<6
XlL
Erg.'}
A N T [ 401 ] ANT
KT'' Tk,ll 7ih,a T5 ftortfcwvd, until Laftly, In otos, _he took out very perfea and com- Ant-kiU.
._r" „„„ luc Aau. icrvice ns penurmea was to
■1—', convoy Queen Charlotte to England. He died in
June 1762. No performance ever met with a more
favourable reception, than the account of Anfon’s
voyage round the world. Though it is printed under
the name of his chaplain, it was compofed under his
lordfhip’s own infpe<5lion, and from the materials he
hitnfelf furnilhed, by the ingenious Mr Benjamin Ro¬
bins.
ANSPACH,thk Ma rquisate of, a fmall territory
ox Franconia, in Germany, bounded on the north by
the bifhoprics of Wartiburg and Bamberg, wdrich laid
likewife lies to the weft •, by the earldoms of Ilolach
and Oeting, with the bifhopric of Aichftet, on the
fouth j and the palatinate of Bavaria and the territory
of Nuremberg on the eaft. The country is fruitful,
and interfperfed with wmods, which render it agreeable
for hunting. Belides the city Anfpach, which is the
capital, the chief towns are Kreglin, Swafbach, Kreilf-
heim, Rot, and Wafter-Truding.
Anspach is a imall but pretty town, very wxll built,
and has feveral churches. It is walled round, but has
no other fortifications. In the palace there is a remark¬
able cabinet of curiofities. It is feated on a river of the
fame name, and belongs to the houfe of Brandenburg.
E. Long. 10. 42. N. Lat. 49. 14.
ANSPESSADES, in the French armies, a kind of
inferior officers in the foot, below the corporals, but
above the common fentinels. There are ufually four
or five of them in a company.
ANSTRUTHER, Easter and Wester, two royal
boroughs of Scotland, fituated on the fouth-eaft coaft
of the county of Fife, in W. Long. 2. 25. N. Lat.
56. 20.
ANT, in 'Zoology. See Formica and Termes.
Asr-Bear, or Ant-eater, in Zoology. See Myr-
MECOPHAGA.
Anr-Eggs, a name popularly given to a kind of
little white balls found in the banks or nefts of ants,
ordinarily fuppofed to be the ova of this infedl.
Late naturalifts have obferved that thefe are not
properly the ants eggs, but the young brood them-
felves in their firft ftate j they are fo many little vermi-
cuii wrapped up in a film, or fkin, compofed of a fort
of filk, -which they fpin out of themfelves as filkworms
and caterpillars do. At firft they are hardly obferved
to ftir : but, after a few days continuance, they exhibit
a feeble motion of flexion and extenfion ; and begin to
look yellowifh and hairy, ftvaped like fmall maggots,
in whiph fhape they grow up till they are almoft as
large as ants. When they pafs their metamorphofis,
and appear in their proper fttape, they have a fmall
black fpeck on them clofe to the anus of the enclofed
ant, which M. Leeuwenhoeck probably enough ima¬
gines to be the faeces voided by it. Dr Edward King
opened feveral of thefe vulgarly reputed eggs ; in fome
of which he found only a maggot in the circumftances
above defcribed ; while in another the maggot had be¬
gun to put on the flrape of an ant about the head, ha¬
ying two little yellow fpecks, where the eyes were to
ue.^ In others, a further progrefs was obferved, the
included maggots being furniflied with every thing to
complete the fhape of an ant, but wholly tranfparent,
the eyes only excepted, which were as black as bugles.
Vol. II. Part II. ^
P‘ete which immediately crept about among the !l
reft. . I hefe fuppofed ants eggs are brought up every An
morning in fummer, near the top of the bank, where ^ V
they are lodged all the warm part of the day, within
reach of the lun’s influence. At night, or if it be cool,
or like to rain, they carry them dowm to a greater
depth ; fo that you may dig a foot deep e’er you
come at them. The true ants eggs are the white fub-
ftance which, upon opening their banks, appears to the
eye like the Icatterings of fine white fugar, or fait, but
very foft and tender. Examined by a microfcope, it
is found to confift of feveral pure white appearances,
in diftinft memoranes all figured like the lefler fort of
birds eggs, and as dear as a fifli’s bladder. The fame
fubftance is found in the bodies of the ants themfelves.
On this fpawn, when emitted, they lie in multitudes’
to. brood, till in fome time it is turned into little ver-
micules as fmall as mites, commonly called ants eggs.
AnT-Hills, are little hillocks of earth, which the
ants throw up for their habitation and the breeding of
their young. They are a very great mifehief to dry
paftures, not only by wafting fo much land as they
cover, but by hindering the feythe in moxving the grafs,
and yielding a poor hungry food pernicious to cattle.
I he manner of deftroying them is to cut them into four
parts .from the top, and then dig into them fo deep as
to ^ take out the core below, fo that, when the turf
is laid dowm again, it may lie fomewhat lower than
the level of the reft of the land : by this means it will
be wetter than the reft of the land ; and this will pre¬
vent the ants from returning to the fame place, which
otherwife they would certainly do. The earth that is
taken out muft be fcattered to as great a diftance every
way as may be, otherwife they will colled it together
and make another hill juft by. The proper time for
doing this is winter; and if the places be left open,
the froft and rains of that time of the year will deftroy
the reft : but in this cafe care muft be taken that they
are covered up early enough in the fpring, otherwife
they will be lefs fertile in grafs than the other places.
In Hertfordfliire they ufe a particular kind of fpade
for this purpoie. It is very ftiarp, and formed at the
top into tl r fhape of a crefcent, fo that the whole edee
makes up more than three-fourths of a circle ; this cuts
in every part, and does the bufinefs very quickly and
effedually. Others ufe the fame inftruments that they
do for mole-hills. .Human dung is a better remedy
than all thefe, as is proved by experiment; for it
will kill great numbers of them, and drive all the reft
away, if only a fmall quantity of it be put into their
hills.
. Acid of Ants, an acid produced by diftilling mil¬
lions of thefe infects, either without addition, or with
™ter- 11 jefembles. vinegar in many refpeds 5 but
dihers. .rom it in forming cryftals with magnefia, iron,
and zinc.. Its attractions are not yet determined, but
arc fuppofed.to coincide with thofe of vinegar.
ANT A, in the Ancient Architecture, a fquare pilaf-
ter, placed at the corners of buildinp-s.
Ant a, or Ante, a fmall kingdom°on the Gold coaft
of Africa, extending about ten leagues in length. 
I he country is covered with large trees, among which
ftand a number of fine villages. The foil is exceeding-
iv ne n, and the face of the country beautiful. The
^ aisf
ANT
[ 402 ]
ANT
Antacids,
Antaeus.
air is alfo much more falubrious than in other places of
the Gold coaft ; it being obferved by all writers, that
the number of deaths here bears no proportion to that
on any other part on the coafts of Guinea. This coun¬
try contains the following villages, which deferve a
particular defcription on account of the commerce they
drive j viz. Bourtrsy, Tokorari, Suhoada, and Sama ; for
which, fee thole articles.—Formerly Anta was potent
and populous, inhabited by a bold and rapacious peo¬
ple, who greatly annoyed the Europeans by their fre¬
quent incurfions j but by continual wars with their
neighbours they are now' greatly enfeebled, and the
country in a manner depopulated. The fpirit of the
few remaining inhabitants is fled : they are defponding,
difpirited, and abject, feeking protection from the
Dutch and other Europeans wdio have forts on this
coaft, and looking upon them as their beft friends.
ANTACIDS, in Pharmacy, an appellation given
to all medicines proper to correft acid or lour humours.
Under the clafs of Antacids come, 1. Abforbents •,
as chalk, coral, fea Ihells, haematites, and Heel filings.
2. Obtundents ; as oils and fats. 3. Immutants ; as
lixivious falts and foaps.
ANT ALUS, in Fabulous Hiftory, a giant of Libya,
fon of Neptune and Terra. Defigning to build a tem¬
ple to his father, of men’s fculls, he flew all he met ;
but Hercules fighting him, and perceiving the afliftance
he received from his mother, (for by a touch of the
earth he refrelhed bimfelf when weary), lifted him up
from the ground, and iqueezed him to death.
Antaeus was king of Mauritania ; and from feve-
ral circumftances, with which we are fupplied by va¬
rious authors, it appears extremely probable that he
was the fame perfon with Atlas : they were both of
them the fons of Neptune, who reigned over Maurita¬
nia, Numidia, and a great pait of Libya \ as may be
naturally inferred from his having fuch particular marks
of diftindlion conferred upon him by the inhabitants of
thofe regions. They both ruled with abfolute power
over a great part of Africa, particularly Fingitania.
Hercules defeated and flew Antaeus in the fame war
wherein he took the Libyan "world from Atlas : both
Atlas and Antaeus invaded Egypt, and contended with
Hercules in the wars with the gods, and1 were both
vanquilhed by him. Antaeus, as well as Atlas, was
famed for his knowledge in the celeftial fciences : from
whence we may fairly conclude them to have been the
fame king of Mauritania.
Antaeus, in his wars with Hercules, who command¬
ed an army of Egyptians and Ethiopians, behaved with
great bravery and refolution. Receiving large rein¬
forcements of Libyan troops, he cut off vaft numbers
of Hercules’s men: but that celebrated commander
having at laft intercepted a ftrsmg body of Mauritanian
or Libyan forces fent to the relief of Antaeus, gave
him a total overthrow, wherein both he and the bell
part of his forces were put to the fword. This deci-
live a&ion put Hercules in pofleffion of Libya and
Mauritania, and confequently of all the riches in thofe
kingdoms; hence arofe the fable, that Hercules find-
ing Antaeus, a giant of an enormous fize, with whom
he was engaged in Angle combat, to receive frefh
ftrength as'often as he touched his mother earth when
thrown upon her, at lall lifted him up in the air and
fqueezed him to death. Hence likewiie may be de- Amagon.ft
duced the fable, intimating, that Hercules took At- Antavare>
las’s globe upon his own fhoulders, overcame the dra- > ,_-v—, j
gon that guarded the orchards of the Hefperides, and
made himfelf mafter of all the golden fruit. 1 he gold¬
en apples, fo frequently mentioned by the old my-
thologifts, w'ere the treaiures that fell into Hercwles’s
hands upon Antaeus’s defeat, the Greeks giving the
Oriental word xbo riches, the fignification affixed to
their own term, apples. After the molt diligent
and impartial examination of all the different hypo-
thefes of hiftorians and chronologers, relating to Atlas
and Antaeus, w'e find none fo little clogged wuth diffi¬
culties as that of Sir Ifaac Newton. According to
that illuftrious author, Ammon, the father of Sefac,
was the firft king of Libya, or that vaft trad! extend¬
ing from the borders of Egypt to the Atlantic ocean $
the conqueft of which country was effedled by Sefac
in his father’s lifetime. Neptune afterwards excited
the Libyans to a rebellion againft Sefac $ flew him, and
then invaded Egypt under the command of Atlas or
Antaeus, the fon of Neptune, Sefac’s brother and ad¬
miral. Not long after, Hercules, the general of The-
bais and Ethiopia for the gods or great men of Egypt,
reduced a fecond time the whole continent of Libya,
having overthrown and flain Antaeus near a town in
Thebais, from that event called Antaea or Antaeopo-
lis : this, we fay, is the notion advanced by Sir liaac
Newton, who endeavours to prove, that the firft re-
duftion of Libya by Sefac happened a little above a
thoufand years before the birth of Chrift, as the laft:
by Hercules did fome fevr years after.
ANTAGONIST, denotes an adverfary, efpccially
in fpeaking of combats and games.
Antagonist Mufcles, in Anatomy, thofe which have
oppofite fundlions; as flexors and extenfors, abdudlors
and addudlors, &c.
ANTANACLASIS, in Rhetoric, a figure which
repeat-s the fame word, but in a different fenfe 3 as dum
vivimus vivamus.
ANTAGOGE, in Rhetoric, a figure by which,
when the accufation of the adverfary is unanlwerable,
w'e load him with the fame or other crimes.
ANT ANDROS, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Myfia, on the fea coaft, at the foot of Mount Alexandria,
a part of Mount Ida, (Strabo, Ptolemy) : it was a town
of the Leleges, (Strabo) ; anciently called Edonis,
then Cimmeris, (Pliny, Stephanus.) It takes its name
from Antandros, a general of the ALolians ; it is now
called S. Dimitri.
ANTAPHRODISIACS, in Pharmacy, medicines
proper to diminiffi the femen, and confequently extin-
guiffi or leffen all defires of venery.
ANTARCTIC, in a general fenfe, denotes fome-
thing oppofite to the arftic or northern pole. Hence
antar&ic circle is one of the lefler circles of the fpheres,
and diftant only 230 30' from the fouth pole, which is
likewife called antarftic for the fame reafon.
ANTARES, in AJlronomy, the name of a ftar of
the firft magnitude, called alfo the fcorpion’s heart.
Its longitude is 6o° 13' 14" of Sagittarius 3 and its
latitude 40° 31/ 26" fouth._
ANT AY ARE, a province of the ifland of Mada-
gafear, lying about 21° 30' S. Lat. and bounded by
the
Ante
ANT [ 403
the province and cape of Manoufi. The greateft part
of it is watered by the river Mananzari, whofe fource
is in the red mountains of Ambohitfmene.
ANTE, in Heraldry, denotes that the pieces are
let into one another in fuch a form as there is expref-
fed 5 for inftance, by dove tails, rounds, fwallow tails,
or the like.
ANTE AMBULONES, in Roman Antiquity, fer-
vants who went before perfons of diftin£Hon to clear the
way before them. They ufed this formula, Date locum
domino meo, i. e. “ Make room or way for my mafter.”
ANTECEDENT, in general, fomething that goes
before another, either in order of time or place.
Antecedent, in Grammar, the words to which a
relative refers.
Antecedent, in Logic, is the firft of the two pro-
pofitions in an enthymeme.
Antecedent, in Mathematics, is the firft of two
terms of a ratio, or that which is compared with the
other.
AN FECEDENCE, in AJlronomy, an apparent
motion of a planet towards the weft, or contrary to the
order of the figns.
ANTECESSOR, one that goes before. It was an
appellation given to thofe who excelled in any fcience.
Juftinian applied it particularly to profeffors of civil
]
ANT
law $ and, in the univerfities of France, the teachers
of law take the title antecejfores in all their thefes.
ANTECURSORES, in the Roman armies, a party
of horfe detached before, partly to get intelligence,
provifions, &c. and partly to choofe a proper place to
encamp in. Thefe were otherwife called antecejfores,
and by the Greeks prodromi.
ANTEDATE, among Ztf'tyjTr.r, a fpurious or falfe Antedate
date prior to the true date of a bond, bill, or the t ,
like. Antedilu-
ANTEDILUVIAN, in a general fenfe, implies i—‘y
fomething that exifted before the flood.
Antediluvian World; the earth as it exifted before
the flood. See Earth.
ANTEDILUVIANS, a general name for all man¬
kind who lived before the flood, and fo includes the
whole of the human race from Adam to Noah and his
family. r
As Mofes has not fet down the particular time ofChronolo-
any tranfadlion before the flood, except only the years Sy ofAe
of the father’s age wherein the feveral defeendants oftu^ aSe*‘
Adam in the line of Seth were begotten, and the
length of their feveral lives ; it has been the bufinefs
of chronologers to endeavour to fix the years of the
lives and deaths of thofe patriarchs, and the diftance of
time from the creation to the deluge. In this there
could be little difficulty were there no varieties in the
feveral copies we now have of Mofes’s writings j which
are, the Hebrew, the Samaritan, and the Greek ver-
fion of the Septuagint 5 but as thefe differ very confi-
derably from one another, learned men are much di¬
vided in their opinions concerning the chronology of
the firft ages of the world 5 fome preferring one copy,
and fome another.
That the reader may the better judge of the varia¬
tions in the three copies in this period, they are exhi¬
bited in the following table, with the addition of thofe
of Jofephus as correfted by Dr Wells and Mr Whi-
fton.
A Table of the Years of the Antediluvian Patriarchs.
Their ages at their fons birth.
Years they lived
after their fons
birth.
Length of their
lives.
Adam,
Seth,
Enos,
Cainan,
Mahalaleel,
Jared,
Enoch,
Methufelah,
Lamech,
Noah was aged,")
at the Flood, 3
Heb.
130
105
90
70
65
162
65
187
182
600
Sam. Sept. Jof.
I30 230 I30
105 205 105
90 I90 90
70 170 70
65 165 65
62 162 62
65 165 65
67 167 187
53 188 182
600 600 600
Heb. Sam. Sept.
800 800 700
807 807 707
815 815 715
840 840 740
83° 830 730
800 785 800
300 300 200
782 653 802
595 600 565
Heb. Sam. Sept.
930 930 930
912 912 912
905 905 905
910 910 910
895 895 895
962 847 962
365 365 365
969 720 969
777 653 753
To the Flood, 1656 1307 2262 1556
To this Table it will be neceffary, in order to ex- contemporaries the birth and death of each patriarch
plain the confequences of thefe variations, to add fepa- happened, according to the computation of each of the
rate chronological tables, fhowing in what year of his faid three copies.
3 E 2
A Chronological
ANT
[ 404 ]
ANT
A Chronological Table of the Years of the Patriarchs, according to the Computation of the Hebrew,
Adam created,
Seth born,
Enos born,
Cainan born,
Mahalaleel born,
Jared born,
Enoch born,
Methufelah born,
Lamech born,
Adam dies,
Enoch tranflated,
Seth dies,
Noah born,
Enos dies,
Cainan dies,
Mahalaleel dies,
Jared dies
Japhet born,
Shem born,
Lamech dies,
Methufelah dies,
« nq
-d n
< M
o ^
Hf c/i
Cu o
130
235
325
395
460
622
687
874
930
987
1042
1056
1140
I235
1290
1422
1556
1558
1651
1656
n> Fi
ZL d
r o
00
105
195 90
265 160
330 225
492 387
557 452
744 639
800 695
857 752
912 807
821
9°5
o ^ Kl
n £5
P £L 55
S ^ s,
? S' ^
2 p
n> t-t
70
135 65
297 227 162
362 292 227
549 479 4H
605 535 470
662 592 527
717 647 582
731 661 596
817 745 680
910 840 775
895 830
962
The Flood,
M
3
cr
3
65
252 187
3°8 243
365 300
355
369
453
548
603
735
869
871
964
969
fc-<
3
56 2
113 p
168 F4
182
266 84
361 179
416 234
548 366
682 500
684 502
777 595
600
yf Chronological Table of the Years of the Patriarchs, according to the Computation of the Septuagint,
f* $ ^ *
Adam created, 1
Seth born, - 230
Enos born, - 435
Cainan born, - 625
Mahalaleel born, 795
Adam dies, - 930
Jared born, - 960
Enoch born, - 1122
Seth dies, - 1142
Methufelah born, 1387
Enos dies, - 1340
Lamech born, !474
Enoch tranflated, 1487
Cainan dies, - 1535
Noah born, - 1662
Mahalaleel dies, 1690
Jared dies, - 1922
Japhet born, - 2162
Shem born, - 2164
Lamech dies, - 2227
Methufelah dies, 2256
The Flood, - 2262
ft W
s- 3
• o
20 5
395 190
565 36°
700 495
73° 525
892 687
912 707
8:2
905
o
170
3°5
335
497
5I7
662
7i5
849
862
910
*35 a.
165 •
327 162
347 182
492 327
545 38°
679 514
692 527
74° 575
867 702
895 73°
962
W
3
C
is? g:
218
352 187
365 200
248 61
375 188
403 216
635 448
875 688
877 690
94° 753
969
2
o
28
260
500
502
565
594
600
ANT
[ 405 ]
ANT
A Chronological Table of the Years of the Patriarchs, according to the Computation of the Samaritan Pentateuch.
Adam created,
Seth born,
Enos born,
Cainan bom,
Mahalaleel born,
Jared born,
Enoch born,
Methufelah born,
Lamech born, -
Noah born,
Enoch tranflated,
Adam dies,
Seth dies,
Enos dies,
Japhet born,
Shem born,
Cainan dies,
Mahalaleel dies,
Jared, Methufe¬
lah, and La¬
mech, die,
1
O c/i
130
2.35
325
395
460
522
587
654
7°7
887
93°
1042
1140
1207
1209
1235
1290
1307
03
W
a
105 •
195 90
265 160
33° 225
392 287
457 352
524 4!9
577 472
757 652
800 695
912 807
905
n
70
135
197
262
329
382
562
605
717
815
882
884
910
65
127
192
259
312
497
535
647
745
812
814
840
895
W
a
a-
a
The Flood,
62
127
194
247
427
470
582
680
747
749
775
830
847
65
132 67
185 120
365 300
343
462
553
620
622
648
7°3
53
233
276
388
486
553
555
581
636
180
323
335
433
500
502
528
583
720 653 600
To the varieties exhibited in the two lafl tables, others
might be added, by admitting the various readings of
fome numbers in the Samaritan and Septuagint : for
as to the Hebrew copies, there is here a conftant agree¬
ment among them.
The manufcript from which the Samaritan Penta¬
teuch was publifhed, agrees exaftly with the Samari¬
tan numbers given by Eufebius. But St Jerome tells
us, that in his time, there were fome Samaritan co¬
pies which make Methufelah 187 years old at the birth
of Lamech, and Lamech 182 at the birth of Noah,
juft as the Hebrew does. Now if thefe numbers be
approved as the true original uumbers, the interval
from the creation to the flood will be 1556 years j dif¬
fering from the Hebrew computation but. 100 years in
the age of Jared at the birth of Enoch \ and if this laft
be allowed to be a miftake of the tranfcriber, by his
dropping a number, and writing 62 inftead of 162, as
has been fufpefted, the Samaritan will be perfectly re¬
conciled with the Hebrew, and all difference between
them vanifti.
Scaliger, on the authority of an old Samaritan chro¬
nicle, having at the end a table of the years of the pa¬
triarchs to the time of Mofes, would correcl two of
the Samaritan numbers in Eufebi^s ; viz. inftead of
65, the age of Mahalaleel when he begat Jared*, he
thinks it fliould be 75 ; and inftead of 67, the age
of Methufelah, when he begat Lamech, he would
have it 77. By which alterations he reckons 20 years
more to the flood than Eufebius and the manuicript 5
that is, 1327. But, as he acknowledges the table,
whereon lie grounds thefe correfHons, contains fome
great abfurdities, it feems unreafonable to oppofe it to
the joint authority of Eufebius and the Samaritan ma-
nufcript..
As to the Septuagint, in the common editions of
that verfion, the age of Methufelah at the birth of
Lamech is 167 ; and confequently the fum of this
period, according to them, is no more than 2242.-
But, in this cafe, Methufelah will outlive the flood 14
years $ and we may well wonder, with Eufebius, wdiere
he was preferved. To obviate this objeftion, we
are told, that, in fome copies, Methufelah is faid to
have lived but 782 (not 802) years after the birth
of Lamech, and no more than 949 in all. But the
Alexandrian manufcript entirely takes away the diffi¬
culty, by giving the fame number in this place with
the Hebrew.
Pezron is of opinion, that the age of Lamech, at the
birth of Noah, Ihould be but 182, as it is both in the
Hebrew and in Jofephus, fuppofing, with St Auftin,
that the prefent number is the error of the fcribe who
firft copied the original Septuagint manufcript in Pto¬
lemy’s library. So that he computes 2 256 years to the
flood. And, if this correction be admitted, and one
more mentioned alfo by St Auftin, viz. that Lamech
lived 595 years after the birth of Noah, and not 56 c,
as in the prefent copies, there will then remain no other
difference between the Septuagint and the Hebrew
than 600 years added to the ages of the fix patriarchs
when they begat their fons, and Methufelah will, con¬
formably to the Hebrew and Samaritan, die in the
year of the flood.
Having premifed this chronological view, we fliall
proceed to the hiftory of the antediluvian patriarchs. 2
Of the great progenitor we are told, that “ the Lord Of Adam in-
God took the man and put him into the garden.’’'Paradife.
Thefe words plainly indicate, that Adam was not created
within the precinfts of Paradife ; and it is afterwards
faid, upon his being turned out of the garden, “ He
was
ANN [
Antedilu- was fent to till the ground whence he was taken.”
, Vli*ps- As to the fiuation of this garden, concerning which
there has been lo much learned but uncertain inquiry,
fee the article Paradise.
Adam was doubtlels created in the prime of his life,
with all his powers and faculties in the higheft degree
of ftrength and vigour. His body would be graceful,
and xvell proportioned •, while his countenance was
comely, and glowed with all the luftre of youthful in¬
nocence. The poet thus defcribes our firft parents:
Adam the goodlieft man, of men fince born
His fons} the fairelf of her daughters Eve.
for in their looks divine
The image of their glorious Maker fhone. Milton.
