of a fon at Pella. This was the celebrated
Alexander, to whom the diviners prophefied the higheft
profperity and glory, as being born in fuch aufpicious
circumftances.
A Ihort time after the birth of Alexander, Philip
wrote a letter to the philofopher Ariftotle, wdiom he
chofe for preceptor to his young fon. The letter was
written with great brevity, containing only the fol¬
lowing words : “ Know that a fon is born to us. We
thank the gods not fo much for their gift, as for
bellowing it at a time when Ariftotle lives. We af-
fure ourfe'ves that you will form him a prince worthy
of his father, and worthy of Macedon.” He next
fet about the farther enl.trgement of his territories,
which were already very confiderable. Paeonia was
now one of his provinces; on the eaft his dominions
extended to the fea of Thafos, and on the weft to
the lake Lychnidus. The Theffalians were in effect
fubjeft to his jurifdi&ion, and the poffeflion of Am-
phipolis had fecured him many commercial advantages;
he had a numerous and well-difciplined army, with
plentiful refources for fupporting fuch an armament,
and carrying through the other fchemes fuggefted by
his ambition ; though his deep and impenetrable poli¬
cy rendered him more truly formidable than all thefe
put together. His firft fcheme was the redu£fion of
Olynthus, the moft populous and fertile country on
1 ] MAC
the borders of Macedon ; after which his ambition Macedon.^
prompted him to acquire the fovereignty of all Greece.^
To accomplilh the former, he had hitherto courted the
friendlhip of the Olynthians by every poflible method ;
and without letting flip any opportunity to accomplilh
the latter, he deprived the Athenians gradually of feveral
of their fettlements in Thrace and Macedon. In thefe
depredations, however, he took care always to give
fuch appearance of juftice to his aftions, that his an-
tagonifts, who had ftudied the matter lefs deeply,
could not find a plaufible pretext for engaging in war
againft him, even when he had openly committed ho-
ftilities againft-them. Philip eafily perceived that the
affairs of the Greeks were coming to a crilis, and he
determined to wait the event of their mutual diffen- 42
fions. That event did not difappoint his hopes.. The Account of
Phocians had violated the religion of thofe days in a the
moft extraordinary manner , they had even ploughed up%'ar‘
the lands confecrated to Apollo : and however they
might pretend to excufe themfelves by examples, the
Amphhftyons fulminated a decree againft the Phocians,
commanding the facred lands to be laid wafte, and im-
poling an heavy fine upon the community.
By this decree all Greece was again involved in the
war called P/iocian, from the name of the city about
which it commenced. Philip at the beginning of the
troubles was engaged in Thrace, where a civil wrar had
taken place among the ions of Cotys; and wherever
Philip interfered, he was fare to make matters turn
out to his owm advantage. His encroachments at
length became fo enormous, that Kerfobletes, the moft
powerful of the contending princes, agreed to cede
the Thracian Cherfonefus to the Athenians; who
immediately fent Chares at the head of a powerful
armament to take poffeflion of it. In this expedition
the town of Seftos was taken by ftorm, and the inha¬
bitants cruelly treated by Chares, wrhile Philip employ- 4.
ed himfelf in the fiege of Methone in Pieria. This city Philip lofes
he likewife reduced; but the king loft an eye at the Aegean eye at
in the following extraordinary manner, if we may give^^S^0^
credit to fdme ancient hiftorians. A celebrated archer,1
named After, had, it feems, offered his fervices to Phi¬
lip, being reprefented as fuch an excellent markfman,
that he could hit the fwifteft bird on the wing. Phi¬
lip replied, that he wmuld be of excellent ufe if they
were to make war with ftarlings. After, difgufted with
this reception, went over to the enemy, and with
an arrow wounded the king in the eye. When the
weapon w-as extrafted, it was found to have on it the
following infeription : “ For the right eye of Philip.”
The king ordered the arrow’ to be {hot back again,
with another infeription, importing that he would
caufe After to be hanged when the town wTas taken.
A report was raifed after Philip’s death, that he had
loft his eye by prying too narrowfty into the amours of
Olympias and Jupiter Ammon ; which the vanity of
his fucceffor prompted him to cherifti, as his flatterers
had probably been the inventors of it.
All this time the Phocian war raged with the great-
eft fury, and involved in it all the ftates of Greece.
Lycophron, one of the Theffalian tyrants, w’hom Philip 44
had formerly deprived of his authority, had again enSa§e^
found means to re-eftablifti his authority, and his coun-wjtll 0no,
trymen having taken part wdth the Phocians, Lyco-marchus
phron called in Onomarchus the Phocian general tothe PHocian
protect §eneral»
MAG [ ^02 ]
, Mreec1^. protcft him againft the power of Philip, by whom he great temptation to
r was fenfible that he would foon be attacked. The king
accordingly marched into Thefl'aly with a confiderable
army, defeated Phyallus the brother of Onomarchus,
whom the latter had lent into the country with a de¬
tachment of 7000 men. After this he befieged and
took the eity of Pegafae, driving the enemy towards
the frontiers of Phocis. Onomarchus then advanced
with the whole army; and Philip, though! inferior in
numbers, did not decline the engagement. The Pho-
cians at firlt gave ground, on which the Macedonians
purfued, but in good order ; but coming near a pre-
45 cipice, on the top of which Onomarchus had ported
who defeats a detachment of foldiers, the latter rolled down ftones
MAC
46
but is at
laft defeat
lum’ and fragments of the rock in fuch a manner as did
dreadful execution, and threw them into the utmoft
diforder. Philip, however, rallied his troops with
great prelence of mind, and prevented the Phocians
from gaining any farther advantage than they had
already done ; faying, as he drew off his men, that
they did not retreat through fear, but like rams, in
order to ftrike with the greater vigour. Nor w’as he
long before he made good his affertion ; for having re¬
cruited his army with the greateft expedition, he re¬
turned into Theffaly at the head of 20,000 foot and
500 horfe, where he was met by Onomarchus. The
eel and kill- Macedonians at this time were fuperior in number to
ed. their enemies ; and Philip moreover took care to re¬
mind them, that their quarrel w7as that of heaven, and
that their enemies had been guilty of facrilege, by pro¬
faning the temple of Delphi. That they might be
ftill more animated in the caufe, he put crowns of laurel
on their heads. Thus fired by enthufiafm, and having
befides the advantage of numbers, the Phocians were
altogether unable to withftand them. They threw awray
their arms and fled towards the fea, where they ex-
pe£ted to have been relieved by Chares, who, with
the Athenian fleet, was nigh the fliore : but in this
they were difappointed, for he made no attempt to
fave them. Upwards of 6000 perifhed in the field of
battle or in the purfuit, and 3000 wrere taken prifon-
ers. The body of Onomarchus being found among
the flain, was by order of Philip hung upon a gibbet
as a mark of infamy, on account of his having polluted
'the temple ; the bodies of the reft w7ere thrown into the
fea, as being all partakers of the fame crime. The
fate of the prifoners is not known, by reafon of an am¬
biguity in a fentence of Diodorus Siculus, which may
imply that they were drowned, though it does not ex-
47 prefsly fay fo.
Plnlippur- After this victory, Philip fet about the fettlement
of Theffaly, waiting only for an opportunity to put
in execution his favourite fcheme of invading Greece.
In the mean time, he rejoiced to fee the ftates weak¬
ening each other by their mutual diffenfions ; of which
he never failed to take advantage as far as poflible.
He now, however, began to throw off the mafic with
regard to the Oly-athianSj whom he had long deceived
with fair promifes. Having detached Kerfobletes from
the intereft of the Athenians, he eftablifhed him in
the fovereignty of Thrace ; not out of any good will,
but with a view to deftroy him whenever a proper op¬
portunity offered. Were he once poffeffed of the
dominions of that prince, the way to Byzantium was
.ppen to him ; the poffeflion of which muft have been a
2
fues his am¬
bitious
/themes.
who well knew how to Maced on.
value the importance of its fituation both with refpeft ~
to commerce and war : and in order to pave tbe way
to this important conqueft, he attacked the fortrefs
of Herasum, a fmall and in itfelf unimportant place,
though, by realon of its neighbourhood to Byzan- 4?
tium, the acquifition was valuable to Philip. Theoppofed
Athenians, however, at lafl began to perceive the de-lj?7 t!ie A'
figns ol Philip, and determined to counteract them. t''er^ar3‘
For this purpofe they entered into an alliance with
Olynthus ; and having warned Kerfobletes of his dan¬
ger, they ordered a powerful fleet to the defence of
the Heraeum. But thefe vigorous meafures were foon
counteracted by the report of Philip’s death, which
had been occafioned by his wound at Methone, and a
diftemper arifing from the fatigues he had afterwards
undergone. 'I lie inconflant Athenians too eaiily gave
credit to this report ; and, as if all danger had been
over with his death, difeontinued their preparations-,
and direfted their whole attention to the facred war.
— Phis contert, inftead of being ended by the death
of Onomarchus, now raged with double fury. Phv-Continua-
allus, above mentioned, the only furviving brother ofb'-H °ftrie
Onomarchus, undertook the caufe of the Phocians; ^ ‘’uc*ari
and his affairs becoming every day more and more del- '‘l"
perate,^ he undertook the molt unaccountable method
of retrieving them which could be imagined : having
converted into ready money the molt precious mate¬
rials belonging to the temple at Delphi, and with this
treafure doubled the pay of his foldiers. By this new
piece of facrilege, he indeed brought many adventiw
rers to his ftandard, though he cut off all hopes of mer¬
cy for bimfelf or his party ftiould he be defeated.
Having the afliftance of loco Lacedemonians, 2000
Achaeans, and 5000 Athenian foot, with 400 cavalry,
he was ftill enabled to make a very formidable appear¬
ance ; and the Phocians took the field with great pro-
fpeCt of fuccefs. ,.0
Philip now thought it time to throw off the malkP’nihp en-
entirely, for which the proceedings of the Athenians,£a£es
particularly their league with Olynthus, furnilhed himthe ‘luarrel?
with a plaufible pretext ; and the revenging fuch hor¬
rid facrilege as had been committed at Delphi feemed
to give him a title to march at the head of an army
into Greece. The fuperftition of the Greeks, how¬
ever, had not yet blinded them to fuch a degree, but
they could eafily perceive that Philip’s piety was a
mere pretence, and that his real defign was to invade
and conquer the whole country. The Athenians no
fooner heard of the march of the Macedonian army,
than they defpatched, with all expedition, a ftrong
guard to fecure the pafs of Thermopylae ; fo that Phi- 51
lip was obliged to return greatly chagrined and dif- Is prevent-
appointed. Their next ftep was to call an affembly,ecl from en,‘
to deliberate upon the meafures proper to be taken in Gireece
order to reftrain the ambition of the Macedonian mo¬
narch ; and this affembly is rendered memorable by
the firft appearance of Demofthenes as an orator
againft Philip. Athens for fome time had been in a
very alarming fituation. They were deeply involved
in the facred war; their northern poffeflions were
continually infulted and plundered by Philip ; while
a number of his mercenary partifans drew off the pub¬
lic attention to fuch a degree, that, inftead of taking
xneafures to counteradl that .ambitious prince, they a-
muled
M A C
r 3°3 ]
M A C
Macedon. mafed tliemfelves with fpeculatisms about the defigns
of the Periian monarch, who was preparing for war
againit the Cyprians, Egyptians, and Phoenicians. Ifo-
crates the celebrated orator, and Phocion the llatef- ries.
52
Extreme
indolence
ami care-
leflhefs of
the Athe¬
nians.
53
Advice of
Ifocrates
the orator
to them.
54
He and
Phocion
thenes.
55
Subftance
of his fcrlt
tiiicourics.
man, joined the multitude in their prefent opinion,
though not from any mercenary motives, but purely
from a fenfe of the unfteady condu£l: of the Athenians j
who, they were affured, could not contend with a
prince of the vigour and activity of Philip ; and there¬
fore exhorted them by all means to cultivate the friend-
fhip of Philip, whom they could not oppofe wnth any
probability of fuccefs. Ifocrates, indeed, greatly with-
ed for an expedition into Alia, and looked upon Phi¬
lip to be the only general capable of conducing it,
though at prefent the Greeks had no pretence for
making war upon the Perlians, but that of revenging
former injuries : and on this fubje£f he addreffed a
difcourfe to Philip himfelf; and it is even faid, that
Ilocrates, by the power of his rhetoric, prevailed upon
Philip and the Athenians to lay afide their animolities
for a Ihort time, and confent to undertake this expedi¬
tion in conjunction.
If this coalition, however, did really take place, it
was of very fhort duration. The views of Phocion
are^oppofed ancj Ifocrates were violently oppofed by Bemolthenes.
) ^ 0 ' Though fenlible of the corruption and degeneracy of
his countrymen, he hoped to be able to roufe them
from their lethargy by dint of his eloquence ; a ta¬
lent he had been at great pains to cultivate, and in
which he is faid to have excelled all men that ever
exifted.
In his firft addrefles to the people, this celebrated
orator exhorted them to awake from their indolence,
and to affume the direftion of their own affairs. They
had been too long governed, he faid, by the incapa¬
city of a few ambitious men, to the great difad vantage
as well as difgrace of the community. In the firft
place, an orator who had placed himfelf at the head
of a faclion of no more than 300 or 400, availed him¬
felf and his followers of the careleffnefs and negligence
of the people, to rule them at pleafure. From a con-
fideration of their prefent weaknefs and corruption,
as well as of the defigns and commotions of the neigh¬
bouring powers, he advifed them to abandon all ro¬
mantic and diftant fchemes of ambition ; and inftead
of carrying their arms into remote countries, to pre¬
pare for repelling the attacks which might be made
upon their own dominions. He infilled alfo upon a
better regulation of their finances, a more equal dif-
tribution of the public burdens, in proportion to the
abilities of thofe upon whom they were laid, and upon
the retrenching many fuperfluous expences. Having
pointed out in a ftrong light the vigorous conduct of
Philip *, and fhown by what, means he had attained
to. fuch a refpe£lable footing in the world, he next
laid down a proper plan for their military operations.
He told them, that they were not yet prepared to
meet Philip in the field j they mull begin with pro-
tefling Oiynthus and the Cherfonefus, for which it
would be necefTary to raife a body of 2000 light arm¬
ed troops, with a due proportion of cavalry, which
ought to be tranfported under a proper convoy to the
i(lands of Lemnos, Thafos, and Sciathos, in the neigh¬
bourhood of Macedon. In thefe they would enjoy
all kinds of neceiTaries in abundance, and might avail
themfelves of every favourable incident, to appear at Macedon.
the firft fummons of their allies •, and either to repel the ^ 'J
incurfions of the Macedonians, or harafs their territo-
While this was going on, more vigorous prepa¬
rations might be made for war at home ; and it was
propofed, that only the fourth part of the Athenian
citizens fhould enlifl, and no more fupplies were want¬
ed at prefent but 90 talents. But notwithflanding the
moderation of thefe propofak;, and the urgent necefh-
ties of the {late, it was impoflible to prevail upon the
indolent and carelefs Athenians to provide for their
own fafety. They appear, indeed, at this time to
have been defperately funk in effeminacy and diffipa-
tion j which difpofition Philip took care to encourage
to the utmofl of his power. There was an affembly in
the city called the Sixty, from their confiding original¬
ly of that number, who met exprefsly for the purpofes
of extinguifhing all care about public affairs, and to in¬
toxicate themlelves with every kind of pleafure they had
in their power. With this affembly Philip was fo well
pleafed, that he fent them money to fupport their extra¬
vagancies j and fo effedually did they anfwer his pur¬
pofes, that all the eloquence of Demoflhenes could not
counteratt the fpeeches of orators much his inferiors •
wdien backed by Macedonian gold.
Philip himfelf, as wTe have already hinted, was ex-
ceflively debauched in his private charafter, and the
mod fhameful dories are related of him by the ancient
writers, particularly by Demollhenes. Theopompus^.
too, an author who flourifhed in the time of Alexan¬
der, and was rewarded and honoured by that monarchy
alfo fpeaks of him in fuch terms as we cannot with de¬
cency relate : but thefe accounts, coming from the
avovred enemies of the king, are fcarcely to be credit¬
ed ; and perhaps policy, as well as inclination, might
contribute fomewhat to this fcandalous behaviour, that
he might thereby recommend himfelf to the libertines
of Athens, and prevent even many of the more think-
ing part of the people from fufpefling his defigns. -
But in whatever exceffes he might at times indulge
himfelf, he never lod fight of his main obje£l, the fub-
jugation of the Greek dates. On pretence of being
in want of money to defray the expence of his build¬
ings, he borrowed money at a very high price through¬
out the whole country ; and this he found an eafy mat¬
ter to do, as the diffipation of the Delphic treafures
had rendered cafh very plentiful in Greece. Thus he
attached his creditors firmly to his own intered 5 and
on pretence of paying debts, was enabled without mo-
ledation to bedow a number of penfions and gratuities
upon the Athenian orators, who by their treacherous
harangues contributed greatly to the ruin of their
country 5 at lead as far as it could be ruined by fub-
jedlion to a prince who would have obliged them to
remain at peace, and apply themfelves to ufeful arts.
Thefe he himfelf encouraged in a very eminent decree.
The greated part of his time was employed at Pella,
which city he adorned in the mod magnificent manner
with temples, theatres, and porticoes. He invited
by liberal rewards, the mod ingenious artids in Greece 5
and as many of thefe met with very little encourage¬
ment in their own country, great numbers flocked to
nm fiom all.quarters. In the government of his peo¬
ple, alfo, Philip behaved with the utmod impartiality :
Ijilening with condefcenfion to the complaints of the •
meaned
MAG
Macedon.
[ 304 ]
M A C
s*
T)ver-
arvi t aft
concludes
a peace.
meanefi of liis fubjecb, a:;d keeping up a conftant cor-
refpondence with thofe whom he thought worthy of his
acquaintance ; from which, it is not eafy to imagine
how he could be fo guilty of the vices tve have already
mentioned from fome ancient hiftorians.
The fate of Olynthus wras now foon determined.
This city, which held the balance of power betwixt
Athens and Macedon, w7as taken and plundered, and
the inhabitants fold for Haves; but the chief hope of
Thilip wTas in putting an end to the Phocian war.
For this purpofe he affe&ed a neutrality, that he might
thereby become the arbiter of Greece. His hopes
were wTell founded ; for the Thebans, who were at
the head of the league againft the Phocians, foii-
cited him on the one fide, and the ftates confede-
fate with the Phocians did the like on the other.
He anfwered neither, yet held both in dependence.
In his heart he favoured the Thebans, or rather
placed his hopes of favouring his own caufe in that
flate ; for he well knew, that the Athenians, Spar¬
tans, and other ftates allied with Phocis, would ne¬
ver allow him to pafs Thermopylae, and lead an army
into their territories. So much refpedft, howTever, did
he ftiow to the ambafiadors from thefe ftates, parti¬
cularly Ctefiphon and Phrynon, who came from A-
thens, that they believed him to be in their intereft,
and reported as much to their mafters. The Athe-
reaches the nians, who were now diiTolved in eafe and luxury, re-
Athenians, ceive(i this news with great fatisfaflion ; and named
immediately ten plenipotentiaries to'go and treat of a
full and lafting peace with Philip. Among thefe ple¬
nipotentiaries wrere_ Demofthenes and ATchirres, the
moft celebrated orators in Athens. Philip gave di-
retlions that thefe ambaffadors fhould be treated with
the utmoft civility •, naming, at the fame time, three of
his minifters to confer with them, viz. Antipater, Par-
n enio, and Eurylochus. Demofthenes being obliged
to return to Athens, recommended it to his colleagues
not to carry on their negociations with Philip’s depu¬
ties •, but to proceed with all diligence to court, there
to confer with the king himielf. The ambaffa-
dors, however, were fo far from following his in-
ftruhlions, that they fuffered themfelves to be put off
for three months by the arts of Philip and his mini¬
fters.
In the mean time, the king took from the Athe¬
nians fuch places in Thrace as might beft cover his
frontiers ; giving their plenipotentiaries, in their Head,
abundance of fair promifes, and the ftrongeft affur-
ances that his good will ftiould be as beneficial to them
as ever their colonies had been. At laft a peace was
concluded ; but then the ratification of it was deferred
till Philip had poffeffed himfelf of Pheraer in Theffaly,
and faw himfelf at the head of a numerous army :
then he ratified the treaty •, and difmiffed the plenipo¬
tentiaries with affurances, that he would be ready at all
times to give -Vhe Athenians proofs of his friendihip.
On their return to Athens, wdien this matter came
to be debated before the people, Demofihenes plainly
told them, that, in his opinion, the promifes of Phi¬
lip ought not to be relied on, becaufe they appeared
to be of little fignificance in themfelves, and came
from a prince of fo much art, and fo little fidelity, rfat
they could derive no authority from their maker. Atf-
chmes, on. the other hand, gave it as his ientiment,
that the king of Macedon’s affurances ought to give Afacedofr.
them full fatisfaction. He faid, that for his part, —’“V"”"*
he was not politician enough to fee any thing of dif-
guife or diftimulation in the king’s conduct ; that there
was great danger in diftrufting princes •, and that the
furefl: method of putting men upon deceit was to Ihow
that wre (ufpefted them of it. The reft of the pleni¬
potentiaries concurred with Atfchines 5 and the people,
defirous of quiet, and addifted to pleafure, eaiily gave
credit to all that was faid, and decreed that the peace
flrould be kept. All this was the eafier brought about,
becaufe Phocion, the worthieft man in the repudac,
did not oppofe Philip •, which was owing to his hav.ng
a juft fenfe of the ftate his country was in. He con¬
ceived, that the Athenians of thofe times were nothing
like their anceftors; and therefore, as he exprefled
himfelf on another occafion, he was defirous, fince
they would not be at the head of Greece themfelves,
that they would at lead; be upon good terms with that
porver which would be lb. ~
Philip, who knew how to ufe as well as to procure PaiTes
opportunity, while the Athenians were in this good Thermo¬
humour, paffed Thermopylae, without their knowing Py*®’an®
whether he would fall on Phocis or Thebes ; but he p^-iarT
quickly undeceived them, by commanding his foldierswar.
to put on crowns of laurel, declaring them thereby
the troops of Apollo, and himfelf the lieutenant-gene¬
ral of that god. He then entered Phocis with an air
of triumph ; which fo terrified the Phocians, whom
he had caufed to be proclaimed facrilegious per fens,
that they immediately difmiffed all thoughts of de¬
fence, and without more ado fubmitted to his mercy.
Thus the Phocian war, which had fo long employed
all Greece, was ended without a ftroke ; and the judge¬
ment on the Phocians remitted to the Amphiftyons,
or grand council of Greece. By their decree the
walls of three Phocian cities were demoliihed, the
people were forbid to inhabit in any but villages, to pay
a yearly tribute of 60 talents, and never to make ufe
either of houfes or arms till they had repaid to the
temple of Apollo the money they had lacrilegioully
carried from thence. Their arms were taken from
them, broken to pieces, and burnt j their double voice
in the council was taken from them, and given to the
Macedonians. Other orders were made for fettling the
affairs both of religion and fiate throughout Greece :
all of which were executed by Philip with great exaeft-
nefs and moderation, he paying the moft; profound re-
fpeft to the council ; and, when be had performed its
commands, retiring peaceably with bis army back to
Macedon, which gained him great reputation.
At Athens alone, the juftice and piety of Philip was
not underftood. The people began to fee, though a
little too late, that they had been abufi d and deceived
bv thofe who had negociated the late peace. They ■
faw that, through their acceptance of it, the Phociansoppofed by
were deftroyed 5 that Philip was become mafter oDheAthe-
Thermopyhe, and might enter Greece when he plea-111^-
fed 5 that, in abandoning their allies, they had aban¬
doned themfelves •, and that, in all probability, they
might foon feel the weight of his power, whom thpy
had fo fooli(lily trufted : they therefore began to take
new and hoftile mealures ; they ordered that the wo¬
men fhould retire out of the villages into the city, their
walls be repaired, and their forts new ftrengtben-
e3.
c3
MAC
[ 3°5 ]
MAC
Macedon.
59 t.
Purfues his
conquefts
in Thrace.
60
His domi¬
nions in¬
vaded by
Diopithes;
"■ 61
who is de¬
fended by
Demoft-
henfs.
ed. They feemed inclined to queftion Philip’s elec¬
tion into the council of the Amphi&yons, becaufe it
had been done without their confent; and even to pro¬
ceed to an open wrar. In all likelihood they had car¬
ried things to extravagancy, if Demofthenes had not
interpofed. He told them, that though he was not
for making the peace, he was however for keeping it j
and that he faw no manner of occafion for their enter¬
ing into fo unequal a conteft as would needs enfue,
if they took up arms, not only againft Philip, but
again!! all the ftates concurring with him in the late
tranfaclions. This feems to have cooled the rage of
the Athenians ; and to have brought them to think of
ruining Philip by degrees, as by degrees they had raifed
him.
The fame of his achievements without the bounds
of Macedon having difpofed the fubjecls of Philip to
hope every thing from his condu6f, and the feveral
{fates of Greece to defire above all things his friend-
fhip ; that prudent monarch laid hold of this favourable
fituation to fix his dominion on fuch a {fable founda¬
tion as that a rererfe of fortune fliould not immediate¬
ly deftroy it. To this end, while he carried on his
negociations through Greece, he likewile kept his ar¬
my in exercife, by taking feveral places in Thrace,
which terribly incommoded the Athenians. Diopi¬
thes, who had the government of the Athenian colo¬
nies in thofe parts, perceiving wrell what end Philip
had in view, did not flay for inftrudtions from home ;
but having raifed wdth much expedition a confider-
able body of troops, taking advantage of the king’s
being abfent with his army, entered the adjacent
territories of Philip, and wafted them wdth fire and
{word.
The king, who, on account of the operations of the
campaign in the Cherfonefe, wras not at leifure to re¬
pel Diopithes by force, nor indeed could divide his ar¬
my without imminent hazard, chofe, like an able gene¬
ral, rather to abandon his provinces to infults, wdiich
might be afterwards revenged, than, by following the
didates of an ill-timed paflion, to hazard the lofs of
his veteran army, wdiereon lay all his hopes. He con¬
tented himfelf, therefore, with complaining to the
Athenians of Diopithes’s condud, wTo in a time of
peace had entered his dominions, and committed fuch
devaftations as could fcarcely have been juftified in a
time of war. His partifans fupported this application
with all their eloquence. They told the Athenians,
that unlefs they recalled Diopithes, and brought him
to a trial for this infringement of the peace, they ought
not to hope either for the friendfhip of Philip or of
any other prince or ftate j neither could they juftly
complain, if, prompted by fuch a precedent, others
fhould break faith with them, and fall without the
leaft notice upon their dominions. Demofthenes de¬
fended Diopithes •, and undertook to fhow that he de¬
ferred the praife and not the cenfure of the Athenians.
Thofe of the other party began then to charge him
with crimes of a different nature 5 they alleged, that
he oppreffed the fubjedts and maltreated the allies of
Athens. Demofthenes replied, that of thefe things
there were as yet no proofs 5 that when fuch ftiould
appear, a Angle galley might be fent to bring over Dio¬
pithes to abide their judgement, but that Philip w'ould
not come if they fent a fleet: whence he inferred,
Vol. XII. Parti.
that they ought to be cautious, and to w7eigh vrell the Macedon.
merits of this caufe before they took any refolution.’ 1 v
He faid, that it wTas true Philip had not as yet at¬
tacked Attica, or pretended to make a defcent on their
territories in Greece, or to force his w-ay into their
ports ; when it came to that, he was of opinion they
would be hardly able to defend themfelves; wherefore
he thought fuch men were to be efteemed as fought
to protect their frontiers, in order to keep Philip as
long as might be at a diftance : whereupon he moved,
that, inftead of difowming what Diopithes had done, or
direbling him to difmifs his army, they fhould fend him
over recruits, and fhow the king of Macedon they knew
how to prote£! their territories, and to maintain the dig¬
nity of their ftate, as well as their anceftors. Thefe'
arguments had- fuch an effe£t, that a decree was made
conformable to his motion.
While affairs flood thus, the Illyrians recovering
courage, and feeing Philip at fuch a diftance, haraffed
the frontiers of Macedon, and threatened a formidable
invafion : but Philip, by quick marches, arrived on
the borders of Illyricum 5 and ftruck this barbarous
people with fuch a panic, that they were glad to com¬
pound for their former depredations at the price he
was pleafed to let. Moft of the Greek cities in Thrace
now fought the friendlhip of the king, and entered in¬
to a league with him for their mutual defence. As it
cannot be fuppofed that each of thefe free cities had
a power equal to that of Philip, w-e may therefore look 62
upon him as their proteflor. About this time Philip’s Philip’s
negociations in Peloponnefus began to come to light; ^5"^
the Argives and Meffenians, growing weary of that ty- ^ L
rannical authority which the Spartans exercifed over
them, applied to Thebes for afliftanee j and the' The¬
bans, out of their natural averfion to Sparta, fought
to open a paffage for Philip into Peloponnefus, that,
in conjuntftion with them, he might humble the Lace¬
demonians. Philip readily accepted the offer ; and re-
folved to procure a decree from the Amphiftyons, di-
redling the Lacedemonians to leave Argos and Meffene
free j which if they complied not wdth, he, as the lieu¬
tenant of the Amphidlyons, might, with great appear¬
ance of juftice, march with a body ©f troops to enforce
their order. When Sparta had intelligence of this,
!he immediately applied to Athens, earneftly entreat¬
ing afliftance, as in the common caufe of Greece. The
Argives and Meffenians, on the other hand, laboured
afliduoufly to gain the Athenians to their fide ; alleging
that, if they were friends to liberty, they ought to ai-
fift thofe whofe only aim was to be free. Demofthe¬
nes, at this jundlure, outwreftled Philip, if we may
borrow that king’s expreflion j for, by a vehement ha¬
rangue, he not only determined his own citizens to be¬
come the avowed enemies of the king, but alfo made
the Argives and Meffenians not over fond of him for
an ally ; which when Philip perceived, he laid afide all
thoughts of this enterprife for the prefent, and began
to pra£life in Euboea.
This country, now called Negropont, is feparated
from Greece by the Euripus, a ftrait fo narrow, that
Euboea might eafily be united to the continent. This
fituation made Philip call it the fetters of Greece, which
he therefore fought to have in his own hands. There
had been for fome years great difturbances in that
country j under colour of which, Philip fent forces
Q. ft thither,
MAC [ 306 ]
l tliitlicr, and demolished Porthmos, the ftrongeft city whole project turned.
in thofe parts, leaving the country under the govern¬
ment of three lords, whom Demofthenes roundly calls
tyrants, eltablilhed by Philip. Shortly after, the Ma¬
cedonians took Oreus, which was left under the go¬
vernment of five magiftrates, ftyled alfo tyrants at A-
thens. Thither Plutarch of Eretria, one" of the molt
eminent perfons in Euboea, went to reprefent the di-
hrelies of his country, and to implore the Athenians to
fct it free. I his luit Eemolthenes recommended wTarm-
ly to the people ; who fent thither their famous leader
Phocion, fupported by formidable votes, but a very
flender army : yet fo well did he manage the affairs of
the commonwealth and her allies, that Philip quickly
found he mult for a time abandon that proieft ; which,
however, he did not till he had formed another no lefs
beneficial to himfelf, or lefs dangerous to Athens. It
was the profecution of his conqutlls in Thrace which he
thought of pufiiing much farther than he had hitherto
done, or could be reafonably fufpe&ed to have any in¬
tention of doing.
Extraordinary preparations were made by the Ma¬
cedonian monarch for this campaign. His fon Alex¬
ander was left regent of the kingdom ; and he himfelf
with 30,000 men laid fiege to Perinthus, one of the
ilrongeft cities in the country. At prefent, however,
all his arts of cajoling and pretending friendtliip were
infufficient to, deceive the Athenians. They gave the
command of their army and fleet to Phocion ; a general
or great abilities, and with whom Philip w*ould have
found it very hard to contend. On the other hand, the
king of Perlia began to turn jealous of the growing
power of the Macedonian monarch. The Perfian kings
had been accuflomed to regard tlrofe of Macedon as
their laithful allies; but the good fortune of Philip, the
continual clamour of the Athenians againlt him, and
his dethroning at pleafure the petty princes of Thrace,
made him now regarded in another light. When
therefore he led his troops againft Perinthus, the Great
Azflg, as he was ftyled by the Greeks, fent his letters
mandatory to the governors of the maritime provinces,
directing them to fupply the place with all things in
their power ; in confequence of which they filled it
with troops, granted fubfidies in ready money, and fent
befides great convoys of provifion and ammunition. The
Byzantines alfo, fuppofing their own turn would be
next, exerted their utmofl: endeavours for the preferva-
tion of Perinthus; fending thither the flower of their
youth, vyith all other neceffaries for an obflinate de¬
fence.
*3
How he at
found
lefs.
The confequence of all this was, that Philip
himfelf obliged to raife the fiege with great
    That the reputation of the Macedonian arms might
laft gained not fink by this difgrace, Philip made war on the Scy-
his pointy thians and Triballi, both of whom he defeated ; and
then formed a defign of invading Attica, though he
had no fleet to tranfport his troops, and knew very-
well that the Theffalians were not to be depended up¬
on if he attempted to march through the Pife, and
that the T hebans would even then be ready to oppofe
his march. To obviate all thefe difficulties, he had
recourfe to Athens itfelf; where by means of his par-
tifans, he procured his old friend AEfchines to be fent
their deputy to the Amphidlyons. This feemed a
{mall matter, and yet was the hinge on which his
M A C
... By that time iEfchuies had ta- Macedon.
ken his feat, a queftion was ftirred in the council,' v 
whether the Locrians of Amphifia had not been guilty
of facrilege in ploughing the fields of Cyrrha in the
neighbourhood of the temple of Delphi. The affembly
being divided in their opinions, iEfchines propofed to
take a view; which was according decreed. But when
the A m phi iffy on s came in order to fee how things
flood, the Locrians, either jealous of their property,
or fpurred thereto by the iuggeflions of feme w-ho
faw farther than themfelves, fell upon thofe venerable
pertons lo rudely, that they were compelled to fecure
themfelves by flight. 'I he Amphidtyons decreed, that
an army Ihould be raifed, under the command of one
of their own number, to ebaitife the delinquents; but
as this army was to be ccmpoled of troops lent from
all parts of Greece, the appearance at the rendezvous
was fo inconfiderable, that the Ampbiilyons lent to
command them durlt undertake nothing. The whole
matter being reported to the council, TEfchines, in a
long and eloquent harangue, (bowed how much the
welfare and even the fafety of Greece depended on the
deference paid to their decrees ; and after inveighing
againft the want of public fpirit in fuch as had not
fent their quotas at the time appointed by the coun¬
cil, he moved that they Ihould eledl Philip for their
general, and pray him to execute their decree. The
deputies from the other ftates, conceiving that by this
expedient their refpeftive conftituents would be free
irom any farther trouble or expence, came into it at
once ; whereupon a decree was immediately drawn up,
purporting that ambaffadors Ihould be fent to Philip’
of Macedon, in the name of Apollo and the Amphic-
tyons, once more to require his affiftance, and to no¬
tify to him, that the ftates of Greece had unanimoufly
chofen him their general, with full power to a£t as he
thought fit againft fuch as had oppofed the authority
of the Amphiftyons. Thus of a fudden Philip ac-T ,6f
quired all that he fought ; and having an army ready jreneral by
in expectation of this event, he immediately marched the Arn-
to execute the commands of the AmphiCtyons in ap-PhiAyon*
pearance, but in reality to accomplilh his own de-
figns : For having paired into Greece with his army,
inftead of attacking the Locrians, he feized immedi¬
ately upon Elatea, a great city of Phocis upon the river
Cephifus.
The Athenians in the mean time were in the utmoftIs 0)!p^feci
confufion on the news of Philip’s march. However,by the A-
by the advice of Demofthenes, they invited the The-Fenians
bans to join them againft the common enemy of Greece.an<*
Philip endeavoured as much as poffible to prevent thisbanS’
confederacy from taking place ; but all his efforts pro¬
ved ineffeCfual. The Athenians raifed an army, which
marched immediately to Eleufis, where they were join¬
ed by the Thebans. The confederates made the bell
appearance that had- ever been feen in Greece, and the
troops were exceedingly good ; but unfortunately the
generals were men of no conduft or Ikill in the mili¬
tary art. An engagement enfued at Cheron^a; where-who^6.e
in Alexander commanded one wing of the Macedonian defers at
army, and his father Philip the other. 'The confede- Cheromea.
rate army was divided according to the different na¬
tions of which it confifted ; the Athenians having the
right and the Boeotians the left. In the beginning
of the battle the confederates had the better; 'where¬
upon
MAC
an Athenian commander
’M«cedon. upon Stratocles
 1 « Come on, brother foldiers, let us drive them back to
Macedon which being overheard by the king, he faid
very coolly to one of his officers, “ Thefe Athenians
do not know how to conquer.” Upon this he direct¬
ed the files of the phalanx to be ftraitened $ and draw¬
ing his men up very clofe, retired to a neighbouring
eminence : from whence, when the Athenians were
eager in their purfuit, he ruffied dawn with impetuo-
fity, broke, and routed them with prodigious (laugh¬
ter. The orator Demofthenes behaved very unoecom-
ingly in this engagement j for he deferted his poft,
and "was one of the firft that fled: nay, we are told,
that a flake catching hold of his robe, he, not doubt¬
ing but it was an enemy, cried out, “ Alas! (pare my
life.”
This viftory determined the fate of Greece *, and
[ 307 ] MAG
cried out, tort a difcovery of his accomplices, they put an end to |Maced.ir,.-
69
*7
Is appointed
general
againft the
Peruans.
<58
Is murder¬
ed.
from this time we muft reckon Philip fupreme lord of
all the Grecian dates. The firft ufe he made of his
power wTas to convoke a general affembly, wherein he
was recognized generaliffimo, and with full power ap¬
pointed their leader againft the Perflans. Having, by
virtue of his authority, fettled a general peace among
them, and appointed the quota that each of the dates
fliould furnilh for the war, he difmiffed them : and re¬
turning to Macedon, began to make great prepara¬
tions for this new expedition. His pretence for ma¬
king war on the Perflans at this time was the affiflance
given by the Perflans to the city of Perinthus, as al¬
ready mentioned. In the mean time, however, the
king by reafon of the diffenfipns which reigned in his
family, was made quite miferable. He quarrelled with
his wife Olympias to fuch a degree, that he divorced
her, and married another woman named Cleopatra.
This produced a quarrel between him and his Ion A-
lexander ■, which alfo came to fuch a height, that A-
lexander retired into Epirus with his mother. Some
time afterwards, however, he was recalled, and a re¬
conciliation took place in appearance 5 but in the mean
time a confpiracy was formed againft the king’s life,
the circumftances and caufes of which are very much
unknown. Certain it is, however, that it took effeff,
as the king was exhibiting certain (hows in honour of
his daughter’s marriage wdth the king of Epirus. Phi¬
lip, having given a public audience to the ambaffadors
of Greece, went next day in date to the theatre. All
the feats were early taken up ; and the (hows began
with ,a fplendid proceffion, wherein the images of the
12 fuperior deities of Greece were carried, as alfo the
image of Philip, habited in like manner, as if he now
made the 13th, at which the people (houted aloud.
Then came the king alone, in a wffiite robe, crowned,
with his guards at a confiderable diftance, that the
Greeks might fee he placed his fafety only in his con¬
fidence of the loyalty of his fubjefts. Paufanias, the
affaffin, however, had fixed himfelf clofe by the d^or
of the theatre ; and ohferving that all things fell out
as he had forefeen they wmuld, took his “opportunity
when the king drew near him, and plunging- his fword
in his left fide, laid him dead at his feet. He then fled
as faft as he was able towards the place where his
horfes were ; and would have efcaped, had not the
twig of a vine catched his (hoe and thrown him down.
This gave time to fhofe who purfued him to come up
with him ; but inftead of fecuring him, in order to ex-
his life. _ .
With regard to the charafter of this monarch, itfiisclia-
appears certain, that he was one of the moft eminent rafter,
perfons that ever fat on a throne. Had he lived for
fome time longer, he would in all probability have
fubdued the Perflans : wffiich was in truth lefs difficult
than what he had already done. “ Had that event
taken place (fays Dr Gillies), the undertakings of his
long and fuccefsful reign would have been ennobled and
illuminated by the fplendour of extenfive foreign con-
queft. Philip would have reached the height of fuch
renown as is obtained by the habits of activity, vigi¬
lance, and fortitude, in the purfuit of unbounded great-
nefs 5 and in the opinion of poilerity, would perhaps
have furpaffed the glory of all kings and conquerors
who either preceded or followed him. Yet, even on
this fuppofition, there is not any man of fenfe and
probity, who, if he allows himfelf time for ferious re-
fteftion, would purchafe the imagined grandeur and
profperity of the king of Macedon at the price of his
artifices and his crimes •, and to a philolopHer, who
confidered either the means by which he had obtained
his triumphs, or the probable confequences of his domi¬
nion over Greece and Afia, the bufy ambition of this
mighty conqueror would appear but a deceitful feene
of fplendid mifery.” 70
No fooner did the news of Philip’s death reach A - Extrava-
thens, than, as if all danger had been part, the inhabi-S^J0^
tants (bowed the moft extravagant figns of joy. De-then'iansJ
mofthenes and his party put on chaplets of flowers, and
behaved as if they had gained a great viftory. Pho-
cion reproved them for this madnefs j bidding them
remember, that “ the army which had beaten them at
CheronEea was leffened but by one.” This reproof,
however, had very little effedft. The people heard with
pleafure all the harftr things which the orators could
fay of the young Alexander king of Macedon, whom
they reprefented as a giddy wrong-headed boy, ready
to grafp all things in bis imagination, and able to per¬
form nothing. The affairs of Macedon indeed were
in a very diftrafted date on the accefllon of Alexander:
for all the neighbouring nations had the fame notion
of the young king with the Athenians ; and being ir¬
ritated by the ufurpations of Philip, immediately re¬
volted •, and the dates of Greece entered into a con¬
federacy againft him. The Perfians had been con¬
triving to transfer the war into Macedon ; but as foon
as the news of Philip’s death reached them, they be¬
haved as if all danger had been over. At the fame
time Attains, one of the Macedonian commanders,
afpired to the crown, and fought to draw off the fol¬
diers from their allegiance.
In the councils held on this occafton, Alexander’s
bell friends advifed him rather to make ufe of diffimu-
lation than force, and to cajole thofe whom they
thought he could not fubdue. Thefe advices, how¬
ever, were ill fuited to the temper of their monarch.
He thought that vigorous meafllres only were proper,
and therefore immediately led his army into Theffaly. 71
Here he harangued the princes fo effeftually, that he
thoroughly gained them over to his intereft, and was generai 0£-
by them declared general of Greece \ upon which he Greece,
returned to Macedon, where he caufed Attalus to be
feized and put to death.
O 2 In
72
Defeats the
Triballi.
MAC [ 308 ] MAC
In the Spring of the next year (335 B. C.) Alex- and all the prifoners fold for-flaves $ by which 440 ta- Macedon.
ander refolved to fubdue the Triballians and Illyrians, lents were brought into the king’s treafury. i“ v”—J
who inhabited the countries now called Bulgaria and By this feverity the reft of the Grecian ftates were
Sclavonia, and had been very formidable enemies to fo thoroughly humbled, that they thought no more of
the Macedonian power. In this expedition he difco- making any refiftance, and Alexander had nothing fur-
vered, though then but 20 years of age, a furprifing ther to hinder him from his favourite project of invad-
degree of military knowledge. Having advanced to ing Alia. Very little preparation was neceffary for
the paffes of Mount Hsemus, he found that the barba- the Macedonian monarch, who went out as to an af-
rians had polled themfelves in the moft advantageous fured conqueft, and reckoned upon being fupplied only
manner. On the tops of the cliffs, and at the head of by the fpoils of his enemies. Hiftorians are not agreed
every paffage, they had placed their carriages and wag- as to the number of his army : Arrian fays, that there Number of
73
The The¬
bans revolt
on the
news of his
death.
gons in fuch a manner as to form a kind of parapet were 30,000 foot and 5000 horfe. Diodorus Siculus the army
with their ftxafts inwards,-that when the Macedonians tells us, that there were 13,000 Macedonian foot, 7000
fhould have half afeended the rock, they might be able of the confederate ftates, and 5000 mercenaries. Thefe e
to pufti thefe heavy carriages down upon them. They were under the command of Parmenio. Of the Odri-
reckoned the more upon this contrivance, becaufe of fians, Triballians, and Illyrians, there were 5000 *, and
the clofe order of the phalanx, which, they imagined, of the Agrians, who were armed only with darts, ioool.
would be terribly expofed by the folders wanting As for the horfe, he tells us there were 1800 corn-
room to ftir, and thereby avoid the falling waggons, manded by Philotas, and as many Theffalians under
' But Alexander, having dire&ed his heavy armed troops the command of Callas : out of the confederate ftates of
to march, gave orders, that, where the way would per- Greece, were 600 commanded by Eurygius ; and 90a
mit, they iliould open to the right and left, and fuffer Thracians and Paeonians, who led the van under Cat-
the carriages to go through j but that, in the narrow fander. Plutarch tells us, that, according to a low
paffes, they ftiould throw themfelves on their faces with computation, he had 30,000 foot and 5000 horfe $ and,
according to the largeft reckoning, he bad 34,000
foot and 4000 horfe. As to his fund for the pay¬
ment of the army, Ariftobulus fays it was but 70 ta¬
lents j and Oneficritus, who was alfo in this expedition,
not only takes aw*ay the 70 talents, but aftirms that
the king was 200 in debt. As for provifions, there
was juft fufficient for a month and no more ; and to
The next exploits of Alexander were agaJnft the prevent difturbances, Antipater was left in Macedon
Getae, the Tanlantii, and fbme other nations inhabit- with I2,Q00 foot and 1500 horfe. ^
ing the country on the other fide of the Danube. The army having affembled at Amphipolis, he Sets out on
Them he alfo overcame •, fhowing in all his adlions marched from thence to the mouths of the river Stry- bis expedi-
the moft perfedl (kill in military affairs, joined with the mon •, then crofting Mount Pangaeus, he took the roadtl0n-
greateft valour. In the mean time, however, all Greece to Abdera. Croffmg the river Ebrus, he proceeded
was in commotion by a report which had been confi- through the country of Paetis, and in 20 days reached
dently fpread abroad, that the king was dead in Illy- Seftos ; thence he came to Eleus, where he facrificed
ria. The Thebans, on this news, feized Amyntas and on the tomb of Protefilaus, becaufe he was the firft
Timolaus, two eminent officers in the Macedonian gar- among the Greeks who at the fiege of Troy fet foot
rifon which held their citadel, and dragged them to the on the Aftatic ftiore. He did this, that his landing
market-place, where they were put to death without might be more propitious than that of the hero to
either form or procefs, or any crime alleged againft whom he facrificed, who was flain foon after. The
them. Alexander, however, did not fuffer them to greateft part of the army, under the command of Par-
remain long in their miftake. He marched with fuch menio, embarked at Seftos, on board a fleet of 160
’ ‘ galleys of three benches of oars, befides fmall craft.
their fhields behind them, that the carts might run
over them. This had the defired effefl; and the Ma¬
cedonians reached the enemies works without the lofs
of a man. The djfpute was then quickly decided ;
the barbarians were driven from their polls with great
flaughter, and left behind them a confiderable booty
for the conquerors.
74
Thebes
taken and
deitroyed.
expedition, that in feven days he reached Pallene in
Theffaly j and in fix days more he entered Bceotia,
before the Thebans had any intelligence of his palling
the ftraits of Thermopylae. Even then they would not
believe that the king was alive ; but infilled that the
Macedonian army was commanded by Antipater, or
by one Alexander the fon of iEropus. The reft of the
Greeks, however, were not fo hard of belief $ and
therefore fent no afliftance to the Thebans, who were
thus obliged to bear the confequences of their own
folly and obftinacy. The city was taken by ftorm,
and the inhabitants were for fome hours maffacred with¬
out diftin£Hon of age or fex •, after which the houfes
were demolifhed, all except that of Pindar the famous
p©et, which was fpared out of refpe£l to the merit of
its owner, and becaufe he had celebrated Alexander I.
king of Macedon. The lands, excepting thofe deftin-
ed to religious ufes, were lhared among the foldiers,
Alexander himfelf failed from Eleus j and when he
was in the middle of the Hellefpont, offered a bull to
Neptune and the Nereids, pouring forth at the fame
time a libation from a golden cup. When he drew
near the Ihore, he launched a javelin, which ftuck in
the earth : then, in complete armour, he leaped upon
the ftrand j and having eredled altars to Jupiter, Mi¬
nerva, and Hercules, he proceeded to Ilium. Here
again he facrificed to Minerva ; and taking down fome
arms which had hung in the temple of that goddefs
fince the time of the Trojan war, confecrated his; own
in their ftead. He facrificed alfo to the ghoft of Priam,
to avert his wrath on account of the defeent which he
himfelf claimed from Achilles.
In the mean time the Perfians had affembled a great
army in Phrygia j among whom was one Mem non a
Rhodian, the bell officer in the fervice of Darius. A-
lexander,
M A C
[ 3°9 ]
MAC
Macedon.
f See Gra-
nicus.
77
Cinfequen-
ces of his
lexander, as foon as he had performed all the ceremo¬
nies which he judged necelTary, marched dire£tlj to¬
wards the enemy. Memnon gave it as his opinion,
that they Ihould burn and deftroy all the country
round, that they might deprive the Greeks of the means
of fubfirting, and then tranfport a part of their army
into Macedon. But the Perfians, depending on their
cavalry^rejected this falutary advice; and ported them-
felves along the river Granicus, in order to wait the
arrival of Alexander. In the engagement which hap¬
pened on the banks of that river, the Perfians were
defeated f, and Alexander became mafter of all the
neighbouring country ; which he immediately began to
take care of, as if it had been part of his hereditary
dominions. The city of Sardis was immediately de¬
livered up ; and here Alexander built a temple to Ju-
firft victory, piter Olympius. After this, he reftored the Ephefians
to their liberty ; ordered the tribute which they for¬
merly paid to the Perfians to be applied towards the
rebuilding the magnificent temple of Diana : and
having fettled the affairs of the city, marched againrt
Miletus. This place was defended by Memnon with a
confiderable body of troops who had fled thither af¬
ter the battle of Granicus, and therefore made a vigo¬
rous refiflance. The fortune of Alexander, however,
prevailed; and the city was loon reduced, though
Memnon with part of the troops efcaped to Halicar-
naffus. After this, the king difmiffed his fleet, for
which various reafons have been afligned ; though it
is probable, that the chief one was to Ihow his army
that their only refource now was in fubverting the Per-
fian empire.
Almoft all the cities betw-een Miletus and Halicar-
naffus fubmitted as fobn as they heard that the former
was taken •, but Halicarnaffus, where Memnon com-
' manded with a very numerous garrifon, made an oblti-
nate defence. Nothing, however, was able to refirt;
the Macedonian army. Memnon was at laft obliged
to abandon the place ; upon which Alexander took
and razed the city of Tralles in Phrygia; received the
fubmiflion of feveral princes tributary to the Perfians ;
and having deftroyed the Marmarians, a people of Ly-
cia who had fallen upon the rear of his army, put an
end to the campaign ; after which he fent home all
the new married men ; in obedience, it wrould feem,
to a precept of the Mofaic law, and wrhich endeared
him more to his foldiers than any other adrtion of his
life.
As foon as the feafon would permit, Alexander
quitted the province of Phafelus ; and having fent part
of his army through the mountainous country to
Perga, by a Ihort but difficult road, took his route by
a certain promontory, where the way is altogether im-
paffable, except when the north winds blow. At the
time of the king’s march the fouth wind had held for
a long time ; but of a fudden it changed, and blew from
the north fo violently, that, as he and his followers
declared, they obtained a fafe and eafy paffage through
the Divine affiftance. By many this march is held to
be miraeffous, and compared to that of the children
of Ifrael through the Red fea; while, on the other
fcand, it is the opinion of others, that there was no¬
thing at all extraordinary in it. He continued his
march towards Gordium, a city of Phrygia ; the ene¬
my having abandoned the ftrong pafs of Telmiffus,
through which it w7as neceffary for him to march. IVTacarkm.
When he arrived at Gordium, and found himfelf un-
der a neceffity of flaying fome time there till the fe¬
veral corps of his army could be united, he expreffed
a ftrong defire of feeing Gordius’s chariot, and the fa¬
mous knot in the harnefs, of which fuch ftrange ftories
had been publithed to the world. The cord in which
this knot was tied, was made of the inner rind of
the cornel tree ; and no eye could perceive where it 78
had begun or ended. Alexander, when he could find Unties the
no poffible way of untying, and yet was unwilling po;<han
to leave it tied left it ftiould caufe fome fears in the ‘
breafts of his faldiers, is faid by fome authors to have
cut the cords with his fword, faying, “ It matters not
how it is un lone.” But Ariftobulus affures us, that
the king wrefted a wooden pin out of the beam of the
waggon, which, being driven in acrofs the beam, held
it up; and fo took the yoke from under it. Be this
as it will, however, Arrian informs us, that a great
tempefl: of thunder, lightning, and rain, happening the
fuccQjeding night, it was held declarative of the true
folution of this knot, and that Alexander fhould be¬
come lord of Afia.
The king having left Gordium, marched towards
Cilicia ; where he was attended with his ufual good
fortune, the Perfians abandoning all the ftrong paffes
as he advanced. As foon as he entered the province,
he received advice that Arfames, whom Darius had
made governor of Tarfus, was about to abandon it,
and that the inhabitants were very apprehenfive that
he intended to plunder them before he withdrew. To
prevent this, the king marched inceffantly, and arrived 79
juft in time to fave the city. But his faving it had His ficknefe
well nigh coft him his life: for, either through theaiu*reco'
exceffive fatigue of marching, as fome fay, or, accord-Vl"‘''
ing to others, by his plunging when very hot into the
river Cydnus, which, as it runs through thick ftiades,
has its waters exceffively cold, he fell into fuch adiftem-
per as threatened his immediate diffolution. His army
loft their fpirits immediately ; the generals knew not
what to do ; and his phyficians were fo much affrighted,
that the terror of his death hindered them from ufing
the neceffary methods for preferving his life.- Philip
the Acarnanian alone preferved temper enough to exa¬
mine the nature of the king’s difeafe ; the worft fymp—
tom of which was a continual waking, and which he
took off by means of a potion, and in a ftiort time the
king recovered his ufual health.
Soon after Alexander’s recovery, he received the
agreeable news that Ptolemy and Afander had defeated
the Perfian generals, and made great conquefts on the
Hellefpont; a little after that, he met the Perfian army
at Iffus, commanded by Darius himfelf. A bloody
engagement enfued, in which the Perfians were de¬
feated with great flaughter, as related under the article
Issus. The confequences of this vi<ftory-were verv
advantageous to the Macedonians. Many governors
of provinces and petty princes fubmitted themfelves to
the conqueror ; and fuch as did .fo were treated, not as
a newly conquered people, but as his old hereditary
fubje&s; being neither burdened with foldiers nor
oppreffed with tribute. Among the number of thole
places which, within a (hort fpace after the battle of
Iffus, fent deputies to fubmit to the conqueror, was
the city of Tyre. The king, whole name was Azel-
micus.
MAC
Macedon.
[ 3i
80
tFyre taken
and de-
-ilroyed.
81
Egypt fub-
tnits.
8a
Alexander
vifits the
temp! of
Jupiter
Amnion.
micus, was abfcnt in the Perfian fleet j but his fon was
among the deputies, and was very favourably received
by Alexander. The king probably intended to confer
particular honours on the city of Tyre ; for he ac¬
quainted the inhabitants that he would come and fa-
crifice to the Tyrian Hercules, the patron of their
city, to whom they had erefted a moft magnificent
temple. But thefe people, like moft other1-trading
nations, were too fufpicious to think of admitting
fuch an enterprifing prince with his troops within
their walls. They fent therefore their deputies again
to him, to inform him, that they were ready to do
whatever he fhould command them ; but, as to his
coming and facrificing in their city, they could not
confent to that, but were pofitively determined not to
admit a fingle Macedonian within their gates. Alex¬
ander immediately difmiffed their deputies in great dif-
pleafure. He then affembled a council of war, wherein
he infifted flrongly on the difaffecled date of Greece
(for molt of the .Grecian ftates had fent ambaffadors
to Darius, to enter into a league with him againft the
Macedonians), the power of the Perfians by fea, and
the folly of carrying on the war in diftant provinces,
while Tyre w’as left unreduced behind them : he alfo
remarked, that if once this city was fubdued, the fo-
vereignty of the fea would be transferred to them, be-
caufe it would fix their poffeffion of the coafts; and
as the Perfian fleet was compofed chiefly of tributary
fquadrons, thofe tributaries would fight the battles,
not of their late, but of their prefent mailers. For
thefe reafons the fiege of Tyre was refolved on. The
town was not taken, however, without great difliculty ;
which provoked Alexander to fuch a degree, that he
treated the inhabitants with the greateft crueltv. See
Tyre.
After the reduflion of Tyre, Alexander, though the
feafon was already far advanced, refolved to make an
expedition into Syria ; and in his way thither propofed
to chaftife the Jews, who had highly offended him dur¬
ing the fiege of Tyre : for when he fent to them to de¬
mand provifions for his foldiers, they anfwered, That
they were the fubjects of Darius, and bound by oath
not to fupply his enemies. The king, however, was
pacified by their fubmiflion 5 and not only pardoned
them, but conferred many privileges upon them, as re¬
lated under the article Jews.
From Jerufalem Alexander marched diredlly to Gaza,
the only place in that part of the world which Hill
held out for Darius. This was a very large and
Prong city, fituated on a high hill, about five miles
from the fea-lhore. One Bails or Belts, an eunuch,
had the government of the place ; and had made every
preparation neceffary for fuftaining a long and obfti-
nate fiege. The governor defended the place with
great valour, and feveral times repulfed his enemies;
but at laft it was taken by ftorm, and all the garri-
fon flain to a manj and this fecured to Alexander an
entrance into Egypt, which having before been very im¬
patient of the Perfian yoke, admitted the Macedonians
peaceably.
Here the king laid the foundations of the city of
Alexandria, which for many years after continued to
be the capital of the country. While he remained
here, he alfo formed the extraordinary delign of vilit-
ing the temple of Jupiter Ammon. As to the mo-
o ] MAC
lives by which he was induced to take this extraordi- Macedoti.
nary journey, authors are not agreed ; but certain it' v 
is, that he hazarded himfelf and his troops in the high-
eft degree j there being two dangers in this march,
which, with the example of Cambyfes, who loft the*
greateft part .of his army in it, might have terrified any
body but Alexander. The firft was the want of water
which, in the fandy deferts furrounding the temple, is
nowhere to be found ; the other, the uncertainty of the
road from the flu&uation of the fands ; which chan¬
ging their fttuation every moment, leave the traveller
neither a road to walk in nor mark to march by. Thefe
difficulties, however, Alexander got over; though not
without a miraculous interpofition, as is pretended bv all
his hiftorians.
Alexander having confulted the oracle, and received
a favourable anfwer, returned to purfue his conquefts.
Having fettled the government of Egypt, he appointed
the general rendezvous of his forces at Tyre. Here he
met with ambalfadors from Athens, requefting him to
pardon fuch of their countrymen as he found ferving
the enemy. The king, being defirous to oblige fuch a
famous ftate, granted their requeft 5 and fent alfo a fleet
to the coaft of Greece, to prevent the effefts of fome
commotions which had lately happened in Peloponnelus.
He then direfted his march to Thapfacus 5 and having
paffed the Euphrates and Tigris, met with Darius near
Arbela, where the Perfians were again overthrown with
prodigious flaughter f, and Alexander in effieft became f See Ar-
mafter of the Perfian empire.
After this important vidtory, Alexander marched di-Red^es
redlly to Babylon, which was immediately delivered Babylon*,
up 5 the inhabitants being greatly difaffe&ed to the Sufa, and
Perfian intereft. After 30 days ftay in this country,Pebepolis,
the king marched to Sufa, which had already furren-
dered to Philoxenus; and here he received the trea-
fures of the Perfian monarch, amounting, according
to the moft generally received account, to 50,000 ta¬
lents. Having received alfo at this time a lupply of
6000 foot and 500 horfe from Pvlacedon, he fet about
reducing the nations of Media, among whom Darius
was retired. He firft reduced the JJxians, and having
forced a paffage to Perfepolis the capital of the empire,
he like a barbarian deflroyed the ftately palace there, a
pile of building not to be equalled in any part of the
world 5 after having given up the city to be plundered
by his foldiers. In the palace he found 120,000 talents,
which he appropriated to his own ufe, and caufed im¬
mediately to be carried away upon mules and camels ;
lor he had fuch an extreme averfion to the inhabitants
©r Peifepolis, that he determined to leave nothing va¬
luable in the city.
During the time that Alexander remained at Per¬
fepolis, he received intelligence that Darius remained
at Ecbatana the capital of Media; upon which he 54
purfued him with the greateft expedition, marching He puifues
at the rate of near 40 milts a-day In 15 days he U“rius >
reached Ecbatana, where he was? informed that Da¬
rius had retired from thence five days before, with an
intent to pafs into the remoteft provinces of his em¬
pire. This put fome ftop to the rapid progrefs of the
Macedonian army •, and the king, perceiving that there
was no neceffity for hurrying himfelf and his foldiers
in fuch a manner, began to give the orders requiiite
in the prefent fituation of his affairs. The Th&fialian
horfe,
MAC [ 31
Macedon. liorfe, wlio had deferved exceedingly well of him in all
   his battles, he difmiiTed according to his agreement ;
gave them their whole pay, and ordered 2000 talents
over and above to be diftributed among them. He
then declared that he would force no man : but if any
were willing to ferve him longer for pay, he de-
lired they would enter their names in a book, which
a great many of them did j the reft fold their horfes,
and prepared for their departure. The king appointed
Epocillus to conduft them to the fea, and alfigned him
a body of horfe as an efcort : he like wife fent Menetes
with them, to take care of their embarkation, and that
they were fafely landed in Eubcea without any expence
to themfelves.
On receiving frefh information concerning the ftate
of Darius’s affairs, the king fet out again in purfuit
of him, advancing as far as Rhages, a city one day’s
journey from the Cafpian fl rails : there he under [food
that Darius had paffed thofe ftraits fome time before ;
which information leaving him again without hopes,
he halted for five days. Oxidates, a Perfian whom Da¬
rius had left prifoner at Sufa, was made governor of
Media, while the king departed on an expedition into
Parthia. The Cafpian ftraits he paffed irmnediately
without opposition •, and then gave directions to his of¬
ficers to colled: a quantity of provifions fufficient to
ferve his army on a long march through a tvafted coun¬
try. But before his officers could accomplifh thofe
commands, the king received intelligence that Darius
had been murdered by Beffus, one of his own fubje&s,
and governor of Badria, as is related at length under
the article Persia.
As foon as Alexander had colleCled his forces to¬
gether, and fettled the government of Parthia, he
entered Hyrcania j and having, according to his ufual
cuftom, committed the greateft part of his army to
the care of Craterus, he, at the head of a choice
body of troops, paffed through certain craggy roads,
and before the arrival of Craterus, who took an open
and eafy path, ftruck the whole provinces with fuch
terror, that all the principal places w7ere immediately
put into his hands, and foon after the province of Aria
alfo fubmitted, and the king continued Satibarzanes
the governor in his employment.—The redudion of
this province finilhed the conqueft of Perfia ; but the
ambition of Alexander to become matter of every na¬
tion of which he had the leaft intelligence, induced
him to enter the country of the Mardi, merely be-
caufe its rocks and barrennefs bad hitherto hindered
any body from conquering, or indeed from attempt¬
ing to conquer it. This conqueft, however, he eafily
accomplifhed, and obliged the whole nation to fub-
mit to bis pleafure. But in the mean time difturbances
began to arife in Alexander’s new empire, and among
Ins troops, wftiich all his adivity could not thorough¬
ly fupprefs. He had fcarcely left the province of Aria,
when he received intelligence, that the traitor Beffus
had caufed himfelf to be proclaimed king of Afia by
the name of Artaxerxes; and that Satibarzanes bad
joined him, after having maffacred all the Macedonians
who had been left in the province. Alexander ap¬
pointed one Arfames governor in the room of Satibar¬
zanes 5 and marched thence wuth his army againft the
Zarangce, who, under the command of Bafzaentes, one
of thofe who had confpired againft Darius, had taken up
1
MAC
, *5
■tpho is
murdered.
86
Alexander
reduces
Hyrcania.
arms, and threatened to make an obftinate defence. Macedoa. ^
But their numbers daily falling off, Barzaentes being U‘
afraid they would purchafe their own fafety at the ex¬
pence of his, privately withdrew from his camp, and,
crofting the river Indus, fought fhelter among the na¬
tions beyond it. But they, either dreading the poiver
of Alexander, or detefting the treachery of this Perfian
towards his former mafter, feized and delivered him up
to Alexander, ivho caufed him immediately to be put
to death. 87
The immenfe treafure which the Macedonians had The Macc-
acquired in the conqueft of Perfia began now to cor-cH>mai?s
rupt them. The king himfelf was of a moft generous fejves Upt0
difpofition, and liberally bellowed his gifts on thofe luxury,
around him •, but they made a bad ufe of his bounty,
and fooliftily indulged in thofe vices by which the for¬
mer poffeffors of that wealth had loft it. The king did
all in his powrer to difcourage the lazy and inr-'tive'
pride which now began to fhow itfelf among his of¬
ficers } but neither his difcourfes nor his example had
any confiderable effiedh The manners of his courtiers
from bad became worfe, in fpite of all he could fay
or do to prevent it; and at laft they proceeded to
cenfure his condufl, and to exprefs themfelves with
fome bitternefs on the fubjeft of his long continuance
of the wrar, and his leading them confiantly from one
labour to another. This came to fuch a height, that
the king was at laft obliged to ufe fome feverity, in' or¬
der to keep his army wuthin the limits of their duty. 88
From this time forward, however, Alexander himfelf Alexander
began to alter his conduft ; and by giving a little *n_ ^he^PeTfian
to the cuftoms of the Orientals, endeavoured to fe-cuftoms,
cure that obedience from his new fubjecls which he
found fo difficult to be preferved among his old ones.
He likexvife endeavoured, by various methods, to blend
the cuftoms of the Afiatics and the Greeks. The
form of his civil government refembled that of the
ancient Perfian kings: in the military affairs hcwr-
ever, he preferved the Macedonian difeipline j but
then he made choice of 30,000 boys out of the pro¬
vinces, whom he caufed to be inftrudled in the Greek
language, and direfted to be brought up in fuch a
manner as that from time to time he might with them
fill up the phalanx. The Macedonians faw with great
concern thefe extraordinary meafures, which fuited
very ill with their grofs underftandings j for they
thought, after all the vitffories they had gained, to be
abfolute lords of Afia, and to poffefs not only the riches
of its inhabitants, but to rule the inhabitants them¬
felves : whereas they now faw, that Alexander meant
no fuch thing •, but that, on the contrary, he con¬
ferred governments, offices at court, and all other
marks of confidence and favour, indifcrimihately both
on Greeks and Perfians.—From this time alfo the
king feems to have given inftances of a cruelty he
had never ffiown before. Philotas his moft intimate
friend was feized, tortured, and put to death for a
confpiracy of which it could never be proved that he
was guilty •, and foon aYter Parmenio and fome others
were executed without any crime at all real or al-
ledged. Thefe things very much difturbed the army.
Some of them wrote home to Macedon of the king’s
fufpicions of his friends, and his difpofition to hunt
cut enemies at the very extremities of the world. A-
lexander having intercepted fome of thefe letters, and
procured i
MAC [ 3
1 Mru crlon, procured the beft in Formation he could concerning
v' ^ their authors, picked out thefe diffatisfied people, and
having difpofed them into a corps, gave it the title
of the turbulent battalion; hoping by this means to
prevent the fpirit of difaffedtion from pervading the
whole army.
As a farther precaution againft any future confpira-
cy, Alexander thought fit to appoint Hephaeflion and
Clytus generals of the auxiliary horfe ; being appre-
henfive, that if this authority was lodged in the hands
of a fingle perfon, it might prompt him to dangerous
undertakings, and at the fame time furnifli him with
the means of carrying them into execution. To keep
his forces in aftion, he fuddenly marched into the coun¬
try of the Euergetse, i. e. Benefaclors ; and found them
full of that kind and hofpitable difpofition for which
that name had been bellowed on their anceftors : he
therefore treated them with great refpedl *, and at his
departure added fome lands to their dominions, w’hich
lay contiguous, and which for that reafon they had re-
quefted of him.
Furning then to the eafl, he entered Arachofia, the
inhabitants of which fubmitted without giving him any
trouble. While he pafled the winter in thefe parts,
the king received advice, that the Arians, whom he
had fo lately fubdued, were again up in arms, Sati-
barzanes being returned into that country with two
thoufand horfe afligned him by Beflus. Alexander in-
flantly defpatched Artabazus the Perfian, with Erigyus
and Caranus, two of his commanders, with a confi-
derable body of horfe and foot; he likewife ordered
Sj> Phrataphernes, to whom he had given the govern-
Satibarza- ment of Parthia, to accompany them. A general
nes defeat- engagement enfued, wdierein the Arians behaved ve-
Vd'11^ ry we^J as long as their commander Satibarzanes lived ;
but he engaging Erigyus, the Macedonian flruck
him firfl into the throat, and then, drawing forth
his fpear again, through the mouth ; fo that he im¬
mediately expired, and with him the courage of his
foldiers, who inftantly began to fly 5 whereupon Alex¬
ander’s commanders made an eafy conqueft of the reft
of the country, and fettled it effedlually under his obe¬
dience.
The king, notwithftanding the inclemency of the
feafon, advanced into the country of Paropamifus, fo
-called from the mountain Paropamifus, which the fol¬
diers of Alexander called Caucafus. Having crofled
the country in x 6 days, he came at length to an open¬
ing leading into Media} which finding of a fufficient
breadth, he direfted a city to be built there, which
he called Alexandria, as alfo feveral other towns about
a day’s journey diftant from thence . and in thefe
places he left 7000 perfons, part of them fuch as had
hitherto followed his camp, and part of the mercenary
foldiers, v.'ho, wTeary of continual fatigue, were con¬
tent to dwell there. Having thus fettled things in
this province, facrificed folemnly to the gods, and ap¬
pointed Proexes the Perfian prefident thereof with a
fmall body of troops under the command of Niloxenus
to aflift him, he refumed his former defign of penetrat¬
ing into Badlria.
Befius, who had affumed the title of Artaxerxes,
when he was affured that Alexander was marching
tow-ards him, immediately began to wafte all the coun¬
try between Paropamifus and the river Oxus 5 which
2
90
J5eiTus re¬
duced and
put to
death.
12] MAC
river he pafled with all his forces, and then burnt all Macedon.
the veflels he had made ufe of for tranfportinT them ~—v—
retiring to Nautaca, a city of Sogdia; fully perfuad-
ed, that, by the precautions he had taken, Alexander
would be compelled to give over his purfuit. This
conduft of his, however, difheartened his troops, and
gave the lie to all his pretenlions; for he had affefted
to cenfure Darius’s conduft, and had charged him
with cowardice, in not defending the rivers Euphrates
and Tigris, whereas he now quitted the banks of the
moft defenfible river perhaps in the wdiole world. As
to his hopes, though it cannot be faid they were ill
founded, yet they proved abfolutely vain j for Alexan¬
der, continuing his march, notwithftanding all the hard-
ftiips^ his foldiers fuftained, reduced all Badtria under his
obedience, particularly the capital Badlria and the ftrong
caftle Aornus: in the latter he placed a garrifon under
the command of Archelaus; but the government of
the province he committed to Artabazus. He then
continued his march to the river Oxus : on the banks
of xvhich when he arrived, he found it three quarters of
a mile over, its depth more than proportionable to
its breadth, its bottom fandy, its ftream fo rapid as to
render it almoft unnavigable, and neither boat nor tree
in its neighbourhood ; lb that the ableft commanders
in the Macedonian army wrere of opinon that they
fhould be obliged to march back. The king, however,
having firft fent away, under a proper efcort, all his
infirm and worn-out foldiers, that they might be con¬
duced fafe to the fea-ports, and from thence to Greece,
devifed a method of palling this river without either
boat or bridge, by cauiing the hides which covered the
foldiers tents and carriages to be Hulled with llraw, and
then tied together, and thrown into the river. Having
crofted the Oxus, he marched direCly towards the camp
of Beffus, where, when he arrived, he found it abandon¬
ed ; but received at the fame time letters from Snita-
menes and Dataphernes, who were the chief comman¬
ders under Befliis, lignifying, that, if he would fend a
fmall party to receive Beffus, they would deliver him
into his hands 4 which they did accordingly, and the
traitor was put to death in the manner related in the
hiftory of Persia.
A fupply of horfes being now arrived, the Mace¬
donian cavalry were remounted. Alexander continued
his march to Maracanda the capital of Sogdia, from
whence he advanced to the river laxartes. Here he
performed great exploits againft the Scythians ; from
whom, however, though he overcame them, his army
luffered much j and the revolted Sogdians being headed
by Spitamenes, gave him a great deal of trouble. Here Alexander
he married Roxana the daughter of Oxyartes, a prince marries
of the country whom he had fubdued. But duringRoxana'
tbefe expeditions, the king greatly difgufted his army by
the murder of his friend Clytus in a drunken quarrel at
a banquet, and by his extravagant vanity in claiming di¬
vine honours.
At lafted he arrived at the river Indus, where Hephas- Paffesthe
ftion and Perdiccas had already provided a bridge ofIn^ius•
boats for the paflage of the army. The king refrelhed
his troops for 30 days in the countries on the other fide
of the river, which were thofe of his friend and ally
Taxiles, who gave him 30 elephants, and joined his ar¬
my now with 700 Indian horfe, to which, when they
W'.ere to enter upon atftion, he .afterwards added 5000
foot,
MAC f •
Macedon. foot. The true reafon of this feems to have been his
i“—v~—,; enmity to Porus, a famous Indian prince whofe terri¬
tories lay on the other lide of the river Plydafpes.
During this recefs, the king facrificed with great fo-
lemnity •, receiving alfo ambaffadors from Ambifurus,
a very potent prince, and from Doxareas, who was
likewife a king in thofe parts, with tenders of their
duty, and confiderable prefents. Thefe ceremonies over,
Alexander appointed Philip governor of Taxila, and
put a Macedonian garrifon into the place, becaufe he
intended to erefl an hofpital there for the cure of his
fick and wounded foldiers. He then ordered the vef-
fels, of which his bridge had been compofed when he
paifed the Indus, to be taken to pieces, that they might
be brought to the Hydafpes, where he was informed
that Porus with a great army lay encamped to hinder his
pafiage. When he approached the banks of this river
with his army and the auxiliaries under the command
of Taxiles, he found that the people he had to do with
were not fo eafily to be fubdued as the Perfians and
other Afiatics. The Indians were not only a very tall
and robuft, but alfo a very hardy and well difciplined
people ; and their king Porus was a prince of high fpirit,
invincible courage, and great conduff.