Many have entertained an opinion (as mentioned
under the article Adam), that our firft parent was
created an adept in knowledge and in fcience, a con-
fummate philofopher, and an accompliihed divine.
But the very reverfe of this muft be true, providing
we give credit to the account which Mofes gives of
liim. If Adam was crea^d with intuitive knowledge,
for what end was he endowed with the fenfes of a man,
through which ideas might, be conveyed to his mind,
and make him capable of fuch improvements as arife
from experience and obfervation ? And if he original¬
ly pofiefied inch a fund of valuable knowledge, why
had he fuch an ardent thirft for an unwarrantable por¬
tion of more, and for the fake of this additional pittance
forfeited his happinefs and life ? Befides, if Adam was
at firft all light and knowledge, and was foon after re¬
duced to a ftate of ignorance and error, this tranfition
would make a retrograde in the fyftem of nature, quite
diftimilar to that uniformity which obtains throughout
the whole of the divine government and economy.
Mofes introduces our firft parents into life in the moft
natural manner, as having capacities to acquire know¬
ledge, fenfes to receive impreffions from objects around
them, and a fufficient degree of reafon to form a judge¬
ment of the things perceived ; yet all thefe faculties can
only be confidered as fo many inftx-uments, by the ex-
ercife of which they might be enabled to difcharge the
duties of their future life.
S/nellics The following portrait of our firft progenitor when
■Tranjlation, came into life, drawn by the inimitable pencil
"-o* fee P" ®uff°n» is extremely beautiful, wThile it is diffonant
if the paffage from no Part Mofaic hiftory. “ Let us fuppofe
here a- a man in the fame fituation with him who firft received
bridged), exiftence } a man wdiofe organs were perfectly formed,
but -who was equally new to himfelf, and to every
object which furrounded him. Were he to give a hi¬
ftory of his thoughts, and of the manner in which
he received imprelfions, he might give fome fuch in¬
formation as this. I remember the moment w’hen my
exiftence commenced. It was a moment replete with
joy, with amazement and anxiety. I neither knew
what I was, where I wTas, nor whence I came. I opened
my eyes. But what an amazing increafe of fenfation !
The light, the celeftial vault, the verdure of the earth,
the tranfparency of the wTaters, gave animation to
my fpirits, and conveyed pleafures which exceed the
powers of expreftion. At firft I believed that all thefe
obieifs exifted within me, and formed a part of my-
felf. When, turning mine eyes to the fun, his fplen-
•dour overpowered me. I voluntarily ftmt out the
406 ] ANN
light, and felt a fmall degree of pain. During this Antedilu-
moment of darknefs, I imagined that I had loft the vians.
greateft part of my being. I was then roufed with —
a variety of founds. The finging of birds and the
murmuring breezes formed a concert, which excited
moft fweet and enchanting emotions. I liftened, and
was convinced that thefe harmonious founds exifted
within me.—I made a ftep forwards } and afterwards
renewing my motion, I walked with my face turned
towards the heavens 5 till I ftruck again!! a palm tree,
and felt fome degree of pain. Seized with terror, I
ventured to lay my hand upon the objedl, and per¬
ceived it to be a being diftindl from myfelf, becaufe it
did not, like touching my own body, give me a double
fenfation. I refolved then to feel every objetft I fair,
and had a ftrong defire to touch the fun ; but firetch¬
ing out my hands to embrace the heavens, they met
without any intermediate obje£l. All objedls appear¬
ed to me equally near j and it was not till after many
trials that I learned to ufe my eye as a guide to my
hand. At laft the train of my ideas was interrupted,
and I loft the confcioufnefs of my exiftence. My lleep
was profound ; but having no mode of meafuring time,
I knew nothing of its duratiop. When I awakened,
I wTas aftoniftied to find by my fide another form, per-
fe&ly fimilar to my own. I conceived it to be another
felf 5 and inftead of lofing by my fleep, I imagined my¬
felf to be double. I ventured to lay my hand upon
this new being. With rapture and aftoniihment I per¬
ceived that it was not myfelf, but fomething much
more glorious and defirable.”
This philofophical detail coincides with the opinion,
that, excepting what portions of knowledge Adam
might acquire by the exercife of his fenfes, his Maker
taught him every thing that was neceffary for his com¬
fort and fubfiftence. But before the Almighty gave
any inftruttions to our firft parents, we muft fuppofe
he infpired them with the knowledge of the mean¬
ing of every word wdiich they heard him fpeak ; other-
wufe it wmuld have been impoffible that he could have
had any fuch communication with them. The words
wftrich they heard and w^ere made to underftand, be¬
ing imprinted upon their memories, would ferve as
the foundation of a language, which they wmuld af¬
terwards increafe and enlarge as new obje&s began to
multiply, and hence give rife to new terms and defini¬
tions.
One of the firft leffons taught to Adam by his in¬
fallible Direftor, wrould be the neceflity of food for
the fupport of his life. Accordingly Mofes infoims us,
that for this purpofe a grant wras made him to eat of
every tree of the garden, excepting one. At the fame
time it was made known to him, in what manner he
was to repair the decays of nature, namely, by eating
of the tree of life. Then, in order to qualify him for
facial intercourfe, he was ordered to exerefte his fa¬
culty of fpeech, by giving names to different creatures.
The author of - the book of Ecclefiafticus fays of our
firft parents, “ They received the ufe of the five ope¬
rations of the Lord j and in the fixth, he imparted to
them underftanding j and in the feventh, fpeech to in¬
terpret the cogitations thereof.” The meaning can¬
not be, that he gave them every word they were to
pronounce, more than every idea which their fenfes
were to convey to their underftanding. Our talents,
and
ANT [ 407 ] ANT
Antedilu- and the exercife of them, may be both faid to be
vians. given us of God j but whatever capacities we receive
from him, it is fuppofed that we ourfelves muft im¬
prove them, before we can attain to any acquirements
whatever. Although Adam had heard and underftood
the words of God, yet Mofes does not give the lead;
hint that he ever attempted to fpeak before this time.
For if he had, as fome imagine, innate knowledge and
proper terms for every thing prefented to him, what
occafion was there to bring animals before him to fee
what names he would impofe upon them ? Some wai¬
ters have endeavoured to turn into ridicule the whole
of this tranfa&ion, and have afked, how could all
creatures upon earth appear at one time before Adam ?
not only one, but many days would have elapfed be¬
fore he could give each a name. But this objection
arifes from not underftanding the "words of Mofes.
What our tranflators render, to fee what he would call
them, is in the original, to fee what name he would
call it. “ And whatfoever Adam called it (viz. the
living creature), that was the name of it.” The mean¬
ing feems to be no more than this : God brought a few
creatures to Adam, to make him try to name them ;
and whatever he called any of them, that continued to
be its name. And no doubt he would denominate
every animal before him, from its external appearance,
from its fize, its colour, or its voice : And in procefs
of time, he would give names to' all thofe creatures
which Providence brought within his view, or with
which he became afterwards acquainted.
The next thing in which God inftru&ed Adam,
though probably in a trance or viiion, was his near re¬
lation to Eve, as being part of his own body. This
piece of knowledge was imparted to him, in order to
cement the greater love and affeftion between the two
during the remaining period of their lives.
Thefe, according to Mofes, are all the tranfadlions
in which our firll parents were interefted during their
abode in Paradife, till they loft their innocence, and
forfeited the enjoyments of their happy fituation.
And nothing can be more evident, than that the in-
ftruflions which they received, befpoke the infantile
ftate of their minds; though there is no doubt but fur¬
ther and higher difpenfations of knowledge would have
been communicated to them, as they became able to
bear them, and had their minds matured by experience
^ and refledlion.
How long How long our firft parents retained their innocence,
our firft pa-we are nowhere told. Many aifert that they fell on
rents re- very firft day of their creation. But Mofes mat-
tamed tlieirtJons f0 many tranfadlions on that day, as muft have
engroffed the whole of their attention, and prevented
them from falling into fuch temptations as arife from
indolence and want of refleflion. Befides, if, in fuch
circumftances as they wTere placed, they could not re¬
frain from an open violation of the Divine law for the
fpace of one day, it would befpeak a deceitfulnefs of
heart in them greater than in moft of their pofterity.
It is fomewhat Angular, that many of the great trials
recorded in facred writing were limited to 40 days;
which in prophetic ftyle is fometimes equivalent to 40
years. This appears from the hiftory of Mofes, of Eli¬
jah, of Nineveh, and of the Jewifh nation after the Antedilu-
death of Chrift. And, what is very remarkable, he, viani'‘ ,
of whom Adam was a type, was tempted 40 days in
the wildernefs. Agreeable to this part of the Divine
economy, perhaps the trial of our firft parents lafted
fo long. However, that they remained for a confider-
able time in the garden, appears highly probable from
this confideration, that their indulgent Creator, who
had manifefted his tender concern for them while in¬
nocent, and extended his mercy to them when fallen,
would never have turned them out of paradife, and
fent them into an uncultivated world, before they had
acquired the arts of living, and were capable of provid¬
ing againft the viciflitudes of their future lot. The
particulars of this memorable tranfadlion are confidered
under the article Fall.
Mofes gives us no further account of Adam’s life
after leaving the garden, but that he begat fome chil¬
dren, and died at fuch an age. Yet w-e have no reafon
to doubt, but the venerable patriarch ever after led a
life of penitence, and of the ftridleft piety. The va¬
rious communications which he had enjoyed with his
Maker in paradife, and which wTere probably renewed
to him after his fall, could not fail to make the deepeft
impreflions upon his mind. The gpacioiis refpite he
had met with, from the execution of the fentence de¬
nounced againft him, would make him cautious of of¬
fending for the time to come ; left the next violation
of the Divine authority Ihould put an end to his exift-
ence. The cherubim andflaming fword, or the devour¬
ing flame, on the eajl of Eden (which might continue
burning all his life), wrould be to him wrhat the veftiges
of the ark were to Noah and his fons, an awful memo¬
rial of the danger of incurring the Divine difplea-
fure. Befides, his worldly comforts being in a great
meafure withdrawn!, his mind wrould be naturally dif-
pofed for relfthing thofe pleafures wrhich flowr from piety
and religion.
The firft thing which w^e hear of Adam in his new7
fituation was, that he knew Eve his wife, and fie con¬
ceived and bare Cain. Afterwards, we are told, fire Of their
bare Abel. When the brothers wrere growm up, they progeny*
betook themfelves to diftindl employments; the for¬
mer to hufbandry, and the latter to the keeping of
ftieep. Their inwTard difpofitions wTere ftill more dif¬
ferent ; Cain being wicked and avaricious, but Abel
juft and virtuous.
In procefs of time they brought their refpe&ive of¬
ferings to God ; Cain of the fruit of the ground, and
Abel of the firftlings of his flock : but they met with
very different fuccefs; for God accepted the offering
of Abel, but Cain’s he did not accept ; the confe-
quences of which are related under the articles Abel
and Cain.
Soon after the murder of Abel, his lofs was made up
to his parents in another fon they had, wFom Eve na¬
med Seth, that is, “ appointed becaufe he was ap¬
pointed inftead of Abel whom Cain flew.
As the whole progeny of Adam, of whom we have
any mention in Scripture, wTere the defendants of Cain
and Seth, it may be proper to give the following
Genealogical
ANT-
ANT
Antedilu¬
vians.
Adah
t 4=8 ]
Genealogical Table of the Antediluvians*
Adam
Eve
j Enoch |
_rr_
[ irad 1
Mehujael
Methufael
Lamech
Zillah
Jabal
Jubal
Tubal
Gain
Naamah
Japhet
j Cain j | Abel | j Seth J
L_En!lJ
Cainan
Mahalalcel
Jared
Enoch
i”i:z
Methufelah
I.amech
Noah
Shem
Autcdilu.'
vians.
Ham
Of the line ^acre^ hiftorian, confining himfelf chiefly to the
•of Cain. line of Seth, from whence Noah was defeended, has
acquainted us with very few particulars relating to
that of Cain : nor can we thus form any conje&ures
how long he or any of his defeendants lived. All we
know is, that Lamech, the fifth in defeent from him,
married two wives, Adah and Zillah, the firft known
inftance of polygamy : that by the former he had two
fons, Jabal, who was the firft that dwelt in tents, and
fed cattle •, and Jubal, the inventor of mufic •, and by
the other, a fen named Tubal-Cain, who found out the
art of forging and working metals, Zillah likewife
brought him a daughter named Naamah, fuppofed to
have invented fpinning and weaving : and we are told
that, on fome occafion or other, Lamech made a fpeech
to his wives, the explication of which has greatly puz-
^ zled the interpreters. See Lamech.
Tnehtieof Mofes proceeds to tell us, that Seth had a font born
Miln'sPhx to kim called Enos, and that then began men to callup-
fuo-Tbeolog.on the name of the Lord. Commentators give us three
LeBures. different fenfes of thefe words. Some think the words
p. 242, &c.
fhould be rendered, Then men prophaned in calling on
the name of the Lord; and that even Enos arrogated
to himfelf a power, as if he had been a god. But this
fenfe feems harfh and unnatural. There is nothing
more unlikely, than that Adam’s grandchildren, who
lived under his own eye, wmuld fo foon {hake off pa¬
rental authority, and apoftatize from the belief and
worfhip of the one true God. Others think, that
though men had hitherto worlhipped God in private,
yet they now inftituted public afiemblies, met in larger
focieties for folemn and focial worlhip, and introduced
liturgies and forms for more effectually paying their
homage to the Almighty. This indeed is a very na¬
tural comment from thofe who place religion in modes
and fet forms of worfhip. But it is fcarcely credible,
that Adam and his family had never met together to
worfliip God till nowq when we are told that Cain and
Abel, and probably both their families along with
them, brought their offerings to the Lord j this they
no doubt did every Sabbath day. Others, therefore,
put a more confiftent interpretation upon the words,
namely,
\
ANT [ 409 ] ANT
A nt'4iUi - namely, that men now called themfelves by the name of
vians. the iQr(j' xhe iueanmg of which is, that about this
period, the family of Seth, who adhered to God and
his worihip, began to give themfelves a denomination,
expreifive of their relation and regards to him, They
diifinguifhed themfelves from the irreligious family of
Cain, and a (lamed the title of the font or children of
God; which defignation was afterwards applied to
them by Mofes: it was even ufed after the flood, and
adopted by the writers of the New Teftament,
Of the three nest defeendants of Seth, Cainan, Ma-
halaleel, and Jared, and of Methnfelah and Laraech,
the grandfather and father of Noah, Mofes has record¬
ed no more than their feveral ages, The oriental au¬
thors commend them, as they do Seth and Enos, for
their piety, and the falutary injun&ions. they left be¬
hind them, forbidding their children all intercourfc
jvith the race of curled Cain.
Enoch the ion of Jared, and father of Methufelah,
wa^ a perfon of molt extraordinary piety, walking with
Cod, as the Scripture exprelTes it, for at leait the laft
three hundred years of his life $ as a reward for which
exemplary behaviour in fo corrupt an age, he was ta¬
ken up by God into heaven, without tailing death.
7 See Ewoch,
Corruption Mofes afterwards informs us, When men began to
the hu- multiply, i. e. wdien the earth was filled with inhabi-
imm r.we, tauts^ an(j trjbes formerly living remote began to ap¬
proach nearer to one another, Daughters were born un¬
to them i meaning in greater abundance than formerly j
which feeros to hint, that at this period there were
confxderably more females than males bom into the
world. Some think that Mofes, being now about to
mention the wickednefs of the Antediluvians, intro¬
duces the poflerity of Cain as being the chief cauie of
their corruption 5 and that he ftyles them men and
daughters of men, becaufe they were feniual and earth¬
ly $ in which fenfe the word men is fometimes ufed in
the Scriptures.
The fons of God faw the daughters of men that they
were fair; and they took them wives of all that they
. chofe. Thefe words have given rife to many abfurd
and ridiculous comments both of jews and Chriftians.
There are two meanings affixed to them, which may
be mentioned as the moil probable. Whenever the
name of God is added to any thing, it not only de*
notes God’s being the efficient caufe, but it heightens
and increafes its ufual meaning, for which reafon
any thing that is excellent in its kind, or uncommonly
lofty and magnificent, was by the Jews faid to be of
God, or of the Lord. Thus the angels are called the
fans of God. And Adam being created with a nobler
image than any other creature, is faid to be made in
the image of God, The cedars of Lebanon are called
the cedars of the Lord; and great mountains, the
mountains of God. Therefore by the fans of God in
this place are meant men of. great opulence, power,
and authority. And by way of contraft, the hiftorian
introduces thofe of poor and mean circumrtances in
life, and calls them the daughters of men. The words
thus explained, are not an unlikely defeription of that
dilTolute age. The great and mighty in this world
are commonly mod addicted to fenfual gratifications,
becaufe they have fo many incentives to inflame their
paffions, and fo few rellraints to curb them } and, in-
Vol. II. Part II.
Head of ufing their power to pimiffi and difcountenance -Anfeduy.
vice, are too often the greatelt examples and promoters , ' ,
of lafeivioufnefs and debauchery. Thus, thefe fans of
God, thefe great men, when they happened to meet
with the daughters of their inferiors, gazed upon them
as fit objects to gratify their lull ; and from among
thefe they took to themfelves, in a forcible manner,
wives, or ( as it may be rendered) concubines, of all that
they chafe, whether married or unmarried, without ever
alking their confent. No wonder, then, that the earth
(hould be filed with violence, when the highelt rank of
men wrere above the reftraint of law, of reafon, and
religion, and not only opprefied the poor, but with im-
punity treated them and their children in fuch a bale
and cruel manner.
But there are other writers who cannot reliffi the
above opinion j becaufe they think it a harfh and un¬
natural conftrudtion, to call great and powerful perfons
the fons of God, and all mean and plebeian women the
daughters of men. Befides, the text does not fay, that
the fans of God offered any violence to thefe inferior
women j but that they faw that they were fair, and
made choice of them for wives. And wherein is the
heinoufoefs of the offence, if men of a fuperior rank
marry their inferiors, efpecialiy when an excefs of
beauty apologizes for their choice ? Or why {hould a
few unequal matches be reckoned among the caufes of
bringing upon the world an univerfal deftrmriion ? For
thefe reafons many are of opinion, that the defeendants
of Seth, who were fly led the fons of God on account of Miln, p.
their near relation to him, faw the daughters of men, 265.
i. e. the impious progeny of Cain, and by intermar¬
riages became affociated with them •, and furrendering
to thofe enchantreffes their hearts and their freedom,
they furrendered at the fame time their virtue and their
religion. From this union proceeded effedfs fimilar to
what has happened ever fince. When a pure fociety
mixes wuth a profane, the better principles of the one
become foon tainted by the evil praftices of the other j
which verifies the old adage, Evil communication cor-
rupts good manners. Thus it appears, that the great
fource of univerfal degeneracy was owing to the polte-
rity of Seth mingling with the progeny of Cain, in op-
pofition to what their pious fathers had ftrictly charged
them.
It is afterwards faid, There were giants in the earth
in thofe days : and alfo after that, when the fons of God
came in unto the daughters of men, and they bare chil¬
dren to them, the fame became mighty men, which were
of old men of renown. Tranfiators are not agreed
about the meaning of the word giants. Some render
the word, violent and cruel men ; others, men who fa/l
upon and rujh forward, as a robber does upon his prey:
the meaning then is, that they were not more remark¬
able for their ftrength and ftaturc, than for their vio¬
lence and cruelty. In Luther’s German tranflation of
the Bible, this word is rendered tyrants. It is gene¬
rally agreed, that in the firft ages of the world, men
were of a gigantic ftature ; though Mofes does not
mention them as giants till after the union of the fami¬
lies of Seth and Cain, when men ufed their fuperiority
in bodily ilrength for the purpofes of gratifying their
unhallowed paflions.
At this period of the world, and long after, politi¬
cal power and bodily {Length went hand and hand to-
3 F ‘ gether.
■nft
God’s for¬
bearance.
ant [4
getter. Whoever was able to encounter and kill a
fierce and dangerous wild bead, and clear the country
of noxious animals, or who was able in the day of
battle to deftroy mod of his enemies, was looked up to
by the red of his companions as the fitted to be their
leader and commander. Thus Nimrod, from being a
7niShty hunter, became a great king, and, grafping at
power, was never fatisfied till every obdack to his Am¬
bition was. removed. And it appears from hidory,
that all his fucceffors have pretty nearly trodden in
the lame path. Thefe giants then, or fans of God,
might be the chief warriors, who formed themfelves
into chofen bands, and living among a cowardly and
effeminate people, had no curb to their cruelty and
lud. From them might fpring an illegitimate race,
refembling their fathers in body and mind, who, when
they grew up, having no inheritance, would be turned
loofe upon the world, and follow no other employ¬
ment but theft, rapine, and plunder. Thus they be¬
came mighty men and men of renown, and procured
themfelves a name: but this was owing to the mifehief
they did, and the feats of favage cruelty which they
performed.
_ Mankind running thus headlong into all manner of
vice, were admonifhed to repent; and God, out of his
great mercy, was pleafed to grant them a convenient
time for that purpofe ; no lefs than 120 years, during
which ipace, but no longer, he declared his Spirit
diould “ drive with man,” or endeavour to awaken and
reclaim them from their wicked courl'e of life.
Amidd this general corruption, one man, however,
was found to be jud and perfeft in his generation,
walking with God. This extraordinary perfon was
Noah, the fon of Lamech ; who, not thinking it fuf-
ficient to be righteous himfelf, unlefs he did his utmod
9 to turn others likewife to righteaufnefe by admonition
Preaching as well as example, became a preacher to the abandon-
of Noah, ed race among which he lived, employing both his
counfel and authority to bring them to a reformation
of their manners, and to redore the true religion
among them. But all he could do was to no purpofe ;
for they continued incorrigibly obdinate ; fo that at
length (as Jofephus tells us), finding himfelf and fami¬
ly in imminent danger of fome violence in return for
his good will, he departed from among them, with his
wife and children.
On his*departure, it is probable they fell into great¬
er diforders than before ; having now none to con-
troul, or even to trouble them with unwelcome ad¬
vice. Mofes affures us, “ that the wuckednefs of man
was great in the earth, and that every imagination of
the thoughts of his heart was continually evil and
that “ the earth was corrupt and filled with violence,
all dedi having corrupted his way upon the earth.”
Thefc words leave no room to inquire into the particu¬
lar crimes of the Antediluvian world, which feems to
have been overrun with a complication of all manner
of debauchery and wuckednefs, and above all with vio¬
lence and injudice towards one another.
Things being in this date, God, as the facred hido-
'troved b ' ”aT1 PatheticalIy expreffes it, “ repented that he had
a flood cx- made man on earth, and it grieved him at his heart.”
cept Noah And the time of forbearance being elapfed, he paffed
and his fa- the fentence of their utter dedruftion by a fiood of
mi7- waters 5 a fentence which likewife included the beads
Mankind
incorriei-
txie.
The whole
world dC-
10 ] ANT
of the earth, and every creeping thing, and the fowls Antediln-
of the air. But “ Noah found grace in the eyes of v*atls-
the Lord j” who had before acquainted him with his ' v
defign of bringing a deluge on the earth, and direfled
him to make an ark, or veffel, of a certain foam and
fize, capable of containing not only himfelf and fa¬
mily, but fuch numbers of animals of all forts as would
be fufficient to preferve the feveral fpecies, and again
replenidi the earth, together with all neceffary provi-
fions for them. All thefe injumffiens Noah perform¬
ed ; and, by God’s peculiar favour and providence, he
and thofe that were with him furvived this tremendous
calamity. See the article Deluge. ^
As to any further tranfadlions before the fiood, 'weTraditional
are left entirely in the dark by the facred hiftorian. Inftory of
The Jervs and eaftern nations, however, have madet^e.Antec^^"'
ample mends for the filence of Mofes, by the abun-luvianS*
dance of their traditions. T he only part of thefe,
which can be connefted in any thing like hiftory, is
what follows.. After the death of Adam, Seth,
with his family, leparated themfelves from the profli¬
gate race of Cain, and chofe for their habitation the
mountain where. Adam was buried, the Cainites re¬
maining below, in the plain where Abel was killed 5
and, according to our hiftorians, this mountain was fo
high, that the inhabitants could hear the angels fing-
ing the prailes of God, and even join them in that fer-
vice. Here they lived in great purity and fandity of
manners. Their conftant employment was praifing
God, from which they had few or no avocations 3 for
their only food was the fruit of the trees which grew
on the mountain, fo that they had no occafion to un¬
dergo any fervile labours, nor the trouble of fowung
and gathering in their harveft. They were utter
ftrangers to envy, injuftice, or deceit. Their onlv
oath wTas, “ By the blood of Abel 3” and they every
day went up to the top of the mountain to worfhip
God, and to vifit the body of Adam, as a mean of
procuring the Divine bleffmg. Here, by contempla¬
tion of the heavenly bodies, they laid the foundations
of the fcience of allronomy 3 and left their inventions
fhould be forgotten, or loft before they were publicly
known, underftanding, from a prediction of Adam’s,
that there wmuld be a general deftrudion of all things,
once by fire, and once by w’ater, they built two pil¬
lars, one of brick, and the other of ftone, that if the
brick one happened to be overthrown by the flood or
otherwife deftroyed, that of ftone might remain. This
laft, Jofephus fays, w^as to be feen in his time in the
land of Syriad, (thought to be in Upper Egypt).