It was about the fummer folftice when Alexander
reached the Hydafpes, and confequently its waters
were broader, deeper, and more rapid, than at any
other time ; for in India the rivers fwell as the fun’s
increafing heat melts the fnow, and fubfide again as
winter approaches. Alexander therefore had every dif¬
ficulty to ftruggle with. Porus had made his difpofi-
tions fo judicioufly, that Alexander found it impoffible
to pradlife upon him as he had done upon others, and
to pafs the river in this view : wherefore he was con-
11 rained to divide his army into fmall parties, and to
praftife other arts, in order to get the better of fo vi¬
gilant a prince. To this end he caufed a great quan¬
tity of corn and other provifions to be brought into
his camp •, giving out, that he intended to remain where
he was till the river fell, and by becoming fordable
fhould give him an opportunity of forcing a paffage :
this did not, however, hinder Porus from keeping up
very ftrift difcipline in his camp j which when Alex¬
ander perceived, he frequently made filch motions as
feemed to indicate a change of his refolution, and that
he had Hill thoughts of palling the river. The main
thing the Macedonians flood in fear of were the ele¬
phants ; for the bank being pretty fleep on the other
fide, and it being the nature of horfes to ftart at the firft
appearance of thofe animals, it was forefeen that the
army wrould be difordered, and incapable of fuftaining
the charge of Porus’s troops.
At length Alexander paffed the river by the follow¬
ing contrivance. There was, at the diftance of 150
fladia from his camp, a rocky promontory proje<51ing
into the river, thick covered with wood ; and over-
againft this promontory there lay a pretty large unin¬
habited illand almoft overgrowm with trees. The king
therefore conceived within himfelf a pr6jecl of convey¬
ing a body of troops from this promontory into that
illand; and upon this fcheme he built bis hopes of fur-
prifing Porus, vigilant as he was. To this end he kept
him and his army conflantly alarmed for many nights
together, till he perceived that Porus apprehended it
was only done to harafs his troops, and therefore no
Vol. XII. Part I.
Macedon.
93
And the
Hydafpes
with diffi¬
culty.
U3 ] M A -C
longer drew out of his camp, but trufled to his orJi-
nary guards : then Alexander refolved to put his delign
in execution. A confiderable body of horfe, the Ma¬
cedonian phalanx, with fome corps of light-armed
foot, he left in his camp under the Command of Cra-
terus, as alfo the auxiliary Indians, giving thefe orders,
to be obferved in his abfence, that if Porus marched
againfl him with part of his army, and left another part
with the elephants behind in his camp, Craterus and
his forces Ihould remain where they were ; but if it fo
happened that Porus withdrew his elephants, then Cra¬
terus was to pafs the river, becaufe his cavalry might
then do it fafely. Alexander having marched half the
wTay, or about nine of our miles, ordered the merce¬
nary troops under the command of Attalus and other
generals, to remain there 5 and direfted them, that as
loon as they knew he was engaged with the Indians
on the other fide, they Ihould pafs in veffels provided
for that purpofe, in order to alfift him. Then march¬
ing a long way about, that the enemy might not per¬
ceive his defign of reaching the rock, lie advanced as
diligently as he could towards that poll. It happened
very fortunately for him, that a great ftorm of thun¬
der, lightning, and hail, rofe in the night, whereby
his march was perfectly concealed, his veffels of 30
oars put together, and his tents fluffed and Hitched, fo
that they palled from the rock into the itland, without
being perceived, a little before break of day j the
ftorm ceafing juft as he and his foldiers wrere ready for
their paffage. When they had traverfed the illand, they
boldly fet forward to gain the oppofite Ihore in fight of
Porus’s outguards, who inftantly polled away to give
their mailer an account of the attempt. Alexander
landed firft himfelf, and w’as followed as expeditioully
as poffible by his forces, whom he took care to draw
up as fall as they arrived. When they began their
march again, they found that their good fortune wras
not fo great as at firft they eileemed it j for it appeared
now7, that they had not reached the continent at all, but
were in truth in another illand much larger than the
former. They croffed it as fall as they could, and
found that it w7as divided from the terra Jlrma by a
narrow channel, which, hovvever, was fo fvvelled by the
late heavy rain, that the poor foldiers were obliged to
wade up to the breaft. When they were on the other
fide, the king drew7 them up again carefully, ordering
the foot to march Howdy, they being in number about
6000, while himfilf with 5000 borfe advanced before.
As foon as Porus received intelligence that Alexander
was actually paffing the river, he lent his fon with 2000
hoife and 120 armed chariots, to oppofe him. But they
came too late : Alexander was already got on fhore,
and even on his march.
When the Macedonian fcouts perceived them  .^1
vance, they informed the king, who fent a detachment Porus de-
to attack them, remaining ftill at the head of his ca- *e.atcd and
valry in expe&ation of Porus. But when he found kilkd‘
that this party was unfupported, he inftantly attack¬
ed with all his horfe, and defeated them with the
Daughter of many, and the lofs of all their armed
chariots, the fon of Porus being llain in the fight.
I he remainder of the horfe returning to the camp with
tins difaftrous account, Porus was in fome confufion :
however, he took very quickly the belt and vifeft re-
foiulions his circumftances wrould allow7: which were,
R r to
ad- 1 he ion of
MAC [31
Macp.-Ton to leave a party of his army, with fome of his e e-
phants, to oppofe Craterus, who was now aiou to
pafs the river all'o •, and, with the relt, to march againft
Alexander and his forces, wdio were already palled.
This reiolution once taken, he marched immediately
out of his camp at the head of 4000 horfe, 30,000
foot, 300 chariots, and 200 elephants. He advanced
as expeditioully as he could, till he came into a plain
which was iirm and fandy, where his chariots and ele¬
phants might act to advantage : there he halted, that
he might put his army in order, knowing w'ell that he
need not go in quell of his enemy. Alexander fcon
came up with his horfe, but he did not charge Porusj
on the contrary, he halted, and put his troops in or¬
der, that they might be able to defend themfelves in
cafe they were attacked. When he had waited fome
time, his foot arrived ; whom he immediately furround-
ed with his horfe, that, after fo fatiguing a march, they
might have time to cool and breathe themfelves, before
they wTere led to engage. Porus permitted all this, be-
caufe it w’as not his intereil to fight, and becaufe he
depended chiefly upon his order of battle, the elephants
covering his foot, fo that the Macedonians could not
charge them.
Porufhim- When Alexander had difpofed his foot in proper
fell defeat- order, he placed his horfe on the w-ings : and, oblerv-
ed. ing that he was much fuperior in them to the enemy,
and that the cavalry of Porus w^ere eafy to be charged,
he refolved to let the foot have as little (hare as pollible
in the battle. To this end, having giving the neceffa-
ry directions to Coenus who commanded them, he w’ent
himfelf to the right, and with great fury fell upon the
left wing of Porus. The difpute, though Ihort, was
very bloody: the cavalry of Porus, though they fought
gallantly, wrere quickly broken j and the foot being by
this means uncovered, the Macedonians charged them.
But the Indian horfe rallying, came up to their relief,
yet were again defeated. By this time the archers had
wmunded many of the elephants, and killed mofi. of
their riders, fa that they did not prove lefs troublefome
and dangerous to their own fide than to the Macedo¬
nians j whence a great confufion enfued: and Coenus,
taking this opportunity, fell on with the troops under
his command, and entirely defeated the Indian army.
Porus himfelf behaved with the greateft intrepidity,
and with the moft excellent conduCl : he gave his or¬
ders and direCled every thing, as long as his troops
retained their form ; and when they were broken, he
retired from party to party as they made Hands, and
continued fighting till every corps of Indians was put
to the rout. In the mean time Craterus had palled
with the rell of the Macedonian army 5 and thefe, fal¬
ling upon the flying Indians, increafed the daughter
of the day exceffively, infomuch that 20,000 foot and
3000 horfe were killed, all the chariots were hacked to
pieces, and the elephants not killed wrere taken ; two
of Porus’s fons fell here, as alfo moil of his officers of
all ranks.
As for Porus, Alexander gave ilriCl directions that
no injury might be done to his perfon : he even fent
Taxiles to perfuade him to furrender himfelf, and to
affure him that he ihould be treated with all the kind-
nefs and refpeft imaginable ; but Porus, difdaining this
advice from the mouth of an old enemy, threw a jave¬
lin at him, and had killed him but for the quick turn
4 1
M A C
of his hcr’e, Meroe the Indian, who was alfo in the Mace Jon.
fervice of Alexander, fucceeded better : he had been '
the old acquaintance of Porus 5 and therefore when he
entreated that prince to fpare his perfon, and to fubmit
himfelf to fortune and a generous viclor, Poms &!-He fubmits
lowed his advice ; and we may truly fay, that the con-to Alexan-
dition of this Indian king fuffered nothing by the lofs Jer.
of the battle. Alexander immediately gave him his li¬
berty, reftored him fliortly after to his kingdom, to
which he annexed provinces almoft equal to it in va¬
lue. Neither w'as Alexander a lofer by his munifi¬
cence •, for Porus remained his true friend and con-
ilant ally.
To perpetuate the memory of this viclory, Alex¬
ander ordered two cities to be eredled j one on the
field of battle, which he named Niccea; the other on
this fide the river, which he called Bucepha/a, in ho¬
nour of his horfe Bucephalus, who died here, as Ar¬
rian fays, of mere old age, being on the verge of
30. All the foldiers who fell in the battle, he uuried
with great honours; offered folemn facrifices to the
gods, and exhibited pompous ftiows on the banks of
the Hydafpes, where he had forced his paffage. He
than entered the territories of the Glaufse, in which
were 37 good cities, and a multitude of populous
villages. All thefe were delivered up to him without
fighting ; and as foon as he received them, he pre-
fented them to Porus; and having reconciled him to
Taxiles, he fent the latter home to his own dominions.
About this time ambaffaflors arrived from fome Indian
princes with their fubmiflions : and Alexander havinp-
conquered the dominions of another Porus, which lay
on the Hydraotes, a branch of the Indus, added them
to thofe of Porus his ally.
In the middle of all this fuccefs, however, news
arrived, that the Cathei, the Oxydracae, and the Malli,
the moil warlike nations of India, were confederated
againft the Macedonians, and had drawn together a
great army. The king immediately marched to give
them battle; and in a few days reached a city called
Sanga/a, feated on the top of a hill, and having a py
fine lake behind it. Before this city the confederate Sangala
Indians lay encamped, having three circular lines oftaken‘
carriages locked together, and their tents pitched in
the centre. Notwithflanding the apparent difficulty
of forcing thefe intrenchments, Alexander refolved im¬
mediately to attack them. The Indians make a noble
defence ; but at lafl: the firft line of their carriages was
broken, and the Macedonians entered. The fecond
was ftronger by far ; yet Alexander attacked that
too, and after a defperate refiltance forced it. The
Indians, without trufting to the third, retired into the
city ; which Alexander would have invefted : but the
foot he had with him not being fufficient for that
purpofe, he caufed his works to be carried on both
lides as far as the lake; and, on the other fide of that,
ordered feveral brigades of horfe to take poll 3 order¬
ing alfo battering engines to be brought up, and in
fome places employing miners. The lecond night, he
received intelligence that the befieged, knowing the
lake to be fordable, intended to make their efcape
through it. Upon this the king ordered all the car¬
riages which had been taken in forcing their camp to
be placed up and down the roads, in hopes of hinder¬
ing their flight} giving direftions to Ptolemy, who
commanded
MAC [ 3*5 1 MAC
Macedon. commanded the horfe on the other fide of the lake, to
’ ^ 1 be extremely vigilant, and to caufe all his trumpets to
found, that the forces might repair to that port where
the Indians made their greateft effort. Thefe pre¬
cautions had all the effedt that could be defired : for
of the few Indians who got through the lake, and
pafifed the Macedonian horfe, the greater part were
killed on the roads; but the greateft part of their
army was conftraintd to retire again through the
water into the city. Two days after, the place was
taken by ftorm. Seventeen thoufand Indians were
killed ; 70,000 taken prifoners; With 300 chariots,
and 500 horfe. The Macedonians are faid to have
loft only 100 men in this fiege j but they had 1 200
wounded, and among thefe feveral perfons of great
diftindlion.
The city was no fooner taken, than Alexander de-
fpatched Eumenes his fecretary, with a party of horfe,
to acquaint the inhabitants of the cities adjacent with
what had befallen the Sangalans; promifing alfo, that
they fhould be kindly treated if they would fubmit.
But they were fo much affrighted at what had hap¬
pened to their neighbours, that, abandoning all their
cities, they fled into the mountains j choofing rather
to expofe themfelves to wild beafts, than to thefe in¬
vaders, who had treated their countrymen fo cruelly.
When the king was informed of this, he fent detach¬
ments of horfe and foot to fcour the roads ; and thefe,
finding aged, infirm, and wounded people, to the
number of about 500, put them to the fword without
Andmzed. mercy. Perceiving that it was impoffible to perfuade
^ the inhabitants to return, he caufed the city of San-
gala to be razed, and gave the territories to the few
Indians who had fubmitted to him.
Alexander, ftill unfated with conqueft, now pre¬
pared to pafs the Hyphafis. The chief reafon which
induced him to think of this expedition was, the in¬
formation he had received of the ftate of the countries
beyond that river. He w'as told that they were in
themfelves rich and fruitful j that their inhabitants
w’ere not only a very martial people, but very civilized;
that they, were governed by the nobility, who were
themfelves fubjeft to the laws; and that as they lived
in happinefs and freedom, it was likely they would
fight obftinately in defence of thofe bleflings. He
was farther told, that among thefe nations there were
the largeft, ftrongeft, and moft ufeful elephants bred
and tamed ; and was therefore fired with an earneft
defire to reduce fuch a bold and brave people under
his rule, and of attaining to the pofleflion of the many
valuable things that were faid to be amongft them.
As exorbitant, however, as his perfonal ambition was,
he found it impoflible to infufe any part of it into the
minds of his foldiers; who were fo far from wifhing
to triumph over new and remote countries, that they
pp were highly defirous of leaving thofe that they had
Alexander’s already conquered. When therefore they were in¬
troops re- formed of the king’s intentions, they privately con-
ceed ^te<^ together in the camp about the fituation of
ther. their own affairs. At this confultation, the graveft
and beft of the foldiers lamented that they were made
ufe of by their king, not as lions, w’ho fall fiercely
upon thofe who have injured them •, but as maftiffs,
who fly upon and tear thofe who' are pointed out to
them as enemies. The reft were not fo modeft 5 but
expreffed themfelves roundly againft the king’s humour Macedon.
for leading them from battle to battle, from fiege to v '
fiege, and from river to river ; protefting that they
would follow him no further, nor lavifti away their
lives any longer, to purchafe fame for him.
Alexander was a man of too much penetration not
to be early in perceiving that his troops were very
uneafy. He therefore harangued them from his tri¬
bunal ; but though his eloquence was great, and the
love his army had for him w’as yet very ftrong, they
did not relent. For fome time the foldiers remained
fullen and filent; and at laft turned their eyes on Cce-
nus, an old and experienced general, whom Alexander
loved, and in whom the army put great confidence.—»
He had the generofity to undertake their caufe 5 and
told Alexander frankly, “ That men endured toil in
hopes of repofe j that the Macedonians were already
much reduced in their numoers $ that of thofe who
remained, the greater part were invalids; and that
they expeded, in confideration of their former fer-
vices, that he would now lead them back to their na¬
tive country: an ad which, of all others, would moil
contribute to his own great defigns $ fince it would
encourage the youth of Macedon, and even of all
Greece, to follow him in whatever new expedition he
pleafed to undertake.” The king was far from being
pleafed with this fpeech of Ccenus, and much lefs with
the difpofition of his army, which continued in a deep
filence. He therefore difmiffed the affembly : but
next day he called another, wherein he told the fol¬
diers plainly, that he would not be driven from his
purpofe j that he would proceed in his conquefts with
fuch as ihould follow him voluntarily ; as for the reft,
he would not detain them, but wrould leave them at
liberty to go home to Macedon, where they might
publifti, “ that they had left their king in the midft
of his enemies.” Even this expedient had no fuccefs ;
his army was fo thoroughly tired with long marches and
defperate battles, that they were determined to go no
further, either for fair fpeeches or foul. Upon this
Alexander retired to his tent, where he refufed to fee
his friends, and put on the fame gloomy temper that
reigned among his troops. For three days things
remained in this fituation. At laft the king fuddenly
appeared ; and, as if he had been fully determined to
purfue his firft defign, he gave orders for facrificing
for the good fuccefs of his new undertaking. Ari-
ftander the augur reported, that the omens were al¬
together inaufpicious j upon which the king faid, that
fince his proceeding farther was neither pleafing to
the gods, nor grateful to his army, he would return.
When this was rumoured among the army, they af- too
fembled in great numbers about the royal tent, falut- **e con"
ing the king with loud acclamations, wilhing him t^s t0 *e"
fuccefs in all his future defigns j giving him at the
fame time hearty thanks, for that “ he who was in¬
vincible had fuffered himfelf to be overcome by their
prayers.”
A ftop being thus put to the conquefts of Alexan¬
der, he determined to make the Hyphafis the boun¬
dary of his dominions ; and having ere6led twelve
altars of an extraordinary magnitude, he facrificed
on them : after which he exhibited (hows in the
Grecian manner j and, having added all the conquered
country in thefe parts to the dominions of Porus, he
R r 2 began
k A c
•tiaceuon.
lor
''Ails down
the Indus.
r ^
U L O
oegan to return. Having arrived at the Hydafpes,
he made the neceiTary preparations for failing down
the Indus into the ocean. For this purpole, he or¬
dered vaft quantities of timber to be felled in the
neigiibourhood ox the Hydaipes, through which he
was to fail into the Indus; he caufed the veffels with
which he had pafied other rivers to be brought thi¬
ther, and ailembled a vaft number of artificers capable
of repairing and equipping his fleet; which, when
finifhed, confifted of bo veilels of three banks of oars,
and 2QCO leiler (flips and tranfports. Xhofe who were
to manage this ileet were collected out from the Phoe¬
nicians, Cyprians, Carians, and Egyptians following
nis army, and who were reckoned perfectly well fkilled
m the naval art. When all things were ready, the
army embarked about break of day; the king, in the
mean time, facrificing to the gods according to the
ceremonies ufed in his own country, and likewife ac¬
cording to thofe of the country where he now was.
i hen ne hunfelt went on board ; and caufing the fig*
nal to be given by found of trumpet, the fleet fet fail.
Craterus and Hephaeflion had marched fome days be¬
fore witn anotner divifion of the army ; and in three
days the fleet reached that part of the river which was
oppofite to their camps. Here he had information,
that tire Oxydracse paid Mhlli were railing forces to
oppoie him ; upon which he immediately determined
to reduce them ; for, during this voyage, he made it
a rule to compel the inhabitants on both fides of the
river to yield him obedience. But before he arrived
on the coafls of the people above mentioned, he him-
ielf fuftained no fmall danger; for, coming to the
confluence of the Aceflnes with the Hydafpes, from
whence both rivers roll together into the Indus, the
eddies, whirlpools, and rapid currents, rufhing with
tremendous noife from the refpe&ive channels of thofe
rivers into the great one formed by them both, at
once terrified thofe ivho navigated his veiTels, and ac¬
tually deftroyed many of the long veffels, with all who
were aboard of them ; the king himfelf being in fome
danger, and Nearchus the admiral not a little at a lofs.
As loon as this danger was over, Alexander went on
fliore ; and having ordered his elephants with fome
troops of horfe and archers to be carried acrofs, and
put under the command of Craterus, he then divided
his army on the left hand bank into three bodies ; the
firfl commanded by himfelf, the fecond by Hephae-
ilion, and the third by Ptolemy. Hephaeftion had
orders to move filently through the heart of the coun¬
try, five days march before the king ; that if, on
Alexander’s approach, any of the barbarians fhould
attempt to Ihelter themfelves by retiring into the
country, they might fall into the hands of Hephxe-
fiion. Ptolemy Lagus wTas ordered to march three
days journey behind the king, that if any efcaped his
army, they might fall into Ptolemy’s hands ; and the
iieet had orders to flop at the confluence of this river
with the Hydraotes till fuch time as thefe feveral corps
Ihould arrive.
His expedi- Ale.xander himfelf, at the head of a body of horfe
tion againftanr^ light armed foot, marched through a defert
the Malli. country againft the Malli; and, fcarce affording any
reft to his foldiers, arrived in three days at a city into
which the barbarians had put their wives and children
with a good garrifon for their defence.- The country
*6 ]
M A C
people having no notion that Alexander would march Mkcedon.
throuah fnr-n a anri K   -1
through fuch a defert and barren .region, were ad un¬
ci, and in the utrnoit confufion. Many of them
arms
therefore were flain in the field ; the reft He'd into the
city, and (hut. the gates. But this only protraded
their fate for a fliort time; for the king, baviao- cr_
dered the city to be invefted by his cavalry, took it
as well as the caftle, by ftorm, and put all he found’
tnere to. the fword. He fent at the fame time Per-
diccas with a confiderable detachment, to inveft an¬
other city of the Malli at a confiderable diftance ; but
when he came there, he found it abandoned. How¬
ever, he purfued the inhabitants who had but lately
left it, and killed great numbers of them on the road.
After this the king took leveral other cities, but not
without confiderable refiftance ; for the Indians fome-
times chofe to burn themfelves in their houfes rather
than furrender.. At laft he marched to their capital
city ;. and finding that abandoned, he proceeded to
th* river Hydraotes, where he found 50,000 men
encamped on the oppolite bank, in order to difpute
his paffage. He did not hefitate, however, to enter
the river with a confiderable party of horfe: and fi>
much were the Indians terrified at his prefence, that
their whole army retired before him. In a fhort time
they returned and attacked him, being afhamed to fly
before fuch an inconfiderable number; but in the
mean time the reft of the Macedonian forces came up,
and the Indians were obliged to retire to a city which
lay behind them, and which Alexander invefted that
very night. The next day he ftormed the city with
fuch violence, that the inhabitants were compelled
to abandon it, and to retire to the caftle, where
they prepared for an obftinate defence. The king
mftantly gave orders for fcaling the walls, and the
foldiers prepared to execute thefe orders as faff as.
they could; but the king being impatient caught hold
of a ladder and mounted it firft himfelf, being followed.
Dy Leonatus, Peuceftas, and Abreas, the latter a man
of great valour, and who on that account had double
pay allowed him. i he king having gained the top
of the battlements, cleared them quickly of the defend- 103
ants, killing fome of them with his fword, and pufh- His deifie-
ing others over the walls: but after this was done, herate valouiy
was in.more danger than ever; for the Indians galledand
him with their arrows from the adjacent towers,
though they durft not come near enough to engage
him. His own battalion of targeteers mounting in
hafte to fecond him, broke the ladders ; which, as
foon as Alexander perceived, he threw himfelf down
into the caftle, as did alfo Peuceftas, Leonatus, and
Abreas. As foon as the king was on the ground, the
Indian general ruftied forward to attack him; but
Alexander inftantly defpatched him, as well as feveral
others who followed him. Upon this the reft retired
and contented themfelves with throwing darts and
ftones at him at a diftance. Abreas was ftruck into
the head with an arrow, and died on the fpot; and
fliortiy after, another pierced through the king’s breaft-
plate into his body. As long as he had fpirits, he
defended himfelf valiantly; but, through a vaft effufion
of blood, lofing his fenfes, he fell upon his fliield.
Peuceftas then covered him with the facred fhield of
Pallas on one fide, as did Leonatus with his own
fhield on the other, though they themfelves were
dreadfully
MAC [ 3
Macedon. dreadfully wounded. In the mean time, however, the
' — foldiers on the outfide, eager to fave their king, fup-
104 plied their want of ladders, by driving large iron pins
*s,^Lh into the walls. By the help of thele many of them
fayed by afcended, and came to the afliftance of Alexander and
his men. his companions. The Indians were now llaughtered
without mercy \ but Alexander continued for fome
time in a very dangerous way : however, he at laid re¬
covered his ftrength, and (howed himfelf again to his
army, which filled them with the greateft joy.
The Malli, being now convinced that nothing but
fubmidion could fave the remainder of them, fent de¬
puties to Alexander, offering the dominion of their
country ; as did alfo the Oxydracae: and the king
having fettled every thing in thefe countries agreeable
,;jp to his mind, proceeded on his voyage down the river
ceetU in his Indus. In this voyage he received the fubmiffion of
voyage fome other Indian princes ^ and perceiving, that at
down the p0int the illand Pattala, the river divided itfelf
into two vaft branches, he ordered an haven and con¬
venient docks to be made there for his (hips ; and
when he had careened his fleet, he failed down the
right hand branch towards the ocean. In his paffage
he fuflained great difficulties by reafon of his want of
pilots, and at the mouth of the river very narrowly
miffed being call away : yet all this did not hinder
him from purfuing his firft defign, though it does not
appear that he had any other motive thereto than the
vain defire of boafting that he had entered the ocean
beyond the Indus : for, having confecrated certain
bulls to Neptune, and thrown them into the lea,
perfoimed certain libations of golden cups, and
thrown the cups alfo into the fea, he came back
again •, having only furveyed two little iflands, one
at the mouth of the Indus, and one a little farther in
the ocean.
On the king’s return to Pattala, he refolved to fail
down the ether branch of the Indus, that he might
fee whether it was more fafe and commodious for his
fleet than that which he had already tried ; and for
this he had very good reafons. He had refolved to
fend Nearchus with his fleet by fea, through the
Perfian gulf up the river Tigris, to meet him and
his army in Mefopotamia } but as the poflibility of
this voyage depended on the ceafing of the Etefian
winds, there was a neceflity of laying up the fleet till
the feafon (hould prove favourable. Alexander, there¬
fore, failing through this branch of the Indus, fought
on the fea coafl: for bays and creeks, where his fleet
might anchor in fafety •, he caufed alfo pits to be
funk, which might be filled with frefh water for the
ufe of his people ) and took all imaginable precautions
for preferving them in eafe and fafety till the feafon
would allow them to continue their voyage. In this
he fucceeded to his wi(h ; for he found this branch of
the river Indus, at its mouth, fpread over the plain
country, and forming a kind of lake, wherein a fleet
might ride with fafety. He therefore appointed Leo-
natus, and a part of his army, to carry on fuch works
as were neceffary : caufing them to be relieved by
Iz6 frefli troops as often as there was occafion : then hav-
Sets out (bring given his lafl inftrudtions to Nearchus, he de-
35ab)Ion. parted with the reft of the army, in order to march
back to Babylon.
Before the king’s departure, many of his friends
r 7 ] MAC
advifed him againft the route which he intended to Macedon.
take. They told him, that nothing could be more rafti 'r~~“
or dangerous than this refolution. They acquainted
him, that the country through which he -was to travel
was a wild uncultivated ctefert j that Semiramis, when
fire led her foldiers this way out of India, brought
home but 20 of them 5 and that Cyrus, attempting
to do the fame, returned with only feven. But all this
was fo far from deterring Alexander, that it more
than ever determined him to purfue no other road. As
foon, therefore, as he had put things in order, he
marched at the head of a fufficient body of troops to
reduce the Oritse, who had never vouchiafed either to
make their fubmiflion or to court his friendfhip. Their
territories lay on the other fide of a river called /Ira¬
kis, which Alexander croffed fo fpeedily, that they
had no intelligence of his march ; whereupon mod of
them quitted their country, and fled into the deferts.
Their capital he found fo well (ituated, that he refolv¬
ed to take it out of their hands, and to caufe a new
and noble city to be founded there, the care of which
he committed to Hephaeftion. Then he received the
deputies of the Oritae and Gedrofi y and having affured
them, that if the people returned to their villages, they
{hould be kindly treated, and having appointed Apol-
lophenes prefident of the Oritae, and left a confiderable
body of troops under Leonatus to fecure their obe¬
dience, he began his march through Gedfofia. In this IO ,
march his troops fuffered incredible hardihips. The His dan-
road was very uncertain and troublefome, on account gerous
of its lying through deep and loofe fands, rifing in many n'iarch
places into hillocks, which forced the foldiers to climb,
at the fame time that it; funk under their feet ; there
were no towns, villages, nor places of refrefhment, to
be met with; fo that, after exceflive marches, they were
forced to encamp among thefe dry fands. As to pro-
vifions, they hardly met with any during their whole
march. The foluiers were therefore obliged to kill their
beads of carriage ; and fuch as were fent to bring fome
corn from the fea fide, were fo grievoufly diftreffed,
that, though it was fealed with the king’s lignet, they
cut open the bags, choofing rather to die a violent death
for difobedience than periih by hunger. When the
king, however, was informed of this, he freely par¬
doned the offenders ; he was alfo forced to accept
the excufes that were daily made for the lofs of
mules, horfes, &c. which were in truth eaten by the
foldiers, and their carriages broken in pieces to avoid
further trouble. As for wTater, their want of it was
a great misfortune ; and yet their finding it in plenty
was fometimes a greater: for, as by the firft they
periftied with third, fo by the latter they were burft,
thrown into dropiies, and rendered incapable of travel.
Frequently they met with no water for the whole day
together : fometimes they were difappointed of it at
night ; in which cafe, if they were able, they march¬
ed on ; fo that it was common with them to travel 30,
40, 50, or even 60 miles without encamping. Num¬
bers through thefe hardihips wTere obliged to lag in the
rear ; and of thele many were left behind, and perilh-
ed ; for indeed fcarce any ever joined the army again.
Their miferies, however, they fuftained with incre¬
dible patience, being encouraged by the example of
their king ; who, on this occaflon, fuftered greater
hardftiips than the meaneft foldier in.his army. At laft
MAC [318] MAC
109
Redreffes
the grie¬
vances of
his people.
Macedon. they arrived at the capital of Gedrofia, where they re-
- freihed themfelves, and ft aid fome time : after which
they marched into Caramania; which being a very plen¬
tiful country, they there made themfelves ample amends
for the hardfhips and fatigues they had fuftained. Here
they were joined firft by Craterus with the troops un¬
der his command, with a number of elephants: then
came Stafanor prefident of the Arians, and Pharif-
manes the fon of Phrataphernes governor of Parthia.
They brought with them camels, horfes, and other
bealts of burden, in vaft numbers ; having forefeen,
that the king’s march through Gedrofia would be attend¬
ed with the lofs of the greatefl part, if not of all the
cavalry and beads belonging to his army.
During Alexander’s flay in Caramania, he redreffed
the injuries of his people, who had been grievoufly op-
preffed by their governors during his abfence. Here
alfo he was joined by his admiral Nearchus, who
brought him an account that all under his command
were in perfect fafety, and in excellent condition ;
with which the king was mightily pleafed, and, after
having beftowed on him Angular marks of his favour,
fent him back to the navy. Alexander next let out for
Perfia, where great diforders had been committed during
his abfence. Thefe alfo he redreffed, and caufed the
governor to be crucified j appointing in his room Peu-
ceflas, who faved his life when he fought fingly againil
a whole garrifon as above related. The new governor
was no fooner invefted with his dignity, than he laid
afide the Macedonian garb, and put on that of the
Medes ; being the only one of Alexander’s captains,
who, by complying with the manners of the people he
governed, gained their affe&ion.
While Alexander vifited the different parts of Per¬
fia, he took a view, among the reft, of the ruins of Per-
fepolis, where he is faid to have expreffed great for-
row for the deftruftion he had formerly occafioned.
From Perfepolis he marched to Sufa, where he gave
an extraordinary loofe to pleafure j refolving to make
hunfelf and his followers fome amends for the difficul¬
ties they had hitherto undergone : purpofing at the
fame time fo effectually to unite his newr conquered
with his hereditary fubjefts, that the jealoufies and
fears which had hitherto tormented both, ftiould no
longer fubfift. With this view he married two wives
of the blood royal of Perfia ; viz. Barfine, or Statira,
the daughter of Darius, and Paryfaiis the daughter
of Ochus. Drypetis, another daughter of Darius, he
gave to Hephaeftion ; Amaftrine, the daughter of Oxy-
artes the brother of Darius, married Craterus j and
to the reft of his friends, to the number of 80, he gave
other wojnen of the greateft quality. All thefe mar¬
riages were celebrated at once, Alexander bimfelf be¬
llowing fortunes upon them ; he directed likewife to
take account of the number of his officers and foldiers
who had married Afiatic wives; and though they ap¬
peared to be 10,coo, yet he gratified each of them ac¬
cording to his rank. He next refolved to pay the debts
of his army, and thereupon iffued an edicft directing
debts ot his every man to regifter his name and the firm he owed 5
army. with which the foldiers complying flowly, from an ap-
prehcnfion that there was fome defign againft them,
Alexander ordered tables heaped with money to be fet
in all quarters of the camp, and caufed every man’s
debts to be paid on his bare word, without even
ito
Marries
other two
Wiyes.
in
Pays the
making any entry of his name : though the whole fum
came to 20,000 talents. On fuch as had diftinguifhed
themfelves in an extraordinary manner, he beftowed
crowns of gold. Peuceftas had the firft j Leonatus
the fecond •, Nearchus the third; Oneficritus the
fourth ; Hephaeftion the fifth ; and the reft of his
guards had each of them one. After this he made
other difpofitions for conciliating, as he fuppofed, the
differences among all his fubjefts. He reviewed the
30,000 youths, whom at his departure for India he had
ordered to be taught Greek and the Macedonian dif-
cipline j expreffing high fatisfadion at the fine appear¬
ance they made, which rendered them worthy of the
appellation he beftowed on them, viz. that of Epigotii,
e. fucceffors. He promoted alfo, without any di-
fhndion of nation, all thofe who had ferved him faith¬
fully and valiantly in the Indian war. When all theie
regulations wrere made, he gave the command of his
heavy armed troops to Hephaeftion, and ordered him
to march diredly to the banks of the Tigris, while in
the mean time a fleet was equipped for carrying the
king and the troops he retained with him down to the
ocean.
Macedou.
1 hus ended the exploits of Alexander j the greateft
conqueror that ever the world law, at leaft with re-
fped to the rapidity of his conquefts. In 12 years'
time he had brought under his fubjeftion Egypt,
Libya, Alia Minor, Syria, Phoenicia, Paleftine, Ba¬
bylonia, Perfia, with part of India and Tartary. Still,
however, he meditated greater things. He had now
got a great tafte in maritime affairs j and is faid to
have meditated a voyage to the coafts of Arabia and
Ethiopia, and thence round the whole continent of
Africa to the ftraits of Gibraltar. But of this there
is no great certainty ; though that he intended to fub-
due the Carthaginians and Italians, is more than pro¬
bable. AH thefe defigns, however, were fruftrated by
his death, which happened at Babylon in 323 B. C.
He is faid to have received feveral warnings of his ap¬
proaching fate, and to have been advifed to avoid that
city; which advice he either defpifed or could not
follow. He died of a fever after eight days illnefs, a(.
without naming any fucceffor ; having only given his Babylon^
ring to Perdiccas, and left the kingdom, as he faid,
to the moj} worth/.
The chara&er of this great prince has been varioufly H;s charac-
reprefented ; but moft hiftorians feem to have looked ter.
upon him rather as an illuftrious madman than one
upon whom the epithet of Great could be properly be¬
ftowed. From a careful obfervation of his condutft,
however, it muft appear, that he poffeffed not only a
capacity to plan, but likewife to execute, the greateft
enterprifes that ever entered into the mind of any of
the human race. From whatever caufe the notion
originated, it is plain that he imagined himfelf a divine
perfon, and born to fubdue the whole world : and ex¬
travagant and impracticable as this fcheme may appear
at prefent, it cannot at all be looked upon in the fame
light in the time of Alexander. The Greeks were in
his time the moft powerful people in the world in re-
fpeft to their Ikill in the military art, and the Perfians
were the moft powerful with refpeCt to wealth and
numbers. I he only other powerful people in the
world were the Carthaginians, Gauls, and Italian na¬
tions. From a long feries of wars which the Cartha¬
ginians
/
Macedon
M AC C 31
ginians carried on in Sicily, it appeared tnat they
'were by no means capable of contending with the
Greeks even when they had an immenfe fuperiority ot
numbers ; much lefs then could they have futtained
an attack from the whole power of Greece and Afia
united. The Gauls and Italians were indeed very
brave, and of a martial difpofition ; but they were bar-
barous, and could not have refifted armies well
ciplined and under the command of fuch^ a fkiiiul
leader as Alexander. Even long after this time, it ap¬
peared that the Romans themfelves could not have
refilled the Greeks ; fince Regulus, after having de¬
feated the Carthaginians and reduced them to^tne ut-
moft didrefs, was totally unable to refill a Carthagi¬
nian army commanded by a Greek general, and guided
by Greek difcipline.
Thus it appears, that the fcheme of Alexander can¬
not by any means be accounted that of a madman, or
of one who projetts great things without judgement or
means to execute them. If we confider fiom his. ac¬
tions the end which molt probably he had in view,
could his fcheme have been accomplifhed, we lhall find
it not only the greateft but the bejl that can poffibly
be imagined. He did not concjuer to dellroy, enllave,
or opprefs; but to civilize and unite the whole world
as one nation. No fooner was a province concjucred
than he took care of it as if it had been part_ of his
paternal inheritance. He allowed not his loldiers to
opprefs and plunder the Perlians, which they j'616
very much inclined to do } on the contrary, by.giving
into the oriental cuiloms himfelf, he drove to extinguifh
that inveterate hatred which had fo long fubfiiied be¬
tween the two nations. In the Scythian countries
which he fubdued, he purfued the fame excellent plan.
His courage and military {kill, m which he never was
excelled, were difplayed, not with a view to rapine or
defultory concjueil, but to civilize and inuuce the bar*
barous inhabitants to employ themfelves in a moie pro¬
per way of life. “ Midll the hardlhips of a military
life (fays Dr Gillies), obftinate fieges, bloody battles,
and dear bought vi&ories, he dill refpeaed the rights
of mankind/and praclifed the mild virtues of huma¬
nity. The conquered nations enjoyed their ancient
laws and privileges ■, the rigours of defpotifm were foft-
ened •, arts and indudry encouraged j and the proudeil
Macedonian governors compelled, by the authority and
example of Alexander, to obferve the rules of judice
towards their meaneft fubjefts. do bridle the fierce
inhabitants of the Scythian plains, he founded cities
and edablxlhed cplonies on tne banks of the laxartes
and Oxus ; and tbofe dedructive campaigns usually
alcribed to his redlefs aclivity, and blind ambition,
appeared to the difcernment of this extraordinary man
not only eflential to the fecurity of the conqueds
which he had already made, but neceflary for the more
remote and fplendid expeditions which he dill pur-
pofed to undertake, and which he performed with
lingular boldnefs and unexampled fuccefs.” In an¬
other place, the fame author gives his character in the
following words.
“ He was of a low ftature, and fomewhat deform¬
ed ; but the aftivity and elevation of his mind, ani¬
mated and ennobled his frame. By a life of. continual
labour, and by an early and habitual pra£lice of the
gymnaftic exercifes, he had hardened his body againft
g ] M A C
the imprefiior.s of cold and heat, hunger and third, MaceJur«
and prepared his robuft conftitution for bearing fuch
exertions of ftrength and aflivity, as have appeared
incredible to the undifciplined foftnefs of modern times.
In generofity and in prowefs,_ he rivalled the greatell
heroes of antiquity j and in the race of glory, having
finally outftripped all competitors, became ambitious
to furpafs himfelf. His fuperior fkill in war gave un¬
interrupted fuccefs to his arms •, and his natural hu¬
manity, enlightened by the philofophy of Greece,
taught him to improve his conquefis to the bed inte-
refts of mankind. In his extenfive dominions he built
or founded not lefs than 70 cities; the fituation of
which being chofen with confummate wifdom, tended
to facilitate communication, to promote commerce,
and to diffufe civility through the greateft nations of
the earth. It may be fufpe£led, indeed, that he mif-
took the extent of human power, when in the courfe
of one reign he undertook to change the face of the
world ; and that he mifcalculated the ftubbornnefs of
ignorance and the force of habit, when he attempted
to enlighten barbarifm, to foften fervitude, and to
tranfplant the improvements of Greece into an Afri¬
can and Afiatic foil, where they have never been
known to flourifti. Yet let not the defigns of Alex¬
ander be too haftily accufed of extravagance. Who¬
ever ferioufly confiders what he actually performed be¬
fore his 33d year, will be cautious of determining what
he might have accompiifhed had he reached the ordi¬
nary term of human life. His refources were peculiar
to himfelf; and fuch views as well as a&ions became
him as would have become none befides. In the lan¬
guage of a philofophical hiftorian, ‘ he feems to have
been given to the world by a peculiar difpenfation of
Providence, being a man like to none other of the
human kind.’
“ From the part which his father Philip and himfelf
afted in the affairs of Greece, his hiftory has been
tranfmitted through the impure channels of exagge¬
rated flattery or malignant envy. The innumerable
fidlions ivhich difgrace the works of his biographers,
are contradidled by the moft authentic accounts of his
reign, and inconfiftent with thofe public tranfadlions
which concurring authorities confirm. In the prefent
work it feemed unneceffary to expatiate on fuch topics,
fince it is lefs the bufinefs of hiftory to repeat or even
to expofe errors than to feleft and imprefs ufeful truths.
An author, ambitious of attaining that purpofe, can
feldom indulge the language of general panegyric.
He will acknowledge, that Alexander’s adlions were
not always blamelefs ; but, after the moft careful ex¬
amination, he will affirm, that his faults were few in
number, and refulted from his fituation rather than
from his charafler.
“ From the firft years of his reign he experienced the
crimes of difaffe£lion and treachery, which multiplied
and became more dangerous with the extent of his
dominions and the difficulty to govern them. Several
of his lieutenants early afpired at independence ; others
formed confpiracies againft the life of their mafter.
The firft criminals were treated with a lenity becom¬
ing the generous fpirit of Alexander : but when
Philotas, the fon of Parmenio, and even Parmenio
himfelf, afforded reafon to fufpeeft their fidelity *, when
the Macedonian youths, who, according to the infti-
- tution
MAC [ 320 ]
edon. tution of Philip, guarded the roj'al pavilion, prepared
to murder their fovereign, he found it neceTary to de¬
part from his lenient fyftem, and to hold with a firmer
hand the reins of government. Elated by unexampled
profperity, and the fubmiffive reverence of vanquished
nations, his loftinefs difgufted the pride of his Euro¬
pean troops, particularly the Macedonian nobles, who
had been accuftomed to regard tbemfelves rathA- as his
companions than fubje&s. The pretenfions which
found policy taught him to form and to maintain, of
being treated with thofe external honours ever claim¬
ed by the monarchs of the Eaft, highly offended the
religious prejudices of the Greeks, who deemed it im¬
pious to proftrate the body or bend the knee to any
mortal fovereign. Yet had he remitted formalities
confecrated by the pra&ice of ages, he muff infenfibly
have loft the refpeft of his Afiatic fubje&s. With a
view to reconcile the difcordant principles of the vic¬
tors and vanquifhed, he affedled an immediate defcent
from Jupiter .Ammon, a claim liberally admitted by the
avarice or fears of the Libyan priefts ; and which, he
had reafon to expedf, could not be very obftinately
denied by the credulity of the Greeks and Macedo¬
nians j wrho univerfally acknowledged that Philip, his
reputed father, rvas remotely defcended from the Gre¬
cian Jupiter. But the fuccefs of this defign, which
might have entitled him, as fon of Jupiter, to the fame
obeifance from the Greeks which the barbarians rea¬
dily paid him as monarch of the Eaft, wTas counter-
adled, at firft by the fecret difpleafure, and afterwards
by^the open indignation, of feveral of his generals and
courtiers. Nor did the conduift of Alexander tend to
extricate him from this difficulty. With his friends
he maintained that equal intercourfe of vifits and en¬
tertainments which charadlerized the Macedonian man¬
ners j indulged the liberal flow of unguarded conver-
fation j and often exceeded that intemperance in wine
wduch difgraced his age and country.”
We fliall conclude this chara£ler of Alexander with
obferving, that he had in viewq and undoubtedly muft
have accomplifhed, the fovereignty of the ocean as well
as of the land. The violent refiftance made by the
Tyrians had ftiown him the ftrength of a commercial
nation ; and it was undoubtedly with a view to enrich
his dominions by commerce, that he equipped the fleet
on the Indus, and wdftied to keep up a communication
with India by fea as well as by land. “ It was chiefly
wdth a view to the former of thefe obje«5ls (fays Dr Ro-
bertfon), that he examined the navigation of the Indus
with fo much attention. With the fame view, on his
return to Sufa, he in perfon furveyed the courfe of the
Euphrates and Tigris, and gave diredtions to remove
the cataradls or dams with which the ancient monarchs
of Perfia, induced by a peculiar precept of their reli¬
gion, which enjoined them to guard with the utmoft
care againft defiling any of the elements, had conftrudt-
ed near the mouths of thefe rivers, in order to (hut out
their fubjedls from any accefs to the ocean. By open¬
ing the navigation in this manner, he propofed, that the
valuable commodities of India (hould be conveyed from
the Perfian gulf into the interior parts of his Afiatic do¬
minions, while by the Arabian gulf they ftiould be car¬
ried to Alexandria, and diftributed to the reft of the
world.
“ Grand and extenfive as thefe fchemes were, the
3
M A C
precautions employed, and the arrangements made for Macedon.
carrying them into execution, were fo various and lb
proper, that Alexander had good reafon to entertain
fanguine hopes of their proving fuccefsful. At the time
when the mutinous, fpirit of his foldiers obliged him to
relinquiffi his operations in India, he was not 30 years
of age complete. At this dnterprifing period of life, a
prince of a fpirit fo ab'tive, peifevering, and indefati¬
gable, muft have foon found means to refume a favour¬
ite meafure on which he had been long intent. If he
had invaded India a fecond time, he would not, as for¬
merly, have been obliged to force his way through hof-
tile and unexplored regions, oppofed at every ftep by
uations and tribes of barbarians whofe names had never
reached Greece. All Alia, from the ftiores of the Io¬
nian fea to the banks of the Hyphafis, would then have
been fubjecl to his dominion ; and through that 'in-
menfe ftretch of country he had eflabiiflied fuch a chain
of cities .pr fortified ftations, that his armies might have
continued their march with fafety, and have found a
regular fucceffion of magazines provided for their fub-
fiftence. Nor would it have been difficult for him to
bring into the field forces fufficient to have achieved the
conqueft of a country fo populous and extenfive as In¬
dia. Having armed and difciplined his fubjeds in the
eaft like Europeans, they would have been ambitious
to imitate and to equal their inftrudors; and Alexan¬
der might have drawn recruits, not from his fcanty do¬
mains in Macedonia and Greece, but from the vaft re¬
gions of Afia, which in every age has covered the
earth, and aftoniffied mankind with its numerous ar¬
mies. When at the head of fuch a formidable power
he had reached the confines of India, he might have
entered it under circumftances very different from thofe
in his firft expedition. He had fecured a firm footing
there, partly by means of the garrifons which he left in.
the three cities which he had built and fortified, and
partly by his alliance with Taxiles and Porus. Thefe
two Indian princes, won by Alexander’s humanity and
beneficence, which, as they were virtues feldom dif-
played in the ancient mode of carrying on war, excited
of courfe a higher degree of admiration and gratitude,
had continued fteady in their attachment to the Mace¬
donians. Reinforced by their troops, and guided by
their information as well as by the experience which he
had acquired in his former campaigns, Alexander muft
have made rapid progrefs in a country where every in¬
vader from his time to the prefent age has proved fuc¬
cefsful.
“ But this and all his other fplendid fchemes were
terminated at once by his untimely death. In con-
fequence of that, however, events took place which il-
luftrate and confirm the juflnefs of the preceding fpecu-
lations and conjectures, by evidence the moft ftriking
and fatisfa&ory. When that great empire, which the
fuperior genius of Alexander had kept united and in
fubjeClion, no longer felt his fupcrintending controul,
it broke into pieces, and its various provinces were
feized by his principal officers, and parcelled out among
them. From ambition, emulation, and perfonal animo-
fity, they foon turned their arms againft one another j
and as feveral of the leaders were equally eminent for
political abilities and for military {kill, the conteft was
maintained long, and carried on with frequent viciffi-
tudes of fortune. Amidft the various convulfions and
revolutions
tion of his
«wnpire,
MAC [ 32t ]
Macedon. fevolutions which thefe occafioned, it wTas found that
the meafures of Alexander for the prefervation of his
conquefts had been concerted with fuch fagacity, that
upon the final reftoration of tranquillity, the Macedo¬
nian dominion continued to be eftablilhed in every part
of Alia, and not one province had lhaken olf the yoke.
Even India, the moft remote of Alexander’s conquefts,
quietly fubmitted to Python the fon of Agenor, and af¬
terwards to Seleucus, who fucceflively obtained domi¬
nion over that part of Alia. Porus and Taxiles, not-
withftanding the death of their benefadtor, neither de¬
clined fubmiflion to the authority of the Macedonians,
nor made any attempt to recover independence.”
With the death of Alexander fell alfo the glory of
the Macedonians ; who very foon relapfed into a fitu-
ation as bad, or worfe, than that in which they had
Caufesof been before the reign of Philip. This was occafioned
the diflolu- principally by his not having diftindlly named a fuc-
ceffor, and having no child of his own come to the
years of difcretion to whom the kingdom might feem
naturally to belong. The ambition and jealoufy of his
mother Olympias, his queen Roxana, and efpecially of
the great commanders of his army, not only prevented
a fucceffor from being ever named, but occafioned the
death of every perfon, whether male or female, who
kwas in the leaft related to Alexander. To have a juft
notion of the origin of thefe difturbances, it is necef-
fary in the firft place to underftand the fituation of the
Macedonian affairs at the time of Alexander’s death.
When Alexander fet out for Alia, he left Antipater,
as we formerly obferved, in Macedon, to prevent any
difturbances that might arife either there or in Greece.
The Greeks, even during the lifetime of Alexander,
bore the fuperiority which he exercifed over them with
great impatience *, and, though nothing could be more
gentle than the government of Antipater, yet he was
exceedingly hated, becaufe he obliged them to be quiet.
One of the laft aftionsof Alexander’s life fet all Greece
in a flame. He had, by an edift, direfled all the cities
of Greece to recal their exiles ; which edidt, when it
was publilhed at the Olympic games, created much
confufion. Many of the cities were afraid, that, when
the exiles returned, they would change the govern¬
ment ; moft of them doubted their own fafety if the
edifl took place j and all of them held this peremptory
decree to be a total abolition of their liberty. No foon-
er therefore did the new7s of Alexander’s death arrive
than they prepared for war.
In Alia the ftate of things was not much better ; not
indeed through any inclination of the conquered coun¬
tries to revolt, but through the diffenfions among the
commanders.—In the general council which was called
foon after the death of Alexander, after much confufion
and altercation, it wTas at laft agreed, or rather com¬
manded by the foldiers, that Aridaeus the brother of
Alexander, who had always accompanied the king, and
had been wont to facrifice with him, thould affume the
fovereignty.——This Aridaeus was a man of very fiender
parts and judgement, not naturally, but by the wicked
praflices of Olympias, who had given him poifonous
draughts in his infancy, left he ftiould ftand in the way
of her fon Alexander or any of his family •, and for this,
or fome other reafon, Perdiccas, Ptolemy, and moft of
the horfe officers, refented his promotion to fuch a de¬
gree, that they quitted the affembly, and even the city. embalmed.
Vol. XII. Part I.
,IIS
Aridaeus
appointed
king.
MAC
However, Meleager, at the head of the phalanx, vigo- Macedan.
roufly fupported their firft refolution, and threatened' v
loudly to ftied the blood of thofe who affedled to rule
over their equals, and to affume a kingdom which no¬
way belonged to them : Aridaeus was accordingly ar¬
rayed in royal robes, had the arms of Alexander put
upon him, and was faluted by the name of P/ii/i/>, to n<5
render him more popular. Thus were two parties form-A party
ed, at the head of whom were Meleager and Perdiccas;
both of them pretending vaft concern for the public ggr anjj
good, yet, at bottom, defiring nothing more than their another by
owm advantage. Perdiccas was a man of high birth, Perdiccas.
and had a fupreme command in the army, was much in
favour with Alexander, and one in whom the nobility
had put great confidence. Meleager had* become for¬
midable by having the phalanx on his fide, and having
the nominal king entirely in his power ; for Aridaeus,
or Philip, was obliged to comply writh whatever he
thought proper ; and publicly declared, that whatever
he did was by the advice of Meleager •, fo that he made
his minifter accountable for his own fchemes, and no¬
way endangered himfelf. The Macedonians alfo, be-
fides their regard for the deceafed king, foon began to
entertain a perfona! love for Philip on account of his
moderation.
It is remarkable, however, that notwithftanding all
the favours which Alexander had conferred upon his
officers, and the fidelity with wffiich they had ferved
him during his life, only two of them were attached to
the interefts of his family after his death. Thefe were
Antipater, and Eumenes the Cardian, whom he had
appointed his fecretary. Antipater, as we have al.
ready feen, was embroiled with the Greeks, and could
not affift the royal family "tvho were in Alia ; and Eu¬
menes had not as yet fufficient intereft to form a party ny
in their favour. In a ftiort time, however, Perdiccas Meleager
prevailed againft Meleager, and got him murdered jniur,Iered,
by which means the fupreme power for a time fell into aJrg ^ enN
his hands. His firft ftep, in confequence of this power, vided!"
was to diftribute the provinces of the empire among the
commanders in the following manner, in order to pre¬
vent competitors, and to iatisfy the ambition of the
principal commanders of the army. Aridaeus, and the
fon of Roxana, born after the death of his father, were
to enjoy the regal authority. Antipater had the go¬
vernment of the European provinces. Craterus had
the title of prote&or. Perdiccas was general of the
houfehold troops in the room of Hephaeftion. Ptolemy
the fon of Lagus had Egypt, Libya, and that part of
Arabia which borders upon Egypt. Cleomenes, a man
of infamous chara&er, whom Alexander had made re¬
ceiver-general in Egypt, was made Ptolemy’s deputy.-
Leomedon had Syria ; Philotas, Cilicia ; Python, Me¬
dia ; Eumenes, Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, and all the
country bordering on the Euxine fea, as far as Trape-
zus; but thefe were not yet conquered, fo that he was
a governor without a province. Antigonus had Pam-
phylia, Lycia, and Phrygia Major; Caffander, Ca- >
ria ; Menander, Lydia ; Leonatus, Phrvgia on
Hellefpont.
In the mean time, not only Alexander’s will,
Alexander himfelf, w7as fo much negleiled, that his der's body-
body was allowed to remain feven days before any no-ne/t'eAed,
tice was taken of it, or any orders given for its beinran^ whl
the
i 118
but A lexari-
Tbe only will he left was a
S f
ftiort
^ 'fet afide,
memo;-
random
MAC r ’ 3
, Mace Jon, rancfum of fix things he would have done i. The
building of a fleet of 1000 ftout galleys, to be made
ufe of again ft the Carthaginians and other nations who
fhould oppofe the redudion of the fea-coafts of Africa
and Spain, with all the adjacent iflands as.far as Sicily.
2. A large and regular highway was to be made along
the coaft of Africa, as far as Ceuta and Tangier. 3.
Six temples of extraordinary magnificence were to be
erefted at the expence of 1500 talents each. 4. Caf-
tles, arfenals, havens, and yards for building Ihips, to
be fettled in proper places throughout his empire. * 5.
Several new cities were to be built in Europe and Afia j
thofe in Afia to be inhabited by colonies from Europe,
and thofe in Europe to be filled with Afiatics ; that, by
blending their people and their manners, that hereditary
antipathy might be eradicated which had hitherto fub-
fifted between the inhabitants of the different conti¬
nents. . 6. Laftly, He had proje£ted the building of a
pyramid, equal in bulk and beauty to the biggeft in E-
gypt, in honour of his father Philip. All thefe de-
figns, under pretence of their being expenfive, were re¬
ferred to a council of Macedonians, to be held nobody
knew when or where.
The government, being now in the hands of Perdic-
cas and Roxana, grew quickly very cruel and diftafte-
fhl. Alexander was fcarce dead when the queen lent
for Statira and Drypetis the two daughters of Darius,
one of whom had been married to Alexander and the5
other to Hephaeftion : but as foon as they arrived at
Babylon, caufed them both to be murdered, that no
fon of Alexander by any other woman, or of Hephcef-
tion, might give any trouble to her or her fon Alexan¬
der. Sifygambis, the mother of Darius, no fooner
heard that Alexander the Great was dead, than (he laid
violent hands on herfelf, being apprehenfive of the ca¬
lamities which were about to enfue.
War was firft declared in Greece againft Antipater
in the year 321 B. C. Through the treachery of the
Theffalians, that general was defeated, with the army
he had under his own command. Leonatus was there¬
fore fent from Afia, with a very confiderable army, to
his afliftance •, but both were overthrown with great lofs
by the confederates, and Leonatus himfelf was killed.
In a fhort time, however, Craterus arrived in Greece
with a great army, the command of which he refigned
to Antipater. The army of the confederates amounted
to 25,000 foot and 3000 horfe ; but Antipater com¬
manded no fewer than 40,000 foot, 3000 archers, and
5000 horfe. In fuch an unequal conteft, therefore, the
Greeks were defeated, and forced to fue for peace ;
which they did not obtain but on condition of their re¬
ceiving Macedonian garrifons into feveral of their cities.
At Athens alfo the democratic government was abro¬
gated •, and fuch a dreadful punifhment did this feem to
the Athenians, that 22,000 of them left their country,
and retired into Macedon.
While thefe things w^ere ,doing in Greece, difturb-
ances began alfo to arife in Afia and in Thrace. The
Greek mercenaries, who were difperfed through the
inland provinces of Afia, defpairing of ever being al¬
lowed to return home by fair means, determined to
attempt it by force. For this purpofe, they affembled
to the number of 20,000 foot and 3000 horfe 5 but
were all cut oft’ to a man by the Macedonians. In
Thrace, Lyfimachus was attacked by one Seuthes, a
rig
The daugh¬
ters of Da¬
rius put
to death by
Roxana.
The Greeks
revolt, but
are fub-
dued.
1 at
Difturban-
ces in Afia
and Thrace,
22 1 ■, MAC
prince of that country who claimed the dominions of Macedon.
Mp anceftors, and had raifed an army of 20,000 foot — *
and 8coo horfe. But though the Macedonian com¬
mander was forced to engage this army with no more
than 4000 foot and 2000 horfe, yet he kept the field
of battle, and could not be driven out of the country.
I erdiccas, m the mean time, by pretending friendfliip
to the royal family, had gained over Eumenes entirely
to his intereft; and at laft put him in poffeflion of the Ambition
province of Cappadocia by the defeat of Ariarathes and crue!-
King or that country, ivhom he afterwards cruelly tJof
cauied to be crucified. His ambition, however, now (^ccas‘
began to lead him into difficulties. At the firft divifion
or the provinces, Perdiccas, to ftrengthen his own au¬
thority, had propofed to marry Nicaea the daughter of
Anti pater j and fo well was this propofal reliftied, that
yer brethren Jolias and Archias conducted her to him,
in order to be prefent at the celebration of the nuptials.
But Perdiccas now had other things in view. He had
been foheited by Olympias to marry her daughter Cleo¬
patra, the widow of Alexander king of Epirus, and
w o then refided at Sardis in Lydia. Eumenes pro¬
moted this match to the utmoft of his power, becaufe
he thought it would be for the intereft of the royal fa¬
mily ; and his perfuafions had fuch an effeft on Perdic¬
cas, that he was fent to Sardis to compliment Cieopa-
tia, and to carry prefents to her in name of her new
lover. In the abfence of Eumenes, however, Alcetas,
the brother of Perdiccas, perfuaded him to marry Ni-
ca:a.’ but> in order to gratify his ambition, he refolved
to divorce her immediately after marriage, and marry
Cleopatra. By this laft marriage, he hoped to have a
pretence for altering the government of Macedon : and,
as a neceflary meafure preparative to thefe, he entered
into contrivances for deftroying Antigonus. Unfortu¬
nately for himfelf, however, he ruined all his fchemes
by his own jealoufy and precipitate cruelty. Cynane,
the daughter of Philip by his fecond wife, had brought
her daughter named Adda, and who was afterwards
named Eurydice, to court, in hopes that King Aridams
might marry her. Againft Cynane, Perdiccas, from
fome political motives, conceived fuch a grudge, that he
caufed her to be murdered. This raifed a commotion-
in the army ; which frightened Perdiccas to fuch a de¬
gree, that he now promoted the match between Ari-
dams and Eurydice j to prevent which, he had murder¬
ed the mother of the young princefs. But, in the mean
time, Antigonus, knowing the1 defigns of Perdiccas
againft himfeif, fted with his ion Demetrius to Greece,
there to take ftielter under the prote6Hon of Antipater
and Craterus, whom he informed of the ambition and
cruelty of the regent.
A civil war was now kindled. Antipater, Craterus, a combi-
Neoptolemus, and Antigonus, were combined againft nation
Perdiccas j and it was the misfortune of the
'  —- 111
general, that Eumenes, the moft able general, as well
as the moft: virtuous of all the commanders, was on
the fide of Perdiccas, becaufe he believed him to be
in the intereft of Alexander’s family. Ptolemy, in the
mean time, remained in quiet poffeffion of Egypt ; but
rvithout the leaft intention of owning any perfbn for his
fuperior : however, he alfo acceded to the league form¬
ed againft Perdiccas ; and thus the only perfbn in the
wffiole empire who confulted the intereft of the royal fa¬
mily was Eumenes.
empire inagainxthiiu<
It
Macedon.
124
Alexander
burled in
Egypt.
125
Perdiccas
killed by
his own
men.
MAC [
It was now thought proper to bury the body.
Alexander, which had been kept for two years, during
all which time preparations had been making for it.
Aridgeus, to whofe care it was committed, fet out from
Babylon for Damafcus, in order to carry the king’s bo¬
dy to Egypt. This was fore againft the will of Per¬
diccas ; for it feems there was a fuperftitious. report,
that wherever the body of Alexander was laid, that
country Ihould flourilh moft. Perdiccas, therefore, out
of regard to his native foil, would have it conveyed to
the royal fepulchres in Macedon j but Aridaeus, plead¬
ing the late king’s exprefs diredlion, was determined to
carry it into Egypt, from thence to be conveyed to the
temple of Jupiter Ammon.— I he funeral was accord¬
ingly conduced wdth all imaginable magnificence.
Ptolemy came to meet the body as far as Syria : but,
inltead of burying it in the temple ot Jupiter Ammon,
erefted a ftately temple for it in the city of Alexan¬
dria 5 and, by the refpeft he Ihowed for his dead ma¬
iler, induced many of the Macedonian veterans to join
him, and who were aftetwards of the greateft fervice to
him.
No fooner was the funeral over, than both the
parties above mentioned fell to blows. Perdiccas
marched again!! Ptolemy : but was {lain by his owm
men, who, after the death of their general, fubmitted
to his antagonift 5 and thus Eumenes was left alone to
contend againft all the other generals who had ferved
under Alexander. In this conteft, howTever, he wmuld
by no means have been overmatched, had his foldiers
been attached to him 5 but as they had been ac-
cuflomed to ferve under thofe very generals againft
whom they were now to fight, they were on all occa-
fions ready to betray and defert Eumenes. However,
he defeated and killed Neoptolemus and Craterus,
but then found himfelf obliged to contend with Anti¬
pater and Antigonus. Antipater was now appointed
i2o protedfor of the kings, with fovereign power •, and
A new di- Eumenes was declared a public enemy. A new divifion
vifion of the of Alexander’s empire took place. Egypt, Libya,
empire. and the parts adjacent, were given to Ptolemy, becaufe
they could not be taken from him. Syria was con¬
firmed to Leomedon. Philoxenus had Cilicia. Me-
fopotamia and Arbelitus were given to Amphimachus.
Babylon was beftowred on Seleucus. Sufiana fell to
Antigenes, who commanded the Macedonian Argyraf-
pidcv or Silver Shields, becaufe he was the firft who
oppofed Perdiccas. Peuceftas held Perfia. Tlepole-
mus had Caramania. Python had Media as far as the
Cafpian ftraits. Stafander had Aria and Drangia;
Philip, Parthia 5 Stafonor, Badlria and Sogdia ; Sy-
birtius, Aracopa ; Oxyartes, the father of Roxana,
Parapomifis. Another Python had the country be¬
tween this province and India. Porus and I axiles
held what Alexander had given them, becaufe they
would not part with any af their dominions. Cappa¬
docia w-as affigned to Nicanor. Phrygia Major, Ly-
caonia, Pamphylia, and Lycia, were given to Antigo¬
nus ; Caria to Cafiander, Lydia to Clytus, Phrygia the
Lefs to Aridseus. Caffander was appointed general of
the horfe j while the command of the houfehold troops
was given to Antigonus, with orders to profecute the
war againft Eumenes. Antipater having thus fettled
every thing as well as he could, returned to Macedon
with the two kings, to the great joy of his countrymen,
Macedon.
126
11']
323 ] MAC
of having left his fon Caflander to be a check upon Anti¬
gonus in Afia.
Matters now feemed to wear a better afpeft than
they had yet done j and, had Eumenes believed that
his enemies really confulted the intereft of Alexander’s
family, there is not the leaft doubt that the war
would have been immediately terminated. He faw,
however, that the defign of Antigonus was only to
fet up for himfelf, and therefore he refufed to fubmit.
From this time, therefore, the Macedonian empire,
ceafed in Afia: and an account of the tranfa&ions of
this part of the world fall to be recorded under the
article Syria. The Macedonian affairs are now en¬
tirely confined to the kingdom of Macedon itfelf, and
to Greece.
Antipater had not long been returned to Macedon, Total de-
when h<* died ; and the laft action of his life completed ftnichon ol
the ruin of Alexander’s tamily. Out of a view to the 61
public good, he had appointed Polyfperchon, the eldeft
of Alexander’s captains at hand, to be pretettor and
governor of Macedon. This failed not to difguft his
fon Caffander ; who thought he had a natural right to
thefe offices, and of courfe kindled a new civil war in
Macedon. This ivas indeed highly promoted by his
firft actions as a governor. He began with attempt¬
ing to remove all the governors appointed in Greece
by Antipater, and to reftore democracy wherever it
had been abolilhed. The immediate confequence of
this was, that the people refufed to obey their magi-
ftrates j the governors refufed to refign their places,
and applied for afliftance to Caffander. Polyfperchoit
alfo had the imprudence to recal Olympias from Epi¬
rus, and allow her a ihare in the adminiftration •, which
Antipater, and even Alexander himfelf, had always
refufed her. The confequence of all this was, that
Caffander invaded Greece, where he prevailed againft
Polyfperchon : Olympias returned to Macedon, where
flie cruelly murdered Aridams and!;his wife Eurydice ;
lire herfelf was put to death by Caffander, who after¬
wards caufed Roxana and her fon to be murdered, and
Polyfperchon being driven into Etolia, firft raifed to
the crown Hercules the fon of Alexander by the daugh¬
ter of Darius,- and then by the inftigation of Caffandet
murdered him, by w’hich means the line of Alexander
the Great became totally extinft. I2s
Caffander having thus deftroyed all the royal family, Various re-
affumed the regal title, as he had for 16 years before y°h‘tl0ns
had all the power. He enjoyed the title of king
Macedon only three years 5 after which he died, about
298 B. C. By Theffalonica, the daughter of Philip
king of Macedon, he left three fons, Philip, Antipa¬
ter, and Alexander. Philip fucceeded him, but foon
after died of a confumption. A conteft immediately
began between the two brothers, Antipater and Alex¬
ander. Antipater feized the kingdom ; and to fecure
himfelf in it, murdered his mother Theffalonica, if
not with his own hand, at leaft the execrable a£t
was committed in his prefence. Alexander invited
Pyrrhus king of Epirus, and Demetrius the fon of
Antigonus, to aftift him and revenge the death of his
mother. But Pyrrhus being bought off, and a peace
concluded between the brothers, Alexander, being
afraid of having too many proteflors, formed a fcheme
of getting Demetrius affaffinated. Inftead of this, how¬
ever, both he and Antipater were put to death j and
S f 2 Dsmetrias
M A C
Macedon. Dertiftrius became king of Macedon four
v the death of Caffandev. v
In 287 B. C. Demetrius was driven out by Pyrrhus,
who was again driven out by Lyfimachus two years
after, who was foon after killed by Seleucus Nicanor ;
and Seleucus, in his turn, was murdered by Ptolemy
Ceraunus, who became king of Macedon about 280
B. C. The new king was in a fhort time cut off, with
his whole aimy, by the Gauls; and Antigonus Gonatus,
the fon of Demetrius Poliorcetes, became king of Ma¬
cedon in 278 B. C. He proved fuccefsful againlt the
Gauls, but was driven out by Pyrrhus king of Epirus ;
who, however, foon difobliged his fubjecls to fuch a
degree, that Antigonus recovered a great part of his
kingdom. But in a little time, Pyrrhus being killed
at the liege of Argos in Greece, Antigonus was reftor-
ed to the whole of Macedon ; but fcarcely was he
feated on the throne, when he was driven from it by
Alexander the fon of Pyrrhus. This newT invader was,
in his turn, expelled by Demetrius the fon of Antigo-
nus; who, though at that time but a boy, had almoft
made himfelf mailer of Epirus. In this enterprife,
however, he wTas di (appointed ; but by his means An¬
tigonus was rellored to his kingdom, which he.govern¬
ed for many years m peace. By a Hratagem he made
himfelf mailer of the city of Corinth, and from that
time began to form fchemes for the thorough conquell
of Greece. The method he took to accomplilh this
was, to fupport the petty tyrants of Greece againlf
the free hates : which indeed weakened the power of
the latter ; but involved the whole country in fo many
calamities, that thefe tranfadlions could not redound
much to the reputation either of his arms or his ho¬
nour. About 243 B. C. be died, leaving the king¬
dom to his fon, Demetrius II.
Neither Demetrius, nor his fucceffor Antigonus Do-
fon, performed any thing remarkable. In 22 1 B. C.
the kingdom fell to Philip, the lall but one of the Ma¬
cedonian monarchs. To him Hannibal applied for
aliilfance after the battle of Cannae, which he refufed ;
and the fame imprudence which made him refufe this
affiftance prompted him to embroil himfelf with the
Romans ; and at laft to conclude a treaty with them, by
which he in effefl became their fubjefl, being tied up
from making peace or war but according to their plea-
fure. In 179 B. C. he was liicceeded by his eldell fon
Perfeus, under whom the war with the Romans was re¬
newed. Even yet the Macedonians were terrible in
war; and their phalanx, when properly conduced, feems
to have been abfolutely invincible by any method of
making war known at that time. It confided of
26,000 men, of whom 1000 marched abrealf, and thus
was 16 men deep, each of whom carried a kind of
pike 23 feet long. The foldiers flood fo clofe, that
the pikes of the fifth rank reached their points beyond
the front of the battle. The hindermofl ranks leaned
their pikes on the fhoulders of thofe who went before
them, and, locking them fall, preffed brilkly againlt
them when they made the charge ; fo that the firlt five
ranks had the impetus of the whole phalanx, which
was the reafon why the fhock was generally irrefiltible.
The Romans had never encountered fuch a terrible
enemy ; and in the firll battle, which happened 171
B. C. they were defeated with the lofs of 2200 men,
while the Macedonians loft no more than 60. The ge-
Macer.
IZ9
War with
the Ro-
1 324 ] MAC
years after nerals of Pei bus now preffed him to ftorra the enemy’s Macedo:
camp : but he being naturally of a cowardly difpofi-
tion, refufed to comply, and thus the bell opportunity
he ever had was loll. Still, however, the Romans gain¬
ed little or no advantage, till the year 168 B. C. when
Paulus iEmilius, a moll experienced commander, was
fent to Macedon. Perfeus norv put all upon the iffue of
a general engagement ; and ^Emilius, with all his cou¬
rage and military experience, would have been defeat¬
ed, had the Macedonians been commanded by a gene¬
ral of the fmallelf courage or condufl. The light¬
armed Macedonians charged with fuch vigour, that
after the battle, fome of their bodies were found with¬
in two furlongs of the Roman camp. When the pha¬
lanx came to charge, the points of their fpears linking
into the Roman fhields, kept the heavy-armed troops
from making any motion ; while, on the other hand,
Perfeus’s light-armed men did terrible execution. On
this occafion, it is faid, that iEmilius tore his clothes,
and gave up all hopes However, perceiving that as
the phalanx gained ground it loft its order in feveral
places, he caufed his own light-armed troops to charge
in thofe places, whereby the Macedonians were foon
put into confufion. If Perfeus with his horfe had on
the firlt appearance of this charged the Romans brilk¬
ly, his infantry would have been able to recover them-
felves ; but inftead of this, he betook himfelf to flight,
and the infantry at lad did the fame, but not till
20,000 of them had loll their lives.
This battle decided the fate of Macedon, which
immediately fubmitted to the conqueror. The coward¬
ly king took refuge in the illand of Samothrace : but
was at lad obliged to furrender to the Roman conful,
by whom he was carried to Rome, led in triumph, and
afterwards moll barbaroully ufed. Some pretenders
to the throne appeared afterwards ; but being unable I30
to defend themfelves againll the Romans, the country Macedonia
was reduced to a Roman province in 148 B. C. To becomes a
them it continued fubje£l till the year X357, when it R-0111*11
was reduced by the Turkifh fultan Bajazet, and has^r°V^nCe4
remained in the hands of the Turks ever fince.
MACEDONIANS, in ecclefiallisal hillory, the
followers of Macedonius, biihop of Conllantinople,
who through the influence of the Eunomians, was
depofed by the council of Conllantinople in 360, and
fent into exile. He confidered the Holy Gholf as a
divine energy diffufed throughout the univerfe, and
not as a perfon diftindl from the Father and the Son.
The fe£l of Macedonians was crufhed before it had ar¬
rived at its full maturity, by the council affembled by
Tbeodofius in 381, at Conllantinople. See Semi-
ARIANS.
MACEDONIUS. See Macedonians.
MACER, Emilius, an ancient Latin poet, was
born at Verona, and flourilhed under Augullus Caefar.
Eufebius relates, that he died a few years after Virgil.
Ovid fpeaks of a poem of his, on the nature and quality
of birds, ferpents, and herbs ; which he fays Macer be¬
ing then very old had often read to him :
Scefie fuas valueres legit tnihi grandior cevo,
^ueeque nocet ferpens, qua; juvat herba, Macer.
De Panto, lib. iv. eleg. 10.
There is extant a poem upon the nature and power of
herbs under Macer’s name ; but it is fpurious. He alfo
wrote
MAC [32
Maceration wrote a fupplement to Homer, as Quintus Calaber did
J! , afterwards in Greek :
^'Tscriis.vd*
Tu canis ceterno quicquid rejlahat Homero :
Ne careant fumma Troica bella manu.
/ Tie Ponto, lib. ii. eleg. 10.
MACERATION, is an infulion of, or foaking in¬
gredients in water or any other fluid, in order either to
foften them or draw out their virtues.
M ACER AT A, a handfome and populous town
of Italy, in the territory of the church, and in the
Marche of Ancona, with a bifliop’s fee, and an uni-
verflty. It is feated near the mountain Chiento, in
E. Long. 13. 37. N. Lat. 43. 15.
MACH AON, a celebrated phyfician among the
ancients, fon of iEfculapius and brother to Podalirius.
He went to the Trojan war with the inhabitants of
Trica, Ithome, and CEchalia. According to fome, he
was king of Meffenia. He was phyfician to the
Greeks, and healed the wounds which they received
during the Trojan war. Some fuppofe he was killed
before Troy by Eurypylus the fon of Telephus. He
received divine honours after death, and had a temple
in Meffenia.
M ACHAlRUS, in Ancient Geography, a citadel on
the other fide Jordan, near the mountains of Moab, not
far from and to the north of the Lccus Afphaltites. It
was the fouth boundary of the Peraea : fituated on a
mountain encompaffed round with deep and broad
valleys 5 built by Alexander king of the Jew’s; de-
firoyed by Gabinius, in the war with Ariftobulus, and
rebuilt by Herod, with a cognominal town round it.
Here John the Baptift wras beheaded (Jofephus).
MACHIAN, one of the Molucca iflands, in the
Eaft Indian ocean, about 20 miles in circumference,
and the molt fertile of them all. It likewife produces
the belt cloves j and is in poffeflion of the Dutch, who
have three ftrong forts built on it.
MACHIAVEL, Nicholas, a famous political
writer of the 16th century, was born of a diflinguilh-
ed family at Florence. He wnote in his native lan¬
guage w’ith great elegance and politenefs, though he
underftood very little of the Latin tongue •, but he w’as
in the fervice of Marcellus Virgilius, a learned man,
who pointed out to him many of the beautiful paffages
in the ancients, which Machiavel had the art of pla¬
cing properly in his works. He compofed a comedy
upon the ancient Greek model : in which he turned
into ridicule many of the Florentine ladies, and which
w’as fo w’ell received, that Pope Leo X. caufed it to be
'adfed at Rome. Machiavel w^as fecretary, and after¬
wards hiftoriographer, to the republic of Florence.
The houfe of Medicis procured him this laft office,
together with a handiome falary, in order to pacify
his refentment for having fuffered the torture upon
fufpicion of being an accomplice in the conspiracy of
the Soderini againft that houfe, when Machiavel bore
his bufferings without making any confefiion. 'I he
great encomiums he beftowed upon Brutus and Caf-
fius, both in his converfations and writings, made him
ftrongly fufpeefed of being concerned in another con-
fpiracy againft Cardinal Julian de Medicis, who was
afterwards pope under the name of Clement VII. How¬
ever, they carried on no proceedings againft him j but
from that time he turned every thing into ridicule, and
5 ] MAC
gave himfelf up to irreligion. He. died in I5_3°> 3
remedy which he had taken by w7ay of prevention. Of|’ ac ^
all his waitings, that which has made the moft noife,
and has drawm upon him the moft enemies, is a politi¬
cal treatife entitled the Prince; which has been trani-
lated into feveral languages, and wrote againft by many
authors. The world is not agreed as to the motives
of this work fome thinking he meant to recommend
tyrannical maxims; others, that he only delineated
them to excite abhorrence. Machiavel alfo wrote, Re¬
flexions on Titus Livius, which are extremely curious j
The Hiftory of Florence, from the year 1205 to 1494}
and a quarto volume of Poems and other pieces. Mr
Harrington confiders him as a fuperior genius, and as
the moft excellent writer on politics and government
that ever appeared.
MACHINE, (Machina), in the general, fignifieS
any thing that ferves to augment or to regulate mov¬
ing pow’ers: Or it is any body deftined to produce
motion, fo as to fave either time or force. The wmrd
comes from the Greek A4«%«v>), “ machine, invention,
art And hence, in ftriXnefs, a machine is fomething
that confifts more in art and invention, than in the
ftrength and lolidity of the materials j for which rea-
fon it is that inventors of machines are called mgenieurs
or engineers.
Machines are either Ample or compound. The Am¬
ple ones are the feven mechanical powers, viz. lever,
balance, pulley, axis and wheel, wedge, icrew, and in¬
clined plane. See MECHANICS.
From thefe the compound ones are formed by various
combinations, and ferve for different purpoies. See
Mechanics •, alfo Agriculture, Cannon, Centri¬
fugal, Steam, Furnace, Burroughs, Ramsden,
&c. &c.
Machines ufed in w’ar amongft the Greeks were
principally thefe 1. or fealing ladders j
2. The battering ram j 3. The helcpohs ; 4. I he
or tortoife, called by the Romans tejludo \ 5. The o-gupx
or agqer, which was faced wuth ftone, and railed higher
than the w’all: 6. Upon the rxupet. were built wvgye< or
towers of wood ; 7. FsggaM, or oiler hurdles •, 8. Lata-
pnitre, or xaWsAV, from which they threw arrows
with amazing force j and, 9. The AiJhoooAa;, Tre-rps^oAai,
or xtph^ix, from which ftones were call with gieat ve¬
locity.
The principal warlike machines made ufe of by
the Romans were, the ram, the lupus or wolf, the
tejhido or tortoife, the balijla, the catapulia, and the
Jcorpion.
MACHINERY, in epic and dramatic poetry, is
when the poet introduces the ufe of machines ; or brings
fome fupernatural being upon the ilage, in order to
folve fome difficulty or to perform fome explojt out of
the reach of human power.
The ancient dramatic poets never made ufe of ma¬
chines, unlefs wdrere there w7as an j.bfolute neceffity tor ,
fo doing j whence the precept of Horace,
T!ec Deus interjit, nifi dignus vindice nodus
Incident.
It is quite otherwife writh epic poets, who introduce
machines in every part of their poems j lo that nothing
is done without the intervention of the gods. In Mil¬
ton’s Paradife Loft, by far the greater part of the ac¬
tors
MAC [ 326 ] MAC
Machul tors are fupernatural perfonages : Homer and Virgil do
M II . nothing without them and, in Voltaire’s Henriade, the
L.._ac_^enzKf' poet has made excellent ufe of St Louis.
As to the manner in which thefe machines fhould
add, it is fometimes invifibly, by Ample infpirations and
fuggeftions; fometimes by addually appearing under
fome human form *, and, laftly, by means of dreams
and oracles, which partake of the other two. How¬
ever, all thefe fhould be managed in fiich a manner as
pj ^ to keep within the bounds of probability.
CCXCVIII MACHUL, an inftrument of mulic among the
'Hebrews. Kircher apprehends that the name was
given to two kinds of inilruments, one of the ftringed
and the other of the pulfatile kind. That of the
former fort had fix chords j though there is great rea-
fon to doubt whether an inftrument requiring the aid
of the hair-bow, and fo much refembling the violin,
be fo ancient. The fecond kind was of a circular form,
made of metal, and either hung round with little bells,
or furnifhed with iron rings fufpended on a rod or bar
that palled acrofs the circle. Kircher fuppofes that it
wTas moved to and fro by a handle fixed to it, and thus
emitted a melancholy kind of murmur.
MACHYNLETH, a town of Montgomeryfhire
in North Wales, 198 miles from London, and 32 from
Montgomery. It is an ancient town j and has a
market on Mondays, and fairs on May 16, June 26,
July 9, September 18, and November 25, for fheep,
horned cattle, and horfes. It is feated on the river
Douay, over which there is a large ftone bridge, which
leads into Merionethfhire. It was here that Owen
Glyndwr exercifed the firft a6ts of his royalty in 1402.
Here he accepted the crown of Wales, and affembled a
parliament ; and the houfe wherein they met is now
handing, divided into tenements.
MACKENZIE, Sir George, an able lawyer,
a polite fcholar, and a celebrated wit, was born at
Dundee in the county of Angus in Scotland in 1636,
and Itudied at the univerfities of Aberdeen and St An¬
drew’s *, after which he applied himfelf to the civil law,
travelled into France, and profecuted his ftudy in that
faculty for about three years. At his return to his
native country he became an advocate in the city of
Edinburgh ; and foon gained the charadter of an emi¬
nent pleader. He did not, however, fuffer his abili¬
ties to be confined entirely to that province. He had
a good tafle for polite literature $ and he gave the pub¬
lic, from time to time, inconteftable proofs of an un¬
common proficiency therein. He had pradlifed but a
few' years, when he was promoted to the office of a
judge in the criminal court 5 and, in 1674, was made
king’s advocate, and one of the lords of the privy coun¬
cil in Scotland. He w'as alfo knighted by his majefty.
In thefe ftations he met w’ith a great deal of trouble,
on account of the rebellions which happened in his
time ; and his office of advocate requiring him to adt
with feverity, he did not efcape being cenfured, as if
in the deaths of fome particular perfons who were exe¬
cuted he had firetched the law's too far. But there
does not feem to have been any jufi foundation for this
clamour againfi: him ; and it is generally agreed, that
he acquitted himfelf like an able and upright magi-
firate. Upon the abrogation of the penal law’s by
King James II. our advocate, though he had always
been remarkable for his loyalty, and even cenfured for
1
his zeal againfi; traitors and fanatics, thought himfelf Mackerel,
obliged to refign his polt •, being convinced, that he Maclaurin.
could not difcharge the duties of it in that point with a v ^ f
good confcience. But he was foon after reftored,
and held his offices till the Revolution j an event which,
it feems, he could not bring himfelf to approve. He
had hoped that the prince of Orange would have re¬
turned to his own country when matters were adjufted
between the king and his fubje£ts j and upon its prov¬
ing otherwife, he quitted all his employments in Scot¬
land, and retired into England, refolving to fpend the
remainder of his days in the univerfity of Oxford. He
arrived there in September 1689, and profecuted his
ftudies in the Bodleian library, being admitted a flu-
dent there by a grace paffed in the congregation, June
2. 1690. In the fpring following, he went to Lon¬
don j where he fell into a diforder, of which he died
in May 1691. His corpfe was conveyed by land to
Scotland, and interred there wfith great pomp and fo-
lemnity. “ The politenefs of his learning, and the
fprightlinefs of his wit, were (fays the reverend Mr
Granger) confpicuous in all his pleadings, and {hone
in his ordinary converfation.” Mr Dryden acknow¬
ledges, that, he was unacquainted with what he calls the
beautiful turn of 'ipords and thoughts in poetry^ till they
were explained and exemplified to him in a converfa¬
tion with that noble wit of Scotland Sir George Mac¬
kenzie.-—He wrote feveral pieces of hiftory and anti¬
quities ; Inftitutions of the laws of Scotland ; Elfays
upon various fubjedls, &c. His works were printed
together at Edinburgh in 1716, in 2 vols. folio.
MACKEREL. See Scomber, Ichthyology//mfcr.
MACLAURIN, Colin, a mofi: eminent mathema¬
tician and philofopher, was the fon of a clergyman, and
born at Kilmoddan in Scotland in 1698. He was fent
to the univerfity of Glafgow in 1709 •, where he con¬
tinued five years, and applied himfelf to ftudy in a
moft intenfe manner. His great genius for mathema¬
tical learning difcovered itfelf fo early as at twelve
years of age; when, having accidentally met with an
Euclid in a friend’s chamber, he became in a few days
matter of the firft fix books without any affiftance :
and it is certain, that in his 16th year he had invent¬
ed many of the propofitions which were afterwards
publifhed under the title of Geometria Organica. In
his 15th year he took the degree of mafter of arts; on
which occafion he compofed and publicly defended a
thefis On the power of Gravity, with great applaufe.
After this he quitted the univerfity, and retired to a
country-feat of his uncle, who had the care of his
education ; for his parents had been dead fome time.
Here he {pent two or three years in purfuing his fa¬
vourite ftudies 5 but, in 1717, he offered himfelf a
candidate for the profefforffiip of mathematics in the
Marifchal college of Aberdeen, and obtained it after
a ten days trial with a very able competitor. In 1719,
he went to London, where he became acquainted witji
Dr Hoadly then biffiop oi Bangor, Dr Clarke, Sir
Ifaac Newton, and other eminent men 5 at which time
alfo he was admitted a member of the Royal Society j
and in another journey in 1721, he contradled an in-
timacyfwith Martin Folkes, Elq. the prefident of it,
which lafted to his death.
In 1722, Lord Polwarth, plenipotentiary of the king
of Great Britain at the congrcfs of Cambray, engaged
him
MAC
Maclaurin. Kim to go as a tutor and companion to Kis eldeft fen, who
i ».-v was t])en to fet out on hJg travels. After a fiiort flay at
Pan's, and vifiting other towns in France, they fixed
in Lorrain; where Maclaurin w’rote his piece On the
Percuffion of Bodies, which gained the prize of the
Royal Academy of Sciences for the year 1724. But
his pupil dying foon after at Montpelier, he returned
immediately to his profeihon at Aberdeen. He was
hardly fettled here, when he received an invitation to
Edinburgh •, the curators of that univerfity being de-
firous that he ihould fupply the place of Mr James
Gregory, whofe great age and infirmities had render¬
ed him incapable of teaching. He had fome difficul¬
ties to encounter, arifing from competitors, who had
good intereft with the patrons of the univerfity, and
alfo from the want of an additional fund for the new
profeffor ; which however at length were all furmount-
ed, principally by the means of Sir Ifaac Newton. In
November 1725, he was introduced into the univerfity.
After this, the mathematical claffes foon became very
numerous, there being generally upwards of 100 young
gentlemen attending his leflures every year •, who being
of different {landings and proficiency, he was obliged to
divide them into four or five claffes, in each of wffiich
he employed a full hour every day, from the firft of
November to the firft of June.
Pie lived a bachelor to the year 1733 : but being
not lefs formed for fociety than for contemplation, he
then married Anne, the daughter of Mr Walter Stew¬
art folicitor-general to his late majefty for Scotland.
By this lady he had feven children, of whom two fons
and three daughters, together with his wife, furvived
him. In 1734, Berkeley, biftiop of Cloyne, publilh-
ed a piece called “ The Analyft in which he took
occafion, from fome difputes that had arifen concern¬
ing the grounds of the fluxionary method, to explode
the method itfelf, and alfo to charge mathematicians
in . general wdth infidelity in religion. Maclaurin
thought himfelf included in this charge, and began an
anfwer to Berkeley’s book : but, as he proceeded, fo
many difeoveries, fo many new theories arid problems
occurred to him, that inflead of a vindicatory pamph¬
let, his work came out, A complete fyftem of fluxions,
with their application to the moft confiderable pro¬
blems in geometry and natural philofophy. This wrork
was publifhed at Edinburgh in 1742, 2 vols. 410 •, and as
it coft him infinite pains, fo it is the moft confiderable
of all his works, and will do him immortal honour.
In the mean time, he was continually obliging the
public with fome performance or obfervation of his
own •, many of which were publiffied in the fifth and
fixth volumes of the “ Medical EtTays” at Edin¬
burgh. Some of them wrere likewdfe publilhed in the
Philofophical Tran factions ; as the following : 1. Of
the conftruftion and meafure of curves, N° 356.
2., A new method of deferibing all kinds of curves,
N0 359- 3* ^ ^tter to Martin Folkes, Efq. on equa¬
tions with impoffible roots, May 1726, N° 394.
4. Continuation of the fame, March 1729, N° 408.
5. December the 21ft, 1732, on the defeription of
curves 5 wdth an account of farther improvements, and
a paper dated at Nancy, November 27, 1722, N° 439.
6. An account of the treatife of fluxions, January 27,
1742, N* 467. 7. The fame continued, March 10.
3742, N° 469, 8. A rule for finding the meridional
MAC
parts of a fpheroid with the fame exaflnefs as of a Maclaunn.
Iphere, Augurt 1741, N° 461. 9. Of the bafis of ”v"’' ''
the cells wherein the bees depofite their honey j Nov.
3- f734, N° 47r.
In the midft of thefe ftudies, he was always ready
to lend his affiftance in contriving and promoting any
fcheme which might contribute to the fervice of his
country. When the earl of Morton fet cut in 1739
for Orkney and Shetland, to vifit his eftates there,
he defired Mr Maclaurih to affift him in fettling the
geography of thofe countries, which is very errone¬
ous in all our maps 5 to examine their natural hiflory,
to furvey the coafts, and to take the meafure of a de¬
gree of the meridian. Maclaurin’s family affairs, and
other connexions, would not permit him to do this ;
he drew, however, a memorial of what he thought
neceffary to be obferved, furnifhed the proper inftru-
ments, and recommended Mr Short,. the famous op¬
tician, as a fit operator for the management of them.
He had ftill another fcheme for the improvement of
geography and navigation, of a more extenfive nature;
wffiich wjas the opening a paffage from Greenland to
the South fea by the north pole. That fuch a paf¬
fage might be found, he was fo fully perfuaded, that
he has been heard to fay, if his fituation could admit
of fuch adventures, he wmuld undertake the voyage, .
even at his own charge. But when fchemes for finding
it w^ere laid before the parliament in 1744, and him¬
felf confulted by feveral per fons of high rank concern¬
ing them, before he could finilffi the memorials he pro-
pofed to fend, the premium was limited to the difeo-
very of a north-weft paffage : and he ufed to regret,
that the word weft w^as inferted, becaufe he thought
that paffage, if at all to be found, muft lie not far from
the pole.
In 1745, having beer) very a6tive in fortifying the
city of Edinburgh againft the rebel army, he was obli¬
ged to fly from thence to the north of England ;
where he was invited by Herring, then archbiftiop of
York, to refide wuth him during his flay in this coun¬
try. In this expedition, however, being expofed to
cold and hardftrips, and naturally of a weak and ten¬
der conftitution, he laid the foundation of an illnefs
which put an end to his life, in June 1746, at the age
of 48.
Mr Maclaurin was a very good as wTell as a very
great man, and wTorthy of love as well as admiration.
His peculiar merit as a philofopher was, that all his
ftudies wrere accommodated to general utility ; and we
find, in many places of his wmrks, an application even
of the moft abftrufe theories, to the perfedting of me¬
chanical arts. He had refolved, for the fame purpofe,
to compofe a courfe of practical mathematics, and to
refeue feveral ufeful branches of the fcience from the
bad treatment they often met with in lefs Ikilful hands.
But all this his death prevented ; unlefs we fhould
reckon, as a part of his intended work, the tranfiation
of Dr David Gregory’s “ Practical Geometry,”
which he revifed, and publilhed with additions, 1745.
In his lifetime, hov’ever, he had frequent opportuni¬
ties of ferving his friends and his country by his great
fkill. Whatever difficulty occurred concerning the
conftuufting or perfecting of machines, the working of
mines, the improving of manufactures, the conveying
of water, or the execution of any other public work,
[ 327 ]
v
MAC ■ C
Mf.c'smrir.. was at naisd to refolve it. lie was iikewife em-
—"V J ployed to terminate fome difputes of confequence that
had arifen at Glafgow concerning the gauging of vef-
fels; and for that purpofe prefented to the commilTion-
ers of excife two elaborate memorials, with their de-
monftrations, containing rules for which the officers
now aft. He made alfo calculations relating to the
provilion, now eftabliffied by law, for the children and
w-idows of the Scots clergy, and of the profeflors in
the univcrfities, entitling them to certain annuities and
fums, upon the voluntary annual payment of a certain
fum by the incumbent. In contriving and adjufting
this wife and ufeful fcheme, he beftowed a great deal
of labour, and contributed not a little towards bring¬
ing it to perfeftion. It may be faid of fuch a man,
that “ he lived to fome purpofe $” which can hardly
be faid of thofe, how uncommon foever their abilities
pnd attainments, who ipend their whole time in ahftraft
/peculations, and produce nothing to the real ufe and fer-
vice of their fellow7 creatures.
Of his works, we have mentioned his Geometria Or-
ganica, in which he treats of the defcription of curve
lines by continued motion. We need not repeat what
has been faid concerning his piece which gained the
prize of the Royal Academy of Sciences in 17 24. In
1740, the academy adjudged him a prize, which did
him Hill more honour, for folving the motion of the
tides from the theory of gravity j a queftion wffiich
had been given out the former year, without receiving
any folution. He had only ten days to draw this pa¬
per up in, and could not find leilure to tranfcribe a
fair copy ; fo that the Paris edition of it is incorreft.
He afterwards revifed the whole, and inferted it in
his Treatife of Fluxions \ as he did alfp the fuhftance
of the former piece. Thefe, wuth the Freatife of
Fluxions, and the pieces printed in the Philofophical
Tranfaftions, of which we have given a lilt, are all
the writings which our author lived to publith. Since
' his death, two volumes more have appeared ; his Al¬
gebra, r* J his Account of Sir Ifasic Newton’s Philo¬
fophical Difcoveries. His Algebra, though not finilh-
ed by himfelf, is yet allowed to be excellent in its
kind •, containing, in no large volume, a complete ele¬
mentary treatife of that fcience, as far as it has hither¬
to been carried. His Account of Sir Itaac Newton’s
Philofophy was occafioned in the following manner :
Sir Ifaac dying in the beginning of 1728, his nephew,
Mr Conduitt, propofed to publifh an account of his
life, and defired Mr Maclaurin’s affiflance. The lat¬
ter, out of gratitude to his great benefaftor, cheer¬
fully undertook, and foon finiffied, the hiltory of the
progrefs which philofophy had made before Sir Ifaac’s
time, and this was the firft draught of the work in
hand \ which not gomg forward, on account of Mr
Conduitt’s death, was returned to Mr Maclaurin.—
To this he afterwards made great additions, and left
it in the ftate in which it now appears. His main
defign feems to have been, to explain only thofe parts
ef Sir Ifaac’s philofophy which have been, and dill
are, controverted : and this is fuppofed to be the rea-
fon why his grand difeoveries concerning light and
colours are but tranfiently and generally touched upon.
For it is known, that ever fmee the experiments, on
which his doftrine of light and colours is founded,
328 ] MAC
n- have been repeated with due care, this doftrine has Macquer.
not been contefted ; whereas his accounting for the —y-—"
celeftial motions, and the other great appearances of
nature, from gravity, is mifunderftood, and even ridi¬
culed by fome to this day.
MACQUER, Philippe, advocate of the parlia¬
ment of Paris, where he was born in 17 20, being
defeended from a refpeftable family. A weaknefs
in his lungs having prevented him from engaging in
the laborious exercifes of pleading, he dedicated him¬
felf to literary purfuits. His works are, 1. VAbrege
Chronologique de PHijloire KccleJiaJIique, 3 vols, 8vo.
written in the manner of the prdident Henault’s Hi-
dory of France, but not poffeffed of equal fpirit and
elegance. 2. Les Annales Romaines, 17565 8vo ; ano¬
ther chronological abridgement, and much better fup-
ported than the former. Into this work the author
has introduced every thing mod worthy of notice which
has been written by Saint Evremond, Abbe Saint-
Real, Prefident Montefquieu, Abbe Mably, &c. con¬
cerning the Romans \ and, if we except a difference of
dyle, which is eafily difcernible it is, in other refpefts,
a very judicious compilation. 3. Abrege Chronologique
de VHiJloire d'Efpagne et de Portugal, 1759, 1765, in
2 vols, 8vo. This book, in point of accuracy, is
worthy of the prefident Henault, by whom it was be¬
gun j but it difplays no diferimination of charafter nor
depth of refearch. The author received affidance from
M. Lacombe, whofe talents for chronological abridge¬
ment are well known. The republic of letters fudain-
ed a lofs by the death of M. Macquer, which happen¬
ed on the 27th of January 1770, at the age of 50. As
to his charafter, he was indudrious, agreeable, moded,
and fincere, and an enemy to all fooliih vanity and af-
feftation. He had a cold imagination, but a correft
tade. He had an eager third for knowledge of every
kind, and he had neglefted no ufeful branch of dudy.
He had a diare in the Diftionary of Arts and Profef-
dons, in 2 vols 8vo, and in the Tranflation of the Sy¬
philis of Fracador published by Lacombe.
Macquer, Pierre Jofeph, brother to the former,
was born at Paris the 91b of Oftober 1718, and died
there February 16. 1784. He was a member of the
Academy of Sciences, and late profeffor of pharmacy j
and was engaged in the Journaldes Spavans, for the ar¬
ticles of medicine and chemidry. With the latter
fcience he was intimately acquainted. He had a
(hare in the Pharmacopoeia Parijienjis, publilhed in 1758,
in 410. His other works are, 1. Piemens de Chmne
theorique ; Paris, 1749, 1753, 1 2rao ; which have been
trandated into Englith and German.—2. Elemens dc
Cliimiepratique, 1751. 2 vols 12mo. Thefe two works
were republiffied together, in 1756, in 3 vols. i2mo.
3. Plan (Pun cours de Chimie experimentale et raifonee,
1757, i2mo-, in the compofition of which he was
aflbeiated with M. Beaume. 4. Formula Medicamento-
rum Magifiralium, 1763. 5. IP Art de la Teinture en
Sole, 1763. 6. Diciionnaire de Chimie, contenant la
Theorie et la Pratique de cet art, 1766, 2 vols. 8vo ;
which has been trandated into German, with notes j
and into Englidi, with notes, by Mr Keir. Macquer
has, by his labours and writings, greatly contributed to
render ufeful an art which formerly tended only to rum
the health of the patient by foreign remedies, or to
reduce
3
MAC [ 32Q ] MAC
Maerm reduce tlie profeflbrs of it to beggary, while they
1J profecuted the idle dreams of converting every thing
jMaeroce- into gold.
„ Ph?--us- , MACRIN, Salmon, one of the beft Latin poets
of the 16th century, was born at Loudun. His true
name was John Salmon ; but he took that of Macnn,
from his being frequently fo called in ridicule by Fran¬
cis I. on account of his extraordinary leannefs. He
was preceptor to Claudius of Savoy, count of Tende j
' and to Honoi ius the count’s brother j and wrote fe-
veral pieces of poetry in lyric verfe, which wrere fo ad¬
mired, that he was called the Horace of his time. He
died of old age, at Loudun, in 1555.—Charles Macrin,
his fon, was not inferior to him as a poet, and furpaffed
him in his knowledge of the Greek tongue. He was
preceptor to Catharine of Navarre, the lifter of Henry
the Great; and perifhed in the maffacre on St Bartho-
lomew’s day in 1572.
MACROBII, a people of Ethiopia, celebrated
for their juftice, and the innocence of their man¬
ners : alfo a people in the ifland Meroe. The Hyper¬
boreans were alfo called Macrobii: They generally
lived to their 120th year j and from their longevity
they obtained their name /3ia;, long life.')
MACROBIUS, Ambrosius Aurelius Theodo¬
sius, an ancient Latin writer, who flourilhed towards
the latter part of the fourth century.— Of what coun¬
try he was, is not clear: Erafmus, in his Ciceronianus,
feems to think he was a Greek ; and he himfelf tells
us, in the preface to his Saturnalia, that he was not a
Roman, but laboured under the inconveniences of
writing in a language which was not natural to him.
Of what religion he was, Chriftian or Pagan, is uncer¬
tain. Barthius ranks him among the Chriftians ; but
Spanheim and Fabricius fuppofe him to have been a
heathen. This, however, is certain, that he was a
man of confular dignity, and one of the chamberlains
or mafters of the wardrobe to Theodofius ; as appears
from a refcript direfted to Florentius, concerning thofe
who were to obtain that office. He wmote a Commen¬
tary upon Cicero’s Somnium Scipionis, and feven books
of Saturnalia, which treat of various fubjedls, and are
an agreeable mixture of criticifm and antiquity. He
w7as not an original writer, but made great ufe of other
people’s works, borrowing not only their materials, but
even their language, and for this he has been fatirically
rallied by fome modern authors, though rather unfairly,
confidering the exprefs declaration and apology which
he makes on this head, at the very entrance of his
work. “ Don’t blame me,” fays he, “ if what I have
colledled from multifarious reading, I (hall frequently
exprefs in the very words of the authors from whom I
have taken it : for my view in this prefent work is,
not to give proofs of my eloquence, but to colledt and
digeft into fome regularity and order fuch things
as I thought might be ufeful to be known. I fhall
therefore here imitate the bees,'w7ho fuck the beft: juices
from all forts of dowers, and afterwards work them
up into various forms and orders with fome mixture of
their own proper fpirit.” The Somnium Scipionis and
Saturnalia have been often printed $ to which has been
added, in the later editions, a piece entitled De Differen-
tiis et Societatibus Graci Latinique Verbi.
MACROCEPHALUS (compounded of fxctx^
u great,” and zitpuAn “ head,”) denotes a perfon with
Vol. XII. Part L
a head larger or longer than the common fize. Ma- Macroce-
crocephali, or Long-heads, is a name given to a cer* ''1 s
tain people, who, according to the accounts of authors, |\7acrooirvp.
were famous for the unfeemly length of their heads : / - "■ J
yet cuftom fo far habituated them to it, that inftead of
looking on it as a deformity, they efteemed it a beauty,
and, as foon as the child was born, moulded and fa-
Ihioned its head in their hands to as great a length as
poflible, and afterwards ufed all fuch rollers and band¬
ages as might feem moft likely to determine its grow¬
ing long. The greater part of the iffanders in the
Archipelago, fome of the people of Affa, and even
fome of thofe of Europe, ftill prefs their children’s
heads out lengthwife. We may obferve alfo, that the
Epirots, many people of America, &c. are all bom
with fome Angularity in the conformation of their
heads*, either a flatnefs on the top, twro extraordinary
protuberances behind, or one on each fide 5 Angularities
which we can only regard as an effeft of an ancient and
ft range mode, which at length is become hereditary in
the nation. According to the report of many travel¬
lers, the operation of compreftmg the head of a child
lengthwife, while it is yet foft, is with a view infen-
fibly to enlarge the interval between the tw:o eyes, fo
that the vifual rays turning more to the right and left,
the fight would embrace a much larger portion of the
horizon ; the advantage of which they are well ac¬
quainted with, either in the conftant exercife of hunt¬
ing, or on a theufand other occafions. Ever fince the
16th century, the miffionaries eftablilhed in the coun¬
tries inhabited by the favages of America, have en¬
deavoured to deftroy this cuftom *, and we find in the
feffions of the third council of Lima, held in 1585? a
canon which exprefsly prohibits it. But if it has been
repreffed one wray, the free negroes and Maroons, al¬
though Africans, have adopted it, fince they have
been eftabiilhed among the Caribs, folely with the
view of diftinguithing their children, which are born
free, from thofe who are born in ftavery. The Oma-
quas, a people of South America, according to P.
Veigh, prefs the heads of their children fo violently
between two planks that they become quite lharp at
the top, and flat before and behind. They fay they
do this to give their heads a greater refemblance to
the moon.
MACROCERCI, a name given to that clafs of ani¬
malcules, which have tails longer than their bodies.
MACROCOLUM, or Macrocollum (formed of
pxxgog “ large,” and y.oM<x.a “ I join,”) among the
Romans, the largeft kind of paper then in ufe. It
meafured fixteen inches, and frequently two feet.
MACROCOSM, a w7ord denoting the great world
or univerfe. It is compounded of the Greek words
puyga; “ great,” and x.a<rpo<; “ world.”
MACROOMP, or MaCROOM, a town of Ireland,
in the barony of Mufkerry, county of Cork, and pro¬
vince of Munfter, 142 miles from Dublin 5 it is fitu-
ated amongft hills, in a dry gravelly limeftone foil.—
This place is faid to take its name from an old crook¬
ed oak, fo called in Irilh, which formerly grew here.
The caftle was firft built in King John’s time, Ron af¬
ter the Englilh conqueft (according to Sir Richard
Cox), by the Carews ; but others attribute it to the
Daltons. It was repaired and beautified by T ague
Macartytwho died in the year 1565, and was father to
T t the
MAD
T 33° 1
M A D
Macrourus
Voyage a
Madagas¬
car, See.
Paris 1751.
tTie celebrated Sir Cormac Mac Teague mentioned by
Camden and other writers as an aftive perfon in
Queen Elizabeth’s time. The late earls of Glancarty
altered this caftle into a more modern ftrudture, it be¬
ing burnt down in the wars of 1641. Oppofite to
the bridge, is the parifh-church, dedicated to St Col-
man of Cloyne. Here is a barrack for a foot com¬
pany, a market-houfe, and handfome Roman Catholic
chapel. A conliderable number of perfons have been
employed in this town in combing wool and fpinning
yarn, and feme falt-works have been erefled here. At
half a mile’s dillance is a fpa, that rifes on the very
brink of a bog \ its waters are a mild chalybeate, and
are accounted ierviceable in hypochondriacal cafes, and
in ciPaneoup eruptions. The fairs are four in the year.
MACROURUS, a genus of fillies belonging to the
order Thoracici. See Ichthyology Index.
MACTATIO, in the Roman facrifices, fignifies
the adl of killing the vidfim. This was performed
either by the prielt himfelf, or fome of his inferior
officers, whom w7e meet with under the names ofpopa,
agones, culirarii, and uicUmarii; but, before the beaft
w as killed, the prieft, turning himfelf to the eaft, drew
a crooked line with his knife, from the forehead to
the tail. Among the Greeks, this ceremony was per¬
formed moll commonly by the prieft, or, in his abfence,
by the molt honourable perfon prefent. If the facri-
fice was offered to the celeltial gods, the vidtim’s
throat was bent up towards heaven •, if to the infer¬
nal, or to heroes, it was killed with its throat towards
the ground. The manner of killing the animal w'as
by a ftroke on the head, and, after it wras fallen,
thruding a knife into its throat. Much notice wras
taken, and good or ill fuccefs predidted, from the
firuggles of the beall, or itsr quiet fubmiffion to the
blow7, from the flowing of the blood, and the length
of time it happened to live after the fall, &c.
MACULiE, in Aftronomy, dark fpots appearing on
the luminous lurfaces of the fun and moon, and even
fome of the planets. See Astronomy Index.
MAD-apple. See Solanum, Botany Index.
MADAGASCAR, the largeft of the African
iflands, is fituated between 430 and 510 of E. Long,
and between 12° and 26° of S. Lat. ; extending in
length near 1000 miles from north-north-eaft to fouth-
fouth-weft, and about 300 in breadth w here broadeft.
It was difeovered in 1506 by Laurence Almeyda \ but
the Perfians and the Arabians were acquainted with it
from time immemorial under the name of Serandib.
Alphonzo Albuquerque ordered Ruy Pereira dy Con-
thinto to vilit the interior parts, and that general in¬
truded Tritlan d’Acunha with the furvey. The Por-
tuguefe called it the ifland of St Lawrence ; the Trench
who vifited it in the reign of Henry IV. named it IJle
Dauphine; its proper name is Madegaffe. It is now,
however, by common confent, called Madagafcar.
This large ifland, according to many learned geo¬
graphers, is the Cerne of Pliny, and. the Menuthiafde
of Ptolemy. It is everywhere watered by large rivers,
dreams and rivulets, which have their fources at the
foot of that long chain of mountains which runs
through the whole extent of the ifland from ead to
wed. The two highed promontories are called Viva-
gora and Botijtmene.
Thefe mountains (according to the abbe Reckon*)
enclofe within their bofoms a variety of precious mine- Madagaf-
rals and ufeful foffils. The traveller (who for the Aril car-
time rambles over favage and mountainous countries, v
interfedled with valleys and with hills, where nature left
to herlelf brings forth the mod lingular and the mo't
varied productions) is involuntarily lurprifed and ter¬
rified at the fight of precipices, the fummits of which
are crowned with monilrous trees, that feem coeval
with the world. His adonilhment is redoubled at the
noife or thofe grand cafcades, the approach to which
is generally inacceffible. But to thofe view7s fo fub-
limely pi&urefque, rural feenes foon fucceed ; little
hills, gently riling grounds, and plains, the vegetation
of xvhich is never repreffed by the intemperance or the
viciflitude of the feafons. The eye contemplates with
pleafure thofe vad favannas which nourifh numberlefs
herds of bullocks and of (heep. You behold a flou-
riihing agriculture, produced almod folely by the fer¬
tilizing womb of nature. The fortunate inhabitants
of Madagafcar do not bedew the earth with their
fweat they fcarcely dir the ground with a rake, and
even that flight preparation is fufficient. They ferape
little holes at a fmall didance from each other, into
which they fcatter a few grains of rice, and cover them
with their feet ; and fo great is the fertility of the foil,
that the lands fovvn in this carelefs manner produce a
hundred fold.
The foreds prefent a prodigious variety of the mod
ufeful and the mod beautiful trees ; ebony, wood for
dying, bamboos of an enormous thicknefs, and palm
trees of every kind. The timber employed in Ihip-
building is no lefs common than thofe kinds fo much
prized by the cabinetmaker. We are told by the
French governor Flacourt, in his hidory of this iflandf, j ^
that in the year 1650 he fent to France 52,000 weight Grawi IJle
of aloes of an excellent quality. All of thefe various ^
trees and duubs are furrounded by an infinite numberrans 1 *
of parafitical plants j muffirooms of an infinite diverfity
of kinds and colours are to be met with everywhere in
the woods; and the inhabitants know well how to di-
dinguiflr thofe which are prejudicial to the health.
They collect large quantities of ufeful gums and refins j
and out of the milky fap of a tree, denominated by them
Jinguiore, the inhabitants, by means of coagulation,
make that lingular fubdance known to naturalills by
the name of gum elajlic. (See Caoutchouc and Ja-
TROPHA.)
Befides the aromatic and medicinal herbs which a-
bound in the foreds, the ifland produces flax and hemp
of a length and drength which furpafs any in Europe.
Sugar-canes, wax, honey of different kinds, tobacco,
indigo, white pepper, gum-lac, ambergris, filk, and cot¬
ton, would long fince have been objefts of commerce
which Madagafcar would have yielded in profufion, if
the Europeans, in vifiting the ifland, had furniffied
the inhabitants with the neceffary information for pre¬
paring and improving thefe feveral produflions.
The fugar-canes (as we are informed by another tra¬
veller;};) are much larger and finer than any in the Wed l Ives's'
Indies 5 being as thick as a man’s wrid, and fo full of Voyage to
juice, that a foot of them will weigh two pounds.
When the natives travel, they carry a fugar-cane along
with them, which will fupport them for two or three
days. Here are alfo plenty of tamarinds *, and fuch
quantities of limes and oranges, that very large calks
may
MAD [ 35
Madagaf- ttiay be filled with their juices at a trilling expence, as
car- they may be purchafed for iron pots, mufkets, powder,
1 v ' ball, &c. During the fliort time that Admiral Wat-
fon’s fquadron ftaid here in 1754, Mr Ives preferved
about half a hogfnead full of thofe juices, w^hich prov¬
ed afterwards of the greateft fervice to the fhips crews.
It muft be obferved, however, that no good water is
to be had at St Auguftine in the fouth-weft part of the
ifland, wdiere fnips ufually touch, unlefs boats are fent
for it four or five miles up the river j and inftead of
filling their calks at low w7ater (as is the cafe in moft
other rivers), they muft begin to fill at about a quarter’s
flood : The reafon affigned for this is, that the river
has a communication with the fea at other places be-
fides this of St Auguftine’s bay •, and it has been found
by experience, that the fea water brought into the river
by the flood tide is not difcharged till a quarter’s flood
of the next tide in St Auguftine’s bay j and for three
miles up the river, the water is always very brackiih, if
not quite fait.
The abundance and variety of provifions of every
kind, which a fine climate and fertile foil can produce,
are on no part of the globe, according to M. Rochon,
fuperior to thofe of Madagafcar: game, wild-fowl,
poultry, filh, cattle, and fruits, are alike plentiful. T-he
oxen, Mr Ives alfo informs us, are large and fat, and
have each a protuberance of fat between the (boulders,
■weighing about 20 pounds. Their flelh is greatly
efteemed by all the European nations trading to In¬
dia, and (hips are fent to Madagafcar on purpofe to
kill and fait them on the ifland. The protuberance
of fat above mentioned is particularly efteemed after
it has lain feme time in fait ; but our author fays,
that he could not join in the encomiums either on this
piece or the beef in general; as the herbage on which
the creatures feed gives their flelh a particular tafte,
which to him wTas difagreeable. The flieep differ little
from the goats ; being equally hairy, only that their
heads are fomewhat larger : their necks referable that
of a calf, and their tails w^eigh at leaft ten pounds.
Vaft quantities of locufts rife here from the low lands
in thick clouds, extending fometimes to an incredible
length and breadth. The natives eat thefe infefls, and
even prefer them to their fineft filh. Their method
of dreffing them is to ftrip off their legs and wings,
and fry them in oil.
The inhabitants (termed Melagaches or Madecaffes'),
M. Rochon informs us, are in perfon above the middle
lize of Europeans. The colour of the Ikin is different
in different tribes : among fome it is of a deep black,
among others tawny; fome of the natives are of a copper
colour, but the complexion of by far the greateft number
is olive. All thofe who are black have woolly hair like
the negroes of the coaft of Africa : thofe, on the other
hand, who referable Indians and Mulattoes, have hair
equally ftraight with that of the Europeans 5 the nofe
is not broad and flat •, the forehead is large and open ;
in Ihort, all the features are regular and agreeable.
Their phyfiognemy difplays the appearance of frank-
nefs and of fatisfaflion •, they are defirous only of learn¬
ing fuch things as may adminifter to their neceftitics *,
that fpecies of knowledge which demands refleflion is
indifferent to them : fober, agile, aflive, they fpend the
greateft part of their time either in deep or in amufe-
ment. In fine, according to the Abbe, the native of
i ] M A D
Madagafcar, like favagesin general, poffeffes a characler IWaciagai-
equally devoid of vice and of virtue j the gratifications,
of the prefent moment folely occupy his reiledtions ;
he poffeffes no kind of forefight whatever 5 and he can¬
not conceive the idea that there are men in the world
who trouble themfelves about the evils of futurity.
The population of the ifland has been eftimated at
four millions j but this calculation is thought exag¬
gerated by our author, and indeed it appears incredible
to us. Every tribe or fociety inhabits its own can¬
ton, and is governed by its oivn cuftoms. Each of
thefe acknowledges a chief; this chief is fometimes
ele£tive, but more ufually hereditary. The lands are
not divided and portioned out, but belong to thofe
who are at the trouble of cultivating them. Thefe
iflanders make ufe of neither locks nor keys j the
principal part of their food confifts in rice, filh, and
flelh ; their rice is moiftened with a foup which is fea-
foned with pimento, ginger, faftron, and aromatic
herbs. They difplay wonderful cunning in catching
a variety of birds, many of which are unknown in Eu¬
rope ; they have the pheafant, the partridge, the quail,
the pintado, the wild duck, teal of five or fix different
kinds, the blue hen, the black paroquet, and the turtle¬
dove, in great plenty j and alfo a bat of a monftrous
fize, which is much prized on account of its exquifite
flavour. Thefe laft are fo hideous in their appearance*
that they at firft terrify the European bailors : but after
they have vanquilhed their repugnance to them, they
prize their flefh infinitely before that of the pullets of
their own country. The Melag&ches alfo catch an im-
menfe quantity of fea-filh : fuch as the dorado, the
foie, the herring, the mackarel, the turtle, &c. with
oyfters, crabs, &c. The rivers afford excellent eels,
and mullets of an exquifite flavour.
The inhabitants near St Auguftine’s bay, Mr Ives
informs us, fpeak as much broken Englilh as enables
them to exchange their provifions for European ar¬
ticles. Thefe, on the part of the Melagaches are cattle,
poultry, milk, fruit, rice, fait, porcelain, potatoes,
yams, filh, lances, and (hells. From the Europeans
they receive mufleets, pow'der, bullets, flints, c/outies,
(including handkerchiefs, and linen of all kinds),
beads, iron pots, &c.—Silver, which they call mamla,
is in great efteem with them, and is made by them
into bracelets for their wives.
That part of the ifland at which the Englifh fqua¬
dron touched, is the dominions of the king of Baba,
who, by the account of Mr Ives, feemed greatly to
affeft to be an Englilhman. They had no fooner
touched at the ifland, than they were -waited on by one
called Robin Hood, and another perfon, both of whom
bore the office of purfers. Along with thefe were
PJii/ibey the general ; John Anderfon and Frederic
Martin, captains. Nor did the king himfelf and his
family difdain to pay them a vifit *, who, in like man¬
ner wTere diftinguiihed by Engliflr names •, the king’s
eldeft fon being called the prince of Wales, and the
court not being without a duke of Cumberland, a
prince Auguftus, princeffes, &c. as in England. All
thefe grandees came on board naked, excepting only
a flight covering about their loins and on their (boul¬
ders, made of a kind of grabs growing on the ifrnd ',
which they had adorned with fmall glals brads by way
of border or fringe. Their hair ic'embled that or the
T t 2 Indians
MAD f 332 ] MAD
Madagaf- Indians in be3n<^ long and black, ratber than tbe wool-
cai' ly beads of the African negroes. “ 'I'he wives of the
Pdelagnches (according to our author) take great pains
with their hufbands hair j foraetimes putting it in
large and regular curls ; at other times braiding it in
great order, and making it fhine with a particular oil
which the ifland produces. The men always carry in
their hands a wooden lance headed with iron, which
is commonly made very neat ; and they are fuch ex¬
cellent markfmcn, that they will ftrike with it a very
ifnall obje£l at 30 or 40 yards dillance. They have
alio commonly a muiket, which they get from Euro¬
peans in exchange for cattle, and are always fure to
keep in excellent order. 1 am forry to fay (continues
Mr Ives) that the English are frequently guilty of
great irnpofitions in this kind of traffic, by dilpofing
of cheap and ill-tempered barrels among the poor in¬
habitants, who fometimes lofe their lives by the buril-
tng of thefe pieces. Such iniquitous practices as
theie mutt in the end prove injurious to the nation •,
and has indeed already made the name of more than
one-half of thefe traders truly infamous among the de¬
luded but hitherto friendly Madagafcarians.
“ They are a civil and good-natured people, but
caiily provoked, and apt to ffiow their refentment on
the lead provocation, efpecially when they think
themielves injured or flighted. Another chara£terif-
tic of them is, the very high notions of dignity they
entertain of their king *, which is carried to fuch a
height, that they are never more fenfibly hurt than
when they imagine he is treated with incivility or dif-
refpedt. This mighty monarch refides in a town
built with mud, about 1 2 miles up the country from
St Auguftine’s bay. On the eaft fide of the bay, as
you enter, there refided one Pxdnce William, a rela¬
tion and tributary to the king •, but who in mofl cafes
aided as an independent prince, and always ufed his
utmoft endeavours with the officers to caufe them buy
their provifions from him, and not from the king or
his fubjefts. In this prince's territories, not far from
the fea, are the remains of a fort built by Avery the
pirate.
“ All the women of Madagascar, excepting the
very poorefl fort, wear a covering over their breads
and fhoulders, ornamented with glafs beads, and none
go wbthout a cloth about their loins. They common¬
ly walk with a long {lender rod or dick. The men
are allowed to marry as many women as they can
Support.
“ During our day at this ifland (fays Mr Ives), I
obferved with great concern, feveral miferable objefts
in the lad dage of the venereal difeafe. They had
not been -able to find any cure ; and as far as I could
learn, their doctors are totally ignorant of medicine.
The only method they ufe for curing all didempers,
as ■well external as internal, is the wearing on the arm
or neck a particular charm or amulet; or befmearing
the part affecled with earth moidened with the juice
of fome plant or tree, and made up into foft pade.
“ J took Some pains to learn their religious tenets j
and find that they worfhip one Univerfal Father •,
whom, when they fpeak in Englidi, they call God;
and in whom they conceive all kinds of perfe£Hon to
refide. The fun they look upon as a glorious body ;
and, I believe* as a Spiritual being, but created and
dependent. They frequently look up to it with won¬
der, if not with praife and adoration. They make
their Supplications to the One Almighty, and offer fa-
crifices to him in their didreffes. I had the curiofity
to attend a Sacrifice, at the hut of John Anderfon,
whofe father had for a long time been affiicled with
ficknefs. About funfet an ox was brought , into the
yard ; and the fon, who officiated as pried, flew it.
An altar was reared nigh, and the pod of it was
Sprinkled with the blood of the viclim. The head
after its being fevered from the body, was placed,
with the horns on, at the foot of the altar : the caul
was burned on the fire, and mofl of the pluck and en¬
trails boiled in a pot. The fick man, who was brought
to the door, and placed on the ground fo as to face
the lacrifice, prayed often, and feemingly with great
fervency. His eyes were fixed attentively towards the
heavens, and his hands held up in a Supplicating po-
dure. The ceremony ended with the fan's cutting up
the ox into Small pieces j the greated part of which
he diflributcd among tbe poor Slaves belonging to his
father and himfelf 5 referving, however, fome of the
bed pieces for his own ufe. Upon the whole, I faw
fo many circumflances in this Madagafcarian facrifice,
fo exactly refembling thofe defcribed in the Old Te-
flament as offered up by the Jews, that I could not
turn my thoughts back to the original, without being
fenfibly flruck by the e.\a£tnefs of the copy.”
When the Squadron firfl arrived at Madagafcar, the
king of Baba, a man of about 60 years of age, was
ill of the gout. Having demanded of Admiral Wat-
fon fome prefents, the latter complimented him, among
other things, with fome brandy. The monarch then
alked him if he had any doctor with him, and if he
was a great do£tor, and a king’s doctor ? To all which
being anfwered in the affirmative, he defired him to
bring fome mahomets (medicines) for his fick knee.
With this requifition Mr Ives defigned to comply}
but having waited until fome officers Should be ready
ta accompany him, his majefly, in the mean time,
took fuch a dofe of brandy as quickly fent the gout
into his head, and occafioned his death. Mr Ives ob-
ferves, that it happened very luckily for him that the
monarch’s deceafe happened without his having taken
any of the medicines intended for him, as it would
have been impoffible to avoid the imputation of hav¬
ing poifoned him, which would certainly have been re-
fented by his loyal fubjedfls.
The king’s death occafioned great confufion} the
grandees being defirous that it Should be concealed for
fome time. This,'" however, was found impoffible } op
which they fet off for the Mud Town about 11 o’clock
the fame evening. All the inhabitants of the village
followed their example} leaving only the dogs, who
fet up the mofl hideous howling. Captain Frederic
Martin coming to take leave of the Englifh, begged
with great earneflnefs for a freffi fupply of gunpow¬
der } whifpering that the king was dead, and that
they flrould in all probability go to war about making
another. They had been formerly told, that one who
had the title of duhe of Baba would certainly fucceed
to tbe throne } but they afterwards learned, that Phi-
libey the general having efpoufed the caufe of Ra-
phani the late king’s fon, and taken him under his tu,-
telage and prote&ion, this youth, who was only abcroj:
MAD [ 333 1 MAD
Madagaf- i($ vears of ago, fucceeded his father as king of
car* Baba.
™ The following is a defcription of the fouthern divi-
{ion of the illand, from the Abbe Rochon.
“ That part of Madagafcar in which Fort Dauphin
is fituated is very populous. Almoft all the xdllages
are placed on eminences, and furrounded with two rows
of llrong palifadoes, fomewhat in the manner of fuch
of our fences as are compofed of hurdles and turf.
Within, is a parapet of folid earth about four feet in
height *, large pointed bamboos placed at the dillance
of five feet from each other, and funk in a pit, form
a kind of loop-holes, which contribute towards the de¬
fence of thefe villages, fome of which are befides for¬
tified with a ditch ten feet in breadth and fix in
depth. The dwelling of the chief is called a donac.
When the chiefs go abroad, they are always provided
with a mulket and a Hick armed with iron, and adorn¬
ed at the extremity with a little tuft of cow’s hair.
They wear a bonnet of red wool. It is chiefly by the
colour of their bonnet that they are diftinguilhed from
their fubjedts. Their authority is extremely limited:
however, in the province of Carcanojfi, the lands by
cuttom belong to their chiefs, who diftiibute them a-
mong their iubjedls for the purpofes of cultivation ;
they exadf a trifling quit-rent in return, which in their
language is called faenfa. The people of Carcanoffi
are not altogether ignorant of the art of writing •, they
even poflefs fome hiftorical works in the Madagafcar
tongue : but their learned men, whom they term Om-
biq/Jes, make ufe of the Arabic characters alone. They
have treatifes on medicine, geomancy, and judicial a-
lirology $ the molt renowned live in the province of
Matatane; it is in that diflridt that magic ftill remains
in all its glory •, the Matanes are actually dreaded by
the other Madecaffees on account of their excellence
in this delufive art. The Ombiafles have public fchocls
in which they teach geomancy and aftrology. The
natives have undoubtedly learned the art of writing
from the Arabians, who made a conqueft of this ifland
about 300 years fince.
“ The people of the province of AnoJJ:, near Fort
Dauphin, are lively, gay, fenfible, and grateful 5 they
are pafiionately fond of women ; are never melancholy
in their company ; and their principal occupation is
to pleafe the fex *, indeed, whenever they meet their
wives, they begin to fing and dance. The women, from
being happy, are always in good humour. Their live¬
ly and cheerful characler is extremely pleafing to the
Furopeans. I have often been prefent at their aflem-
bhes, where affairs of importance have been agitated j
1 have obierved their dances, their fports, and their a*
mufcments, and I have found them free from thofe
exceffes which are but too common among polifhed
nations. Indeed I was too young as this time for my
obfervatxons to be of much weight j but if my experi¬
ence be infufficient to infpire confidence, I beg the
reader will rather confider the nature of things, than
the relations given by men without principles or intel¬
ligence, who fancy that they have a right to tyrannize
over the inhabitants of every country which they can
fubdue. If the people of Madagafcar have fometimes
availed themfelves of treachery, they have been forced
to it by the tyranny of the Europeans. y The weak
have no other arms againit the flrong. Could they
defend themfelves by any other means from our artil- Madagaf-
lery and bayonets ? They are uninformed and helplels 5 Ciir‘
and we avail ourfelves of their weaknefs, in order to
make them fubmit to our covetoufnefs and caprice.
They receive the mo A; cruel and oppreflive treatment,
in return for the hofpitality which they generoufly be¬
llow on us 5 and we call them traitors and cowards,
when we force them to break the yoke with which we
have been pleafed to load them.”
In the fecond volume of Count Benyowfky’s Me¬
moirs and Travels we have the following account of
the religion, government, See. of the people of this
illand.
“ The Pvtadagafcar nation believe in a Supreme Being,
whom they call Zaw/wre, which denotes creator of all
things. They honour and revere this Being j but
have dedicated no temple to him, and much lefs have
they fubftituted idols. They make facrifices, by kill¬
ing oxen and Iheep, and they addrefs all thefe libations
to God. It has been afferted, that this nation likewife
makes offerings to the devil: but in this there is a de¬
ception ; for the piece of the facrificed beaft which is
ufually thrown into the fire is not intended in honour
of the devil, as is ufually pretended. This cuflom is
very ancient, and no one can tell the true reafon of it.
With regard to the immortality of the foul, the Ma¬
dagafcar people are perfuaded, that, after their death,
their fpirit will return again to the region in which the
Zanhare dwells ; but they by no means admit that the
fpirit of man, after Ills death, can fuffer any evil. As
to the diftin&ion of evil or good, they are perfuaded
that the good and upright man ftiall be recompenfed,
in this life, by a good Hate of health, the conftancy
of his friends, the increafe of his fortunes, the obedi¬
ence of his children, and the happinefs of beholding-
the profperity of his family : and they believe that the
wicked man’s fate lhall be the contrary to this. The
Madagafcar people, upon this conviftion, when they
make oaths, add benedictions in favour of thole who
keep them, and curfes againit thofe who break them.
In this manner it is that they appeal to the judgement
of Zanhare, in making agreements-, and it has never
been known, or heard of, that a native of Madagafcar
has broken his oath, provided it was made in the ufual
manner, which they fay was preferibed by their fore¬
fathers.
“ As to their kings and form of government, &c.
the Madagafcar people have always acknowledged
the line of Ramini, as that to which the rights of Am-
panfacabe or fovereign belongs. They have confider-
ed this line as extinCl fince the death of Dian Rami-
r.i Larizon, which happened 66 years ago, and whofe
body was buried upon a mountain, out of which the
river Manangourou fprings ; but having acknowledged
the heir of this line on the female fide, they re-elta-
blilhed this title in the year 1776. The right of the'
Ampanfacabe confifts in nominating the Rohandrians
to aflift in the cabars^ at which all thofe who are cit¬
ed are bound to appear, and the judgement of the Am¬
panfacabe in his cabar is decifive. Another preroga¬
tive of the Ampanfacabe is, that each Rohandrian
is obliged to leave him by will a certain proportion
of his property, which the fucceffors ufually purchafe
by a flight tribute or fine. Thirdly, The Ampanfa¬
cabe has a right. to exacf from each Rohandrian one-/
tenth::
MAD C 334 ] MAD
tenth of the produce of his land, and a number of
horned cattle and Haves, in proportion to the riches of
the country poffefled by each Rohandrian. The fecond
order is compofed of the Rohandrians, or princes. Since
the lofs of the Ampanfacabe, three of thefe Rohan--
drians have aflumed the title of kings, namely the Ro¬
handrian of the province of Mahavelou, named Hiavi;
of the province of Voemar, named Lambouin ; and a
third at Bombetoki, named Cimanounpou. 7'he third
order confiils of the Voadziri, or lords of a diftridf,
compofed of feveral villages. The fourth order con-
fifts of the Lohavohits, or chiefs of villages. The
fifth order, Ondzatzi, who are freemen, compofe
the attendants or followers of the Rohandrians, Voad¬
ziri, or Lohavohits. The fixth order confifts of Om-
biafTes, or learned men ; and this order forms the war¬
riors, workmen, phyficians, and diviners: thefe laft
poffefs no charge. The feventh order confifts of Am-
purias or Haves.
“ Having made inquiries from Bombetoki patting to
the northward, and as far as Itapere, the refult proved
that there are 38 Rohandrians aftually reigning, and
287 Voadziri. With refpedl to the Lohavohits, Ond¬
zatzi, and Ombiaffes, it was not pOiTrble to obtain any
accurate determination of their number. Thefe or¬
ders preferve a regular gradation, refpedling which it
would be very difficult to give a detailed account.
They live in the manner we read of concerning the
ancient patriarchs. Every father of a family is prieft
and judge in his own houfe, though he depends upon
the Lohavohits, who fuperintends his condudl. This
lalf is anfwerable to his Voadziri, and the Voadziri to
"the Rohandrian.
“ The Madagafcar people having no communication
with the main land of Atthiopia, have not altered
their primitive laws ; and the language throughout
the whole extent of the iHand is the fame. It would
be a raffi attempt to determine the origin of this na¬
tion 5 it is certain that it confifts of three diftimfl
races, who have for ages paft formed intermixtures
which vary to infinity. The firft race is that of Zafe
Ibrahim, or defcendants of Abraham but they have
no veftige of Judaifm, except circumcifion, and feme
names, fuch as Ifaac, Reuben, Jacob, &.c. This race
is of a brown colour.— The fecond race is that of Za-
feramini : with refpeft to this, fome books which are
fiill extant among the Ombiaffes, affirm that it is
not more than fix centuries fince their arrival at Ma¬
dagafcar.—With refpedl to the third race of Zafe
Canambou, it is of Arabian extradlion, and arrived
much more lately than the others from the coafts of
./Ethiopia : hence it poffeffes neither power nor cre¬
dit, and fills only the charges of writers, hiftorians,
poets. &c.
“ In regard to arts and trades, the Madagafcar na¬
tion are contented with fuch as are nec^ffary to make
their moveables, tools, utenfils, and arms for defence ;
to conftmft their dwellings, and the boats which are
neceffary for their navigation 5 and laftly, to fabricate
cloths and Huffs for their clothing. They are de-
iirous only of poffeffing the neceffary fupplies of im¬
mediate utility and convenience, '('he principal and
moft refpe&ed bufinefs, is the manufinflure of iron
and fteel. The artifts in this way call themlelves am-
pn.nefa vihe. I hey are very expert in fuling the ore,
1
and forging utenfils, fuch as hatchets, hammers, an- Madagaf-
vils, knives, fpades, fagayes, razors, pincers or tweez- car.
ers for pulling out the hair, &c. The fecond clafs
confifts of the goldfmiths {ompanefa vo/a mena}-. they call;
gold in ingots, and make up bracelets, buckles, ear¬
rings, drops, rings, &.c. 7'he third are called ompavil-
langa,- and are potters. The fourth are the ompanevat-
la, or turners in wood, who make boxes called valla,
plates, wooden and horn fpoons, bee-hives, coffins, &c.
7'he fifth ompan cacafou, or carpenters. They are very
expert in this bufmefs, and make ufe of the rule, the
plane, the compaffes, &c. The fixth are the ompania-
vi, or ropemakers. They make their ropes of diffe¬
rent kinds of bark of trees, and likewife of hemp. 7'he
feventh, ampan lamba, or weavers. This bufinefs is
performed by women only, and it would be reckoned
difgraceful in a man to exercife it. The ombiajfes are
the literary men and phyficians, who give advice only.
The herauvit% are comedians and dancers.
“ The Madagafcar people always live in fociety j
that is to fay, in towns and villages. 7'he towns are
furrounded by a ditch and pallifades (as already men¬
tioned), at the extremities of which a guard of from 1 2
to 20 armed men is kept. The houfes of private peo¬
ple confift of a convenient cottage, furrounded by fe¬
veral fmall ones : the mafter of the houfe dwells in the
large!!, and his women or Haves lodge in the fmaller.
Thefe houfes are built of wood, covered with leaves of
the palm tree or ftraw.
“ 7'he houfes of the great men of the country are
very fpacious; each houfe is compofed of two walls
and four apartments : round about the principal houfe
other fmaller habitations are built for the accommoda¬
tion of the women, and the whole family of the chief j
but the Haves cannot pafs the night within them.—
Moft of the houfes inhabited by the Rohandrians are
built with tafte and admirable fymmetry.”
The French attempted to conquer and take poffef-
fion of the whole iHand, by order, and for the ufe of,
their Moft Chriftian Majefties Louis XIII. and XIV.
and they maintained a footing on it from the year
1642 to 1657. During this period, by the moft cruel
treachery, they taught the native princes the barbarous
traffic in fl.ives, by villanoufly felling to the Dutch go¬
vernor of Mauritius a number of innocent people, who
had been affifting them In forming a fettlement at
Fort Dauphin.
The Abbe Rodion tells us, that the infalubrity of the
air in PTadagafcar determined his countrymen in 1664
to quit that immenfe bland, in order to eftablilh them-
felves at fo inconfiderable a place as the ifle of Bour¬
bon, which is fcarcely perceptible in a map of the
globe : but it is apparent, from the account of the Hate
of the French affairs on the ifland of Madagafcar, in
1661, when Flacourt’s narrative was publiffied, that
their ill treatment of the natives had raifed fuch a ge¬
neral and formidable eppofition to their refidence in the
country, that the French were obliged to abandon their
poffeffions for other reafons than the unhealthy qualities
of the climate. We have not room here for a detail of
all the oppreffive meafures of the French, which the
abbe himfelf candidly cenfures in the ftrongeft terms •,
but ffiall extrad the following narrative, both becaufe
it is interefting in itfelf, and exhibits the caufes and the
means of their expulfion.
La
Madagaf-
car.
M A E> [ 33
La Cafe, one of the French officers employed by
the governor of Fort Dauphin againft the natives,
was fo fuccefsful in all his enterprifes, that they called
him Deaan Pour, the name of a chief who had for¬
merly conquered the whole ifland. Ihe French go¬
vernor, jealous of his renown, treated him hardily, and
refufed to allow him the rank or honours due to his
valour. The fovereign of the province of Amboulle,
called Deaan Rafcitat, taking advantage of his difcon-
tent, prevailed on him to become his general. Five
Frenchmen followed him. Deaan Nong, the daugh¬
ter of Rafcitat, captivated by the perfon and heroilm
of La Cafe, offered him her hand with the confent of
her father. The chief, grown old, infirm, and arrived
at the lail: ftage of exidence, had the iatisfa61ion of
fecuring the happinefs of his fubje&s, by appointing
his fon-in-law abfolute mader of the rich province of
Amboulle. La Cafe, in marrying Deaan Nong, re¬
fufed to take the titles and honours attached to the
fovereign power : he would accept of no other cha-
rafter, than that of the fird fubjefl of his wife, who
was declared fovereign at the death of her father. Se¬
cure in the affesdion of this princefs, who was not
only poffeffed of perfonal charms, but of courage and
great qualities, he was beloved and refpebted by her
family, and by all the people of Amboulle, who reve¬
renced him as a father ; and yet, how much foever he
wifhed it, he was unable to contribute to the profperity
of his countrymen at Fort Dauphin, whom he knew to
be in the utmod didrefs. The governor, regarding
him as a traitor, had fet a price on his head, and on
the heads of the five Frenchmen who had followed
him. The neighbouring chiefs, irritated at this treat¬
ment of a man whom they fo much venerated, unani-
moufiy refufed to fupply the fort with provifions. This
occafioned a famine in the place, wrhich, with a conta¬
gious fever and other maladies, reduced the French gar-
rifon to 80 men.
The edablidiment at Fort Dauphin, on the point
of being totally dedroyed, was preferved for a fhort
time from ruin by the arrival of a veffel from France,
commanded by Kercadio an officer of Britanny, who,
with the affidance of a young advocate who had been
kidnapped on board the veffel, prevailed on the envi¬
ous and implacable governor Chamargou to make
peace with La Cafe and his fovereign fpoufe Deaan
Nong. This peace, however, laded but for a diort
time ; the French, redlefs and infolent to the neigh¬
bouring nations, again drew on them the vengeance
of the natives. Even the few friends whom they had
been able to acquire by means of La Cafe, w^re ren¬
dered hodile to them by the tyrannic zeal of the mif-
fionaries •, who, not contented w-ith being tolerated
and allowed to make converts, infided on Deaan Ma-
nang, fovereign of Mandrarey, a powerful, courageous,
and intelligent chief, well difpofed to the French, to
divorce all his wives but one. This prince, not con¬
vinced of the neceffity of fuch a meafure, affured them
that he wras unable to change his habits and w7ay
of living, which were thofe of his forefathers. “ You
would allow me (fays he) to have one wife ; but if
the poffeffion of one woman is a bleffing, why ffiould
a numerous feraglio be an evil, while peace and con¬
cord reign among thofe of wffiom it is compofed ?
Do you fee among us any indications of jealoufy or
‘1 trv to make' Maftagaf*
err ma¬
te phen.
ai
tlii
ce or
rj the F
with his
Rochon.
ench
5 ] M A D
hatred ? No, all our wo;- t are- ; .-l
me happy; and I am mor-
der.” This fpeech had no rr a ; F
fuperior of the Madagafcar million,
rily ordered him indantly to rtpudi;.t‘
except one; and threatened, in prtfen
men, to have them taken from him !
foldiers, if he hefitated in complying
mands. It is eafy to imagine, fays M. Keen , witli
what indignation this language mud have been beard
in the domic or palace of this prince. The fsrmdcs af-
lailed the miffionary on all lides ; loaded him with ex¬
ecrations and blows $ and, in their fury, would doubt-
lefs have afforded him no more quarter than the Thra¬
cian women did Orpheus, if Deaan Manang, not'.vuh-
danding his own agitation, had not made ufe of all bis
authority to fave him.
In order to free himfelf from the perfecution of this
pried, he removed with his family 70 or 80 miles up
into the country; but he was foon followed by Father
Stephens and another miffionary, with their attendants.
The chief, Manang, dill received them civilly ; but he
intreated them no longer to infid on the converfion of
him and his people, as it was impeffible to oblige them
to quit the cudoms and manners of their ancedors.
The only reply which Father Stephen made to this
intreaty, was by tearing off the oli, and the amulets
and charms wffiich the chief wTore as ficred badges of
his own religion ; and, throwing them into the fire, he
declared war againd him and his nation. This violence
indantly cod him and his followers their lives: they
wTere all maffacred by order of Manang, who vowed
the dedru61ion of all the French in theidand ; in which
intention he proceeded in a manner that has been re¬
lated by an eyewitnefs, who wTas afterwards provincial
commiffary of artillery, in a narrative publhhed at
Lyons in 1722, entitled, Voyage de Madagafcar. “ Our
yoke (fays the Abbe Rochon) was become odious and
infupportable. Hidorians, for the honour of civilized
nations, diould bury in oblivion the affiifling narratives
of the atrocities exercifed on thefe people, whom we
are pleafed to call barbarous, treacherous, and deceitful,
becaufe they have revolted againd European adventurers,
whofe lead crime is that of violating the facred rites of
hofpitality.”
It was about the year 1672 that the French were to¬
tally driven from the iiland of Madagafcar; and no
confiderable attempts were made to form fredi edablifh-
ments there till within thefe few7 years, by M. de Mo-
dave, and by Count Benyowlki; neither of which was .
attended with fuccefs, for reafons given by the Abbe,
but which we have not room to detail.
MADDER, a plant ufed in dyeing. See Rubia,
Botany Index; and for its dyeing properties, fee
Dyeing.
MADEIRAS, a cinder of iflands fituated in the
Atlantic ocean in W. Long. 16°, and between 320 and
33° N. Lat.—The larged of them, called Madeira,
from which the red take their name, is about 55
Englidi miles long, and jo miles broad ; and was fird:
difeovered on the 2d of July, in the year 1419, by
Joao Gonzales Zarco, there being no hidorical founda¬
tion for the fabulous report of its difeovery by one
Machin an Englifhman. It is divided into two capi-
tanias, named Funchal and Maxico, from the towns of
thofe c
Madeira?
MAD [ 336 ] MAD
Ma-deiras. tnofe names. The former contains two jadicatures, viz.
v Funchal and Galhettaj the latter being a town with the
title of a county, belonging to the family of Caflello
Melhor. The fecond capitania likewife comprehends
two judicatures, viz. Maxico (read Malhico) and San
Vicente.
Funchal is the only citadel or city in the ifland,
which has alio feven villas or towns 5 of which there
are four, Calhctta, Camara de Lobos, Ribeira Braba,
and Ponta de Sol in the capitania of Funchal, which
is divided into 26 parilhes. The other three are in
the capitania of Maxico, which conlifts of 17 parilhes ;
thefe towns are called Maxico, San Vicente, and Santa
Crux.
There is one curiofity in the town of Funchal, which
deferves to be taken notice of, and that is a chamber
in one of the corners of the Francifcan convent, the
walls and ceiling of which are completely covered with
rows of human fkulls and human thigh bones, fo ar¬
ranged that in the obtufe angle made by each pair of
the latter, eroding each other obliquely, is placed a
Ikull. The only vacant fpace that appears is in the
centre of the fide oppofite to the door, on which there
is an extraordinary painting above a kind of altar, but
what the fubjedt it is intended to reprefent, it is difficult
to determine. A figure probably intended for St Fran¬
cis, the patron faint, feems to be intent on trying in a
balance the comparative weight of a {inner and a faint.
A dirty lamp fufpended from the ceiling, and juft glim¬
mering in the focket, ferves dimly to light up this dif-
mal den of fkulls. The monk who attends as (hew-
man, is careful to imprefs on the minds of thofe who
vifit it, the idea that they are all relicks of holy men
who died on the ifland, although Mr Barrow is of opi¬
nion that the church-yard muft have been frequently
robbed, in order to accumulate fuch a prodigious num¬
ber of Ikulls, which from a rough computation made
by that gentleman, could not be under 3000.
The governor is at the head of all the civil and mi-
litary departments of this ifland, of Porto-Santo, the
Salvages, and the Ilhas Defartas j which laft only con¬
tain the temporary huts of fome fifhermen, who refort
thither in purfuit of their bufinefs j his falary is com¬
puted to be vrorth 2000I. per annum, 200I. of which
is in the form of a prefent from the Englifti mer¬
chants.
The law department is under the corregidor, wffio is
appointed by the king of Portugal, commonly fent
from Lilhon, and holds his place during the king’s
pleafure. All caufes come to him from inferior courts
by appeal. Each judicature has a fenate ; and a Juita
or judge, whom they choofe, prefides over them. At
Funchal he is called Jui% da Fora; and in the ab-
fence, or after the death of the corregidor, afts as
his deputy. The foreign merchants eledt their own
judges, called the Provudor, who is at the fame time
colleftor of the king’s cuftoms and revenues, which
amount in all to about 12,oool. fterling. Far the
greateft part of this fum is applied towards the fala-
ries of civil and military officers, the pay of troops,
and the maintenance of public buildings. This revenue
a/ifes, fiift from the tenth of all the produce of this
ill ’ d belonging to the king, by virtue of his office as
gra: d mailer of the order of thrift •, fecondly, From
jten per cent, duties laid on all imports, provifions ex-
2
cepted j and ladly, From the eleven per cent, charged Madeints.
on all exports. ”“,"v 1
The ifiand has but one company of regular foldiers
of 100 men : the reft of the military force is a militia
confiding of 3000 men, divided into companies, each
commanded by a captain, who has one lieutenant un¬
der him and one enfign. There is no pay given to
either the private men or the officers of this militia 5
and yet their places are much fought after, on account
of the rank which they communica.v. Thefe troops
are embodied once a-year, and exercifed once a-month.
All the military are commanded by the Scrjeantc M6r«
The governor has two Capita nos de Sal about him, who
do dmy as aides de-camp.
The fecular priefts on the ifland are about 1200,
many of whom are employed as private tutors. Since
the expulfion of the Jeluits, no regular public fchool
is to be found here ; unlefs wre except a feminary,
where a prieft, appointed for that purpofe, inftrutts
and educates ten Undents at the king’s expence. Thefe
wear a red cloak over the ufual black gowns worn
by ordinary {Indents. All thoie who intend to go
into orders, are obliged to qualify themfelves by
ftudying in the univerfity of Coimbra, lately re-efta-
bliihed in Portugal. There is alfo a dean and chap¬
ter at Madeira, with a bilhop at their head, whofe
income is confiderably greater than the governor’s 5
it confifts of no pipes of wine, and of 40 muys of
wheat, each containing 24 bufliels j which amounts
in common years to 30C0I. flerling. Here are like¬
wife 60 or 70 Francifcan friars, in four monafteries,
one of which is at Funchal. About 320 nuns live on
the ifland, in four convents, of the order of Merci,
Sta Clara, Incarnacao, and Dom Jefus. Thofe of
the laft mentioned inftitution may marry whenever
they choofe, and leave their monaftery.
In the year 1768, the inhabitants living in the 43
parifties of Madeira, amounted to 63.913, of whom
there were 31,341 males and 32,572 females. But
in that year 5243 perfons died, and no more than
2198 children were born ; fo that the number of the
dead exceeded that of the born by 3045. It is high¬
ly probable that fome epidemical diftemper carried off
fo difproportionate a number in that year, as the
ifland would ftiortly be entirely depopulated if the
mortality were always equal to this. Another cir-
cumftance concurs to ftrengthen this fuppofition, name¬
ly, the excellence of the climate. The weather is in
general mild and temperate : in fummer, the heat is
very moderate on the higher parts of the ifland, whither
the better fort of people retire for that feafon •, and in
the winter the fnow remains there for feveral days,
whilft it is never known to continue above a day or two
in the lower parts.
The common people of this ifland are of a tawny-
colour, and well ffiaped ; though they have large feet,
owing perhaps to the efforts they are obliged to make
in climbing the craggy paths of this mountainous
country. Their faces are oblong, their eyes dark j
their black hair naturally falls in ringlets, and begins to
crifp in fome individuals, which may perhaps be owing
to intermarriages with negroes \ in general, they are
hard featured, but not difagreeable. 'I heir women
are too frequently ill-favoured, and want the florid
complexion, which, when united to a pleafing affem-
blage
MAD
t 337 1
M A D
Madeifas blage of regular features, gives our northern fair ones
 <v ; the°fuperiority over all their fex. They are fmall,
have prominent cheek bones, large feet, an ungraceful
gait, and the colour of the darkeft brunette. The
jutt proportion of the body, the fine form of their
hands, and their large lively eyes, feem in fome mea-
fure to compenfate for thofe defers. The labour¬
ing men, in fummer, wear linen trowfers, a coarfe
fliirt, a large hat, and boots ; fome have a fhort jacket
made of cloth, and a long cloak, which they fome-
times carry over their arm. The women wear a pet¬
ticoat, and a fhort corfelet or jacket, clofely fitting
their fhapes, which is a fimple, and often not an in¬
elegant, drefs. They have alio a fhort but wide
cloak •, and thofe that are unmarried tie their hair on
the crown of their head, on which they wear no co¬
vering.
The country people are exceeding fober and frugal 5
their diet in general confiding of bread and onions,
or other roots, and little animal food. However,
they avoid eating tripe, or any offals, becauie it is
proverbially faid of a very poor man, “ He is reduced
to eat tripe.” Their common drink is water, or an
infufion of the remaining rind or fkin of the grape
(after it has paffed through the wine prefs), which
when fermented acquires fome tartnefs and acidity, but
cannot be kept very long. The wine for which the
iHand is fo famous, and which their own hands prepare,
feldom if ever regales them.