The defeendants of Seth continued in the pradice
of virtue till the 40th year of Jared, when an hundred
of them hearing the noife of the mufic and the riotous
mirth of the Cainites, agreed to go down to them from
the holy mountain. On their arrival in the plain, they
w'ere immediately captivated by the beauty of the wo¬
men, who were naked, and with wdrom they defiled
themfelves 3 and this is what is meant by the inter¬
marriage of the fons of God wuth the daughters of
men, mentioned by Mofes. The example of thefe
apoftate fons of Seth wTas foon followed by others 3 and
from time to time great numbers continued to defeend
from the mountain, who in like manner took wives
from the abandoned race of Cain. From thefe mar¬
riages fprung the giants (who, however, according to
Mofes.,
ANT [ 41
Antedilu- Mofes, exliled before) •, and tbefe being as remark-
| able for their impiety as for their llrength of body,
u*—-tyrannized in a cruel manner, and polluted the earth
with wickednefs of every kind. This defeffion be¬
came at laft fo univerfal, that none were left in the
holy mountain, except Noah, his wife, his three fons
13 and their wives.
Profane hi- Berofus, a Chaldean hiftorian, who flourifhed in the
r v'r Ba' t^rne •^•^exan^cr ^reat, enumerates ten kings
iyhnian An- w^° feigned in Chaldea before the flood ; of whom the
tiquitiit. firfl, called Atoms, is fuppoied to be Adam, and Xi-
futhrus, the laft, to be Noah.—This Alorus declared
that he held his kingdom by divine right, and that God
himfelf had appointed him t> be the pallor of the
people. According to our hiltorian, in the firft year
of the world, there appeared out of the Red fea, at a
place near the confines of Babylonia, a certain irra¬
tional animal called Oanves. He had his whole body
like that of a fifh •, but beneath his filh’s head grew
another of a different fort (probably a human one).
' He had alfo feet like a man, which proceeded from his
filh’s tail, and a human voice, the picture of him be¬
ing preferved ever after. This animal converfed with
mankind in the day-time, without eating any thing :
he delivered to them the knowledge of letters, fciences,
and various arts ; he taught them to dwell together in
cities, to ereft temples, to introduce laws, and inltruft-
ed them in geometry : he likewife Ihowed them how
to gather feeds and fruits, and imparted to them what¬
ever was neceffary and convenient for a civilized life;
but after this time there was nothing excellent invent¬
ed. When the fun fet, Oannes' retired into the fea,
and continued there all night. He not only delivered
his inftruclions by word of mouth, but, as our author
uflures us, wrote of the origin of things, and of politi¬
cal economy. This, or a limilar animal, is alfo men¬
tioned by other authors.
Of Alafporus, the fecond king, nothing remarkable
is related. His fucceffor, Amelon, or Amillarus, was
of a city called Pantabibla. In his time another ani¬
mal refembling the former appeared, 260 years after
the beginning of this monarchy. Amelon was fuc-
ceeded by Metalarus j and he by Daonus, all of whom
were of the fame city. In the time of the latter, four
animals of a double form, half man and half filh, made
their appearance. Their names were Euedocus, Eneu-
gamus, Encubulus, and Anementas. Under the next
pxnnce, who was likewife of Pantabibla, appeared ano¬
ther animal of the fame kind, whofe name was Odacon.
All thefe explained more particularly what had been
concifely delivered by Oannes.
In the reign of the tenth king, Xifuthrus, happened
the great deluge, of which our author gives the follow¬
ing account : Cronus, or Saturn, appeared to Xifu-
thrus in a dream, and warned him, that on the fifteenth
of the month Dsefius mankind would be deftroyed by
a hood ; and therefore commanded him to write down
the original, intermediate ftate, and end of all things,
and bury the writings under ground in Sippara, the
city of the fun 5 that he fhould alfo build a flap, and
go into it with his relations and deareft friends, having
firft furniftied it with provifions, and taken into it fowls
and four-footed hearts 5 and that, when he had provid¬
ed every thing, and was alked whither he was failing,
he fhould anfvver, To the gods, to pray for happinefs to
i ] A N T
mankind. Xifuthrus did not difobey 5 but built a vef- Antedilu-
fel, whofe length was five furlongs, and breadth two 'j
furlongs. He put on board all he was direfted *, and
went into it with his wife, children, and friends. 1 he
flood being come, and foon ceafing, Xifuthrus let out
certain birds, which finding no food, nor place to reft
upon, returned again to the fhip. Xifuthrus, after
fome days, let out the birds again ; but they returned .
to the fhip, having their feet daubed with mud : but
when they were let go the third time, they came no
more to the fhip, whereby Xifuthrus underftood that
the earth appeared again *, and thereupon he made an
opening between the planks of the ftiip, and feeing
that it refted on a certain mountain, he came out with
his wife, and his daughter, and his pilot : and having
worfhipped the earth, and raifed an altar, and facrifi-
ced to the gods, he and thofe who went out with him
difappeared. They who were left behind in tjie fhip,
finding that Xifuthrus and the perfons that accompa¬
nied him did not return, went out themfelves to fieek
for him, calling him aloud by his name but Xilu-
thrus was no more feen by them : only a voice came
out of the air, which enjoined them, as their duty was,
to be religious j and informed them, that on account
of his own piety he was gone to dwell with the gods,
and that his wife and daughter and pilot were parta¬
kers of the fame honour. It alfo direfted them to re¬
turn to Babylon, and that, as the fates had ordained,
they fhould take the writings from Sippara, and com¬
municate them to mankind •, and told them, that the
place where they were was the country of Armenia.
When they had heard this, they offered facrifice to
the gods, and unanimoufly went to Babylon 5 and
when they came thither, they dug up the writings at
Sippara, built many cities, raifed temples, and rebuilt
Babylon. r4
The Egyptians, who would give place to no nation, Antedilu-
in point of antiquity, huve alfo a feries of king, who, vian kings
as is pretended, reigned in Egypt before the flood E£yPl-
and, to be even with the Chaldeans, began their ac¬
count the very fame year that theirs does according to
Berofus.
There was an ancient chronicle extant among the
Egyptians, not many centuries ago, which contained
30 dynafties of princes who ruled in that country, by
a feries of 113 generations, through an immenfe fpace
of 36,525 years, during which Egypt was fucceffively
governed by three different races ; of whom the firft
were the Auritse, the fecond the Meftraei, and the third
the Egyptians.
But this extravagant number of years Manetho (to
whofe remains we muft chiefly have recourfe for the
ancient Egyptian hiftory) has not adopted 5 however,
in other refpefts, he is fuppofed to have been led in¬
to errors in chronology by this old chronicle, which
yet feems to have been a compofition fince Manetho’s
t[mre: . . . r -
The account given by Berofus is manifeftly taken gancj1om-a„
from the writings of Mofes •, but we have another ac- tho’s Phoe-
count of the firft ages of mankind, in which no men- nician hi-
tion is made of the flood at all. This is contained in^01^*
fome fragments of a Phoenician author called Sancho-
niatho, who is by fome faid to have been contemporary
with Gideon, by others to have lived in the days of
King David 3 while fome boldly affert there never was
3 F 2 fuch
ANT [4
A"itaendslIu‘ fucli a perfon, and that the whole is a fi&ion of Philo-
—- Biblius in oppofition to the books of Jofephus, writ¬
ten againft Apion. To gratify the reader’s curiofity,
however, A\e have fubjoined an account of the firft ten
generations mentioned by him, which are fuppofed by
the compilers of the Univerfal Hiftory to correfpond
- to the generations mentioned by Mofes before the
flood.
Sanchoniatho having delivered Ins cofmogonv, or
generation of the other parts of the world, begins his
hiftory of mankind with the produftion of the firft
pair of mortals, whom Philo, his tranflator, calls Prd-
togonus and JEon j the latter of whom found out the
food which was gathered from trees.
Their iffue were called Genus and Genea, and dwelt
in Phoenicia : but when the great droughts came, they
ftretched forth their hands to heaven towards the fun ;
for him they thought the only God and Lord of hea¬
ven, calling him Be elf a men, which in Phoenician is
Lord of heaven, and in Greek 'Zeus.
Afterwards from Genus, the fon of Protogonus and
iEon, other mortal iffue was begotten, whofe names
were Bhos, Pur, and Phlox ; that is, Light, Fire, and
Flame. Thefe found out the way of generating fire,
by the rubbing of pieces of wood againft each other,
and taught men the ufe thereof. They begat fons of
vaft bulk and height, whofe m-mes -were given to the
mountains on which they feized : fo from them were
named Mount Gafins, Libatius, Antilihanus, and Bra-
thys.
Of thefe laft were begotten Memrumus and Hypfu-
ranius ; but they were fo named by their mothers, the
women of thofe times, who without ftiame lay with any
man they could light upon. Hypfuranius inhabited
Tyre, and he invented the making of huts of reeds and
rufties and the papyrus. He alfo fell into enmity
■with his brother Ufous, who firrt invented a covering
for his body out of the Ikins ol the wild beafts which
he could catch. And when violent tempefts of winds
and rains came, the boughs in Tyre, being rubbed
againft each other, took fire, and burnt the wood there.
And Ufous, having taken a tree, and broke off its
boughs, was fo bold as to venture upon it into the fea.
He alfo confecrated two rude ftones, or pillars, to fire
and wind ; and he worlhipped them, and poured out
to them the blood of fuch wild beafts as had been
caught in hunting. But when thefe were dead, thofe
that remained confecrated to them ftumps of wood and
pillars, worftiipping them, and kept anniverfary feafts
unto them. <
Many years after this generation came Agreus and
Halicus, the inventors of the arts of hunting and filh-
ing, from whom huntfmen and fifhermen are named.
Of thefe were begotten two brothers, the inventors
of iron and of the forging thereof: one of thefe, called
Chryfor, the fame with Hepheftus, or Vulcan, exer-
cifed himfelf in words and charms and divinations ;
found out the hook, bait, and fifhing line, and boats
diightly built ; and was the firft of all men that failed.
Wherefore he alfo was worftupped after his death for a
god : and they called him Zeus Michins, or Jupiter
the engineer 3 and fome fay his brother invented the
way of making walls of brick.
Afterwards from this generation came two brothers ;
one of whom was called Techniies, cr the Artift 3 the
2 ] ANT
other Genius Autochthon, [the home-born man of the AntediJn.
earth.] Thefe found out to mingle ftubble,'or fmall vians-
twigs, with the brick earth, and to dry them in the
fun, and fo made tyling.
By thefe were begotten others 3 of which one was
called Agrus [Field] 3 and the other Agrouerus, or
Agrotes [Hufbandmen], wLo had a ftatue much wor-
ftupped, and a temple carried about by one or more
yoke of oxen, in Phoenicia ; and among thofe of Byblus
he is eminently called the greatejl of the gods. Thefe
found out how to make courts about men’s houfes, and
fences and caves, or cellars. Hulbandmen, and fuch
as ufe dogs in hunting, derive from thefe 3 and thev
are alfo called Aletce and Titans.
Of thefe were begotten Amynus and Magus, who
Ihowed men to conftitute villages and flocks.
In thefe men’s age there was one Eliun, -which im¬
ports in Greek Hypfflus [the moft high] and his wife
was named Beruth, who drvelt about Byblus : and by
him was begot one Epigerus, or Autochthon, whom
they afterwards called Uranus [heaven] 3 fo that from
him that element which is over us, by reafon of its ex-
cellent beauty, is called heaven : and’ he had a After of
the fame parents called Ge [the earth] 3 and by reafon
of her beauty the earth had her name given to it.
Hypfiftus, the father of thefe, dying in fight with
wild beafts, was confecrated, and his children offered
facrifices and libations to him.—But Uranus taking
the kingdom of his father, married his filter Ge, ana
had by her four fons 3 Ilus, who is called Cronus, [or
Saturn] 3 Betylus ; Dagon, who is Siton, or the god
of com 3 and Atlas : but by other wives Uranus had '
much iffue.
As to the cuftoms, policy, and other general cir-
cumftances of the Antediluvians, we can only form
conjectures.
The only thing we know as to their religious rites
is, that they offered facrifices, and that very early, both
of the fruits of the earth and of animals 5 but whether
the blood and ftelh of the animals, or only their milk
and wool, were offered, is a difputed point.—
Of their arts and fciences, we have not much more Arts, &c. of
to fay. The Antediluvians feem to have fpent theirt!ie Antedi-
time rather in luxury and wantonnefs, to which the luviar‘s-
abundant fertility of the firft earth invited them, than
in difeoveries or improvements, which probably they
flood much lefs in need of than their fucceffors. The
art of working metals w'as found out by the laft gene¬
ration of Cain’s line 3 and mufic which they might be
fuppofed to pradife for their pleafure, was not brought
to any perfeftion, if invented, before the fame genera¬
tion. Some authors have fuppofed aftronomy to have-
been cultivated by the Antediluvians, though this is
probably owing to a miftake of Jofephus : but it is to
be prefumed, the progrefs they made therein, or in any
other fcience, was not extraordinary 3 it being even
very doubtful whether letters were fo much as knowm
before the flood. See Alphabet.
As to their politics and civil conftitutions, we have
not fo much as any circumftances whereon to build con¬
jecture. It is probable, the patriarchal form of go¬
vernment, which certainly was the firft, was fet afide
w-hen tyranny and oppreflion began to take place, and
much fooner among the race of Cain than that of Seth,.
It feems alfo, that their communities were but few, and.
coufifted
ANT [ 4
AnteJlh)- confined of vaflly largex* numbers of people than any
, Yian5, , formed fince the flood : or rather, it is a queftion, whe-
^ ther, after the union of the two great families of Seth
and Cain, there were any diftin&ion of civil focieties, or
diverfity of regular governments, at all. It is more like¬
ly, that all mankind then made but one great nation,
though living in a kind of anarchy, divided into feveral
diforderly aflbciations *, which, as it was almofl the
natural confequence of their having, in all probability,
but one common language, fo it was a circumftance
which greatly contributed to that general corruption
which otherwife perhaps could not have fo univerfally
overfpread the Antediluvian world. And for this rea-
fon chiefly, as it feems, fo foon as the pofterity of
Noah were fufficiently increafed, a plurality of tongues
was miraculoufly introduced, in order to divide them
into difliiift focieties, and thereby prevent any fuch
total depravation for the future. See Confusion of
^Tongues.
Of the condition of the Antediluvians, Mr Whitehurft,
in his Inquiry into the originalfate and formation of the
* p- 282- earth *, has given us the following picture : “ Under a
2S3- mild and ferene fky, and when the fpontaneous pro-
» dudlions of the earth were more than fufficient for the
calls of nature, without art or labour, mankind had
no need of any other protection from the inclemency
of the feafons, nor of barns for winter’s ftore, than
the benevolent Author of nature had plentifully pro¬
vided for them. Confequently, in a ftate of nature like
this, there was no temptation to acts of violence, in-
juftice, fraud, &c. every one having plenty and enough,
each equally partook of the numerous bleflings thus
amply provided for him. Power and property being
equally diffufed, men lived together in perfect peace
and harmony, without law, and without fear 5 there¬
fore it may be truly faid of the Antediluvians, that
they flept away their time in fweet repofe on the ever-
yerdant turf. Such apparently was the ftate of nature
in the firft ages of the world, or from the creation to
the firft convulfion in nature, whereby the world was
not only univerfally deluged, but reduced to a heap of
ruins.” But our ingenious author, whofe Inquiry is
not profefledly repugnant to revelation, feems here to
have loft himfelf in a pleafing reverie. At leaft he has
forget to inform us, For what purpofe, under fuch
circumftances, he luppofes the deluge to have been fent
upon the earth 5 and, How we are to underftand the
account given by Mofes, who reprefents the Antedilu¬
vians, not as an innocent race, quietly repofing on the
ever-verdant turf, but as a corrupt generation, by
17 whom “ the earth was filled with violence.”
Of the Ion- One of the moft extraordinary circumftances which
fhe Ayntedi-fCCUrSin- the.Antediluvian is the vaft length of
luvians. human lives in thole firft ages, in comparifon with our
own. Few perfons now arrive to eighty or an hun¬
dred years j whereas, before the flood, they frequently
lived to^ near a thoufand : a difproportion almoft incre¬
dible, though fupported by the joint teftimonies of fa -
cred and profane writers. Some, to reconcile the
matter with probability, have imagined that the ages
of thole firft men might poflibly be computed, not by
folar years, but months ; an expedient which reduces
..he length of their lives rather to a ftiorter period than
our own. But for this there is not the leaft founda¬
tion 3 befides the many abfurdities that would thence
13 ] ANT
follow, fuch as their begetting children at about fix Antcdifi*.
years of age, as fiome of them in that cafe muft have via,is'
done, and the contraction of the whole interval be- 1 f
tween the creation and the deluge to confidefably lefs
than tw’o hundred years, even according to the larger
computation of the Septuagint.
Again : Jofephus, the jewifli hiftorian, and feme
Chriftian divines, are of opinion, that before the flood,
and fome time after, mankind in general did not live
to fuch a remarkable age, but only a few beloved of
God, fuch as the patriarchs mentioned by Mofes.
I hey reafon in this manner : Though the hiftorian re¬
cords the names of fome men whofe longevity was An¬
gular, yet that is no proof that the reft of mankind
attained to the fame period of life, more than that
every man was then of a gigantic ftature, becaufe he
fays, in thofe days there were giants upon the earth.
Befides, had the whole of the Antediluvians lived fo
very long, and increafed in numbers in proportion to
their age, before the flood of Noah, the earth could
not have contained its inhabitants, even fuppofing no
part of it had been fea. And had animals lived as
long, and multiplied in the fame manner as thev have
done afterwards, they would have confumed the"whole
produce of the globe, and the ftronger would have ex-
tinguifhed many fpedes of the weaker. Hence thev
conclude, that, for wife and good ends, God extended
only the lives of the patriarchs, and a few befide, to
fuch an extraordinary length.
But moft writers maintain the longevity of man¬
kind in general in the early world, not only upon the
authority of facred, but likewife of profane hiftory.
And for fuch a conftitution, the moral reafons are jg
abundantly obvious. When the earth was wholly un- Moral rea-
peopled, except by one pair, it wTas neceflary to endow'^ons for ftA
men with a ftronger frame, and to allow' them a longerlonSevit>v
continuance upon earth for peopling it with inhabit¬
ants. In the infant ftate of every mechanical art, re¬
lating to tillage, building, clothing, &c. it would re¬
quire many years experience to invent proper tools and
inftruments to eafe men of their labour, and by multi¬
plied effays and experiments to bring their • inventions
to any degree of maturity and perfeftion. Every part
of their work muft have been exceedingly arduous from
Inch a penury and coarfenefs of tools, and muft have re¬
quired longer time and more ftrength of body than af-
terw'aids, when mechanical knowledge w7as introduced
into the world. If parents at this period had not
continued long with their children, to have taught
tnem the arts of providing for themfelves, and have
defended them from the attacks of wild beafts, and
from other injuries to which they were expofed, many
families would have been totally extinguiflied. But
one of the beft and moft valuable ends which longevity
iv ould anfwer was, the tranfmitting of knowledge, par¬
ticularly of religious knowdedge, to mankind. And
thus, before writing was invented, or any fuch eafy
and durable mode of conveyance was found out, a very
few men ferved for many generations to inftruft their
poftenty, who would not be at a lofs to confult living
and authentic records. ^
The natural caufes of this longevity are variouflv af-Natural'
iigned. Some have imputed it to the fobriety of thecaufes of it.
Antediluvians, and the fimplicity of their diet j alleging
that they had none of thofe provocations to gluttony,,
which
ant [
Antedilu- which wit and vice have fmee invented. Temperance
, vians‘ , might undoubtedly have fame efteft, but not pofhbly
v to luch a degree. There have been many temperate
and abftemious perfons in later ages, who yet 'feldom
have exceeded the ufual period.-—Others have thought
that the long lives of thofe inhabitants of the old world
proceeded from the ftrength of their ftamina, o'r firft
principles of their bodily conftitutions: which might,
indeed, be a concurrent, but not the foie and adequate
caufe of their longevity *, for Shorn, who was born be¬
fore the deluge, and had all the virtue of the antedilu¬
vian conftxtution, fell three.hundreu years ihort of the
age of his forefathers, betaufe the greateft part of his
life was pafled after the flood.—-Others have imputed
the longevity of the Antediluvians to the excellency of
their fruits, and feme peculiar virtue in the herbs and
plants of thofe days. But to this fuppofition it has
been objected, that as the eartli was curled immediately
after the fall, its productions we may fuppofc gradually
decreafed in their virtue and goodnefs till the flood j
and yet we do not fee the length of men’s lives decreafe
coufiderably, if at all, during that interval. Waving this
objection, as the import of the curie is vanoufly inter¬
preted, it appears certain that the productions of the
earth were at firft, and probably continued till after
the deluge, of a different nature, from what they were
in future times. Buffon fuppofes this difference may
have continued gradually to diminilh for many ages
fubfequent to that cataffrophc. The furface of the
globe (according to his theory) was in the flrft ages
of the world left folid and compaCt j becaufe, gravity
having aCted only for a fhort time, terreftvial bodies
had not acquired their present denfity and confiftcncc.
The produce of the earth, therefore, mull have been
analogous to its condition. The furface being more
loofe and moift, its produClions would of courfe be
more ductile and capable of extenfion. Their growth,
therefore, and even that of the human body, would re¬
quire a longer time of being completed. The foftnefs
and duClility of the bones, muffles, &,c. would proba¬
bly remain for a longer period, becaufe every fpecies
of food was more foft and fucculent. Hence the full
expanfion of the human body, or when it was capable
of generating, muff have required 120 or 130 years;
and the duration of life would be in proportion to the
time of growth, as is uniformly the cafe at prefent:
For if we fuppofe the age of puberty, among the firft
races of men, to have been 130 years, as they now ar¬
rive at that age in 14 years, the age of the Antedilu¬
vians will be in exaCl proportion to that of the prefent
race ; fince by multiplying thefe two numbers by feven,
for example, ’the age of the prefent race will be 98,
and that of the Antediluvians will be 910. The pe¬
riod of man’s exiftence, therefore, may have gradually
diminilhed in proportion as the furface of the earth ac¬
quired more folidity by the conftant aCUon of gravity :
and it is probable, that the period from the creation,
to the days of David, was fufficient to give the earth
all the denfity it was capable of receiving from the in¬
fluence of gravitation ; and confequently that the fur¬
face of the earth has ever fmee remained in the fame
ftate, and that the terms of growth in the productions
of the earth, as well as the duration of life, have been
^ invariably fixed from that period.
It has been further fuppofed, that a principal caufe
414 ] ANT
of the longevity under confidcration was the wholcfome Antedilu-
cenftitution of the Antediluvian air, which, alter the. vn'!li" ,
deluge, became corrupted and unwholelome, breaking, ’v
by degrees, the priftine crafis of the body, and fhort-
ening men’s lives, in a very few ages, to near the pre¬
fent ftandard.
The temperature of the air and ftafons before that
cataftrophe are upon very probable grounds fuppofed
to have been conftantly uniform and mild ; the burn¬
ing heats of fummer and the feverities of winter’s cold
were not then come forth, but fpring and autumn
reigned perpetually together: And indeed, the cir-
cumftance above all others moft conducive to the pro¬
longation of human life in the poftdiluvian world ap¬
pears to be an equal and benign temperature of cli¬
mate (fee the article Longevity); whence it feems
reaffnable to infer, that the fame caufc mighsflhave pro¬
duced the fame effeft in the Antediluvian world. so
Whether flefh was permitted to be eaten before the Whether
deluge, is a queftion which has been much debated,an) fif:|l4
By-the permiffion exprefsly given to Noah, for that
purpofe, after the flood, and God’s affigning vege- forf the
tables only for food to man, as well as bead, at the flood,
creation, one would imagine it was not lawful before :
yet others have luppoled, that it was included in the
general grant of power and dominion given to Adam
by God over the animal creation; and the diftinclion
of beafts into clean and unclean, which was well known
before the flood, is infilled on as a ftrong argument on
this fide.