Their principal occupation is the planting and raif-
ing of vines •, but as that branch of agriculture re¬
quires little attendance during the greateil part of the
year, they naturally incline to idlenefs. 1 he warmth
of the climate, which renders great provifion againd
the inclemencies of weather unneceffary, and the eafe
with which the cravings of appetite are fatisfied, mud
tend to indolence, wherever the regulations of the
legidature do not counteract it, by endeavouring, with
the profpeft of increafing happinefs, to infufe the Ipi-
rit of indudry. It feetns the Portuguefe government
does not purfue the proper methods againd this dan¬
gerous lethargy of the date. They have lately order¬
ed the plantation of olive trees here, on fuch fpots as
are too dry and barren to bear vines •, but they have
not thought of giving temporary adidance to the la¬
bourers, and have offered no premium by which thefe
might be induced to conquer their reludance to inno¬
vations and averfion to labour.
The vineyards are held only on an annual tenure,
and the fanner reaps but four-tenths of the produce,
fmce other four tenths are paid in kind to the owner
of the land, one tenth to the king, and one to the
clergy. Such fmall profits, joined to the thought of
toiling merely for the advantage of others, if improve¬
ments were attempted, entirely preclude the hopes of
a future increafe. Oppreffed as they are, they have
however preferved a high degree of cheer!ulnefs and
contentment ; theif labours are commonly alleviated
with fongs, and in the evening they affemble from
different cottages to dance to the drowfy mufic ol a
guitar.
The inhabitants of the towns are more ill-favoured
than the country people, and often pale and lean.
The men wear French clothes, commonly black, which
do not feem to fit them, and have been in falhion in
Vol. XII. Fart I.
the polite world about half a century ago. i treir la- ^
dies are delicate, and have agreeable features : but tne
charafteriftic jealouly of the men Hill locks them up,
and deprives them of a happinels which the country
women, amidft all their diftreffes, enjoy. Many ol tne
better people are a fort of petite noblejje, which we
wmuld cz\\gentry, whole genealogical pride makes them
unfociable and ignorant, and caufes a ridiculous affetla-
tion of gravity. The landed property is in the hands
of a few ancient families, who live at Funchal, and in
the various towns on the ifland.
Madeira confiixs of one large mountain, whofe
branches rife everywhere from the fea towards the
centre of the illand, converging to the fummit, in the
midft of which is a depreffion or excavation, called the
Val by the inhabitants, always covered with a frefii
and delicate herbage. The {tones on the ifland feem to
have been in tbe fire, are full of holes, and or a black-
ifh colour; in Ihort, the greater part of them are lava.
A few of them are of the kind which the Derbyibire
miners call dunjlone. The foil of the whole iliand is
a tarras mixed with fome particles of clay, lime, and
fand, and has much the fame appearance as fome
earths on the ifie of Afcenfion. I'rom this circum-
ftance, and from the excavation of the fummit of the
mountain, it is probable, that in fome remote period
a volcano has produced the lava and the ochreous par¬
ticles, and that the Val w-as formerly its crater.
Many brooks and fmall rivulets defeend from the
fummits in deep chafms or glens, which feparate the
various parts of the ifland. The beds of the brooks are
in fome places covered with {tones of all fizes, carried
down from the higher parts by the violence of winter
rains or floods of melted fnow. ihe water is conduct¬
ed by wears and channels in the vineyards, where each
proprietor has the ufe of it for a certain time 5 fome
being allowed to keep a conftant fupply of it, fome
to ufe it thrice, others twice, and others only once a-
week. As the heat of the climate renders this fupply
of water to the vineyards abfolutely neceffary, it is
not without great expence that a new vineyard can be
planted } ior the maintenance of which, the owners muff
purchafe water at a high price, from thofe who are
conftantly fupplied, and are thus enabled to fpare fome
of it.
Wherever a level piece of ground can be contrived
in the higher hills, the natives make plantations of ed-
does enclofed by a kind of dike to caufe a ftagnation,
as that plant fucceeds beftin fwampy ground. Its leaves
ferve as food for bogs, and the country people ufe the
roots for their own nourithment.
The fweet potato is planted for the fame purpofe,
and makes a principal article of diet \ together with
chefnuts, which grow in extenfive woods, on the higher
parts of the ifland, where the vine will not thrive.
Wheat and barley are likewife fown, efpecially in
fpots where the vines nre decaying through age, or
where they are newly planted. But the crops do not
produce above three months proviflons $ and the in¬
habitants are therefore obliged to have recourie to
other food, befides importing confiderable quantities
of corn from North America in exchange for wine.
The want of manure, and the inaSh uy of the people,
are in fome meafure the caufes of this difadvantage ”,
but fuppofing bulb ah dry to be carried to its perfecl ion,
U u here,
Made
——v
M A D [ 3
-• here, they could net raife corn fufficient for their con-
“ fi mption. They make their thrcfhing floors of a cir¬
cular form, in a corner ot a field, which is cleared and
beaten folid for the purpoie. The (heaves arc laid
round about it; and a iquare board, duck full of (harp
llints below, is dragged over them by a pair of oxen,
the driver getting on it to increafe its weight. This
machine cuts the thaw as if it had been chopped, and
trees the grain from the hulk, from which it is after¬
wards feparated.
The great produce of Madeira is the wine, from
which it has acquired fame and fupport. Where the
foil, expofure, and fupply of water, will admit of it,
the vine is cultivated. One or more walks, about a
yard or two wide, interfeft each vineyard, and are
included by Hone walls two feet high. Along thefe
walks, which are arched over with laths about feven
feet high, they ereft wooden pillars at regular di-
llances, to luppoit a lattice-work ot bambocs, which
Hopes down from both lides of the walk, till it is only
a foot and a half or two feet high, in which elevation
it extends over the whole vineyard. The vines are in
this manner fupported from the ground, and the peo¬
ple have rqom to root out the weeds which fpring up
between them. In the feafon of the vintage, they
creep under this lattice-work, cut off the grapes, and
lay them into balkets : feme bunches of theie grapes
weigh fix pounds and upwards. This method of keep¬
ing the ground clean and moift, and ripening the grapes
in the ihade, contributes to give the Madeira wanes
that excellent flavour and body for which they are re¬
markable. The owners of vineyards are however
obliged to allot a certain fpot of ground for the growth
of bamboos ; for the lattice-work cannot be made with¬
out them : and it is faid fome vineyards lie quite ne-
glefted for Tvant of this ufeful reed.
The wines are not all of equal gcodnefs, and con-
fequently of different prices. The beft, made of a
vine imported from Candia by order of the Infante jrf
Portugal, Don Henry, is called Madeira Mahnfeij, a
pipe of which cannot be bought on the fpot for lefs
than 40I. or 42I. (lerling. It is an exceeding rich
fweet wire, and is only made in a fmall quantity. The
next fort is a dry wine, fuch as is exported for the Lon¬
don market, at 30I. or 31k fterling. the pipe. Inferior
forts for the Fail India, Well India, and North Ameri¬
can markets, fell at 28k 25I. and 20k fterling. About
30,000 pifes, upon a mean, are made every year, each
containing 110 gallons. About 13,000 pipes of the
better forts are exported : and all the reft is made into
brandy for the Bra2ils, converted into vinegar, or con-
lamed at home.
The large ft quantity of this article exported in the
courfe of one year, is faid to have amounted to 15.000
pipes, valued at 500,000!. of which 5,500 pipes were
fent to the Eaft Indies, 4,500 to England, 3,000 to
to the Weft Indies, and 2,000 to America.
The enclofures of the vineyards confift of walls, and
hedges of prickly pear, pomegranates, myrtles, bram¬
bles, and wild rofes. The gardens produce peaches,
apricots, quinces, apples, pears, walnuts, chefnuts, ahd
many other European fruits; together with now and
then fome tropical plants, fuch as bananas, goavas, and
fine-apples.
All the common domeftic animals of Europe are
38 ] MAD
likewife found at Madeira; and their mutton and beef,
though fmall, is very well tailed. Their horfes are
fmall, but fure-footed ; and with great agility climb
the difficult paths, which are the only means of com¬
munication in the country. They have no v.’heel-car-
riages of any kind : but in the town they ufe a fort
of drays or fledges, formed of two pieces of plank
joined by crofs pieces, which make an acute angle be¬
fore ; thefe are drawn by oxen, and are ufed to tranf-
port calks of wine, and other heavy goods, to and
from the warehoufes.
The animals of the feathered tribe, which Jive wild
here, are more numerous than the wild quadrupeds ;
there being only the common gray rabbit here, as a
rt prefentative of the laft-mentioned clal’s. Tame birds,
fuch as tuikeys, geei'e, ducks, and hens, are very rare,
which is perhaps owing to the fcarcity of corn.
1 here are no fnakes whatfoever in Madeira ; but
all the houf s, vineyards, and gardens, iwarrn with liz--
ards. The friars of one of the convents complained
to Mr Forller, that thefe vermine deftroyed the fruit
in their garden ; they had therefore placed a brafs-
kettle in the ground to catch them, as they are con-
liantly running about in quell of food. In this man¬
ner they daily caught hundreds, which could not get
out on account of the fmooth lides of the kettle, but
were forced to periih.
The fhores of Madeira, and of the neighbouring
Salvages and Defertas, are not without filh ; but as
they are not in plenty enough for the rigid obfervance
of Lent, pickled herrings are brought fiom Gotten-
burg in Englilh bottoms, and falted cod from New
York and other American ports, to fupply the defici¬
ency.
M ADI AN, in Ancient Geography, a town of Ara¬
bia Petrsea, near the Arnon ; fo called from one of the
fans of Abraham by Ketura, in ruins in Jerome’s time.
Jerome mentions another Madian, or Midian, be¬
yond Arabia, in the deiert, to the louth of the Red fea;
and hence Madianeci, and MadianitcA, the people ; and
Madiantea Rc^io, the country.
MADNESS, a moll dreadful kind of delirium, with¬
out fever. See Medicine Index.
MADRAS. See St George.
MADRE de Pop A, a town and convent of South
America, in Terra Firma, feated on the river Grande.
It is almoft as much reforted to by pilgrims of Ame¬
rica as Loretto is in Europe ; and the image of the
Virgin Mary is laid to have done many miracles in fa¬
vour of the feafaiing people. W. Long. 76. o. N. Lat.
11. o.
MADREPORA, in Natural Hijlory, the name of a
genus of i'ubmarine iubftances ; belonging to the order
lithophyta. See Helminthology Index.
MADRID, a town of New Caftile in Spain, and
capital of the whole kingdom, though it never had the
title of a city, is fituated in W. Long. 3. 5. N. Lat.
40. 26. It Hands in the centre of a large plain, fur-
rounded with mountains, and in the very heart of
Spain, on the banks of the little river Manzanares,
which is always very low and (hallow, except when it is
fwelled by the melting of the fnow on the mountains.
The city is in general well laid out ; the ftreets are very
handfome ; and the houfes are fair and lofty, but built
cf brick, with lattice-windows, excepting thofe of the
MAD
[ 339 1
MAD
Madrid, rich, xvlio have glafs in their windows *, only, during
■—••v—-'the fummer heats, they ufe gauze, or feme fuch thin
fluff, inftead of it, to let in the frefh air. There are
two ftately bridges here over the Manzanares, a great
many magnificent churches, convents, hofpitals, and
padaces. The royal palace, which ftands on the weft
fide of the town, on an eminence, is fpacious and mag¬
nificent, confifting of three courts, and commanding a
fine profpeft. At the eaft end of the town is the pra-
do, or pardo 5 which is a delightful plain, planted with
regular rows of poplar trees, and watered with a grca>-
many fountainswhere the nobility and genti y take
the air on horfeback, or in their coaches, and the com¬
mon people on foot, or divert themfelves with a variety
of fports and exercifes. Almoft all the ftreets of Ma¬
drid are ftraight, wide, clean, and well paved. The
largeft and moft frequented are the ftreet of Alcala,
that of Atocha, that of Toledo, and the Ca//e Grande
or great ftreet. Madrid has alfo feverat fquares, which
in general are not very regular, d. he principal are
thofe of San Joachim, Sol, Lafganitas, San Domingo,
La Cevado, and the Plaza Mayor. The latter^ efpe-
cially deferves notice for its fpacioufnefs and regularity,
and the elegant and lofty houfes it contains. It is 1 53^
feet in circuit. The houfes, of which there are 136,
are of five ftories, ornamented with balconies; the firft
of which, fupported by pillars, forms a piazza round
the fquare, where the inhabitants may walk under co¬
ver. In the middle of the fquare a market is kept.—
The ftreets and fquares of Madrid, except the Plaza
Mayor which has been juft deferibed, are ornamented
with fountains in a very ill tafte. d nofe moft to oe di-
ft'mguilhed in this particular are the fountain of the
fmall irregular fquare called P/axa di Antonio Martin,
and that of the fquare named Puerto del Sol. I he
others are not more magnificent though lefs ridiculous.
The water of all thefe fountains is excellent } and the
air of Madrid, though the weather be variable and un¬
certain, is extremely pure. It was this purity of the
air and excellent quality of the water which induced
Philip II. and his fucceffors to fix their refidence in this
city. It is alfo well fupplied with provifions of all kinds
at reafonable rates 5 and the court, with the refort and
refidence of the quality, and the high colleges and of¬
fices that are kept here, occafion a brilk. trade and cir¬
culation of money.
The facred edifices in this city have nothing remark¬
able in their architefture } thofe of St Pafqual, St Ifa-
bella, and the Carmelites, contain highly valuable col-
lefilions of piiffures, which may be feen with admiration
even after the paintings of the Efcurial and the new pa¬
lace. The church of St Ifidro, which heretofore be¬
longed to the Jefuits, has a portal which has efcaped
the contagion of the age in which it was built. There
is another church much more modern, which on ac¬
count of its mafs has a venerable appearance, but which
true tafte may juftly difavow : it is that of St Saleias,
or the Vifitation, founded by Ferdinand VI. and the
queen Barbara his wife.—The convent of St Francis
* Bourgo- has already been fome years building *, and there are
anne's hopes that it will become one of the fined produflicns
•vets in arc]iite£lure in the capital.—Beiides a variety of cha-
vitzble foundations, there are here three confraternities,
the revenues of which are appropriated to the fuccour
of the wretched : and an inftitution fimilar to the Mont
de Piete in Paris, the principal objeft of which is to ad
vance money to the neceflitous.
The city of Madrid contains 15 gates, 18 parithes,
35 convents of monks, and 31 of nuns; 39 colleges,
hofpitals, or houfes of charity ; 7398 dwelling-houfes,
and about 160,coo inhabitants. The Lombard tra¬
veller, Father Caimo, tells us, that 50,000 ftieep and
1 2,000 oxen are annually confumed there ; to which
his editor has added a ludicrous eftimate of the onions
and leeks devoured there, which he lays amount to
979000000000000000000000000000045. But this
writer (M. Bourgoanne obferves) would not at pre-
fent have any reafon to complain ol the difagreeable
fmells of the ftreets, nor would he find all the per¬
fumes of Arabia neceffary to defend himfelf from them.
By the vigilance of the modern police, for which (M.
Bourgoanne informs us) it is indebted to the Count
d’Aranda, it is rendered one of the cleaneft cities in
Europe.
There are four academies in Madrid : The firft is
the Spanilh academy, founded in 17I4> invitation of
the French academy, and confifting of 24 members,
including the preiident. Its device is a crucible on
burning coals, with the motto hmfna, Jixa, y da efplen-
der; “ it purifies, fixes, and gives luftre.” Its firft
objedl was the compilation of a di&ionary of the Spa-
nith language, which was published in fix volumes folio,
and of which a new edition, with great additions, has
been lately put to die prefs. The lame academy is
alfo employed on a fuperb edition of Don (ftuixotte,
adorned with elegant engravings far fuperior to the
laft, and collated with ail the former editions. The
fecond is the academy of hiftory ; which owes its ori¬
gin to a fociety of individuals, the objedl of whofe
meetings was to preferve and illuftrate the hiftorical
monuments of the kingdom of Spain. Their labours
met the approbation ol Philip V. who in 1738 con¬
firmed the ftatutes by a royal cedula. This academy
confifts of 24 members, including tbe prefident, fecrc-
tary, and cenfor. Its device is a river at its fource ;
and the motto, Inpatriam populumque Jluit. Ine other
two academies are, the academy of the fine arts,
painting, fculpture, and architefture ; and the aca¬
demy of medicine. The latter is held in no great
efteem.
The environs of Madrid contain feveral royal leats ;
among which are El Buen Retiro, Cafa del Campo,
Florida, Le Pardo Sarfuela, and St Ildefonfo ; but the
moft magnificent not only in this country but perhaps
in the whole world is the Efcurial, which takes its
name from a fmall village near which it ftands, about
22 miles north-weft from Madrid ; and of which a d>
feription is given under the article ESCURIAL. Ano¬
ther royal palace, greatly admired, particularly for its
delicious gardens and furprifing water-works, is Aran-
juez, which is fituated on the Tagus, about 30 miles
Youth of Madrid. See Aranjuez.
MADRIGAL, a ihort amorous poem, compofed of
a number of free and unequal veries, neither confined
to the regularity of a fonnet, nor to the point of an epi¬
gram ; but only confifting of fome tender and delicate
thought, expreffed with a beautiful, noble, and elegant
fimplicity.
Menage derives the word from mandra, which in
Latin and Greek, fignifies “ a fheep-lold imagining
U u 2 it
Madrid.
M A E
Madura
Maecenas.
it to have been originally a kind of paftoral or fhep
hei/’sfong; whence the Italians formed their madri-
galer and we madrigal. Others rather choofe to derive
it from the word madrugar, which in the Spanifh lan¬
guage fignifies “ to rife in the morning the madri-
ga/es being formerly fung early in the morning by thole
who had a mind to ferenade their midreffes.
MADURA, a province of Afia, in the peninfula on
this fide the Ganges ; bounded on the call by Tanjour
and Marava, on the fouth-eaft by the fea, on the weft
by the Balagate mountains, which feparate it from Ma¬
labar, and on the north by Vifiapour and Carnate.
The inhabitants are Gentoos, and of a thievifti difpofi-
tion, R he commodities are rice, elephants teeth, and
cotton cloth ; of which laft a great deal is made here,
and very fine. The Dutch have a pearl fiftiery, which
brings them in a large fum annually.
MEANDER, in Ancient Geography, a celebrated
river of Afia Minor, rifing near Celaence. It flows
through Caria and Ionia into the iEgean fea between
Miletus and Priene, after it has been increafed by the
waters of the Marfyas, Lycus Eudon, Lethseus, &c.
It is celebrated among the poets for its windings, which
amount to not lefs than 600, and from which all obli¬
quities have received the name of niceanders. It forms
in its courfe, according to the obfervation of fome tra¬
vellers, the Greek letters £ £ | ; and from its
windings Daedalus is faid to have had the firft idea of
his famous labyrinth.
MyEAPiE, anciently a people of Britain, near Se-
verus’s wall, inhabiting the diftridl now called Lauder¬
dale, in Scotland.
MAECENAS, Caius Cilnius, the great friend and
counfellor of Auguftus Caefar, was himfelf a very polite
fcholar, but is chiefly memorable for having been the
patron and prote&or of men of letters. He was de¬
fended fiom a moft ancient and illuftrious origin, even
from the kings of Hetruria, as Horace often tells us •,
but his immediate forefathers were only of the equef-
trian order. He is fuppofed to have been born at Rome,
becaufe his family lived there ; but in wrhat year, anti¬
quity does not tell us. It fays as little about his educa¬
tion ; but we know it muft have been of the moft libe¬
ral kind, and perfectly agreeable to the dignity and
fplendour of his birth, fince he excelled in every thing
that related to arms, politics, and letters. How Mse-
cenas fpent his younger years is alfo unknown to us,
any farther than by effeCls ; there being no mention
made of him by any writer before the death of Julius
Caefar, which happened in the year of Rome 709.
Then Oftavius Caefar, who was afterwards called Au-
gujlus, w'ent to Rome, to take polTeffion of his uncle’s
inheritance ; and then Maecenas became firft publicly
known, though he appears to have been Auguftus’s in¬
timate friend, and as it fhould feem guardian, from his
childhood. From that time he accompanied him
through all his fortunes, and was his counfellor and
advifer upon all occafions ; fo that Ptedo Albinovanus
jmfiy called him Ca-far is dextram, “ Csefar’s right-
hand.”
In A. R. 710, the year that Cicero was killed and
Ovid born, Maecenas diftinguifhed himfelf by his cou¬
rage and mibtary fkill at the battle of Modena, where
the con fills Hirtius and Panfa were {lain in fighting
againft Antony j as he did afterwards at Philippi.
[ 34° ]
MAE
After this laft battle began the memorable friendxhip
between Maecenas and Horace. Horace, as Suetonius
relates, was a tribune in the army of Brutus and Caf-
fius, and upon the defeat of thofe generals made a pri-
foner of war. Maecenas, finding him an accompliihed
man, became immediately his friend and protector;
and afterwards recommended him to Auguftus, who
reftored to him his eftate with no frnall additions. In
the mean time, though Maecenas behaved himfelf well
as a foidier in thefe and other battles, yet his principal
province was that of a minifter and counfellor. He
was the adviler, the manager, the negociator, in every
thing that related to civil affairs. When the league
was made at Brundufium between Antony and Au¬
guftus, Ma?cenas was fent to act on the part of Au¬
guftus. 1 his we learn from Horace in his journey to
Biundufium:
Hue venturus erat Maecenas optimus, atque
Cocceius, mijji magnis de rebus uterque
Legati, avtrfos fohti componere amicos. Sat. v. lib. 1.
And afterwards, when this league was near breaking,
through the iufpicions of each party, Macaenas was fent
to Antony to ratify it anew.
In the year 717, when Auguftus and Agrippa went
to Sicily to fight Sextus Pompeius by lea, Maecenas
went with them ; but foon after returned, to appeafe
fome commotions which were rifing at Rome : for
though he ufually attended Auguftus in all his military
expeditions, yet whenever there was any thing to be
done at Rome either with the fenate or people, he was
always defpatched thither for that purpofe.
Upon the total defeat of Antony at A&ium, Meece-
nas returned to Rome, to take the government into his
hands, till Auguftus could fettle forne neceffary affairs
in Greece and Afia. Agrippa foon followed Maecenas j
and when Auguftus arrived, he placed thefe two great
men and faithful adherents, the one over his civil, the
other over his military concerns. While Auguftus was
extinguilhing the remains of the civil war in Afia and
Egypt, young Lepidus, the fon of the triumvir, was
forming a fcheme to affaflinate him at his return to
Rome. This confpiracy was difeovered at once, by the
extraordinary vigilance of Maecenas •, who, as Velleius
Paterculus fays, “ obferving the rath councils of the
headftrong youth with the fame tranquillity and calm-
nefs as if nothing at all had been doing, inftantly put
him to death, without the leaft noife and tumult $ and
by that means extinguithed another civil war in its very-
beginning.” '
The civil wmrs being now sat an end, Auguftus re¬
turned to Rome ; and from this time Maecenas indulged
himfelf at vacant hours in literary amufements, and the
converfation of men of letters. In the year 734 Virgil
died, and left Auguftus and Maecenas heirs to what he
had. Maecenas was excefiively fond of this poet, who,
of all the wits of the Auguftan age, flood higheft in his
efteem ) and if the Georgies and the ^Eneid be owing
to the good tafte and encouragement of this patron, as
there is fome reafon to think, pofterity cannot comme-
n !*rate him with too much gratitude. Horace may be
ranked next to Virgil in Maecenas’s good graces : we
have already mentioned how and at what time their
friendlhip commenced. Propertius alfo acknowledges
Maecenas for his favourer and prote£for,it hb. ii. eleg. 7.
Nor
Msec
M A E [ 341 1 M A E
Maecenas. Nor mud Varius be forgot, though we have nothing of
'v ' his remaining •, fince we find him highly praifed by both
Virgil and Horace. He was a writer of tragedies ; and
Quintilian thinks he may be compared with any of the
ancients. In a word, Maecenas’s houfe was a place of
refuge and welcome to all the learned of his time ; not
only to Virgil, Horace, Propertius, and Varius, but to
Fundarius, whom Horace extols as an admirable writer
of comedies : to Fulcus Ariftiys, a noble grammarian,
and Horace’s intimate friend: to Plotius I ucea, who
affifted Varius in correcting the iEneid after the death
of Virgil ; to Valgius, a poet and very learned man,
who, as Pliny tells us, dedicated a book to Auguftus,
De ufu Herbarum ; to Afinius Pollio, an excellent tra¬
gic writer 5 and to feveral others, whom it would be
tedious to mention. All thefe dedicated their works,
01 fome part of them at lealt, to Maecenas, and cele¬
brated his praifes in them over and over : and we may
obferve farther, what Plutarch tells us, that even Au-
gullus himfelf infcribed his Commentaries to him and to
Agrippa.
Maecenas continued in Augutlus’s favour to the end
of his life, but not uninterruptedly. Auguftus had an
intrigue with Maecenas’s wife : and though the minifter
bore this liberty of his mailer very patiently, yet there
was a coldnefs on the part of Auguftus, which, how¬
ever, foon went off. Maecenas died in the year 745 ;
but at wrhat age we cannot precifely determine, though
we know he muft have been old. He mult have been
older than Auguftus, becaufe he was a kind of tutor to
him in his youth : and then find him often called an
old man by Paedo Albinovanus, a cotemporary poet,
whofe elegy upon his dead patron is (till extant. He
made Auguftus his heir ; and recommended his friend
Florace to him in thofe memorable laft words, “ Hora-
tii Flacci, ut mei, memor e/?o,” &c. Horace, how¬
ever, did not probably furvive him long, as there is no
elegy of his upon Maecenas extant, nor any account of
one having ever been written, which there certainly
would have been had Horace furvived him any time.
Nay, Father Sanadon, the French editor of Horace,
will have it, that the poet died before his patron ; and
that thefe laft wmrds were found only in Maecenas’s
will, which had not been altered.
Maecenas is faid never to have enjoyed a good ftate
of health in any part of his life : and many Angularities
are related of his bodily conftitution. Thus Pliny tells
us, that he was always in a fever •, and that, for three
years before his death, he had not a moment’s ileep.
Though he was certainly an extraordinary man, and
poffeffed many admirable virtues and qualities, yet it is
agreed on all hands, that he was very luxurious and ef¬
feminate. “ Maecenas (fays Velleius Paterculus) was
of the equeftrian order, but fprung from a moft illuf-
trious origin. He vvas a man, who, when bufinefs re¬
quired, was able to undergo any fatigue and watching j
who confulted properly upon all occafions, and knew as
well how to execute what he had confulted •, yet a man
who in fea'ons of leifure was luxurious, foft, and effe¬
minate, almoft beyond a woman. He was no lefs dear
to Caefar than Agrippa, but diftinguiftied by him with
fewer honours •, for he always continued of the equef¬
trian rank, in which he was born : not that he could
not have been advanced upon the leaft intimation, but
he never folicited it,” .
But let mcralifts and politicians determine of Muece- Ma'elftrom *
nas as they pleafe, the men of letters are under high v
obligations to celebrate his praifes and revere his memo¬
ry : for he countenanced, protected, and fupported, as
far as they w’anted his fupport, all the wits and learn¬
ed men of his time *, and that, too, out of a pure and
dilinterefted love of letters, when he had no little views
of policy to ferve by their means : whence it is no
wonder, that all the proteflors and patrons of l earning,
ever fince, have ufually been called Maecenas's.
MAELSTROM, a very dangerous whirlpool on
the coaft of Norway, in the 68th degree of latitude, in
the province of Nordland, and the diftrifl of Lofoden,
and near the ifland of Mofkoe, from w'hence it alfo
takes the name of MofkoeJlrom. Its violence and
roarings exceed that of a catarafl, being heard to a
great diftance, and without any intermiftion, except a
quarter every fixth hour, that is, at the turn of high
and low water, when its impetuofity feems at a (land,
wThich fhort interval is the only time the filhermen can
venture in ; but this motion foon returns, and, however
calm the fea tpiay be, gradually increafes with fuch a
draught and vortex, as abforb whatever comes within
their Iphere of aclion, and keep it under water for
fome hours, when the fragments, ftfivered by the
rocks, appear again. This circumftance, among o~
thers, makes ftrongly againft Kircher and others, who
imagine that there is here an abyfs penetrating the
globe, and iffuing in fome very remote parts, which
Kircher is fo particular as to aftign, for he names the
gulf of Bothnia. But after the moft exadl refearches
which the circumftances will admit, this is but a con-
jeffure without foundation •, for this and three other
vortices among the Ferroe iflands, but fmaller, have
no other caufe than the collifion of w7aves ri'.lng and
falling, at the flux and reflux, againft a ridge of rocks
and (helves, which confine the water fo that it precipi¬
tates itfelf like a catarafl ; and thus the higher the
flood rifes, the deeper muft the fall be ; and the na¬
tural refult of this is a whirlpool or vortex, the pro¬
digious fuilion whereof is fufficiently known by leffer
experiments. But what has been thus abforbed, re¬
mains no longer at the bottom than the ebb lafts ; for
the Tuition then ceafes, and the flood removes all at¬
traction, and permits whatever had been funk to make
its appearance again. Of the fituation of this amazing
Molkoe-ftrom we have the following account from Mr
Jonas Ramus : “ The mountain of Helfeggen, in Lo¬
foden, lies a league from the ifland Ver, and betwixt
thefe two runs that large and dreadful ftream called
MoJkoe-Jlrom, from the ifland Molkoe, which is in the
middle of it, together with feveral circumjacent illes,
as Ambaaren, half a quarter of a league northward,
Iflefen, Hoeholm, Kieldholm, Suarven, and Back-
holm. Mofkoe lies about half a quarter of a mile
fouth of the ifland of Ver, and betwixt them thefe
fmall iflands, Otterholm, Fiimen, Sanflefen, Stock¬
holm. Betwixt Lofoden and Molkoe, the depth of
the water is between 36 and 40 fathoms ; but on the
other fide, towards Ver, the depth derreafes, fo as not
to afford a convenient paffage for a vt-ffel, without the
rilk of fplitting on the recks, which ha. pens even in
the calraeft wTeather : when it is flood, the ftream runs
up the country between Lofoden and Molkoe with a
boifterous rapidity : but the roar of. its impetuous ebb
to. ;
M A E [ 342 ] M A F
Moamadle- to the Tea is fcarcelv equalled by the loudeft and moll
na dreadful catara£ls j the noife being heard feveral leagues
Mceonides anc^ tne rortices or P^ts are o!; ^'uc^ an extent and
—y— death, that if a fhip comes within its attraction, it is
inevitably abforbed and carried down to the bottom,
and there beat to pieces againfl the rocks ; and when
the water relaxes, the fragments thereof are thrown up
again. But thefe intervals of tranquillity are only at
the turn of the ebb and flood, and calm weather ; and
lafl: but a quarter of an hour, its violence gradually re¬
turning. When the ftream is moft boifterous, and its
fury heightened by a ftorm, it is dangerous to come
within a Norway mile of it : boats, ihips, and yachts
having been carried away, by not guarding againft it
before they were within its reach. It likewile happens
frequently, that whales come too near the ftream, and
are overpowered by its violence ; and then it is impof-
fible to defcribe their bowlings and bellowings in their
fruitlefs if niggles to difengage themfelves. A bear
once attempting to fwim from Lofoden to Moikoe,
with a deiign of preying upon the iheep at paflure in
the ifiand, afforded the like fpeftacle to the people •,
the ftream caught him, and bore him down, whilft he
roared terribly, fo as to be heard on fhore. Large
flocks of firs and pine trees, after being abforbed by
the current, rife again, broken and torn to inch a de¬
gree as if briftles grew on them. This plainly {hows
the bottom to confift of craggy rocks, among which
they are whirled to and fro. This ftream is regulated
by the flux and reflux of the fea •, it being conftantly
high and low water every fix hours. In the year 1645,
early in the morning of Sexagefima Sunday, it raged
with fuch noife and impetuofity, that on the illand
.of Mofkoe, the very if ones of the houfes fell to the
ground.”
M/EMACTERI A, faciifices offered to Jupiter at
Athens in the winter month MteraaCterkm. The god
furnamed Mtemacles was entreated to fend mild and
temperate weather, as he prefided over the feafons, and
was the god of the air.
MrEM ACTERION, was the fourth month of the
Athenian year, containing twenty-nine days, and an-
fwering to the latter part of our September, and the
beginning of OCfober. It received its name from the
feftival Matmatteria, which was obferved about this
time. This month was called by the Boeotians Aial-
comenius.
MAIN A. See Sfarus, Ichthyology Index.
MAIN ALUS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of
Arcadia facred to the god Pan, and greatly frequented
by fliepherds. It received its name from Maenalus a
fon of Lycaon. It was covered with pine trees, whofe
echo and fhade have been greatly celebrated by all the
ancient poets.
MAuONIA, or Moeonia, a country of Afta Minor,
and forming part of Lydia; namely the neighbourhood
of Mount Tmolus, and the country watered by the
Pablolus. The reft on the fea coaft was called Lydia.
See Lydia.
MALONIDAu, a name given to the mufes, becaufe
Homer, their greateft and worthieft favourite, was
fuppofed to be a native of Maeonia.
MALONIDES, a furname of Homer, becaufe, ac¬
cording to the opinion of fome writers, he -was born in
M«onia, or becaufe his father’s name was Mseon.
3
MALOTIS TALUS or LACUS, Mceotica Pa/us, or Meo- Maeftfin
ticus Lacus, in Ancient Geography, a large lake or part ,
of the fea between Europe and Afia, at the north of the 1 " " e“
Euxine, to which it communicates by the Cimmerian
Bofphorus. It was worfhipped as a deity by the Maf-
fagetse. It extends about 390 miles from fouth-weft
to north-eaft, and is about 600 miles in circumference.
Still called Pa/us Mcvotis, reaching from Crim Tartary
to the mouth of the Den.
MAtSTLIN, Michael, in Latin Mcefllinus, a ce¬
lebrated aftronomer of Germany, was born in the duchy
of Wittemberg ; but fpent bis youth in Italy, where he
made a fpeech in favour of Copernicus’s fyftem, which
brought Galilgeo over from Ariflotle and Ptolemy, tt>
whom he had been hitherto entirely devoted. He af¬
terwards returned to Germany, and became profefl.br of
mathematics at Tubingen ; where, among his other
fcholars, he taught the great Kepler, who has praifed
feveral of his ingenious inventions, in his AJlronomia
Optica. Though Tycho Brahe did not affent to Mteft-
lin’s opinion, yet he allowed him to be an extraordinary
perfon, deeply Ikilled in the fcience of aftronomy.
Mcefllin pnbliihed many mathematical and aflronomical
works $ and died in 1590.
MAESTRICHT, an ancient, large, and flrong
town of the Netherlands, ceded to the Dutch by the
treaty of Munfter. The townhoufe and the other
public buildings are bandfome, and the place is about
four miles in circumference, and ftrongly fortified. It
is governed jointly by the Dutch and the bithop of
Liege.; however, it has a Dutch garrifon. The in¬
habitants are noted for making excellent fire arms, and
fome fay that in the arfenal there are arms fufficient
for a whole army. Both Pauifts and Proteftants aie
allowed the free exercife of their religion, and the ma-
glftrates are compoled of both. It is feated on the
river Maefe, which feparates it from Wyck, and with
which it communicates by a bandfome bridge. Mae-
ftricht revolted from the Spaniards in but was
reduced in 1579. Lotus XiV. became mafter of it
in 1673 ; but it was reftored to the ftates by the treaty
ofNimeguen in 1678. It was again taken by the
French in 1794. E. Long. 5. 50. N. Lat. 51- 5*
MAFFA-US, Vegio, a Latin poet, born in Lom¬
bardy in 1407, was greatly admired in his time. He
wrote epigrams, a'nd a humorous fupplement to Virgil,
which he called The thirteenth bock of the JEneid: this
was as humoroufly tranflated into Englifh a few years fince
by Mr Ellis. Maffaeus wrote alfo fome profe works.
He was chancellor of R ome towards the end of the pon¬
tificate of Martin V.; and died in 1438.
MAFFEI, Scipio, a celebrated Italian poet, born
of an illuftrious and ancient family at Verona, in 1675.
After having finilhed his fludies, he took arms, and
diftinguiflied himfelf by his valour at the battle of Do-
nawert; but he more particularly diftinguifhed himfelf
by his love of learning, which made him undertake fe¬
veral voyages into France, England, and Germany.
He converfed with the learned in all thofe countries,
and obtained their friendftiip and efteem. He was a
member of the academy of the Arcadia at Rome, an
honorary foreign member of that of Infcriptions at
Paris; and died in 1755. He wrote many works in
verfe and profe, which are efteemed : the moft known
of which are, 1. The tragedy of Metope, of which
there
MAG [ 543 ] MAG
Magada
« .
Magazine.
there are two French tranflations in profe. 2. Cere¬
mony, a comedy. 3. A tranflation, into Italian
verfe, of the firlt book of Homer’s Iliad. 4. Many
other pieces of poetry, in a colledlion entitled Rhyme
and Profe, quarto. His principal works in prole are,
I. Verona illujlrata. 2. Ijloria diplomatic a. 3. Scictrza
cava/lerefca ; an excellent work, in which he attacks
duelling. 4. An edition of Theatro Itahano. 5. An
edition of Caffiodorus on the Epitfles, Adis of the A-
poftles, and Apocalyple. 6. Galilee Antiquitates quer-
dam JelecAce atque in plures epijlolas dijlributce ; and ie-
veral other works.
MAGADA, in Mythology, a title under which Ve¬
nus was known and worihipped in Lower Saxony j
where this goddefs had a famous temple, which was
treated with refpedl even by the Huns and Vandals
when they ravaged the country. It is faid to have
been deltroyed by Charlemagne.
MAGADOXO, the capital town of a kingdom of
the fame name, in Africa, and on the coaft of Ajan.
It is feated near the mouth of a river of the fame name,
defended by a citadel, and has a good harbour. The
inhabitants are Mahometans. E. Long. 45. 15. N.
Lat. 3. o.
MAGAS, Magadis. (from pxyxditlyuv, “ to ling or
play in unifon or odlave,”) the name ot a mulical in-
ilrument in ufe among the ancients.”
There were twm kinds of magades, the one a firing
inftrument, formed of 20 chords arranged in pairs,
and tuned to unifon or octave, fo that they yielded
ten founds 5 the invention rvhereof is alcribed by fome
to Sappho •, by others, to the Lydians; and by fome,
to Timotheus of Miletus. The other was a kind of
flute, which at the fame time yielded very high and
very low notes. The former kind was at lead; much
improved by Timotheus of Miletus, who is faid to
have been impeached of a crime, becaufe by increafing
the number of chords he fpoiied and diicredited the
ancient mufic.
MAGAZINE, a place in which (lores are kept,
of arms, ammunition, proviflons, &c. Every forti¬
fied town ought to be furnilhed with a large maga¬
zine, which fhould contain (lores of ail kinds, fuffi-
cient to enable the garrifon and inhabitants to hold
out a long fiege ; and in which (miths, carpenters,
wheelwrights, &c. may be employed in making every
thing belonging to the artillery 5 as carriages, wag¬
gons, &c.
Powder Magazine, is that place where the powder
is kept in very large quantities. Authors differ greatly
both with regard to their fituation and cohflrudlion ;
but ail agree that they ought to be arched and bomb¬
proof. In fortifications, they are frequently placed in
the rampart ; but of late they have been built in differ¬
ent parts of the town. The firlt powder magazines
tvere made with Gothic arches : but M. Vauban find¬
ing them too weak, conftrufled them in a femicircular
form; vvhofe dirnenfionsare 60 feet long within, and 25
broad ; the foundations are eight or nine feet thick, and
eight Tet high from the foundation to the fp ing of the
arch ; rhe floor is two feet from the ground, v/hich
keeps it from dampnefs.
One of our engineers of great experience fome time
fince had obfei ved, that after the centres of femicircu¬
lar arches are ftruck, they fettle at thee rown and rife
up at the hunches, even with a (Iraight horizontal ex- Magazine,
trades, and dill much more fo in powder magazines,
whole outfide at top is formed like the roof of a houfe,
by two inclined planes joining in an angle over the top
of the arch, to give a proper defeent to the rain; which
effects are exactly what might be expected agreeable
to the true theory of arches. Now, as this (hrinking
of the arches mult be attended with very ill confequen-
ces, by breaking the texture of the cement after it has
been in (ome degree dried, and alfo by opening the
joints of the voufl'oirs at one end, fo a remedy is pro¬
vided for this inconvenience with regard to bridges,
by the arch of equilibration in Mr Hutton’s book on
bridges ; but as the ill eff'edl is much greater in powder
magazines, the fame ingenious gentleman propofed to
find an arch of equilibration (or them alio, and to con-
ftx’udl it when the fpan is 20 feet, the pitch or height
10 (which are the fame dimenli ms as the femicircie),
the inclined exterior walls at top forming an angle of
113 degrees, and the height of their angular point a-
bove the top of the arch equal to feven feet. This very
curious quefiion was anfwered in 1775 by the reverend
Mr Wildbore, to be found in Mr Hutton’s Mifcellanea
Mathemaiica.
Artillery Magazine. In a liege, the magazine is
made about 25 or 30 yards behind the battery, towards
the parallels, and at leail three feet under ground, to
hold the powder, loaded (hells, portfires, &c. Its (ides
and roof mull be well fecured with boards to prevent
the earth from falling in : a door is made to it, and a
double trench or paffage is funk from the magazine to
the battery, one to go in and the other to come out at,
to prevent confulion. Sometimes traveries are made in
the paflages to prevent ricochet (hot from plunging into
them.
Magazine, on fnipboard, a clofe room or ffore-
houfe, built in the fore or after-part of the hold, to
contain the gunpow’der ufed in battle. This apart-
ment is llrongly lecured againll fire, and no perlon is
allowed to enter it with a lamp or candle : it is there¬
fore lighted, as occalkm requires, by means of the
candles or lamps in the light-room contiguous to it.
Magazine Air-Gun. See Am-Gun.
Magazines, Literary; a well-known fpecies of pe¬
riodical publications’, of which the firlt that appeared
was The Gentleman's, let on foot by the projector Mr
Edward Cave in the year 1731 : (fee the article Cave).
This, as Dr Kippis obferves *, “ may be confidered as *Biog.Briti
lomething of an epocha in the literary hiltory of this A-rt*
country. The periodical performances before that time ^AVE-
were almoft wholly confined to political traniaclions,
and to foreign and domeflic occurrences ; but the
monthly magazines have opened a wav . for every kind
of inquiry and information. The intelligence and dif-
cuffion contained in them are very extenfive and va¬
rious : and they have been the means of diffufing a ge¬
neral habit of reading through the nation, which in a
certain degree hath enlarged the public underitanding.
Many young authors, who have afterwards rifen to con-
fiderable eminence in the literary world, have here
made their firll attempts in compofition. Here too are
preferved a multitude of curious and ufeful hints, obfer- ~
vations, and tafts, which othervvife might have never
appeared ; or it they had appeared in a more evanefeent
form, would have incurred the danger of being loll. If
1L
Magde¬
burg.
MAG [ 344 ]
Magdalen, it were not an invidious talk, the hiftory of them would weft by
be no incurious or unentertaining fubjedf. The maga¬
zines that unite utility with entertainment, are undoubt¬
edly preferable to thofe [if there have been any fuch')
which have only a view to idle and frivolous amufe-
tnent. It may be obferved, that two of them, The
Gentteman's and The London, which laft was begun the
year after the former, have amidft their numerous rivals
preferved their reputation to the prefent day. They
have both of them, in general, joined inftruftion with
pleafure; and this likewife hath been the cafe with
fome others of a latter origin.”—The original London
Magazine, it is believed, has been difcontinued for
fome years paft.—The next oldelt publication of this
kind is that entitled The Scots Magazine; which was
commenced at Edinburgh a few years poilerior to the
appearance of the Gentleman's at London ; which, like
it, has furvived many rivals ; and which Hill fubfifts,
defervedly efteemed for the chaltenefs of its plan and
the accuracy of its information.
MAGDALEN, Mary. See Mary.
Religions of St Magdalen, a denomination given to
divers communities of nuns, conlifting generally of pe¬
nitent courtezans *, fometimes alfo called Magdalenettes.
Such are thofe at Metz, eftablifhed in 1452 ; thofe at
Paris, in 1492; thofe at Naples, firft eftablilhed in
1324, and endowed by Queen Sancha, to ferve as a
retreat for public courtezans, who fhould betake them-
felves to repentance •, and thofe of Rouen and Bour-
deaux, which had their original among thofe of Paris in
1618. In each of thefe monalteries there are three
kinds of perfons and congregations \ the firft confift of
thofe w7ho are admitted to make vows, and thefe bear
the name of St Magdalen ; the congregation of St Mar¬
tha is the fecond, and is compofed of thofe whom it is
not judged proper to admit to vows; finally, the con¬
gregation of St Lazarus is compofed of luch as are de¬
tained there by force'.
The religious of St Magdalen at Rome were eftablifh-
ed by Pope Leo X. Clement VIII. fettled a revenue
on them and farther appointed, that the eftefts of all
public proftitutes, dying inteftate, ihould fall to them 5
and that the teftaments of the reft (hould be invalid
unlefs they bequeathed a portion of their effedls, which
was to be at leaft a fifth part, to them.
Magdalen Hofpilal. See Lokdon, N° 115.
MAGDALENA, one of the Marquefas iflands,
about five leagues in circuit, and fuppofed to be in
S. Lat. 10. 25. W. Long. 138. 50. It was only
feen at nine leagues dhiance by thofe wdro difcover-
ed it.
MAGDALENE’S Cave, a cave of Germany, and
in Carinthia, 10 miles eaft of Gortz. It appears like
a chafm in a rock, and at the entrance torches are
lighted to condudf travellers. It is divided into feveral
apartments, or halls, with a vaft number of pillars form¬
ed by nature, which give it a beautiful appearance,
they being as white as fnowq and almoft tranfparent.
The bottom is of the fame fubftance, infomuch that a
perfon may fancy himfelf to be walking among the ruins
of an enchanted caftle, furrounded with magnificent
pillars, fome entire and others broken.
MAGDEBURG, a duchy of Germany, in the
circle of Lower Saxony ; bounded on the north by
the duchy of Mecklenburgh, on the fcuth and fouth-
1
M A G
the principality of Anhalt and Halberftadt, Magde-
on the eaft by Upper Saxony with part of Branden- i burg-
burg, and on the weft by the duchy of Wolfenbuttle.
The Saale circle, and that of Luxkenwalde, are fepa-
rated from the reft, and furrounded on all fides by a
part of Upper Saxony. This country is for the moft
part level; but fandy, marihy, or overgrown with
woods. There are fait fprings in it fo rich, that
they are fufficient to fupply all Germany with that
commodity. The Holz circle is the moft fruitful
part of it. In the Saale circle, where wood is fcarce,
there is pit-coal: and at Rothenburg is a copper-mine
worked. The duchy is well watered, for the Elbe
pafles through it •, and the Saale, Havel, After, Ohre,
and Elfter, either rife in, or wafti fome part of it in
their eourle. The w7hole duchy, exclufive of that part
of the county of Mansfeldt which is connefted with it,
is faid to contain 29 cities, fix towns, about 430 vil¬
lages, and 330,000 inhabitants. The ftates of the
country confift of the clergy, .the nobility, and de¬
puties of the cities. Before it became fubjedf to the
electoral houfe of Brandenburgh, frequent diets were
held in it j but at prefent no diets are held, nor
have the ftates the direftion of the finances as for¬
merly. Before the Reformation, it was an arch-
biftiopric, fubjeft in fpirituals to the pope alone, and
its prelate was primate of all Germany •, but embracing
the Reformation, it chofe itfelf adminiftrators, till the
treaty of Munfter in 1648, when it was given, toge¬
ther with the bilhopric of Halberftadt, to the eledlor
of Brandenburgh, as an equivalent for the Hither Po¬
merania, granted by that treaty to the king of Sweden.
Lutheranifm is the predominant religion here } but Cal-
vinifts, Jews, and Roman Catholics, are tolerated. Of
the laft there are five convents, who never embraced
the Reformation. Aft the Lutheran pariihes, amount¬
ing to 314, are fubjedt to 16 infpeftors, under one ge¬
neral fuperintendant; only the clergy of the old town
of Magdeburg are under the dire&ion of their fenior.
The Jews have a fynagogue at Halle. The manufac¬
tures of the duchy are cloth, Hull's, ftockings, linen, oil-
Ikins, leather, and parchment 5 of which, and grain
of aft forts, large quantities are exported. 1 he arms
of it are, Party per pale, ruby, and pearl. I he king
of Pruffia, as duke of Magdeburg, fits and votes be¬
tween the eleilor of Bavaria, as duke of Bavaria, and
the eleftor palatine, as palfgrave of Lautern. Of the
ftates of the circle of Lower Saxony he is the firft. His
matricular affeffment for the duchy is 43 horfe and 196
foot, or 1300 florins monthly, and to the chamber of
Wetzlar 343 florins and 40 kruitzers. lor the civil
government of the duchy there is a council of regency,
with a war and demefne chamber •, and for the eccle-
fiaftical a\'onfiftory and general fuperintendant. The
revenues of the duchy, arifing from the falt-wOrks, de¬
mefne, and taxes, fome of which are very heavy and
oppreflive, are faid to amount to 80c,000 rixdollars
annually. With refpeft to fait, every houfekeeper in
the Pruflian dominion is obliged to buy a certain
quantity for himfelf and wife •, and alfo for every child
and fervant, horfe, cow, calf, and (beep, that be pof-
fefies. The principal places are Magdeburg, Halle,
and Glaucfje.
MAGDEBURG, a city of Germany, in a duchy of the
fame name, of which it is not only the capital, but that
- of
MAG
[ 345 ]
MAG
Magde-
burg.
of all Lower Saxony, and formerly even of all Germany.
It ftands on the Elbe, in E. Long. 12. 9. N. Lat.
' 52. 16. It is a city of great trade, ftrongly fortified,
and very ancient. Its name fignifies the maiden city;
which, fome imagine, took itsdfe from the temple of
Venus, which is faid to have flood here anciently, and
to have been deftroyed by Charlemagne. The founder
of the city is fuppofed to have been Otho I. or his em-
prefs Editha, daughter to Edmund the Saxon kmg. of
England. The fame emperor founded a Benedicfine
convent here, which he afterwards converted into an
archbifhopric, of which the archbifhop was a count-
palatine, and had very great privileges, particularly that
of wearing the archiepifcopal pallium, and having the
erofs borne before him, befides many others. I he firft
tournament in Germany is faid to have been appointed
near this city, by the emperor Henry the Fowler-, but
thefe paftimes were afterwards abolifhed, becaufe they
eccafioned fuch envy and animofity among the nobi¬
lity, that feveral of them killed one another upon the
Ipot. The fituation of the city is very convenient and
pleafant, upon the banks of the Elbe, amid ft fpacious
fruitful plains, and on the road betwixt High and
Low Germany. It has been a great fufferer by fires
and fleges 5 but by none fo much as that in 1631
when the emperor’s general, Count Tilly, took it by
ftorm, plundered and fet it on fire, by which it was
entirely reduced to afhes, except the cathedral, the
convent of our Lady, and a few cottages belonging
to fifhermen j of 40,000 burghers, not above 400
efcaping. The foldiers fpared neither age nor fex ;
but ripped up w-omen with child, murdered fucking
"infants in fight of their parents, and ravifhed young
women in the ftreets -, to prevent which violation,
many of them flung themfelves into the Elbe, and
others into the fire. The city is now populous, large,
and well built, particularly the broad ftreet and ca¬
thedral fquare. The principal buildings are the. king’s
palace, the governor’s houfe, the armoury, guildhall,
and cathedral. The laft is a fuperb ftru&ure in the
antique tafte, dedicated to St Maurice, which has a
fine organ, the mafter pipe of which is fo big, that a
man can fcarce clafp it with both arms; it alfo con¬
tains the tombs of the emperor Otho and the emprefs
Editha-, a fine marble flatue of St Maurice, a por¬
phyry font, an altar in the choir of one ftone of di¬
vers colours, curioufly wrought, and many other cu-
xiofities. They fhow here a bedftead and table which
belonged to Martin Luther, when he was an Auguf-
tine friar in a cloifter of this city before the Refor¬
mation. Among the relics, they pretended to have
the bafon in which Pilate wafhed his hands after his
condemnation of our Saviour -, the lantern w-hich Judas
made ufe of when he apprehended him } and the lad¬
der on which the cock crowed after St Pei.er denied
him. The chapter confifts of a provoft, fixteen major
and feven minor canons -, befides which, there are four
other Lutheran .collegiate foundations, and a Lutheran
convent dedicated to our Lady, in which is a fchool
or feminary. Here is alfo a gymnafiurn, with an aca¬
demy, in which young gentlemen are inflrudfed in
the art of war. The canons of the chapter, which,
except the change of religion, is upon the fame footing
as before the Roformation, muft make proof of their
nobility. The prebends and dignities are all in the
Vol. XII. Part I.
gift of the ele£!cr ; and the revenue of the provoft is Magdolura,
computed at 1 2,600 crowns a-year. Here is a great an-,
trade, and a variety of manufactures. The chief are
thofe of woollen cloths and fluffs, filks, cottons, linen,
ftockings, hats, gloves, tobacco and fnuff. The city
was formerly one of the Hanfe and Imperial towns.
Editha, confort to Otho I. on whom it was conferred
as a dowry, among many other privileges and advan¬
tages, procured it the grant of a yearly fair. The bur-
gravate of this city was anciently an office of great
power j having the civil and criminal jurifdiCtion, the
office of hereditary cupbearer being annexed to it ; and
was long held as a fief of the archbiftiopric, but after¬
wards became an imperial fief, which was again con¬
ferred on the archbiihopric by the ele&or of Saxony,
upon certain conditions. f
MAGDOLUM, or M AGO ALUM, AncTent Geo¬
graphy^ a town of the Lower Egypt, twelve miles to
the fouth of Pelufium (Herodotus, Antonine), which
doubtlefs is the Migdol or Magdol of Jeremiah.—Ano¬
ther Magdalum, or Migdol, denoting literally “ a
tower or place of ftrength,” near the Red fea, (Moles);
far to the fouth of the former.
MAGELLAN, Ferdinand ok, an eminent na¬
vigator, was by birth a Portuguefe, of a good family.
He ferved in the Eaft Indies with reputation for five
years under Albuquerque, and in 1510 he greatly di-
ftinguifhed himlelf at the battle of Malacca. Deeming
his fervices poorly repaid by his own court, he entered
into the employment of Charles \ . king of Spain. He
has been charged with peculation by fome of his coun¬
trymen, who have afligned this as the reafon why he
quitted Portugal. In conjunftion with Ruy Folero he
formed the bold defign of difcovexing a new paffage by
the weft to the Molucca iflands, which he offered to
prove fell within the divifion of the globe afligned by
the pope to the crown of Caftile. It is faid that he
firft propofed this enter prize to Emanuel king of Per-
tugal, who rejedled it, as opening a way for other na¬
tions to have accefs to the Eaft Indies, the trade -of
which was now monopolized by the Portuguefe. The
propofition was agreed to by the king of Spam, and on
the 20th of September 1519 Magellan failed from San
Lucar with five ftiips and 236 men under his command.
His officers foon murmured at this appointment, confi-
dering it as a difgrace to be commanded by a rene¬
gade Portuguefe; and when the fleet was lying at a
port in South America which they named San Julian,
a confpiracy was formed againft him by three of the
captains, which he difeovered and quelled. He caufed
the captain of one of the fliips to be affaflinated, he
boarded a fecond, and fecured the mutineers, and the
third fubmitted.
The coaft on which they lay was that of Patagonia ;
and this firft voyage contains accounts of the extraordi¬
nary ftature of the natives. About the end of Odlober
they reached a cape, to which they gave the name of
Dee las Virgines^ forming the entrance of the ftraits
which bear the name of Magellan. He exerted all his
authority to induce his men to venture on this unknown
paffage, with the view of crofting a vaft ocean beyond
it, at the hazard of running ftiort of provifions, of which
a fupply for three months was all he had remaining.
One of his fhips abandoned him, and made the beft of
her way to Europe. The reft proceeded, and on the
X x 27ih
Maggi.
M A. G
Magellan of November they difcovered tlie South fea,
which made Magellan Ihed tears of joy. They conti¬
nued their voyage over this ocean, now viftted for the
firft time by Europeans, and were not long in fuffering
thofe evils from famine which they had apprehended.
The men were reduced to the neceflity of eating the
hides with which the rigging was covered. The
weather proved fo uniformly calm and temperate, that
they gave to the ocean the name of Pacific. They
came in fight of the Ladrones on the 6th of March, fo
called from the thieviih difpofition of the inhabitants j
and from thence they failed to the Philippines. At
Zebu Magellan obtained with little difficulty the con-
verfion of the king j and on condition of his becoming
a vaffal of Spain, the Portuguefe affifted him in re¬
ducing fome neighbouring chieftains, and the crofs was
erefted over fome burnt villages.
With about 50 men Magellan landed upon Matan,
whofe chief refufed to fubmit to Zebu, and an engage¬
ment between them lafted for the greater part of the
day. His troops having Ipent all their ammunition,
found it necefiary to retreat, during which Magellan
rvas wounded in the leg by an arrow, beaten down, and
at laft flain with a lance. This happened in 1521.
By this a£t of imprudence he loft the honour of being
the firft circumnavigator of the globe, which fell to the
lot of Cano, who brought his ffiip home by the Eaft In¬
dies. Yet Magellan has fecured an immortal name
among maritime difcoverers, by the commencement of
this great enterprize, in which he difplayed extraordi¬
nary fkill and refolution, but difregarded juftice and
humanity, then almoft univerfal among adventurers of
this clafs.
Straits of Magellan, a narrow paffage between the
ifland of Terra del Fuego and the fouthern extremity
of the continent of America. This paffage was firft
difcovered by Ferdinand Magellan, who failed through
it into the South fea, and from thence to the Eaft Indies.
Other navigators have paffed the fame way •, but as
thefe ftraits are exceedingly difficult, and fubjeift to
florms, it has been common to fail by Cape Horn,
rather than through the ftraits of Magellan. See Straits
Le Mairk, and Terra del Fuego.
MAGELLANIC CLOUDS, whitiftr appearances like
elouds, feen in the heavens towards the fouth pole, and
having the fame apparent motion as the ftars. They
are three in number, two of them near each other.
The largeft lies far from the fouth pole j but the other
two are not many degrees more remote from it than
the neareft confpicuous ftar, that is, about 11 degrees.
Mr Boyle conjeftures, that. if thefe clouds were feen
through a good telefcope, they would appear to be mul¬
titudes of fmall ftars, like the milky-way.
MAGGI, Jerome, in Latin Magius, one of the
moft learned men of the 16th century, rvas born at
Anghiaxi in Tufcany. He applied himfelf to all the
fciences, and even to the art of war ; and diftinguiffied
himfelf fo much in this laft ftudy, that the Venetians
fent him into the ifland of Cyprus in quality of judge
of the admiralty. When the Turks beiieged Fama-
gufta, he performed all the fervices that could be ex¬
pelled from the moft excellent engineer : he invented
mines and machines for throwing fire, by means of
which he deftroyed all the works of the befiegers, and
in an inftant overthrew what had coft the Turks infi-
346 1 MAG
nite labour. But they had their revenge •, for, taking
the city in 1571, they plundered his library, carried
him loaded with chains to Conftantinople, and treated '
him in the moft inhuman and barbarous manner. He
neverthelefs comforted himfelf from the example of
iEfop, Menippus, Epiftetus, and other learned men ;
and, after palling the whole day in the meaneft drud¬
gery, he fpent the night in writing. He compofed,
by the help of his memory alone, treatifes filled with
quotations, which he dedicated to the Imperial and
French ambaffadors. Thefe minifters, moved by com-
paffion for this learned man, refolved to purchafe him }
but while they were treating for his ranfom, Maggi
found means to make his elcape, and to get to the
Imperial ambaffador’s houfe j when the grand vifir be¬
ing enraged at his flight, and remembering the great
milchief he had done the Turks during the fiege of
Famagufta, fent to have him feized, and caufed him
to be ftrangled in prifon in 1572. His principal works
are, 1. A Treatife on the Bells of the Ancients. 2. On
the Deftrudlion of the World by Fire. 3. Commen¬
taries on ./Emilius Probus’s Lives of Illuftrious Men.
4. Commentaries on the Inftitutes Thefe works are
.written in elegant Latin. Fie alfo wrote a treatife on
fortification in Italian j and a book on the fituation of
ancient Tufcany.
He ought not to be confounded with his brother
Bartholomew} Maggi, a phyfician at Bologna, who
wrote a treatife of gunffiot wounds : nor with Vincent
Maggt, a native of Breffe, and a celebrated profeffor of
humanity at Ferrara in Padua, who was the author of
feveral works.
MAGGOT, the common name of the fly-worm
bred in fleffi, from the egg of the great blue fleffi fly.
Notwithftanding the diftafte for this animal, its figure
and ftru£ture of parts are greatly worth attending to $
and may ferve as a general hiftory of the clafs of worms
produced from the eggs of flies.
This animal is white and rielhy •, its body is compofed
of a number of rings, like the bodies of caterpillars and
other fimilar infe£ls ; and is Capable, at the pleafure of
the animal, of affuming different figures •, being at times
more or lefs extended in length, and confequently more
or lefs thick.
Notwithftanding that this animal has no legs, it is
able to move itfelf very fwiftly ; and in its firft attempt
to move its body, is extended to its greateft length,
and affumes fomething of the figure of a pointed cone.
The pointed part of the cone is the head of the ani¬
mal, and is not feparated from the next ring by any
deeper furrow than the reft of the rings are from one
another. In fome ftates of the animal, one may fee
two ffiort horns thruft out from the head ; but more
generally two fcaly hooks are obfervable : thefe are,
however, fometimes hid, and have each of them a cafe
or ffieath j into which the animal can retraft them at
pleafure. Thefe hooks are bent into an arch, the con¬
cavity of which is towards the plane on which the crea¬
ture is placed j and they are th ckeft at their infertion
in the head, and thence diminiffi gradually, till they
terminate in a fine ffiarp point.
Thefe two hooks are placed in a parallel direflion,
and can never come together, and therefore cannot
ferve in the place of teeth for grinding the food *, but
merely to pull and fever it in pieces, that it may be of
a
Mag-gi,
Maggot.
MAG [ 347 ] M A G
a proper fize for the mouth of the creature* Befides
thefe hooks the maggot has a kind of aart, which is
about a third part of their length, and is_ placed at an
equal diilance between them. This alfo is brown and
fcaly like them ; it is quite ftraight, and terminates in
a fine point. The hooks have as it were two fcaly
thorns at their points; and this dart feems intended,
by reiterated llrokes to divide, and break the pieces
of delh thefe have feparated from the reft into fmaller
parts. Immediately below7 the apertures for the egrefs
of the hooks, is placed the mouth of the animal ; the
creature does not fhow7 this little opening unlefs pref-
fed : but if the preffure is properly managed it will
fufficiently open it, and there may be difcovered with¬
in it a fmall protuberance, which may very naturally
be fuppofed either the tongue or the fucker of the ani¬
mal. The hooks in thefe creatures not only fupply
the place of teeth, but alio of legs j fince it is by faft-
ening thefe hooks into the fubftance it is placed on,
and then drawing up its body to it, that it pulls itfelf
along.
The back of this creature low7ers itfelf by degrees as
it approaches the extremity of the belly; and near the
place where the back begins to lower itfelf, are placed
the creature’s two principal organs of refpiration. One
may perceive there are two fmall roundiih brown fpots:
they are very eafily diftinguifhable by the naked eye,
becaufe the reft of the body of the creature is w'hite ;
but if we take in the afiiftance cif glafles, each of thefe
fpots appears to be a browm circular eminence raifed
a little above the reft of the body. On each of thefe
fpots one may alio difcover three oblong oval cavities,
fomething of the iliape of button holes; thefe are fitu-
ated in a parallel direftion to one another, and their
length nearly in a perpendicular diredtion to that of
the body of the animal. Thefe apertures are fo many
liigmata or air-holes ; openings deftined to admit the
air necefiary to the life of the animal. It has fix of
thefe ftigmata, three in each fide of its body.
The great tranfparency of the body of this animal
gives us an opportunity alfo to diftinguiftr that it has
on each fide a large white veffel running the whole
length of the body. It is eafy to follow7 the courfe of
thefe veffels through their whole length, but they are
moft diftincl of all towards its hinder part; and they
are always feen to terminate each in the brown fpot
above mentioned ; this leaves us no room to doubt that
they are the twro principal tracheae.
The ramifications of the two great tracheae are very
beautifully feen in this creature, efpecialiy on its belly ;
and it is remarkable, that no veffel analogous to the
great artery in the caterpillar clafs can be difcover¬
ed in thefe ; though, if there were any fuch, their great
tranfparence muft needs make them very eafily diftin-
guifiiable ; nor could its dilatations and contradlions,
if fo confiderable as in that clafs of animals, be lefs fo.
See Caterpillar, Entomoi.ogy Index.
Malpighi imagined, that this artery in the caterpil¬
lar clafs w’as a feries of hearts; in its place, however,
there may be feen in thefe animals a true heart. It is
eafy to obferve in thefe creatures, about the fourth
ring of their body, a fmail flefhy part, w7hich has al¬
ternate contractions and dilatations; and is not only
difcoverable in the body by means of its tranfparence,
but on making a proper fe&ion of them in the fecond,
third, and fourth, will be thrown out of the body of Majjh
the creature, and continue its beats for fome time af-;
tenvards.
MAGI, or Magians, an ancient religious feel in
Perfia, and other eaftern countries, who maintained
that there were two principles, one the caufe of all
good, the other the caufe of all evil: and, abominating
the adoration of images, they worftfipped God only by-
fire ; which they looked upon as the brighteft and moll
glorious fymbol of Oromafdes, or the good god; as
darknefs is the trueft fymbol of Arimanius, or the evil
god. This religion was reformed by Zoroafter, w7ho
maintained that there wras one fupreme independent
Being; and under him two principles or angels, one
the angel of goodnefs and light, and the other of evil
and darknefs; that there is a perpetual ftruggle be¬
tween them, which (hall laft to the end of the world ;
that then the angel of darknefs and his dilciples flrall
go into a wrorld of their own, where they lhall be pu-
nifiied in cverlafting darknefs ; and the angel of light
and his difciples fiiall alfo go into a world ©t their own,
rvhere they fhallbe rewarded in everlafting light.
The priefts of the magi wrere the moil fkilful ma¬
thematicians and philofophers of the ages in which
they lived, infomuch that a learned man and a magian
became equivalent terms. The vulgar looked on their
knowdedge as fupernatural; and hence thofe who prac-
tifed wicked and milchievous arts, taking upon them-
felves the name of magians, drew on it that ill fig-
nification which the word magician now bears among
us.
This fed ftill fubfifts in Perfia under the denomina¬
tion of gaursy where they watch the facred fire with
the greateft care, and never luffer it to be extinguilh-
ed.
MAGIC, (Magia, Mxyux), in its ancient fenfe,
the fcience or difeiphne and dodftrine of the magi, or
wife men of Perfia. See Magi.
The origin of magic and the magi is aferibed to
Zoroafter. Salmafius derives the very name from Zo¬
roafter, who, he lays, was furnamed Mog, whence
Magus. Others, inftead of making him the author of
the Perfian ‘philofophy, make him only the reftorer
and improver thereof; alleging, that many of the Per¬
fian rites in ufe among the magi were borrowed from
the Zabii among the Chaldeans, who agreed in many
things with the magi of the Perfians ; whence fome
make the name magus common both to the Chaldeans
and Perfians. Thus Plutarch mentions, that Zoroafter
inftituted magi among the Chaldeans, in imitation
whereof the Perfians had theirs too.
Magic, in a more modern fenfe, is a fcience which
teaches to perform wonderful and furprifing effeds.
The word magic originally carried with it a very-
innocent, nay, laudable meaning ; being ufed purely
to fignify the ftudy of wifdom, and the more fublime
parts of knowledge; but in regard the ancient magi
engaged themfelves in aftrology, divination, forcery,
&c. the term magic in time became odious, and was
only ufed to fignify an unlawful and diabolical kind of
fcience, depending on the affiftance of the devil and
departed fouls.
If any wonder how fo vain and deceitful a fcience
ftiould gain fo much credit and authority over men’s
minds, Pliny gives the reafon of it. It is, fays he,
X x 2 becaufe
MAG [3
Magic, becaufe it has polTeffed itfelf of three fciences of the
t”rr~”v moft eftcem among men : taking from each all that
is great and marvellous in it. Nobody doubts but it
had its firft origin in medicine ; and that it infmuated
itfelf into the minds of the people, under pretence of
affording extraordinary remedies. To thefe fine pro-
mifes it added every thing in religion that is pompous
and fplendid, and that appears calculated to blind and
captivate mankind. Laftly, It mingled judicial allro-
logy with the reft ; perfuading people, curious of fu¬
turity, that it faw every thing to come in the heavens.
Agrippa divides magic into three kinds j natural, ce-
leftial, and ceremonial or fuperftitious.
Natural Magic is no more than the application of
natural aftive caufes to paftive fubjefts j by means
whereof many furprifing, but yet natural, effefts are
produced.
In this way many of our experiments in natural
philofophy, efpecially thofe of eleddricity, optics, and
magnetifim, have a kind of magical appearance, and
r.rnong the ignorant and credulous might eafily pafs
for miracles. Such, without doubt, have been fome
of thofe miracles wrought by ancient magicians, whofe
knowledge of the various powers of nature, there is
reafon to believe, was much greater than modern va-
f See Stil- nity will fometimes allow f.
Imgfiepfs Baptifta Porta has a treatife of natural magic, or of
^ncr^5 ^ecrets f°r performing very extraordinary things by na-
hook ii. tural caufes. The natural magic of the Chaldeans
c. 2. was nothing but the knowledge of the powders of
fimples and minerals. The magic which they called
theurgia, confifted wholly in the knowledge of the ce¬
remonies to be obferved in the worfhip of the gods, in
order to be acceptable. By virtue of thefe ceremonies
they believed they could converfe wdth fpiritual beings,
and cure difeafes.
Celejhal Magic borders nearly on judiciary aftrolo-
gy : it attributes to fpirits a kind of rule or dominion
over the planets, and to planets a dominion over men ;
and on thofe principles builds a ridiculous kind of fy-
flem. See Astrology.
Superjhtious or Gaelic Magic confifts in the invoca¬
tion of devils. Its effects are ufually evil and wicked,
though very ftrange, and feemingly furpafling the
powers of nature } fuppofed to be produced by virtue
of fome compaft, either tacit or exprefs, with evil fpi¬
rits : but the truth is, thefe have not all the power that
is. ufually imagined, nor do they produce thofe effedts
ordinarily afcribed to them.
, This fpecies of magic, there is every reafon to be¬
lieve, had its origin in Egypt, the native country of
paganifm. The firft magicians mentioned in hiftory
were Egyptians; and that people fo famed for early
wnfdom believed not only in the exiftence of daemons,
the great agents in magic (fee DiEMON), but alfo that
different orders of thofe fpirits prefided over the ele¬
ments of earth, air, fire, and water, as well as over the
petfons and affairs of men. Hence they afcribed every
difeafe with which they vvere afflidted to the immedi¬
ate agency of fome evil daemon. When any perfon was
feized with a fever, for inltance, they did not think
it neceffary to fearch for any natural caufe of the dif¬
eafe : it was immediately attributed to fome daemon
which had taken poffeffion of the body of the patient,
] M A G
and which could not to be ejected but by charms and in- Magic,
cantations. ' * — y ^
Thefe fuperftitious notions, which had fpread from
Egypt over all the eaft, the Jews imbibed during their
captivity in Babylon. Hence we find them in the
writings of the New Teftament attributing almoft every
difeafe to which they were incident to the immediate
agency of devils (fee Possession). Many of the fame
impious fuperftitions were brought from Egypt and
Chaldea by Pythagoras, and tranfmitted by him and his
followers to the Platonifts in Greece. This is apparent
from the writers of the life of Pythagoras. Jamblicus,
fpeaking of the followers of that philofopher, fays ex-
prefsly, that they cured certain difeafes by incantations j
and Porphyry adds, that they cured difeafes both of
the mind and of the body by fongs and incantations.
This w;as exa&ly the pra&ice of the Egyptian priefts,
who were all fuppofed to keep up a conftant inter-
courfe with daemons, and to have the power of con-
trouling them by magical charms and facred fongs.
Agreeably to this practice of his mafters, we are told
that Pythagoras directed certain difeafes of the mind,
doubtlefs thofe which he attributed to the agency of
daemons, to be cured partly by incantations, partly by
magical hymns, and partly by mujic.—ym 4/vXetf
^2 vorovvlxs 7TCC(>i(Av6i[lo TOVS f45V iTTW^oas KC/A (AOtyitmii ravy Js
That there are different orders of created fpirits,
whether called daemons or angels, whofe powers in-
telle61ual and adlive greatly furpafs the powers of man,
reafon makes probable, and revelation certain. Now
it was the univerfal belief of the ancient nations, fays
the learned Moftieim *, and efpecially of the orientals, * See his
that certain founds and words, for the moft part bar- edition of
barous, were highly grateful, and that others viere^'f^,0^ st
equally difagreeable, to thefe fpirits. Hence, wrhen Sy^em, ^
they wiftied to render a daemon propitious, and to em¬
ploy him on any particular office, the magicians com-
pofed their facred fongs of the words which were be¬
lieved to be agreeable to him 5 and when it was their
intention to drive him from themfelves or others, they
fung in a ftrain which they fancied a daemon could not
hear but with horror. From the fame perfuafion arofe
the cuftom of fufpending from the neck of a fick. per¬
fon, whofe difeafe was fuppofed to be inflidled by a
daemon, an amulet, fometimes made of gold and fome¬
times of parchment on which was written one or more
of thofe words which daemons could not bear either to
hear or to fee : and in a didadfic poem on the healing
art ftill extant, we are taught by Serenus Sammonicus,
that the word Abracadabra is an infallible remedy
for a femitertian fever or ague 5 and to banilh grief of
heart, Marcel/inus thinks nothing more effedtual than
the word x.x^ioiyKuv. In more modern times, as we are
informed by Agrippa, the words ufed by thofe in com-
padl with the devil, to invoke him, and to fucceed in
what they undertake, are, Dies, mies, jefquet, benedoe-
fet, douvima, enitemaus. There are a hundred other
formulas of words compofed at pleafure, or gathered
from feveral different languages, or patched from the
Hebrew or formed in imitation of it. And among
the primitive Chriftians there was a fuperftitious cu¬
ftom, of which we fufpedl fome remains may yet be
found among the illiterate vulgar in different countries.
MAG
Magic, of faftening to the neck of a fick perfon, or to the bed
—v on which he lay, fome text from the New Teftament,
and elpecially the firfl two or three verfes of the gofpel
of St John, as a charm undoubtedly efficacious to baniffi
the difeafe.
That magicians who could thus cure the fick, wTere
likewife believed to have the powxr of inffidting dif-
eafes, and of working miracles, by means of their fub-
fervient daemons, need not be doubted. Ancient writ¬
es of good credit are full of the wonders which they
performed. We {hall mention a few of thofe which
are beft attefied, and inquire uffiether they might not
have been effe&ed by other means than the interpofition
of daemons.