But in anfwer to this it has been obferved, that if
fo, it doth not appear what occafion there was to re¬
new this grant after the flood, and to add, “ Every
moving thing that liveth (hall be meat for you, even as
the green herb have I given you all things.” This
furely implies that the green herb and fruits of the
trees were all that was granted to man at firft ; but
now, over and above that, was added the grant o£
animal food; for in a deed of gift, all is fpecified that
is given of granted, and whatever is not exprefsly men¬
tioned is excluded, or not given. Here man’s food is
appointed and fpecified ; what is not exprefsly men¬
tioned is therefore reffrved and not granted. Befides,
this grant or appointment of man’s lood refpe£ted not
Adam only, but all his pofterity, till an additional
.grant was made.
To the animals no further grant was made than at
firft ; but to man another was made immediately after
his fall and expulfion from Paradile, implied in thefe
words: “ In the fweat of thy face (halt thou eat
bread, till thou return into the ground.” This was in
truth a punilhment for his tranfgreflion, as well as a
grant of other food, but yet what was now become
neceffary to him, Paradife no doubt was planted
with the moft excellent fruits, fufficient to have fu-
ftained his life in health and vigour in his innocent
ftate ; but after his tranfgreflion, being thruft out from
that happy abode, and having then only the fruits of
the common earth to feed on; which were not fo nutri¬
tious as thofe of Paradife, he flood in need of ffme-
thing elfe to fuftain life ; and therefore bread produced
by culture and other preparations for his food was now
added, which before was not neceffary, and thence call¬
ed the Jaf of life. This ftems a plain reafon why bread
was added after he came to live-on the common earth ;
though
'ANT [
Antedilu- though perhaps another reafon alho for that addition
■ 'u^ns' . may be given from the change that happened in man’s
body after his fall. Bread being now become the ftaff
of life, Cain, the firft man born, became a tiller of the
ground, or an hulbandman 5 as the next in birth, Abel,
became a keeper or feeder of fheep.
As to the diftindlion between clean and unclean, this
folely refpefted animals offered in facrifice in the iknte-
diluvian world ; as is evident f*om hence, that Noah,
upon his coming out of the ark “ took of every clean
heart and of every clean fowl, and offered burnt offer-
. higs mito the Lord and that upon the grant of ani¬
mal food to him and his pofterity, which was pofterior
in time to the facrifice, there is not the leaft mention
of any diffindlion between clean and unclean with re-
fpeirt to food, but the very contrary, fince the grant
runneth : “ Every moving thing that liveth fhall be
meat for you, even as the green herb have I given you
all things.” That diftinftion of clean and unclean as
to food, came in with the law of Mofes, and was differ¬
ent from that of facrifices, there being feveral crea¬
tures clean for food which were not to be offered in
facrifice.
But another obje&ion here occurs. What occafion
was there for keeping iheep, when none of them could
be eaten ? In anfwer to this, it has been obferved,
that Iheep and other animals might at this period
be of great ufe to men befides yielding them food.
I heir docks, no doubt, confifted of fuch creatures as
nere of the domeftic kind, and fuch as by the divine
law were pronounced clean and fit for being offer¬
ed^ in facrifice ; therefore numbers would be kept for
tin’s very purpofe. I heir Ikins, befides ferving men
as garments, might anfwer many other valuable inten¬
tions. Veftments of hair and wool foon fucceeded the
ruder coverings of Ikins ; confequently great profit
would be derived from fuch animals as could be fhorn,
elpecially in countries where the inhabitants led a paf-
torallife and dwelt in tents. And we afterwards find
that Abel’s facrifice was of this kind. They might ufe
feveral of thele animals, as they ftill do in fome parts *
of the world, for bearing of burdens and drawing of
carnages : for ive may take it for granted that the firft
inventions for eafing men of labour, would be of the
fimpleft kind, and fuch as came eafieft to hand. But
keeping flocks of fheep, goats, and fuch like, would be
of great utility, by affording quantities of milk, which
is found to be the moft nourifhing diet both to the
young and the^ old : and their carcafes, though not
ufed as. food, might anfwer fome ufeful purpofes per-
5T haps in manuring the foil.
I he Antediluvian world was, in all probability,
flocked with a much greater number of inhabitants
than the prefent earth either acfually does, or perhaps
is capable of containing or fupplying. This feems na¬
turally to follow from the great length of their lives
which exceeding the prefent ftandard of life in the pro-
poiticn, at leaft, of ten to one, the Antediluvians muft
accordingly in any long fpace of time double them,
felves, at leaft in about the tenth part of the time in
which mankind do now double themfelves. It has
been fuppofed that they began to beget children as
caily, and left off as late, in proportion, as men do
now; and that the feveral children of the fame father
1 ANT
iucceeded as quickly one after another as they ufually Antedilu-
do at this day : and as many generations, which are vians.
but fucceflive with us, were contemporary before the ^ y ' *
flood, the number of people living on the earth at
once would be by that means fufhciently increafed to
anfwer any defeft which might arife from other cir-
cumftances not confidered. So that, if we make a com¬
putation on theie principles, we fhall find, that there
■was a confiderable number of people in the world at
the death of Abel, though their father Adam was not
then 130 years old; and that the number of mankind
before the deluge would eafily amount to above one
hundred thoufand millions (even according to the Sa¬
maritan chronology), that is, to twenty times as manv
as our prefent earth has, in all probability, now upon
it, or can well be fuppofed capable of maintaining in
its prefent conftitution.
1 he following table, made upon the above-mention¬
ed principles by Mr Whifton, fhows at leaft what a
number of people might have been in the Antediluvian
world.
Increafe of
mankind
before the
flood.
3
3
3 I
7r cr
4
8
16
32
64
128
256
512
1024
2048
4096
8192
16,384
32?768
65.536
131,072
262,144
524,288
1,048,576
2,097,152
4,v H.304
8,388,608
16,777,2x6
33,554,432
67,108,864
134,2 i7,728
268,435,456
536,870,912
1,o73,74i,824
2,147,483,648
4,294,967,296
8,589,934,592
17,x 7 .,869,184
34,359,738,368
68,719,476 736
I37,438,953,472
274,877,906,944
549,755,813,888
2
6
12
20
3°
42
56
72
90
110
132
156
182
2X0
240
272
306
342
380
420
462
506
552
600
650
702
756
812
870
930
992
1056
1X22
H90
1260
J332
1406
1482
Ou
° *5
2: 2
s' 7;
03 2,
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36.
38
40
42
44
46
48
50
52
54
56
58
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
74
76
x
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
iff
I4
16
17
.18
19
20
21
22
23.
24
25
26
27
28
29
3°
31
S2
33'
34
35
S6
37
38
But
* Cackburr.
upon the Di
Jugi.
22
Objections
to Mr
Whifton’s
table.
ANT [41
But according to a later * writer upon the fubjeft,
the above table, though the numbers there may be
thought futhcient for the peopling of the earth, we
could by no means depend upon, for ieveral rcaions;
particularly,
1. It is laid down there as a foundation, that the An¬
tediluvians would double themfeives every forty years j
as indeed they would, and m le^ tune, after there
came to be too marriages. Now, had the author ob-
ferved this regular progreffion in hia computation, by
adding 40 years to every former period of the age of
the world, the amount, in head of two millions or mil¬
lions, &.c. would have been above five millions of mil¬
lions at the year 1656, the age of the world at the de¬
lude, according to the Hebrew numbers, which he
contends for. What would the fum then have been,
had we carried on the computation for doo years more,
according to the Septuaglnt ?
2. He fuppofes the period of doubling mud have
been much fhorter in the earlieft ages, and much long¬
er in the later, contrary to re a ton and fact. ^ For man¬
kind being fprung from one pair only, the increafe at
firfl mui'c have been very flow, but come on very fad
when a conflderable number were married. His table
therefore is made not regularly, but according to fan-
cy» by unequal Harts or chafms, at great intervals m
the latter part, where it fliould have been moll regu¬
lar ; it would feem with no other view than to raiie
fuch a number, upon the whole, as might be thought
fufficient to people the earth.
a. In that calculation the two material points, the
time of nurfmg and the age of puberty, are quite
overlooked, by which all computations of the numbers
in the Antediluvian world mult be regulated. What
unavoidable miftakes this oraiflion mud oceeflon, will
be feen by e*xaminbg the firlt ten numbers of the faid
table.
•n
£
rj. a
5 o
> -o
O
Z -2
© £
6 t-i
w v
n 4S
v G
6
x 2
20
3°
42
5 6
72
90
no
-t3
u ^3
rt rt!
.. &■
% £
Q O
2 Adam and Eve.
4 Cain and Abel.
8
16
£
$
s-g
a
£
32
64
128
256
1024
2048
Cochburn,
p, 108.
On this table it may be obferved, i. That though
there were but two perfems created at firft, this com¬
putation makes four perfons in the fecond year 0* the
world. This could not poflibly be, except Cam had
been bom within 12 months after the creation, which
is highly improbable, and Abel in the fecond year, yet
far more improbable, for in that calc Eve could not
have fuckled Cain.
2. In the fixth year of the world tve have eight per¬
fons, that is, fix children of Eve’s in fix years. “ But
(our author adds) what {hall Eve do with fix infants
in fix years ? Where could fhe find fo many wet nurfes
for them ? Or would the mother of all living deny her
children that nourilhment which the Creator had ap.
pointed for their firft food, the milk in her brealts ?
6 ] ANT
Do they confider that there was but one woman in the AntcdiJn.
world to do for herfelfj her hufband, and her children,
what belongs to women to do ? We thould iurely have
more refpeft and companion i'ov the mother of all man¬
kind, than to lay fuch an intolerable burden upon her,
whole farrow for her own deception, and thereby ruin¬
ing both hetfei.f and her hufband, muft have been very
great for many years. In punuhment of which, tuough
God had faid h wsM grwtfy multiply her furrow enti
conception^ the meaning was not, that ihe ftrould havo
a child every year, which could not be, becauie too
nature of that food and nourithment appointed by hira-
felf for her children would not permit it. Nor yet
when he commanded them to incryafe and multiply and
rcphSiJh the §arth% could the command be obeyed in
fuch a manner as was contrary to the order ol nature
and providence. But the method Intended to wnwer
the defign of the command was to prolong their Uvea
to above So© and 90© years, and their prolific powers
for 34© and 360 years of that term of life, that by flow
and lure and long continuance ot iucreaie they might
people the earth m due time.”
3, The fame exception lies to all the following pe¬
riods of doubling, where the number far exceeds what
it could poflibly be in fa&; but we {hall pals them
over, and come to the laft of them in the year t ie,
in which the number of mankind i» made 2048. Nov/
in the year H© not one of Adam’s children was mar¬
ried, becaufe not yet come to the age ot puberty, lu
that year of the world there amid be no more than
j8 or 2© perfons, at Angle births, betides Adam mid
Eve, It is a great miftake therefore to imagine, that
the periods of doubling were much fttorter in the earlier
times than in the latter *, the contrary of which is evi¬
dent to reafon.
According to our author, two errors have been fallen
into intreating of this point; namely, ». I hat in the/</. p. * 1,.
firft ages of the world, both before and after the Flood,
men began to propagate their kind as early a» they
commonly do at prefent. 2. That the children of tne
fame father Succeeded one after another as fait as they
do now, that is, that the women brought forth chil- a*
dren every year. The firft of theie errors he confutes,
by {hewing that the icveral fjcnods or ftagts o, man s amon»
life bear a iuft proportion to one another, and to the Ar.traUw-
. whole term of life j and that the period of puberty orviam.
maturity has not been the lame at all times, but is ac¬
cording to the length or brevity of life in the different
ages of the world, according to that remark or bt Au-
guftine, Tanto Jerwrfud proportione pubertas, quanta
vitet totius major annofitas, Moles, he obferves, gives
the age of the world from the creation to the deluge,
and from that period to his own time chiefly by gene¬
rations, A generation is the interval of years between
the births of father and fon. 'X his the Latins carl
etas, and the Greeks yen*. Now, a generation, or
the interval of years between father and ton, has not
been, neither poffibly could be, the fame in all ages
from the beginning, as Yolfius juftly obierves j but has
varied greatly according to the length or brevity ot
man’s life in the feveral periods of the world. Since
the ordinary term of man’s life has been reduced to
70 and 80 years, the time of puberty is in proportion
to this brevity of life, and reckoned at 20 or 21, whicn
is the fourth part of a life of fourfeorc. The feveral
ftages
ANT
AMedilu- ftages of linman life are infancy, cliildhood, youth,
Vians- , manhood, full age, declenfion, old or' decrepit age ;
Y all which commonly bear a proportion to the whole
term of life. Now the bounds and limits of thefe fe-
veral ftages cannot be precifely the fame in all, but va¬
ry in refpecf of the difpofition of men’s bodies, their
courfe of life, and alfo the places and ages in which
they live. In the Antediluvian world then, when men
lived to upwards of 800 and 900 years, can it be
thought that they pafled through the feveral ftages of
life in as ftiort time as men do now, who feldom ex¬
ceed 80, and not one in ten arrives at that age ? But
if the Antediluvians arrived at puberty or manhood as
foon as men do now, then would the feveral ftages of
human life have been loft or confounded, and men
would have ftarted from childhood to manhood at once,
without any due or regular intervals, contrary to the
order of nature : But if, according to the orefent eco¬
nomy of nature, man is but a youth at 20, which
is a fourth part of our term of life, we may reafon-
ably conclude, there would be a fuitable proportion of
years in a much longer term of life, fince nature is
conftant and uniform in her operations. And though
in fo long a life as the Antediluvians enjoyed, the time
of puberty might be a fifth or a fixth part of their term
of life, yet would they be but youths at 150 or 160;
which bears much the fame proportion to the whole of
their life as 20 is to that of ours.
The other is an error, he thinks, which could never
have been fallen into, had it been confidered, that
every mother fuckled her own children in thofe early
days •, and indeed where could ftie have found another
to have done it for her ?
Taking it for granted, then, that it was an univer-
fel cuftom for women to fuckle their children as well
before as after the flood, the next queftion is, for how
long time they continued nurfes ? He ftiows various
inftances, that when man’s life was reduced to 130 or
Of the time 140 years, the ordinary time of nurfing was two years :
allotted for he thence infers, that for three or four generations af-
thofeTeari tei" ^ fl°ocb when men lived to about 400 years, the
xi^ys ^ t^me wou^d be fo much longer in proportion, and would
not be lefs than three or four years} and confequently,
that before the flood, when life was protrafted to 800
or 900 years, it would be ftill longer in proportion to
their longevity ; fo that five years might be the ordi¬
nary time of nurfing in the old world 5 and there¬
fore that we cannot reckon lefs than fix years between
the births. For man’s life being prolonged to fo ma¬
ny hundred years at firft for the more fpeedy peopling
ol the earth, he came by flow degrees to mature age,
there being a long time required to rear up a body that
was to laft near 1000 years. The intervals therefore
of infancy, childhood, youth, and mature age, were
fo much longer in proportion to ours as the difference
is between our term of life and theirs : and 150 or
160 years, with refpeft to their longevity, was no
2. more in proportion than 20 is to the brevity of our
Diftance bfe. As the Antediluvians therefore were fo very long
between in growing up to mature age, he concludes that the
the births, time of nurfing could not be fliorter than five years,
and that the diftance between the births in a regular
way muft be fet at fix years.
Upon the whole, he thinks it evident that there
could be no fuch fpeedy increafe of mankind at the be-
Vol. II. Part II.
ANT
ginning as is imagined ; that the time of nurfing above Antedilu.
fpeciiied was no more than neceflary for that ftrengtn of vians.
conftitution which was to laft for 800 and 900 years j
and that women who were to continue bearing children
for 340 or 360 years of their life, fhould have them but
flowly, and at the diftance of feveral years, that their
ftrength might hold out, and that they might not be
overburthened with too many cares at once 5 and there¬
fore, when Eve’s firft child was fix years old, it was
time enough for her to have another, and fo on, though
poflibly fometimes twins. 26
Thefe points being difcuffed, he proceeds, I. ToCockburn’s
compute what number upon the whole might be born cakuiation
into the world from the creation to near the time of^eaj?
the deluge j and then, 2. To ftate the needful deduc- mankind,
tions for deaths and other deficiencies.
1. 1. How long the parents of mankind continued in
paradife, we know not though longer perhaps than is
commonly imagined. We fhall even fuppofe two or
three years, in which time there was no child born,
nor any attempt towards it. We ftrall allow them two
or three years more to lament their fall, and the mifer-
able eftate their want of faith and difobedience had
brought them to, from a moft happy condition 5 and
fuppofe Cain to be born fix years after the creation (in
which fuppofition few, probably, will be apt to think
us too hafty), and Abel again fix years after him, and
fo every fixth year Eve to have had a child, the firft;
feven, eight, or nine whereof were probably all males
(the males being longer in coming to maturity than the
females); and this diftance between the births will alfo
be thought a fufficient allowance. At this rate of in¬
creafe Adam would have in 100 years 16 children, in
200 years 32, and in 400 years 64 children ; when we
will fuppofe Eve to have left off child-bearing. Nor
need this number of Adam’s children be thought too
great, when there are inftances in thefe later ages, and
this Ihort period of man’s life, of thofe who have had
40 children at Angle births by two fucceffive wives,
and of many others who have had 20, 25, and 30, by
one wife ; though in fuch cafes it is not to be fuppofed
that the women fuckled their children.
2. Though it is reafonable to think that the Ante¬
diluvians, notwithftanding their longevity, came to
mature age at 150 ; yet as we are not fure that they all
married fo foon as they were ripe for marriage, and
that the earlieft in the genealogies is born in the i62d
year of his father, who might probably be a firft born,
our author does not fuppofe Cain, Abel, or any of the
fucceeding children or grandchildren of Adam to have
married till they were 160, but to have had children
frqm 161 or 162 till they were of the age of 500,
at the fore-named diftance or interval between the
births ; though Noah wre know had three fons after he
was 500, at the due intervals. And to all the Ante¬
diluvians wTe may allowq without fear of exceeding, 50
or 54 children in general, according to the courfe of
nature, and the longevity of thofe firft ages of the
wrorld.
3. Let us next inquire in wThat number of years the
men of that world might double themfelves, notwith¬
ftanding the long intervals between the births. The
increafe indeed will be found very fmall for the firft
300 or 400 years, as they wTere late in coming to ma¬
turity ; but the fucceeding ages will fwell the account
3 G exceedingly.
[ 417 1
ANT [ 4
AntecTilu- exceedingTy. Let us fuppofe at prefent (what fhall be
, vians- i proved afterwards) that in the year of the world 500,
v there were 200 perfons only, male and female, of full
age to marry, the men at 160, the women at 120 or
thereabout. The firft or fecond year after the mar¬
riage will probably produce 100 births from 100
couple, and every fixth year after 100 more. At this
flow’ progreffion the 200 married perfons will, in 19 or
20 years, be increafed to 600 : fo that the number of
mankind wTould be trebled in 20 years, after there came
100 pair to be married. And in this manner they
would increafe and multiply every 20 years, or in that
fpace treble themfelves.
It may perhaps be objected, that though it appears
that i'uch an increafe might be at firft from the firft
100 marriages, yet they could not continue thus to
multiply at fuch periods •, becaufe, according to the
rule we have laid down, none of the iffue of thefe 100
firft marriages could increafe the number of mankind
till the men had attained the age of 160. It is true
they could not : but then it muft be remembered, that
the firft too pair are ftill adding every fixth year too
more to the number of mankind, even till after the
400 born in the firft 20 years are married, and begin
a newT flock for increafe ; fo that w’hen there came to
be fome hundred couples married, the increafe and mul¬
tiplication would come on very faft, and in 1000 years
mankind would be prodigioufty increafed.
But though there be nothing in this fuppofition con¬
trary to reafon, viz. That after the year of the world
500, they might treble themfelves in 20 years ; yet
we will not reckon upon fo fhort an interval, but will
allow a much longer time even to their doubling them¬
felves, and fhall exhibit two tables of doubling ; the
firft at the interval of yo years (much too long indeed),
the other at the interval of 40 years, and both begin¬
ning at the year 500, when there could not be few’er
('whatever more there might be) than 100 married or
marriageable perfons defcended from Adam and Eve.
18 ]
ANT
Years of the World.
500
55°
600
650
700
75°
800
850
900
95°
1000
1050
1X00
1150
I 200
1250
I 200
135°
J4OO
J45°
I5OO
IS 50
1600
»6co
Number of Mankind.
200
400
800
1,600
3,200
6,400
12,800
25,600
51,200
102,400
204,800
409,600
819,200
1,638,400
3,276,800
6,553,600
13,107,200
. 26,214,400
52,428,800
104,857,600
209,715,200
4I9>430>4°°
838,860,800
1,677,721,600
Years of the World.
1700
1750
1800
1 850
1900
1950
2000
2050
Number of Mankind, Antedilu-
3»335>443»2oo, vians-
6,710,886,500
13,421,772,800
26,843.545,600
53,687,091,200
107>374>i82>4°°
214,748,364,800
429,496,729,600
This table is calculated at the long interval of 50
years, that it may appear that even by under-rating the
number of mankind, there would be fo many millions
born into the world before the deluge came, that they
would be obliged to fpread themfelves over the face of
the earth, though but one half of the fum total of
429,496 millions had been alive at the time of the de¬
luge j but as the interval here allowed may appear to
be too long for the time of doubling, the fecond is cal¬
culated at the interval of 40 years, which comes nearer
to the truth of the cafe, though even this may exceed
the time of doubling.
Years of the World.
COO
54°
580
620
660
700
74°
780
820
860
920
940
980
1020
ic6o
1100
1140
1180
1220
1260
130°
*34°
1380
1420
1460
I coo
1540
1580
1620
1660
1700
1740
1780
1820
i860
1900
1940
1980
2020
Number of Mankind.
- - 200
400
800
1,600
3,200
6,400
12,800
25,600
51,200
102,400
204,800
409,600
819,200
1,638,400
3,276,800
6,553,600
13,107,200
26,214,400
52,428,800
104,857,600
209,715,200
4i9,43°,4co
838,860,800
1,677,721,600
3»355>443’20°
6,710,886,400
13,421,772,800
26,843,545,600
c3>687,09i,2oo
107,374,182,400
- 214,748,364,800
429,496,729,600
- 858>993j459>2°°
- 1,717,986,918,400
- 3>435>973>836,8oo
- 6,871,947,673,600
i3j743>895>347>20°
27>487>790>69454°°
54>975>58i>388>8o°
The firft table is brought down no lower than to
the year 2050, and the fecond to the year 2020,
though.
ANT [ 4i9 ] ANT
Antedilu- though there remain by the firft 206, and by the fe- the births j yet as we have made lame conceffions all Antediia-
, Ytans- cond 230 years to the ttood : the realon is, that in
v thofe lait 200 years of the world, mankind would not
xncreafe in any meafure equal to what they had done
in the preceding years (though regularly the increafe
ftould have been much greater) ; becaufe that violence
was then great in the earth, and thoufands, yea mil¬
lions, might have been cut off by untimely deaths ; for
which caufe the world’s deftru&ion was determined 1 20
^ years before the flood came.
Q'ije<5lioa II. But now againft this immenfe number of mankind
■arUwered. that might in a regular and ordinary way have been
born into the world between the creation and the de¬
luge in 2056 years, it will no doubt be objected by
fame (as it has been done to far lefs numbers), that all
fuch calculations are mere guefs work, the produdt of
fruitful imaginations.
But it Ihould be confidered, that in calculations of
this nature fome regular order or method muft be ob-
ferved : and though, according to the courfe of nature,
fuch .an increafe and multiplication of mankind there
might have been periodically, efpecially at the begin¬
ning, when the command was to increafe and multiply
and replenijh the earth ; yet we will not fuppofe that
all things went on thus regularly, without difference or
interruption. We do not know what extraordinary ob-
ftru£Hons or interruptions there might be to fuch a re¬
gular increafe. Though every married pair might by
the courfe of nature have had fuch a number of chil¬
dren as has been mentioned, yet the Divine Providence
might order it otherwife in manifold inftances, and it
might poffibly be in the old world, as it has been fmce
the flood, viz. that fome marriages have produced ma¬
ny children, others few, and fome none at all. Al¬
lowing, therefore, for all fuch obftrudlions and deficien¬
cies, and like wife for all cafualties and accidents (to
which men might be liable in that world as well as in
the prefent), in as ample a manner as can be defired,
let the former number be reduced to one half, viz. to
■2that is, 27 billions, or millions
of millions, four hundred and eighty-feven thoufand
{even hundred >1^1 ninety millions, fix hundred and
ninety-four thoufand : and four hundred. And this we
ihall now fuppofe to be the whole number of thofe who
tvere born into the world before the deluge. But from
this i'um is to be fubtra&ed the number of thofe who
died before that time.