The firft magicians of whom wre read are thofe
who in Egypt oppofed Mofes. And we are told, that,
when Aaron cad down his rod, and it became a fer-
pent, they alfo did the like with their enchantments j
“ for they caft dowm every man his rod, and they be¬
came ferpents.” This was a phenomenon which, it
muft be confeffed, had a very miraculous appearance ;
and yet there feems to have been nothing in it which
might not have been effedfed by flight of hand. The
Egyptians, and perhaps the inhabitants of every coun¬
try where ferpents abound, have the art of depriving
them of their power to do mifehief, fo that they may
be handled without danger. It was eafy for the magi¬
cians, who wrere favoured by the court, to pretend that
they changed their rods into ferpents, by dexterouf-
ly fubftituting one of thofe animals in place of the rod.
In like manner they might pretend to change water
into blood, and to produce frogs ; for if Mofes gave
in thefe inflances, as we know he did in others, any
previous information of the nature of the miracles
which were to be wrought, the magicians might eafi-
ly provide themfelves in a quantity of blood and num¬
ber of frogs fufficient to anfwer their purpofe of de¬
ceiving the people. Beyond this, however, their
power could not go. It flopped where that of all
workers in legerdemain muft have ftopt—at the failure
of proper materials to work with. Egypt abounds
with ferpents ; blood could be eafily procured j and
without difficulty they might have frogs from the ri¬
ver : But when Mofes produced lice from the duft of
the ground, the magicians, who had it not in their
power to col1e6l a fufficient quantity of thefe animals,
were compelled to own this to be an effedl of divine
agency.
The appearance of Samuel to Saul at Endor is the
next miracle, feemingly performed by the power of ma¬
gic, which we ffiall confider. It was a common pre¬
tence of magicians, that they could raife up ghofts
from below, or make dead perfons appear unto them to
declare future events; and the manner of their incanta¬
tion is thus deferibed by Horace :
 Pallor utrafque
Fecerat horrendas afpedlu. Scalpere terram
Unguibus, et pullam divellere mordicus agnam
Coeperunt: cruor in foffam confufus, ut inde
Manes elicerent, animas refponfa daturas.
“ With yellings dire they fill’d the place,
And hideous pale was cither’s face.
Soon with their nails they ferap’d the ground,
And fill’d a magic trench profound
M A G
With a black lamb’s thick-ftreaming gore,
Whofe members with their teeth they tore j
That they might charm the fprights to tell
Some curious anecdotes trom hell.” FrAxcis.
Whether the witch of Endor made ufe of fuch infer¬
nal charms as thefe, the {acred hiftorian has not in¬
formed us; but Saul addrefled her, as if he believed
that by fome form of incantation flie could recal
from the (late of departed fpirits the foul of the
prophet who had been for fome time dead. In the
fubfequent apparition, however, which was produced,
fome have thought there was nothing more than a
trick, by which a cunning woman impofed upon Saul’s
credulity, making him believe that fome confidant of
her own was the ghoit of Samuel. But had that been
the cafe, (lie would undoubtedly have made the pretend¬
ed Samuel’s anfwer as pleafing to the king as poffible,
both to fave her own life, which appears from the con¬
text to have been in danger, and likewife to have pro¬
cured the larger reward. She would never have told
her fovereign, flie durit not have told him, that he
himfelf ffiould be ffiortly {lain, and his fons with him }
and that the hoft of Ifrael ffiould be delivered into the
hands of the Philiflines. For this reafon many critics,
both Jewiffi and Chriftian, have fuppofed that the ap¬
parition was really a daemon or evil angel, by whofe
affiftance the woman ivas accuflomed to work wonders,
and to foretel future events. But it is furely very-
incredible, that one of the apoftate fpirits of hell Ihould
have upbraided Saul for applying to a forcerefs, or
flrould have accofied him in fuch words as thefe: ‘4 Why
haft thou difquieted me, to bring me up ? Wherefore
doft thou afk of me, feeing the Lord is departed from
thee, and is become thine enemy ! For the Lord hath
rent the kingdom out of thine hand, and given it to
thy neighbour, even to David. Becaufe thou obeyedll
not the voice of the Lord, therefore the Lord hath done
this thing to thee this day.” It is to be obferved far¬
ther, that what was here denounced againft Saul was
really prophetic, and that the event anfwered to the
prophecy in every particular. Now, though we do
not deny that there are created fpirits of penetration
vaftly fuperior to that of the moft enlarged human un-
derftanding } yet we dare maintain, that no finite intel¬
ligence could by its own mere capacity have ever found
out the precife time of the two armies engaging, the
fuccefs of the Philiftines, the confequences of the
victory, and the very names of the perfons that were
to fall in battle. Saul and his fons were indeed men
of tried bravery, and therefore likely to expofe them¬
felves to the greateft danger : but after the menaces
which he received from the apparition, he would have
been impelled, one ftiould think, by common prudence,
either to chicane wuth the enemy, or to retire from
the field without expofing himfelf, his fons, and the
wffiole army, to certain and inevitable deftrmflion ; and
his a£ling differently, with the confequences of his
conduft, wrere events which no limited underftanding
could either forefee or certainly foretel. If to thefe
circumftances wre add the fuddennefs of Samuel’s ap¬
pearance, wdth the effedl which it had upon the for-
cerefs herfelf, we ffiall find reafon to believe, that the
apparition wTas that of no evil daemon. There is not,
we believe, upon record, another inftance of any per-
fon’s
C 349 1
mag [ 350 ] mag
Magic, fon’s pretending to raife a gboft from below, without
' previoufly uling fome magical rites or fome form of
incantation. As nothing of that kind is mentioned in
the cafe before us, it is probable that Samuel appear¬
ed before he was called. It is likewife evident from
the narrative, that the apparition was not what the
woman expeded ; for we are told, that “ when (he
faw Samuel, (lie cried out for fear.” And when the
king exhorted her not to be afraid, and afked what (he
faw, “ the woman faid, I fee gods (elohirri) afcending
out of the earth.” Now, had (he been accuftomed to
-do fuch feats, and known that what (lie faw was only
her fubfervient daemon, it is not conceivable that (he
could have been fo frightened, or have miftaken her
familiar for elohim in any fenfe in whicli that word can
be taken. We are therefore flrongly inclined to adopt
the opinion of thofe who hold that it was Samuel him-
felf who appeared and prophefied, not called up by
the wretched woman or her dmmons, but, to her utter
confufion, and the difgrace of her art, fent by God
to rebuke Saul’s madnefs in a mod afte&ing and mor¬
tifying wTay, and to deter all others from ever ap¬
plying to magicians or daemons for affiftance when re-
fufed comfort from heaven. For though this hypo-
thefis may to a fuperficial thinker feem to tranfgrefs
the rule of Horace—Nec deus interfile See.—wdiich is
as applicable to the interpretation of feripture, as to
the introduftion of fupernatural agency in human com-
pofitions $ yet he wdio has (ludied the theocratical con-
ftitution of Ifrael, the nature of the oflice wThich
was there termed regal, and by wdrat means the admi-
niftration was in emergencies condudfed, will have a
different opinion 5 and at once perceive the dignus viti-
dice nodus.
The hidden and wmnderful deftrudfion of the army
of Brennus the Gaul, has likewife been attributed to
* magic, or, what in this inquiry amounts to the fame
thing, to the interpofition of evil fpirits, whom the
priefts of Apollo invoked as gods. Thofe barbarians
had made an inroad into Greece, and invefted the tem¬
ple of Apollo at Delphi, with a viewT to plunder it of the
facred treafure. Their numbers and courage over¬
powered all oppolition j and they were juft upon the
point of making themfelves mailers of the place, when,
Judin informs us, that, to encourage the bedeged, the
prieds and prophetefs “ adveniffe deum cla?nant; eum-
que fe vidiffe dedlientem in templum per culminis a-
perta fadigia. Dum omnes opem dei fuppficiter im-
plorant, juvenem fupra humanum modum indgnis
pulchritudinis, comitefque ei duas armatas virgines,
ex propinquis duabus Diance Minervaeque aedibus oc-
curriffe, nec oculis tantum hcec fe perfpexiffe j audiffe
etiam dridorem arcus, ac drepitum armorum : pro- Magic,
inde ne cunftarentur, diis antefignanis, hodem caedere, ——v——
et victorias deorum focios fe adjungere,” fuminis obfe-
crationibus monebant. Quibus vocibus incenfi, omnes
certatim in praelium prodliunt. Praefentiam Dei et ipd
datim fenfere : nam et terrae motu portio mentis
abrupta Gallorum dravit exercitum, et confertidimi
cunei non dne vulneribus hodium didipati ruebant.
Inlecuta deinde tempedas ed, quse grandme et frigore
faucios ex vulneribus abfumpdt (a).
This was unquedionably an extraordinary event :
and it mud be aferibed either to the immediate inter-
podtion of the Supreme Being, to natural means, or
to the agency of dsemons : there is no other alterna¬
tive. But it is altogether incredible that the Supreme
Being fhould have miraculoufly interpofed to defend
the temple of a pagan divinity. It is very difficult to
fuppofe that an earthquake, produced in the ordinary
courfe of nature, (hould have been foretold by the.
prieds, or that it could have happened fo opportunely
for the prefervation of their treafure from the hands
of fierce barbarians. Nothing, therefore, it has been
faid, remains, but either to allows the earthquake to
have been produced by evil fpirits, or to deny the
truth of the hidorian’s relation. But the catadrophe
of Brennus’s army is recorded in the fame manner by
fo many ancient waiters of good credit, that we can¬
not call in quedion their veracity j and therefore, be¬
ing unwdlling td admit the agency of daemons into this
affair, it wdll be incumbent on us to (how by what
human contrivance it might have been effected ; for its
arrival at fo critical a juncture will not eafily differ us
to fuppofe it a mere natural event.
“ The inclination of a Pagan pried (fays Bldicp
Warburton f) to affid his god in extremity, will | y?liian
hardly be quedioned j and the inclination of thofe at1 ^
Delphi was not ill feconded by their public manage¬
ment and addrefs. On the fird rumour of Brennus’s
march againd them, they iffued orders, as from the
oracle, to all the region round, forbidding the coun¬
try people to fecret or bear away their wine and pro-
vilions. The effedls of this order fucceeded to their
expe&ations. The half-darved barbarians finding, on
their arrival in Phocis, fo great a plenty of all things,
made (hort marches, difperfed themfelves over the
country, and revelled in the abundance that w'as pro¬
vided for them. This refpite gave time to the friends
and allies of the god to come to his affidance. Their
advantages of dtuation likewife fupported the meafures
which they had taken for a vigorous defence. The
town and temple of Delphi were feated on a bare and
cavernous rock, defended on all fides wdth precipices
indead
“ (A) Called aloud that the god had arrived : That they had feen him leap into the temple through the aper¬
ture in the roof: That whild they were all humbly imploring his help, a youth of more than human beauty,
accompanied by tw'o virgins in armour, bad run to their affidance from the neighbouring temples of Diana and
Minerva j and that they had not only beheld thefe things with their eyes, but bad alfo heard the whizzing
of his bowr and the clangor of his arms. They therefore earnedly exhorted the befieged not to negletff the
heavenly fignal, but to (ally out upon their enemies, and partake with the divinities of the glory of the vic¬
tory.” With thefe words the foldiers being animated, eagerly ruffied to battle : and were themfelves quickly
fenhble of the prefence of the god 5 for part of the rock being torn away by an earthquake, rolled down upon
tho Gains ; whofe thicked battalions being thus thrown into confufion, fied, expofed to the weapons of their
enemies. Soon afterwards a temped arofe, which by cold and the fall of hailftones cut off the wounded.
2
MAG r 35
inftead of walls. A large recefs within affumed the
form of a theatre 5 fo that the ftiouts of foldiers, and
the founds of military inftruments, re-echoing from
rock to rock, and from cavern to cavern, increafed the
clamour to an immenfe degree ; which, as the hifto-
rian obferves, could not but have great effe&s on ig¬
norant and barbarous minds. The playing off theie
panic terrors was not indeed of itfelf fufficient to re-
pulfe and diffipate an hoft of fierce and hungry invaders,
but it enabled the defenders to keep them at bay till
a more folid entertainment was provided for them, m
the exp/ojion and fall of that portion of the rock at
the foot of which the,, greater part of the army lay en¬
camped.
“ Among the caverns in the facred rock, there was
one which, from an intoxicating quality difcovered
in the iteam which iffued from it, was rendered very
famous by being fitted to the recipient of the prieftefs
of Apollo (b). Now, if we only fuppofe this, or any
other of the vapours emitted from the numerous fif-
fures, to be endowed with that un&uous, or otherwife
inflammatory quality, which modern experience fhows
to be common in mines and fubterraneous places, we
can eafily conceive how the priells of the temple
might, without the agency of daemons, be able to
work the wonders which hiftory fpeaks of as effefted
in this tranfa&ion. For the throwing down a lighted
torch or two into a chafm whence fuch a vapour
iffued, would fet the whole into a flame •, which by
fuddenly rarefying and dilating the air, wmuld, like
fired gunpowder, blowT up all before it. That the
priefts, the guardians of the rock, could be long ig¬
norant of fuch a quality, or that they would divulge
it w’hen difcovered, cannot be fuppofed. Strabo re¬
lates, that one Onomarchus, with his companions, as
they were attempting by night to dig their way
through to rob the holy treafury, were frightened
from their work by the violent (baking of the rock ;
and he adds, that the fame phenomenon had defeated
many other attempts of the like nature. Nowq whe¬
ther the tapers which Onomarchus and his companions
were obliged to ufe while they w7ere at work, inflamed
the vapour, or whether the priefts of Apollo heard
them at it, and fet fire to a countermine, it is certain
a quality of this kind would always (land them in ftead.
Such then (prefumes the learned prelate) wTas the expe¬
dient (c) they employed to diflodge this neft of hornets,
which had fettled at the foot of their facred rock $ for
the ftorm of thunder, lightning, and hail, which fol¬
lowed, was the natural effetff of the violent concuflions
given to the air by the explofion of the mine.”
Two inftances more of the powder of ancient ma¬
gic we (hall juft mention, not becaufe there is any-
Magic.
i ] MAG
thing particular or important in the fa<fts, but becaufe
fome credit feems to have been given to the narration
by the difcerning Cudworth. Philoftratus, in his life
of Apollonius Tyanceus, informs us that a laughing
demoniac at Athens was cured by that magician, who
ejected the evil fpirit by {Treats and menaces 5 and the
biographer adds, that the daemon, at his departure, is
faid to have overturned a ftatue which flood before the
porch where the cure was performed. The other in-
ftance is of the fame magician freeing the city of
Ephefus from the plague, by ftoning to death an old
ragged beggar whom Apollonius called the plague, and
who appeared to be a deemon by his changing himfelf
into the form of a Jljaggcd dog.
That fuch tales as thefe ftiould have been thought
worthy of the flighteft notice by the incomparable au¬
thor of the Intellectual Syltem, is indeed a wonderful
phenomenon in the hiftory of human nature. The
whole ftory of Apollonius Tyanceus, as is now well
known, is nothing better than a collection of the moft
extravagant fables * : but were the narrative fuch as * See Pri-
that credit could be given to the faCts here related,
there appears no neceflity in either cafe for calling in ^’^cker's'
the agency of evil fpirits by the power of magic.— Hijiorv of
The Athenians of that age were a iuperftitious peo- Philofophy,
pie. Apollonius was a ftirewd impoftor, long prac-anc\
tifed in the art of deceiving the multitude. For fuch
a man it was eafy to perfuade a friend and confidant Cudworth's
to aft the part of the laughing demoniac; and without Intellectual:
much difficulty the ftatue might be fo undermined as Syjlem.
inevitably to tumble, upon a violent concuflion being
given to the ground at the time of the departure of
the pretended demon. If fo, this feat of magic
dwindles down into a very trifling trick performed by
means both Ample and natural. The other cafe of the
poor man at Ephefus, who was ftoned to death, is
exaftly fimilar to that of thofe innocent women in our
own country, whom the vulgar'in the laft century
were inftigated to burn for the fuppofed crime of witch¬
craft. We have no reafon to fuppofe that an Ephefian
mob was lefs inflammable or credulous than a Britilh
mob, or that Apollonius played his part with lefs (kill
than a Chriftian demonologift j and as the fpirits of
our witches, who were facrificed to folly and fana-
ticifm, were often fuppofed to migrate from their
dead bodies into the bodies of hares or cats accidentally
palling by, fo might this impoftor at Ephefus per¬
fuade his cruel and credulous inftruments, that the
fpirit of their viftim had taken poffeflion of the body
of thefhagged dog.
Still it may be faid, that in magic and divination
events have been produced out of the ordinary courfe
of nature } and as we cannot fuppofe the
Supreme
Being
(b) “ In hoc rupis anfraftu, media ferme mentis altitudine, planities exigua eft, atque in ea profundum terrse
foramen, quod in oraculo patet, ex quo frigidus fpiritus, vi quadam velut vento in fublime expulfus, mentes vatum
in vecordiam vertit, impletafque deo refponfa confulentibus dare cogit.” Just. lib. 24. c. 10.
(c) The learned author, by arguments too tedious to.be here enumerated, confirms the reafoning ivhich we have
borrowed from him \ and likewife (hows from hiftory, that the priefts, before they came to extremities with the fa¬
cred rock, had entered into treaty with thofe barbarians, and paid them a large tribute to decamp and quit the
country. This adds greatly to the probability of his account of the explofion j for nothing but the abfolute im-
poflibiiity of getting quit of their befiegers by any other means, could have induced the priefts to hazard an experi¬
ment fo big with danger to themfelves as well as to their enemies. .
MAG' [352] MAG
Magic. Being to have countenanced fuch abominable^praftices
^ v'“—by the interpofition of his power, we muft neceffarily
attribute thofe elfedfs to the agency o^ demons, or
evil fpirits. Thus, when ^Tineas confulted the Sibyl,
the agency of the infpiring god changed Iter whole ap¬
pearance :
 “ Pofcere fata
Tempus,” ait : “ Deus, ecce, Deus.” Cui talia fanti
Ante fores, fubito non vultus, non color unus,
Non comptEe manfere comce : fed pedtus anhelum,
:Et rabie fera corda tument 5 majorque videri,
Nec mortale fonans : afflata eft numine quando
Jam propiove Dei.———— 
 ‘£ Aloud (he cries,
“ Th is is the time, inquire your deftinies.
.He comes, behold, a god !” Thus while (he faid,
And (hivering at the facred entry (laid,
Her colour chang’d, her face was not the fame;
And hollowT groans from her deep (pirit came 5
Her hair ftood up ; convulfive rage poffefs’d
Her trembling limbs, and heav’d her lab’ring br#aftj
Greater than human kind (Ire feem’d to look,
And with an accent more than mortal fpoke.
Her daring eyes with fparkling fury roll,
When all the god came ruftring on her foul.”
Dryden.
In anfwer to this, it is to be obferved, that the
:temp!e of Apollo at Cumae was an immenfe excava¬
tion in a folid rock. The rock was probably of the
fame kind with that on which the temple of Delphi
was built, full of fiffures, out of which exhaled per¬
petually a poilonous kind of vapour. Over one of
thefe fiffures was the tripod placed, from which the
prieftefs gave the oracle. Now' we learn from St
Chryfoftom, that the prieftefs w'as a woman : Quae
in tripodes fedens expanfa malignum fpiritum per interna
immiffum, et per genitales partes fubeuntem excipiens,
furore repleretur, ipfaque refolutis crinibus bacchare-
tur, ex ore fpumam emittens, et fie furoris verba loque-
batur.” By comparing this account w'ith that quot¬
ed above from Juftin, which is confirmed both by
Paufanius and by Strabo, it is evident, that what
Chryfoftom calls malignum fpiritum was a particular
kind of vapour blown forcibly through the fiffure of
the rock. But if there be a vapour of fuch a quality
as, if received per partes genitalesy would make a woman
furious, there is furely no neceflity for calling into
the feene at Cumae the agency of a demon or evil fpi-
rit. Befides, it is to be remembered, that in all my-
ftical and magical rites, fuch as this w'as, both the
priefts, and the perfons confulting them, prepared
themfelves by particular kinds of food., and fometimes,
f Vide Lu- as there is reafon to believe, by human facrifices f, for
cani Pbar- the approach of the god or -demon whofe aid they in-
falia, lib. vi. voj.ecl. On the prefent occafion, we know' from the
C GeZe's Poet that a caks vvas ufed w1l5cl1 was compof-
lib. i. ' ed of poppy-feed and honey ; and Plutarch fpeaks of
a’fhrub called leucc'.yllus, ufed in the celebration of
the myfteries of Hecate, which drives men into a kind
of frenzv, and makes them confefs all the wickednefs
which they had done or intended. This being the
cafe, the illufions of fancy occafioned by poppy will
Efficiently account for the change of the fibyl’s ap¬
pearance, even though the inhaled vapour (hould not Magic,
have poffeffed that efficacy v/hich Chryfoftom and '“■“■"V'—
Juftin attribute to it. Even fome forts of our ordi¬
nary food occafion ftrange dreams, for which onions
in particular are remarkable. Exceffive drunkennefs,
as is well known, produces a diforder named by the
bacchanalians of this country the blue devils, which
confifts of an immenfe number of fpe&res, accompa¬
nied with extreme horror to the perfon who fees
them. From thefe faffs, which cannot be denied
there muft arife a fufpicion, that by ufing very unna¬
tural food, fuch as human blood, the vileft of infefts,
ferpents, and medicated cakes, by (hutting themfelves
up in folitudes and caves, and by devifing every me¬
thod to excite horrid and dreadful ideas or images in
the fancy, the ancient magicians might by natural
means produce every phenomenon which they attri¬
buted to their gods or demons. Add to this, that in
ancient times magic wTas ftudied as a fcience. Now,
as we cannot fuppofe that every one who ftudied it
intended abfolutely nothing, or that all who believed
in it were wholly deceived ; what can we infer, but
that the fcience confided in the knowledge of thofe
drugs which produced the phantoms in the imagina¬
tion, and of the method of preparing and properly
employing them for that purpofe ? The celebrated
Friar Bacon indeed, as far back as the 13th century,
wrote a book de Nul/itate Magice: but though we (hould
allow that this book proved to demonftration, that in
his time no fuch thing as magic exifted, it never could
prove that the cafe had always been fo. At that
time almoft all the fciences w'ere loft ; and why not
magic as w'ell^as others ? It is likewife an undoubted
faff, that magic at all times prevailed among the A-
fiatics and Africans more than among the Europeans.
The reafon doubtlefs w'as, that the former had the re-
quifites for the art in much greater perfeftion than
wre. Human facrifices were frequent among them; they
had the moft poifonous ferpents, and the greateft va¬
riety of vegetable poifons, together with that power¬
ful narcotic opium j all which were of effential ufe in
myftical and magic rites. They had, befides, a burn¬
ing fun, frightful deferts and folitudes •, which, toge¬
ther with extreme fading, were all called in to their
affiftance, and were fufficient to produce, by natural
means, the moft wonderful phenomena which have ever
been attributed to magical incantations. Even in our
own days, we have the teftimony of twro travellers,
whom we cannot fufpeft to be either liars or enthufi-
afts, that both the Indians and Africans perform feats
for which neither they nor the moft enlightened Eu¬
ropeans can account. The one is Mr Grofe, who vi-.
fited the Eaft Indies about the year 1762 j and the
other is Mr Bruce, who informs us, that the inhabi¬
tants of the weftern coaft of Africa pretend to hold
a communication with the devil, and verify their affer-
tions in fuch a manner that neither he nor other tra¬
vellers know what to make of it: but it does not from
this follow', that Mr Bruce believed that communica¬
tion to be real. We have all feen one of the moft il¬
literate men that ever affumed the title of DoElor, per¬
form feats very furprifing, and fuch as even a philo-
fopher w'ould have been puzzled to account for, if he
had not been previoufly let into the fecret; and yet na
man fuppofes that Katlerfelio holds any communica¬
tion
Magic.
MAG [ 353 ] MAG
Magic, tion with the devil, although he has fometifnes pre-
' v " tended it among people whofe minds he fuppofed un¬
enlightened.
Still it may be obje&ed, that we have a vaft num¬
ber of hiftories of witches, who in the laft century
confeffed, that they were prefent with the devil at cer¬
tain meetings j that they were carried through the air,
and faw many ftrange feats performed, too numerous
and too ridiculous to be here mentioned. The belt
anfwer to this objection feems to be that given by Dr
*Manchef-Yzxnar in his effay on Popular Illufions *. “ The fo-
ter Trartf- lemn meeting of witches (fays he) is fuppofed to be
aftions, put beyGnd all doubt by the numerous confeilions of
vol. iu. criminals, who have defcribed their ceremonies, named
the times and places of their meetings, with the per-
fons prefent, and who have agreed in their relations,
though feparately delivered. But I would obferve,
firft, that the circumftances told of thofe feftivals are
in themfelves ridiculous and incredible •, for they are
reprefented as gloomy and horrible, and yet with a
mixture of childilh and extravagant fancies, more like¬
ly to difguft and alienate than conciliate the minds
of their guefts. They have every appearance of un-
eafy dreams. Sometimes the devil and his fubje&s
Jbi/ mafs ; fometimes he preaches to them $ more com¬
monly he was feen in the form of a black goat, fur-
rounded by imps in a thoufand frightful Ihapes j but
none of thefe forms are new, they all referable known
quadrupeds or reptiles. Secondly, I obferve, that there
is direft proof furnilhed even by demonologilts, that all
thofe fuppofed journeys and entertainments were no¬
thing more than dreams. Perfons accufed of witch¬
craft have been repeatedly wTatched about the time
they had fixed for their meeting : they have been feen
to anoint themfelves with foporific compofitions •, af¬
ter which they fell into profound fleep •, and on awak¬
ing feveral hours afterwards, they have related their
journey through the air, with their amufement at the
feftival, and have named the perfons whom they fawr
there.” This is exadlly conformable to the praftice
of the ancient magicians and diviners, and feems to be
the true way of accounting, as well for many of the
phenomena of magic, as for that extravagant and
(hameful fuperftition which prevailed fo much during
part of the laft century, and by which fuch numbers
of innocent men and women were cruelly put to
death (c). We may indeed be affured, that the devil
has it not in his power to reverfe in a fingle inftance
the laws of nature without a divine permiftion ; and
we can conceive but one occafion (fee Possession)
on which fuch permiffion could be given confidently
with the wifdom and the goodnefs of God. All the
tales, therefore, of diabolical agency in magic and
witchcraft mult undoubtedly be falfe j for a power,
which the devil is not himfelf at liberty to exert, he
cannot communicate to a human creature. Were the
cafe otherwdfe ; were thofe powers, “ which (according
to Johnfon) only the controul of Omnipotence re-
ftrains from laying creation wrafte, fubfervient to the
invocations of wicked mortals j were thofe fpirits,—
Vol. XII. Part I.
 of which the lead could wield
The elements, and arm him with the force
Of all their regions,”—<—permitted to wrork mi¬
racles, and either to infli£l or to remove difeafes at the
defire of their capricious votaries, how comfortlefs and
wretched wrould be the life of man ! But the matter has
been long ago determined by the failure of Pharaoh’s
magicians j who, though by legerdemain they imitated
fome of the miracles of Mofes, could not form the vileft
infedt, or ftand before the difeafe which he infli&ed up¬
on them as well as upon others.
The revival of learning, and the fuccefs with which
the laws of nature have been inveftigated, have long
ago banifhed this fpecies of magic from all the en¬
lightened nations of Europe. Among ourfelves, none
but perfons grofsly illiterate pay the leaft regard to
magical charms ; nor are they anywhere abroad more
prevalent than among the inhabitants of Lapland and
Iceland. Thefe people, indeed, place an abfolute
confidence in the effedls of certain idle words and ac¬
tions : and ignorant failors from other parts of the
world are deceived by their aflertions and their cere¬
monies. The famous magical drum of the Laplanders
is ftill in conftant ufe in that nation ; and Scheffer, in
his Hiftory of Lapland, has given an account of its
ftrudlure.
This inftrument is made of beech, pine, or fir, fplit
in the middle, and hollowed on the flat fide w'here the
drum is to be made. The hollow is of an oval figure ;
and is covered with a Ikin clean dreffed, and painted
with figures of various kinds, fuch as ftars, funs and
moons, animals and plants, and even countries, lakes
and rivers j and of later days, fince the preaching of
Chriftianity among them, the afts and fufferings of
our Saviour and his apoftles are often added among
the reft. All thefe figures are feparated by lines into
three regions or clufters.
There is, befides thefe parts of the drum, an index
and a hammer. The index is a bundle of brafs or iron
rings, the biggeft of which has a hole in its middle,
and the fmalier ones are hung to it. The hammer or
drumftick is made of the horn of a rein-deer ; and with
this they beat the drum fo as to make thefe rings move,
they being laid on the top for that purpofe. In the
motion of thefe rings about the pictures figured on the
drum, they fancy to themfelves fome predidlion in re¬
gard to the things they inquire about.
What they principally inquire into by this inftru¬
ment, are three things, i. What facrifices wall prove
moft acceptable to their gods. 2. What fuccefs they
(hall have in their feveral oceupations, as hunting, filh-
ing, curing of difeafes, and the like ; and, 3. What is
doing in places remote from them. On thefe feveral
occafions they ufe feveral peculiar ceremonies, and
place themfelves in various odd poftures as they beat
the drum ; which influences the rings to the one or
the other fide, and to come nearer to the one or the
other fet of figures. And when they have done
this, they have a method of calculating a difcovery,
which they keep as a great fecret, but which feems
Y y merely
(c) For fome farther account of popular illufions, fee Animal Magnezum.
M A G [ 354 ] MAG
Magic merely the bufinefs of the imagination in the diviner or
, S(Fare- i magician.
Magic Square, a fquare figure, formed of a feries of
numbers in mathematical proportion •, fo difpofed in pa¬
rallel and equal ranks, as that the fums of each row,
taken either perpendicularly, horizontally, or diagonal¬
ly, are equal.
Let the feveral numbers which compofe any fquare
number (for inftance, t, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. to 25 inclufive,
the fquare number) be difpoled, in their natural order,
after each other in a fquare figure of 25 cells, each in
its cell 5 if now you change the order of thefe numbers,
and difpofe them in the cells in fuch manner, as that
the five numbers which fill a horizontal rank of cells,
being added together, (hall make the fame fum with
the five numbers in any other rank of cells, whether
horizontal or vertical, and even the fame number with
the five in each of the two diagonal ranks: this dif-
pofition of numbers is called a magic fquare, in oppofi-
tion to the former difpofition, which is called a natural
fquare. See the figures following :
Natural Square. Magic Square.
One would imagine that thefe magic fquares had
that name given then, in regard this property of all
their ranks, which, taken any way, make always the
fame fum, appeared extremely furprifmg, efpecially in
certain ignorant ages, when mathematics palfed for
magic ; but there is a great deal of reafon to fufpedt,
that thefe fquares merited their name ftill farther, by
the fuperftitious operations they were employed in, as
the conftrudlion of talifmans, &c. for, according to
the childiih philofophy of thofe days, which attributed
virtues to numbers, what virtues might not be expedt-
ed from numbers fo wonderful ?
However, what was at firft the vain practice of ma¬
kers of talifmans and conjurors, has fince become the
lubjedl of a ferious refearch among mathematicians ;
not that they imagine it will lead them to any thing
of folid uie or advantage (magic fquares favour to®
much of their original to be of much ufe) j but only
as it is a kind of play, where the difficulty makes the
merit, and it may chance to produce fome new views
of numbers, which mathematicians will not lofe the oc-
cafion of. >
Eman. Mofchopulus, a Greek author of no great
antiquity, is the firll; that appears to have fpoken of
magic fquares: and by the age wherein he lived, there
is reafon to imagine he did not look on them merely
as a mathematician. However, he has left us fome
rules for their conilru&ion. In the treatife of Cor.
Agrippa, fo much accufed of magic, we find the fquares
of feven numbers, viz. from three to nine inclufive,
difpofed magically ; and it mult not be fuppofed that
thofe feven numbers were preferred to all the other
without fome very good reafon : in effeft, it is becaufe
their fquares, according to the fyfiem of Agrippa and
his followers, are planetary. The fquare of 3, for in-
ilance, belongs to Saturn j that of 4 to Jupiter ; that Magic
of 5 to Mars ; that of 6 to the Sun ; that of 7 to Ve- Stluare-
nus j that of 8 to Mercury ; and that of 9 to the' 'r"~*
Moon. M. Bachet applied himfelf to the lludy of
magic fquares, on the hint he had taken from the pla¬
netary Iquares of Agrippa, as being unacquainted with
the work of Mofchopulus, which is only in manufcript
in the French king’s library; and, without the affift-
ance of any author, he found out a new method for
thofe fquares whofe root is uneven, for inftance 25,
49, &c. but he could not make any thing of thofe
wffiofe root is even.
Alter him came M. Frenicle, who took the fame
fubjedl in hand. A certain great algebraift was of
opinion, that whereas the 16 numbers which compofe
the fquare might be difpofed 20922789888000 differ¬
ent ways in a natural fquare (as from the rules of com¬
bination it is certain they may), they could not be
difpofed in a magic fquare above 16 different ways:;
but M. Frenicle ffiowed, that they might be thus dif-
poled 878 different ways: whence it appears how much
his method exceeds the former, which only yielded the
55th part of magic fquares of that of M. Frenicle.
To this inquiry he thought fit to add a difficulty
that had not yet been confidered : the magic fquare of
7, for inftance, being conftrufted, and its 49 cells till¬
ed, if the two horizontal ranks of cells, and, at the
fame time, the two vertical ones, the moft remote from
the middle, be retrenched 5 that is, if the whole bor¬
der or circumference of the fquare be taken away,
there will remain a fquare whole root will be 5, and
which will only confift of 25 cells. Nov,7 it is not at
all furprifing that the fquare ffiould be no longer ma¬
gical, becaufe the ranks of the large ones were not in¬
tended to make the fame fum, excepting when taken
entire with all the feven numbers that fill their feven
cells j fo that being mutilated each of two cells, and
having loft two of their numbers, it may be well ex¬
pected, that their remainders will not any longer make
the fame fum. But M. Frenicle would not be fatis*
fied, unlefs when the circumference or border of the .
magic fquare was taken away, and even any circum¬
ferences at pleafure, or, in fine, feveral circumferences
at once, the remaining fquare was ftill magical-: which
laft condition, no doubt, made thefe fquares vaftly
more magical than ever.
Again, He inverted that condition, and required
that any circumference taken at pleafure, or even fe¬
veral circumferences, ffiould be infeparable from the
fquare j that is, that it ihould ceafe to be magical when
they were removed, and yet continue magical after the
removal of any of the reft. M. Frenicle, however,
gives no general demonilration of his methods, and
frequently feems to have no other guide but cbance.
It is true, his book was not publilhed by himfelf, nor
did it appear till after his death, viz. in 1693.
In 1703, M. Poignard, canon of Bruilels, publiffi-
ed a treatife of fublime magic fquares. Before him
there had been no magic fquares made but for feriefes
of natural numbers that formed a fquare; but M.
Poignard made two very confiderable improvements.
1. Inftead of taking all the numbers that fill a fquare,
for inftance the 36' fucceffive numbers, which would
fill all the cells of a natural Iquare whofe fide is 6, he
only takes as many fucceffive numbers as there are units
in
1
MAG [35
Magic in the fide of the fquare, which, in this cafe, are fix ;
Square. an(j thefe fix numbers alone he difpofes in fuch manner
—v~—' in the 36 cells, that none of them .are repeated twice
in the fame rank, whether it be horizontal, vertical, or
diagonal $ whence it follows, that all the ranks, taken
all the ways poffible, muft always make the fame fum,
which M. Poignard calls repeated progreffion. 2. In-
flead of being confined to take thefe numbers accord¬
ing to the feries and fucceffion of the natural numbers,
that is, in an arithmetical progreffion, he takes them
likewife in a geometrical progreffion, and even in an
harmonical progreffion. But with thefe two lafl pro-
greffions the magic muft neceffarily be different from
what it was : in the fquares filled with numbers in
geometrical progreffion, it confifts in this., that the
products of all the ranks are equal •, and in the har¬
monical progreffion, the numbers of all the ranks con¬
tinually follow that progreffion: he makes fquares of
each of thefe three progreffions repeated.
This book of M. Poignard gave occafion to M. de
la Hire to turn his thoughts the fame w^ay, which he
did with fuch fuccefs, that he feems to have well nigh
completed the theory of magic fquares. He firft con-
fiders uneven fquares: all his predeceffois on the lub-
jecft having found the conftruftion of even ones by
much the moft difficulty for which reafon M. de la
Hire referves thofe for the laft. I his excefs of diffi¬
culty may arife partly from hence, that the numbers
are taken in arithmetical progreffion. Now in that
progreffion, if the number of terms be uneven, that in
the middle has fome properties, which may be of fer-
vice y for inftance, being multiplied by the numbei of
terms in the progreffion, the product is equal to the
fum of all the terms.
M. de la Hire propofes a general method for un-
*even (quares, which has fome fimilitude with the theo¬
ry of compound motions, fo ufeful and fertile in.me¬
chanics. As that confifts in decompounding motions,
and refolving them into others more Ample y lo does
M. de la Hire’s method confift in refolving the .fquare
that is to be conftrmfted into two fimple and primitive
fquares. It muft be owmed, however, it is not quite jo
eafy to conceive thefe two fimple and primitive fquaies
in the compound or perfect fquare, as in an oblique mo¬
tion to imagine a parallel and perpendicular one.
Suppofe a fquare of cells, whole root is uneven, foi
irftance 7 y and that its 49 cells are to be filled magi¬
cally with numbers, for inftance the firft 7 y M. de la
Hire, on the one fide, takes the firft 7 numbers, be¬
ginning with unity, and ending wfith the root 7 y
and on the other j, and all its multiples to 49, exclu-
fively y and as thefe only make fix numbei s, he adds o,
which makes this an arithmetical progreffion of 7
terms as well as the other y o. 7. 14- 21 • 35* 42,
This done, with the firft progreffion repeated, he fills
the f|uare of the root magically : In order to this,
he writes in the firft feven cells of the firft horizontal
rank the feven numbers propofed in what order he
pleafes, for that is abfolutely indifferent y and it is
proper to obferve here, that thefe feven numbers may
be ranged in 5040 different manners in the lame rank.
The order in which they are placed in the firft hori¬
zontal rank, be it what it will, is that which dc>ei-
mines ’heir order in all the reft. For the fecond bo-
-rizontal rank, he places in its firft ceil, either the
5 y M A G
third, the fourth, the fifth, or the fixth number, from
the firft number of the firft rank y and after that writes
the fix others in order as they follown For the third
horizontal rank, he obferves the fame method with re¬
gard to the fecond that he obferved in the fecond with
regard to the firft, and fo of the reft. For inftance,
fuppofe the firft horizontal rank filled with the feven
numbers in their natural order, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 y
the fecond horizontal rank may either commence with
3, with 4, with 5, or wfith 6 : but in this inftance it
commences with 3 5 the third rank therefore muft com¬
mence with 5, the fourth wfith
7, the fifth with 2, the fixth
with 4, and the feventh with 6.
The commencement of the ranks
which follow the firft being thus
determined, the other numbers,
as we have already oblerved,
muft be written down in the or¬
der wherein they ftand in the
firft, going on to 5, 6, and 7,    •
and returning to 1,2, &c. till
every number in the firfFrank be found in every rank
underneath, according to the order arbitrarily pitched
upon at firft. By this means it is evident, that no
number whatever can be repeated twfice in the fame
rank y and by confequence, that the feven numbers x,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, being in each rank, muft of neceffity
make the fame fum.
It appears, from this example, that the arrangement
of the numbers in the firft rank being chofen at plea-
fure, the other ranks may be continued in four differ¬
ent manners : and fince the firft rank may have 504®
different arrangements, there are no lefs than 20,160
different manners of conftru&ing the magic fquare of
feven numbers repeated.
Magic
Square.
J
The order of the numbers in the firft rank being de¬
termined y if in beginning with the fecond rank, the
fecond number 2, or the laft number 7, ftiould be pitch¬
ed upon in one of thefe cafes, and repeated y and in
the other cafe, the other diagonal would be falfe un-
lefs the number repeated feven times Ihould happen
to be 4 y for four times feven is equal to the fum of
T, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7: and in general, in every fquare
confiding of an unequal number of terms, in arithme¬
tical progreffion, one of the diagonals W’ould be falfe
according to thofe two conftruftions, unlefs the term
always repeated in that diagonal were the middle term
of the progreffipn. It is not, however, at all necef-
fary to take the terms in an arithmetical progreffion y
for, according to this method, one may conftru61 a
magic fquare of any numbers at pleafure, whether
they be according to any certain progreffion or not.
If they be in an arithmetical progreffion, it will be
proper, out of the general method, to except thofe
Y y 2 tw*
Mag [3
Magic two conftru&ions which produce a continual repetition
of the fame term in one of the two diagonals, and on¬
ly to take in the cafe wherein that repetition would
prevent the diagonal from being juft j which cafe be¬
ing abfolutely dilregarded when we computed that the
fquare of 7 might have 20,160 different conftru&ions,
it is evident that by taking that cafe in, it mull have
vaftly more.
1 o begin the fecond rank with any other number
befides the fecond and the laft, mufl not, however, be
looked on as an univerfal rule : it holds good for the
fquare of 7 j but if the fquare of 9, for inltance, were
to be conitructed, and the fourth figure of the firlf
horizontal rank were pitched on for the firft of the
fecond, the confequence would be, that the fifth and
eighth horizontal ranks would likewife commence
w.th the lame number, which would therefore be re¬
peated three times in the fame vertical rank, and oc-
cafion other repetitions in all the reft. The general
rule, therefore, muft be conceived thus : Let the
number in the firft rank pitched on, for the commence¬
ment of the fecond, have fuch an exponent of its
quota; that is, let the order of its place be fuch, as that
if an unit be taken from it, the remainder will not be
any juft quota part of the root of the fquare ; that is,
cannot divide it equally. If, for example, in the fquare
of 7, the third number of the firft horizontal rank be
pitched on for the firft of the fecond, fuch conftruc-
tion will be juft j becaufe the exponent of the place
of that number, viz. 3, fubtra&ing 1, that is, 2 can¬
not divide 7. Thus alfo might the fourth number of
the fame firft rank be chofen, becaufe 4—1, viz. 3,
cannot divide 7 j and, for the fame reafon, the fifth
or fixth number might be taken : but in the fquare of
9, the fourth number of the firft rank muft not be ta¬
ken, becaufe 4—1, viz. 3, does divide 9. The rea¬
fon of this rule will appear very evidently, by confi-
dering in what manner the returns of the fame num¬
bers do or do not happen, taking them always in the
fame manner in any given feries. And hence it fol¬
lows, that the fewer divifions the root of any fquare
to be conftrufted has, the more different manners of
conffrudling it there are j and that the prime numbers,
i. e. thofe which have no divifions, as 5, 7, 11, 13,
&c. are thole whofe fquares will admit of the moft va¬
riations in proportion to their quantities.
The fquares conftru&ed according to this method
have fome particular properties not required in the
problem ; for the numbers that compofe any rank pa¬
rallel to one of the two diagonals, are ranged in the
fame order with the numbers that compofe the diago¬
nal to which they are parallel. And as any rank pa¬
rallel to a diagonal muft neceffarily be fhorter, and
have fewer cells than the diagonal itfelf, by adding
to it the correfpondent parallel,
which has the number of cells
by which the other falls Ihort of
the diagonal, the numbers of
thofe two parallels, placed as it
were end to end, ftill follow the
fame order with thofe of the
diagonal: befides that their funs
are likewife equal j fo that they
are magical on another account.
Inftead of the fquares which we
Firjl Primitive.
.All we have hitherto faid regards only the firft pri¬
mitive fquare, whofe numbers, in the "propofed ex¬
ample, were, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 75 here ftill remains the
fecond primitive, w’hofe num¬
bers are, o, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35,
42. M. de la Iffire proceeds
in the fame manner here as in
the former j and this may like¬
wife be conftrutfted in 20,160
different manners, as contain¬
ing the fame number of terms
with the firft. Its conftrudlion
being made, and of confequence
all its ranks making the fame
fum, it is evident, that if we
bring the two into one, by adding together the num¬
bers of the two correfponding cells of the two fquares,
that is, the two numbers of the firft of each, the two
numbers of the fecond, of the third, &.c. and difpofe
them in the 49 correfponding cells of a third fquare, it
will likewife be magical in regard to its rank, formed
by the addition of equal fums to equal fums, which muft
of neceftlty be equal among themfelves. All that re¬
mains in doubt is, whether or no, by the addition of
the correfponding cells of the two firft fquares, all the
cells of the third will be filled in fuch manner, as
that each not only contains one of the numbers of
the progreflion from 1 to 49, but alfo that this num¬
ber be different from any of the reft, which is the end
and defign of the whole operation.
As to this it muft be obferved, that if in the con-
ftrudftion of the fecond primitive fquare care has been
taken, in the commencement of the fecond horizontal
rank, to obferve an order with regard to the firft, diffe¬
rent from what was obferved in the conftruction of
the firft fquare j for inflance, if
the fecond rank of the firft fquare
began with the third term of the
firft rank, and the fecond rank
of the fecond fquare commence
with the fourth of the firft rank,
as in the example it a&ually
does j each number of the firft
fquare may be combined once,
and only once, by addition with
all the numbers of the fecond.
And as the numbers of the firft
are here 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and thofe of the fecond,
O, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42; by combining them in this
manner we have all the numbers in the progreflion from
1 to 49, wuthout having any of them repeated 5 which
is the perfe<ft magic fquare propofed.
The neceflity of conftrufting the twro primitive
fquares in a different manner does not at all hinder but
that each of the 20,160 conftru&ions of the one may
be combined with all the 20,160 conftnnftions of the
other: of confequence, therefore, 20,160 multiplied
by itfelf, which makes 406,425,600, is the number of
different conftru£tions that may be made of the per-
fe£t fquare, wdiich here confifts of the 49 numbers of
the natural progreflion. But as we have already ob¬
ferved, that a primitive fquare of fcven numbers re¬
peated
Second Primitive.
_jo!_7 i4_2ij28i35|42
28 35
42!_o;_7 14'2^128 35
35:43 ^|j7|M!i£!28
7;i4iilA35i43!_o
42l °! tIA21
28!35
MAG [3;
Magic peated may have above 20,160 fevcral conftruitior s,
Square. t}ie number 406,425,600 mud come vaftly ihort of ex-
preiTmg all the poflible conitrudions of a perfedf magic
fquare of the 49 firfl: numbers.
As to the even fquares, he condruds them like the
uneven ones, by two primitive fquares ; but the con-
llrudion of primitives is different in general, and may
be fo a great number of ways : and thofe general dif¬
ferences admit of a great number of particular varia¬
tions, which give as many different conitrudions of
the fame even fquare. It fcarce feems poffible to de¬
termine exadly, either how many general differences
there may be between the conltrudtion of the primitive
fquares of an even fquare and an uneven one, nor how
many particular variations each general difference may
admit of; and, of confequence, w’e are (till far from
being able to determine the number of different con¬
itrudions of all thofe that may be made by the primi¬
tive fquares.
The ingenious Dr Franklin feems to have carried
this curious fpeculation farther than any of his prede-
cetfbrs in the fame wray. He has conffruded not only
a magic fquare of fquares, but likewife a magic circle
of circles, of which we lhall give fome account for
the amufement of our readers. The magic fquare of
fquares is formed by dividing the great fquare, as in
Plate CCXCVIII. The great fquare is divided into
256 fmall fquares, in which all the numbers from I
to 256 are placed in 16 columns, wdiich may be taken
either horizontally or vertically. The properties are as
follow :
1. The fum of the 16 numbers in each column, ver¬
tical and horizontal, is 2056.
2. Every half column, vertical and horizontal, makes
1028, or half of 2056.
3. Half a diagonal afcending added to half a dia¬
gonal defcending, makes 2056 taking thefe half dia¬
gonals from the ^ids of any fide of the fquare to the
middle thereof 5 and fo reckoning them either upward
or dowmward, or lidewife from left to right hand, or
from right to left.
4. The fame, w ith all the parallels to the half dia¬
gonals, as many as can be drawm in the great fquare *,
for any tw7o of them being direded upward and down-
w7ard, from the place where they begin to that where
they end, their fums wall make 2056. The fame
dowmward and upward in like manner : or all the fame
if taken fidewufe to the middle, and back to the fame
fide again. N. B. One fet of thefe half diagonals and
their parallels is drawn in the fame fquare upward and
downward. Another fuch fet may be drawn from
any of the other three fides.
5. The four corner numbers in the great fquare,
added to the four central numbers therein, make 1028;
equal to the half fum of any vertical or horizontal co¬
lumn which contains 16 numbers 5 and equal to half a
diagonal or its parallel.
6. If a fquare hole (equal in breadth to four of
the little fquares) be cut in a paper, through which
any of the 16 little ,fquares in the great fquare may be
feen, and the paper be laid on the great fquare, the
7 ] MAG
ium oi all the ] 6 numbers, feen through the hole, is Magic
equal to the fum of the 1 6 numbers in any horizontal Scl'uue•
or vertical column, viz. to 2o<;6.
The magic circle of circles, Plate CCXCVIII. is com-
pofed of a feries of numbers from 12 to 75 inclufive, di¬
vided into eight concentric circular fpaces, and ranged in
eight radii of numbers, with the number 1 2 in the cen¬
tre ; which number, like the centre, is common to all
thefe circular fpaces, and to all the radii.
The numbers are fo placed, that the fum of all thofe
in either of the, concentric circular fpaces above men¬
tioned, together with the central number 12, make 360 j
equal to the number of degrees in a circle.
The numbers in each radius alfo, together w7ith the
central number 12, make juft 360.
The numbers in half of any of the above circular
fpaces, taken either above or below' the double hori¬
zontal line, with half the central number 12, make
180 ; equal to the number of degrees in a femicircle.
If any four adjoining numbers be taken, as if in a
fquare, in the radial divifions of thefe circular fpaces,
the fum of thefe, with half the central number, makes
180.
There are, moreover, included, four fets of other
circular fpaces, bounded by circles which are eccentric
with refpedt to the common centre •, each of thefe fets
containing five fpaces. The centres of the circles
which bound them are at A, B, C, and D. The fet
whofe centre is at A is bounded by dotted lines j the
fet whole centre is at C is bounded by lines of Ihort
unconnefted ftrokes 5 and the fet round D is bounded
by lines of unconnedted longer ftrokes, to diftinguifli
them from one other. In drawing this figure by
hand, the fet of concentric circles Ihould be drawm
with black ink, and the four different fets of eccentric
circles with four kinds of ink of different colours as
blue, red, yellow7, and green, for diilinguiftiing them
readily from one another. Thefe fets of eccentric cir¬
cular fpaces interfedl thofe of the concentric, and each
other ; and yet the numbers contained in each of the
eccentric fpaces, taken all around through any of the
20 w7hich are eccentric, make the fame fum as thofe in
the concentric, namely 360, when the central number
12 is added. Their halves alfo, taken above or below
the double horizontal line, with half the central num¬
ber, make 180.
Obferve, that there is not one of the numbers but
what belongs at leaft to two of the circular fpaces,
fome to three, fome to four, fome to five ; and yet they
are all fo placed as never to break the required number
360 in any of the 28 circular fpaces within the primi¬
tive circle.
To bring thefe matters in view, all the numbers as
above mentioned are taken out, and placed in feparate
columns as they ftand around both the concentric and
eccentric circular fpaces, always beginning with the
outermoft and ending with the innermoft of each fet,
and alfo the numbers as they ftand in the eight radii,
from the circumference to the centre : the common
central number 12 being placed the loweft in each co= -
lumn.
I.
Marie
Square.
MAG [ 35
I. In the eight concentric circular fpaces.
3 ]
M A G
14
3°
41
46
57
62
73
12
360 '360
72
63
56
47
40
31
24
12
23
16
39
32
55
48
71
64
12
65
70
49
54
33
38
J7
22
12
J4
72
23
65
31
67
12
74
12
25
63
16
70
18
68
27
61
12
360 '360
2. In the
41
21
18
37
34
53
50
69
66
12
67
68
51
52
35
36
19
20
12
3°
56
39
49
37
51
28
58
12
47
32
54
34
52
43
45
12
360 360
eight radii.
' 57
31
12
27
28
43
44
59
60
75
12
360 360
74
61
58
45
42
29
26
!3
12
46
40
55
33
53
35
44
42
12
38
5°
36
59
29
12
62
24
71
17
69
19
60
26
12
73
1S
64
22
66
20
75
r3
12
360 360 360 360 360 360 360 360
3. -In the five eccentric circular fpaces whofe centre is
at A.
23
70
37
52
35
5°
17
64
12
63
39
54
33
48
24
73
12
72
16
49
34
53
38
71
!5
12
85
18
51
43
44
3 6
69
2 2
12
21
68
28
45
42
59
T9
66
12
360 1360 360 360 360
4. In the five eccentric circular fpaces whofe centre is
3°
47
55
38
J7
64
72
25
12
56
32
33
5°
69
22
23
63
12
at B.
39
54
53
36
19
66
65
16
49
34
35
59
60
20
21
70
12
37
52
44
29
26
75
67
18
360 360 360 360 1360
5. In the five eccentric circular fpaces whofe centre is
46
31
71
22
65
16
56
41
1 2
at C.
40 I 55
48 I 38
17 | 69
66
21
70
20
67
18
39 49
47 S2
12 i 12
360 i:36o ^60 360
33
5°
J9
75
12
68
37
54
12
53
3 6
60
T3
74
27
5i
34
12
360
• • • Magic
6. In the five eccentric circular fpaces whofe centre is Lantern
at D.
62
J5
24
70
49
S2
40
57
12
24
64
65
18
37
54
55
31
12
71
22
21
68
51
34
33
48
12
J7
66
67
27
28
52
53
38
12
69
20
12
61
58
43
35
5°
12
Magiia-
bechi.
360 360 360 360 .360
If, now, we take any four numbers, in .
a fquare form, either from N° 1. or N0 2, 1 ^ |
(we fuppofe from N° 1.) as in the margin, I ^3
and add half the central number 12 to them,
the fum will be 180 j equal to half the numbers in any
circular^fpace taken above or below the double hori¬
zontal line, and equal to the number of degrees in a fe-
micircle. Thus, 14, 72, 25, 63, and 6, make 180.
Mjgic Lantern. See Dioptrics, art. x.
MAGICIAN, one who pradlifes magic, or hath
the power of doing wonderful feats by the agency of
fpirits.
Among the eaftern nations it feems to have been
formerly common for the princes to have magicians
about their court to confer with upon extraordinary oc-
cafions. And concerning thefe there hath been much
difputation : fome fuppofing that their power was on¬
ly feigned, and that they were no other than impoftors
who impofed on the credulity of their fovereigns ;
while others have thought that they really had fome
unknown connexion or correfpondence with evil fpirits,
and could by their means accomplilh what otherwife
would have been impolfible for mep. See the article
Magic.
MAGINDANAO, or Mindanao. See Min¬
danao.
MAGISTERY, an old term in chemiftry, given to
precipitates. Thus, magiftenj and precipitate are fyno-
nymous ; formerly precipitate was a general term, and
magijiery applied to particular precipitates, fuch as the
magiftery of bifmuth, &c. See Bismuth, Chemistry
Index.
MAGISTRATE, any public officer to whom the
executive power of the law is committed either wholly
or in part.
MAGLIABECHI, Antony, a perfon of great
learning, and remarkable for an amazing memory, wrss
born at Florence in 1633. His father died when he
was only feven years old. His mother had him taught
grammar and drawing, and then put him apprentice
to one of the belt goldfmiths in Florence. When he
was about 16 years old, his paffion for learning began
to appear j and he laid out all his money in buy¬
ing books. Becoming acquainted with Michael Er-
mini, librarian to the cardinal de Medicis, he foon per-
fefted himfelf by his affiftance in the Latin .tongue,
and in a little time became mafter of the Hebrew.
His name toon became famous among the learned. A
prodigious memory was his diftinguiffiing talent ; and
he retained not only the fenfe of what he had read,
1 but
MAG [ 359 ] M A G
Ma'glia- but frequently all the words and the very manner of
bechi fpelling. It is faid that a gentleman, to make trial
II of the force of his memory, lent him a manufcript he
nimity." was going to print. Some time after it was returned,
 v—■ i < the gentleman, coming to him with a melancholy
countenance, pretended it wTas loft, and requefted Ma-
gliabechi to recoiled! what he remembered of it j up¬
on which he wrote the whole, without mifling a word.
He generally (hut himfelf up the w’hole day, and open¬
ed his doors in the evening to the men of letters who
came to converfe wdth him. His attention w7as fo ab-
forbed by his ftudies, that he often forgot the moft
urgent wants of nature. Cofmo III. grand duke of
Florence, made him his librarian } but he ftill conti¬
nued negligent in his drefs, and fimple in his manners.
An old cloak ferved him for a morning gowm in the
day and for bed-clothes at night. U he duke, however,
provided for him a commodious apartment in his pa¬
lace, which he was with difficulty perfuaded to take
poffeffion of; but which he quitted four months after,
and returned to his houfe. He was remarkable for his
extraordinary modefty, his fincerity, and his benefi¬
cence, which his friends often experienced in their
wants. He was a patron of men of learning ", and had
the higheft pleafure in affifting them with his advice
and information, and in furnilhing them wTith books
and manufcripts. He had the utmoft averfion at any
thing that looked like conftraint; and therefore the
grand duke always difpenfed with his perfonal attend¬
ance, and fent him his orders in writing. Though he
lived a very fedentary life, he reached the Sift year of
his age ; and died in the midft of the public applaufe,
r after enjoying, during the latter part of his lite, luch
affluence as few have ever procured by their learning.
By his will, he left a very fine library to the public,
with a fund for its fupport.
MAGLOIRE, St, a native of Wales in Great
Britain, and coufin german to St Sampfon and St Mal-
lo- He embraced a monaftic life, and w7ent into France,
where he w7as made abbot of Dol, and after that a pro¬
vincial bifflop in Britanny. He afterwards founded a
monaftery in the ifiand of Jet fey, wdiere he died on the
14th of Ocleber 575, about the age of 80. His re¬
mains were tranfported to the fuburb of St Jacques,
and depoiited in a monaflery of Benedidtines, wffiich
was ceded to the fathers of the oratory in 1628. It
is now the fen inary of St Magloire, celebrated on ac¬
count of the learned men whom it has produced—
This faint cultivated poetry with confiderable fuccefs :
the hymn wfflich is lung at the feaft of All Saints
was compofed by him $ Ccelo quos eadem gloria confe-
crat, &c.
M AGNA assisa ELIGENDA, is a writ anciently
diredled to the Iheriff for fummoning four lawftul
knights before the juttices of aflize, in order to choofe
12 knights of the neighbourhood, &c. to pafs upon
the great affize between fuch a perfon plaintiff and
fuch a one defendant.
Mjgna Charta. See Charta.
MAGNANIMITY, denotes greatnefs of mind,
particularly in circumftances of trial and adverfity.—
^Hilio 'r’5 ^ ^as keen ju% obferved of it, that it is the good
u ruler "the ^enl'e Pr"lde, and the nobleft way of acquiring ap-
wortl. plaufe. It renders the foul fuperior to the trouble,
diforder, and emotion, which the appearance of great
danger might excite ; and it is by this quality that Magna-
heroes maintain their tranquillity, and preferve the, nimity.
free ufe of their reafon, in the moft furprifing and v
dreadful accidents. It admires the fame quality in its
enemy ; and fame, glory, conquefts, defire of opportu¬
nities to pardon and oblige their oppofers, are what
glow in the minds of the brave. Magnanimity and
courage are infeparable.
1. The inhabitants of Privernum being fubdued and
taken prifoners after a revolt, one of them being alk-
ed by a Roman fenator, who was for putting them all
to death, what punifhment he and his fellow captives
deferved ? anfwered with great intrepidity, “ We de-
ferve that punifhment which is due to men wffio are
jealous of their liberty, and think themfelves worthy
of it.” Plautinus perceiving that his anfwer exafpe-
rated fome of the fenators, endeavoured to prevent
the ill effedls of it, by putting a milder queftion to
the prifoner: How would you behave (fays he) if
Rome fhould pardon you ?” “ Our conduct (replied
the generous captive) depends upon yours. If the
peace you grant be an honourable one, you may de¬
pend on a conftant‘fidelity on our parts : if the terms
of it be hard and dilhonourable, lay no ftrefs on our
adherence to you.” Some of the judges conftrued
thefe words as menaces", but the wifer part finding
in them a great deal of magnanimity, cried out, that
a nation whofe only defire w’as liberty, and their only
fear that of lofing it, w7as wmrthy to become Roman.
Accordingly, a decree paffed in favour of the prifon¬
ers, and Privernum was declared a municipium. Thus
the bold fincerity of one man faved his country, and
gained it the privilege of being incorporated into the
Roman ftate.
2. Subrius Flavius, the Roman tribune, being im¬
peached for having confpired againft the life of the
emperor Nero, not only owned the charge, but glori¬
ed in it. Upon the emperor’s afkmg him what pro¬
vocation he had given him to plot his death. Be-
caufe I abhorred thee (faid Flavius), though there was
not in the w’hole army one more zealoufly attached to
thee than I, fo long as thou didft merit affeblion ; but
1 began to hate thee when thou becameft the murderer
of thy mother, the murderer of thy brother and wife,
a charioteer, a comedian, an incendiary, and a tyrant.”
Tacitus tells us, that the whole confpiracy afforded no¬
thing which proved fo bitter and pungent ta Nero as
this reproach. He ordered Flavius to be immediately
put to death, wffiich he fuffered with amazing intrepidity.
When the executioner defired him to ftretch out his
neck valiantly, “ I wiffl (replied he) thou mayeft ftrike
as valiantly.”
3. When the Scythian ambaffadors waited on Alex¬
ander the Great, they gazed attentively upon him for
a long time without fpeaking a word, being very pro¬
bably furprifed, as they formed a judgement of men
from their air and ftature, to find that his did not an¬
fwer the high idea they entertained of him from his
fame. At laft, the oldeft of the ambafihdors (accord-
ing to Q. Curtius) addreffed him thus! “ Had the
gods given thee a body proportionable to thy ambition,
the wffiole univerfe would have been too little for thee.
With one hand thou wouldft touch the eaft, and
with the other the weft j and, not (atisfied with this,
thou wouldft follow the fun, and know where he hides
himfelf.
Magna¬
nimity.
Hr,pin's
Hi ft. aim.
is.99.
MAG [
Itimfelf. But what have we to do with thee ? we ne-
. ver fet foot in thy country. May not thofe who in¬
habit woods be allowed to live, without knowing who
thou art, and whence thou comeft ? We will neither
command over, nor fubmit to, any man. And that
thou mayeft be fenfible what kind of people the Scy¬
thians are, know, that we received from heaven as a
rich prefent, a yoke of oxen, a ploughfhare, a dart, a
javelin, and a cup. Thefe we make ufe of, both with
our friends and againft our enemies. To our friends
we give corn, which we procure by the labour of our
oxen ; with them we offer wine to the gods in our
cup ; and with regard to our enemies, we combat them
at a diftance with our arrows, and near at hand with
our javelins. But thou, who boaftelt thy coming to
extirpate robbers, thou thyfelf art the greateft robber
upon earth. Thou haft plundered ail nations thou
overcameft ; thou haft pofieffed thyfelf of Lydia, in¬
vaded Syria, Perfia, and Ba&riana $ thou art forming
a defign to march as far as India 5 and now thou com¬
eft hither to feize upon our herds of cattle. The great
poffeftions thou haft, only make thee covet more eager¬
ly what thou haft not. If thou art a god, thou oughteft
to do good to mortals, and not deprive them of their
pefieftions. If thou art a mere man, refledft always on
what thou art. They whom thou flialt not moleft will
be thy true friends, the ftrongeft friendlhips being con-
tradled between equals j and they are efteemed equals
who have not tried their ftrength againft each other j
but do not imagine that thofe whom thou conquereft
can love thee.”
4. Richard I. king of England, having invefted the
caftle of Chalus, was Ihot in the fhoulder with an ar¬
row j an unfkilful furgeon endeavouring to extraft the
weapon, mangled the flefti in fuch a manner, that a
gangrene enfued. The caftle being taken, and per¬
ceiving he fhould not live, he ordered Bertram de
Gourdon, who had (hot the arrow, to be brought in¬
to his prefence. Bertram being come, “fc\Vhat harm
(faid the king) did I ever do thee, that thou
ftrouldft kill me ?” The other replied with great mag¬
nanimity and courage, “ You killed with your own
hand my father and two of my brothers, and you
likewife defigned to have killed me. You may now
fatiate your revenge. I fhould cheerfully fuffer all
the torments that can be infli&ed, were I fure of hav¬
ing delivered the world of a tyrant who filled it wuth
blood and carnage.” This bold and fpirited anfwer
ftruck Richard with remorfe. He ordered the pri-
foner to be prefented with one hundred {hillings, and
fet at liberty: but Maccardec, one of the king’s
friends, like a true ruffian, ordered him to be flayed
alive.
5. The following modern inftance is extra&ed
from a French work entitled, Ecole hijlorique et mo¬
rale du foldat, &c. A mine, underneath one of the
outworks of a citadel, was intruded to the charge of
a ferjeant and a few' ibldiers of the Piedmontefe
guards. Several companies of the enemy’s troops had
made themfelves mafters of this work •, and the lofs of
the place would probably foon have followed had they
maintained their poft in it. The mine was charged,
and a Angle fpark would blow them all into the air.
The ferjeant, with the greateft coclnefs, ordered the
foldiers to retire, defining them to requeft the king to
1
560 ] MAG
take care of his w-ife and children \ ftruck fire, fet
a match to the train, and facrificed himfelf for his
country. v
MAGNESA, or Magnesia, in Ancient Geography,
a town or a diftriit of Theflaly, at the foot of Mount Pe-
lius, called by Philip, the fon of Demetrius, one of the
three keys of Greece, (Paufanias.)
MAGNESIA, or Magnesia alba, in Chemijlry,
a peculiar kind of earth. See Chemistry Index.
Black Magnesia. See Manganese, Chemistry
and Mineralogy Index,
Magnesia, in Ancient Geography, a maritime
diftrift of Theffaly, lying between the fouth part of the
Sinus Thermaicus and the Pegafaeus to the fouth, and
to the call of the Pelafgiotis. Magnates, the people.
Magnejius and MagneJJus, the epithet; (Horace).
Magnesia, a town of Alia Minor on the Mean¬
der, about 15 miles from Ephefius. Themiftocles died
there : it w7as one of the three towns given him by
Artaxerxes, with thefe words, “ to furnifh his table
with bread.” It is alfo celebrated for a battle wkich
wTas fought there, 190 years before the Chriftian era,
between the Romans and Antiochus king of Syria.
The forces of Antiochus amounted to 70,000 men ac¬
cording to Appian, or 70,000 foot and 12,000 horfe
according to Livy, which has been exaggerated by
Floras to 300,000 men ; the Roman army confifted
of about 28,000 or 30,000 men, 2000 of whom w'ere
employed in guarding the camp. The Syrians loft
50,000 foot and 4000 horfe $ and the Romans only
300 killed, with 25 horfe. It w'as founded by a co¬
lony from Magnefia in Theffaly ; and w'as commonly
called Magnejia ad Mceandrum, to diftinguifti it from
another called Magnejia ad Sipylum in Lydia at the
foot of Mount Sipylus.
Magnesia ad Sipylum, anciently Tantalis, the refi-
dence of Tantalus, and capital of Mteonia, wkere now
ftands the lake Sale. A town of Lydia, at the foot
of Mount Sipylus, to the eaft of the Hermus; adjud¬
ged free under the Romans* It was deftroyed by an
earthquake in the reign of Tiberius.
MAGNET (Magnes) the Loadstone: a fpecies
of iron ore. See Magnetism, and Mineralogy
Index.
The magnet is alfo called Lapis Heracleus, from
Heraclea, a city of Magnefia, a port of the ancient
Lydia, where it is faid to have been firft found, and
from which it is ufually fuppofed to have taken its
name. Though others derive the word from a fhep-
herd named Magnes, wflio firft difeovered it with the
iron of his crook on Mount Ida. It is alfo called
Lapis Nauticus, from its ufe in navigation ; and fide-
rites, from its attradling iron, which the Greeks call
<r<^ng«s.
The ancients reckoned five kinds of magnets, differ¬
ent in colour and virtue the Ethiopic, Magnefian,
Boeotic, Alexandrian, and Natolian. They alfo took
it to be male and female : but the chief ufe they made
of it was in medicine ; efpecially for the cure of burns
and defluxions on the eyes.—The moderns, more for¬
tunate in its application, employ it to conduft them iu
their voyages. See Navigation.
The moft diftinguiihing properties of the magnet are.
That it attracts iron, and that it points to the poles of
the world ; and in other circumftanccs alfo dips or in¬
clines
Magnefa
li
Magnet.
MAG
Magnet clmes to a point beneath the horizon, dire&ly under the
pol ; and that it communicates thefe properties, by
touch, to iron. On which foundation are built the ma¬
riner’s needles, both horizontal and inclinatory.
AttraSlive Power of the Magnet was known to the
ancients , and is mentioned even by Plato and Euri-
/ pides, who call it the Herculean fane, becaufe it com¬
mands iron, which fubdues every thing elfe : but the
knowledge of its directive power, whereby it difpofes
it^ poles along the meridian of every place, and occa-
lions needles, pieces of iron, &c. touched with it, to
point nearly north and fouth, is of a much later date j
though the exadt time of its difcovery, and the difco-
verer himfelf, are yet in the dark. The firft mention we
have of it is in i 260, when Marco Polo the Venetian
is faid by fome to have introduced the mariner’s compafs j
though not as an invention of his owm, but as derived
from the Chinefe, who are faid to have had the ufe of
it long before j though fome imagine that the Chinefe
rather borrowed it from the Europeans.
Flavio de Gioia, a Neapolitan, who lived in the 13th
M A G N
MAG
century, is the perfon ufually fuppofed to have the beft Magnefej
title to the difcovery j and yet Sir G. Wheeler men-
tions, that he had feen a book of aftronomy much old- t
er, which fuppofed the ufe of the needle j though
not as applied to the ufes of navigation, but of aflro-
nomy. And in Guyot de Provins, an old French
poet, who wrote about the year 1180, there is ex-
prefs mention made of the loadlfone and the com¬
pafs, and their ufe in navigation obliquely hinted at.
The Variation of the Magnet, or its declination,
from the pole, was firit dilcovered by Seb. Cabot, a
Venetian, in 1500 j and the variation of that varia¬
tion, by Mr Gellibrand, an Englilhman, about the
year 1625. See Variation.
Laftly, The dip or inclination of the needle, when
at liberty to play vertically, to a point beneath the ho¬
rizon, w?as firfi difcovered by another of our country¬
men, Mr R. Norman, about the year 1576. Seethe
article Dipping Needle.
MAGNETTCAL needle. See Needle, Magnetic
cal.
E T I S M.
1 3^r ]
INTRODUCTION.
General Principles.
General i- TF the mineral body called magnet or loadjlone (an
dea of mag- J- ore of iron which will be defcribed under MlNERALO-
aetifm. gy) is brought within a moderate diftance from a piece
of iron or Heel, or other ferruginous body, fuch as a imall
key, a fewing needle, or the like, the ferruginous body
will approach the magnet j and if no obftacle inter¬
vene, wull come in contact with it, and the two bodies
will adhere together, fo as to require an evident force
a to feparate them from each other.
Magnetic Again, if a magnet be freely balanced, fo that it
polarity or be left at liberty to aflume any direflion, as if be fuf-
diretftive pended by a thread, or made to float on the furface of
power. water by placing it on a piece of cork or wood, it wrill
foon fettle itfelf in one particular direction, fo as to
turn one part of its furface towards the northern point
of the horizon, and the oppolite part of courfe towards
the fouthern point. Thefe two parts of the furface of
the magnet are called its north and fouth poles $ this
property of the magnet, of afluming this particular di¬
rection, is called its polarity, or its direclivc power;
and when a magnet is placed fo as to arrange itfelf in
^ fuch a direction, it is faid to traverfe.
Declination The direction in which a fufpended magnet finally
of the mag-fettles is called the magnetic meridian, and it is differ¬
ent in different places, and at different times. It is ge¬
nerally, however, very different from the real meridian
line, fo that the north pole of a magnet declines a little
to the eaft or weft, and the fouth pole to the weft or
eaft. The difference of the magnetic from the aftrono-
mical meridian, is called the declination, or variation of
the magnet ; and the declination is faid to be eaft or
weft, according as the north pole of the magnet verges
to the one or the other of thefe points.
If an oblong magnet be fufpended on a pivot by its
Vol. XII. Part I.
centre of gravity, it does not fettle in a perfectly hori-Dipping of
zontal pofition, but one of its poles is depreffed belowtlie maSnet*
the horizontal line, and the other elevated as far above
it, making an angle with the horizon that is alfo dif¬
ferent on different parts of the earth’s furface. This
depreflion of one of the poles is called the dipping of
the magnet.
If two magnets that are each freely fufpended, be 5
brought within a moderate diftance from each other, fo
that the north pole of the one is oppofed to the fouth
pole of the other, they will attraCl each other ; and if
no obftacle intervene, will rufh together : but if the
two north poles, or the turn fouth poles, be mutually
oppofed, the magnets will repel each other.
Such are the leading properties of what is called the d
natural magnet; but what is of more importance, as
we lhall fee hereafter, any piece of iron or fteel may,
by being rubbed with a natural magnet, or by fome
other proceffes to be afterwards explained, be made to
acquire the fame properties, and thus in every ufeful
refpeCt ferve the fame purpofes as the natural magnet.
Thefe pieces of iron or fteel thus magnetifed, are called
artificial magnets; and when they are of a flender,
oblong form, they are termed magnetic needles. When
afterwards we fpeak of the polarity, the declination, or
the dipping of the magnetic needle, we would be un-
derftood as alluding to thefe flender, oblong, artificial
magnets.
A ftraight line joining the two poles of a magnet is^vlnd
called its axis, and a line drawn tranlverfely on the fur- ‘quator of
face of the magnet, perpendicular to the axis, is called a magnet*
the equator. ^
^ 1 he properties of natural and artificial magnets Magnetic
above enumerated, are attributed to the agency of fome power,
unknown force or power, either inherent in the mag¬
net, or imparted to it by the proceffes to which it is
fubjeefed. I his force is fometimes called magnetifm,
but we (hall for tne prefent denominate it the magnetic
Z z power.
362
General power, reftri£ting tlie term magnetifm to the fcience
Principles. iHuftrates and attempts to explain the pheno-
^ ' mena.
Utility of The molt important property of the magnet is its po-
jnagnetifm. larity, as it is by means of this that the mariner is ena¬
bled, to find his way along the tracklefs ocean, where,
before the difeovery of this important property, he had
no other guide but the ftars, and could therefore fel-
dom venture far from the coaft. It is by this proper¬
ty too, that the miner is enabled to purfue a direct
courfe through the bowels of the earth, or the traveller
direct his Heps through immenfe forefts, or over Tandy
deferts. The ufes of the magnet are therefore obvious
and important, and the fcience w'hich places thefe ufes
in the beft point of view, and thus enables us to turn
them to the greateft advantage, is well deferving our
attention. Many of the fafts to be related under this
article are highly curious, and form a pleafing addition
to thofe fcientific amufements which are fo well calcu¬
lated to excite the attention of beginners in the fludy
I0 of experimental philofophy.