^ Of thofe in the genealogies from Adam by Seth,
f.noch was tranflated at the age of 365, Lamech the
lather of Noah died juft before the flood at 753, IVTa-
halaleel at 853;. Adam and the other five patriarchs
lived to above goo. Before the year goo, therefore,
we may fuppofe there were no deaths except that of
Abel, who was flain, a young man, but that all born
within that period were alive together. But in the
tenth century death began to reign, and Adam and
five, we may prefume, were the firft over whom death
nad power in a natural rvay, as their dilobedience was
t he caufe of it. I he children alfo born of them in the
firft hundred years would alio die in this 10th century
tnole born in the fecond hundred would die in the r ith,
thofe born in the third century would die in the lath*
and fo on. But though we are far from thinking that
after the beginning of the 10th century (till which
time few or none died), the deaths would be equal to
along, we Ihall do the fame in this cale, and luppoie vians-
them upon the whole to have been equal, efpecially v" ""~
fince we cannot precifely fay how long that violence oV
bloodihed, which was their crying fin, came to prevail3
and therefore will reduce the lafi: fum mentioned to one
half again, to allow for the deaths and prevailing vio¬
lence, and fuppofe the total number of mankind alive
upon earth at the time of the deluge to have been no
more than I3,743!895>347»2oo, that is, 13 billions
or millions of millions, leven hundred and forty three
thoufand eight hundred and ninety-five millions, three
hundred and forty-feven thouiand and two hundred ;
a number vaftly exceeding that of the prefent inhabi¬
tants of the whole earth.
Notwithftanding the very large allowances and abate-Probability
meats made to reduce the number of mankind, yet even°f ^
the lafl: reduction to 13 billions, or millions of millions, ab,ove caI'
&c. feems fo vaftly great, that it will hardly be thought aU°n*
poffible that fucb a number of men could ever be at one
time upon the earth. Now, though we pretend to no
certainty in this point (which made it the more requi-
fite to allow largely for deaths and deficiencies), yet
the calculation we have given muft appear highly pro¬
bable, fince it is founded upon grounds certain and un¬
deniable : for inftance,
1. It cannot be denied but that the Antediluvians
were come to the age of puberty and marriage at 160
years, w’hen we find a fon born in 162. Nor^
2. Can it be faid, that they could not have children
at the age of 500, when we have an inftance of one
that had three ions at due diftances after that asre.
Neither,
_ 3- ^an ft be alleged thatwre have not allowed a due
diftance or interval between the births, viz. fix years,
when moft will be of opinion that it could not be fo
long. Nor yet,
4. Can it be judged that w^e have made the period
of doubling far too ftiort, when we had before fhowed
that after 100 marriages confummated, they would
treble themfelves in half the time we have taken for
their doubling. Nor,
5. Will any one make a doubt, but that there might
be 200 perfons of mature age for marriage in the vear
of tue w oild Jjoo, the men at 160, the women young¬
er. Neverthelefs, as this is the foundation of our cal¬
culation, -we {hall now fhow that there was at leaft fuch
a number of perfons marriageable at that age of the
world.
It may be obferved, that as we take 160 for the
year of maturity and marriage, according to that period
all married or marriageable in the year 500 muft have
been born in or before the year 340; the males at leaft,
though the females coming fooner to maturity, might
lome of them be born later or after the year 380. Now
according to this ftated period of marriage,
1. In or before the year 340, Adam might have had
54 children, males and females, or 27 pair married or
fit for marriage.
2. Cain, whom we fuppofe to be but fix years
younger than Adam (which by the by is more than
others allow), and to have married in the year 166,
might have in the year 340, 28 children, or 14 pair
fit for marriage, which added to the former, makes
41 pair.
3 G 2
3. Abel
Antedilu-
Antenati.
ANT [ 420 ] ANT
3. Abel, married fix years later, that is, in the year
2, and whom we (hall fuppofe {lain in the year 225
or 226, could in that cafe have no more than eight or
nine children, or four pair, which with the former
make 45 pair.
4. Adam’s third fon, married in the year 178, will
afford us in the year 340, 26 children, or 13 pair,
which increafe the number of marriageable perfons to
58 pair.
5. A fourth fon of Adam’s, married in the year 184,
will give us in the year 340, 25 children, or 12 pair j
which makes the number of pairs 70.
6. A fifth fon of Adam’s, married in the year 190,
might in the year 340 have 24 children, or 12 pair
again, which increafe the former number to 82 pair.
7. A fixth fon of Adam’s, married in the year 196,
would have in the year 340, 22 children, or x 1 pair j
which added to the former make up 93 pair.
8. A feventh fon of Adam’s, married in the year
202, will, in the year 340, give us 20 children, or 10
pair •, w’hich makes in the whole 103 pair, already three
pair more than we reckoned upon. I need therefore
go no farther on to the eighth or ninth fon ; but the
following eight or nine births I may reafonably take
to have been daughters, and married to the brothers
that preceded them.
Here are now no more than 14 children of Adam’s
married, wdio have given us the 100 pair w’e have rec¬
koned upon, and three over. We might yet have 13
pair to bring into the account, all born before the year
340, and marriageable in the year 500, w’hich wrould
very much increafe the.number of mankind. And by
this the reader may perceive that we have been far from
building on uncertain or precarious foundations, fince
wre have omitted 13 pair more, which we might have
taken into the account. And if it be confidered that
the command given to Adam was to increafe and mul¬
tiply and replenifh the earth, no doubt can be made,
but that his own and his children’s marriages were fruit¬
ful in the procreation of children, that the earth might
be inhabited.
ANTEGO. See Antigua.
ANTE|UR AMENTUM, by our anceftors called
juramentum calumnice, an oath which anciently both
accufer and accufed were to take before any trial or
purgation.—The accufer was to fwear that he would
profecute the criminal; and the accufed to make oath,
on the day he w^as to undergo the ordeal, that he was
innocent of the crime charged againft him.
ANTELOPE, in Zoology. See Capra.
ANTE LUCAN, in Ecciejiq/ltcal Writers, is applied
to things done in the night or before day. We find
frequent mention of the antelucan aflemblies (Ccetus
antelucani) of the ancient Chriftans in times of per-
fecution for religious worfhip.
ANTEMURALE, in the Ancient Military Art, de¬
notes much the fame with what the moderns call an
out-work.
ANTENATI, in Modern Englijh Hi/lory, is chief¬
ly underflood of the fubje&s of Scotland, born before
King James the Firft’s acceflion to the Englifh crown,
and alive after it. In relation to thefe, thofe who
were born after the acceflion were denominated Pojna-
ti. The antenati were confidered as aliens in England,
whereas the poffnati claimed the privilege of natural Antencle-
fubjecls. T
ANTENCLEMA, in Oratory, is where the whole Antefta-
defence of the perfon accufed turns on criminating the ture.
accufer. Such is the defence of Orefl.es, or the ora-"w
tion for Milo : Occifus ejl, fed latro. Exfcdius, fed
raptor.
ANTENICENE, in Ecclefafical Writers, denotes
a thing or perfon prior to the firft council of Nice.
WTe fay the Antenicene faith, Antenicene creeds, An-
tenicene fathers.
ANTENNAi, in the hiftory of infefts, {lender
bodies with which nature has furnilhed the heads
of thefe creatures, being the fame with what in Eng¬
lifh are called horns or feelers. See Entomology
Index.
ANTENOR, a Trojan prince, came into Italy, ex¬
pelled the Enganians on the river Po, and built the
city of Padua, where his tomb is laid to be ftill ex¬
tant.
ANTEPAGMENTA, in the Ancient Architec¬
ture, the jambs of a door. They are allb ornaments,
or garnifhings, in carved work, of men, animals, &.c.
made either of wood or {tone, and fet on the archi¬
trave.
ANTEPENULTIMA, in Grammar, the third fyl-
lable of a word from the end, or the laft fyllable but
two.
ANTEPILANI, in the Roman armies, a name
given to the haftati and principes, becaufe they march¬
ed next before the triarii, who wrere called pilam.
ANTEPILEPTICS, among Phyfcians, medicines
efteemed good in the epilepfy.
ANTEPOSITION, a grammatical figure, where¬
by a word, which by the ordinary rules of fyntax ought
to follow' another, comes before it. As wdien, in the La¬
tin, the adje&ive is put before the fubftantive, the verb
before the nominative cafe, &c.
ANTEPRED1CAMENTS, among Logicians, cer¬
tain preliminary queftions which illuilrate the doftrine
of predicaments and categories.
ANTEQUIERA, a handfome towm of Spain, in
the kingdom of Granada, divided into two parts, the
upper and low'er. The upper is feated on a hill, and
has a caftle : the lower ftands in a fertile plain, and is
wratered with a great number of brooks. There is a
large quantity of fait in the mountain j and five miles-
from the towm, a fpring famous for the cure of the gra¬
vel. W. Long. 4. 40. N. Lat. 36. 51.
ANTERIOR, denotes fomething placed before an¬
other, either with refpeft to time or place.
ANTEROS, in Mythology, one of the twm Cupids
who wmre the chief of the number. They are placed
at the foot of the Venus of Medicis j this is reprefented
with a heavy and fullen look, agreeably to the poeti¬
cal defeription of him, as the caufe of love’s ceafing.
The other w as called Eros.
ANTESIGNANI, in the Roman armies, foldiers
placed before the ftandards, in order to defend them,
according to Limpfius j but Caefar and Livy mention
the antefignani as the firft line, or firft body, of heavy¬
armed troops. The velites, who ufed to fkirmifh De-
fore the army, were likewife called antefgnanu
ANTESTATURE, in Fortification, a fmall re¬
trenchment
ANT [42
Anteftari trenchment trade of palifadoes, or facks of earth, with
II a view to difpute with an enemy the remainder of a
Amhefte- pjece 0f ground.
■ na' . ANTESTARI, in Roman Antiquity, %nifies to
bear witnefs againft any one who refufed to make his
appearance m tne Roman courts of judicatuie^, on the
day appointed, and according to the tenor of his bail.
The plaintiff, finding the defendant after fuch a breach
of his engagement, was allowed to carry him into court
by force, having firfl allied any of the perfons prefent
to bear witnefs. The perfon afked to bear wutnefs in
this cafe, expreffed his confent by turning his right
ear, which was inftantly taken hold of by the plaintiff,
and this was to anfwer the end of a fubpcena. The
ear was touched upon this occafion, fays Pliny, as be¬
ing the feat of memory, and therefore the ceremony
was a fort of caution to the party to remember his en¬
gagement.
ANTHELION. See Corona and Parhelion.
ANTHEL1X, in Anatomy, the inward protuberance
of the external ear, being a femicircle within, and al-
mofl parallel to the helix. See Anatomy.
ANTHELMINTICS, among Phyjicians, medi¬
cines proper to deftroy worms.
ANTHEM, a church fong performed in cathedral
fervice by choriflers, who fung alternately. It was ufed
to denote both pfalms and hymns, when performed in
this manner. But, at prefent, anthem is ufed in a more
confined fenfe, being applied to certain paffages taken
out of the fcriptures, and adapted to a particular fo-
lemnity. Anthems were firlf introduced in the re¬
formed fervice of the Englifh church, in the beginning
of the reign of Queen Elizabeth.
ANTHEMIS, chamomile. See Botany Index.
ANTHERA, in Botany, that part of the ftamen
which is fixed on the top of the filamentum, within
the corolla : it contains the pollen or fine dull, which,
when mature, it emits for the impregnation of the plant,
according to Linnaeus. The Apex of Ray, Tournef.
and Rivin.; CapfulaJlammts, of Malpighi.
ANTHER1CUM, spider-wort. See Botany
Index.
ANTHESPHORIA, in Antiquity, a Sicilian fef-
tival inftituted in honour of Proferpine. The word is
derived from the Greek av&of, flower, and I carry;
becaufe that goddefs w^as forced away by Pluto when
(lie was gathering flowers in the fields. Yet Feftus
does not afcribe the feaft to Proferpine 5 but fays it was
thus called by reafon ears of com were carried on this
day to the temples Anthefphoria feems to be the fame
thing with \\\zflorifertum of the Latins, and anfwers to
. the harveft-home among us.
ANTHESTERIA, in Antiquity, was a feaft cele¬
brated by the Athenians in honour of Bacchus. The
moft natural derivation of the word is from the Greek
(fo-s), a flower, it being the cuftom at this feaft
to offer garlands of flowers to Bacchus.
The anthefteria lafted three days, the X ith, 1 2th, and
13th of the month ; each of which had a name fuited
to the proper office of the day. The firft day of the
feaft was called •xfouyiix., i. e. opening of the veffels, be¬
caufe on this day they tapped the veffels, and tafted
the wipe. The fecond day they called £««?, conga, the
name of a meafure containing the weight of 10 pounds 5
1 ] ANT
on this they drank the wine prepared the day before. Anthefle-
The third day they called kettles: on this day 1 j,°u
they boiled all forts of pulfe in kettles j which however
they were not allowed to tafte, as being offered to Mcr- 1 —y
cury.
ANTHESTERION, in Ancient Chronology, the
fixth month of the Athenian year. It contained 29
days ; and anfwered to the latter part of our Novem¬
ber and beginning of December. T. he Macedonians
called it dcefon or defon. It had its name from the
feftival anthefteria kept in it.
ANTHIST1RIA, in Botany. See Botany Index.
ANTHOCEROS, or horn-flower. See Bo¬
tany Index.
ANTHOLOGION, the title of the fervice book
ufed in the Greek church. It is divided into 12 months,
containing the offices fung throughout the year, on the
feftivals of our Saviour, the \ irgin, and other remark¬
able faints.
ANTHOLOGY, a difcourfe of flowers, or of beau¬
tiful paffages from any authors.—It is alio the name
given to a colle&ion of epigrams taken from feveral
Greeks poets.
ANTHOLYZA, Mad-flower. See Botany
Index.
ANTHONY, Saint, was born in Egypt in 251,
and inherited a large fortune, which he diftributed
among his neighbours and the poor, retired into foli-
tude, founded a religious order, built many monafteries,
and died anno 356. Many ridiculous ftories are told
of his conflicts with the devil and of his miracles.
There are feven epiftles extant attributed to him.
St Anthony is fometimes reprefented with a fire by
his fide, fignifying that he relieves perfons from the in¬
flammation called after his name} but always accompa-
fiied by a hog, on account of his having been a fwine-
herd, and curing all diforders in that animal. To do
him the greater honour, the Romanifts in feveral places
keep at common charges a hog denominated Rt An¬
thony's hog, for wffiich they have great veneration.
Some will have St Anthony’s picture on the walls of
their houfes, hoping by that to be preferved from the
plague ; and the Italians, wffio do not know the true
fignification of the fire painted at the fide of their faint,
concluding that he preferves houfes from being burnt,
invoke him on fuch occafions. Both painters and
poets have made very free with this faint and his fol¬
lowers : the former, by the many ludicrous piftures of
his temptation j and the latter, by divers epigrams on
his difciples or friars ; one of wffiich is the following*,
printed in Stephen’s World of Wonders :
Once fedd’ft thou, Anthony, an herd of fwine,
And now an herd of monks thou feedeft ftill.
For wit and gut alike both charges bin $
Both loven filth alike; both like to fill
Their greedy paunch alike: nor wras that kind
Mt. re beaftly, fottiffi, fwinilh,. than this laft.
All elle agrees : one fault I only find,
Thou feedeft not thy monks wnth oaken maft.
Anthony or Knights of St Anthony, a military
order, inftituted by Albert duke of Bavaria, Holland,
and Zealand, when he defigncd to make war againft;
the lurks in 1382. The knights wore a collar of
ANT [ 4
St Anthony goia macJe in form 0f a hermit’s girdle, from which
Anthropo- '‘un& a cut a crutch, with a little bell, as
latria. they are reprefented in St Anthony’s pictures,
* Anthony alfo gives the denomination to an or¬
der of religious founded in trance about the year 109 r,
to take care of thofe affli&ed with St Anthony’s fire;
(iee the next article.)—It is faid, that, in fome places,
theie monks aflume to themlelves a power of giving, as
well as removing, the ignis facer, or eryfipelasj a power
which llands them in great head for "keeping the poor
people in fubjeaion, and extorting alms. ' To avoid the
menaces ot theie monks, the country people prelent
them every year with a fat hog a piece'. Some prelates
endeavoured to perfuade Pope Paul IIL to aboliih the
uider 5 qucejiuarios iflos fanSh Anthonii, quidecipiunt ru~
, jiicos et fmpiices, eofquc innumeris fuperjiiticnibus impli-
cem, de medio tollendos cjje. But they fubfift, not-
withftanding, to this day, in feveral places,
St^ Anthony1 s Fire, a name properly given to the
cryfipelas. Apparently it took this denomination, as
tlioie afflicted with it made their peculiar application
to St Anthony of Padua for a cure. It is known, that
anciently particular difeafes had their peculiar faints:
t hus, in the ophthalmia, perfons had recourfe to St
Lucia 5 in the toothach, to St Apollovna j in the hy¬
drophobia, to St Hubert, Sec.
AIN 1 HORA, in Botany, the trivial name of a fpe-
cies of aconitum. See Aconitum, Botany Index.
AN IHGRISMUS, in Rhetoric, denotes a contrary
defeription or definition of a thing from that given by
the adverfe party .—Thus, if the plaintiff urge, that to
take any thing away from another without his know¬
ledge or confent, is a theft $ this is called or defi¬
nition. If the defendant reply, that to take a thing a-
way from. another without his knowledge or Confent,
provided it be done with defign to return it to him a-
gain, is not theft; this is an Ayfoetrun.
ANTHOSPERMUM, the amber tree. See Bo¬
tany Index.
ANTHOXANTHUM, or vernal grass. See
Botany Index.
AN PHRACIS, Anthracias, or Anthracitis,
names promifcuoully ufed by ancient naturalifts for very
different foffils, viz. the carbuncle, htematites, and a
kind of afteria. See Carbuncle, &c.
ANTHRACOSIS, in Medicine, a corrofive fcaly
ulcer either in the bulb of the eye or the eyelids.
ANTHRAX, a Greek term, literally fjgnifying a
burning coal, ufed by the ancients to denote a gem, as
well as a difeafe, more generally known by the name of
carbuncle.
Anthrax is fometimes alfo ufed for lithanthrax or
pit coal.
ANTHROPOGLOTTUS, among Zoologfs, an
appellation given to fuch animals as have tongues re-
fembling that of mankind, particularly to the parrot
kind.
ANTHROPOGRAPHY, denotes the defeription
of the human body, its parts, llruflure, &c. See Ana¬
tomy.
ANTHROPOLATRAE, in Church Hiftory, an ap¬
pellation given to the Neftoriams, on account of their
worihipping Chiilt, notwithftanding that they believed
him to be a mere man.
AN IHROPOLATRIA, the paying divine ho-
] ANT
Hours to a man j luppofed to be the moth ancient kind Anthrcpo-
ot idolatry. ]jtes;
, 1HROPOEI1 E3, a term denoting petrifac-v
tions of the human body, as thole of quadrupeds are
called ^oolites.
It has been doubted whether any real human petri-
facfions ever occur, and whether thofe which have
been fuppofed fuch were not mere lufus natmue. But
tne generality of naturaiills bell verfed in this branch
ail’ure us of real anthropolites being lomet’^nes found.
And indeed, as it is univerfally admitted that the zoo-
lites are frequently feen, what negative argument there¬
fore can be brought againft the exillence of the others ?
Are not the component parts of the human body near¬
ly hmnar to thole of the brute creation ? Conlequeotly
correfpondent matter may be fubjecT to, and acquire’
t >e like accidental changes, wherever the lame power
or caufes concur to act upon either objeft. If the for¬
mer are not lo common, it may be accounted for, in
fome meafure, by rdieding that human bodies are ge¬
nerally depofited in felett and appropriated places j
wiiereas the bones of tuunuils arc ciilpcricd everywhere^
and lalling into various beds of earth, at a greater or
It 1. depth, there is more probability of ttieir encoun¬
tering the petrifying agent. Could we credit fome
authors who have treated on this fubje&, they will tell
us of entire bodies and fkeletons that were found pe¬
trified. One in particular, difeovered at Aix in Pro¬
vence anno 1583, in a.rocky cliff, the cerebrum where¬
of, when {truck againll a piece of Heel, produced
fparks, the bones being at the fame time friable. The
reports of Happel and Kircher are too abfurd for be¬
lief Van Helmont’s ftrange relations, together with
tnole ot Jean- a Coila, mull alio be rejedted as fabu¬
lous. Scheuhzer has publilhed an engraved figure,
which he calls the Antediluvian man : how far it is au¬
thentic, it would be ralh to fay. It is, however, af-
ferted by many rcfpedlable writers on natural hiftory
that whole Ikeletons petrified have been brought to
light from certain old mints, which remained clofed
up and difufed for feveral centuries. Thefe indeed are
acknowledged to be very rare. Yet it is a known
fati, that detached parts, ofteolithi, are fometimes
found, efpecially in fituations where either the water,
the foil, or both, have been obferved to poffefs a ftrong
putrefeent quality. The human vertebra, fragments
or portions of the tibia, and even the whole cranium
idelf, have been feen in an abfolute ftate of petrifac¬
tion. Some of thefe are faid to appear vitriolated or
mineralized. As to the petnfied bones of pretended
giants, they are more probably real zoolites, the bones
of the larger animals. All thefe bones are found in
various ftates, and under different appearances. Some
are only indurated j others calcined, vitriolated, or mi¬
neralized * fome, again, are Amply incrufted whillt
others have been proved completely petrified. Not-
withftanding wfflat is here advanced, it may be granted
that a pofitive lufus iiaturce, in fome hands, is repeat¬
edly rniftaken for a real petrifaftion. They are, how¬
ever, diftinguiftiable at all times by an experienced na-
turalift •, particularly by the tvro following rules: Firft,
We may determine that foffll a lufus nature? which, on
a ftx-icl examination, is obferved to deviate in any ma¬
terial degree from the true res analogica exijlens. Se¬
condly, By the fame parity of reafoning, thofe foffil
fhells
ANT - [42
Anthropo- fhells are to be efleemed certain petrifications, and ge-
nu*ne Antediluvian reliquiae, in which, on a compari-
Anthropo- ^on their analogues collefled from the fea, there
phagi. appears an exa& conformity in fize and figure. This
]
ANT
appears an exaft conformity in fize and figure. 1 ms
1 comparative obfervation will hold good for all foffils ;
that is, fuch as prefent themfelves either under the
animal or vegetable form. It is neverthelefs worthy
of notice, that all teftaceous foffils are not petrified ;
fince fome kinds of them have been found in beds of
fand, which retained their original perfeef lhape and
quality, but at the fame time they proved very brittle,
indeed fcarcely bearing the moft gentle touch. Shells
of this defeuption are always diffoluble by acids, in
conti adifiinction to the petrified or calcareous fulfil
fiiells, whofe property it is to refill the a&ion of fuch
like menjlrua. See further the article Petrifac¬
tion.
ANTHROPOLOGY, a difeourfe upon human na¬
ture.
Anthropology, among D/wr/er, denotes that man¬
ner of expreffion by which the infpired writers attri¬
bute human parts and palfions to God.
ANTHROPOMANCY, a fpecies of divination,
performed by infpe&ing the entrails of a human crea¬
ture.
ANTHROPOMORPHA, a term formerly given
to the primates of that clafs of animals which have the
greateft fefemblar.ee to the human kind.
ANTHROPOMORPHISM, among KcclefiaJIical
U nters, denotes the herefy or error of the Anthropo-
morphites. See the next article.
ANTHROPOMOR PHiTES, in Church Hi/lory,
a left of ancient heretics, who, taking every thing
fpoken of God in Scripture in a literal fenfe, particu-
laily that paffage of Genefis in which it is faid God
rnade man after his own image, maintained that God
had a human lhape. They are likewife called Au-
deans, from Audeus their leader.
ANTHROPOMORPHOUS, fomething that bears
the figure or refemblance of a man. Naturalills give
mftances of anthropomorphous plants, anthropomor-
phous minerals, &c. Thefe generally come under the
cials of what they call lufus naturce, or monfters.
ANTHROPOPAT HY, a figure or exprelfion by
Witic.i lome paflion is aferibed to God, which properly
belongs only to man.
ANTHROPOPHAGI, (of a man, and
0*7* to eat, Men-eaters.) That there have been,
in almolt all ages of the world, nations who have fol¬
lowed this barbarous pradice, we have abundance of
teuimomes.
The Cyclops, the Leftrygons, and Scylla, are all re-
prelented m Homer as Anthropophagi, or man-eaters :
and the female phantoms, Circe and the Sirens, firft
bemtehed with a Ihow of pleafure, and then deftroyed.
I his like the other parts of Homer’s poetry, had a
foundation m the manners of the times preceding his
own It was Hill, in many places, the age fpoken of
by Orpheus, G r
When men devour’d each other like the beafts,
Gorging on human flefh.' 