Works on It is unneceflary for us to attempt giving here a hif-
.rr.agnetifm. tory of the origin and progrefsof our knowdedge in mag-
netilm. To a general reader, it would be uninteref-
ting, and to fuch as are better informed, fuperfluous.
We lhall only mention the mod important works that
have appeared on the fubjedl.
Tew7 treatifes^esprefsly on magnetifm have appeared
in fhis country. In the year 1600, Dr Gilbert, a phy-
fician of Colchefter, and the friend of Lord Bacon,
publifhed an excellent work De Magnete et Corporibus
Magveticis, which is ftill perhaps the mod valuable
that we poffefs. Mr Cavallo’s Trcatife on Magnetifm,
fird publidied in 1787, contains a great variety of faffs
and experiments j and a neat compendium of^it is given
in the 3d volume of the fame author’s Elements of Na¬
tural and Experimental Philofophy. Mr Cavallo’s
Treatife, and Mr Adams’s Effay on Magnetifm, form
the fubdance of mod of the compilations on this fubjefl
that have lately appeared.
To thofe wTho wilh to enter minutely on the dudy of
magnetifm, the following lid of foreign publications re¬
commended by the late Profedbr Robifon of Edinburgh
will be acceptable.
AEpini Tentamen Theorioe Magn. et Eleclr.
Eberhard’s Tentam. Theor Magnetifmi, 1720.
Differtations fur 1’ Aimant, par du Fay, 1728.
Mufchenbroek Didert. Phyfico-Experimentalis de
Magnete.
Pieces qui ont emporte la prife de P Acad, des Scien¬
ces a Paris fur la meillure condruftion des Bouffbles de
declination. Recueil des pieces courcnnees, tom. v.
Euleri Opufcula, tom. iii. continens Theoriam Mag-
netis. Berlin, 1751.
JEpini Oratio Academica, 1758.
./Epini item Comment. Petrop. nov. tom. x.
Anton. Brugmanni Tentamen. Phil, de Materia Mag-
netica. Franquerae, 1765.
There is a German tranjlation of this work by Eifen-
bach, with many valuable additions. '
Scarella de Magnete, 2 tom. fol.
Van Swinden fur 1’Analogic entre les phenomenes
Elefhiques et Magnetjques, 3 tom. 8vo.
Diflertation fur les Aimants Artificielles, par Nicho¬
las Fufs, 1782.
Chap. I.
ElTai fur 1’Origine des Forces Magnetlques, par M. Magnetical
Prevod. Apparatus.
Sur les Aimants artificielles par Rivoir. Paris, 1752.' '
Differtatio de Magnetifmo, par Sam. Klingendiern et
Jo. Brander. Holm. 1752.
Defcription des Courants Magnetiques. Strafbourg,
'753*. ,
Trade de 1’Aimant, par Dalance. Arnd. 1687.
Befides the above original works, there are feveral
valuable differtations on magnetifm by Des Cartes*
Bernoulli, Euler, Du Tour, Coulomb, &c. either pub¬
lidied in the mifcellaneous works of thefe authors, or in
the journals and tranfaflions of academies.
We (hall divide this article into three chapters. In
the fird we diall briefly deferibe the principal indru-
ments made ufe of in magnetical experiments ; in the
fecond we fliall endeavour to arrange under didirnT
heads or propefltions, the leading principles of magne¬
tifm, point out how thefe may be illuflrated by experi¬
ment, and explain the conflrudtion and ides of the mag¬
netical apparatus, as they are deducible from the prin¬
ciples laid down •, and in the third w?e (hall notice the
more important theories of magnetifm, and exemplify
the illudration of feme of the preceding faffs by that
theory which we (hall feel mod difpofed to adopt.
Chap. I. Of Magnetical apparatus.
The principal indruments employed in magnetical Magnetical
experiments and obfervations, are reducible to three inftrumeHts.
heads : Fird, Magnets of various kinds and forms j
Secondly, Magnetic needles and cojnpaffcs; and, Third¬
ly, the Dipping needle. Of compaffes we have nothing
tq fay here, having fully treated of them under Com¬
pass. I2
Magnets, as we have faid, are either natural or arti- Magnetn
ficial. The natural magnet may be cut into various
forms, according to the experiments that are to be
made with it. The mod ufual diape is oblong, having
the poles at>the two mod dillant extremities. Dr Gil¬
bert, wdiom we (hall mention more at large hereafter,
made his magnets of a fpherical fhape, fo as to refera¬
ble the terredrial globe. Magnets of this diape are
called terrellce, or little earths, and have ufually mark¬
ed upon their furface the magnetic poles, meridian, and
equator. r3
Natural magnets of an oblong (hape have ufually a Armature
piece of foft iron attached to each pole, called the co«-of magnets.
duElor', and another piece of foft iron placed fo as to
join two of the extremities of the former pieces, and
ufually furnidied with a hook or hole in the middle.
The magnet thus fitted up, as reprefented at fig. 1. is Plate
faid to be armed, and the iron pieces CD, CD, are cal- Aii*
led the armature of the magnet AB. The magnet
with its armature is commonly inclofed in a brafs box,
reprefented in the figure by the dotted lines DC, CC,
CD ; and to the upper part of the box is fixed a ring
E, for holding the magnet.
One of the mod common forms of the artificial mag¬
net is that of an oblong bar, as NS, fig. 2. of which
N is the north pole, and S the fouth, having the north
end marked with a tranfverfe notch. Thefe bars are
made of hardened deel, and are either fold feparately,
or what is more common, in fets of fix in a box.
Another very common form of the artificial magnet
is
MAGNETISM.
Chap.
IT,
T4 .
Magnetic
needle.
Experimcn-is tliat of a liorfe fiioe, lucli .tS fig. 3
tal Uluftra poles N, S, brought near each other, and commonly
Uons. unlted by a piece of foft iron or condu&or. The horfe-
fhoe magnets fometimes confilh only of a fingle crooked
bar ; but they are frequently compofed of feveral fuch
bars united together by their flat furfaces, and inclofed
in a leathern covering that envelopes all but the poles,
and thus preferves the bars from rufting.
Inftead of the very arched form of which horfe-flioe
magnets are ufually made, they are fometimes conftruft-
ed fo as to form nearly a femicircle, and in this ihape
thev are very convenient for feveral experiments.
Artificial magnets, like the natural, when of an ob¬
long ihape, are fometimes armed at each end, fo as to
enable them to apply both poles to a ferruginous body
at the fame time. One material advantage of the horfe-
flioe magnet is, that in it fuch an armature is unnecef-
lary, as the poles are brought fo near each other as ea-
fily to be applied to the objetl it is propofed to lift, as
a key, &c.
A magnetic needle is an obkmg piece of fteel, tem¬
pered fo as commonly to aflume the blue tinge that is
feen in watch-fprings, and fupported on a brafs point,
lb as, when left at liberty, to arrange itfelf in the mag¬
netic meridian, but in a horizontal pofition. Thcfe
needles are fometimes made pointed at both extremi¬
ties ; fometiines the northern extremity is made in the
form of a crofs ; but perhaps the bell form is that of the
oblong, with extremities that are nearly obtufe, fuch as
is reprefented at fig. 4. To balance the needle on its
pivot, it is furniflied near its middle with a hollow cap,
which is formed of fome fubftance that is not attra&ed
by the magnet. The cap is ufually of brafs *, but for
nice experiments it is fometimes made of agate, as this
latter does not wear fo faft as brafs, and confequerftly
the needle will longer retain its original fufpenfion.
The dipping needle, fig. 5. confifts of an oblong bar
of Heel, A B, balanced between two horizontal flips of
brafs, CD, CD, fo as when magnetifed to form an
angle with the horizon, equal to the dipping of the
needle at the place where the inftrument is made. The
two horizontal flips of brafs ate either fixed to a gra¬
duated femicircle that is fupported on a ft and of wood,
or more commonly they form diameters to a brafs ring
which is graduated on its circumference, and furnifhed
with a ring H, by which it may be held on tnc
linger.
The conftruflion and ufes of thefe inftruments will be
fully explained in the next chapter; our only, object
here being to bring the reader acquainted with the
•names and general form of the inftruments that are
made ufe of in the experiments which we are about to
deferibe, for illuftrating the principles of magnetifm.
Several fmaller articles will be required by the expe-
rirocntalift : but thefe are eafily procured, and need no
particular defeription. Such are a number of fewitig
needles of various fizes, foft iron bars, pieces of iron
wire, fmall iron balls, iron filings, occ.
Chap. II. Experimental Illujlrations of the Principles
of Magnetifm.
Sect. I. Of Magnetical'Polarity.
We have dated (N° 3.) that wheh a magnet is fuf-
MAGNETISM. At
having the two pended at perfeft freedom, it affumes a certain determi- I-ypennicn
»5
Dipping
needle.
nate pofition with refpefl to the aftronomical meridian.tl- ra
This is but a particular cafe of a much more general
fa£t, which may be expreffed by the following propofi-
tion. . 16
\i an oblong piece of iron be fo adjufled, a r to be
libertij to take any pojition ; it will afj'ume a certain de aa(|cter_
terminate direction with rejpeci to the axis of the earth, min^te po~
differing according to the place where the experiment is fitioix
made.
Experiment 1 .—Take a moderately fized ftraight iron
rod, as a piece of iron wire about the thicknefs of a
goofe quill, and about eight or ten inches long ; pafs it
through one extremiry of a large wine cork, fo that it
may be at right angles to the axis of the cork, and ad-
juft it in fuch a manner that it may fwim in water in a
horizontal pofition. Now, provide a pretty large
earthen veflel, as a hand bafon or round deep dilh,
nearly filled with water ; and when the water is free
from agitation, cautioufly put in the wire, in fuch a di¬
rection as not to be very far from the north and fouth
line. The iron rod will, after fome time, be found to
have arranged itfelf fo as, in Britain, to form an angle
with the meridian of about 25 degrees. \
This experiment requires fome nicety, and it will
fometimes be long before the iron aflumes its proper po-
fition ; but if due attention be paid to all the particu¬
lars above mentioned, it will at length arrange itfelf in
the magnetic line. It is neceffary that the rod ftiould
be placed not too far from the magnet'c line, as if it be
laid at right angles to that line, it will never acquire
the proper direction. The fituation of the rod in this
experiment is in the true magnetic line, fo far as re-
fpe£ts the meridian \ but, as it is horizontal, it is not
in the pofition that a magnet would afiume, if freely fuf-
pended by its centre of gravity. An iron rod may,
however, be made to take fuch a pofition, as well as a
magnet.
F.xper. 2.—-Inftead of pafiing the iron rod through
the extremity of a cylindrical or conical piece of cork,
let it be paffed through the centre of a fpherical piece
of cork or wood, fo that the centre of gravity may
coincide with the centre of the fpbere, and let the
whole be of fuch a fpecific gravity as to remain fufpend-
ed in any part of the water, without afeending or def-
cending. If the iron rod thus fitted be placed as in the
laft experiment, it will at length arrange itfelf in the
true magnetic direflion, fo as to make an angle of
about 25 degrees with the meridian, and with one ex¬
tremity depreffed below the horizon at an angle of a-
bout 73 degrees. jy
Thefe experiments were contrived by Dr Gilbert, Polarity of
and fully ftiew that the property of affuming a determi-*ron tempo*’
nate direiflion with refpeft to the earth’s axis is not con-ralT'
fined to magnets, or iron rendered magnetical by the
ufual procefles. There is, however, a remarkable dif¬
ference between the polarity of unmagnetifed iron and
that of natural and artificial magnets. It is of no con-
fequence in the former which extremity be placed to¬
wards the north, or which below the furface of the wa¬
ter, as either will retain the pofition it firfl: acquired,
unlefs difturbed by agitation, or by the proximity of a
magnet; and both extremities may eafily be made to
change fituations. The effect produced on the iron is
therefore temporary. But if a magnetic needle be
Z z 2 freely
564
Experimen¬
tal Illuitra-
tions.
xS
Of magnet;
permanent.
peclinat’on
varies.
freely fufpended, the fame extremity always points to¬
wards the north, and this northern extremity always
dips below the horizon, at lead: in thefe northern lati¬
tudes j and if the polition of the needle be didurbed by
mechanical motion,- or by the application of a magnet,
it will be refumed when the didurbing caufe is removed.
1 he polarity of magnets therefore is permanent.
We have faid that the magnetic line varies at differ¬
ent times, and in different places. The declination of
the magnet is fo uncertain as to impofe great impedi¬
ments to the art of navigation, as it is neceffary, in the
courfe of a long voyage, frequently to afeertain the de¬
gree of variation for any particular time or place. The
method of doing this is mentioned under Compass.
The declination obferved in different places at different
times, has been laid down in tables j and as fuch tables
are very ufeful, we (hall here fubioin one, given by
Mr Cavallo. J
MAGNETISM.
Chap. II.
Latitude.
North.
70° 17'
69 38
66 36
6i 43
63 ' 58
59 39
58 14
55 12
53 37
50 8
48 44
40 41
33 45
31 8
28 .30
23 54
20 30
J9 45
16 37
15 25
x3 32
12 21
11 51
8 55
6 29
4
3
2
1
o
o
23
45
40
H
5i
7
South.
1
2
!3
48
37
22
Longitude.
Wred.
163° 24'
164 11
i67 55
!7o 34
165 48
149 8
!39 19
135 o
J34 53
4 4°
5 o
11 10
J4 50
IS 3°
17 o
18 20
20 3
20 39
22 50
23 36
23 45
23 54
24 5
22 50
20 5
21 2
22 34
24 10
26 2
27 10
27 o
28 58
29 37
30 M
30 29
31 40
Declination,
Ead.
30° 2l'
31 o
27 50
27 58
26 25
22 54
24 40
23 29
20 32
Wed.
20 36
22 38
22 27
l8 7
17 43
14 o
15 4
T4 35
13 11
10 33
J5
25
48
8 19
8 58
44
1
8 27
7 42
35
59
4 27
12
52
54
26
Tears in
which the
olfervations
were made.
I779
1778
1776
Latitude.
South.
6° o'
6 45
7 50
8 43
9 1
10 4
12 40
*3 23
14 11
*5 33
16 12
18 30
20 8
21 37
24 17
26 47
28 19
3° 2 5
33 43
35 37
38 52
40 36
42 4
44 52
46 M
48 41
Longitude.
Wred.
3 2° 5°'
33 30
34 20
34 20
34 5°
34 49
34 49
34 49
34 49
34 4°
35 20
35 5°
36 1
36 9
36 8
34 27
32 20
26 28
16 30
9 30
23 20
Ead.
J73 34
167 32
i55 47
J44 5°
69 10
Declination.
Tears in
which the
obfervations
were made.
Wed.
o° 6'
Ead.
° 35
Wed.
o 7
o 15
Ead.
O 44
Weft,
o 38
Eaft.
1 12
9
J5
4
2
26
24
24
44
58
2 37
Weft.
4 44
5 51
22 12
Eaft.
!3 47
^ J7
Weft.
9 28
14 48
27 39
[776
Experimen¬
tal Illultra-
tions.
It is of dill more importance to know the progref-
five change of the declination at any certain place,
and we diall therefore give here the following table
of the declination as obferved at London in different
years, from 1576 to 1800.
Tears.
1576
1580
1612
1622
1633
1634
1656
1665
1666
1672
Declination.
Eaft.
110 15'
11
10
o
6
11
6
6
4
4 5
Weft,
o o
1 22^
1 35i
2 30
Obfervers.
Burrowes.
Gunter.
Gellibrand.
Bond.
Gellibrand.
Halley.
Chap. II.
MAGNETISM.
3^5
Years.
1683
1692
1700
1717
I723
1748
1760
1765
1770
1773
1775
1780
1785
1787
1790
1795
1800
1802
1805
Decimation.
Weft.
4 3°
10 42
14 17
17 40
19 12
20 o
20 35
21 9
21 30
22 10
22 50
23 19
23 3+
23 57
24 7
24 6
24 8
Obfervers.
Graham.
Heberden.
Gilpin.
Gilpin.
Gilpin.
From 1792 to 1794 2i° 54; Stationary
101798 - 22 17
1799 - 22 o
1800 - 22 12
1801 - 22 1
1802 - 21 45
1803 - 21 59
1804 - 22 10
At Jamaica 1805 - 6 30 E.
Experimen¬
tal Illuftra-
tions.
'  J
At Alexandria in Egypt,
In 1761
1798
l
- x3
At Cairo,
I 2°
12
W.
w.
From this laft table it appears that when the declin¬
ation was firft obferved, the north pole of the magnetic
needle declined to the eaftvvard of the meridian oi Lon¬
don, that fince that time it advanced continually to¬
wards the weft till 1657, when the needle pointed due
north and fouth, and that ever fince it has continually
declined more and more towards the weft, in which di-
redilion it appears to be ftill advancing.
At Paris, in different years, the declination has been
obferved as follows :
101761 - 12- 25
1798
The declination of the magnetic needle has been
found to be different, even at different hours of the day. •
The following table contains the refult of fome observa¬
tions made by Mr Canton on the daily variation, and,
on the mean variation of each month.
The declination obferved at different hours of the
fame day. June 27. 1759.
H. Min.
In 1550
1640
1660
1681
1759
1760
8° o' Eaft.
3 °
o o
2 2 Weft.
18 IO
18 20
cZ I
O
6
8
9
10
11
o
1
3
7
I 9
111
18
4
3°
2
20
40
50
38
10
20
12
40
Decl. W.
I 2°
18
18
18
18
19
19
19
19
18
J9
18
2
58
55
54
57
4
9
8
8
59
6
5i
Degrees
of the
Therm.
62“
62
65
67
69
68^
7°
70
68
61
59
57i
The me ah Variation
each Month in
Year.
January, 7'
February, 8
March,
April,
May,
June,
July,
Auguft,
September,
Oclober,
Nobember,
December,
II
I 2
13
13
13
1 2
II
IO
for
the
g//
52
I?
26'
o
21
14
19
43
36
9
58
Table of the Mean Monthly Variation of the Magnetic Needle for 20 Years at London *.
Years. January. February. March. April.
1786
I787i23 19-2
J788|23 25.6
1789: -
179023 38.9
1791
1792
1793
1794
1795
1796
1797
1798
1799
1800
1801
1802
1803
1804
18051
23 35-6
23 41.1
23 46.923
23 54-2
23 i9-
48-3
23 20.3
23 48.8
23 18 *5
May.
57-5
1.1
i-5
0.6
1.1
3-6
5
6.9
8.0
9.4
8.7
36.0
46.2
23 17.0
23
23
41.9
47
June.
18.3
28.9
34-2
* Phil,
Tranf.
— , 1806.
July. Auguft. Septemb. j October Novemb. Decemb. p. 416. .
23 48.5
23
23
24
23
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
57-'
58.7
0.2
594
0.6
1.8
2.8
5
7.0
6.0
7.8
23
23
23
23
23
23
23
23
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
19623
29.8
39 0
21.9
23
50-5 23
54-4
57*1
59-2
°*3
0.0
1
3-°
4.1
6.0
7-9
8.4
7.8
23 16.4'23 18.4
23 22.8 23 24.5
23 32.1
23 57-2
43-623 43.9
48.623 52.6
23
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
58.1
0.4
0.1
1.4
1.4
2.9
3-6
3-8
8.7
io-5
8.9
10.0
23 '1-3
23 25.0
45.6
52.3
23 18.3
23 25.8
23 4i-2
23 45 9,23 45-2
23 5‘-9 23 52.3
59-
1.
1
. 1
2
3
5
6.8
10
9.0L
9.4
Charts s
366 M A G N
r.xpenmen- Charts Irave been conftru£led for ftiewing the decli-
nation of the needle in various parts of the earth by means
of curve lines. Refpefting thefe charts and feveral other
circumifances with regard to this fubjeft, fee Varia¬
tion of the CoTTipafs.
It may not be improper here to point cut the ge¬
neral method of applying the polarity of the magnet to
the ufeful purpofes of navigation, mining, &c.
A mariner’s compafs, or magnetic needle in a cafe, is
fo placed as to be as little as poffible didurbed by the
motion of the veiTel, perfon, &c. In a fliip, it is pla¬
ced in the binnacle (fee Binnacle), or fufpended from
the upper deck in the cabin. Then the head of the
veflel is kept by the helm in fuch a direftion as to make
any required angle with the line of the needle, or
the perfon (in mining or travelling) advances in a
fimilar manner. Thus, fuppoling that a veffel fets out
from a certain part, in order to go to another place
that is exadlly weftward of the former ; as for example,
from the Land’s End in Cornwall to Newfoundland on
'the coaft of North America. The veifel mull be direc¬
ted in fuch a way, as that its courfe may be always at
.right angles with the direftion of the magnetic needle,
or fo that the part of the needle or compafs card,
which points to the northward, (allowing for the varia¬
tion) may be always kept to the right hand of the man
at the helm, or to the (larboard fide of the veffel. The
reafon of this is evident; for, fuppofing the needle to
point duly north and fouth, the diredion of eafi: and
weft being perpendicular to it, this muft be the true
courfe of the veffel. From this example, a little re-
fledion well ealily point out how a veffel rtay be fleered
20 in any other courfe (a.)
Polarity dif- 7 he declination of the magnetic needle is diflurbed by
nirbed by the near approach of a ferruginous body, efpecially if this
be of conjiderable fi%e.
On holding the extremity of a pretty large iron rod,
fuch as a poker, near one end of a magnetic needle pro¬
perly fufpended, the needle will be found to turn con-
i fiderably from its ufual diredion. This circumftance,
though proper to be mentioned here, will be better un-
derftood when we have confidered the attradive power
of the magnet. The fad is ufeful, as it teaches us to
keep magnetic needles in fuch a fituation as not to be
aded on by any confiderable body of iron.
A magnet, whether natural or artificial, has a great-
the ap¬
proach of
iron.
E T I S M. chap. II.
er effed in difturbing the polarity of a magnetic needle Experimen-
than is produced by iron. tal Illuftra-
Magnetic polarity feems alfo to be affeded by. ^
changes jn the ftate of the atmofphere ; and the follow-
ing axioms refpeding this effed on the declination of
the needle, colleded by M. la Cotte, are deferving of
attention.
1. The greateft declination of the needle from the
north towards the weft, takes place about two in the
afternoon-; and the greateft approximation of it towards
the north, about eight in the morning ; fo that from
the laft mentioned hour till about two in the afternoon,
it endeavours to remove from the north, and between
two in the afternoon and the next morning, to ap-
proach it.
2. The annual progrefs of the magnetic needle is as
follows :—Between January and March, it removes
from the north ; between March and May it approach¬
es it ; in June it is ftationary ; in July it removes from
it; in Auguft, September, and Odober it approaches
it ; its declination in Odfober is the fame as in May ;
in November and December it removes from the
north ; its greateft weftern declination is at the vernal
equinox, and its greateft approximation to the north,
at the autumnal equinox.
3. The declination of the magnetic needle is differ¬
ent, according to the latitude ; among us, (i. e. in
France) it has always increafed fince 1657; before that
period it was eafterly.
4. Before volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, the
magnetic needle is often fubjed to very extraordinary
movements.
5. The magnetic needle is agitated before and af¬
ter the appearance of the northern lights : its declina¬
tion on thefe occafions is about noon greater than
ufual.
So much has already been faid refpeding the pheno- 21
mena, &c. of the dipping needle, under the article
Dipping Needle, that it is unneceffary here to add
much more on the fubjed. It was there noticed, that
at the equator the dipping needle lies quite horizontal,
and that one of its extremities inclines more towards the
earth, according as the inftrument is carried farther
from the equator. We may here add, that from fome
late obfervations made by experimentalifts with bal¬
loons, it appears that the higher we afeend above the
furface
(a) In-reply to fome inquiries refpeding the mode of employing the compafs in mining, wre were favoured by
tin ingenious friend, who is manager of one of the moft extenfive coalworks in this illand, with the following re¬
marks: “ The compafs is ufed in all mines wdiere great accuracy is required. In fome coal-mines the cleats or
faces of the coal are the guides to the miners in excavating the mine, and the compafs is ufed to afeertain the fi- '
tuation and extent of the excavations. In other coal mines the courfes of the excavaiions are at firft direded by
the compafs. In doing this, the compafs is placed in a given fituation, and is made to point the defired courfe,.
Then from the centre of one fight $ perpendicular line is conveyed to the roof of the mine, and a fmall mark is
there made with chalk; then a perfon loiks at a candle (placed fo as nearly to touch the roof), through the lowrer
part of the fight of the compafs neareft to him, and through the upper part of the oppofite fight. The candle at
the roof is moved in any diredion until he fees it through both fights of the compafs. It is then in a proper place,
and a chalk mark is made in the roof immediately above it. A line (truck with a chalked cord, between thefe
two marks upon the roof, marks the proper courfe, by which the workmen are direded in making the excavation.
By applying one part of a chalked cord along part of the courfe or white line thus begun on the roof, and ex¬
tending the other part of the cord paft it to any required diftance, and then ftriking the cord, the courfe may be
-continued from time to time as the excavation advances.”
2
Chap. IT. M A G N
Experimen- furface of the eartfi, tlie lefs is the angle of inclination
ta! Illuftra- whiC1a the dipping needle makes with the horizontal
line*..
It is worthy of remark that, under the fame circum-
ftances, the declination of the needle was not found dif¬
ferent from what it would have been on the earth at
the fame place, and its polarity with refpedl to iron was
unchanged.
tions.
* Niche If.
four. 8vo.
xi. p. 54.
E T I S M. 3^7
In an aeroftatic voyage made at St Peterfburgh in Expenmen'
1804 by M. M. Sacharof and Robertfon, it was
ferved that the fouth pole of a magnetic needle, balan- y v 1
ced on a pin, dipped below the horizon nearly 10 de¬
grees. '
The following table fhows the magnetic dip as ob-
ferved at feveral different places at various times.
Latitude.
North.
53° 55'
49 36
44 5
38 53
34 57
29 18
24 24
20 47
*5 8
1 2
10
Longitude.
AT. Pole below
the Horizon.
Eaft.
193° 39
233 10
Weft.
8 10
12 1
14 8
16 7
18 11
19 36
23 38
23 35
22 52
20 10
69° 10'
72 29
71 34
7° 3°
66 12
62 17
59 °
56 15
51 °
48 26
44 12
37 25
Years of
Obfervation.
1778
1776
Latitude.
South.
o° 3'
4 40
3
25
16 45
19 28
21 / 8
35 55
41 5
45 . 47
Prince of Wales’s
Wand.
Longitude.
N.Polebe/ow'
the Horizon.
270 38'
3° 34
33 21
34 24
Eaft.
208 12
204 11
185 o
18 20
*74 *3
166 18
Years of
Obfervation.
3°° 3'
22 1;
*7 57
9 *5
S. Pole below.
29 28
41 o
39 1
45 37
63 49
70 5
? 10
1777
*774
1777
*773
*799
Table of the Magnetic Dip at London, from 1786 to 1805.*
Poles Reverfed.
 __A 
1786 September
October
November
December
1787 January
February
March
April
May
June
July
Auguft:
September
Odfober
November
«. December
1788 January
1789 January
December
1790 January
1791 January
1795 Oftober
*797 O&ober
1798 April
Odftober
1799 Oftober
j8oi Apiil
1803 Odfober
1805 Auguft
Face eaft.
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
71
7*
7*
7*
70
70
70
70
70
28.7
29>9
7.6
10.6
11.4
*9,4
*9,*
24.4
24,4
22.6
22.6
22,3
22.3
23.1
23,*
22.8
22,8
l6,0
? 7,5
16,9
43 <9
12,8
4,9
4.7
55.6
c6,o
47.4
3°-9
25.2 I
Face weft.
72
7*
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
7*
7*
7*
7*
7*
7*
7*
7*
7*
7*
70
*,4
59,o
17.6
2,2
*,8
10.8
n,9
9.5
9.6
7,9
7.9
6.7
6.7
2,5
2.5
2,0
2,0
0,0
594
57.7
36.1
9.5
10.9
*4,5
*4,5
*3,5
5.6
9.9
55.7
Face eaft.
7*
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
7*
72
72
72
72
7*
7*
7*
7*
7*
70
7*
7*
7*
70
57,3
0,4
2,4
2.2
1,0
*»5
o,5
o,5
4.2
4,2
59,9
72 59,3
72 2,9
2,9
2,7
2,7
2,6
5*,9
38,9
40.2
37.2
*3,9
56.3
2,3
7>7
**,5
52.4
70 40,5
70 26,9
Face weft.
72
72
7*
7*
5,*
1,2
46,7
58,4
7* j6,o
7* 55,8
7*
7*
7*
7*-
7*
7*
7*
7*
7*
7*
7*
7*
7*
7*
7*
7*
70
70
70
70
69
69
69
52,2
52.2
52.9
52,9
55,*
554
5*,o
5*,°
50.3
50,3
48.8
31.1
42.8
40.2
*7,5
9,4
44.7
19.8
22.2
7.9
38.2
46,7
36.3
True dip.
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
7*
7*
7*
7*
7*
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
8,1
7.6
3.6
3.4
2.5
6.9
5.9
6.6
7.8
6.8
6.4
5.9
5.7
4.9
4.7
4.4
4,0
54,8
54.6
53.7
23.7
1 *,4
59,2
5?,4
55,o
5 2,2
35,6
32,0
21,0
3f p/,//.
Tranf
1 Sod.
p. 41c.
To
368 M A G N
Experimen- To wliat vras fa id under Dipping "Needle, refpedling
tai liluftra-condruflion of that inftrument, we may add, that,
^ ^ notwithftanding the great improvements that have been
lately made in the arts, the making of a dipping nee¬
dle is one of the mod delicate and difficult talks that an
inftrument-maker can undertake. The needle mull be
made of tempered fteel which we are certain has no
magnetifm before it is touched j it muft be poifed lo
nicely, and with fuch a perfeft coincidence of its cen¬
tre of gravity and axis of motion, that it will retain any
poiition (before being magnetifed) that is given it A
good dipping needle cannot be had below twenty gui¬
neas.
. Sect. II. On Magnetic Aitraciion and Repuljion.
A magnet A magnet attracts iron, and all bodies, into the com-
' attracts pojition of which iron enters in any confiderable degree.
iron and all prjncjp]e is illullrated by very fimple experiments,
bodies. which will readily occur to every reader. It is of con-
lequence here to obferve, that the purer and fofter the
iron to which the magnet is prefented, the ftronger will
be the attraction ; thus, a magnet attracts a piece of
foft and clean iron much more ftrongly than it attraCls
any other ferruginous body of the lame lhape and
weight. Hard Heel, or the harder ores of iron, are
lefs forcibly attracted than loft Heel, and (till lefs than
foft iron ; and all pieces of iron are lefs forcibly attraCt-
n.2 ed in proportion as they are more oxygenated.
Attraction The aUraCtive power of a mK^net is not equally
greatert at ftrong on eVery part of its furface. It is molt powerful
u P° e=- at. tije p0jes 0f the magnet, and it is found to liminilh
in proportion as the part of the furface is more diltant
from the poles. Thus, in an oblong magnet, the at¬
traction is leait at about its middle, where it is often
23 very trifling.
Method of jp js property 0f the magnet that we are en-
poleTo/r ab*ed to difeover the poles of a magnet, where they are
magnet. n°t yet afeertained ; a circumftance which is often ne-
ceffary with refpeCt to natural magnets, in which,
when of an irregular lhape, it would othervvife be diffi¬
cult to difeover the poles. The ufual method of afeer-
taining the poles of a magnetic body is, to prefent va¬
rious parts of the body to be examined, fucceffively to
the poles of a magnetic needle, when it will foon be
difeovered which parts of the body have moft influence
•on the needle, by the pole of the latter Handing per¬
pendicularly to that part of the body. It will prefently
apnear, that in this way it may alfo be afeertained
which of thefe poles is the north, and which the fouth,
as the fouth pole of the body under examination will
have mod influence on the north pole of the needle, and
vice verfa.
A good magnet Ihould have no more than two poles,
and thefe ihould be fituated in the extreme furface of
the magnet; but it fometimes happens, efpecially in na¬
tural magnets, and in artificial magnetic bars, if they
be very long, that there are more than two poles, or
that the poles are very confufed. For example, in a
very long magnetifed bar, there may be a itrong north
pole at one extremity, a fouth pole a little farther on,
then a weaker north pole, and fo on to the extremity,
which will be found poiTeffed of a Hill weaker fouth po¬
larity. Thefe poles are to be difeovered by prefenting
to the feveral parts of the bar one or other of the poles
%
E T I S M. Chap. II.
of a magnetic needle; for, as we lhall immediately Expmmen-
mention, each pole of the needle will be attra&e.l to- tal Itiuftra-
wards that part of the rod which is poiieffed of the con- , ^
trary polarity.
The attractive power of the magnet and the iron is
molt forcible when the two bodies are in contaCf, and
it diminiflies as they are made to recede from each
other. The exaCI law according to which this diminu¬
tion takes place, has not yet been completely aicertain-
ed. We ihall fee in the next chapter, what approxi¬
mation has been made to it. 24
A magnet is not capable of lifting above a certain Different
weight of iron ; and all magnets of the fame form and at:tra(ffive
fize are not able to lift the fame weight. Among the
natural magnets the fmalleft feem in general to poffefs 0
a greater attraCfive power in proportion to their fize,
than thofe of larger dimenfions. Mr Cavallo mentions a
fmall magnet that weighed not more than 6 or 7 grains,
and was capable of lifting about 300 grains ; and Sir
Ifaac Newton poiTeffed a magnet that he wore in a ring,
weighing but about 3 grains, which is faid to have lift¬
ed 746 grains, or nearly 250 times its own weight.
The larger natural magnets are very weak in proportion
to thefe. Thofe of two pounds fcarcely lift more than
ten times their own weight. It feems extraordinary,
that a piece cut oil from a large magnet is fometimes
much ftronger in refpeCI of its attractive power, than
the magnet from which it was taken.
It has been laid that the attractive power of magnets
is greatelt at their poles. Both poles, however, are
feldom equal in this refpect; and it appears, that in
thefe northern parts of the world, the north pole of
magnets is more powerful than the fouth. In the fouth-
ern hemifphere the contrary effeCt is faid to take place.
The attractive power of the magnet is moil forcible
when both poles are made to act conjointly; hence an
armed magnet, or one of the horfe-ffioe form, is belt
adapted for experiments- on the force of magnetic at¬
traction.
It is of little confequence whether the iron that is
prefented to the magnet be in one piece, or confift of
feveral pieces. The attraction is indeed ftronger in the
former cafe ; but if feveral pieces of iron are prefented
to the magnet, they will either all adhere about the
pole of the magnet, or will adhere to each other, fo as
to form a fort of chain. If a fmall iron ball be made
to adhere to the pole of a magnet, this ball will fupport
a fecond ; and this latter, if the magnet be pretty
ftrong, w’ill fupport a third. It the magnet be of the
horfe fhoe form, and have thefe three balls hanging by
one ball, if two others be fufpended from the other
pole, all the five may be made to adhere, fo as to form
a curved chain. It will be evident, that pieces of iron
which prefent a greater extent of furface than the above
fpherical balls, will be more powerfully attraded.
One of the moft: pleafing experiments on the attrac-ACtion of a
tion of the magnet for iron, is (hewn by means of iron P3aS5l®f: on
0 iron filings-.
filings.
Exper.—Let a paper be placed above a bar magnet,
and let iron filings be fhaken on the paper through a
gaufe fieve. They will arrange themfelves round the
magnet in a very beautiful manner, forming curves and
arches of curves, as reprefented in fig. 6. At the two
ends of the magnet, as a a, there are chains of filings
Handing out nearly perpendicular; and along the fides
they
25
26
Chap. IT.
Experimen- they form complete
27 .
Attradlion
between
the magnet
and iron
mutual.
curves
tal Il'uftra- from the magnet towards its middle, and having their
extremities bounded by the poles of the magnet; and
at the corners there are a number of arches that feem
to form imperfedl curves.
A fimilar effeft may be produced by firewing iron
filings on a piece of paper, fo as to leave a vacancy in
the middle, capable of receiving a bar magnet. When
the magnet is placed on the paper, and the paper gently
tapped, lo as to agitate the filings, thefe wall arrange
themfelves about the magnet, in curves, as above de-
feribed.
b The form of thefe curves will be better defined if the
magnet be laid at the bottom of an earthen or glafs vef-
fel of water, and the iron filings be fitted over it fo as
to pafs through the wrater.
The attraSHon between a magnet and a ferruginous
body is mutual.
Exfier.—Place a piece of iron or other ferruginous
body upon a piece of cork or wTood, fo that it may float
on the furface of w7ater in an earthen or wrooden veffel.
Bring a magnet within a moderate diftance of the float¬
ing bodv, and the latter will approach the former, and
may be drawn by it in any direction. Again, place
the magnet on cork or wood, fo as to float on the wa¬
ter, and prefent to it a piece of iron, or other ferrugi¬
nous body. The magnet wdll now approach the iron,
and may be drawm by it as the iron was before. Laft-
ly, Place both the magnet and the iron on feparate
pieces of wTood or cork, within a moderate diftance of
each other, on the furface of the water. They will
gradually approach each other, with a Velocity that
becomes greater in proportion as they approach neaxer
each other.
Magnetic attrablion is not fenjibly impeded by the rn-
terpo/ition of bodies of any kind, 'that do not contain iron
not fenfibly in their compofition.
kflened by Exper.—Suppofe that a magnet, placed at the dif-
iitioiToT^0- tance an from a P’ece ‘rOT1’ exerts a certain
lKxbes°not degree of attraftion, it will be found that the attraftion
ferruginous, is not fenfibly weakened by the interpofition of a plate
of glafs, a ftieet of paper, a piece of copper, or any
other fimilar fubftance. A needle, inclofed in a glafs
29 globe, will be ftill attracted by the magnet.
Ufual mode It is not eafy to afeertain correftly the degree of at-
ofmeafur- tractive force exerted between a magnet and a ferrugi-
ing die at- nous body. The ufual method of obferving this is, to
faften a magnet to one arm of a balance, and placing
the body to be attracted at different diftances below
the magnet, to counterpoife the attraction with weights
placed in the oppofite fcale of the balance. Proceeding
in this way, then, if w7e find that it requires the weight
of an ounce to counterpoife the attractive pow'er of a
magnet, w’hen prefented immediately to a piece of iron,
it will be found that it requires the fame counterpoife,
if a plate of any matter that is not ferruginous be in-
terpofed.
Not only is iron attracted by the magnet, but under
certain circumflances, one piece of iron exerts an attrac¬
tive power on another piece of iron.
Exper.—Let an oblong piece of iron be fixed in a
fpherical piece of wood or cork, fo as to float in water
in the true magnetic line, as in Exper. 2. of N“ 16.
When the iron is nearly in the magnetical pofition,
Vol. XII. Part I.
MAGNETISM. . .
bending outwards aw7ay bring the extremity of a large iron rod, as the point
i t it* • • ('a* . ..    4. tai ii mm a-
2S
Magnetic
attraction
tradlive
force.
3°
Iron at¬
tracts iron
in certain
iituations.
a new poker, holding it in a pofition not very differentta
from that of the iron wire, within about a quarter o! .  1
an inch of the upper extremity of the floating iron, and
hold it there for fome time, a little towards one fide.
The floating wire will gradually approach the iron rod
with an accelerated motion, will at length touch it, and
may be drawn through the water in any direction. A
fimilar attraction will take place between the head of
the poker and the extremity of the wire that is below
the water. 31
The attractive power of the magnet is increafed by the Magnetic
near approach of a piece of iron. increafed
Exper. 1—Suppofe we have a magnetic bar that isky iron.
capable of fupporting a fmall key by one of its extremi¬
ties, but which wall not lift a key fomewhat larger. If
we bring a confiderable oblong piece of iron near the
oppofite extremity of the bar, it wall be found ca¬
pable of fupporting the larger key, or at leaft of
lifting a W'eight fomewhat greater than it fuftained be¬
fore.
Exper. 2.—Let an oblong magnetic bar be fupported
in a horizontal pofition, and let a piece of iron ware,
about an inch in length, be hung by a Ihort thread, fo
that its extremity is juft oppofite one of the poles of the
magnetic bar, but fo far out of the reach of the bar’s
attractive power as not to be brought from the perpen¬
dicular. Now, if a confiderable iron bar be brought
with one end within a moderate diftance of the oppohte
pole of the magnet, the fufpended wire will be drawn
towards the magnet, thus (hewing that the powTer of the
latter has been increafed by the juxtapofition of the
bar of iron. If the bar of iron be brought ftill nearer
the oppofite pole of the magnet, the fufpended wire will
be drawn ftill nearer its adjacent pole $ but if the bar
of iron be drawn back from the magnet, the wire wdll
fall into its original pofition.
This fad leads to many important praClical conciu-
fions in the management of magnets. As the juxta¬
pofition of iron to the poles of a magnet improves its
powers, we may infer, that if we keep a piece of foft
iron in contaCl with the poles, the magnet will be im¬
proved by it and this is in fad the cafe, and it (hews
the utility of the armature and conduClor mentioned in
N® 13. But of this more hereafter. ^
The attraBive power of a magnet may be improved by power of a
increafng the weight appended to it. magnet in-
This is beft ftiown by a horfe-ftioe magnet, having acrea^dby
conduClor of foft iron attached to its two poles, and a le
brafs ring at the convex part by which it may be fuf- it. 0
pended. If a fmall bag be hung to the conduClor, and
if the magnet is capable of containing a certain weight
at any particular time, it will, by adding a little more,
fuppofe a few7 (hot, to the bag, at moderate intervals,
be made to fupport gradually a much greater weight.
If the magnet, on a firft trial, was able to lift a fmall
key, it w7ill foon be able to lift a larger one, &c. How
far this increafe of pow7er may be carried, has not, we
believe, yet been afeertained.
It fometimes happens tfyat a magnet does not (hewr
any great attraClive power, as exemplified in its power
of lifting a confiderable weight of iron, though it may
have a great effeCl in exciting or in altering magnetic
polarity. This was obferved by Dr Gilbert, who re-
3 A marks
MAGNETISM.
33
Contrary-
poles of
magnets at-
tracl each
•other.
ig poles
repel each
ether.
37°
Expenni h-marks that the dire&me power of a magnet extends
taj Iliuftra- farf}ier than its attraciive power.
tions. ^ *
i .. ^’ , The contrary poles, of two magnets attraB each other ;
that is, the north the fouth, and vice verfa.
Exper. i.—Place two oblong magnets on cork or
wood, fo as to float in water, or fufpend each by a
pretty long thread, with the north pole of the one op-
pofed to the fouth pole of the other. They will gra¬
dually approach, and will at length ruflr together.
A fimilar effedl will be produced, if the north pole
of a bar magnet be held near the fouth pole of a mag¬
netic needle •, the latter will be attracted, and the fame
thing will happen if the fouth pole of the bar is brought
near the north pole of the needle.
Exper. 2.—Take two femicircular magnets, and dip
their extremities into iron filings. The filings will of
Courfe adhere to the extremities of the magnets, and
will appear as if radiating from them. Now, prefent
the two magnets with their adhering filings to each
other, fo that the north and fouth pole of the one is
oppofite to the contrary poles of the other, and the iron
filings at their extremities will approach each other,
and coalefce, as reprefented in fig. 7.
The attraction exerted between two magnets is not
fo ftrong in proportion, as between a magnet and a
piece of foft iron in contacty but it has been found to
34 commence at a greater diftance.
Correfpond- The correfponding poles of two magnets repel each
other; that is, the north the north, and the fouth the
fouth.
Exper. 1.—Make the two magnets float on w^ater, or
fufpend them by threads, fo that the north or fouth
pole of the one may be oppofite to the north or fouth
pole of the other. They will recede from each other,
and the repuliion will evidently be greater, in propor¬
tion as they are brought nearer together.
Exper. 2.—l ake two femicircular magnets, and dip
their ends in iron filings, as mentioned above. Prefent
them to each other, fo that their correfponding poles
may be mutually oppofed. The filings at their extre¬
mities will Aart back, and leave a vacancy between the
oppofed poles of the magnets, fomewhat like what is
reprefented in fig. 8.
It fometimes happens that the correfponding poles of
two magnets do not repel each other, but either mu¬
tually attrad, or are quite indifferent. In this cafe, it
will, in general, be found that one of them is ftronger
than the other ; and the reafon of the phenomenon will
appear hereafter.
The repulfive power of a magnet is generally in a
lefs proportion than its attradive power.
It is by the attradive powrer of the magnet that we
ufually afeertain whether any lubftance be magnetic ;
that is, whether the magnet polfefs any attradive powTer
for it. If the body contain any confiderable quantity
of ir n in its compofition, its magnetifm is eafily afeer-
tained, by approaching it with the pole of a pretty
ftrong magnetic bar. If, however, the magnetifm is
too feeble to be difeovered in this way, it may be af-
certained by placing the body on a piece of cork or
wood, fo that it may float on the furface of water or
mercury, in an earthen or wooden veffel, and bringing
the pole of the magnet within a fmall diflance of the
floating body. It will fometimes be neceffary to bring
35 ,
Uiual mode
•cf afeer-
taining
-whether a
body is
magnetic.
Chap. II.
the magnet within one-tenth of an inch of the body, Exprrimen-
when, if it poflelfes any magnetifm, it will graduallyta^
approach the magnet. This experiment is theft fatis- tions' .
fadfory when the body to be examined is made to float
on mercury ; but in that cafe the vefiel containing the
mercury mull not be too Imall, otherwife the natural
convexity of the furface of the mercury will caufe the
floating body perpetually to fall down towards the fides
of the veflel. A common foup plate will anfwer the
purpofe very well. It is alfo neceffary that the mer¬
cury be very pure, and as clean as poflible. To infure
this, it will be proper, before ufing the mercury, to
pafs it through a conical piece of writing paper, rolled
up fo as to terminate in a very fmall aperture $ or what
is better, to fqueeze it through a pretty thick piece of
fhamois leather. It need fcarcely be remarked, that in
thefe delicate experiments, the air of the room fliould
be kept as Hill as poflible.
By the above methods, Mr Cavallo and others dif¬
eovered, that the following fubftances are in fome mea-
fure affefted by the magnet. Moft metallic ores, efpe-
cially after their having been expofed to a fire; zinc,
bifmuth, and particularly cobalt, as well as their ores,
are almoft always attra£!ed. Of the earths, the calca¬
reous is the leaft, if at all, and the liliceous is the moft
frequently, attracled. The ruby, the chryfolite and
the tourmalin, are attrafled. The emerald, and parti¬
cularly the garnet, are not only attracted, but frequent¬
ly acquire a permanent polarity. The opal is weakly
attracted, efpecially after combuftion. Molt animal
and vegetable fubftances, after combuflion, are attract¬
ed. Even foot, and the duft which ufually falls upon
whatever is left expofed to the atmofphere, are fenlibly
attrafted by the magnet.
“ It has long ago been remarked, that platina, nickel, Coulomb’s
and feveral other bodies, acquire a fenfible degree of experiments
magnetifm j but fome philofophers attribute this pro-on univer-
perty only to a portion of iron not eafy to be feparated,^ai. magne*
and conclude, that by obtaining a greater degree of
purity, we might fucceed in rendering them perfectly
indifterent to the aCtion of the magnetic bar.
“ The new experiments which Citizen Coulomb has
made and repeated before the inftitute, lead us on the
contrary to think, that the aftion of magnetifm ex¬
tends through all nature ; for none of the bodies he has
yet tried was found to refill this power.
“ But howrever real this adlion may be, it is not
alike in all bodies, and in moft of them it muft be ne-
ceffarily very fmall, to have efcaped the attention of
philofophers to this time. In order, therefore, to exhi¬
bit and to meafure thefe refults, we muft begin by pla¬
cing the bodies in a lituation which ftiall allow them to
yield to the wTeakert aCtion.
“ For this purpofe, Citizen Coulomb fafhioned his
fubjeCls into the form of a cylinder or fmall bar ; and
in this ftate he fufpended them to a lilken thread, fuch
as is drawn from the filk worm’s cone, and in this ftate
he placed them between the oppofite poles of two mag¬
netic bars of fteel. The fingle thread of filk could
hardly bear the weight of a quarter of an ounce without
breaking, c@nfequently it became neceffary to form
fmall bars very light and thin. Citizen Coulomb made
them about feven or eight millimetres in length (or lefs
than half an inch), with three-fourths of a millimetre
for
Chap. II. M A G N
Experimen-(or about an hundredth part of an inch) in thicknefs,
tal Illuftra- an(j grave jhe metals about one-third of this thick-
■ tl0;s- .nefs.
“ In his experiments he placed the fteel bars in the
fame right line, their oppofite poles being five or fix
millimetres farther afunder than the length of the
needle intended to ofcillate between them. The refult
of the experiment {hewed, that whatever might be the
fubftance of the needle, it always difpofed itfelf accord¬
ing to the dire£Hon of the two bars •, and that if they
were turned from this direction, they always recovered
it, after ofcillations of which the number was often
more than 30 per minute. It was therefore eafy in
every cafe to determine, from the weight and figure of
the needle, the force which had produced the ofcilla-
tion.
“ Thefe experiments were fuccefsfully made with
fmall needles of gold, filver, copper, lead, tin, fmall
cylinders of glafs, a piece of chalk, a fragment of bone,
and different kinds of wood.
“ Citizen Coulomb has proved, that the force of tor-
fion of the filk thread is fo flight, that in order to draw
it round the entire circle, it would require a force
fcarcely equal to the one hundred thoufandth part of a
gramm, (or about one feven hundredth part of a grain).
A quantity fo minute cannot therefore fenfibly derange
the meafure of magnetic force in the different bodies j
and its effect, even ii it wrere admitted to be of percep¬
tible magnitude, may alfo be urged in proof of the ge¬
neral conclufion of Citizen Coulomb, becaufe the mag¬
netic power muft overcome this refiftance of the thread
in order to manifeft itfelf. Our author gives, in the
third volume of the Memoirs of Natural Philofophy and
Mathematics of the National Inftitute, a very Ample
formula to determine the magnetic force of a body from
the time of its ofcillations *, and he means to fliew in
another memoir, the method of determining this refult
in different bodies of the fame figure placed between
the poles of two bars. He thinks it now proved, that
all the elements which enter into the compofition of
our globe are fubjefted to the magnetic power, and
that the whole mafs colle&ively forms’ one Angle
magnet.
“ Li favour of thofe who might be defirous of repeat¬
ing his experiments, and rendering them very fenfible,
the author remarks, that the method of fucceeding con-
fifis in diminifliing the fize of the ofciilating bodies.
From fome effays, of which the refults terminate this
memoir, it feems to follow, that the accelerating forces
are inverfely as the maffes, or very nearly in the diredt
proportion of the furfaces; but Citizen Coulomb gives
this rule only as a firft dedudtion, which requires to be
* Nichol confiTrnefl
Journ. s'vo. ^ opinion of the general influence of magnetifm
vol. ii. on all terreftrial bodies was, as we fliall fee hereafter,
maintained by our countryman Dr Gilbert, though
Coulomb has certainly the merit of having put it to the
teft .of experiment.
Entertain- Befides the experiments which we have related, there
ing experi- are fome that depend on the attradlive power of the
ments. magnet, and which are ranked among fcientific amufe-
ments. We fliall here defcribe a few of thefe.
Before we relate the manner of making thefe expe-
riments, it may be proper to defcribe an inftrument
that is employed in fome of them. This, fiona its form
E T I S M. 57r
and apparent ufe, is called the mag..e';'c perfpeilive E^rimen-
glafs, and is thus conftnicled. tal li’uftra-
Provide an ivory tube about 2 i inches long, and of, tl°ns' .
fuch a form as is expreffed in fig. 9. The tides of this 3s
tube mufl: be fo thin as to admit a confiderable quanti-Conftruc-
ty of light. It is to open at one end with a fcrew, and t^on oftta
at that end mutt be placed an eye-glafs of about two
inches focus, and at the other end any glafs you pleafe.gi^pf
Have a fmall magnetic needle like that in a compafs. &
It mufl; be ftrongly touched, and fo placed at the bot¬
tom of the tube that it may turn freely round. It is
to be fixed on the centre of a fmall ivory circle C, of
the thicknefs of a counter, placed on the objed-giafs
D, and painted black on the fide next it. This circle
mufl be kept faft by a circular rim of pafteboard, that
the needle may not rife off its pivot, in the fame man¬
ner as in the cornpafs. This tube will thus become a
kind of compafs fufficiently tranfparent to ftiow the mo¬
tions of the needle. The eye-glafs ferves more clearly
to diftinguiih the diredion of the needle, and the glafs
at the other end, merely to give the tube the appear¬
ance of a common petfpedive glafs. It will appear,
from what has been already ftated, that the needle in
this tube, when placed over and at a fmall diflance
from a magnet, or any machine in which, it is contain¬
ed, will neceffarily place itfelf in a pofition direded by
that magnet, and confequently fliow where the north
and fouth pole of it is placed ; the north end of the
needle conftantly pointing to the fouth end of the mag¬
net. This effed will take place, though the magnet
be enclofed in a’ cafe of wood, or even metal. You
mufl: obferve, however, that the attrading magnet muft
not be very far diftant from the needle, efpecially if it
be fmall, as in that cafe its influence extends but to a
ftiort diflance. This tube may be differently conftrud-
ed, by placing the needle in a perpendicular diredion,
on a fmall axis of iron, on which it muft turn quite
freely, between two fmall plates of brafs placed on
each fide of the tube ; the twa ends of the needle
fliculd be in exad equilibrium. The north and fouth
ends of the needle will, in like manner, be attraded by
the fouth and north ends of the- magnetic bar. The
former conftrudion, however, appears preferable, as it
is more eafily excited, and the fituation of the needle
much more eafily diflinguiflied.
Exp. 1. TAe communicative 'Piece of Money.
Jake a crown or dollar, and drill a hole in the fidecomiuni-
ofit, in which place a piece of wire, or a large needle cative piece
well polifhed, and ftrongly touched with a magnet.ofmoney*
Then clofe the hole with a fmall piece of pewter, that
it may not be perceived. Now, the needle in the mag¬
netic perfpedive before defcribed, when it is brought
near to this piece of money, will fix itfelf in a diredion
correfpo ; ding to the wire or needle in that piece. De¬
fire any perfon to lend you a crown piece or dollar,
which you dexteroufly change for one that you have
prepared as above. Then give the latter piece to ano¬
ther perfon, and leave him at liberty either to put it
privately in a fnuff-box, or not ; he is then to place the
box on a table, and you are to tell him by means of
your glafs, whether the crown is or bs not in the box.
Then bringing your perfpedive clofe to the box, you
will know, by the motion of the needle, whether it be
there or not 5 for as J,he needle in the pei'pedive will
3 A 2 always
372 M A G N
SpiTiXr*alway-keep to tke nortl1 of itfelf’If y°u do not per-
tions. Peive 11 has any motion* you conclude the crown is not
1—“v--—1 in the b°x' It may happen, however, that the wire in
the crown may be placed to the north, in which cafe
you will be deceived. .Therefore, to be fore of fuccefs,
when you find the needle in the perfpeftive remain fta-
tionary, you may, on fome pretence defire the perfon to
move the box into another poiition, by which you will
certainly know whether the crowm-piece be there or
™t: ^ You mull remember that the needle in the per-
fpeillve muft here be very fenfible, as the wire in the
crown cannot poffibly have any great attractive force.
/[0 Exp. 2. The Magnetic Table.
blnder the top of a common table place a magnet
that turns on a pivot, and fix a board under it, that
nothing may appear. There may alfo be a drawer
under the table, which you pull out to fhew that there
is nothing concealed. At one end of the table there
mud be a pin that communicates with the magnet, and
by which it may be placed in different pofitions ; this
pin muft be fo placed as not to be vifible to the fpe£la-
tors. Strew fome fteel filings or very fmall nails over
that part of the table where the magnet is. Then alk
any one to .1* nd you a knife or a key, which will then
attraft part of the nails or filings. Then placing your
hand in a carelefs manner on the pin at the end of the
table, you alter the pofition of Ae magnet, and giving
the key to any perfon, you defire him to make the ex¬
periment, which he will then not be able to perform.
You then give the key to another perfon, at the fame
tfme placing the magnet, by means of the pin, in the
firft poiition, when that perfon will immediately perform
the experiment.
4i
Exp. 3. The hhjJlcrious Watch.
Myfterxons You defire any one in company who has a watch
atcdl' with a fteel balance, (b) to lend it you for a few mi¬
nutes, a Iking him whether it will continue to go when
laid on the table. <He will probably fay it will. To
prove to him that he is wrong, you lay it on that part
of the table below wdiich you have previoufiy placed
a ftrong bar-magnet (as in Exp. 2.), fo that the watch
may be above mre of the poles. It will immediately
flop. Now, if you ftiift the pofition of the magnet,
and give the w'atch to another perfon to lay it on the
table, it will not ftop, but replacing the magnet, and
defiring a third perfon to try the experiment, he will
fucceed. All this, to thofe who are not acquainted
with the fecret, will appear very extraordinary.
Exp. 4. The Magnetic Dial.
Provide a circle of wood or ivory,, of about five or
fix inches diameter, as fig. 10. which muft turn quite
free on the Hand JB (fig. 11.), in the circular border
A : on the circle muft be placed the dial of pafteboard
C (fig. 10.), whole circumference is to be divided into
12 equal parts, in which muft be inferibed the numbers
from 1 to 1 2, as on a common dial. There muft be a
fmall groove in the circular frame D, to receive the
42 _
Magnetic
dial.
E T 1 s M. Chap. TI.
pafteboaid circle j and obferve that the dial muft be Experimen-
made to turn fo freely that it may go round withouttal illuftra-
moving the circular border in which it is placed. Be- t‘ons-
tween the pafteboard circle and the bottom of the v
frame, place a imall artmcial magnet E (fig. 12.)
that has a hole in its middle, or a fmall protuberance.
On the outfide of the frame place a fmall pin P, which
ferves to ftiew where the magnetic needle I, that is
placed on a pivot at the centre of the dial, is to ftop.
I his needle muft; turn quite freely on its pivot, and its
two fides fliould be in exadt equilibrium. Then pro¬
vide^ fmall bag, that has five or fix divifions, like a
lady's work-bag, but fmaller. In one of thefe divifions
put Imall iquare pieces of pafteboard on which are writ¬
ten the numbers from 1 to 12, and if you pleafe you may
put feveral of each number. In each of the other divifions
you muft put 12 or more like pieces, obferving, that all
the pieces in each divifion muft be marked with the fame
number. Now the needle being placed upon its pivot,
and turned quickly about, it wfill necefiarily ftop at that
point where the north end of the magnetic bar is
placed, and which you previoufly knew by the fituation
or the fmall pin in the circular border. You therefore
prefent to any perfon that divifion of the bag which
contains the feveral pieces on which is written the num¬
ber oppofite to the north end of the bar, and tell him
to draw any one of them he pleafes. Then placing the
needle on the pivot, you turn it quickly about, and it
will neceflarily ftop, as w>e have already faid, at that
particular number.
_ Another experiment may be made with the fame
dial, by defiring two perfons to draw each of them one
number out of twxi different divifions of the bag ; and
if their numbers, when added together, exceed 1 2, the
needle or index will ftop at the number they exceed it;
but if they do not amount to 1 2, the index will ftop at
the fnm of thofe two numbers. In order to perform
this experiment, you muft place the pin again!! the
number 5, if the two numbers to be drawn from the
bag be 10 and 7 5 or againft 9, if they be feven and
two. If this experiment be made immediately after
the former, as it eafily may, by dexteroufly moving the
pin, it will appear the more extraordinary.
Exp. 5. The Divining Circles.
. On the top of a thin box, as AB fig. 13. pafte tivo DivmiU
circles drawn on paper, as F, G, each of which is di-circles."
vided into compartments. In thofe of one circle, as G,
are written queftions, and in thofe of the other, as F,
appropriate anfwers. Through the centre of the circle
G an axle paffes, carrying a toothed wheel, and which
works into the pinion d, to the axis of which is fixed
another pinion, and this receives the teeth of another
wheel g, whofe axis is paffed through the centre of the
circle F. On the axis of the wheel c is to be fixed an
index a above the paper circle, and to the axis of the
wheel g juft below the cover of the box, is fixed a bar
magnet q q, turning together with the axis 5 while on
the part of the axis that proje&s above the circle F a
loofe needle xx is balanced, fo as to move independent¬
ly of the axis. A carton of ftrong paper, of the lize
of
(b) The balance of a watch is Ihmetimes, though very feldom, made of brafs, when it is fcarcely fufceptible of
magnetic influence.
Chap
II. M A G N
Experimen-of F fliould cover the pafted circle, and turn eafily on
tal Illuftra- the centre z j and it fhould have a triangular piece as
, tir'ns' F cut cut, in order to fee the anfwers. If now the
v needle be taken off its point, and a perfon be defired to
alk feme of the queffiuns on the circle G, the index
muff be turned to the queflion, and then the needle
placed on its pivot, giving it a whirl round. When it
flops, its point will fland over the proper anfwer,
which may be feen by turning the open part of the car¬
ton to that place.
Sect. III. Of the
Communication
Magnetifm.
and Production
44
Iron be-
netical by
proximity
to a mag¬
net.
The whole of this important part of the fubjeft may
be faid to depend on one general fact, which we fliall
therefore firft lay down and illuflrate.
udny piece of iron when in the neghbovrhood of a mag-
comes mag- net iiflf a magnet, and poffelfes all the material pro-
Tw ' . l 17 1 J. v
perties oj that body.
Ex. i. Let there be a large and ftrong magnet pro¬
perly fupported in the horizontal diredtion, at a diftance
from iron or other fimilar bodies, and with its poles per-
fedtly free. Take alfo any fmall piece of common iron,
not more than two or three inches long, fuch as a com¬
mon fmall key, and take another piece of iron, as a
fmaller key, or Ihort piece of wire about the fize of a
goofe quill.
In the firft place hold the key in a horizontal pofi-
tion, with one end oppofite one of the poles of the mag¬
net, but fo as not to be in contadl with it. Then bring
the other piece of iron to the other end of the key, and
it will hang by the key, and will fo continue to hang,
though we withdraw the key from the magnet horizon
tally, till there is a certain interval between the key
and the magnet, when the former will be no longer
able to fupport the piece of iron. Even at this diftance
the key will, however, be found capable of fuppovting
a piece of iron confiderably fmaller than the former,
till its diftance from the magnet be increafed.
Again, hold the key with one extremity below one
of the poles of the magnet, and touch the other extre¬
mity-with the fmall piece of iron, the latter will ad¬
here till the key be removed too far below the magnet.
Thirdly, Hold the key with one of its extremities
above one of the poles of the magnet, but at fuch a
diftance that there is room for the fmall piece of iron
to go between the key and the magnet, without touch¬
ing the latter. The piece of iron will be fupported by
the key, as in the two former inftances.
Fourthly, Let the magnet be placed in a vertical po-
fition, and hold the key with one extremity immedi¬
ately below or above one of the poles. The piece of
iron will be fupported in a fimilar manner, in the form¬
er cafe by the extremity of the key that ss moft remote
from the magnet, and in the latter by that which is ad¬
jacent.
If, inftead of approaching the magnet with the key,
we reverfe the circumftances, the effedl of the magnet
in rendering the key magnetical will be ftill more evi¬
dent. Suppofe the piece of iron to be lying on the
table ; let one end of it be touched with the key, and
there will be found ho attradlion between them : but if
while we hold the key very near one extremity of the
wire, we bring the pole of the magnet near the ether
E T 1 S M. 373
end of the key, we ftiall fee the wire rife from the Expenmen-
table, and adhere to the key. ta t:0 , '
In all thefe cafes the attractive power of the key,
that is, its magnetifm, is evidently derived from its
juxtapofition to the magnet.
Exp 2. Let two pieces of iron wire be fufpended by
feparate ends of a piece of thread, fo that they may be
hung from a pin in the wall in a fituation parallel to
each other, or in contact. Now bring one end of a
bar magnet a little below the wires, and they will re¬
pel each other. If thefe wires are of foft iron, they
will collapfe immediately on the magnet being with¬
drawn 5 but if they are formed of hard iron or of iteel,
they ivill continue apart for a confiderable time.
Here the two wires are, by the proximity of the
magnet, become magnets, and the extremities next the
bar have each acquired a fimilar polarity, i. e. both
contrary to that of the adjacent pole of the bar. They,
therefore, repel each ether.
Exp. 3. Let a bar-magnet, fuch as N, S, fig. 14,
be laid in a horizontal pofition, and let a fmall key, as
B, C, be held near the north pole of the magnet, in
the dire&ion of its axis. Let a very fmall magnetic
needle, fupported on a fharp pivot, be brought near that
end of the key C, which is moft remote from N. The
needle will immediately turn its fouth pole towards C,
as is indicated by the feathered part of the arrow c.
Hence it appears that the key has acquired a diredive
power like a magnet, and that its remote extremity
performs the office of a north pole, as it attrads the
fouth pole of the needle, and repels its north pole. If
it be faid that the magnetic needle in this cafe is affed-
ed diredly by the diredive power of the magnet, as it
would take the above pofition though the key were not
prefent ; to ihew that the effed is produced through
the medium of the key, remove the needle into another
fituation as /?, and it will ftill arrange itfelf with the
fame pole oppofite C, and if it be carried to the prox¬
imate extremity of the key, as at a, it will turn round,
and prefent its north pole to B, thus (hewing that it is, .
at lead in iome meafure, influenced by the key. . ^
In general, when a piece of iron is prefented to the Nearelt end'-
pole of a magnet, the extremity next that pole is pof- acquires a
feffed of the contrary polarity, and the remote extremi- P0’ianty
ty has acquired a fimilar polarity. The fituation
the poles, however, depends much on the form of the adjacent
piece of iron, and on the part of its furface which is pole of the
prefented to the pole of the magnet. If the form be iaagnet-
that of an oblong bar, one extremity of ivhich is pre¬
fented to the pole, which is the moft ufual cafe, the
circumftanccs will be as we have juft mentioned. If
the oblong bar be prefented to the pole in a perpendi¬
cular diredion, with its middle very near the pole of
the magnet, tins middle point will be pofieffed of a po¬
larity contrary to that of the adjacent pole, while the
twro extremities have acquired the fame polarity. It
the prefented iron be in the form of a circular plate, .
and its centre be held near the pole of the magnet,
this centre will have the contrary polarity, and every
point of the circumference the fame polarity. If the
plate have its circumference faftiioned into points, each
of thefe points wall acquire a very ftrong polarity, con¬
trary to that of the pole near which the centre of the
plate is held.
The communication of magnetic power from the
mavnet
"374-
Experimen-magnet to the key in the foregoing experiments, will
tai Illuftra- fljjj ftrongly illuftrated by holding another
■ "'^2' . piece of wire to the wire that is already fufpended by
the key. The new piece of wire will alfo be fufpend¬
ed, and fo feveral more may be fufpended by one ano¬
ther, like the links of a chain, according to the ftrength
of the magnet. This fa£l was known to the ancients,
who fpeak of a loadllone caufing an iron ring to carry
another ring ; and that a third, till the whole puts on
46 the appearance of a chain.
Induced It will be found that the magnet has loft none of its
magnetifm. p0wer by producing magnetifm in the iron, and of
courfe, that nothing has been transferred from the
magnet to the iron. The magnetifm of the iron thus
caufed by its juxtapofition to a magnet is called induced
47 magnetifm, or magnetifm bij indued ion.
Apparent There is an apparent exception to the umverfality of
exception, propolition. If the key be held in fuch a
pofiticn as that it ftiall be perpendicular to the magnet,
•with one extremity either oppofite one of the poles, or
a little above the centre of the magnet, the bit of wire
v ivill not be attracted by that extremity, and we may
hence fuppofe that the key has acquired no magnetic
powrer by its proximity to the magnet. But if we‘bring
a needle or a piece of iron wire near its remote end, it
will be ftrongly attracted, and fhew that end to have
the fame polarity with the neareft pole of the magnet.
Now, the ends both of the key and the wire that are
next the magnet, having the fame polarity with the pole
of the magnet neareft them, cannot attraft each other,
but on the contrary will repel each other, and there¬
fore the wire cannot adhere to the key, though by the
change produced by the other extremity, it is evident
4S that the key has acquired magnetic power.
Real ex- There is, however, one exception. If the key in the
ception. fjj.fi- experiment, with the wdre hanging to it, be carried
from any of the fituations there deferibed, tow-ards the
middle of the magnet, the wire will fall oft' as foon as it
arrives very near the middle. If we fuppofe a plane to
pafs through the centre of the magnet in a direction
perpendicular to its axis, fo as to form the magnetic
equator, a fender piece of iron held any where within
this plane can acquire no fenftble magnetifm, which is
demonftrated by its (hewing nofigns of polarity, and not
being attracted by the magnet. Now it is well known
that the greateft aflivity of a magnet refides in its two
poles, and that thofe magnets are the beft in which
this aclivity is leaft diffufed. A certain circumference
of every magnet is entirely inactive, as we fee in the
experiment with the iron filings deferibed in N° 26.
.where the filings collefl: themfelves principally on two
points of the furface, between which there is a fpace all
- round, to which no filings are attached. Many cir-
cumftances fhew that the two poles of a magnet have
.contrary eftions-, the north pole producing a ftrong
northern polarity in the remote end of an iron bar
brought near it, and a fouth polarity in the proximate
end, while an oppofite effeft is produced by its fouth
pole. Now, adopting this principle, that the aftiens of
the two poles are oppefite, it follows that if thefe actions
are equal, and a£t in a fimilar manner, each muft coun¬
teract and prevent the action of the other, and pro¬
duce what may be called a magnetic equilibrium.
Therefore if a fender iron rod or thin plate be placed
- fo- that every part of it lies within the magnetic equator,
1
Chap. II.
it svill exhibit no magnetifm, will not be attracted by Experimen-
the magnet, and will not attraft iron. This will betai Eluftra-
feen more fatisfaftorily when we have explained the . L~ ^ .
theory of magnetifm.
The confideration of the above important fa£ts will
enable us to explain, efpecially after what will be
ftated in the next chapter, the production or communi¬
cation of magnetifm in all the methods by which thefe
are ufually elfeCted. ■ 4^
Magnetifm may be produced artificially in a piece of^h^iat
iron or feel, by various methods. magnetUm
1. By touching the iron or Jleel either with a natural ° ’
magnet, or with a feel bar already magnetized. By touch-
The procefs of communicating magnetifm by na- ^ng with a
tural or artificial magnets, or by what has been called ma£net‘
touching, has undergone various improvements and mo¬
difications, which we (hall endeavour briefly to trace.
The moft fimple method of magnetizing a bar of old me-
fteel is to apply the north pole of a magnet to that ex-thods.
tremity of the bar which we wiih to acquire a fouth po¬
larity. In this way, merely by contadf, a flight degree
of magnetic power will, after forae time, be imparted to
the bar, and the communication will be expedited by
ftriking the bar fo as to make it found. Only a flight
degree of magnetifm can, however, be communicated in
this way, and unlefs the fteel bar be very (hort, its poles
will be much confufed.
Another method ©f communicating magnetifm to a
bar of this kind is, to apply the pole of a magnet to one
end of the bar, and pafs it on to the other end, giving
a moderate degree of preffure. This is repeated feveral
times on both Aides of the bar, taking care always to
begin the ftroke at the fame end as at firft, and inftead
of drawing the magnet back along the bar, lifting it up
every time that we come to the other end. The fol¬
lowing defeription wall beft explain the mode of com¬
municating magnetifm in this way, by one or two mag¬
netic bars.
When only one magnetic bar is to be made ufe of,
one of its poles muft be applied as reprefented fig. 15.
where CD reprefents the needle or fteel bar to be im¬
pregnated. The magnet A B is then to be drawn all
along the furface of it, till it reaches the extremity D.
The magnet being then removed, muft be applied to
the extremity C, and drawn over the needle as before.
Thus the needle muft be rubbed feveral times, by
which means it will acquire a confiderable degree of
raagnetifm. In this method, the other extremity of
the needle which the magnet touched laft acquires the
contrary magnetifm •, that is, if B be the north pole of
the magnet, C will be the north pole and D the fouth
of the needle. This method, however, is never found
to be equally effectual with that in which two magnets,
or both poles of one magnet, are made ufe of.
To communicate magnetifm by means of two mag¬
netic bars, place the bar or needle AB, fig. 16. upon a
table; then fet the two magnetic bars CD, EF,
ftrdigbt upright upon it at a little diftance, equal on
both fides from the middle of the bar AB, and in fuch
a manner that the fouth pole D of one of the bars may
be neareft to that end of the bar AB which is to be¬
come the north pole, &c. Thefe two bars muft then
be Aid gradually towards one extremity of the bar,
keeping them conflantly at the fame diftance from each
other j and when one of them, for inftar.ee CD, is ar¬
rived
M A G N E T I S M.
Chap. II.
Experimen-rived at A, then they muft be flid tne contrary way,
tal Illuftra-£ip ;irnVes at B ; and thus the bar AB mud be
. tlons- , rubbed a greater or fmaller number of times, till it
v wiH be found by trial to have acquired a confiderable
power. When the magnetic bars are powerful, and
the bar AB of very good Heel, and not very large, a
dozen of ftrok.es are fully fufHcient •, but when the bars
are to be removed from the bar A.B, care muft be taken
to bring them to the fame fituution where they were
firft placed ; viz. a little and equal dittance frorn the
middle of the bar AB, from which they may be lilted
up.
The mode of employing two bars inftead of one was
an improvement, and the raetnod was ftill farther im¬
proved by placing them in an inclined poution, with
their extremities C, E, remote from each otner, and
Hiding them contraryways from the middle towards
each extremity of the bar AB, lifting them up when
they come to the extremities, and replacing them on
the middle of the bar, thus repeating the operation as
often as required.
IVetu ‘ of Horfe-fhoe bars, or thofe of a femicircular form, may be
Kuching magnetized in a fimilar manner, except that the mag-
ci rved bars. j-,ar3 employed for the purpole muft follow the
curvature of the bar to be impregnated. The follow¬
ing is the method ulually employed for magnetizing
bars of this kind. The crooked bar is laid ftat upon a
table, and to each of its extremities is applied a ftraight
magnetic bar, as DF, EG, fag. 17. and the remote ex¬
tremities of thefe bars F, G, are joined by the conductor
or piece of foft iron EG. Then to its middle are to be
applied two magnetic bars, with their oupofite poles at
a little diftance from each other, H, I, and with thefe
the crooked bar is to be ftroked from end to end, fol¬
lowing the direftion of the crooked bar, fo that on one
fide of it the magnetic bars may ftand in the dire&ion
reprefented by the dotted lines at K and L. When in
this manner the piece of fteel ABC has been rubbed
a fufficient number of times on the one fide, it is to be
turned, and the fame operation repeated on the other fide,
taking care that the adhering magnetic bars, and the
conduftor of foft iron, be preferved in the fame fituation
as at firft. It muft be obferved that in this procels t^e
magnets DF,DG, as well as the magnets H,I, muft be
placed fo that their fouth poles (hall be towards that ex-
S3 tremity of the bar which is to be made a north pole.
Duhamel’s A material improvement in tne prcceis (or communi-
improve- cating magnetil'm from artificial magnets to fteel bars,
was introduced by Duhamel. He formed a right-
angled parallelogram, two of the fides of which were
made by two equal bars of fteel, that were intended to
be magnetized, while the ether two were formed by
joining the extremities of the fteel bars by two pieces oi
foft iron, alfo equal to each other in length, but much
(horter than the fteel bars. Then taking two parcels of
bars already magnetized, he brought togetner their op-
pefite poles towards the middle of one of the fteel bars
forming the parallelogram, and inclining the parcels as
in fig. 18. he made them glide gently, feparating them
from each other towards the extremities of the bar j
and this operation was repeated as often as required,
when the inclined parcels of magnetic bars were car¬
ried to the oppofite bars of the parallelogram, and this
was rubbed in a fimilar manner. After the bars were
375
rubbed fufficient]y on one fide, they were, as in xomer Exp^iraen-
cafes, turned on the other. U1 t;0^s_5®r
This method is one of the beft that we can employ u—<
for magnetizing the needles of compafles, and iuch
fteel bars as are of a moderate thinnefs, efpeciaily it we
employ magnetic bars ftrongly impregnated for the pnr-
pofe of rubbing the fteel bars.
Much about the time that M. Duhamel contrived
the above method, the fame object was employing thementby
attention of experimental philofophers in England, Mitchell
where the procefs of magnetizing bars was much im-anc^anton’
proved by Mr Mitchell and Mr Canton.
Mr Mitchell employed two parcels of bars already
ftrongly magnetized, joined together in a parallel di-
redlion, with their oppofite poles united at each extre¬
mity, but in fuch a manner, that there remained be¬
tween the two parcels a fmall interval. He then
placed a number of equal fteel bars in a ftraight line,
and made one extremity of the magnetized bars
Hide over the line formed by the fteel bars at right
angles j and this he repeated as ufual. In this way he
found that the intermediate bars in the ftraight line ac¬
quired a great degree of magnetic power.
Mr Canton placed the bar which he wiftied to mag¬
netize, fo as to form part of a parallelogram, as in the
method of M. Duhamel, and then employed the fame
means as Mr Mitchell for impregnating the bar, after
which he feparated the two parcels oi magnets, and in¬
clining them to each other in the manner of Duhamel
upon the bar, he made them Hide from the needle to¬
wards the extremities. This laft method confiderably
augmented, according to Mr Canton, the magnetic
power of the bar ; but by Coulomb it is confidered as
the only effcclual part of the procefs. Thefe methods
of Mitchell and Canton conftitute what has been called
the double touch, which was ftill farther improved by
the celebrated Aipinus. c „
This philofopher, after having formed a parallelo- Method of
gram with fteel bars, and pieces of foft iron, in the man-iEpinus.
ner of Duhamel, placed upon the bar to be magne¬
tized, two parcels of magnetic bars inclined in fuch a
way that each of them formed on its own fide an angle
of 150 or 20° with the fteel bar on which it was placed j
their oppofite poles being at a very fmall diftance from
one another. Keeping the parcels of magnetic bars in
the fame relative lituation with refpeeft to each other,
he made both parcels Hide along alternately from the
middle of the bar towards each extremity, beginning at
every renewal of the dperation from the middle 01“ the
bar. This method has a very great advantage over the
former, as by it we may magnetize bars of confiderable
length and thicknefs, by means of magnetic bars that
have no great magnetic power.
In all thefe proceffes it muft be remarked, that, in 5°
order to proceed properly, it is neceffary to employ a temai J'
confiderable degree of preffure. A parallelogram of fteel
bars and foft iron ftiould be kept firm by wedges, fome-
what in the manner of printers types, and the extremi¬
ties of the magnetic bars ftiould be perfeftly cleaned.
Dr Robifon fuppofed, that wetting thefe extremities
confiderably aided the procefsj but he found that the
leaft particle of oil between the bars greatly obftrufted
it, as did the fmalleft piece of the thinneft gold leaf.
He found that bars which were rough acquired a more
powerful
M A G K E T I S M.
7(3
M A G N E T I S M.
57
Improve¬
ments of
Coulomb.
i'-srer'men- powerful majrnetifm than thofe which were moderately
taj^Lihiftra- pQljjPg,] . j-nl*; that, if moderately rough, they acquired
■ ‘ 7s' - the fmt degrees of magnetifm more expeditioufly than
fmooth bars, but did not receive fo ftrong an impregna¬
tion as the latter.
The method of making artificial magnets has been
greatly improved by M. Conlomb, who in a feries of
memoirs, printed in the Memoirs of the Academy of
Sciences, and of the National Inftitute of Paris, has
communicated a number of valuable obfervations and
experiments that have contributed, perhaps more than
any preceding labours, to the advancement both of
the theory and praflice of magnetifm. Many years ago
he publifhed his procefs for making very powerful arti¬
ficial magnets.
In his operations he ufes four very ftrong magnets
previoufty impregnated. He placed his two ftrongeft;
magnets, (as NS, NS, fig. 19.) on an horizontal plane
in one right line, at fuch a diftance that they might be
a few lines nearer to each other than the length of the
needle n r intended to be magnetized. He afterwards
took the two magnets N' S', and inclining them as in the
method of Aipinus, he placed them firtl on the middle
of the needle, or with their poles nearly in contaft.
He then drew each magnet, without changing its in¬
clination, to the extremity of the needle, and repeated
this operation 5 or 6 times on each face of the needle.
It is clear, that in this operation the poles of the needle
n r remain fixed and invariable at the extremities of
the needle, by means of the two ftrong magnets NS
on which it refts. The effeft produced by thefe can
only be augmented by the a£hon of the two fuperior
magnets, which concur in magnetizing all the particles
of the needle in the fame dire61ion.
He found likewife, that in this method of magneti¬
zing there is a greater certainty of giving to both fur-
faces of needles intended to determine the magnetic
meridian, an equal degree of magnetifm •, a circum-
ftance deferving of the greateft attention in the con-
ftruftion of compaffes, if the needle be fufpended with
its broadeft furface parallel to the horizon.
After thefe previous procelfes, he took 30 bars of
fteel hardened and tempered to the temper of a fpring,
five or fix lines broad, two or three lines thick, and 36
inches long. The blades of fencing foils, fuch as are
found in the (hops, make pretty good magnets. Eng-
lifti ftieet fteel cut into pieces one inch wide, harden¬
ed and lowered to fpring temper, is preferable. When
each compound magnet is to contain no more than 15
or 20 pounds of fteel, it is fufticient to make the bars 30
or 36 inches long.
He magnetized each bar fingly, according to the me¬
thod already defcribed. He then took two reftangular
parallelopipedons of very foft iron, well polifhed, fix
inches in lengh, between 20 and 24 lines broad, and 10
tar 1 2 lines thick. With thefe two parallelopipedons, re-
prefented fig. 20. at N and S, he formed the armour
of his magnet by enveloping one extremity of each
parallelopipedon with a ftratum of his magnetic bars, fo
that the extremities of the parallelopipedons may projecl
beyond the extremities of the bars 20 or 24 lines, and
the other end may be enveloped by the ends of the fet
of bars. On this firft: layer of fteel bars of three or four
lines thick he places a fecond, three inches ftiorter than
the find, fo that the firft projects beyond the fecond
£S
ron or
fteel be-
Chap. TI.
about 18 lines on each fide,. The who’e is fecuredExperimen-
at the ends by two binding pieces of copper, which taO‘hutr.i-
prefs the bars clofe together, and prevent the armour tl0ns ,
from efcaping.
Fig. 20. reprefents two artificial magnets compofed
according to the method juft defcribed. N and S are
the extremities of the two iron paralleiopipedons. The
two other extremities are inclofed by the bars. Each
magnet thus compounded is folidly connefled together
by the copper pieces marked b, d, b'. The pieces
of contact A, R, join the oppoiite poles of the mag¬
nets.
Pie found by experience, that with an apparatus of
this form, each part weighing 15 or 2olbs. a force of
80 or loclb. will be required to feparate the pieces of
contaft ; and that when an ordinary needle of the com-
pafs is placed on the two extremities of the compound
bars, fig. 20. they become magnetized to faturation, with¬
out being rubbed with the upper pair. When magnets
ol greater force are defired, it isneceffary, in proportion
as the number of bars is increafed, to augment their
length alfo, and the dimenfions of the parallelopipedons
of iron which ferve for the armour. It would be eafy to
afcertain the different dimenfions which the magnets
ought to have, in a manner iufticiently accurate for prac¬
tice, from the laws of magnetifm, and the pofition of
the centre of aftion of the bars of fteel of different
lengths and thicknefs.
2. Iron or Jleel is rendered magneticai by being placed^®
in a pojition correfponding to the magnetic meridian.
It has been often obferved, that a bar of iron which co™es,ma^ ’
has itood for a long time exatlly or nearly in the mag- pofition.
netic direction, has acquired a degree of magnetic
power, the extremities poffetfing oppofite polarity. In
this and other northern parts of Eurupe, old vanes •}£
turrets, window bars, and even pokers that have flood
long inclined in the chimney corner, are often very fen-
fibly magnetic, their lower extremity becoming a north,
and the upper a fouth pole. In the higheft part of the
fteeple of St Giles’s church in Edinburgh, on the north
fide, the upper bar of a hand-rail leading to a flair is
very magneticai. It is worthy of remark, that thofe
parts of fuch old bars which have become foliated and
crumbly by expofure to the air are the mod magneti¬
cai. This magnetic ftate of perpendicular iron bars
was, as we are informed by Dr Gilbert, firft obfer¬
ved in the vane fpindle of the Auguftine church at
Mantua. ^
3. A bar of Jleel long hammered or expofed to violently ham-
friblion, while lying in the magnetic meridian, becomes mering or
magnetic. friction.
This fa£! was well known to Dr Gilbert, who in
a plate reprefents a blackfmith hammering a bar of
fteel in the magnetic pofition. Many fmiths tools,
fuch as long drills, that receive great preffure while in
motion, broaches that are worked with a long le¬
ver, fo as to aft very faff, become very fenfibly mag¬
neticai j the lower end, in thefe latitudes, being always
a north pole. When a fteel punch is driven hard into
a piece of iron, the punch has fometimes been render¬
ed magneticai by a fingle blow. There is fcarcely a
cutting or boring tool in a fidth’s {hop that does
not poffefs fome degree of magnetic power. Even fob:
fteel and iron will acn'Are it by being violently twifted
or expofed to great friction, and the magnetifm thus ac¬
quired
Chap. II.
MAGNETISM.
6o
By heat.
Experimen- quired is commonly permanent. From this circum-
tai Ilmftra. {|ance is difficult to procure for nice experiments
■ ^ . pieces of iron that do not poffefs fome degree of magne-
tifm, and hence thefe experiments do not always fucceed.
It is therefore convenient to know how to deprive iron
and fteel of magnetifm, and the method of doing this
will appear from what will be faid in the next fec-
tion.
The fteel balances of watches are often magnetic,
fometimes even fhewing evident polarity; a circum-
ftance which is found to have fome effedt in difturbing
the proper going of fuch watches or time-pieces. Hence
it is recommended to make the balances of brafs. See
a paper on this fubjedt by Mr Varley, in the firft volume
of the Philofophical Magazine.
4. Magnetifm may be induced on fubjlances that are
fufceptible of it, by heat.
Dr Gilbert remarks that fuch ores of iron as are in
that particular metallic ftate, which he confiders as
molt fufceptible of magnetifm, will acquire this power
by being kept long in a red heat, while in a magnetic
diredtion j and that their polarity correfponds to their
polition, that end of the mafs which is oppofite the
north becoming a north pole. By many experiments
made both by Dr Gilbert, and fince his time by Dr
Hock, on iron and Heel bars, it appears that thefe ac¬
quire permanent magnetifm by being expofed to a
ftrong heat, and fuffered to cool gradually while lying
in the magnetic diredlion ; but that the magnetifm thus
acquired by fteel rods is much ftronger and more dur¬
able, if they are fuddenly quenched with cold w'ater,
fo as to give them a very hard temper. Dr Hooke
found that the end of the bar next the north, or the
low*er end of a vertical bar, always became its perma¬
nent north pole, and the upper end, even when quench¬
ed, while the reft wTas fuffered to cool gradually, be¬
came a very fenfible fouth pole. If thefe operations
were performed on bars placed in a polition at right
angles to the magnetic diredlion, no magnetifm wras
acquired. Dr Gilbert makes a remarkable obfervation
refpedfing the pofition of a magnetic needle brought
near an ignited bar of iron, wffiich w'as fome years ago
repeated in the Philofophical Tranfadlions as a newT dif-
covery. “ Bacillum ferreum, valide ignitum appone ver-
forio excito : flat verforium, nec ad tale ferrum conver-
titur : fed fatim ut primum de candore alifiiantulurn
remiferit, conjluit illico.'1'' Thus it appears that iron is
not fufceptible of magnetifm when red hot, but that it
acquires magnetic power during its cooling. Dr Gil¬
bert afeertained the degree of heat moft favourable to
the produdion of magnetifm, but from his want of pro¬
per thermometers he did not fucceed. Dr Robifon
found that though a bright red or a white heat does
not make iron lufceptible of magnetifm while it is ex¬
pofed to fuch a heat, it predifpofes it for becoming
magnetic*!. He found that when a bar of fteel was
made to acquire magnetifm by being tempered in the
magnetic diredion, the acquired magnetifm was much
ftronger when the bar w^as firft made very hot, even
though allowed to acquire its moft magnetical ftate be¬
fore being quenched, than if it had been heated only to
this latter degree. Nay, he always found it ftronger if
quenched while red hot.
He alfo found that when he heated a fmall fteel bar
red-hot, and quenched it while lying between two
VOL. XII. Part I.
a M. 377
magnets, it acquired a much ftronger magnetic power Experimen-
than it would acquire in any other way.
Mr Canton contrived the following method of pro-1
ducing magnetifm in fteel bars, without the afiiftance
either of natural or artificial magnets. 61
Take twelve bars, fix of foft, and fix of hard fteel, Canton’s
the former three inches long, one-fourth of an inch rne^?°^
broad, and one-twentieth of an inch thick } with two ^.ag_
pieces of iron, each half the length of one of the bars, nets,
but of the fame breadth and thicknefs. The fix hard
bars fhould be each five inches and a half long, one-
half inch broad, and three-twentieths of an inch thick,
with two pieces of iron of half the length, but of the
fame breadth and thicknefs as one of the hard bars j
and let all the bars be marked with a line quite round
them at one end •, then take an iron poker and tongs,
or two bars of iron, the larger they are, and the longer
they have been ufed, the better j and fixing the poker
upright, or rather in the magnetical line between the
knees, hold to it, near the top, one of the foft bars,
having its marked end downwards, by a piece of few-
ing filk, which muft be palled tight by the left hand,
that the bar may not Aide; then grafping the tongs *
with the right hand, a little below the middle, and
holding them nearly in a vertical pofition, let the bar
be ftroked by the lowrer end from the bottom to the
top about ten times on each fide, which w'ill give it a
magnetic powrer fufficient to lift a fmall key at the
marked end $ which end, if the bar wrere fulpended on
a point, wmuld turn towards the north, and is there¬
fore called the north pole, and the unmarked end, for
the fame reafon is called the fouth pole. Four of the
foft bars being impregnated after this manner, lay the
other twro parallel to each other, at a quarter of an
inch diftant, between the twm pieces of iron belonging
to them, a north and a fouth pole againft each piece of
iron ; then take twro of the bars already made magneti¬
cal, and place them together fo as to make a double
bar in thicknefs, the north pole of the one even with
the fouth pole of the other, and the remaining two be¬
ing put to thefe, one on each fide, fo as to have two
north and two fouth poles together, feparate the north
from the fouth poles at one end by the interpofition of
fome hard fubftance (I, fig. 21.), and place them per¬
pendicularly with that end downward on the middle of
one of the parallel bars AC, the tw-o north poles to
wards its fouth end, and the two fouth poles towards
its north end. Slide them three or four times back¬
ward and forward the whole length of the bar ; then
removing them from the middle of this bar, place them
on the middle of the other bar BD as before dire&ed,
and go over that in the fame manner; then turn both
bars the other fide upwards, and repeat the former ope¬
ration : this being done, take the two bars from between
the pieces of iron, and piecing the two outermoft of
the touching bars in their ftead, let the other two be
the outermoft of the four to touch thefe with \ and this
procefs being repealed till each pair of bars have been
touched three or four times over, will give them a con-
fiderable magnetic power.
When the fmall bars have been thus rendered mag--
netic, in order to communicate the magnetifm to the
large bars, lay two of them on the table, between their
iron conduftors as before 5 then form a compound mag¬
net with the fix fmall bars, placing three of them with
3 B the
t
1 04
8
M A G N E T 1 S M.
i?xperimen-the north poles downwards, and the three others with
Ui'oor':lra~ the foiith poles downwards. Place the two parcels at
a.„  . an angle, as was done w ith four of them, the north ex¬
tremity of the one parcel being put contiguous to the
fouth extremity of the other-, and with this compound
magnet llroke four of the large bars, one after ano¬
ther, about twenty times on each fide, by which means
they will acquire lume magnetic power.
- w ben the four large bars have been fo far rendered
magnetic, the fmall bars are laid afide, and the large
ones are ftrengthened by themfelves, in the manner
followed with the fmall bars.
To expedite the operation, the bars ought to be fix¬
ed in a groove, or between brafs pins, otherwife the
attraction and friCHon between the bars will be conti¬
nually deranging them when placed between the con¬
ductors.
This whole procefs may be gone through in about
half an hour, and each of the large bars, if w^ell har¬
dened, will lift about 28 ounces troy, and they are fit¬
ted for all the purpofes of magnetifm in navigation and
experimental philofophy. The half dozen being put
into a cafe in fuch a manner as that no two poles of
the fame name may be together, and their irons wdth
them as one bar, they will retain the virtue they have
received •, but if their power fhould, by making experi¬
ments, be ever fo much impaired-, it may be reftored
W'ithout any foreign affiitance in a few minutes.
Thefe bars mult be kept in a wmoden box, arranged
in fuch a manner that their oppofite poles may lie to¬
gether, as reprefented at fig. 22.
There are various methods of communicating a per¬
manent magnetifm to ferruginous bodies, by means of a
bar rendered magnetic, by pofition, of which the molt
limple is that deferibed by Mr Marcel, whofe experi¬
ments were made in the year 1726. Being employed
in making fome obfervations on the magnetic power
which he found in great pieces of iron, lie took a large
vice weighing 90 pounds, in which he fixed a large
anvil weighing I2lbs. The fteel to which he wifhed
to give the magnetic power was laid upon the anvil in
a north and fouth pofition, which happened to be the
diagonal of the fquare furface of the latter. He then
took a four cornered piece of iron an inch thick every
way, 33 inches long, weighing about 81bs. having one
end rounded and brightly poliihed, the other being
tapered. Holding then the fteel faft upon the anvil
with the one hand, he took the iron bar in the other,
and holding it perpendicularly, lie rubbed the fleel
hard with the rounded part towards him from north to'
fouth, always carrying the bar far enough round about
Ko begin at the north. Having thus given io or 12
ftrokes, the fteel was turned upfide down, and rubbed
as much on the other fide. Proceeding in this manner
till it had been rubbed 40Q times, the fteel was as
ftrongly magnetic as if it had been touched by a pov.-er-
iul loadftone. The place where he began to rub was
always the north pole. In thefe experiments it feme-
times happened that the virtue was imparted by a few
ftrokes ; nay,, by a fingle ftroke a fmall needle was
made to receive a very confiderable power. Thus he
imparted to two compafs needles fueh a degree of mag¬
netic power, that one lifted three-fourths, and another
a whole ounce of iron, and although thefe needles were
anoiqted with lintfeed oil to keep them from rufting,
62
Marcel’s
method.
Chap. IT.
and a hard coat was thus formed upon them, they Experimen-
ncverthelefs retained their power. Thus alfo a knife tal
vvas made fo ftrougly magnetical, that it would take up , llons' ,
an ounce and three-fourths of iron. Four fmall pieces
of fteel, each an inch long, and one-twelfth of an inch
broad, as thin as the fpring of a watch, were thus im¬
pregnated with the magnetic power, and then joined
into a fmall artificial magnet; which at its firft forma¬
tion took up eight times its owm weight of iron ; and
after being fix years kept in the moft carelefs manner,
was found to have gained rather than loft any thing of
its power. In the courfe of his experiments, Mr Mar¬
cel found, that the end at which he began to rub vras
always.the north pole, whatever pofition the fteel was
laid in. On rubbing a piece of fteel from one end to the
middle, and then from the other end to the middle, it
acquired two north poles, one at each end, the middle
being a' fouth pole. Beginning to rub from the middle
towards each end, he found a north pole in the middle,
and a fouth pole at each .extremity. ^
Magnetifm may be communicated to a fmall piece Method of
of foft fteel in the following manner: take two iron
bars of about an inch fquare, and upwards of three ^eet offca iteef
in length ■, keep them in the magnetical line, or in a
perpendicular pofture, as reprefented fig. ■23. Let the
piece of fteel CB be either faftened to the edge of a
table, or held by an affiftant ; and placing the lower
extremity of the bar AB, and the upper extremity of
the bar CD, on oppofite lides, and in the middle of
the fteel, ftroke the latter from the middle toivards
its extremities, moving both bars at the fame time.
When both are arrived at the extremities of the fteel,
remove them from it, and apply them again to the
middle. Do fo for 40 or 50 times, and the fteel will
be found to have a confiderable degree of magnetic
powrr. Care, however, muft be taken, in removing
the bars, not to draw them along the furface of the
fteel, or the experiment will not fucceed, becaufe the
magnetifm is deftroyed by the contrary ftrokes. g
The late Dr Gowin Knight pofleffed a furprifingD,-Knights
Ikill in magnetifm, being able to communicate an ex- artificial
traordinary degree of attrafliye or repulfive power, and loadftones.
to alter or reverfe the poles at pleafure j but as he re-
fufed to difeover his methods upon any terms what¬
ever (even as he faid, though he ftiould receive in re¬
turn as many guineas as he could cairy), thefe curious
and valuable fecrets have died with him. In the 69th
volume of the P'.ulofophical Tranfadlions, however, Mr
Benjamin Wilfon has given a procefs, which at leaft
difeovers one of the leading principles of Dr Knight’s
art, and may perhaps be a means of difeovering the
whole to thofe who fhall be lefs referved. The doc¬
tor’s procefs, according to Mr Wilfon, was as follows.
Having provided hinftelf with a great quantity of clean
iron filings, he put them into a large tub, that was
more than one-third filled with clean water 5 he then,
with great labour, worked thd tub to and fro for many
hours together, that the fridion between the grains of
iron by this treatment might break off fuch fmaller
parts as would ^remain fufpended in the water for a
time. The obtaining of thefe very fmall particles in
fufficient xjuantity leemed to him to be one of the prin¬
cipal defiderata in the experiment.- The water being
by this treatment rendered very muddy, he poured the
fame into a clean iron veffel, leaving the filings be¬
hind 5
Chap. IT. M A G N
Experimen-hind ; and when the water had flood long enough to
tal Tllullra- be clear, he poured it out carefully, without difturbing
. tlons- fuch of the fediment as ftill remained *, which now ap-
v peared reduced almoft to an impalpable powder. T his
pow'der was afterwards removed into another veflel in
order to dry it; but as he had not obtained a proper
quantity thereof by this one flep, he wras obliged to re¬
peat the procefs many times. Having at laft procured
enough of this very fine powder, the next thing was to
make a pafte of it, and that with fome vehicle which
would contain a confiderable quantity of the inflammable
matter ; for this purpofe he had recourfe to lintfeed oil
in preference to all other fluids. With thefe two in¬
gredients only he made a ftiff paile, and took particular
care to knead it well before he moulded it into conve¬
nient (hapes. Sometimes, wdiile the pafte continued in
its foft flate, he would put the impreflion of a feal upon
the feveral pieces j one of which is in the Britilh Mu-
fleum. This pafte was then put upon wood, and fome-
times on tiles, in order to bake or dry it before a mo¬
derate fire, at about the diftance of a foot. He found
that a moderate fire was moft proper, becaufe a greater-
degree of heat made the compofition frequently crack
in many places. The time required for the baking or
drying of this pafte was generally about five or fix
hours before it attained a futficient degree of hardnefs.
When that was done, and the (everal baked pieces
were become cold, he gave them their magnetic power
in any direction he pleafed, by placing them between
the extreme ends of his large magazine of artificial
magnets for a lew feconds or more as he faw occafion.
By this method the pow-er they acquired was fuch, that
when any of thefe pieces were held between two of his
beft ten guinea bars, with its poles purpofely inverted,
it immediately of itfelf turned about to recover its na¬
tural direftion, which the force of thofe very powerful
bars was not fulftcient to counteradl.
In the 66th volume of the Philofophical Tranfa&ions
we have the following account from Dr Fothergill, of
Dr Knight’s method of imitating natural magnets, but
which is by Mr Cavallo fuppofed to be fome miftake
or mifinformation. “ I do not know, fays he,” that
ever the dodlor (Dr^Knight) left behind him any de-
fcription of a compofition he had made to form artifi¬
cial loadftones. 1 have feen in his poffefiion, and many
other of his friends have likewife feen, fuch a compofi¬
tion, which retained the magnetic virtue in a manner
much more fixed than either any real loadftone, or any
magnetic bar, however well tempered. In the natural
ones he could change the poles in an inftant, fo like¬
wife in the hardeft bars, but in the compofition the
poles were immoveable. He had feveral fmall pieces
of this corapofition w-hich had ftrong magnetic powders.
The largeft was about half an inch in breadth, very
little longer than broad, and near one-fourth of an inch
thick. It was not armed, but the ends were powerful¬
ly magnetic nor could the poles be altered, though it
was placed between two of his largeft bars, and they
were very ftrongly impregnated. The mafs w-as not
very heavy, and had much the appearance of a
piece of black lead, though not quite fo fhining. I
believe he never divulged the compofition, but I think
he once told me, the bafis of it was filings of iron re¬
duced by long-continued attrition to a perfeflly impal-
E T I S M. 379
pable ftate, and then incorporated with iome pliant Expenmen-
matter to give it due conlutence. t;ons
From thefe accounts it appears that the bafis of Dr i, — v ~—.i
Knight’s artificial loadftones was the black powder to
w'hich iron filings are reduced by being fhaken with
water, or the b/ack oxide of iron, formerly called mar¬
tial mthiops. Hence Mr Cavallo luppofes that the fol^
lowing receipt for imitating the natural magnets will
anfwer the purpofe.
Take fome martial oethiops, reduced into a very fine
powder, or, which is more eafily procured, b/ack oxide
of iron, the feales which fall from red-hot iron!
when hammered, and are found abundantly in fmiths
(hops. Mix this powder with drying lintfeed oil, fo
as to form it into a very ftiff pafte, and fhape it in a
mould fo as to give it any form you require, whether
of a terrella, a human head, or any other. 1 his done,
put it into a warm place for fome w'eeks, and it wall
dry fo as to become very hard •, then render it magnetic
by the application of powerful magnets, and it will ac¬
quire a confiderable power.
SECT. IV. Of the CircumJ/anccs which tend to impair or
dejiroy the Magnetic Power. '
65
The magnetic power in all its modifications, whether Magnetifm
of attraction, repulfion, or polarity, is in general tem-^™^
porary and perithing. The beft magnets, W'hether na¬
tural or artificial, unkfs carefully preferved, with at¬
tention to certain circumftances that will prelently ap¬
pear, are obferved to have their magnetic power dimi-
niflied. Natural magnets, and artificial magnets made
of fteel tempered as hard as poflible, retain their power
moft obftinately, and feldom entirely lofe it except un¬
der circumftances which we know to be unfavourable
to its durability. Magnets of fteel of a fpring temper,
are much fooner weakened, lofe more of their force
merely by keeping, and finally’ retain little or none of
it. Soft fleel and iron feldom retain magnetic power
wflien removed from the magnet where they acquired
it, unlefs their metallic ftate undergoes fome change.
The following circumfttyices have been obferved to
be moft powerful in diminifhing or deftroying the power
of magnets. x,
1. Improper pofition. Nothing has fo much effect in ^
impairing the power of a magnet as keeping it in anj[on?
improper pofition, that is, too far from the magnetic
line. If the axis of the magnet be placed in a direc¬
tion that ^s at right angles with the magnetic meridian,
that is, in this latitude nearly E. N. E. and W. N. W,
it will fooneft lofe its magnetic pow er ; and if it be
placed in the magnetic line, but in a contrary pofition,
or wflth the north pole where the fouth pole thould be,
if permitted to vibrate freely, it will gradually become
weaker every day, and unlefs it be a natural magnet,
or an artificial one made of very hard tempered fteel,
it will, in no very long time, entirely lofe its magnetic
power. 67
2. Heat. The diflipation of magnetic power is great-By heat;
ly promoted by heating the magnet. The heat of
boiling water has a fenfible effeA in this way ; but if
the magnet be expofed to a red heat, its power is en¬
tirely deftroyed, as has been long knowm. Dr Gilbert
obferved that the pow’er of magnets was deftroyed by a
3 B 2 heat
38° M A G N
> TKeC;7- ,neat t^at lvas not Sufficient to make tlie metal vifiblei n
y ^ darkj and Mr Canton found that the heat of boil¬
ing water weakened the power of a magnet, but that
tije greateil part of tins was recovered as the magnet
cooled. If the heat be applied when the magnet lies
in a politico molt favourable to the diffipation of mag-
netilm, the power is fooneft dellroyed ; hence, the belt
way to deprive iron or fteel of accidental magnetifm
is, to heat it red-hot, and allow it to cool while
lying in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic
line.
M. Couiomb has afcertained that at 200 degrees of
heat, two fifths of the magnetifm of a magnet is diffi-
^ pated, and that at 500 degrees the whole is loft.
By violent 3' violent treatment. It is very extraordinary
treatment; *hat the power of a magnet is impaired by rough ufage.
Dr Gilbert obferved that a magnet which he had
powerfully impregnated was greatly weakened by a
lingle fall on the floor ) and fince his time it has been
obferved that when a magnet falls on a flone, or re¬
ceives any concuffion that makes it ring, it is injured
much more than by being beaten writh any thing foft
and yielding. When a natural magnet is ground with
coarfe powders, in order to bring it to any required
form,, it is confiderably weakened. This fhews the
propriety of altering the natural form of loadftones as
little as poffible, and where this is neceffary, of doing
it as expeditioufly as may be, by cutting them brifkly
Sf) in the thin difks of a lapidary’s wheel.
By fi nilar 4. Placing them near each other with their Jimilar
vwfo{heing ^CS Magnets fituated in this way always weaken
1 e’ each other, and when a powerful magnet is placed near
a weaker, with their fimilar poles oppofed, the polarity
of the weaker is frequently reverfed, that is, if the
pole were north it becomes fouth, and vice verfa.
When the weaker magnet is a natural loadftone, or
has been made of hard tempered fteel, its original po¬
larity is reftored when the improper pofition is changed;
but if it has been made of fpring-tempered fteel, the
alteration is generally permanent, and often as com¬
plete as while the magnets were in the neighbourhood
of each other.
Chap. III. Theory of Magnetifm.
'Opinions of RESPECTING the notions which the ancient philofo-
the and- phers entertained about the caufe of magnetic pheno-
ents* mena, we know very little. One curious opinion which
they entertained of the reafon why a magnet was im¬
proved by the contaft of iron, is worth noticing. They
conceived that the magnet fed upon the iron, and hence
acquired additional attractive power; and when de¬
prived of this pabulum, it grew weak and languid.
— “ Nam ferro nurunt vitam, ferrique vigore
Vefcitur ; hoc dulces epulas, hoc pabula novit;
Hinc proprias renovat vires, hinc fufa per artus
Afpera fecretum fervant alimenta vigorem.
Hoc abfente perit, trifti morientia torpent
Membra fame, venafque fitis confumit apertas ”
Claudian.
In the 16th century, the philofophers of modern
times firft began to fpeculate about the caufe of magne¬
tic polarity, a phenomenon which then became mtereft-
ing on account of the difference of declination obferved
E I I S M. Chap. III.
by navigators. Various trifling opinions were publiffied Theory.
on the lubjecf. . Some faid that the needle was diretfted v '
by a.certain point in the heavens, which was little more
than faying that it pointed one way. Others alcribed
tne direction of the needle to vail magnetic rocks fitua¬
ted in the earth ; but as to the exa£t iituation of thefe
rocks, they d,d not give themfelves the trouble to in¬
quire, till Fracaftcri obferved, that, if thole rocks are
fuppafed to be lituated in any part of the globe yet vi-
fited by navigators, and if, as we mult fuppofe, they
adt like loadftones, they will caufe the diredtion to be
very different from what is obferved. He therefore
placed them fotnewhere in the inaccetiible polar regions,
though not immediately at the poles. Norman,°who’
as we have feen ( Ijifping Needle'), difeovered the dip
of the magnetic needle, and obferved that in every part
of Europe, the north pole pointed very far below the
horizon, was naturally ltd to alcribe this eftedl to the
influence of the earth, though he does not exprefs him-
felf as ii he thought that the needle was attracted by
any point within the earth, but only that it was always
directed to luch a point.
From comparing the different pofitions of the coni- Gilbert’s
pafs needle, as deferibed by Norman, with the pofitions theory,
which he had hinftelf obferved fmall needles to affirme
in relation to a magnet, Dr Gilbert was naturally led
to. confider the earth as a great loadftone, or elfe con¬
taining a great loauftone within it, which arranged the
dipping needle, or the needle of the compafs, in the
fame manner as he obferved a fmall needle polled on its
pivot, to.be arranged by a large magnet. Dr Gilbert
has explained his theory at large in his Physio/ogia Nova
de Magnete, et de Tellure Magno Magnete. It may be
briefly exprefled in the following terms. AH the ap¬
pearances of natural magnetilm are fimilar to what
would be obferved in the earth, w^ere a large magnet
with its poles fituated near the poles of the equator, viz.
the north pole not far from Baffin’s bay in North Ame¬
rica, and the fouth pole in about the oppolite part of
the globe. If a dipping needle were expofed to the
influence of fuch a large magnet, it muft arrange itfelf
in a plane paffing through the magnetic poles, a pofi¬
tion indicated' very nearly by the mariners needle ; and
the more we recede from the equator of the great mag¬
net, the more muft the dipping needle be inclined to
the horizon.
Dr Gilbert’s theory was equally ingenious and im- 7*
portant, and aftords, if firmly eftablithed, a complete
explanation of all the phenomena of magnetifm. At
the time it was firft publilhed, however, obfervations
were neither fufficiently numerous, nor fufficiently ac¬
curate, to enable the author to affign the real pofition
of the great magnet, nor to afeertain its laws of aftion.
I he theory was chiefly founded on obfervations made
by the dipping needle, and though thofe inftruments
made by Norman were more accurate than might have
been expe&ed at fo early a period of the fcience, the ob¬
fervations made with them cannot, from many circum-
ftances, be implicitly relied on. We are ftill in want of a
numerouscolledhon of oblervations on the dip, m order to
perfeft our knowledge of the magnetic poles. We can
only fay that the earth a£!s on the compafs needle in
the fame manner as a large magnet would adl; but the
appearances do not feem to refefnble the effeefs of what
we fhould confider as a good loadftone having two vi-
gorotts
Chap. III. M A G N E
Theory, porous poles, but rather fuch as would refult from the
^ adlion of a very irregular loadflone with its poles very
much diffufed.
73 It is unfortunate that our moil numerous obferva'ions
of the dip have not been made in thofe places where
they would be the moft inftruftive. Dr Robifon was of
opinion that a feries of obfervations ihould be obtained,
extending from New Zealand northward, acrofs the
Pacific ocean to Cape Fairweather on the weftern coaft
of North America, whence it ihould be continued
through that part of the continent. A fecond feries
might extend from the Cape of Good Hope along the
weiiern coaft of Africa to the tropic of Capricorn ;
thence acrofs the interior of the African continent
through Sicily, Italy, Dalmatia, the eaftern part of
Germany, the gulf of Bothnia, Lapland, and the weft¬
ern part of Greenland. This feries would be nearly in
a plane paffing through the probable fituations of the
poles. A third feries might extend at right angles to
the laft, fo as to form a fmall circle croffing the former,
palTing near Japan, through the iiland of Borneo, and
the wTeflern part of New Holland ; near Mexico, and
a few degrees weft of Eafter iiland. Here and at Bor¬
neo there would be a confiderable inclination of the
magnetic plane to the horizon, though this cannot be
found out. There are, however, other points of this
circle in which the dip is confiderable, where the incli¬
nation may be dilcovered. In ftiort, all circumftances
feem to indicate a multiplicity of poles, or what renders
calculation moft difficult, an irregular magnetiim in
which the polarity is very much diftufed.
Philofophers are very much divided refpedfting the fi-
tuation of the magnetic poles of the earth. We fhall
here ftate only a few of their opinions, referving a fuller
account of fome of them for the article Variation of
the Cowpafs.
. ?4 Dr Halley thought that the north magnetic pole was
as^to the near Baffin’s bay in North America. '
fituation of Profelfor Krafft (fee Peterfburgh Comment, vol. xvii.)
the magne-places the north pole in N. Lat. 70° and W. Long-
tic poles. - - ------ y - - 6
and the fouth pole S. Lat. 50°, and
230 from London
E. Long. 920.
Wilcke of Stockholm places the north pole in
N. Lat. 750 near Baffin’s bay, and in the longitude of
California, while he fixes the fouth pole in S. Lat. yo0
in the Pacific ocean.
Churchman fuppofes the north pole to be in N. Lat.
590, and W. Long. 1350, a little inland from Cape Fair-
weather ; and the fouth in S. Lat. 59®, and E. Long.
165* dire&ly fouth of New Zealand. (See Varia¬
tion)-.
Euler (Memoirs of the Acad, of Berlin, vol. xvi.)
places the north pole in N. Lat. '75°. Lemounier
(L ois dn Magnetifme) in N. Lat. 73®. Buffon in N.
Lat. 71°.
La Lande places it in N. Lat. 77® 4', and in about
W. Long. 98° from Paris. (See Connoiffance des Terns,
an. xii.).
Kow’ever ingenious this hypothefis of Dr Gilbert
was, it appears tojiave been nothing more than a fuga¬
cious conje<fture. The hypothefis, however, is con¬
firmed into a rational theory by many obfervations and
experiments which were unknown or unthought of in
oflfietheo- ^Gilbert’s time
ry. Mr Hindffiaw’s beautiful experiment on the effeft of
75 ,
Proois of
the truth
T r S M. ; 381
an upright iron bar on the oppofite ends of a compafs- Theory,
needle, according as one end or the other of the bar is '
next the earth (fee Variation of the Compafs') is an
abundant proof of the juftnefs of this theory.
We can imitate that experiment in a very fatisfatlory
manner by artificial magnetifm •, thus forming a juft
comparifon betw’een the aclion of the earth and that of
a magnet.
Let a large bar magnet, as SAN (fig. 24.) be fup-
ported fo as to have its ends detached from furrounding
bodies. Then place a fmall needle nicely poiied, as Bs
about three inches below N, the north pole of the mag¬
net, and fo that its diredlive power for the magnet may
be very weak. Now take a fmall piece of foft iron and
hold it in fuch a pofition as is reprefented at C its
lower end becoming a north pole will attradh the fouth
pole of the needle. Now, while the needle is kept in
the fame pofition, turn round the piece of iron into the
pofition D ; the fquth pole of the needle will be feen to
avoid it, and the north pole will be attradled. Here
the magnet may be compared to the earth, and the
fmall piece of iron to the iron bar in Mr Hindfhaw’s
experiment.
Again, it has been feen that magnetifm may be pro¬
duced in iron or fteel by hammering or heating them
while in a determinate pofition with refpedl to the
earth. The fame effedt will be produced by the fame
proceffes while the iron or fteel is in the neighbourhood
of a powerful magnet.
Laftly, the circumlfance of the magnetic inclination
of the north pole of the dipping needle being diminish¬
ed, and the horizontality of the compafs needle de-
ftroyed, as we afcend above the earth, is an additional
and certain evidence of the truth of this theory.
In ffiort, we may confider it as demonftrated, that
the earth is a great magnet, or contains a great mag¬
net, by the influence of which the diredlion of the
needle and all the magnetic pow-er acquired by iron,
when placed in a proper pofition, are produced.
A further illuftration and application of this theory
will be given prefently, when we have confidered fome
other hyppthefes pofterior to that of Dr Gilbert. ^5
It was very early an objedl with philofophers to af-Theories of
fign the immediate caufe of magnetic attraction and re-impuifioiu
pulfion, and of that faculty of mutual impregnation
which fo remarkably diftinguiffies iron from all other
fubftances. In particular, the curious arrangement of
iron filings ftrewed round a magnet forcibly attracted
their attention. It is fcarcely poffible to obferve this
arrangement without conceiving the idea of a ftream of
matter iffuing from one of the poles of the magnet,
moving round it, entering by the other pole, and again
iifuing by its former outlet. Accordingly, fuch an
idea wTas entertained in the earlieft times ; but very dif¬
ferent notions prevailed as to the manner in which fuch (
a rtream produced the eftedts obferved. One of the,
fimpleft methods was, to, conceive it a fling by impul-
fion, like any other dream of fluid matter. This idea
was entertained by Lucretius, who fuppofed the fur¬
rounding air to be fwept out of the way by the impul-
fion of the fluid, which thus rufhing round the magnet
carried the iron filings towards it.
In the laft century Euler framed an hypothefis of
magnetifm on this theory of impuliion. He fuppofes,Euler’s hy«
that the two principal cavf n which concur in producing
the
M A G N E
the wonderful properties of a magnet, are. Firft, 'A
particular ftru&ure of the internal pores of the magnets,
and of magnetical bodies j and, Secondly, An external
agent or fluid, which a£b> upon, and pafles through
thefe pores. This fluid he fuppofes to be the folar at-
mofphere, or that fubtile matter called eiher, which fills
our fyflem.
Indeed, moll writers on this fubjedl agreed in fuppo-
fing that there are cotpufcles of a peculiar form and
energy, which continually circulate around and through
a magnet; and that a vortex of the fame kind circulates
around and through the earth.
“ A magnet, befides the pores which it has in com¬
mon with other bodies, has alfo other pores confider-
ably fmaller, deflined only for the paffage of the mag¬
netic fluid. Thefe pores are fo difpofed as to commu¬
nicate one with the other, forming tubes or channels,
by which the magnetic fluid pafles from one end to the
other. The pores are fo formed, that this fluid can
only pafs through them in one direction, but cannot re¬
turn back the fame way ; fimilar to the veins and lym¬
phatic veffels of the animal body, which are furniftied
with valves for this purpofe : So that the pores of the
magnet may be conceived to be formed into feveral
narrow contiguous tubes, parallel to each other, as at
A, B, fig. 25. through which the finer part of the
ether patTes freely from A to B, but cannot return back
on account of the refiflance it meets with at «, tj, 6,
nor overcome the refirtance of the groiTer ether, which
occalions and continues the motion. For fuppofing the
pole A of a magnet, filled with feveral mouths or open
ends of fimilar tubes, the magnetic fluid, preffed by the
groffer parts of the ether, will pafs towards B with an
inconceiveable rapidity, which is proportionable to the
elafticity of the ether itfelf; this matter which, till it
■arrives at B, is feparated from the tubes by the groffer
parts, then meets with it again, and has its velocity re¬
tarded, and its dire£lion changed •, the fiream, reflect¬
ed by the ether, with which it cannot immediately mix,
is bent on both fides towards C and D, and deferibes,
but with lefs velocity, the curves DE and C F f, and
approaching by the curves d and c, falls in with the
effluent matter m rn, and again enters the magnet ; and
*}■ Lettres a forms tliat remarkable atmofphere, which is vifible
in the arrangement of fteel filings on a piece of paper
that is placed over a magnet” f.
We have, already had occalion (fee the article Im¬
pulsion) to make fome obfervations on the general
<lo£lrine of impulfion, and thefe need not be here re¬
peated. RefpeCting the explanations afforded by the
canals and dock-gates in Euler’s hypothefis, opening in
one diredion and (hutting in the other, we may ob-
ferve, that as thefe conftruftions are altered in a mo¬
ment in a bar of foft iron, merely by changing the po-
fition of the magnet, it is allonilhing that they fhould
ever have been conceived by fo acute a philofopher.
Even fuppofing fuch circumftances to take place, the
efteCts refulting from them fliould be the reverie of what
are aCtually obferved, as the impelling itream ftiould
move thofe bodies leait which afford the readieit chan¬
nels for its paffage. If the iron filings were arranged
by this impelling Itream, they fhould be carried along
with it, and if they are carried towards one pole of
the magnet, they ftiould be driven away from the
other.
7jne Prin-
eejfe i' Al-
iemagne.
78
T I S M. Chap. III.
/Epinus, of the academy of Pefer{hurgh, whofe theory Theory,
of electricity we have explained and illuftrated at confi- — ~J
derable length, was led by the analogy obferved be- 0^
tween the phenomena of eleCtricity and thofe of magne- j£p;nugt
tifm, and in particular from the refemblance between
the attractions and repulfions of the tourmalin and
thofe of a magnet, to conceive the idea that both claffes
of phenomena might be explained in a fimilar manner,
or that the phenomena of magnetifm, like thofe of elec¬
tricity, were to be attributed to the motions of a cer¬
tain fluid exiiting in all bodies fufceptible of magne¬
tifm. This conjeCture was confirmed by obferving, that
when magnetifm was induced on a piece of iron by its
proximity to a magnet, the power of the magnet is not
fenfibly diminifhed. The following is an. abftraCt of
Mr Aipinus’s hypothefis.
1. There exifts in all magnetic bodies a fubftance
which may be called the magnetic fluid, the particles
of which repel each other with a force that decreafes as
the diitance increafes.
2. There is a mutual attraction, varying according
to the fame law, between the particles of the magnetic
fluid, and the particles of iron.
3. There is a mutual repullion among the particles
of iron, following the fame law.
4. The magnetic fluid is capable of moving through
the pores of iron, and foft fteel, without any confider-
able difficulty : but its motion is more and more ob-
ftruCtec! as the fteel receives a harder degree of temper j
and in fteel of the hardeft temper, and the ores of iron,
it moves with the greateft difficulty.
5. From the fuppofed attraction between the magne¬
tic fluid and iron, the latter may contain a certain de¬
terminate quantity of the former, and this quantity will
be fuch that the accumulating attraction of a particle
of it for the whole of the iron, balances the repulfion
between the particles of the whole fluid contained in the
iron j fuppofing the quantity of fluid competent to a
particle of iron to be fuch, that the repulfion between
it and the fluid competent to another particle of iron,
is alfo equal to its attraction for that particle of iron.
Therefore the attraction between the fluid in one iron
bar A, and the iron of another bar B, is juft equal to
the repulfion between the iron in A and the iron in B.
This determinate quantity of fluid in the iron is called
its natural quantity.
6. From the mobility of the fluid through the pores
of irpn, it may, by the agency of a proper external
force, be abftraCted from ont end o an iron bar, and
condenfed.in the other end. This, however, is a vio¬
lent ftate, and the mutual repulfion between the parti¬
cles of condenfed fluid, together with the attraction be¬
tween the fluid and that part of the iron which it has
quitted, tend to produce a more uniform diftribution.
It is evident that fomething of this tendency muft take
place in every ftate of condenfation and rarefaction, and
that a perfeCt equilibrium can be produced only when
the fluid is diffufed with perfeCt uniformity. This ftate
of uniformity may be called the natural ftate of the
body.
7. The production of fuch a uniform diftribution will
depend on the nature of the reftftance to the motion of
the fluid, oppofed by the iron in its various ftates. If
this refiftance arifes merely from the communication of
motion, like that which perfeCt fluids oppofe to the mo-
, tion
3
Chap. III. ' MAGNETISM. 383
Theory.
80
Law of
magnetic
action.
81
Experi¬
ments of
Mufchen-
broeck,
8a
Of Hawkf-
bee and Dr
Brook Tay¬
lor,
tion of folid bodies, fuch refinance may be overcome
by the weakeft tendency to uniform diffufion; but if,
as feems moft likely, the obftruftion is like that of a
clammy fluid, or of a foft plaftic body like clay, after
the accumulation arifing from the aftion of an external
force, it may remain after that force is removed $ and the
difluflon will ceafe when there is a perfect equilibrium
between the obflrudlion and the difiufing force.
As the illuflration of this theory in general cafes is
precifely fimilar, mutatis mutandis, with that of electri¬
city, fo fully detailed under the article Electricity,
from N° 299 to 348, wre need not repeat it here, but
may refer the reader to that treatife, requefting him
to confider the illuftration as relating to the magnetic
fluid.
It is proper, however, to remark here, that the phe¬
nomena of magnetifm are limited by this circum-
ftance 5 that magnets always contain their natural
quantity of fluid. Of courfe, their aCfion on iron, and
on each other, depends entirely on its unequal diftri-
bution.
The mod important part of this theory is that which
explains the induCiion of magnetifm on iron and fteel
by juxtapofition to a magnet •, but before we can
properly enter on that, we muft notice iome other
particulars refpeCting the theoretical part of our fub-
-
A very material point in magnetifm, as in eleClricity,
is to afcertain the law of aCtion, according to which this
power aCls on the particles of iron and other matter ;
and accordingly this has long been an objeft of atten¬
tion with philofophers. The difficulty of afcertaining
this law is extremely great, as will readily appear by
the following confideration.
In the aftion of two magnets on each other, as A
and B, there are four different aftions to be confidered
that a£t at the fame time, though with different de¬
grees of force, and in different directions. Thus the
north pole of A repels the north pole of B, and at¬
tracts its fouth pole, while the fouth pole of A exerts
a repulfion on the fouth pole of B, and an attraction on
its north pole. Now the force, which we attempt to
meafure, is compounded of thefe four forces ; and thefe
we cannot meafure feparately. The attraction obferved
is the excefs of two attractions that are unequal above
two unequal repulfions, and v. v. with refpeCt to the
obferved repulfion. Further, if we reflect that it is pof-
fible for a mutual aCtion to exift between every two par¬
ticles of the different magnets, and that the intenfity of
this aCtion may vary, not only at different diftanceSj
but at the fame diftance, the difficulty will be greatly
increafed.
Numerous experiments have been made with a view
of afcertaining this law\ Mr Cavallo has detailed many
of thofe made by Mufchenbroeck j but their refults are
fo anomalous, that their inaccuracy is apparent. In¬
deed, the attempt to afcertain this law by obferving
merely the attractions and repulfions, was very unphilo-
fophical. The method employed by Mr Hawkfbee and
Dr Brook Taylor, viz. obferving how far the aCtion of
a magnet made a compafs needle deviate from the meri¬
dian at different diftances, was much more fcientific, as
this deviation is occafioned by the difference of the two
fums of the fame forces j and this may be made many
times greater than the other, and muff of courfe be
much more fenfible. The fliape of the magnets em- Theory,
ployed by them was, how'ever, very improper. Some ' v
experiments made by Mr Lambert of the academy of Qf
Berlin, were very judicious. He placed a magnetic bert.
needle at various diltances from a magnet, but in the
diredion of its axis, and marked the declination from
the magnetic line produced by the aCtion of the mag¬
net, and the obliquity of the magnet to the axis of the
needle. Thus the aCtion of the magnet and the natu¬
ral polarity of the needle were placed in oppofition and
equilibrium 5 but the great difficulty was to difcover
the proportional change of thefe forces by their obli¬
quity of aCtion on this fmall lever.
Mr Lambert obferved, that when the obliquity of
the magnet to the axis of the needle was = 30®, the
needle wTas made to decline 15® •, and when the obli¬
quity wTas r= 750, the needle declined 30*. Let us call
the obliquity 0 and the declination d, and let us put f
for that funCtion of the angle which is proportional to
the aCtion. Alfo let us call the natural polarity of the
needle/>, and the force of the magnet m. Then it is
evident that /> — m y f30 ; and p \ m —
f $0 \f 15 ; and for the fame realon p : mzzf, 75 :
/ 30, and therefore/, 15 :/, 30=/ 30 :/ 75. But
fine 15 : 3orzfine 30 : j 75 ; hence Mr Lambert con¬
cluded, that the fne was that funCtion of the angle
which was proportional to the aCtion of magnetifm on
a lever. As this point, however, could not be deter¬
mined by one experiment, he compared feveral other
obliquities and declinations wdth the fame diltances, and
with different diftances of the magnet, and fully proved
that he was right in his conjeCture.
The refult of Mr Lambert’s experiments fully proves
the fallacy of the theories of impulfion, which pretend
to explain magnetic aCtion by the impelling power of a
ftream of fluid, or by preffure produced by the motion
of fuch a ftream; as in fuch a cafe the preffure on the
needle muft have diminilhed in the duplicate ratio of
the fine ; or with the angle 90° the directive power
muft; have been four times as much as with the angle
of 30°, whereas it is Ihewn by obfervation to be only
twice as much.
When Mr Lambert had afcertained the effect of ob¬
liquity, he proceeded to examine that of diftance 5 and
he found, that if w”e put f for the force of the magnet,
and 5 for the diftance of the neareft pole of the magnet
from the centre of the needle, and a for a conftant
quantity nearly equal to two thirds of the length of the
needle,/will be proportional to (3—a*).
Dr Robifen endeavoured to inveiiigate this law in a Dr Robi-
very fimple manner. He caufed to be made fome mag-Ion’sinvefti-
nets confifting of two balls conneded by a flender rod.S^1005,
By a particular mode of impregnation (which we fup-
pofe to be quenching them, after being red hot, be¬
tween two magnets) he gave them a pretty good mag¬
netifm j and the force of each pole appeared to be near¬
ly confined to the centre of the ball, which was his ob- -
jeCl in making them of fuch a fliape, as it reduced the
examination of their attraCfive and direClive power to a
very eafy computation. The refult of his experiments
was, that the force of each pole varied inverfely as the
fquares of the diftances, or at leaft the error arifing
from fuch an hypothefis was very fmall, amounting on¬
ly to one-fifteenth of the whole.
Dr Robifon made a near approximation to the law'
of t
334
8S ,
Picture of
he magne'
■t forces.
Theory. Qf a^ion, by fuppofing that tbe fun6tion of the diftance
y expreffing that law, reprefented by the ordinates of a
curve fimilar to the hyperbola, referred to its affymp-
tote as an axis, towards which its curve was of courfe
always convex. On this luppofition he explained the
attradlions and repullions of magnets nearly in. the fol¬
lowing manner.
Let there be two magnets, A and B (fig. 26.) pla-
* ced fo that their four poles, S, N, s, », may be in a
flraight line. Now, on the ftraight line O ^ take O m,
0/>, O «, O ^rrN J-, N «, Sr, S n; and let MPNQ^ be a
curve line, whofe afymptotic axis is the faid line O q.
Draw the ordinates /«M, /> P, N«, y Qto the curve, and
thefe wdll reprefent the intenfities of the forces exerted
between the poles of the magnets. The diftance be¬
tween m, n, or between f> and q zr the length of the
magnet A, and m /> or n q — that of B, and M rw, P/>,
N n and Qq, are pairs of ordinates that are equally
diftant. Now, it is eafy to fee from the figure, that in
whatever fituation the pairs of equidiftant ordinates may
be, M<7 will always exceed P/>-j-N/7, or the
fum of the attractions will be always greater than that
of the repulfions.
Let the chords MQ, PN, MP, NQ be drawn. Bi-
fe£l them in B, D, L, F, and join EF. Draw the or¬
dinates E e, Fy'j and BD b (cutting EF in C). Draw
P u parallel to the axis, cutting E e in i. Draw alfo
£) z’ parallel to the axis, cutting Fy'in <p. Alfo draw
FHL parallel to the axis, and P 0 / parallel to QN *,
and draw PL /, and ^ ex, cutting M.m in / and x.
Let each ordinate be reprefented by the letter at its in-
terfeflion with the axis. Thus, the ordinates Mw
and Qq may be reprefented by tn and q, &c. Be-
caufe MP is bifeCled in E, M / is double of E 1, M /
is double EL, and M # double of E e. Again, P/
being narallel to Q n, and P a to Q_z, t u equals
N i.
If thefe ordinates are fuppofed to reprefent the mu¬
tual aClion of the magnetic poles, their tendency to or
from each other, that is, their attra&ions or repuifions,
may be expreffed by (wz-j-f)—(ff+/)) which reprefent
the excefs of the fum of the aClions of the neareft and
moft remote poles above the fum of the aftion of the in-
I termediate diftant poles. This tendency may often be
conveniently reprefented by (zz—■/>)—(«-—y) or the ex¬
cefs of the difference of the aClions exerted by the near-
eft pole of A on the two poles of B, above the differ¬
ence of the aftions of the remote pole of A on the fame
poles of B. Now, i. If we fuppofe the diflirnilar poles
of A and B to front each other, m-\-q will reprefent
attractions, and repulfions •, but m-\-q is greater
than p-\-n^ therefore A and B wTill attraCl each other.
Again \jn-\-q)—equals M /, ~ 2 E 0 ~ 2 BD
“4 CD. ,
The above aCtion will be increafed by any one of
four circumftances, as, 1. By increafing the ttrength of
either magnet. 2. By leffening the diftance between
the two magnets. 3. Increafing the length of A, the
diftance between it and B remaining the fame. 4. By
increafing tbe length of B, the diftance between it and
A remaining the fame.
2dly, Let us place the magnets, fo that their fimilar
poles front each other. Here it is evident that the or¬
dinates which in the former cafe reprefented attrac¬
tions, will now reprefent repulfiojns, and that the repel-
I
MAGNETISM. Chap. III.
ling forces of the magnets are equal to the former at- Theory,
trading forces at the fame diftances. As magnets are—y—
feldom perfed, the repelling forces are, however, ufual-
ly weaker than the attrading. 87
To explain the diredive power of magnets, Dr Ro-Explana-
86
bifon fuppofed the magnet A not to be at liberty to a.p-^.^dl*
proach B or recede from it, but to be fupported at itspowen
centre B, lb as to turn round it. Now, its fouth pole1
j being more attraded by N than it is repelled by S,
B is on tbe whole attraded by A, and by this attrac¬
tion would vibrate like a pendulum fupported at the
centre B. Again, the north pole n being repelled by
N more than it is attraded by S, will be on the whole
repelled,’ and B zz would.alfo vibrate round B. Thus B
wmuld be kept in the pofition s B, zz. This will be more
evident if w’e fuppofe the magnet B arranged at right
angles to the line AB, as in the dotted reprefentation
s' B n' j for now s' and n' are urged in oppofite con-
fpiring diredions with equal forces, which, if the mag¬
net be very fmall, will ad nearly at right angles to n' s'.
If the pofition were oblique, the forces would be fome-
what unequal j and allowances muft be made for the ob¬
liquity of the adion, that we may know the precife ro¬
tative momentum. This modification of the adion of
A on B, we call the diredive power of A ; and the mo¬
dification of B, by which it tends to or from A, we call
the polarity of B.
Now, the diredive power of A and the polarity of
B may be increafed, 1. By increafing the ftrength of
either A or B, or both j 2. By diminilhing the diftance
between A and B ; 3. By increafing the length of A;
and, 4. By diminiihing the length of B the diftance be¬
tween them remaining the fame.
We may remark, that the diredive power of A is
always greater than its attradive power, by a certain
meafure which we may reprefent by the formula
2 (/>—q) which is thus derived. The difference be¬
tween them may be expreffed by 11~ 2 0 L *, but e e±z
Pp—p, and 1L—P/> — Ff—Vp—Q ^—F<p~Bp—
Q q — of, therefore 0 h = P p — Q<7, and 11 zz.
This pidure of the forces, attentively examined, will
fuggeft to the reader many interefting and inftrudive 88
particulars. Dr Robifon ufed to relate a curious and Curious'
inftrudive phenomenon that he was long puzzled t0^enomc'~
explain, refpeding the mutual adion of large magnets.
Amufing himfelf with fome experiments on magnetifm,
with two large ftrong magnets, as AB, fig. 27* which
wrere placed at about the diftance of three inches writh
their oppofite poles fronting each other, he had placed
a fmall needle balanced on a point between them as at
D, which arranged itfelf in the fame line with the mag¬
nets j but happening to fet it oft to a confiderable dif¬
tance on the table, as at F, he was furprifed to fee it
inftantly turn round on the point, and arrange itfelf in
an oppofice diredion. When brought back to D, it
reaffumed its former pofition, but when he carried it
• out gradually along the line DF, perpendicular to N s,
he found it grow fenfibly more feeble, vibrating more
ftowly ; and w’ben arrived at a certain point E, it {hew¬
ed no polarity towards either A or B, but retained any
pofition given it : but when carried farther out, it again
acquired polarity to the magnets, though in a contrary
diredion, arranging itfelf parallel to NS, with its
north pale next to N, and fouth pole next to S. Being
interrupted
Chap. III. M A G N
'JHieorv. interrupted in the profecution of this experiment, but
1 v having marked the line Dl1 on the table, he after¬
wards replaced the magnets and needle, placing the lat¬
ter at E, where he expe&ed it to be neutral; but it
now turned its north pole towards E, and did not be¬
come neutral till carried further out. When Hand¬
ing there, fomething happened to move the mag¬
nets A and B, which inltantly rulhed together, and
at the fame inftant the needle turned itfelf brilkly,
and arranged itfelf as before at F. In Ihort, by gra¬
dually withdrawing the magnets from each other, he
found that the needle firft became weaker, then neu¬
tral, and then turned into the oppofite pofition.
Dr Rmbifon explained this curious phenomenon by
what he calls primary and fecondary magnetic curves, >
fuch as NHM, NEL, and SGK, SEI; but our limits
do not permit us to enter here on the inveftigation of
thefe curves.
Law of ac- From all Dr Robifon’s experiments and calculations,
tion proba- he appears to have been fully convinced, that the true
ij}- law of magnetic adlion is in the inverfe duplicate ratio
'thTfquares °f t-ie di/lances, and his opinion is Hill farther llrengthen-
"of'ihe di- ed by the ingenious experiments of M. Coulomb related
fiances- jn the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences at Pans
for 1786 and 1787, or the Jour, de Phy. vol. xliii.
We are now prepared to examine the indudlion of
magnetifm in iron or Heel by juxtapofition to a magnet,
the general facts of which are mentioned and illuftrated
in N° 44.
It was remarked in N° 46, that the induction of mag-
netifm in the iron by being near a magnet was not pro¬
duced by a transference of fomething from the magnet
to the iron. It follows that there mult be fome inhe¬
rent property in iron, which is only excited, as it were,
or foufed into adtion, by the proximity of the magnet.
It has been remarked, that the magnetifm of iron is
momentary, but this muft be underllood only of the
fineft and purell: iron, as when this metal is in the Hate
of ore, or has undergone any change, as by expofure to
-the air, or by cementation, its magnetifm becomes
permanent, in proportion to the hardnefs of the me-
o ta^'
Induced It is great importance to obferve that the acquifi-
magnetifm tion of induced magnetifm is gradual and progreflive,
gradual. an(j that this gradation is more perceptible according as
the iron is in a harder Hate. In foft iron the induftion
appears to be inftantaneous throughout, unlefs the bar
be exceedingly long ; but when a magnet is brought
near a bar of tempered Heel, the near end acquires a
contrary polarity long before the remote end appears
affefted, and it is a long time before the remote end
acquires the fame polarity with the proximate end of
the magnet.
From what has been faid we may infer, that a piece
tracled on- of iron brought near a magnet, is attrafted only be-
ly becaufe caufe it becomes magnetical by indu6lion, and that
n becomes attraftion of a loadftone for iron, or the tendency
of iron to the loadflone, is the confequence of the pro¬
per difpofition of the magnetifm induced in the iron.
It has already appeared, that this phenomenon arifes
from the excefs of two attraflions above two repulfions,
and this is farther proved by the following conlidera-
tions : 1. That the magnetifm of the two poles is evi¬
dently of an oppolite nature, the one attra&ing what
the other repels, and vice verfa. If a piece of iron is
'Vol. XII. Part I.
91
Iron at-
magnetical.
92
E T I S M.
attracted by one, it ought therefore to be repealed by
the other ; but each pole, by inducing on the near end
of the iron a magnetifm oppolite to its own, and on the
remote end a limilar magnetifm, and its aclion dinn-
niihing as the diitance increafes, the attraction mult al¬
ways be in excefs, and the iron mutt on the whole be
attracted. 2. When we have two magnets placed in a
parallel pofition, with their oppofite poles together,
if a piece of common iron be brought near their ex¬
tremities, the different poles counteradting each other,
the piece of iron will not be fupported by the two mag¬
nets together, unlefs there is an inequality of adtion }
but it is evident that either of them alone would be
capable of fupporting the iron. 3. In all the cafes
where the indudtion of magnetiim is flowg the attradlion
is proportionally weak, and the attradlion increafes ex-
adliy according to the incredfe of the progrellive in*
dudlion. 4. An ore of iron that is not capable of ac¬
quiring magnetifm, is not attradled by the magnet, and
on the other hand it is an univerfal fadl, that no fub-
ftance which is not attradled by the magnet, can be
rendered magnetical.
The indudlion of magnetifm by juxtapofition affords Arrange-
a complete explanation of the curious arrangement of ment of
iron filings round a magnet. Let us fuppofe a greaW^^G*
many fmall oblong pieces of iron to be lying near each6 P ^
other on the furfase of mercury, and that a ftrong
magnet be brought into the midit of them. T hey are
all immediately rendered magnetical by indudlion ; any
one that is neareft the north pole of the magnet acquiring
two poles, one a north and the other a fouth pole, turns
the fouth pole towards the north pole of the magnet,
and the north pole away from it*, a fimilar effedl is pro¬
duced on another piece or filing that lies near the firtt,
and fo on of the reft. All thofe that lie near each
other muft mutually attradl, as the magnetifm of each
is fo difpofed that both ends of it are in a ftate of at¬
tradlion towards one or other of its neighbours. They
will therefore arrange themfelves by coalefcence in a
particular manner 3 if they are near enough, they will
unite by th^ir extremities, and if they are at fome di- ■
ftance they will point towards each other, forming
curved lines.
It is found that the magnetifm of magnets, whether Magnetifm
natural or artificial, is continually tending to decay, can be re-
Now as we find that this magnetifm may be induced verGfi*
merely by the approach of a magnet, and as wre know
that in producing magnetifm, magnets may oppofe each
other, it is reafonable to conclude, that when a fiight
though permanent magnetifm has been acquired by a
piece of iron by its vicinity to a magnet, it may be
deftroyed, and the contrary magnetifm induced, by
applying a magnet in the oppofite diredtion. Accord¬
ingly it is a well-known fadl, that the poles of magnets
made of foft fteel can be reverfed at pleafure.
This explains why magnetic repulfion is always
weaker than attradlion at the fame diftance, as magnets,
when placed with their fimilar poles fronting each
other, in order to try their repulfion, are thereby weak¬
ened ; whereas, on the contrary, magnets applied with
their oppofite poles, fo as to attradl each other, are
thereby improved, and their attradlive powers are
made to appear greater than they really are.
It has been obferved that a magnet is not weakened
by inducing magnetifm on iron. In fadl, it is rather
3 C improved
385
rhcory.
""V——
^4
Objedlion
to terref-
trial mag-
netifm an-
fwered.
95
Obferva-
tions of
Humboldt
ind Biot.
improved hy fuch ir dcdtidr, and this will increafe he
effedl j for as the magnet is improved, the induced
niagnetifm of the iron will be thereby increafe'd, and
thus the magnet will be thus fanner improved.
After what has been faid, we need not enter further
into an explanation of the phen-rfiena, or of the pro-
defies employed in making artificial magnets. They
are all referable to this one fa£l of the indu&uwi of
magnetifm by juxt-ipofition, and explanations will readi-
1y fuggefl themfelves to readers who carefully confider
the preceding faffs, and compare them with Dr Gil¬
bert’s theory of terrefirial magnetifm.
It is now time for us to return to Dr Gilbert’s hypo-
thefis, and confider an objection that has been ftrongly
urged again!! it.
There is ©bferved no tendency in the magnetic needle
towards thegreat terreflrial magnet, that is, though, when
made to float on water, it fpeedily acquires direflive
power, it does not in thefe latitudes approach the north
fide of the veffel, nor does an iron bar appear heavier
when its fouth pole is uppermoft, as ought to be the
cafe on account of the attraction of the great magnet.
Dr Gilbert faw this objection, and it appears to have
given him fome concern, fie attempted to get rid of
it by obferving that the directive power of a magnet is
greater than its attraffive force ; a faft in fupport of
which he brings many experiments. A much more
iatisfaflory anfwer may be derived from what has been
Hated refpefting the actions of the four poles. We
thence find, that tl^e polarity of the needle depends on
the difference of the Jt/rns of the affions of each pole of
the magnet on both poles of the needle *, whereas its
tendency towards the magnet arifing from the attraftion
between them, depends on the difference of the differ¬
ences of the fame aftions. Hence the former may be
very great while the latter is very fmall. We find
that fmall iron filings are much lefs forcibly attrafted
by magnets than coarfe ;Ones, and, if we confider
that the largeft magnets which we employ do not bear
lo great a proportion to the earth, as the fineft iron fil¬
ings to an ordinary magnet, we {hall not wonder that
the attraftive power of the earth is not very fenfible.
As this objection is one ot the ftrongeft that can be
brought againft the theory, and as wTe may confider
this as done away, we may now receive the theory as
juft fo far as it goes. We muft remark, that though
we call that pole of a magnet which inclines towards
the earth in the northern latitudes, a north pole, it is
properly fpeaking a fouth pole ; for as we muft call
that pole of the great magnet the north pole which is
in the north, and as this pole produces the contrary
polarity in the proximate end of a needle, that end muit
be poiTeffed offouth polarity. We fhall return to this
fubjeCt in the article Variation.
Some valuable obfervations on terreftrial magnetifm
have lately been made in France by M. M. Humboldt
and Biot, and as they would fuffer materially by a-
bridgement, we ihall prefent our readers wfith the great-
eft part of the memoir nearly as tranflated in the Philo-
fophieal Magazine, vol. xxii.
After explaining the objeCt of the memoir, and
giving an account of the fhare that he had in conduct¬
ing the obfervations, M. Biot proceeds as follows.
It is neceffary to confider the aCtion of terreftrial
MAGNETISM. Chap. III.
magnetifm under different points of view, correfpond- Theory.
ing to the different claffes of the phenomena which it
produces. 96
It we confider it firft in general, we find that it ^f£net'j'ni
aCts on the whole furface of the globe, and that it ex- vvhoteVur-
tends beyond it. This faCt, which Was doubted, has face of the
been lately proved by M. Guy-Luffac, during his two globe,
aeroftatic voyages. And if thefe obfervations, made
with all the care poflible, have not {hewn the leaf! fen¬
fible diminution in the intenfity of the magnetic force,
at the greateft height to which man can attain, we have
a right to conclude that this force extends to an inde¬
finite diitance from the earth, where it decreafes, per¬
haps, in a very rapid manner, but which at prelent is un¬
known to us.
If we now confider magnetifm at the furface even
of the earth, we fhall find three grand claffes of pheno¬
mena which it is neceffary to ftudy feparately, in order
to have a complete knowledge <~.f its mode of aCtion.
Thefe phenomena are, the declination of the magnetic
needle, its inclination, and the intenfity-of the magne¬
tic force, confidered either comparatively in different
places or in themfelves, paying attention to the varia¬
tions which they experience. It is thus that, after
having difeovered the aftion of gravity as a central
force, its variation, refulting from the figure of the
earth, was afterwards afeertained in different latitudes.
The declination of the magnetic needle appears . to
be that phenomenon which hitherto has more particular¬
ly fixed the attention of philofophers, on account, no
doubt, of the affifiance which they hoped to derive
from it in determining the longitude j but when it was
known that the declination changes in the fame place,
in the courfe of time, when its diurnal variations were
remarked, and its irregular traverfing occafioned by
different meteors, in a word, the difficulty of obferving
it at fea, within one degree nearly, it was neceffary to
abandon that hope, to confider the caufe of thefe phe¬
nomena as much more complex and abftrufe than had
been at firft imagined. ^
In regard to the intenfity of the magnetic power Magnetic
in different parts of the earth, it has never yet been Power h1'
meafured in a comparative manner. The obfervations
of M. Humboldt on this fubjedt have difeovered a very eqUator to
remarkable phenomenon 5 it is the variation of the in- the poles,
tenfity in different latitudes, and its increafe proceeding
from the equator to the poles.
The compafs, indeed, which gt. the departure of
M. Humboldt gave at Paris 245 ofcillations in 10 mi¬
nutes, gave no more in Peru than 211, and it conftantly
varied in the fame dire£tion 5 that is to fay, the num¬
ber of the ofcillations always decreafed in approaching
the equator, and always increafed in advancing towards
the north.
Thefe differences cannot be aferibed to a diminu¬
tion of the force in the magnetifm of the compafs, nor
can we fuppofe that it is weakened by the effb£t of time
and of heat $ for after three years refidence in the
warmeft countries of the earth, the fame compafs gave
again in Mexico ofcillations as rapid as at Paris.
There is no reafon to doubt the juftnefs of M.
Humboldt’s obfervations, for he often obferved the
ofcillatiohs in the vertical plane perpendicular to that
meridian j and by decompofing the magnetic force in
the
Chap.
Theory.
in.
M A G N
p*
Humboldt’
determina¬
tion of the
magnetic
"equator.
the latter plane, and comparing it with its total aftion,
which is exercifed in the former, we may from thefe
data calculate its direction, and confequently the di-
redtion of the needle (c). This inclination, thus calcu¬
lated, is found always conformable to that which M.
Humboldt obferved diredtly. When he made his ex¬
periments, however, he could not forefee that they
would be fubje&ed to this proof by which M. Laplace
verified them.
As the juftnefs of thefe obfervations cannot be
contefted, we muft allow alfo the truth of the refult
which they indicate, and which is the increafe of the
magnetic force proceeding from the equator to the
poles.
s To follow thefe refults with more facility, it will
be proper to fet out from a fixed term j and it appears
natural to make choice for that purpofe of the points
where the inclination of the magnetic needle is null,
becaufe they feem to indicate the places where the op-
pofite adlion of the two terreftrial hemifpheres is equal.
The feries of thefe points forms on the furface of the
earth a curved line, wThich differs very fenfibly from the
terreftrial equator, deviating from it to the fouth of tne
Atlantic ocean, and to the north in the fouth fea. M.
Humboldt found this equator in Peru about 7® 1' S.
Tat. which for that part of the earth places it nearly
in the fpot where Wilke and Temounier had fixed it.
The places fituated to the north of that point may
be divided into four zones, the three firft of which, be¬
ing nearer the equator, are about 40 of latitude, while
the latter, more extenfive and more variable, is 14 .
So that the fyftem of thefe zones extends in America
from the magnetic equator to 230 of north latitude,
and comprehends in longitude an interval of about
5°°.
The firft zone extends from 70 i' of fouth lati¬
tude to 2° 54'. The mean number of the ofcillations
of the needle in the magnetic meridian in 10' of time
is there 211,9 : no obfervation gives lefs than 211, or
more than 214. From M. Humboldt’s obfervations
©ne might form a fimilar zone on the fouth fide of
the magnetic equator, which would give the fame re-
fults.
The fecond zone extends from 2® 13' of fouth la-
30 15' of north latitude. The mean term of
E T I S M.
titude to j -j     -
the ofcillations is there 217.9: they are never below
220, nor above 226.
The fourth zone, broader than the other two, ex¬
tends from 90 15' to 23° 8' of north latitude. Its
mean term is 237 : it never prefents any obfervation be¬
low 229, nor above 240.
We are unacquainted, in regard to this part of
the earth with the intenfity of the magnetic force be¬
yond the latitude of 230 north ; and on the other hand,
in Europe, where we have obfervations made in high
latitudes, we have none in the neighbourhood of the
equator j but we will not venture to compare thefe two
claffes of obfervations, which may belong to different
fyItems of forces, as will be mentioned hereafter.