According to Herodotus, among the Efledonian
ocythians, when a man’s father died, the neighbours
wrought feveral beads, which they killed, mixed up
their ilefh witn tnat of the deceafed, and made a feafL Anthrope.
Among the Maffagetee when any perfon grew old,
they killed him and ate his fiefli j but if he died of fick- "" v '■
neis, they buried him, efteeming him unhappy. The
fame author alio affures us, that feveral nations in the
Indies killed all their old people- and their fick, to
feed on their flefh : he adds, that perfons in heHi-h
were fometimes accufed of being fick, to afford a’pre-
tence ror devouring them. According to Sextus Em¬
piricus, the firft laws that were made, were for the
prevention of this barbarous praftice, which the Greek
writers reprefent as univerfal before the time of Or¬
pheus.
Of the praffice of anthropophagy in later times, we
have the teftimonies of all the Romifh miflionaries who
.ate vifited the internal parts of Africa, and even fome
parts of Afia. Herrera fpeaks of great markets in
China, fumifhed wholly with human tlefh, for the bet¬
ter fort of people. Marcus Paulus fpeaks of the like
in his time, in the kingdom of Concha towards Quin-
Hy, and the illand of Zapengit ; others, of the great
Java ; Earbofa, of the kingdom of Siam and illand of
Sumatra 5 others, of the iflands in the gulf of Bengal,
of the country of the Samogitians, &c.
The philofophers Diogenes, Chryfippus, and Zeno,
followed by the whole left of Stoics, affirmed, that
there was nothing unnatural in the eating of human
fiefli y and that it was very reafonable to ufe dead bo¬
dies for food, rather than to give them a prey to worms
and putrefaction. In order to make the trial, how-
evei, whether there was any real repugnancy in nature
to tne feeding of an animal with the flefh of its own
fpecies, Leonardus Floroventius fed a hog- with hoo-’s
flefh and a dog with dog’s flefh ; upon which he found
the briftles of the hog to fall off, and the dog to be¬
come full of ulcers.
When America was difeovered, this pradice was
round to be almolf univerfal, infomnch that feveral au¬
thors have fuppofed it to be occafioned through a want
of other food, or through the indolence of the people
to feek for it 5 though others aferibe its origin to a
ipint of revenge,
!t appears pretty certain from Dr Hawkefworth’s
account of the Voyages to the South Seas, that the in¬
habitants of the illand of New Zealand, a country un-
furnifhed with the neceffaries of life, eat the bodies of
their enemies. It appears alfo to be very probable,
11iat T1- 1-r WarS anC* ant^roP°phagy of thefe favages
take then rife and owe their continuance to irrefiflible
neceffity, and the dreadful alternative of deftroyine
each other by violence, or of perifhing by hunger. See
vol. 111. p. 447, et feq. and vol. ii. p, 389, &c?
Mr Marfden alfo informs us, that this horrible cu-
ftom is pra&ifed by the Battas, a people in the ifland
of Sumatra. “ They do not eat human flefh (fay* he)
as a means of fatisfymg the cravings of nature, owing
to a deficiency of other food 5 nor is it fought after
as a gluttonous delicacy, as it would feem among the
New Zealanders. The Battas eat it as a fpecies of
ceremony ; as. a mode.of fhowing their deteftation of
crimes,, by.an ignominious punifhment ; and as a hor¬
rid indication of revenge and infult to their unfortu¬
nate enemies. The objeds of this barbarous repaft are
the pnfoners taken in war, and offenders convicTed:
and condemned for capital crimes. Perfons of the
former
ANT [ 424 ]
Anthropo- forttier defcriptxon may be ranfomed ov excbanged, for jVIilanefe
phagi, which they often wait a confiderable time ; and the lat-
Anthropo- ter pug-er oniy when their friends cannot redeem them
■ Phagia- , by the cuftomary fine of twenty beenchangs, or eighty
dollars. Thefe are tried by the people of the tribe
where the fa£l was committed, but cannot be execu¬
ted till their own particular raja or chief has been ac¬
quainted with the fentence j who, when he acknow¬
ledges the juftice of the intended punHhment, fends a
cloth to cover the delinquent’s head, together with a
large difii of fait and lemons. The unhappy object,
whether prifoner of war or malefa&or, is then tied to
a flake : the people affembled throw their lances at
him from a certain diftance} and when mortally wound¬
ed, they run up to him, as if in a tranfport of pafllon ;
cut pieces from the body with their knives •, dip them
in the dilh of fait and lemon juice ; {lightly broil them
over a fire prepared for the purpofe; and fwallow the
morfels with a degree of favage enthufiafm. Some¬
times (I prefume" according to the degree of their
animofity and refentment) the whole is devoured ; and
inftances have been known, where, with barbarity ftill
aggravated, they tear the flefli from the carcals with
their mouths. To fuch a depth of depravity may man
be plunged, when neither religion nor philofophy en¬
lighten his fteps ! All that can be faid in extenuation
of the horror of this diabolical ceremony is, that no
view appears to be entertained of torturing the {of¬
ferers ; of increafing or lengthening out the pangs of
death ; the whole fury is direaed againft the corfe,
warm indeed with the remains or life, but paft the fcn-
fation of pain. I have found a difference of opinion
in regard to their eating the bodies of their enemies
{lain in battle. Some perfons long refident there, and
-acquainted with their proceedings, affert that it is not
cuftomary 5 but as one or two particular inftances have
been given by other people, it is juft to conclude, that
it fometimes takes place, though not generally. It
was fuppofed to be with this intent, that Raja Neabin
maintained a long conflidl for the body of Mr ISairne,^
a moft refpeftable gentleman and valuable fervant ot
the India Company, who fell in an attack upon the
campong of that chief, in the year 1775.
It may be faid, that whether the dead body or an
enemy be eaten or buried, is a matter perfectly indif¬
ferent. But whatever the praftice of eating human
fleib may be in itfelf, it certainly is relatively, and in
its confequences, moft pernicious. It manifeftly tends
to eradicate a principle, which is the chief fecurity of
human life, and more frequently reftrains the hand of
the murderer, than the fenfe of duty or the dread of
punilhment. Even if this horrid practice originates
from hunger, ftill it muft be perpetuated from revenge.
Death muft lofe much of its horror among thofe who
are accuftomed to eat the dead j and wdiere there is
little horror at the fight of death, there muft be Ms
repugnance to murder. See fome further obfervations
on this fubjeft, equally juft and ingenious, by Dr
Hawkefworth, ut fupra.
ANTHROPOPHAGIA, the aft or habit of eat¬
ing human flefn. This is pretended by fome to be the
effefl of a difeafe, which leads people affefted with it
to eat every thing alike. Some choofe only to con-
lider it as a fpecies of Pica. The annals of Milan fur-
tiifti an extraordinary inftance of anthropophagy. A
ANT
woman named Elizabeth, from a depraved Anthropdf*
appetite, like what women wfith child, and thole whofe coijjia
menfes are obftrufted, frequently experience, had an Antlcmift.
invincible inclination to human flelh, of which ihe -v—f
made provifion by enticing children into her houfe,
where ftie killed and falted them ; a difcovery of which
having been made, fhe wras broken on the wheel and
burnt in x 519.
ANTHROPOSCOPIA, from and
I confi.der, the art of judging or dilcovering a man’s
character, difpofition, paflions, and inclinations, bom
the lineaments of his body. In which fenfe, anthro-
pofcopia feems of fomewhat greater extent than pj*)*
fiognomy or metopofcopy. Otto has publiftied an An-
thropofcopia, five judicium hominit de homine ex hnea-
mentis exterms.
ANTHROPOTHYSIA, the inhuman prafhee of
offering human facrifices. See Sacrifice.
ANTHUS, in Ornithology, a fynonyme of a fpecies
of loxia. See Loxia, Ornithology Index.
ANTHYLLIS, Kidney-vetch. See Botany
Index. . .
ANTHYPOPHORA, in Rhetoric, a figure oi
fpeech •, being the counterpart of an hypophora. Se*
Hypophora. .
ANTI, a Greek prepofition, which enters into the
compofition of feveral words, both Latin, French, and
Englifh, in different fenfes. Sometimes it fignifies be¬
fore, as an anti-chamber ; and fometimes oppofite or con¬
trary, as in the names of thefe medicines, antx-fcorbu-
tic, anti-venereal.
Anti, in matters of Literature, is a title given to
divers pieces written by wyay ot anfwer to others, whole
names are ufually annexed to the anti. See the Anti
of M. Baillet and the Anti-Baillet of M. Menage :
there are alfo Anti-Menagiani, &c, Csefar the dicta¬
tor wrrote two books by wray of anfw'er to what had
been objeaed to him by Cato, which he called Anti-
Catones ; thefe are mentioned by Juvenal, Cicero, &c.
Vives allures us, he had feen Ctefar’s Anti-Catones m
an ancient library.
ANTIBACCHIUS, in Ancient Poetry, a foot con-
fifting of three fyllables, the two firft^ long, and the
laft one Ihort •, fuch is the word amblrg.
ANTIBES, a fea-port town of Provence in France,
with a ftrong caftle. Its territory produces excellent
fruit ^ and the town {lands oppofite to Nice, in the Me¬
diterranean. E. Long. 7* 9* ■kat’ 43- 5°:
ANTICHAMBER, an outer chamber for ftran-
gers to wait in, till the perfon to be fpoken with is at
leifure.
ANTICHORUS, in Botany. See Botany Index.
ANTICHRIST, among Ecclefajlical Writers, de¬
notes a great adverfary of Chriftianity, who is to ap¬
pear upon the earth towards the end of the world.
We have demonftrations, difputations, and proofs,
in great order and number, both that the pope is, and
that he is not, Antichrift.
F. Calmet is very large in deferibing the Father and
mother of Antichrift, his tribe and pedigree, his wars
and conquefts, his achievements againft Gog, Ma¬
gog, &c. . ,
Some place his capital at Conftantmople, others at
Terufalem, others at Mofcow, and fome few at London j
but the generality at Rome, though thefe laft
ANT _ [ 425 ]
Grotius and feme others fuppofe Rome Pagan apoftle John,
ANT
yignon.
Atitlchrift. vxded.
v—^ to have been the feat of Antxchrift : mod of the Lu¬
theran and reformed do&ors contend earneftly for Rome
Chriftian under the papal hierarchy. In fa&, the point
having been maturely debated at the council of Gap,
held in 1603, a refolution was taken thereupon, to in-
fert an article in the Confeffion «f Faith, whereby the
pope is formally declared to be Antichrift.—Pope Cle¬
ment VIII. was flung to the quick wuth this decifxon j
and even King Henry IV. of France was not a little
mortified, to be thus declared, as he faid, an imp of
Antichrifl.
M. le Clerc holds, that the rebel Jews and their
leader Simon, whofe hiftory is given by Jofephus, are
to be reputed as the true Antichrift. Lightfoot and
Vanderhart rather apply this charadler to the Jewilh
Sanhedrim. Hippolitus and others held that the devil
himfelf was the true Antichfifl ; that he was to be in¬
carnate, and make his appearance in human fhape be¬
fore the confummation of all things. Others among
the ancients held that Antichrxll was to be born of a
virgin by fome pi'olific power imparted to her by the
* Bayle’s devil. A modern writer * of the female fex, whom
Dictionary, many hold for a faint, has improved on this fentiment j
voce Bon- ma;ntaining that Antichrifl is to be begotten by the
devil on the body of a witch by means of the femen
of a man caught in the commitTion of a certain crime,
and conveyed, &c.
Hunnius and fome others, to fecure Antichrifl to
the pope (notwithflanding that this latter feemed
excluded by not being of the tribe of Dan), have
broke in upon the unity of Antichrifl, and affert
that there is to be both an eaftern and a weflern Anti-
chrifl.
Father Malvenda, a Jefuit, hath publifhed a large
work entitled Antichrijlo, in wdiich this fubje£l is amply
difeuffed. It conufls of thirteen books. In the firfl
he relates all the opinions of the fathers with regard
to Antichrifl. In the fecond, he fpeaks of the times
when he {hall appear •, and fhows, that all the fathers
who fuppofed Antichrift to be near at hand, judged
the world was near its period. In the third, he dif-
courfes of his origin and nation ; and fhows that he is
to be a Jew, of the tribe of Dan : this he founds on
the authority of the fathers 5 on the paflage in Genefis
xlix. 17. Dan [hall be a ferpent by the way, &c. 5 on
that of Jeremiah viii. 16. where it is faid, The armies
of Dan /hall devour the earth ; and on Rev. vii. where
St John, enumerating all the tribes of Ifrael, makes
no mention of that of Dan. In the fourth and fifth
books he treats of the figns of Antichrift. In the
fixth, of his x'eign and wars. In the feventh, of his
vices. In the eighth, of his dodlrine and miracles.
In the ninth, of his perfecutions : and in the reft, of
the coming of Enoch and Elias, the converfion of the
Jews, the reign of Jefus Chrift, and the death of An¬
tichrift, after he has reigned three years and a half.
See alfo Lowman on the Revelation.
Plow endlefs are conjedlures ? Some of the Jews, we
are told, aftually took Cromwell for the Chrift ; while
fome others have laboured to prove him Antichrift
himfelf. Pfaffius affures us he faw a folio book in the
Bodleian library, written on purpofe to demonftrate
this latter pofition.
Upon the whole, the Antichrift mentioned by the
Vox.. II. Part II.
I Ep. ii. 18. and more particularly de-
feribed in the book of Revelation, feems evidently to
be the fame with the Man of Sin, &c. charadlerized
by St Paul in his Second Epiftle to the Theffalonians,1
ch. ii. And the entire defeription literally applies to
the exceffes of papal power. Had the right of private
judgment, fays an excellent writer, been always adopt¬
ed and maintained, Antichiift could never have been j
and when the facred right comes to be univerfally at
ferted, and men follow the voice of their own reafon
and confciences, Antichrift can be no more.
ANT1CHRISTIANISM, a Hate or quality in per-
fons or principles, which denominates them antichrifti-
an, or oppofite to the kingdom of Chrift.
M. Jurieu takes the idea of the unity of the church
to have been the fource of AntichrijHanifm. Had not
mankind been infatuated with this, they would never
have flood in fuch awe of the anathemas of Rome. It
is on this the popes erefiled their monarchial power.
ANTICKRISTIANS, properly denote the fol¬
lowers or worfhippers of Antichrift.
Antichristians are mox;e particularly underftood
of thofe who fet up or believe a falfe Chrift or Mef-
fiah.
ANTICHTHONES, in Ancient Geography, an ap¬
pellation given to the inhabitants of oppofite hemi-
fpheres.
ANTICOR, or Anticoeur, among Farriers, an
inflammation in a horfe’s throat, being the fame with
the quinfy in mankind. See Farriery.
ANTICOSTE, a barren ifland lying in the mouth
of the river St Lawrence, in North America. W. Long.
64. 16. N. Lat. from 49. to 53.
ANTICYRA, in Ancient Geography, a town in
Phocis, on the Corinthian bay, oppofite to Cirrha, ly¬
ing to the weft on the fame bay. The Phoceans feiz-
ing the temple of Apollo at D< Iphi, a war, called the
facred, commenced, and lafled ten years; when Phi¬
lip, father of Alexander the Great, avenged the god
by deftroying many of the cities of the pillagers. An-
ticyra was one of the number. It was again taken
and fubverted by Attilius a Roman general in the war
with the Macedonians. It afterwards became famous
for its hellebore. That drug was the root of a plant,
the chief produce of the rocky mountains above the
city, and of two kinds; the black, which had a pur¬
gative quality ; and the white, which was an emetic.
Sick perfons reforted to Anticyra to take the medicine,
which was pi'epared there by a peculiar and very ex¬
cellent recipe : Hence the adage, Naviget Anticyratn,
(Horace). By the port in the fecond century was a
temple of Neptune, not large, built with felefted ftones,
and the infide white-wafhed : the ftatue of brafs. The
agora or market-place was adorned with images of the
fame metal; and above it was a well with a fpring,
fheltered from the fun by a roof fupported by columns.
A little higher was a monument formed with fuch
ftones as occurred, and defigned, it was faid, for the
fons of Iphitus. One of thefe, Schedius, was killed by
Hehlor, while fighting for the body of Patroclus, but
his bones were tranfported to Anticyra; where his
brother died after his return from Troy. About tv\ o
ftadia or a quarter of a mile diftant was a high rock,
a portion of the mountain, on which a temple of Diana
flood, the image bigger than a large woman, and made
3 H by
Antlchri-
ftianifm
II
Anticyra.
A N T [ 426 ] ANT
Aiiridefma by Praxiteles. The walls at’d other edifices at Anti-
J cyra were probably erefted, like the temple of Nep-
t. J.'t ’ b tune, with Hones or pebbles. The fite is now called
Afprofpitia, or The White Houfes ; and fome traces of
the buildings from which it was fo named remain. I’he
port is landlocked, and frequented by veffels for corn,
borne paces up from the fea is a fountain.
AN PIDESMA, Chinese Laurel. See Bo¬
tany Index.
AN FIDICOMARIANITES, ancient heretics
who pretended that the Holy Virgin did not preferve a
perpetual virginity, but that die had feveral children
by Jofeph after our Saviour’s birth. Their opinion wras
grounded on fome expreffions of our Saviour, wherein
he mentions his brothers and his lifters } and of St
Matthew, where he fays, that Jofeph kneiv not Mary
till die had brought forth her firft born fon. The An-
tidiccmarianites were the difciples of Helvidius and Jo-
vinian, who appeared in Rome toward the clofe of the
fourth century.
ANTIDORON, in Ecclejiaftical Writers, a name
given by the Greeks to the confecrated bread, out of
which the middle part, marked with the crofs, where¬
in the confecration relides, being taken aw?ay by the
prieft, the remainder is diftributed after mafs to the
poor. On the fides of the antidoron are impreffed the
words Jefus ChriJIus vicit. The word is formed from
2o^ov, donum, “ a gift,” as being/given awmy loco mu-
neris, or in charity. The antidoron is alfo called pa-
nis prafanBijicatus. Some fuppofe the antidoron to
be diftributed in lieu of the facrament, to fuch as were
prevented from attending in perfon at the celebration •,
and thence derive the origin of the word, the eucharift
being denominated doron, “ gift,” by vTay of eminence.
ANT1DOSIS, in Antiquity, denotes an exchange
of eftates, pradtifed by the Greeks on certain occa-
iions with peculiar ceremonies, and firft inftituted by
Solon.
When a perfon was nominated to an office, the ex¬
pence of which he was not able to fupport, he had re-
courfe to the antidofis : that is, he was to feek fome
other citizen of better fubftance than himfelf, who was '
free from this, and other offices; in wffiich cafe the for¬
mer was excufed. In cafe the perfon thus fubftituted
denied himfelf to be the richeft, they were to exchange
eftates, after this manner j the doors of their houfes
were clofe fhut up and fealed, that nothing might be
conveyed away ; then both took an oath to make a
faithful difeovery of all their effefts, except what lay
in the ffilver mines, which by the laws was excufed
from all impofts ; accordingly, within three days, a
full difeovery and exchange of eftates was made.
ANTIDOTE, among Phyjicians, a remedy taken
to prevent, or to cure, the eftedls of poifon, &.c.
ANTIENT. See Ancient.
ANTIGONEA, or Antigonia, in Ancient Geo¬
graphy, a town of Bithynia, fo called from Antigonus,
the fon of Philip, and afterw'ards called Nictea (Strabo,
Stephanas). Another <*f Epirus, to the north of the
Montes Ceraunii, oppofite to the city of Oricum (Po¬
lybius, Ptolemy). A third of Arcadia, namely Man-
tinea, fo called in honour of King Antigonus, (Plu¬
tarch, Paufanias.) A fourth in Macedonia, in the
territory of Mygdonia (Pliny, Ptolemy). A fifth in
the territory of Chalcidice, in Macedonia, on the eaft
fide of the Sinus Thermaicus (Livy). A fixth ofAnttgomn*..
Syria, built by Antigonus, not far from Antioch, on
the Orontes (Stephanus) ; but foon after deftroyed by
Seleucus, who removed the inhabitants to Seleucia, a
town built by him (Diodorus Siculus). A feventh of
Troas, called Alexandria in Pliny’s time.
ANTIGONUS I. one of the captains of Alexander
the Great, was the fon of Philip a Macedonian noble¬
man. After Alexander’s death, a divifion of the pro¬
vinces taking place, Pamphylia, Lycia, and Phrygia
Major fell to his ffiare. But Perdiccas, well ac¬
quainted with his ambitious fpirit, and great abili¬
ties, determined to diveft him of his government,
and laid plans for his life, by bringing various accu-
fations againft him. Antigonus, aware of the dan¬
ger, retired with his fon Demetrius into Greece, where
he obtained the favour and protection of Antipater j
and in a fhort time Perdiccas dying, a new divifion ta¬
king place, he was invefted not only with the govern¬
ment of the former provinces, but alio with that of Ly-
caonia. He was likewife entrufted with the command
of the Macedonian houfehold troops, and upon Eume-
nes being declared a public enemy, he received orders
to profecute the war againft him with the utmoft vi¬
gour. On the commencement of this war, Eumenes
iuffered a total overthrow, and was obliged to retire
with only 600 brave followers to a caftle fituated on
an inacceffible rock, where he might reft in fafety from
all the affaults of Antigonus. In the interval, his
friends affembling a new army for his relief, were rout¬
ed by Antigonus, who now began to exhibit the great
projefts of his ambition. Polyfperchon fucceeding to
the tutorfnip of the young king of Macedon after An¬
tipater’s death, Antigonus refolved to fet himfelf up as
lord of all Afia. On account of the great power of
Eumenes, he greatly defired to gain him over to his
intereft, but that faithful commander effecting his efcape
from the fortrefs where he was clofely blockaded, rail¬
ed an army, and was appointed the royal general in
Afia. The governors of Upper Afia cooperating -with
him, he fucceeded in feveral engagements againft An¬
tigonus, but was at laft delivered up to him through
treachery, and put to death. Upon this, the govern¬
ors of Upper Afia yielded to Antigonus. Thofe
whom he fufpeCted, he either facrificed to his refent-
ment or difplaced them from their offices. Then feiz-
ing upon all the treafures at Sufa, he directed his march
towards Babylon, of which city Seleucus was govern¬
or. Seleucus fled to Ptolemy, and entered into a
league with him, together with Lyfimachus and Caf-
fander, with the intention of giving a check to the ex¬
orbitant powder of Antigonus, who, notwithftanding
this, made a fuccefsful attempt upon the provinces of
Syria and Phenicia. Yet thefe provinces were foon af¬
ter recovered by Ptolemy, who defeated his fon De¬
metrius, while he himfelf was employed in repelling
Caffander, who had made rapid progrefs in Leffer
Afia. They vTere again taken by Antigonus, and he
being fluffied with his fuccefs, planned an expedition
againft the Nabathaean Arabs, dwelling in the deferts
adjacent to Judea ; but on the firft enterprile againft
the town of Petra, his general Athengeus, with almoft
all his troops, was cut to pieces by the Arabs. An¬
tigonus then fent his fon againft them, who returned
after forcing them to reafonable terms. Demetrius
then
ANT [ 427
Antigonqs. then expelled Seleucus from Babylon, ar>d fuceefs at¬
tending his arms wherever he went, the confederates
were obliged to make a treaty with Antigonus, in
which it was ftipulated, that he Ihould remain in pof-
feflion of all Alia, but that the Greek cities fliould con¬
tinue in polTeffion of their liberty. This agreement
was foon violated, under the pretence that garrifons
had been placed in fome of thefe cities by Antigonus.
At firft Ptolemy made a fuccefsful defcent in Leffer
Alia and on feveral of the iHands of the Archipelago 5
but he was at length defeated by the fuccefsful arms
of Demetrius in a fca-fight, who alfo took the ifiand of
Cyprus, with many prifoners. On this vidory Anti¬
gonus was fo elated that he affumed the title of king,
and beftowed the fame upon his fon ; and from that
time, B. C. 306, his reign in Afia, and that of Ptole¬
my in Tgypt, and of the other captains of Alexander
in their refpedive governments, properly commence.
Irritated at the hoftile condud of Ptolemy, Anti¬
gonus prepared a numerous army and a formidable
fleet, and having taken the command of the army, he
gave the command of the fleet to Demetrius, and halt-
ened to attack him in his own dominions. After en¬
during the fevered hardfliips, they met in the vicinity
of Mount Caffius 5 but Ptolemy aded with fuch valour
and addrefs that Demetrius could gain no advantage
over him *, and after leveral fruitlefs attempts, he aban¬
doned the undertaking. He next attempted the re-
dudion of Rhodes, but meeting with obftinate refift-
ance, he was obliged to make a treaty upon the bed
terms that he could, having been called to join Anti¬
gonus againd Caffander, who at this time had formed a
confederacy with Seleucus and Lyfimachus. When
Demetrius united his forces with thofe of Antigonus,
they advanced to Phrygia, and having met the enemy
at Ipius, a decifive battle was fought, in which Anti¬
gonus fell, in the 84th year of his age, B. C. 301.
Ardent in his paffions, Antigonus frequently ufed
improper means for their gratification ; but as a foldier
he was fagacious, adive, brave, and fortunate. Anin-
latiable ambition, however, the general paflion of great
men, proved a drong dimulus to all his adions ; but
with thefe blemifhes better qualities were blended in his
charader. The violence and temerity of youth were tem¬
pered by the clemency and moderation of advanced
life, and he endeavoured to conciliate the aft'edions
of tho.e w horn force had fubjeded to his power. In mat¬
ters of private concern he was dridly jud j for when
hi> brother wifhed him to liften to a caufe in private
where he was concerned, he exclaimed, “ No, my dear
brother, I will hear it in the open court of judice, be-
caufe 1 mean to do judice.” When flattered with the
title of god, he replied, “ My chamberlain well knows
the contraryand fimilar philofophical fentiments
would frequently drop from his lips. He apologized
for the rigour of his taxes by faying, “ Alexander
reaped Afia, but I only glean it.” He fhone with
peculiar ludre in domedic retirement. Notwithdand-
ing the drong ambition of his fon Demetrius, he con¬
tinued in^perfed harmony both with him and all his
family The fon had a full flrare of the authority of
the father •, and one day faluting his fon upon his re¬
turn from hunting in the prefence of fome ambaffadors,
he defired them to tell their maders upon what terms
be lived with his fon. (Gen. £%.)
] ANT
Antigonus Ggnatus, fon of Demetrius Poliur-
cetes, was the grandfon of the former Antigonus. His
charafter was eminently didinguilhed by humanity and
mildnefs of difpofition. When he befitged Thebes
under the command 01 his father, he drongly remon-
drated againd the lof^ of fo many lives for iiich an in-
fignificant objedl. Filial affe£Hon was fo powerful in
his mind, that when his father was taken prifoner bv
Seleucus, he generoufly offered himfelf in his ftead, and
being rejedfed, he wore deep mourning, and refrained
from all feftivals and amufements during his father’s
imprifonment. Informed of his death, all the Hoods
of forrow burd from his tender heart, and failing with,
a fleet to meet his athes, he received them with all the
demondrations of filial fenfibility and dut^ul refpeck
By the death of his father he became mader of all the
European dominions of Demetrius, together with the
kingdom of Macedon and various other cities in
Greece. The Gauls invading his country, he defeat¬
ed and expelled them, but was loon after routed by
Pyrrhus king of Epirus. Some time after, how¬
ever, Pyrrhus was flain at Argos, and when his head
was brought him by his fon, he expreffed the higheit
difpleafure, and throwing his robe over it, he gave or¬
ders to fearch for his body, and to inter the fame with
all funeral honours. W ith Angular kindnefs, alfo, he
treated Helenus, the fon of that unfortunate king, who
fell into his hands by the fortune of war.
_ In the evening of his reign, he fo cultivated the arts
of peace, and fo conciliated the minds of his fubje&s,
that he fecured their affedions both to himfelf and his
defeendants. I he taking of the citadel of Corinth by
intrigue was the meanert adion of his reign, but he im¬
proved that event in maintaining the freedom of the fmall
ftates of Greece, and in increafing his own dominions.
Phe Achoeans, arid Aratus, their famous chief, vigo-
roufly oppofed his meafures, and at length recovered
Corinth ; . but Antigonus was fo inclined to peace,
that notwithilanding this event, he purfued his wonted
plan, and left his kingdom in peace about the 80th
year of his Hie, and the 34^1 reiSn» C. 943 j
and Demetrius II. his fon, next afeended the throne.
(Gen. Biog.J
AIsTlGRAPHUS, in Antiquity, an officer of A-
thens, who kept a counterpart of the apodedi, or
chief treafurer’s accounts, to prevent miftakes, and
keep them from being fallified.
An tigraphus is alio ufed, in middle-age writers,
for a fecretary or chancellor. He is thus called, ac¬
cording to the old gloffarifts, on account of his writ¬
ing anfwers to the letters fent to his mafter. The an-
tigraphus is fometimes alfo called archigraphus; and
his dignity antigraphia, or archigraphia.
Antigraphus is alfo ufed in Ifidorus for one of
the notes of fentences which is placed with a dote to
denote a diverfity of fenfe in tranllations.
Antigraphus is alfo applied in ecclefiaftical wri¬
ters to an abbreviator of the papal letters. In which
fenfe the word is ufed by Pope Gregory the Great in
his regifter. Of late days the oflice of antigraphus
confifts in making minutes of bulls from the petitions
agreed to by his holinefs, and renewing the bulls after
engroffing.
ANTIGUA, one of the Antilles or Caribbee
1 Hands, fituated 20 leagues eaft of St Chriffopher’s, in
3 H 3 * W,
Antiliba-
A N T [ 428
Antigua \v. Long. 62. 5. and N. Lat. 17. 30. It is about 50
miles in circumference, and is reckoned the largefl of
all the Britilh leeward illands.
This ifland having no rivers, and but few fprings,
or fuch as are brackifli, the inhabitants are obliged to
preferve the rain water in cifterns. The air here is
not fo wholefome as in the neighbouring iflands, and
it is more fubjeft to hurricanes j but it has excellent
harbours, particularly Englilh Harbour, which is ca¬
pable of receiving the largeft man of war in the navy.
Here is alfo a dock yard, fupplied with all ftores and
conveniences for repairing and careening (hips. T he
principal trade, however, is carried on in the harbour
of St John’s, the capital, fituated in the north-weft
part of the ifland, and which has water fufficiently
deen for merchant veffels. 1 he town of St John’s
■was once in a very tlounfhing condition, as may be
judged by the lofs fuftained at the late fire, which was
computed at the amazing fum of 400,000!.
This ifland w>as firft attempted to be fettled by Sir
Thomas Warner, about the fame time with St Chrif-
topher’s and Nevis: but no eftablilhment then took
place. It w^as afterwards granted by Charles II. to
Lord Willoughby, then governor of Barbadoes, who
fettled a colony upon it in the ipace of a few years. In
a fliort time, but by what means is not evident, it oe-
Came again- the public property. It raifes at prefent
about 16,000 hogflieads of fugar, which was at firfi: 02.
a very bad quality, unfit for the Englifh market; but
the planters have greatly improved their ftaple fince,
and it is now as good as in any of the other iflands. It
has continued unmolefted in all the late wars with
France. The number of white inhabitants is reckon¬
ed about 10,000. It is divided into five parifhesj that
of St John’s Town, which is reckoned the capital of
the north-weft part, and confifts of above 200 houfes;
thofe of Falmouth, Porham, and Bridge Town, on the
fouth fide j and St Peter’s, wdiich is no town, but lies
almoft in the middle of the ifland.
ANTIGUGLER, is a crooked tube of metal, fo
bent as eafily to be introduced into the necks of bot¬
tles, and ufed in decanffng liquors, without dhluroing
them. For this purpofe the bottle fhould be a little
inclined, and about half a fpoonful of the liquor pour¬
ed out, fo as to admit an equal quantity of air 5 let one
end of the bent tube be flopped with the finger, whilft
the other is thruft into the body of the liquor near to
the bubble of air already admitted. When the finger
is taken off, the bottle will have vent, and the liquor
will run out fteadily and undlfturbed.
ANTIHECTICS, in Pharmacy, medicines good in
he flic al diforders.
ANTIHECTICUM poterii, the name of a me¬
dicine formerly much celebrated, but now laid afide in
common praflice.
ANTILIBANUS, in Ancient Geography, a moun¬
tain of Coelefyria, which bounds it on the fouth, run¬
ning parallel with Libanus: they both begin a little
above the fea, Libanus near Tripolls, Antilibanus at
Sidon : and both terminate near the mountains of Ara¬
bia, which run to the north of Damafcus, and the moun¬
tains of Traconitis, and there end in other mountains,
(Strabo). The Scripture, making no diftinflion be-
twreen Libanus and Antilibanus, calls them by the com¬
mon name Lebanon.
] ANT
ANTILLES, the French name for the Cariebee
iflands.
ANTILOGARITHM, the complement of the xo-
garithm of a fine, tangent, or fecant j or the diherence
of that logarithm from the logarithm of 90 degrees.
ANTILOGY, in matters of literature, an incon-
fiftency between twm or more paffages of the fame
book.
ANTILOPE. See Capra.
ANTIMENSIUM, a kind of confecrated table¬
cloth, occafionally ufed in the Greek church, in places
where there is no proper altar. F. Goar obferves, that
in regard the Greeks had but fewT confecrated churches,
and that confecrated altars are not things eafy to be
removed, that church has, for many ages, made ule
of certain confecrated fluffs or linens, called antitnen-
Jia, to ferve the purpofes thereof.
Antimensium, in the Greek church, anfwers to
the a hare portabile, or portable altar in the Latin
church. They are both only of late invention, though
Habertus wmuld have them as old as St Bafil.. But
Durant and Bona do not pretend to find them m any
author before the time of Bede and C harlemagne. _
Ant 1 men si a is alfo applied to other tables, ufed in
offices of religion, befides thofe whereon the euchanil
is adminiftered : fuch, e. g. are thofe whereon the holl
is expofed, &c. The origin of the antimenfia is de-
feribed by Meurfius : when the bdhop had confecrated
a church, the cloth which had been fpread on the
ground and over the communion table, tvas torn in
pieces, and diftributed among the priefts, who carried
each a fragment away, to ferve to cover the tables m
their churches and chapels. Not that it was neceffary
that fuch cloths fhould be laid on all tables •, but only
on thofe which either uTere not confecrated, or at leaft
wffiofe confecration was doubted of.
ANTIMERIA, in Grammar, a figure whereby one
part of fpeech is ufed for another : e. g. vel/efuam cuh
que ej}, for voluntas fua cuique ejl; alfo, populus late
rex, {ox populus late regnans. . r • c
Antimeria, in a more reftrained fenfe, is a figure
where the noun is repeated inflead of the pronoun.
The antimeria is frequent in the Hebrew, and is iome-
times retained in our verfion of the Old I ellament ac¬
cordingly : e. g. Hear my voice, ye wives of Lantech,
for my wives, Gen. iv. 23.
ANTIMETABOLE, in Rhetoric, a figure which
fets two things in oppofition to each other. The word
is Greek, compounded of cAU again/}, and y.ZxZcM from
1 Jhift or transfer, i. e. fluffing,_ or letting
two things over-againft each other. I his figure is
twice exemplified in an apophthegm of Muiomus ;
which, on account of its excellence, is called aureum
monitum, the golden maxim or precept.
Av ri 5rg<*i«s xahov piroc now, e(^6T«u, to h
jcooAov y.ivu. % ^
Av T< KOWK <Mir%epv feeret j^ovjjs, to y.iv »i«-j o^stoo/, to d%
Markov [AiVU.
In Englifb thus :
“ Allowing the performance of an honourable aftion
to be attended with labour ; the labour is icon over,
but the honour immortal : whereas, fhould even plea-
fure wait on the commiflion of what is difhonourable,
,he pleafure U foon go«, ^““^HEsis,
Antilles
A N T
Antimeta. ANTIMETATHESIS, in Rhetoric,' is the inver-
thefis ^on 0f the parts or members of an antithefis. Such
.11 is that of Cicero in Verrem, lib. iv. cap. 52. “ Com-
Antimony. ^ peacg ^ war. the arriVal of this go¬
vernor with the viftory of that general ; his profligate
troops with the invincible army of the other •, the lux¬
ury of the former w?ith the temperance of the latter :
you will fay, that Syracufe was founded by him w^ha
took it; and taken by him, who held it when founded.”
ANTIMONARCHICAL, an appellation given to
whatever oppofes monarchical government.
ANTIMONIALS, in Medicine, preparations of
antimony. See Pharmacy.
ANTIMONY, a blackifli mineral fubftance, flain-
ing the hands, full of long, Ihining, needle-like Arise,
hard, brittle, and confiderably heavy. It is found in
different parts of Europe, as Bohemia, Saxony, Tranfyl-
vania, Hungary, France, and England ; commonly in
mines by itfelf, intermixed with earth and floney mat¬
ters. Sometimes it is blended with the richer ores of
filver, and renders the extraftion of that metal difficult
by volatilizing a part of the filver ; or, in the language
of the miners, robbing the ore. See Metallurgy, for
the different operations.
Antimony is the Jlibium of the ancients j by the
Greeks called fiptu. The reafon of its modern deno¬
mination, antimony, is ufually referred to Bafil Valen¬
tine a German monk, who, as the tradition relates,
having thrown fome of it^o the hogs, obferved, that,
after purging them violently, they immediately grew
fat upon it. This made him think, that by giving
his fellow monks a like dofe, they would be the better
for it. The experiment, however, fucceeded fo ill,
that they all died of it 5 and the medicine thencefor¬
ward wras called antimony, q. d. anti-monk.
Ufes. Antimony at firll was of fervice only in the
compofition of paint. Scripture defcribes it to us as
a fort of paint, with which the women blackened their
eyebrows. Jezebel, underAanding that Jehu was to
enter Samaria, painted her eyes with antimony 5 or,
according to the Hebrew, “ put her eyes in antimo¬
ny.” As large black eyes wrere thought the fineft,
they of both fexes, who were careful of their beauty,
rubbed their eyes, eyelids, 'and round the eyes, with
a needle dipped in a box of paint made of antimony,
with a defign of blackening them.—At this day, the
women of Syria, Arabia, and Babylonia, anoint and
blacken themfelves about the eyes y and both men and
women put black upon their eyes in the defert, to
preferve them from the heat of the fun and the pier¬
cing of its rays. M. Darvieux tells us, that the Ara¬
bian women border their eyes with a black colour made
of tutty, whLh the Arabians call rebel. They draw
a line of this kind of blacking without the corner of
their eyes, to make them appear larger. Ifaiah, in
his enumeration of the feveral ornaments belonging to
the daughters of Sion, has not forgot the needles
which they made ufeof in painting their eyes and eye¬
lids. Nor has this pradlice efcaped the laffi of Juvenal :
llle fupcrcilium madida fuligine tinBum
Obliqua producit acu, pingitque trementes
Attollens oculos.
Ezekiel, difcovering the irregularities of the Jewiffi
ANT
nation under the idea of a debauched woman, fays, Antimony,
that ffie bathed and perfumed herfelf, and that lire ^
anointed her eyes rvith antimony. Job (hows fuffi-
ciently how much antimony was r effeem, by calling
one of his daughters a veffel of antimony, or a box to
put paint in, cornu Jlibu. The author of the book of
Enoch fays, that before the deluge the angel Azleel
taught young women the art of painting themfelves.
Tertullian and St Cyprian have declaimed very
warmly againA this cuAom of painting the eyes and
eyebrows, which was much pradlifed in Africa even
by the men : Inunge oculos tuos non Jlibio diaboh, fed
collyrio Chrijli, fays St Cyprian. Pliny, fpeaking of
the Roman ladies, fays, that they painted their very
eyes: Tanta eft decoris affeBatio, ut tingantur oculi
quoque. Sardanapalus painted his eyes and eyebrows.
Jofephus reproaches the feditious with the fame, wffio
affumed the name of zealots, and made themielves ma-
Aers of the temple of Jerufalem.
The modern ufes of antimony are very numerous
and important. It is a common ingredient in fpecula
or burning concaves, ferving to give the compofition
a finer texture. It makes a part in bell metal, and
renders the found more clear. It is mingled with tin,
to make it more hard, wffiite, and founding y and with
lead, in the caAing of printers letters, to render them
more fmooth and firm. It is alfo a general help in
the melting of metals, and efpecially in caAing of
cannon-balls. It is likewife made ufe of for purifying
and heightening the colour of gold. See Chemistry
Index.
For a long time this mineral wyas eAeemed poifonous.
In 1566, its ufe was prohibited in France by an edift
of parliament ; and in 1609, one Befnitr w-as expelled
the faculty for having given it. The edict was re¬
pealed in 1650; antimony having a few years before
been received into the number of purgatives. In 1668,
a new edift came forth, forbidding its ufe by any but
doctors of the faculty. It is now' univerfally allowed,
that pure antimony in its crude date has no noxious
quality , and that though many of its preparations are
moA virulently emetic and cathartic, yet, by a flight
alteration or addition, they lofe their virulence, and
become mild in their operation.
The virtues of antimony in the difeafes of animals
are greatly extolled. Pigs that have the meafles are
at all times recovered by it, wffiich proves it a great
purifier of the blood. Horfes w ho have running heels
that cannot be cured by the common methods ufed
by the farriers, will generally^ be cured by this medi¬
cine in a little time. The manner of ufing it is this :
Mix one drachm with every feeding of oats which the
horfe has in a morning. It is beA put together in one
place, buried under a few oats; and the horfe’s head
being withheld a little, and then let go juA againA
that place, he will take it all in at a mouthful. Some
horfes do not diflike it: others obffinately refufe it,
but to thefe it may be eafily given in balls. The vir¬
tues of this drug in fattening cattle have been thought
imagmary, but experiment proves it to be a real truth.
A horfe that is lean and fcabby, and not to be fatted
by any other means, will become fat on taking a dofe
of antimony every morning for two months together,.
A boar fed for brawn, and having an ounce of anti¬
mony
[ 429 1
j
Antitioe
II
Antioch.
ANT f 430
mony given him every morning, will become fat a fort¬
night fooner than others put into the ftye at the fame
time, and fed in the fame manner, but without the
Antimony.
ANT1NOE. See Enfine.
.AN I INOEIA, in Antiquity, annual facrifices, and
quinquennial games, in memory of Antinousthe Bithy-
nian. They were inftituted at the command of Adrian,
the Roman emperor, at Mantinea, in Arcadia, where
Antinous was honoured with a temple and divine wor-
fitip.
ANTINOMIANS, in EcclefwjlicalHifiory, certain
heretics who maintain the law of no ufs or obligation
under the gofpel-difpenfation, or who hold doftrines
that clearly fuperfede the neceifity of good works and
a virtuous life. The Antinomians took their origin
from John Agricola about the year 15385 who taught
that the law is no ways neceilary under the gofpel :
that good wmrks do not promote our falvation, nor ill
ones hinder it 5 that repentance is not to be preached
from the decalogue, but only from the gofpel.
This fed fprung up in England during the protec¬
torate of Oliver Cromwell, and extended their lylfem
of libertinifm much farther than Agricola the difciple
of Luther. Some of their teachers exprefsly maintain¬
ed, that as the eleft cannot fall from grace, nor forfeit
the Divine favour, the wicked aftions they commit
are not really finful, nor are to be confidered as inftan-
ces of their violation of the divine law 5 and that con-
lequently they have no occafion either to confefs their
fms, or to break them off by repentance. According
to them, it is one of the effential and diftin&ive cha¬
racters of the eleCt, that they cannot do any thing
wnich is either difpleafing to God or prohibited by the
law.—Luther, Rutherford, Schluffelburg, Sedgwick,
Gataker, Witfius, Bull, Williams, &c. have written
refutations 5 Crifp, Richardfon, Saltmarfh, &c. defen¬
ces, of the Antinomians 5 Wigandus, a comparifon be¬
tween ancient and modern Antinomians.
The doCtrine of Agricola w-as in itfelf obfcure, and
perhaps reprefented worfe than it really was by Luther,
who wrote with acrimony againft him, and firft ftyled
♦him and his followers Antinomians. Agricola flood
on his own defence, and complained that opinions
were imputed to him which he did not hold. Nicholas
Amfdorf fell under the fame odious name and imputa¬
tion, and feems to have been treated more unfairly
than even Agricola himfelf. It is rather hard to charge
upon a man all the opinions that may be inferred from
things that have haftily dropped from him, when he
himfelf difavows fuch inferences.
ANTINOUS, the favourite of Adrian, was born
A N T
andna in .Egypt, that is, about 700 miles from each.
Seleucus called it Antioch, from his father’s name, ac-
coiding to fome j or from that of his fon, according
to others.^ He built 16 other cities bearing the fame
name 5 of which one, fituated in Pifidia, is probably
that where the name of Chriftians was foil given to
the followers of Jefus Chrift. But that fituated on
the Orontes by far eclipied, not only all the others of
this name, but all the cities built by Seleucus. Anti-
gonus, not long before, had founded a city in that
neighbourhood, which from his own name he had called
Antigonia, and defigned it for the capital of his em¬
pire ; but it wTas razed to the ground by Seleucus, who
employed the materials in building his metropolis, and
alio transplanted the inhabitants thither.
i he city of Antioch wTas afterwards known by the
name of Tetrapofis, being divided as it were into four
cities, each of them being furrounded with its proper
wrall, befides a common one which enclofed them all.
1 he foil of thefe cities was built by Seleucus Nicator
as already mentioned 5 the fecond by thofe who flock¬
ed thither on its being made the capital of the Syro-
Macedonian empire 5 the third by Seleucus Callinicusj
and the fourth by Antiochvs Epiphanes.—About four
oi five miles diilant, flood a place called Daphne, which
was neverthelefs reckoned a fuburb of Antioch. Here
Seleucus planted a grove, and in the middle of it built
a temple which he confecrated to Apollo and Diana,
making the whole an afylum. To this place the inha¬
bitants of Antioch reforted for their pleafures and di-
veriions 5 whereby it became at lafl fo infamous, that
“ t0 live after the manner of Daphne” was ufed as a
proverb to. exprefs the mofl voluptuous and difi'olute
way of living. Here Lucius Verus, the colleague of
M. Aurelius, chofe to take up his refidence, inftead of
marching againft the Parthians 5 while his general
Caftius forbade by proclamation any of his foldiers to
enter or even go near the place. In fhort, fo remark¬
able w;as Daphne of old, that the metropolis itfelf was
diftinguifhed by it, and called Antioch near Daphne.
’I hough Antioch continued to be, as Pliny calls it,
the queen of the Eaft, for near 1600 years; yet fcarce
any city mentioned in hiftory hath undergone luch ca¬
lamities, both from the attacks of its enemies, and
its being naturally fubjeft to earthquakes. The firft
difafter mentioned in 'hiftory which befel the Antio-
chians happened about 145 years before Chrift. Being
at that time very much difaffedled to the perfon and
government of Demetrius their king, they were conti¬
nually railing tumults and feditions 5 infomuch that he
found himfelf at laft obliged to folicit affiftance from
the Jews 5 and was furnilhed by Jonathan, one of the
-Antioch*.
, t)• 1 • tv 1 • tt- , , , ,  iuiunucu 1.7 luucuiian, one 01 me
at Bithynus.in Bithyma. His beauty engaged the heart Maccabees, with 3000 men ; by which reinforcement
nr Annan in iurn a manner* i-L   ~  • . i • r* i r V rv • , v,
of Adrian in fuch a manner, that there never was -
more boundlefs and extravagant paflion than that of
this emperor towards this youth. After his death, the
emperor ordered divine honours to be paid him 5 and
he alfo eredlcd a city of his name. See Enfine.
ANTIOCH, a city of Syria in Alia, ntuated on
the river Orontes, in E. Long. 37. 5. N. Lat. 36. 20.
It was built by Seleucus Nicator, founder of the Syro-
Macedonian empire, who made it his capital. It flood
on the above-mentioned river, about 20 miles from the
place where it empties itfelf into the Mediterranean 5
being equally diftant from Conftantinople and Aiex-
believing himfelf fufficiently ftrong to reduce the mu¬
tineers by force, he ordered them immediately to de¬
liver up their arms. This unexpected order caufed
a great uproar in the city. The inhabitants ran to
arms, and invefted the king’s palace, to the number
of 120,000, with a defign to put him to death. All
the Jews haftened to his relief, fell upon the rebels,
killed 100 000 of them, and fet fire to the city. On
the deftruClion of the Syrian empire by the Romans,
Antioch fubmitted to them as welf as the other cities
of that kingdom, and continued for a long time under
their dominion. About the year 115, in the reign of
the
ANT [ A
Antioch, tlie emperor Trajan, it was almoft entirely ruined by
one of the moft dreadful earthquakes mentioned in
hiitory. Trajan himfelf happened to be there at that
time, being returned from an expedition againft the
Parthians", fo that the city was then full of troops,
and llrangers come from all quarters either out of cu~
riofity or upon bufinefs and embaflies : the calamity
was by this means felt almoft in every province of the
Roman empire. The earthquake was preceded by vio¬
lent claps of thunder, unufual winds, and a dreadful
noife under ground. The (hock was fo terrible, that
great numbers of houfes were overturned, and others
tofled to and fro like a fhip at fea. Thofe who hap¬
pened to be in their houfes were for the moft part bu¬
ried under their ruins : thofe who were walking in the
ftreets or in the fquares, were, by the violence of the
ftiock, dafhed againft each other, and moft of them ei¬
ther killed or dangeroufly wounded. This earthquake
continued, with fome fmall intermiflion, for many days
and nights j fo that vaft numbers periihed. The moft
violent ftiock, according to the A£ls of St Ignatius,
was on a Sunday, December 23. By this Trajan was
much hurt, but efcaped through a window. Dion Caf-
lius pretends, that he was taken out of the window by
one who exceeded the human fize in tallnefs. The
fame hiftorian adds, that Mount Lifon, which ftood at
a fmall diftance from the city, bowed its head and
threatened to fall down upon it : that other mountains
fell 5 that new rivers appeared, and others that had
flowed before forfook their courfe and vaniftied. When
the earthquake ceafed, a woman was heard crying un¬
der the ruins •, which being immediately removed, flie
was found with a living child in her arms. Search
was made for others; but none was found alive, except
one child which continued fucking its dead mother.