However, the only comparifon of refults, collected
in America by M. Humboldt, appears to us to efta-
blifh with certainty the increafe of the magnetic force
from the equator to the poles ■, and, without w'ifhing to
connect them too clofely with the experiments made in
Europe, wTe mult remark, that the latter accord fo far
alfo with the preceding as to indicate the phenomenon.
If w7e have thus divided the obfervations into zones
parallel to the equator, it is in order that we may more
eafily (hew the truth of the fa£t which refults from
them, and in particular to render the demonftration in¬
dependent of thofe fmall anomalies which are inevitably
mixed with thefe refults.
Though thefe anomalies are very trifling, they are
however, fo fenfible, and fo frequently occur, that,
they cannot be aferibed entirely to errors in the obfer¬
vations. It appears more natural to aferibe them to tne
influence of local circurhftances, and the particular at¬
tractions exercifed by collections of ferruginous mat¬
ters, chains of mountains, or by the large mafies of the
continents.
One of them, indeed, having carried to the Alps the
magnetic needle employed in an aerial excuriion, he
found that its tendency to return to the magnetic meri¬
dian was conftantly ftronger in thefe mountains than it
was at Paris before his departure, and than it has been
found fince his return. 1 his needle, which made at
Paris 83.9° in io' of time, has varied in the following
manner in the different places to which it was carried.
3 C 2 P/aces
fch Let HOC (fie. 2S.) be the plane of the magnetic meridian pafling through the vertical OC ; let OL be
tlm direftion of the needle fituated in that plane, and OH a horizontal. The angle LOH will be the inclina¬
tion of the needle, which we Ihall denote by I. If F reprefent the total magnetic force which afts in the di-
reftion OL, the part of this force which ads according to OC, will be F fine of I : but the magnetic orces
which determine the ofcillations of the needle in any plane, are to each other as the fquares of the olcillations
made in the fame time. If we denote them by M, the number of ofcillations made m 10 of time m the magnetic
meridian, and by P, the number of ofcillations made alfo in io', in the perpendicular plane, we Ihajl have the
following proportion: F fi I Pz
from whence we deduce
F ~
Sin. I ==
M*
p*
w
The inclination then may be calculated by this formula* when we have ofcillations made in the fame planes.
In like manner, by making a needle olcillate fucceffively in feveval vertical planes, we might determine the
direction of the magnetic meridian.
99 .
Terre ftnal
magnetifm
modified by
local cir-
eumitances.
Places of Obfervation.
Paris, before his departure,
Turin,
On Mount Genevre,
Grenoble,
Lyons,
Geneva,
Dijon,
Paris, on his return,
M A G N
Number of Ofcillations in
l o' of Time.
83 9
87.2
88.2
874
87 3
86. c
84-5
83.9
Thefe experiments were made with the greateft
care, conjointly with excellent obfervers, and always
employing the fame watch verified by frnall pendulums,
and taking the mean terms between feveral feriefes of
obfervations, which always differed very little from
each other. It appears thence to refult, that the adfion
of the Alps has a fenfible influence on the intenfity of
the magnetic force. M. Humboldt obferved analo¬
gous effedls at the bottom of the Pyrenees; for example,
at Perpignan. It is not improbable that they arofe-
from the mafs of thefe mountains, or the ferruginous
matters contained in them; but whatever may be the
caufe, it is feen by thefe examples that the general
aiffion of terreffrial magnetifm is fenfibly modified by
local circumftances, the differences of which may be
perceived in places very little diftant from each other.
4 his truth will be further confirmed by the following
obfervations. ,
It is to caufes of this kind, no doubt, that we muff
£ifcribe the diminution of the magnetic forces obferved
in fome mountains 5 a diminution which, on the firff
view, might appear contrary to the refults obtained du¬
ring various aerial voyages. This conjecture is fupported
by feveral obfervations of M. Humboldt. By making
his needle to ofcillate on the mountain of Guadeloupe,
which rifes 338 toifes above Santa-Fe, he found it in
Io' of time give two ofcillations lefs than in the plain.
At Silla, near Caracas, at the height of 1316 toifes
above' the coaft, the diminution went fo far as five of-
cillations 5 and on the other hand, on the volcano of
Antifana, at the height of 2467 toifes, the number of
ofcillations in 10 minutes was 230 ; though at Quito
it was only 218, which indicates an increafe of inten¬
fity. A fimilar effecff was obferved on the fummit of
Mount Genevre, at the height of 800 or 900 toifes, as
may be feen from the numbers already given ; and on
this mountain M. Biot found the greateft intenfity of
the magnetic force. He faw on the hill of La Super-
ga, in the neighbourhood of Turin, an example of
thefe variations equally ftriking. Obferving, with Vaf-
fali, on this hill, at the elevation of 300 toifes, they
found 87 ofcillations in 10 minutes of time. On the
fide of the hill they had 88.8 ofcillations, and at the
bottom, on the bank of the Po, they’ obtained 87.3.
Though thefe refults approach very near to each other,
their difference is, however, fenfible, and fully ftiews
that their fmall variations muft be confidered as flight
anomalies produced by local circumftances.
This examination leads us to confider the intenfity of
magnetifm on the different points of the furface of the
globe, as, fubjecff to two forts of differences. One kind
are general *, they depend merely on the fituation of the
places in regard to the magnetic equator, and belong to
a general phenomenon,, which is the increafe of the in-
E T I S M. Chap. 11 r.
tenfity of the magnetic forces in proportion as we re- Theory,
move from the equator ; the other kind of variations, ~—v——'
which are much fmaller and altogether irregular, feem
to depend entirely on local circumftances, and modify
either more or lefs the general refults.
If we confider terreftrial magnetifm as the effeft of
an attractive force inherent in all the material particles
of t.'j globe, or only in fome of thefe particles, which
■we are far from determining, the general lav/ will be,
the total refult of the fyftem of attraffion of all the par¬
ticles, and the fmall anomalies will be produced by the
particular attraftions of the partial fyftems of the mam.
netic moleculae diffufed irregularly around each' poiinj
attractions rendered more fenfible by the diminution of
the diftance.
It now remains to confider the inclination of the
magnetic needle in regard to the horizontal plane. It
has been long known that this inclination is not every
where the fame ; in the northern hemifphere the needle
inclines towards the north ; in the fouthern towards the
fouth ; the places where it becomes horizontal form
the magnetic equator j and thofe where the inclination
is equal, but not null, form on each fide of that equa¬
tor curved lines, to which the name of magnetic paral¬
lels has been given, from their analogy to the terreftri¬
al parallels. One may fee in feveral works, and parti¬
cularly in that of Lemounier, entitled Lois du Magne-
tif/ne, the figure of thefe parallels, and their difpofition
on the face of the earth. roo
It evidently refults from this difpofition, that the Inclination
inclination is in proportion as we recede from the magne- ^ ^
tic equator j but the law which it follows in its increafe, creWs Ts"
has not yet, as far as appears to us, been given. To we proceed
afeertain this law, however, would be of great utility 5fro:ri 1:116
for the inclination feems to be the moft conftant of aHmagnet^c
the magnetic phenomena, and it exhibits much fewer effaator
anomalies than the intenfity. Befides, if any rule well
confirmed could be difeovered on this fubjeft, it might
be employed with advantage at fea to determine the la¬
titude, when the weather does not admit an obfervation
of the fun; which is the cafe in various places during
the greater part of the year. We have fome reafon to
expeft this application, when we fee the delicacy of
that indication in the obfervations of M. Humboldt,
where we find 35' 6" of difference between two towns
fo near each other as Nifmes and Montpellier. Thefe
motives have induced us to ftudy with great intereft the
feries of obfervations made by M. Humboldt in regard
to the inclination $ and it appears to us that they may
be reprefented very exactly by a mathematical hypothe-
fis, to which we are far from attaching any reality in it-
felf, but which we offer merely as a commodious and
fure mode of connefting the refults.
To difeover this law, we muft firft exaffly deter¬
mine the polition of the magnetic equator, which is as
an intermediate line between the northern and the
fouthern inclinations. For this purpofe we have the
advantage of being able to compare two direft obferva*
tions, one of La Peroufe, and the other of M. Hum¬
boldt. The former found the magnetic equator on the
coafts of Brafil at io° sf of fouth latitude, and 250 25'
of weft longitude, counted from the meridian of Paris.
The latter .found the fame equator in Peru at 70 1' of
fouth latitude, and 8o° 41' of weft longitude, alfo rec¬
koning from the fame meridian. Thefe data are fuffi-
cient
Chap. ri.
M A G N E T I S M.
Theory.
cient to calculate tire portion of the magnetic equator,
fuppofjng it to be a great circle of the terreftrial fphere;
an hypothefis which appears to be conformable to ob-
fervations. The inclination of this plane to the ferref-
trial equator is thus found to be equal to lo° 58' 56",
and its occidental node on that equator is at 1 20° 2' 5"
weft from Paris, which places it a little beyond the
continent of America, near the Galhpagos, in the South
fea ; the other node is at 590 57'' 55" to the eaft of Pa¬
ris, which places it in the Indian feas. (d)
“ We do not give this determination as rigoroufly
exa£t; fome corre£!ions might no doubt be made to it,
had we a greater number of obfervations equally pre-
cifej but we are of opinion that thefe corre&ions would
be very fmall, and it will be feen afterwards that, in¬
dependently of the confidence which the two obferva¬
tions w’e have employed deferve, we have other reafons
for entertaining this opinion, (e)
“ It is very remarkable that this determination of
the magnetic equator agrees almoft perfeftly with that
given long ago by Wilke and Lemounier. The latter
in particular, vcho for want of direft obfervations
had difcufled a great number of correfponding ob¬
fervations, indicates the magnetic equator in Peru-to¬
wards 70 20' of fouth latitude, and M. Humboldt found
it in the fame place at 7° befides, Lemounier’s
chart, as well as that of M. Wilke, indicates for the
inclination of the magnetic meridian about ii°, and
they place the node about 140° of weft longitude, rec¬
koned from the meridian of Paris.
“ Can it be by chance, then, that thefe elements,
found more than 40 years ago, fhould accord fo well
with ours founded on recent obfervations ? or does the
inclination of the magnetic equator experience only
very fmall variations, while all the other fymptoms of
terreftrial magnetifm change fo rapidly ? We fhould
not be far from admitting the latter opinion, when w’e Theo
confider that the inclination of the magnetic needle has v“
changed at Paris 30 in 60 years fince it has been ob-
ferved *, and that at London, according to the obferva¬
tions of Mr Graham, it has not changed 2° in 200
years, while the declination has varied more than 20°
in the fame interval, and has paffed from eaft to wTeft :
but on the other hand the obfervation of the inclination
is fo difficult to be made with exadtnefs, and it is fa.
ffiort a time fmce the art of meafuring it with pre-
cifion was known, that it is perhaps more prudent to
abftain from any premature opinion on phenomena, the
caufe of which is totally unknown to us.”
To employ the other obfervations of M. Hum¬
boldt in regard to the inclination, the terreftrial lati¬
tudes and longitudes reckoned from the magnetic equa¬
tor were firft reduced. The latter, being reckoned from
the node of that equator in the South fea, M. Biot firft
perceived by thefe calculations that the pofition of that
plane determined by preceding refearches was pretty
exadl 5 for fome of the places, fuch as Santa-Fe and
Javita, wffiere M. Humboldt obferved inclinations almoft:
equal, were found nearly on the magnetic parallel, though
diftant from each other more than 6o° of longitude.
When thefe reductions were made, M. Biot en¬
deavoured to reprefent the figns of the inclinations ob¬
ferved, and to leave as little to chance as poffible. He
firft tried a mathematical hypothefis conformable enough
to the idea which has hitherto been entertained in re¬
gard to terreftrial magnetifm.
He fuppofed in the axis of the magnetic equator,
and at an equal diftance from the centre of the earth,
twTo centres of attraftive forces, the one auftral and the
other boreal, in fuch a manner as to reprefent the two
oppofite magnetic poles of the earth. He then calcu¬
lated the effeift which ought to refult from the adfion
of
(d) To calculate this pofition, let NEE' (fig. 29.) be the terreftrial equator j NHL the magnetic equator,
fuppofed alfo to be a great circle, and HL the two points of that equator, obferved by Meffrs Humboldt and
La Peroufe. The latitudes HE, LE', and the arc EE', which is the difference of longitude of thefe two points,
is known : confequently, if we fuppofe HE=£, LE'—EE'=^, EN~.r, and the angle ENHzrr/, we lhall
have two fpherical triangles NEH, NE'L, which will give the twm following equations:
„ tang, b cot. 7/ „ . . tang, b' cot. y
fin. *=-*-_ 1 fin. (y+tO=—^ J-',
from which we deduce
Qv+tQ tang. V
fin. x. tang, b ’
and developing - ,
y. tang, b fin, v cof. V
cot. „r=  — yr -r. •
tang, b' iin. ®
Let us now take an auxiliary angle fo that we may have
tang, b fin. v . n .
tang. (£>——2 — and we lhall have
6 r tang, b' 5
fin. v fin. <p
ung. A'—'fin
By thefe equations we may find x, and then jj, by any of the firft tw70.
(e) La Peroufe, after having doubled Cape Horn, fell in a fecond time with the magnetic equator in 18' north
latitude, and 1190 7' of longitqde weft from Paris. He was therefore very near the node of the magnetic equa¬
tor, fuch as we have deduced it from obfervations. This fa£t eftablilhes in a pofitive manner two important con-
fequences : Firft, that the preceding determinations require only very flight corredlions; and the fecond, that tho
magnetic equator is really a great circle of the eartbj if not exaftly, at leaft very nearly.
MAGNETISM.
of thefe centres In any point of the furface of the earth,
making their attractive force reciprocally vary as the
fquare of the diftance \ and in this manner he obtain¬
ed the direction of the rel’ult of their forces, which
ought to be that alfo of the magnetic needle in that
latitude.
He fuppofes that the point B (fig. 30.) is the north
magnetic pole of the earth, and that the point A is the
fouth magnetic pole •, he fuppofes alfo that there is in
the point M, at the furface of the earth, a molecula
of the auftral fluid which is attra&ed by B and repel¬
led by A in the inverfe ratio of the fquare of the di-
ffance j and he requires wrhat will be the direction of
the power refulting from thefe two forces aCting on
that molecula. It is evident that this direction will be
that alfo w'hich would be affumed in the point M by
the needle of a compafs freely fufpcnded ; for, in con-
fequence of the fmallnefs of the needle in ccmparifcn of
the radius of the earth, the lines drawn from its points
to one centre, B or A, may be confidered as parallel,
efpecially if the points A and B are near the centre of
the earth, which is the cafe with nature, as may be
feen.
Pie firft fuppofes that the earth has a fpherical fi¬
gure, and that the two poles A and B are equal in
force, and he then examines how far the latter fuppofi-
tion agrees with the refults obferved.
Let AM then ~ D', BM“D, CP ~ x, PM ~y,
the angle MCP“«, CArzCBzrtf. He then makes
^7—Kr; r being — the radius of the earth, and K a
eonftant but indeterminate quantity-
Let X, Y, alfo be the forces which attraCI M in
the direction of the axes of the co-ordinates, and /3 the
angle which the refulting force makes with the axis
ABC.
Chap. III.
He then gives the following equations, in which Theory.
F is the magnetic force, at a diilance equal to unity.
x=~ cof. MBD—~ cof. MAD j
D':
Dfz—H-{-2 axis -{-a1,
Y=-^- fin. MBD— i fin. MAD :
D* jy* 7
D*rry*-}-(^—ay=rz— 2 axis -f-*1, or, by putting for
the colines their values :
F(g—a) F(^-fa)
" ~ D* D'*
v_
'“D3 L)'3’
and as wre have
we fliall have alfo
tang. /3= 
Y
tang. /3=Y’
Y
D3'
x-\-a
Y_
'D'3
y(D'3—D3
D3 D'3 — (D'3—D3)—«(D'3-fD3) >
and by putting for x, y and a, their values, cof. u; r
fin. u
fin. K r j
tang. <6
tang. /3:
/D« + D3\,
co- K(d/3—D3/
D'*=:H(I-j-2K cof. w-f-K1) j
D*=r:r*(I—2K cof. «-pKz) j
w'hich gives the fyftem of the two equations,
fin. u
cof. u-
/ty3±D3\,
'KVd'3—DV
/B’3-{-D3\ _ (I-f-2K cof. a+KT+CI—cof. «+K*)V
AD'3—D3J~
(I-1-2K cof. a + K1)"—(I—-K cof. a-f-K)
Thefe equations determine the diredion of the mag¬
netic needle in regard to each point M, the diftance
of which from the magnetic equator is known; but it
is feen that this direftion depends on the quantity K,
which reprefents the diftance of the magnetic centres
from the centre of the earth •, this diftance being ex-
prelfed in parts of the terreftrial radius, w’e muft there¬
fore firft determine this quantity from obfervations.
To do it in the manner of approximation, and thus
acquire a firft idea of the value of K, M. Biot chofe
an obfervation made by M. Humboldt at Carichana in
6° 3 4' 5" of north latitude counted from the terreftrial
equator, and 70° 18' weft longitude reckoned from the
meridian of Paris, which gives 140 52' 25" of longitude
counted from the magnetic equator, and 48° 51' 53'' of
weft longitude, proceeding from the node formed by that
equator wfith the equator of the earth. PAe inclina¬
tion of the magnetic needle was obferved in that place
by M. Humboldt in the month of Mefildor, year 8,
and found to be, equal to 33,78° of the centigrade divi-
fion. A comparifon of this refult with the other ob¬
fervations of M. Humboldt, (hew's that it may indeed
be confidered as agreeing to that latitude.
3
To make ufe of it, M. Biot fucceffively gave to K
different values in the formula; he calculated the in¬
clinations refulting from that latitude ; and comparing
thefe refults with that which M. Humboldt really ob¬
ferved, the progrefs of the errors naturally led him to
the moft proper fuppofition. The following is a table
of thefe trials.
Values of K. Inclinations of the Needle. Errors.
K~I 7-730 26.04
K=o,6 18.80 14.97
K=o.5 22.04 11.73
K~o. 2 29.38 4.39
K=o.i 3°-64
Kzro.oi 31-04 2.73
K=O.OOi 31.07 2.7
The firfl: value of K would place the centre of the
magnetic forces at the furface of the earth and the
poles of the magnetic equator. It is feen that this lup-
pofition cannot be admitted, becaufe it would give ah
increafe of inclination much lefs rapid than that indi¬
cated by obfervations. The cafe is the fame with the
following
Chap. III.
M A G N
Theyry. following refults, which place the centres of aftion on
the terreftrial radius at different diftances from the
centre of the earth j but it is feen alfo in general, that
they approach more and more to the truth in proportion
as this didance becomes lefs j which evidently {hew7s
that the two centres of action of the magnetic forces
are fituated near the centre of the earth. All the other
obfervations of M. Humboldt would alfo lead to the
fame confequence. r
The molt proper fuppolition 'would be to make Iv
•null, or fo fmall that it w'ould he needlefs*to pay atten¬
tion to it 5 which amounts to the fame thing as to con-
fider the tw'o-centres of a&ion placed, as we may fay,
in the fame molecula. The refult, indeed, obtained in
this manner is the moft exaft of all •, it is =31.0843° \
this value is ftill a little lefs than that which M. Hum¬
boldt obferved, and the difference is =2.69 ; but it
muff be confidered alfo that the formula from which
we derive thefe values fuppofes the pofition of the mag¬
netic equator is perfeftly determined ; but it may not
be fo with the utmoff exa&nefs, according to the two
only obfervations of La Peroufe and Humboldt, which
we have employed. It is therefore by ftudying the
progrefs of the formula, and comparing it with the ob¬
fervations, that we are able to appreciate it juflly j af¬
ter w7hich wTe may think of remedying the fmall errors
with wntich it may be accompanied.
To obtain the refult here mentioned, and which is,
as it were, the limit of all thofe w'hich may be obtained
by giving to K different values, it is to be remarked
that the quantity
/D'3-fD3N
\D'3—DV’
or,
K(r + 2K c°r- a+K’pXI—2K cof. 77+K*)^
(I-f 2K cof. 0-f K*)^—(I—2K cof. w-l-K2)*
becomes — when K is null; but by applying to it the
o
methods of known quantities, it will be found that its
value in this fuppofition is really determinate and
=  L__. By fubftituting this in the formula we
3 coi. u J
ihall have
tang. /3=-
lin.
cof.
3 cof. «
equation which may be reduced to this form :
fin. m
which will eafily give the value of and when this
value is known, we (hall have the inclination I, by the
following formula :
1= IOO-}-W—/3,
which will ferve throughout the whole extent of the
two hemifpheres.
From the progrefs thus traced out, it is feen that the
preceding formula is not merely an empyric confiruc-
tion of obfervations on the contrary, it is totally in¬
dependent, and only fuppofes the inclination of the
E T I S M.
magnetic needle to be produced by a magnet infinitely
fmall, placed in the centre of the terreftrial furface ;
but by calculating from this formula the inclination for
the different latitudes, M. Biot found precifely the
fame numbers as M. Humboldt obferved either in Eu*
rope or America j and it is not his obfervations only
that are reprefented in this manner j but thofe which
have been made in Ruffia, and at Kola in Lapland,
during the laft tranfit of Venus, are alfo comprehended
under the fame law.
It is feen that the refults of the formula deviate very
little from the obfervations ; but thefe difference*; may
be rendered ftill fmaller. By examining, indeed, the
progrefs of the errors, it is feen that the numbers given
by calculation are a little too fmall in America for the
low latitudes, and a little too great for the high lati¬
tudes, which {hews that the whole may be allowed,
with fome flight modifications, either by changing,,
however little, the node and inclination of the magne¬
tic equator, which two obfervations cannot determine
with the utmoft exaftnefs, or by difplacing ever fo
little our fmall magnet, leaving, however, its centre
in the plane of the magnetic equator, and placing it in
fuch a manner that it {hall be a little nearer America
than Europe. It is by thefe obfervations themfelves,
wEen we {hall have a greater number, that wre muft be
guided in thefe fmall corredlions.
In a wmrd, it muft; not be expefted that we can re-
prefent in a rigorous manner, by a mathematical law,
all the inclinations obferved 5 for the phenomenon of
the inclination, though more regular than the other
magnetic effects, is not free from fome anomalies; this
tnay be eafily feen on conftrufling the curve given by
the obfervations themfelves. Thus, for example, the
inclination obferved at Popayan is o° 10' greater than
at St Carlos del Rio Negfo, though the magnetic la¬
titude of the latter is 30 7' greater. The cafe is the.
fame v.'ith obfervations made at Javita and Santa Fe.
Other anomalies are difcovered in the comparative pro¬
grefs of the obfervations and formula. This is the cafe
in regard to Carichana, St Thomas de la Guyane, and
Carthagena. The increafe of the inclination from the
firft to the fecond of thefe points is by no means in har¬
mony with the increafe from the fecond to the third ;
and if we compare together the intenfities obferved in
thefe different places, the anomalies they exhibit an¬
nounce in fome meafure thofe which the inclination
ough*. to experience.
The caufe of tbefe anomalies becomes evident from
what has been already remarked 5 they are merely the
effetft of local circura(lances, and arife from the fmall
fyftems of attraefion by which the general phenomena
are modified. This muft be fenfible in particular for
that part of America which M. Humboldt travelled
over, and which is traverfed throughout its whole
length by the grand chain of the cordillera of the An¬
des. It is alfo in thefe places that the mod confider-
able differences exiit. Popayan, for example, is fitaat-
ed near the volcanoes of Sotara and Pourace ; it is
joined to bafaltic mountains abounding with magnetic
iron. Near Sulumito, to the eaft of Popayan, thefe
bafaltic columns have very linking poles : in like man¬
ner Mexico is fituated at the height of 1160 toifes on
the ridge of the grand cordillera of Lenfchlitlan 5 the
ground there is covered with porous bafaltes and amyg¬
daloid s.
s
M A G N E
daloids, wliicli ara almofi; all charged with magnetic
iron. Muft not all thefe caufes have a fenfible influ¬
ence on the inclination of the magnetic needle 5 and
muft not the different difpofitions of the ferruginous
maffes. Or their change of ftate, in confequence of the
adlicn of nature, produce alfo variations ? M. Hum¬
boldt made on this point a decifive obfervation : the
earthquake of the 4th of November 1799 changed at
Cumana the inclination of the needle. On the iff of
November it was 430 65'; on the 7th it was only 420
75', and ten months after it returned t© 42° 85', but
it did «ot regain its former value ; the intenfity of the
magnetic force was not changed by the effedt of this
earthquake.
It is proved, then, by thefe obfervations, that local
circumftances may have on the inclination a fenflble in¬
fluence 3 and this influence is remarked in the countries
traverfed by M. Humboldt.
It appears, therefore, that the mathematical hypo-
thefis which we have employed really exprefles the
law of nature, at leaf! to the north of the magnetic
equator ; for, though the firft refults obferved towards
the fouth feem to bend to it alfo, the uncertainty under
which we are, in regard to the true caufe of tHefe phe¬
nomena mufl. flop our conjedlures, and prevent us from
extending too far the confequences of the laws which
we obferve (f).
From the preceding refults, we may calculate the
points where the axis of the magnetic equator pierces
the terreftrial furface 3 for their latitudes are equal to
the complements of the obliquity of that equator, and
their meridian is at ioo° of longitude from its nodes.
The north magnetic pole is found alfo at 790 T4" of
north latitude, and at 30° 2' 5" of longitude weft from
Paris, which places it to the north of America. The
other magnetic pole, fymmetric to the preceding, is
lituated in the fame latitude fouth, and at 149° 67' 5$"
of longitude eaft from Paris, which places it amidft the
eternal ice 3 indications entirely analogous to thofe of
Wilke and Lemounier.
If we could reach thefe poles, the cortipafs would
be feen vertical 3 but if any confidence can be placed
in the law which we have difcovered, this wmuld be the
only difference which wrould be obferved in regard to
the inclination, and we ftiould be ftill as far diftant
as in Europe from the real centres which produce
it. This refult might appear to be of fuch a nature
as to diminifti the intereft one might have in vifi-
ting thefe horrid regions, had we not alfo the hope
of difcovering there new phenomena in regard to the
intenfity of the magnetic force, and the influence of me¬
teors.
Thefe confequences do not entirely accord with the
opinion pretty generally received, and which afcribes
T I S M. Chap. III.
the increafe of the magnetic effects towards the north Theory.
to the great quantity of iron difperfed throughout thefe'—'“'T  
regions 3 but it appears to us that this opinion is not
agreeable to the truth. The cordillera of the Andes
contains an enormous quantity of magnetic iron 3 the
native iron of Chaco, that problematic naafs analogous to
that of Pellas, and thofe of Nacatares in Mexico, is
found even under the tropics.
On feeing the inclinations of the compafs fo exafily
reprefented in the hypothefis, they endeavoured to dif-
cover whether it could be applied to the intenlities ob¬
ferved by M. Humboldt 5 but they found that it did not
apply. It gives indeed, an increafe of the magnetic
forces from the equator to the pole ; but this increafe,
which at firft is too flow, becomes afterwards too rapid.
M. Biot has not yet been able to try whether the fmall
difplacement of the terreftrial magnet will contribute
towards reprefenting them better 3 but it muft be re¬
marked, that the feries of the intenfities is extremely
whimfical, and contains an infinite number of anoma¬
lies, fo that local phenomena may have on this pheno¬
menon a much more fenfible influence than on the in¬
clination.
On reviewing the refults which have been given, it is
feen that we have firft determined the pofition of the
magnetic equator by direct obiervations, which had
never been done before ; we have then proved that the
magnetic force increafes in proceeding from that equa¬
tor to the poles 3 in the laft place, we have given a ma¬
thematical hypothefis, which, when reduced to a for¬
mula, fatisfies all the inclinations hitherto obferved.
Suppofing, as has been done in this formula, the
fmall corrections of which it is fufceptible, its utility
becomes evident, either for making known, in the
courfe of time, the variations which may take place in
the aftion of the terreftrial magnetifm, or to afeertain
or even forefee the value of the inclination, which in a
great many cafes is of the utmoft importance.
For example, near the magnetic equator, the increafe
or diminution of the inclination will indicate to a veffel
on a voyage whether Ihe has gained or loft in latitude
by currents. This knowledge of the latitude is fome-
times as important as that of longitude. On the coafts
of Peru, for example, the currents tend from Chiloe to
the north and north-eaft with fuch force, that one may
go from Lima to Guayaquil in three or four days, and
two, three, and fometimes five months are neceffary to
return. It is confequently of the greateft importance
for veffels coming from Chili which ftretch along the
coaft of Peru, to know their latitude. If they go be¬
yond the port to which they are bound, they muft work
to the fouthward, and every day’s progrefs requires of¬
ten a month of return. Unfortunately, the fogs which
prevail during four or five months on the coaft of Peru,
prevent
(F) Obfervations made at the Cape of Good Hope, Cape Horn, and New Hplland, by different navigators,
are very exactly reprefented by the above-mentioned formula 3 and it follows, that it extends alfo to the auftral
hemifphere. We hope foon to have numerous and very exadft obfervations on the inclination of the needle in that
part of the earth. But we have thought it our duty to add to our table fuch refults as relate to it, and which we
have been able to procure. We have inferted alfo two obfervations on the intenfity, made with great care
by M. Roffel, during the expedition of d’Entrecafteaux, which are very important, as they prove that the
terreftrial magnetic force increafes alfo in the auftral hemifphere in proportion as one removes from the equa¬
tor.
Z
Chap. III.
MAGNETISM.
Theory, prevent navigators from diftinguifliing the form of the
—V coaft $ nothing is feen but the fummits of the Andes,
and that of the peaks which rife above that ftratum of
vapours •, but the figure of it is fo uniform that pilots
fall into miftakes. They often remain i2ori5 days
without feeing the fun or ftars, and during that interval
they come to anchor, being afraid of overlhooting their
port; but if we fuppofe that the inclination of the mag¬
netic needle in the ports to the fouth of Lima is known,
for example at Chancay, Huaura, and Santa, the dip¬
ping needle will fliow whether it be, in regard to Lima,
to the fouth or to the north. It will (how at the fame
time oppofite what point of the coaft a veflel is 5 and
this indication will be attended with more exadilnefs
than one could hope for, becaufe in thefe feas the in¬
clination varies wdth extraordinary rapidity. M. Hum¬
boldt, to whom we are indebted for thefe remarks,
obferved in thefe feas the following values.
and thofe which M. Humboldt has lately made in A-
393
Theory.
Places.
Huancey
Huaura
Chancay
South Latitudes.
io° 4'
11 3
i1 33
Inclinations.
6.8o°
9.00
io-35
menca.
Thefe obfervations prove that the error of three or
four degrees in the inclination in thefe feas would pro¬
duce but a degree of error in latitude ; and, on account
of the tranquillity of the Pacific ocean, the inclination
may be obferved to wdthin a degree nearly. Frequent
inllances of fuch refults may be feen in books of voy¬
ages. In like manner, if one knew exactly the incli¬
nation at the mouth of the Rio de la Plata, it w-ould
be very ufeful to navigators, who, when the Pamperos
blow-, remain 15 or 18 days without feeing the hea¬
venly bodies, and go on different tacks for fear of lo-
ling the parallel of the mouth of that river.
In a word, the inclination may indicate alfo the lon¬
gitude in thefe feas 5 and this method may be employed
when others fail. A veffel which fails there in the di-
reftion of a parallel could not find its longitude either
by a chronometer or the declination of Halley, unlefs
a ftar could be feen, in order to take an horary angle
or the magnetic azimuth. The dipping needle then
throws light on the longitude amidft the thickeft fogs.
We point out this method as one of thofe which have
only a local application j but hitherto little attention
has been paid to it. Thefe ideas may be extended and
reflified by able navigators.
In general, if the inclination of the needle, and the
law wre have-tried to eftablilh, could be depended on,
to obferve the inclination and the terrellrial latitude
would alfo be fufficient to determine the longitude j but
we have not yet examined the extent of the errors of
which this method may be fufceptible, and confequently
we confine ourfelves to a mere indication of it.
The phenomenon of the inclination has in maritime
©bfervations a peculiar and very remarkable advantage,
namely, that of not being fubjeft to thofe great pro-
greffive variations which affeft the declination. With¬
out repeating what we have already faid above on the
luppofed conftancy of this phenomenon, it may be re¬
marked that-our formula even affords a new proof that
it may comprehend in the fame law the obfervations
made many years ago in Lapland, thofe which Lacaille
brought back in 1751 from the Cape of Good Hope,
Vol. XII. Part I.
In fhort, when we tried to reprefent the inclinations
in different latitudes by the fuppofition of a magnet in¬
finitely fmall, very near the centre of the earth, and
perpendicular to the magnetic equator, we did not pre¬
tend to confider that hypothefis as any thing real, but
only as a mathematical abltradlion ufeful to conne<ff the
refults, and proper to afcertain in future whether any
changes exift. In regard to the declination and inten-
fity, we freely confefs that we are entirely unacquaint¬
ed with their laws or their caufes 5 and if any philofo-
pher is fo fortunate as to bring them to one principle,
which explains at the fame time the variations of the
inclination, it will no doubt be one of the greateff dif-
coveries ever made. But this refearch, exceedingly
difficult, requires, perhaps, before it be attempted,
more obfervations, and in particular more precile ob¬
fervations, than have hitherto been collefted. For this
reafon we have prefented the preceding refearches, im-
perfedl as they are, hoping our readers will receive
them with indulgence *.
We would willingly have entered into a more full
illuftration of the theory of Atpinus, and compared it
with the phenomena noticed in Chap. II. but the im¬
portant paper juft given has taken up fo much room,
that this article is already extended to very nearly the
utmoft limits affigned to it. We muft therefore con¬
tent ourfelves with giving fome idea of the indudfion of
magnetifm by juxtapofition according to iEpinus’s hy¬
pothefis, and muft refer for the reft to his Tentamen
Theories EleBricitatis et Magnetifmi, or to the abridge¬
ment of it in Van Swinden’s work Sur PAnalogic de
PEleciricite et du Magnetifrne, tom. ii.
Let NAS (fig. 31). be a magnet, of which the part
next the north pole AN is overcharged, and let a bar
of iron j- B « be brought near the north pole of the
magnet, fo that their axes ate in the fame ftraight line.
Now, in this theory, the overcharged pole N atfts on
the iron only by its redundant fluid, for that part of the
fluid which is merely fufficient to faturate the iron will
repel the fluid in B as much as the iron in AN attracts
it, and of courfe can produce no change in B. In the
fame way SA a£ls on B merely by its redundant iron.
Now, were the fluid in r B » immoveable, no fenfible
effect would be produced on it} but as it is fuppofed to
be eafily moveable, the redundant fluid in AN will
have the effeft of repelling it towards «, till the refift-
ance met with there, added to its own tendency to dif-
fufe itfelf uniformly, juft balances the repuliion of AN.
In the mean time, however, an attraction exifts between
the redundant iron in AS, and the fluid in B, by which
the latter would be drawn from B «, and condenfed in
B r, the attradlion oppofing the repulfion above men¬
tioned } but fince AS is more diftant from every point
of B than AN from the fame point, the redundant
fluid will prevail, and on the whole the fluid will be
condenfed towards », and rarefied towards r. The more
diffufed we fuppofe the fluid and iron in the magnet to
be, the more removed will be the centres of effort of
its poles from their extremities, the fmaller will be the
adlion, and the difference of aftion of AN and AS,
and of courfe the fmaller the condenfation towards n%
and the rarefaction towards r. From this we learn,
3 D that
* Phil.
Mag. vol.
xxii.
101
102
Induced
magnetifm
byjuxtapo-
fition ex¬
plained.
io3
Coulomb’s
theory.
MAGNETISM.
Chap, III.
that, according as the poles of a magnet are more
counteiafted, the greater will be its pow'er of a£Hon 5
and as this is agreeable to obfervation, it gives addition¬
al credit to the hypothefis.
Now, we fee that the piece of iron « B r is attracted
in conlequence of its fluid being repelled towards its re¬
mote extremity, and diftributed fomething like the
fluid in NAS. In this hypothefis magnetifm is fuppof-
ed to depend entirely on the diffufion of magnetic fluid.
The iron B has become a magnet, and by having mag¬
netifm induced on it, is attracted by the magnet A.
In a fimilar w7ay we might explain the adtion of
the magnet, if its fouth or deficient pole were prefented
onpofite to B.
When the notion of a magnetic fluid was once en¬
tertained, it is not furprifing that philofophers, reafon-
ing from the analogy between eledlricity and magnetifm,
and the different effedls arifing from the fouth and
north pole of a. magnet, Ihould be led to the idea of
the magnetic fluid being compounded of two fluids.
Accordingly the hypothefis of two magnetic fluids has
long been a favourite on the continent, where it has
been chiefly fupported by Coulomb and Hairy. As
the experiments and obfervations of the former philofo-
pher entitle him to the higheft refpedl, we fhall here
give a Iketch of bis theory of magnetifm.
1. Coulomb admits of two magnetic fluids, one of
which may be called the northern, and the other the
fouthern fluid.
2. The particles of each of thefe two fluids are mu¬
tually repulfive of each other 5 that is, the particles of the
fluid N mutually repel each other, and the particles of
the fluid S repel each other.
3. There is a mutual attra&ion between the particles
of one of thefe fluids and the particles of the other •, or
the particles of the fluid N attradb and are attracted by
the particles of the fluid S.
4. In the ordinary ftate of iron not magnetized, thefe
two fluids are found mixed together, and hence a piece
of ordinary iron under the ufual circumftances exhibits
no figns of magnetifm.
5. In a magnetized body thefe tw'o fluids are fepa-
rated, and this feparation takes place as foon as we be¬
gin to magnetize the body j one of the fluids N, retir¬
ing towards one extremity, and the other fluid S to the
other extremity of the magnetized body.
6. The attraftion and repulfion of two magnetic bo¬
dies, when they approach each other, is the relult of
the mutual adlion of the two fluids.
Suppofe wre have two needles A and B. If we make
them approach each other on the fide of the two poles
of the fame name, N or S, they will repel each other }
but if they are made to approach on the fide of differ¬
ent poles, as when the needle A prefents .its north pole
to the fouth pole of the needle B, they will attradl
each other. Here there are four forces in adlion ; 1.
the fluid N of the needle A repels the fluid N of the
needle B. 2 The fame fluid N of the needle A at¬
tracts the fluid S of the needle B. 3. The fluid S of
the needle A repels the fluid S of the needle B ; and
4. The fluid S of the needle A attracts the fluid N of
the needle B. Now, if the extremity N of the needle
A be very near the extremity S of the needle B, the
mutual attraction between the twm fluids N and S, will
be itronger than the mutual repulfion between the two
fluids N, N, and the two fluids S, S, and confequently Theory,
the twTo needles will approach each other. ——y——
7. The attraction and repulfion of the two magnetic
fluids is in the direCt ratio of the maffes, and in the in-
verfe ratio of the diftances.
'1 his important part of the theory Coulomb deduces
from a feries of very delicate experiments made with
his magnetic bars, fimilar to thofe by which he proved
the fame law to take place with refpeCt to the aCtion of
the eleClric fluid. See Electricity, Part IV. chap. ii.
8. The magnetic fluid is entirely in the interior o^
magnetic bodies, for as the magnetic fluid moves with
difficulty in the interior of a magnetic body, it cannot
diffufe itfelf over the furface, which is the reafon why
filings of iron brought near a magnetic bar, remain at¬
tached to it.
9. Confequently magnetic bodies can have no mag¬
netic atmofphere.
10. In a magnetic needle, the centres of magnetic
a£lion are near the extremities of the needle.
11. A magnetic needle being broken in any place,
each of its parts is found to have twTo poles.
12. The forces wffiich attradl a needle towards one
pole, are equal to thofe wffiich draw it toward the other
pole.
13. Magnetic bodies do not act on other bodies fuf-
ceptible of magnetifm, in any other w?ay than by at-
tradtion or repulfion j for the magnetic fluid remains
entirely within the interior of thefe bodies.
14. Magnetic attradlion ought to be regarded as a
particular power, analogous, however, to the power
wdiich we call univerfal gravitation, the only dif¬
ference being, that gravitation adts very fenfibly on
all bodies, whereas magnetifm adts moft powerfully on
iron.
15. This magnetic power or attradlion is therefore a
particular power produced neither by impulfion, nor by
the adtion of any other fluid. I0^
Though the inftrument which is ufually employed to Coulomb’s
meafure the inclination of the magnetic needle is very mode of
Ample in its conftrudtion, it is neverthelefs liable to ^certaimri£
great errors, which in general arife from the almofl: ab-
folute impoffibility of placing the needle in all the pofi-
tions it can take in equilibrium with regard to the ef-
fedt of gravitation, that is to fay, fo that its centre of
gravity may always exadlly agree wfith the point on
which it turns. When the dimenfions are confiderable,
a new inconvenience arifes from a degree of flexure,
which, though fcarcely fenfible, is neverthelefs pre-
dudtive of very great effedts from the ffightefi: dif-
placement of the centre of gravity producing a com¬
bination of the power of gravitation with that of mag¬
netifm.
To obviate thefe difficulties, Citizen Coulomb, in-
flead of endeavouring to afcertain immediately, as has
been hitherto done, the diredlion of the magnetic
needle in the vertical plane which paffes through the
magnetic pole, conceives the force of this pole to be
decompofed or refolved into two others in the fame
plane, the one adting in a horizontal, and the other in
a vertical diredfion. He determines feparately the in-
tenfity of each of thefe iaft forces, and the refult gives
the diredlion in which the magnetic force adls, and
which a needle governed fingly by this force would
take,.
•Citizen
Chap. III. M A G N
Theory. Citizen Coulomb has proved, in tbe Memoirs of tbe
Academv of Sciences for tbe year 17S9, that the mag¬
netic needle fufpended by its centre of gravity is incei-
fantly brought back to its true direftion by a conftant
force at the fame place and time. It thence follows,
that by obferving the number of olcillations made in a
given time by a needle horizontally fufpended, the ra¬
tio of the horizontal component part of the magneuc
power with gravity may be obtained. As to the verti¬
cal component part, it is meafured by determining with
care the weight neceffary to be added to^ the fouthem
part of the magnetic needle, to maintain it in a perfect¬
ly horizontal pofition. 1 hat being done, if A and
reprefent the refpeftive meafures of the horizontal and
vertical component parts of the magnetic pmver, will
be the tangent of the angle made by their refult with
the horizontal force, and confequently, it will be the in¬
clination of the magnetic needle.
In the experiments made by Citizen Coulomb, the
needle had the form of a right angled parallelopipedon,
very thin in proportion to its breadth, and always lu -
pended fo that its breadth was kept in a vertical plane.
Let P reprefent the weight of the needle, / the half of
its length, X the length of a pendulum that performs
its ofcillations in the fame time as the needle when it
obeys the magnetic power in a horizontal plane. Cou¬
lomb then gives the formula to calculate the mo¬
mentum of the magnetic force referred to the arm of a
lever of one millimeter in length. 1 he length of the
needle was 427 millimeters, its breadth 13, and its
wreight 88,753 milligrammes. It was fufpended hori¬
zontally by a thread of fdk in a box well clofed, and it
made 30 ofcillations in 286 feconds, and by applying
thefe data to the preceding formula, Coulomb found
that the logarithm of the momentum of the horizontal
magnetic force is 4.1740. # ~ .
Coulomb having placed his needle m a clip, having
knife edges, which refted on two cylinders of glafs,
in the manner of the beam of a balance, endeavouied
firft to bring it to an equilibrium in a horizontal fitua-
ticn coinciding with the magnetic meridian, by placing
the edges in a proper manner, and when they were fuf-
ficiently near the point where the equilibrium ^ took
place, he completed it by the addition of fmall weights.
He theji reverfed the poles of the needle by the magne¬
tic touch, but without altering the pofition of the clip,
and again bringing it to an equilibrium in this new
ftate, the fum of the momenta of the additional weights
placed in thefe two operations gave him the double of
the momentum of the vertical component parts of the
74467
magnetic force, valued at ■—-
E T I S M. _ 395
needle that may anfwer the purpofe of ail umverfal In- i Theory. .
ftrument for making accurate obfervations on the dip.
The refult of this
force, and of the horizontal force, is inclined 68° 9'.
In repeating thefe operations three times, Coulomb
found fucceflively 68° 9', 68° 13', and 68° 11'. Though
the differences of thefe refults are very trifling, he
thinks they are to be entirely attributed to errors in the
obfervation ; for he is affured they do not amount to fo
much. It is poffible that the needle is fubjett to varia¬
tions in the vertical fimilar to thole which are known to
take place in the horizontal plane. _ > _
Daniel Bernoulli contrived an ingenious dipping
It depends on the following principle. Ii a dipping
needle be made by an ordinary workman, and balanced dipping
with fome care, fo that when impregnated with mague-needle,
tifm, it may fliow nearly the true dip, and if it be
touched, and the dip obferved, then its magnetifm de-
ftroyed, and its balance fo altered, that without any
magnetifm it wdll take nearly the inclination of tbe true
dip •, and if it be then touched again, giving it the fame
polarity as it had before, it is evident that it will now
approach very nearly to the true dip, fince, by its want
of perfect equilibrium it was deranged only a few de¬
grees from its proper direction. If the fecond obferva¬
tion of the dip fhould, from the inaccurate formation of
the needle, differ confiderably from the firff, the opera¬
tion mult be repeated ; and in this third obferva¬
tion there will very feldom be an error of more than
half a degree.
Bernoulli’s inftrument is as follows. A very light
graduated brafs circle EFG (fig. 32.) is fixed on one
fide of the dipping needle, fo as to be concentric with
its axis, and the whole is balanced with as much nicety
as may be, before being impregnated, CD is a very
light index fixed to the axis in fucha manner as to turn
on it with fome difficulty. By this the equilibrium of
the needle will be deftroyed. If great care has been
taken in forming the inftrument, and if it has been ba¬
lanced with great accuracy, it will, by the addition of
the index, be made to fettle fo as to have the index
perpendicular to the horizon, at whatever degree of the
circle the needle may happen to point. As fuch accu¬
racy, however, is fcarcely to be expelled, let the in¬
dex be fet to feveral different degrees of the circle, and
note the inclination taken by the needle before being
magnetized, correfponding to each pofition of the index,
and let all thefe be written down. For example, let
us fuppofe that when the index is at 50°, the needle in¬
clines 46° from the horizon $ if we obferve at any place
that the needle, after being magnetized, inclines 46°,
when the index is at 50°, we may be fure that the for¬
mer is the true magnetic dip at that place, as the needle
is not deranged by the magnetifm that has been given
it, from the fituation it would affume by gravity alone.
We ufually know fomething of the dip that may be ex¬
pelled at any place. If we fet the index accordingly,
and if the needle does not then point out the expefted
dip, change the pofition of the index, and again obferve
the dip } examine whether this fecond pofition of the
index and the fecond dip form a correfponding pair of
numbers, fuch as we have written down j if they do,
we have got the true dip, but if not, another pofition
of the index muft be tried. Thus, by noticing whe¬
ther the agreement of this laft pair be greater or lefs
than that of the former pair of numbers, we learn whe¬
ther we are to change the pofition of the index in the I0(-
fame or in the oppofite diredlion. Analogy
A clofe analogy has long been remarked between thebetween
phenomena of magnetifm and thofe of induced eledlrici-electricity
ty, efpecially thofe of attraction and repulfion. The me-“mitilasne
chanical compofition of thefe aClions produces a directive
power and polarity, both in eleCtrical and magnetical
bodies. It is eafy to form an eledtrical needle that will
arrange itfelf with refpedt to the overcharged and under¬
charged ends of a body eledtrified by pofition, juft as a
,3 D 2 magnetic
396 M A G N ]
( Theory, magnetic needle arranges itfelf with refpeft to the mag-
' net. A flick of fealing wax may be touched in a manner
fimilar to the double magnetic touch, fo as to acquire poles
of confiderable force, and very durable. Again, melted
fealing wax, when cooled in the neighbourhood of a po-
litive and negative eleftric, acquires permanent poles,
juft as a red hot fteel bar acquires them by being
quenched near a magnet. Laftly, lightning fometimes
gives polarity to needles, fometimes deftroys it, and
fometimes reverfes their polarity.
From thefe various circumflances of refemblance,
fome have luppofed that both phenomena originate from
the fame caufe, but there are feveral cireumftances
which ftiow their original caufes to be different. Thus,
we find that eleftricity is common to all bodies, and
can be excited or induced on all in a degree that is
pretty nearly equal. Magnetifm, on the contrary,
though from Coulomb’s experiments, it appears in fome
degree to affeft all terreftrial bodies, afts, however,
very imperceptibly on all but iron and its compounds.
The adtion of lightning muft not be confidered as a
proof of their identity, fince that is accompanied with
a great degree of heat, and we have already feen that
this power, under favourable circumftances, is a very
ailive agent, both in producing and deftroying magne¬
tifm. Again, there is nothing in magnetifm like a'
body being entirely overcharged, or entirely under¬
charged, as in eledlricity ; but a magnetic body having
two poles, muft always be overcharged at one extremi¬
ty, and undercharged at the other. There is nothing
in magnetifm refembling that inconveivably rapid mo¬
tion which we fee in eledhicity. In fine, the only per-
fedl refemblance is between the induced magnetifm of
common iron, and the induced eledlricity of a conduc¬
tor. On the arguments that have been employed for
and agjrnft the identity of magnetifm and ele&ricity,
eur readers may confult Van Swinden, Sur I'Analogie
de I'Eletlricite, et du Magnetifme, and a trail by iEpinus
De Similitudine EleBricitatis et Magnetifmi.
Some late experiments of Ritter tend to fliow a greater
analogy than has yet been fuppofed, between magne¬
tifm and that modification of eleilricity which we call
galvanifm.
107 Mr Ritter’s firft experiments with the magnet were
Ritter’s ex-on frogS> jje foun(J that a magnetic iron wire, with
gemnents. anotj1€,r not magnetic, excited a galvanic palpitation in
thefe animals. Prefently he ob%ved, that the fouth
pole excited ftronger palpitations, and the north pole
weaker, than the iron not magnetic. Having con-
ftantly noticed, that the metals moft fufceptible of oxi¬
dation excited the ftrongeft palpitations, he inferred,
that the fouth pole poffeffes a greater affinity for oxygen
than Ample iron, and the north pole lefs.
This fuppofition he confirmed by means of feveral
chemical re-agents. He placed a magnetic iron wire
on pieces of glafs in a plate of earthen w^are, and pour¬
ed upon it a very weak nitric acid. The fouth pole
was attacked by the acid much more powerfully than
the north ; and was foon furrounded by a depofition of
oxygen, the quantity of which greatly exceeded that of
the other pole.
The different oxidability of the magnetic pole* is very
well exhibited likewife, by taking three fmall bottles
of equal fize, filled with water, either pure or flightly
acidulated, and putting into one the fouth polar end of
t T I S M. Chap. III.
a magnetic wire, into a fecond the north polar end of Theory,
a fimilar wire, and into the third the end of an equal —v—
wrire not magnetic *, the fouth pole will firft begin to
depofit oxide, the unmagnetic iron a little after, and
the north pole laft. This experiment requires confide¬
rable care. The furface of the water muft be covered
with very frefti oil of almonds, to exclude all accefs of
air. Care muft be taken too, that one of the bottles is
not more expofed to the fun than the others, becaufe
light accelerates oxidation. Ritter convinced himfelf
of this by diredl experiments ; expofing two iron wires
in water to the fun, but covering one of the phials with
black paper, when that in the phial left uncovered was
oxidated much more quickly.
If infufion of litmus be fubftituted inftead of the wa¬
ter in the three phials in the preceding experiment, the
relative oxidations will be the fame, but they will be
attended with a change of colour, (bowing that an acid
is produced proportional to each oxidation ; fo that the
fouth pole not only undergoes the greateft oxidation,
but likewife reddens the infufton of litmus moft. The
a6lion that takes place in this experiment is very feeble,
and frequently requires a week to produce a diftinfl ef¬
fect ; and indeed to accelerate it fo much as this, it Is
neceffary to add, previoufly to the infufion, as much
acetic acid as will incline it to red, without completely
changing its colour. The infufion reddened in this ex¬
periment refumes its blue colour on expofure to the air ;
but we muft not hence conclude, that the acid pro¬
duced by the aftion of the magnet is very volatile, for
infufion of litmus reddened by phofphoric acid, or any
other, exhibits the fame phenomenon.
The following experiment exhibits fome things pecu¬
liar, and therefore we (hall give it more at large. , It
has not been repeated, but the harmony of its refults is
in favour of its accuracy. Sixteen magnetic wires, of
equal fize and power, were placed in fix veffels, all
equally full of a mixture of one part nitric acid, and
36 parts water, in the following manner : in the firft
glafs were placed two wires, one with the north pole
immerfed in the fluid, the other with the fouth, and not
more than half a line afunder : in the fecond, the fame,
but the wires an inch and three-fourths apart : in the
third and fourth were each three wires, writh the fouth
poles of all immerfed, but their diftances in the two
glaffes different, as in the firft and fecond : in the fifth
and fixth were wires fimilarly arranged, but with the
north poles immerfed. Different quantities of oxide
wrfere gradually depofed, and to exprefs the whole in
few words, we will call the fouth pole S, the north
pole N, their greater diftance^, and their lefs />, and we
will exprefs the order of oxidations as follows: SN(§-"^5’
SN/)-^3 S^-^3 On the
nineteenth day it was obferved, that the lofs of fluid by
evaporation had not been equal in all the veffels, but
took place in the inverfe order of the oxidations. All
the magnetic wires were weakened in power; NS^
leaft ; NS/> more : of the wires 3 S/>, two had loft lefs
power than the third ; and in like manner 3 S^, 3
3 N^, had each two left more powerful than the third ;
the ftrongeft: were equal to NSj-.
In another experiment, where two little veffels filled
with infufion of litmus were employed, one of them
containing two magnetic wires, the fouth poles of which,
were immerfed in the fluid ; the other two fimilar wares,
of
MA-G^E T 1 S .
Plate (* C’
Chap. III.
Theory, of which the oppoiite poles were immerfed j the oxida-
_v tion was greateft in the latter veflel.
The analogy between galvanifm and magnetifm is
flill farther proved by other experiments of Ritter on
ga/vani-z/ng metals, which he does by placing them in
a dream of galvanic fluid proceeding from a ftrong pile.
He found that a golden needle thus galvanized and ba¬
lanced on a pivot, exhibited, like a magnetized iron
needle, both dire&ive power and horizontal inclination.
Some late experiments of Ritter, referring Hill more
dire&ly to the analogy between magnetifm and galva¬
nifm, were communicated to the Royal Academy of
Sciences of Munich, and the following are their gene¬
ral refults.
1. Every magnet is equivalent to a pair of heteroge¬
neous metals united together •, its different poles repre-
fent as it were different metals.
2. Like them, it gives electricity ; that is to fay,
one of the two poles, the pofitive electricity, and the o-
ther the negative.
3. By following the fame procefs, a certain number
of magnets, as well as a certain number of pairs of
metals, afforded eleCtricity j and in this manner the
eleCtricities afforded by the poles of different magnets,
have been fuccefsfully indicated by the eleCtrometer.
4. By means of thefe eleCtricities, one of thefe bat¬
teries of magnets, accordingly as it is more or lefs
ftrong, produces upon dead and living bodies, all the
phenomena which are produced by a pile of Volta, of
the common kind, and of the fame force.
397
5. The experiments W’hich prove this, fliow, that in Theory,
magnetized iron, the fouth pole gives pofitive eleCtrici-
ty, and the north pole negative eleCtricity j but that
on the contrary in magnetized fled, the north pole af¬
fords the pofitive, and the fouth pole the negative.
6. ihe fame inverfe difpofition is alfo obferved with
regard to the polar oxidability of the magnetized body
in which this change is produced by magnetifm. In
magnetized iron the fouth pole is moft oxidable, and the
north pole leaft ; whereas in magnetized fled the north
pole is moft oxidable, and the fouth leaft.
7. Mr Ritter thinks, that by confidering the earth
as an immenfe magnet, thefe refults might ferve to ex¬
plain various phenomena of nature, fuch as the phyfical
difference between the two hemifpheres, the aurora
borealis and aurora auftralis. In fad, after what has
been juft ftated, the earth confidered as a magnet, may
be taken as an equivalent to an immenfe pile of Volta,
of which the poles are on one fide fufficiently clofed by
the waters of the ocean. And the aCtion of this pile
muff produce, and has produced the greateft chemical
changes in the materials of the earth •, changes which *
muff have differed according to the poles ; and of
which pile the poles at the other extremity have always
fuch an abundance of detiricity as to caufe its fplendour
to appear by radiations in the vaft fpaces of theheavens*.
The foregoing experiments appear to prove that mag-Nicbolfon's
netifm has fome effedt in producing chemical changes, Journal.
and thence we may infer that perhaps it would not be Xv’
altogether inadlive in the animal economy.
MAGNETISM.
Erratum.—Page 376, column 2d. line 19. in fome copies, for without its being neceffary to obferve that, read
without its being neceffary to rub them with the upper pair. When magnets of greater force are defired.
INDEX.
Action, magnetic, law of, N° 80, 89
inveftigated by
Lambert, 83
by Robifon, 84
j£.pinus'ls method of touching bars, 55
theory of magnetifm, 79
Ancients, opinions of, refpedfing the
caufe of magnetic attradlion, 70
Apparatus, magnetical, p. 362
Armature of magnets, N° 13
AttraBion, magnetic, p. 368
between iron and the
magnet neutral, N° 27
AttraBion, magnetic, not fenfibly di-
minifhed by interpofition of non-
ferruginous bodies, 28
how ufually mea-
fuied, 29
increafed by iron, 31
by an increafed
weight, 32
explained, 8 5
Axis of a magnet, 7
B.
Rertiou/iPs dipping needle,
I0f
Biot's obfervations on terreftrial N’5'
magnetifm, 95
C.
Canton's method of touching bars, 54
of making artificial
magnets, 61
Communicative piece of money, 39
Cette's axioms refpedting the magne¬
tic declination, p. 366
Coulomb's experiments on univerfal
magnetifm, N° 36
method of making artificial
magnets, . 57
theory of magnetifm, 103
method of finding the
magnetic dip, 95
D.
Declination, magnetic, 3
varies, 19
tables of, P* 3^4
axioms refpedling, 366
Dial, magnetic, N* 42
Dip, magnetic, tables of, p. 367
diminifhes as we af-
cend above the
earth, 5 366
Dip, magnetic, Coulomb’s method of
afeertaining, N° 95
Dipping of the magnet, 4
needle, 15
Bernoulli’s 105
DireBive power, what, 2
explained, 87
Divining circles, 43
Duhamel's method of touching bars, 53
E.
Earth, magnetifm of, firft rationally
explained by Gilbert, 71
illuftrated, 73
objection to an-
fwered, 94.
EleBricity and magnetifm, analogy
between, J06
Equator of a magnet, 7
magnetic, determined by
Humboldt, 9&
Euler's theory of magnetifm, 77
Experiments illuftrating magnetic po¬
larity, _ P* 36.3
on magnetic attraction, 368
repulfion, N° 34
entertaining, ^ 37
Experiments,
.'?98 .
Experiments, Ritter’s N° 107
F.
Forces, magnetic, pifture of, 85
G.
Galvanifm and magnetifm, analogy
between, 107
Gilberts theory of magnetifm, 71
proofs of, 7 5
H.
Hawkjbee's attempts to inveftigate
the law of magnetic adlion, 82
Hindjhaw’s experiment illuft rating ter-
reitrial magnetifm imitated, 75
Humbcldfs obfervations on terreflrial
magnetifm, 95
determination of the mag¬
netic equator, 98
I.
Inclination of the needle increafes as
we proceed from the magnetic
equator. See Dip. IOO
Induced magnetifm, what, 46
gradual, 90
Iron naturally arranges itfelf in a de¬
terminate manner, 16
polarity of, temporary, 17
attradfed by the magnet, 2 2
filings, adtion of a magnet on, 26
attradls iron, . 3°
becomes magnetical by proxi¬
mity to a magnet, 44
by pofition, 5^
by hammering or fridlion, 59
by heat, 60
attradled only becaufe it becomes
magnetical by indudtion, 91
filings, arrangement of, explain¬
ed, 92
K.
Knight''s artificial loadllones, 64
L.
'Lambert's inveftigation of the law of
magnetic adlion, 83
M.
Magnet, what, t, 12
MAGNETIS M.
Magnet, declination of, N° 4
dipping of, 3
artificial, 6, 13
modes of making, 51—64
axis and equator of, 7
armature of, 13
polarity of, permanent, 18
poles of, how found, 23
att radiive power of, varies, 24
Magnetifm, general idea of, 1
utility of, 9
works on, lift of, 10
how applied to ufe, p. 366
how ufually difcovered, N° 35
univerfal, Coulomb’s ex¬
periments on, 36
communication of, p. 373
induced, what, N° 46
artificial, produced by
touching with a mag¬
net, 50
artificial, produced by
pofition, 58
artificial, produced by
fridfion, 59
artificial, produced by
heat, 60
impaired by improper po¬
fition, 66
by heat, 67
by rough ufage, 68
by oppofition of
fimilar poles, 69
theories of, p. 3^°
terreftrial, of Gilbert, N° 71
obfervations on, by Biot
and Humboldt, 95
Marcel"'s method of touching bars, 62
Mining, ufe of the compafs in, P* 3^^
Mufchenbroeck"1 s attempt to inveftigate
the law of magnetic adtion, N° 81
Needle, magnetic,
dipping,
N.
P.
15
PerfpeBive glafs, magnetic, 38
Polarity, magnetic, what, 2
difturbed by the
approach of iron, 20
Index.
Polarity, magnetic, aftedled by the
atmotphere, N° 2®
contrary, induced on iron
by a magnet, 45
Poles of a magnet, how found, 23
contrary, attradf each other, 33
correfponding, repel each other, 34
Power, magnetic, 8
R.
Ritter's experiments on the analogy
of magnetifm and galvanifm, 107
RobifotPs invefiigation of the law of
magnetic adlion, 84
explanation of magnetic at¬
traction, 85
of diredtive
power, 87
S.
Steel, foft, how magnetized, 63
T.
Table, magnetic, 40
Taylor’s attempts to find the law of
magnetic adlion, 82
Terrejlrialmagnetifm, obfervations on,
by Humboldt and Biot, 93
magnetifm adts on the
whole furface of the
earth, - 96
magnetifm increafes from
the equator to the poles, 97
magnetifm modified by lo¬
cal circumftances, 99
Theory of Gilbert, 71
Euler, 77
.**Epinus, 79
Coulomb, 103
Touch, double, what, 54
Touching magnetic bars, go
old methods of, 31
of curved bars, 32
how improved by Duhamel, 53
by Michell
and Canton, 34
by .fEpinus, 55
by Coulomb, 37
W.
Watch, myfterious, 41
MAG
Animal Animal Magnetism, a fympathy fuppofed by fome
perfons to exift between the magnet and the human bo-
dy ; by means of which the former, it was thought,
pofieffed the property of curing many difeafes.
The notion of animal magnetifin appears to have
originated, in 1774, wfith a German philofopher named
Tether Held, who greatly recommended the ufe of the
magnet in medicine. M. Mefiner, a phyiician of the
f
MAG
fame country, by adopting the principles of Hehl, be- Animal
came the diredt founder of the fyfiem j but, afterwards Magnetifm.
deviating from the tenets of his inftrudlor, he loft his v
patronage, as well as that of Dr Ingenhoufz, which he
had formerly enjoyed. Mefmer had already diftinguifh-
ed himfelf by “ A diflertation on the influence of the
Stars upon the human body,” which he publicly de¬
fended in a thefis before the univerlity of Vienna ; but
he
MAG [ 399 ] MAG
Animal he was fo unable to Hand before the oppofition of Hehl
Magnetifm. an(j Ingenboufz, that his fyftem fell alraoll inftantly in-
to difrepute. Mefmer appealed to the Academy of
Sciences at Berlin •, but they rejefted his principles as
deflitute of foundation, and unworthy of the fmalleft
attention. He then made a tour through Germany,
publilhing everywhere the great cures he performed by
means of his animal magnetifm, while his enemies eve¬
rywhere purfued him with detedlions of the falfeheod of
his aflertions.
Mefmer, ftill undaunted by fo many defeats, returned
to Vienna 5 but meeting there with no better fuccefs
than before, he retired to Paris in the beginning of the
year 1778. Plere he met with a very different recep¬
tion. He was firft patronized by the author of the
Diciionnaire des Merveilles de la Nature; in which
work a great number of his cures were publilhed, Mef¬
mer himfelf receiving likewdfe an ample teftimony of
his candour and folid reafoning. Our phyfician foon
collected fome patients 5 and in the month of April
1778 retired with them to Creteil, from whence he in
a thort time returned with them perfe&ly cured. Plis
fuccefs was now as great as his former difappointment.
Patients increafed fo rapidly that the dodlor was foon
obliged to take in pupils to aflift him in his operations.
Thefe pupils fucceeded equally wHl as Mefmer him¬
felf-, and fo well did they take care of their own emo¬
lument, that one of them named M. Deflon realized
upw-ards of ioo,ocol. fterling. In 1779 Mefmer pub-
lilhed a memoir on the fubjedl of Animal Magnetifm,
promifing afterwards a complete work upon the fame,
which fhould make as great a revolution in philofophy
as it had already done hr medicine.
The new fyffem now' gained ground daily j and foon
became fo falhionable, that the jealoufy of the faculty
was roufed, and an application concerning it wras made
to government. In confequence of this a committee
was appointed to inquire into the matter, confiding
partly of phyficians and partly of members of the Royal
Academy of Sciences, with Dr Benjamin Franklin at
their head. This was a thunderftroke to the fupporters
of the new dodfrine. Mefmer himfelf refufed to have
any communication wfith the committee j but his molt
celebrated pupil Deflon was lefs fcrupulous, and ex¬
plained the principles of his art in the following man¬
ner :
1. Animal magnetifm is an univerfal fluid, confti-
tuting an abfolute plenum in nature, and the medium
of all mutual influence between the celeftial bodies,
and betwdxt the earth and animat bodies.
2. It is the molt fubtle fluid in nature ; capable of a
flux and reflux, and of receiving, propagating, and con¬
tinuing all kinds of motion.
3. The animal body is fubjedted to the influences of
this fluid by means of the nerves, which are immediate¬
ly affedted by it.
4. The human body has poles and other properties
analogous to the magnet.
5. The adtion and virtue of animal magnetifm may
be communicated from one body to another, whether
animate or inanimate.
6. It operates at a great diftance without the inter¬
vention of any body.
7. It is increafed and refledted by mirrors j commu¬
nicated, propagated, and increafed by found ; and may
be accumulated, concentrated, and tranfported.
8. Notwithfianding the univerfality of this fluid, all
animal bodies are not equally affedted by it on the
other hand, there are fome, though but few in number,
the prefence of which deftroys all the effedls of animal
magnetifm.
9. By means of this fluid nervous diforders are cured
immediately, and others mediately ; and its virtues, in
flrort, extend to the univerfal cure and prefervation of
mankind.
Animal
Masmetifni.
From this extraordinary theory, Mefmer or M. Def¬
lon, had fabricated a paper, in which he flated that
there was in nature but one difeafe and one cure, and
that this cure w'as animal magnetifm : and laftly,
M. Deflon engaged, 1. To prove to the commiflioners,
that fuch a thing as animal magnetifm exifted ;
2. To prove the utility of it in the cure of dlfeafes;
after which he was to communicate to them all that
he knew upon the fubjedl. The commiflioners accord¬
ingly attended in the room where the patients under¬
went the magnetical operations. The apparatus con-
fifted of a circular platform made of oak, and raifed
about a foot and a half from the ground; which
platform was called the baquet. At the top of it w-ere
a number of holes, in which w-ere iron rods with move¬
able joints for the purpofe of applying them to any part
of the body. The patients were placed in a circle round,
each touching an iron rod, which he could apply to any
part of the body at pleafure ; they w'ere joined to one
another by a cord pafling round their bodies, the de-
fign being to increafe the effedt by communication. In
the corner of the room r»as a piano forte, on which
fome airs were played, occafionally accompanied with a
fong. Each of the patients held in his hand an iron
rod ten or twelve feet long ; the intention of which, as
Deflon told the commiflioners, was to concentrate the
magnetifm in its point, and thus to render its effedts
more fenfible. Sound is another condudlor of this mag¬
netifm 5 and in order to communicate the magnetifm to
the piano forte, nothing more is neceflary than to bring
the iron rod near it. Some magnetifm is alfo furniftied
by the perfon who plays it 5 and this magnetilmis tranf-
mitted to the patients by the founds. The internal part
of the platform was faid to be fo contrived as to concen¬
trate the magnetifm, and was the refervoir whence the
virtue diffufed itfelf among the patients. Its ilrudlure,
however, is not mentioned ; but the committee fatisfied
themfelves, by means of a needle and eledtrometer, that
neither common magnetifm nor eledlricity was con¬
cerned.
Befides the different ways of receiving the magnetifm
already mentioned, viz. by the iron, cord, and piano
forte, the patients alfo had it diredtly from the dodlor’s
finger, and a rod which he held in his hand, and which
he carried about the face, head, or fuch parts of the
patient as were difeafed -, obferving always the direc¬
tion of what he called the poles. The principal appli¬
cation of magnetifm, however, was by preflure of the
hands or fingers on the hypochondria or low'er regions
of the ffomach.
The effecls of thefe operations upon Deflon’s pa¬
tients were very different. Some felt nothing, neither
had the magnetifm any effebt whatever upon them.
Somr;
MAG [ 400 ] MAH
A-nimal Sorae fpit, coughed, fvveat, and felt, or pretended to
Magnetifiri. £eei, extraordinary heats in different parts of the body.
Many women, but very few men, had convulfions,
which Deflon called their crifis, Sec.—The commif-
fioners at laft found that they could come to no fatis-
faftory conclufion while they attended in this public
way, and therefore determined to try the experiments
themfelves privately. As the fluid itfelf, however,
was totally imperceptible by any of the fenfes, they
could only afeertain themfelves of its exiftence by ul¬
timately curing difeafes, or by its obfervable effects
upon the human body. Being well alfured, howrever,
that though many difeafes wrere cured, it would not
amount to any proof of the exiflence of animal mag-
netifm, they determined to obferve its effefts on the
animal economy. For this purpofe they made the fol¬
lowing experiments :
1. They tried it upon themfelves, and felt no¬
thing.
2. Seven of Deflon’s patients were magnetized at
Dr Franklin’s houfe, four of whom felt nothing ; three
felt, or affe6ted to feel, fomething.
3. Several perfons in a higher fphere of life were
magnetized, and felt nothing.
4. The commiflioners, now' determined to difeover
what (hare imagination had in this bufinefs, blind¬
folded feveral of the common people, and made them
fometimes think that they were magnetized, at other
times they magnetized them without letting them
knowr that they did fo : the confequence was, that
when they fuppofed themfelves magnetized, the pa¬
tients likewife thought they felt fomething, and vice
verfa.
5. A magnetized tree was faid to produce convul-
flons; a young man, blindfolded, fell into convulflons
when he imagined himfelf near the tree, though he
W'as really at a confiderable diftance from it. Deflon
accounted for this on the principle of all trees being
magnetic : but in this cafe, every one, fufceptible of
magnetifm, would be feized with convulfions when
he approached a tree. The lame influence of imagi¬
nation was obferved in a wToman accuftomed to have
convulfions when magnetized. They came on when
nothing wTas done to her, on being told, when blinded,
that (he wras magnetized.
Other inftances are given, from which it was evident,
either that the patients were impoflors, or in fuch a moft
wretched ftate of debility both of mind and body, that
the moft trifling effects of the former had the moft
powerful effedts on the latter. The commiflioners there¬
fore entirely difapprovpd of the whole. The touch,
imitation, and imagination, they concluded, were the
great caufes of the effects produced by M. Deflon’s ope¬
rations *, and by means of thefe they fuppofed, that con¬
vulfions, which in themfelves are a very violent difor-
der, might be fpread much farther than could be wifti-
ed, even through a whole city. It was obferved that
the operator fometimes preffed ftrongly, and for a
length of time, upon different parts of the body, parti¬
cularly the hypochondria and pit of the ftomach j and
it is well known that a ftrong preffure on thefe parts
will produce difagreeable fenfations in thofe who enjoy
perfefl health.
It is needlefs to add more upon this fubjeft, than
that Melmer complained of the report of the commif-
3
fioners, petitioned parliament, w'as by them command-Magnifying
ed to difeover the myileries of his dodlrine 5 and that it
is now' exploded by every man of fenfe.—The conclu-. - —v —>
fion of the academicians concerning it wras, that it is not
entirely ufelefs even to philofophy 5 as it is one fa£l
more to be configned to the hiftory of the errors and il-
lufions of the human mind, and a fignal inftance of the
power of imagination.
MAGNIFYING, the making of obje&s appear
larger than they would otherwife do j whence convex
lenfes, wftiich have the power of doing this, are called
magnifying g/qffes. See Optics.
MAGNITUDE, whatever is made up of parts lo¬
cally extended, or that has feveral dimenfions j as a
line, furface, folid, &c.
MAGNOLIA, the laurel-leaved tulip tree,
a genus of plants belonging to the polyandria clafs j
and in the natural method ranking under the 52d or¬
der, Coadnata. See Botany Index.
MAGNUS CAMPUS, in Ancient Geography, a tract
lying towards Scythopolis, or Bethfan in Galilee, be¬
yond wdiich it extends into Samaria j Jofephus placing
the common boundary between thefe two diftridts in
the Campus Magnus. Called alfo Efdrelon, (Judith);
30 miles long, and 18 broad; having Samaria with
Mount Ephraim to the fouth, the lake Genefareth to
the eaft, Mount Carmel to the weft, and Lebanon to
the north.
Magnus Portus, in Ancient Geography, a port of
the Belgae, in Britain, on the Channel. Now thought
to be Portfmouth in Hamplhire.—Another Portus Mag¬
nus of Bsetica in Spain ; a port to the eaft of Ab-
dera.
MAGO, the name of feveral Carthaginian generals.
See Carthage.
Mago, in Ancient Geography, a citadel and town of
the Balearis Minor, or Minorca. Now Maon, or Ma¬
hon. E. Long. 4. 6. N. Lat. 39. 5.
MAGONTIACUM, Mogontiacum, or Mogon-
tiacus, truncated afterwards by the poets to Mogontia,
Maguntia, and Moguntia : a town of Gallia Belgica.
NowT Ment%, capital of the eleftorate of that name ;
fituated at the confluence of the Rhine and Maine.
E. Long. 8° N. Lat. 50°.
MAGOPHONIA (formed from (ttaeyo?, “ magus,”
and tymtui, “ flaughter”), the name of a feaft among
the ancient Perfians, held in memory of the expulfion of
the Magians. The Magian Smerdis having ufurped
the throne of Perfia, upon the death of Cambyfes,
521 years before Jefus Chrift, feven of the principal
lords of the court confpired to drive him out of it.—
Their defign was executed with good fuccefs. Smer¬
dis and his brother, another Magian, called Patizithes,
W’ere killed. Upon which the people alfo rofe, and put
all the Magi to the fword, infomuch that there would
not one have efcaped, had not night come upon them.
Darius, fon of Hyftafpes, was then elected king ; and,
in memory of this malTacre of the Magi, a feaft was
inftituted, fays Herodotus, called Magophonia. See
Magi.
MAGPIE. See Corvus, Ornithology Index.
MAHIE, the name given by the inhabitants of
Otabeite, or George’s ifland, to their bread-fruit when
made into a kind of four pafte, which, in confequence
of having undergone a fermentation; will keep a con¬
fiderable
/
/
t
%
I
V