No doubt, Trajan, who was an eye-witnefs of this
terrible calamity, would contribute largely towards the
re-eftabliftiment of Antioch in its ancient fplendour. Its
good fortune, however, did not continue long ; for in
155> it was almoft entirely burnt by accidental fire ;
when it was again reftored by Antoninus Pius. In 176
or 177, the inhabitants having fided with Caflius, the
above-mentioned Roman general, who had revolted from
M. Aurelius, that emperor publiihed a fevere edift a-
gainft them, deprived them of all their privileges, fup-
prefifed their public affemblies, and took from them the
ftiows and fpeflacles to which they were greatly addict¬
ed : but his anger being foon appealed, he reftored
them to their former condition, and even condefcended
to vifit their city. In 194, having fided with Niger
againft Severus, the latter deprived them of all their
privileges, and fubjeCted Antioch as a mere village to
Laodicea 5 but, however, pardoned them the next year,
at the entreaties of his eldeft fon, then a child.
Vv hen the power of the Roman empire began to de¬
cline, Antioch became the bone of contention between
them and the eaftern nations ; and accordingly, on the
breaking out of a Perfian war, it was almoft always
fure to fuffer. In 242, it was taken and plundered by
Sapor ; and, though he was defeated by Gordian, it
underwent the fame misfortune in the time of Valerian
about 18 years after ; and after the defeat and capti¬
vity of Valerian, being taken by the Perfian monarch
a third time, he not only plundered it, but levelled
ail the public buildings with the ground. The Per-
51 1 ANT
fians, however, being loon driven out, this unfortunate Antioch,
city continued free trom any remarkable calamity till —
about the time of the divifion of the Roman empire by
Conftantine in 331. It was then affiiaed with fo grie¬
vous a famine, that a bufhel of wheat was fold for 400
pieces of filver. During this grievous diftrefs, Con¬
ftantine lent to the biftiop 30,000 bulhels of corn ; be-
fides an incredible quantity of all kinds of provifions,
to be diftributed among the ecclefiaftics, widows, or¬
phans, &c. In the year 347, Conftantine II. caufed
a harbour to be made at Seleucia, for the conve-
niency of Antioch. This was effeCled at an immenfc
ex pence ; the mouth of the Orontes, where the port
was made, being full of funds and rocks. When the
emperor Julian let out on his expedition againft the
Perfians, he made a long flay at Antioch 5 during
which time, many of the Roman provinces were af-
flifted with a famine, but which raged more violently
at Antioch than in other places. The ecclefiaftical
writers of thofe times fay, that this famine followed
Julian from place to place ; and as he co;itinued long¬
er at Antioch than any other city, it raged more vio¬
lently there than anywhere elfe. To remedy this evil,
Julian fixed the price of corn : by which means the
famine was greatly increafed, the merchants convey¬
ing their corn privately to other places, fo that this
metropolis was reduced to a moft deplorable fituation.
In 381, in the reign of Theodofius the Great, Antioch
was again vifited by a famine, accompanied by a grie¬
vous plague. The latter foon ceafed : but, the fa¬
mine ftill continuing, the bilhop, Libanius, applied to
Icarius, count of the Eaft, requefting him by fome
means or other to relieve the poor, who had flocked
from all parts to the metropolis, and were daily perilli¬
ng n great numbers ; but to this Icarius gave no'
other anfwer, than that they were abhorred and juftlr
punifhed by the gods. This inhuman anfwer raifed
great difturbances 5 which, however, were terminated
without bloodftied. In 387, Theodofius finding his
exchequer quite drained, and being obliged to be at an
extraordinary expence in celebrating the fifth year of
the reign of his fon Arcadius, and the tenth of his own,
an extraordinary tax was laid upon all the people in
the empire. Moft of the cities fubmitted willingly to
this : but the people of Antioch, complaining of it
as an unreafonable oppreflion, crowded to the houfe
ot Flavianus, their bifnop, as foon as the edift was
publifhed, to implore his prote&ion.. Being unable
to find him, they returned to the forum ; and would
have torn the governor in pieces, had not the officers
who attended him kept back with great difficulty the
enraged multitude, till he made his efcape. Upon this,,
they broke fome of the emperor’s ftatues, and dragged
others through the city, uttering the moft injurious and
abufive expreffions againft him and his whole family.
They were, however, difperfed by a body of archers,
who, by wounding only two of the rabble, ftruck ter¬
ror into all the reft. The governor proceeded againftr
the offenders with the utmoft cruelty. 5 expofing Tome
to wild beafts in the theatre, and burning others alive,
lie did not fpare even the children, who had infulted
the emperor’s ftatues ; and caufed feveral perfons to be
executed, who had been only fpecfators of the difor--
der. In the mean time a report was fpread, that a bo¬
dy oi troops, was at hand, with orders to plunder the
dt}>.
A N T _ [43
Antioch, city, and put all to the fword, without diltin&ion of
——v—► fex or ao-e j upon which the citizens abandoned their
dwellings in the utmoft terror and confufion, retiring
to the neighbouring mountains with their waves and
families. As the report proved groundlefs, fome of
them returned *, but the greater part dreading the
cruelty of the governor, and the difpleafure of the em¬
peror, continued in their retreats. To thoie who re¬
turned, St Chryfoftom preached fome homilies, which
have reached our times, and are greatly admired *, and
which are faid by St Chryfoftom himfelf, as well as
fome cotemporary writers, to have had a confiderable
effedft in reforming the lives of this licentious and dilTo-
lute people. On hearing the news of this tumult,
Theodofius wTas fo much enraged, that he commanded
the city to be deftroyed, and its inhabitants to be put
to the fword without diftin&ion •, but this order was
revoked before it could be put into execution, and he
contented himfelf with a puniftiment fimilar to that in-
flidfted by Severus above mentioned. He appointed
judges to punifti the offenders-, who proceeded with fuch
feventy, and condemned fuch numbers, that the city
was thrown into the utmoft confternation. On this
occaiion, St Chryfoftom and the hermits, who were
very numerous in the neighbouriiood, exerted all their
‘eloquence in behalf of the unhappy people, and ob¬
tained a refpite for thofe w-ho had been condemned.
They next proceeded to draw up a memorial to the
emperor in favour of the citizens in general ; and be¬
ing' joined by Flavianus, at laft obtained a general
pardon, and had the city reftored to all its former pri¬
vileges.
In the year 458, Antioch was almoft entirely ruined
by an earthquake, which happened on the 14th of Sep¬
tember , fcarce a {ingle houie being left {landing in the
moft beautiful quarter of the city. The like misfor¬
tune it experienced in 525, during the reign of the
emperor Juftin ; and in 15 years after, being taken by
Cofrhoes'king of Perfia, that infulting and haughty
monarch gave it up to his foldiers, who put all they
met to the fword. The king himfelf feized on all the
gold and lilver veffels belonging to the great church j
and caufed all the valuable ftatues, piftures, Sec. to be
taken down and conveyed to Perfia, wThile his foldiers
carried off every thing elfe. The city being thus com-
pletelv plundered, Cofrhoes ordered his men to fet
fire to it ; which w-as accordingly done io effectually,
that none of the buildings even without the w-alls
efcaped. Such of the inhabitants as efcaped {laughter
were carried into Perfia, and fold as flaves.
Notwithftanding fo many and fo great calamities,
the city of Antioch loon recovered its wmnted fplen-
dour ; but in a ftiort time underw-ent its ufual fate, be¬
ing almoft entirely deftroyed by an earthquake in 5^7j
by5which 30,000 perfons loft their dives. In 6^4, it
fell into the hands of the Saracens, who kept poffef-
fion of it till the year 858, when it was furprifed by
one Burtzas, and again annexed to the Roman empire.
The Romans continued matters of it for fome time,
till the civil diffentions in the empire gave the Turks
an opportunity of feizing upon it as well as the whole
kingdom of Syria. From them it was again taken by
the Crufaders in ioq8. In 1 262, it was again taken
by Bibaris fultan of Egypt, who put a final period to
its glory.
2 ] ANT-
Antioch is now no more than a ruinous town, whofe Antioch
houfes, built with mud and ftraw, and narrow and miry Anti|c}ljai
ftreets, exhibit every appearance of mifery and wretch- . .1^—.,
ednefs. Thefe houfes are fituated on the louthern
bank of the Orontes, at the extremity of an old decay¬
ed bridge : they are covered to the fouth by a moun¬
tain •, upon the Hope of which is a wall, built by the
Crufaders. The diftance between the prefent town
and this mountain may be about 400 yards, which
fpace is occupied by gardens and heaps of rubbiih, but
prefents nothing interefting.
Notwithftanding the unpoliftred manners of its inha¬
bitants, Antioch was better calculated than Aleppo to
be the emporium of the Europeans. By clearing the
mouth of the Orontes, which is fix leagues lower down,
boats might have been towed up that river, though
they could not have failed up, as Pococke has afterted j
its current being too rapid. The natives, who never
knew the name Orontes, call it, on account of t^e
fwiftnefs of its ftream, E/-aq/t, that is, the rebel. Its
breadth, at Antioch, is about forty paces. Seven
leagues above that town it pailes by a lake abounding
in fifh, and efpecially in eels. A great quantity of
thefe are faked every year, but not lufficient for the
numerous falls of the Greek Chriftians. It is to be^
remembered, we no longer hear at Antioch, either of
the Grove, or Daphne, or of the voluptuous feenes of
which it was the theatre.
The plain of Antioch, though the foil of it^ is ex¬
cellent, is uncultivated, and abandoned to the Turco¬
mans •, but the hills on the fide of the Orontes, parti¬
cularly oppofite Serkin, abound in plantations of figs
and olives, vines, and mulberry trees, which, a thing
uncommon in Turkey, are planted in quincunx, and
exhibit a landfcape worthy our fineft provinces..
Seleucus Nicator, who founded Antioch, built a. o
at the mouth of the Orontes, on the northern bank, a
large and well fortified city, which bore his name, but
of which at prefent not a fingle habitation remains j
nothing is to be feen but heaps of rubbifti, and works
in the adjacent rock, which prove that this was once a
place of very confiderable importance. In the fea alio
may be perceived the traces or two piers, which are in¬
dications of an ancient port, now choked up. The
inhabitants of the country go thither to fifh, and call
the name of the place Souaidia.
ANTIOCH ETTA, a town of Turkey in Afia, in
Caramania, with a bilhop’s fee, over againft the ifland
of Cyprus. E. Long. 32. 15. N. Lat. 36. 42.
ANTIOCHIA, in Ancient Geography, * town of
Affyria, fituated between the rivers Tigris and Tor-
nadotus (Pliny).—Another of Caria, on the Meander *,
called alfo Pythopolis, Athymbra, and Ayjfa, or byfn
(Stephanus): but Strabo fays, that Nyia^ was near
Tralles. A third of Cilicia Trachea, on Mount Cra-
gus (Ptolemy).—A fourth, called Epidaphnes, the ca¬
pital of Syria, diftinguiftred from cities of the fame
name, either by its fituation on the Orontes, by which
it was divided, or by its proximity to Daphne (See
Antioch).—A fifth Antiochia, a town of Comagene,
on the Euphrates (Pliny).—A fixth of Lydia Tralles,
fo called (Pliny).—A feventb, of Margiana (Strabo,
Plinv, Ptolemy), on the river Margus, taking its
name from Antiochus, fon of Seleucus, who rebuilt it,
and walled it round, being before called Alexandria,
from
ANT [ 433 j ANT
A-ntiodrian from Alexander the founder, and furnamed Syria 5 in
I! compafs feventy ftadia j whither Orodes carried the Ro-
Aniipf-n’ rnans^ aft-er r’lc defeat of Craffns (Pliny).—An eighth,
in Mefopotamia, on the lake Calirrhoe, the old name
of Edelfa (Pliny).— A ninth Antiochia, on the river
Mygdonius, in Mefopotamia, fituated at the foot of
Mount Maiius, and is the fame with Nifibis (Strabo,
Plutarch). It was the bulwark and frontier town of
the Romans againit the Parthians and Perfians, till
given up to the Perlians, by Jovinian, by an ignomini¬
ous peace (Ammian, Eutropius).—A tenth Antiochia,
was that fituated in the north of Pifidia (Luke, Pto¬
lemy, Strabo) : is was a Roman colony, with the ap¬
pellation Cccfarea. There is an Antiochia at Mount
7 aurus, mentioned by Ptolemy, but by no other au¬
thor.
ANTIOCHIAN SECT or Academy, a name given
to the fifth academy, or branch of Academies. It took
the denomination from its being founded by Antiochus,
a philofopher contemporary with Cicero.—The Antio¬
chian academy fucceeded the Philonian. As to point
of doftrine, the philofophers of this feft appear to
have reftored that of the ancient academy, except that
in the article of the criterion of truth. Antiochus was
really a Stoic, and only nominally an Academic.
Antiochian Ep&cha, a method of computing time
. from the proclamation of liberty granted the city of
Antioch about the time of the battle of Pharfalia.
ANTIOCHUS, the name of feveral kings of Sy¬
ria. See that article.
Antiochus oi Afcalon, a celebrated philofopher,'
the difciple of Philo of Lariffa, the mailer of Cicero,
and the friend of Lucullus and Brutus. He wras found¬
er of a fifth academy : but, inllead of attacking other
fe£!s, he fet himfelf down to reconcile them together,
particularly the fe£l of the Stoics with that of the an¬
cient academy.
AN FIOPE, in Fabulous Hi/lory, the wife of Licus,
king of Thebes, who, being deflowered by Jupiter in
the form of a fatyr, brought forth Amphion and Ze-
thus.—Another Antiope was queen of the Amazons ;
and, with the afliftance of the Scythians, invaded the
Athenians •, but was vanquilhed by Thefeus.
ANTI PiEDOBAPTI STS, (derived from *m,
again/}, ttxis, child, and hapti%e, whence
/Zx7rTi<TT7is), is a ditlinguilhing denomination given to
thofe who obje£t to the baptifm of infants ; becaufe
they fay infants are incapable of being inftrufled, and
of making that profeflion of faith which entitles them
to this ordinance, and an admiflion into church com¬
munion. See Anabaptists and Baptists.
ANTIPAROS, an ifland in the Archipelago, op-
pofite to Paros, from which it is feparated by a {trait
about feven miles over. It is the Olearos or Oliaros,
mentioned by Strabo, Pliny, Virgil, Ovid, &c. ; and
was, according to Heraclides Ponticus as quoted by
Stephanus, firft peopled by a Phosnician colony from
Sidon.—According to Mr Tournefort’s account, it is
about 16 miles in circumference, produces a little wine
and cotton, with as much corn as is neceffary for the
maintenance of 60 or 70 families, who live together in
a village at one end of the ifland, and are moitly Mal-
tefe and French corfairs.
This ifland is remarkable for a fubterraneous cavern
or grotto, accounted one of the greateft natural curio-
Vol. II Part II.
fities in the world. It was firll difcovered in the lalt Ar.tp.wos.
century by one Magni an Italian traveller, who has given
us the following account : “ Having been informed
(fays he) by the natives of Paros, that in the little
ifland of Antiparos, which lies about two miles from
the former, of a gigantic ftatue that was to be feen at
the mouth of a cavern in that place, it was refolved that
we (the French conful and himfelf) Ihould pay it a vi-
fit. In purfuance of this refolution, after we had land¬
ed 01a the ifland, and walked about four miles through
the midft of beautiful plains and Hoping woodlands,
we at length came to a little hill, in the fide of which
yawned a moll horrid cavern, that, with its gloom, at
firll ftruck us with terror, and almoft repreffed curiofi-
ty. Recovering me firfl: furprife, however, we entered
boldly ; and had not proceeded above 20 paces, when
the fuppofed ftatue of the giant prefented itfelf to our
view. We quickly perceived, that what the ignorant
natives had been terrified at as a giant, was nothing
more than a fparry concretion, formed by the water
dropping from the roof of the cave, and by degrees
hardening into a figure that their fears had formed in¬
to a monfter. Incited by this extraordinary appear¬
ance, we were induced to proceed ftill further, in quell
of new adventures in this fubterranean abode. As we
proceeded, new wonders offered themfelves ; the fpars,
formed into trees and Ihrubs, prefented a kind of pe¬
trified grove j fome white, fome green 5 and all reced¬
ing in due perfpe&ive. They ftruck us with the
more amazement, as we knew them to be mere produc¬
tions of Nature, who, hitherto in folitude, had, in her
playful moments, dreffed the feene as if for her own
amufement.
“ But we had as yet feen but a few of the wonders
of the place, and wTe were introduced as yet only into
the portico of this amazing temple. In one corner of
this half illuminated recefs, there appeared an opening
of about three feet wide, which feemed to lead to a
place totally dark, and that one of the natives allured
us contained nothing more than a refervoir of water.
Upon this we tried, by throwing down fome ftones,
which rumbling along the Tides of the defeent for fome
time, the found feemed at laft qualhed in a bed of wa¬
ter. In order, however, to be more certain, we Tent
in a Levantine mariner, who, by the promife of a good
reward, with a flambeau in his hand, ventured into this
narrow aperture. After continuing within it for about
a quarter of an hour, he returned, carrying fome beau¬
tiful pieces of white fpar in his hand, which art could
neither imitate nor equal. Upon being informed by
him that the place was full of thefe beautiful incrufta-
tions, I ventured in once more with him, for about 50
paces, anxioufly and cautioufly defeending by a fteep
and dangerous way. Finding, however, that we came
to a precipice which led into a fpacious amphitheatre,
if I may fo call it, ftill deeper than any other part, w'e
returned j and being provided with a ladder, flambeaux,
and other things, to expedite our defeent, our whole
company, man by man, ventured into the fame open¬
ing, and, defeending one after another, we at laft faw
ourfelves all together in the moll magnificent part of
the cavern.
“ Our candles being now all lighted up, and the
whole place completely illuminated, never could the eye
be prelented with a more glittering or a more magnifi-
3 I cent
ANT
Antiparos. cent fcene. The roof all hung with {olid icicles, tranf-
parent as glafs, yet folid as marble. The eye could
fcarce reach the lofty and noble cieling 5 the fides were
regularly formed with fpars •, and the whole prefented
* the idea of a magnificent theatre, illuminated with an
immenfe profufion of lights. The floor confifted of ib-
lid marble } and in feveral places, magnificent columns,
thrones, altars, and other objefts, appeared, as if nature
had defigned to mock the curiofities of art. Our voices,
upon fpeaking or finging, were redoubled to an afto-
nifliing loudnefs; and, upon the firing of a gun, the
noife and reverberations were almofl: deafening. In the
midfl: of this grand amphitheatre rofe a concretion of
about 15 feet high, that, in fome meafure, refembled
an altar", from which, taking the hint, we caufed mafs
to be celebrated there. The beautiful columns that
fhot up round the altar, appeared like candlefticks •, and
many other natural objefls reprefented the cuftomary
ornaments of this facrament.
“ Below even this fpacious grotto, there feemed an¬
other cavern *, down which I ventured with my former
mariner, and defcended about 50 paces by means of a
rope. I at lart arrived at a fmall fpot of level ground,
where the bottom appeared different from that of the
amphitheatre, being compofed of foft clay, yielding to
the preffure, and in which I thruft a flick to about fix
feet deep. In this, however, as above, numbers of the
moft beautiful cryftals were formed •, one of which,
particularly refembled a table. Upon our egrefs from
this amazing cavern, we perceived a Greek infcription
upon a rock at the mouth 5 but fo obliterated by time,
that we could not read it. It feemed to import, that
one Antipater, in the time of Alexander, had come thi¬
ther ; but whether he penetrated into the depths of the
cavern, he does not think fit to inform us.”
From this account Mr Tournefort’s differs confider-
ably. Mr Magni mentions only one defcent or pre¬
cipice from the entry of the cave to the grotto, or
moff magnificent part ; Mr Tournefort fays that there
were many very dangerous precipices and rugged ways,
through which they were obliged to pafs fometimes on
their back, and fometimes on their belly ; but gives no
particular account of his journey till he come to the
grand cavern. This indeed he defcribes very pompouf-
ly ; but as by it he evidently wants to fupport a favour¬
ite hypothefis, namely, the vegetation of ftones, per¬
haps the particulars are not altogether to be depended
upon. He, informs us, that, at the entry into the ca¬
vern, he met with a Greek infcription almoft effaced,
containing a good number of proper names *, and that
there was a tradition among the inhabitants, that thefe
v»Tere the names of fome who had confpired againft Alex¬
ander the Great, and having miffed their aim, had ta¬
ken refuge in this grotto.
The moft particular account, however, of this fa¬
mous grotto that hath hitherto been publiflied, appear¬
ed in the Britifli Magazine, in a letter figned Charles
Saunders, and dated Feb. 24. 1746-7 •, which, as it
is very particular, and feems to bear fufficient marks of
authenticity, we (hall here infert. “ Its entrance lies
in the fide of a rock, about two miles from the fea-
ihore } and is a fpacious and very large arch, formed
of rough craggy rocks, overhung with brambles and
a great many climbing plants, that give it a gloomi-
nefs which is very awful and agreeable. Our furgeon,
[ 434 1
ANT
myfelf, and four paffengers, attended by fix guides Antiparo*..
with lighted torches, entered this cavern about eight ' * 1 '
o’clock in the morning, in the middle of Auguft laft.
We had not gone 20 yards in this cavity wrhen we loft
all fight of day light: but our guides going before us
with lights, we entered into a low narrow kind of al¬
ley, furrounded ever way with ftones all glittering like
diamonds by the light of our torches ; the whole be¬
ing covered and lined throughout with fmall cryftals,
which gave a thoufand various colours by their different
refieftions. This alley grows lower and narrower as
one goes on, till at length one can fcarce get along it.
At the end of this paffage we were each of us prefent¬
ed wuth a rope, to tie about our middles ; which when
we had done, our guides led us to the brink of a moft
horrible precipice. The defcent into this was quite
fteep, and the place all dark and gloomy. We could
fee nothing, in fhort, but fome of our guides with
torches in a miferable dark place, at a vaft diftance be¬
low’ us. The dreadful depth of this place, and the hor¬
ror of the defcent through a miferable darknefs into it,
made me look back to the lane of diamonds, if I may
fo call it, through which we had juft palled ; and I could
not but think I was leaving heaven, to defeend into the
infernal regions. The hope of fomething fine at my
journey’s end tempted me, however, to truft myfelf
to the rope and my guides at the top, to let myfelf
down. After about txvo minutes dangling in this pof-
ture, not without much pain as well as terror, I
found myfelf fafe, however, at the bottom; and our
friends all foon followed the example. When we had
congratulated here with one another on our fafe de¬
fcent ; I was inquiring where the grotto, as they call¬
ed it, was. Our guides, {baking their heads, told us,
we had a great way to that yet j and led us forward
about 30 yards under a roof of ragged rocks, in a
fcene of terrible darknefs, and at a vaft depth from the
furface of the earth, to the brink of another precipice
much deeper and more terrible than the former. Two
of the guides went down here with their torches firft ;
and by their light we could fee, that this paffage was
not fo perpendicular indeed as the other, but lay in a
very fteep flant, with a very flippery rock for the bot¬
tom •, vaft pieces of rough rugged rocks jutting out in
many places on the right hand, in the defcent, and for¬
cing the guides fometimes to climb over, fometimes to
creep under them, and fometimes to round them ; and
on the left, a thoufand dark caverns, like fo many monf-
trous wells, ready, if a foot fhould flip, to fwallow them
up for ever. We flood on the edge to fee thefe people
with their lights defeend before us; and were amazed
and terrified to fee them continue defeending till they
feemed at a menftrous and moll frightful depth. When
they were at the bottom, however, they hollaed to
us ; and we, trembling and quaking, began to defeend
after them. We had not gone 30 feet down, when we
came to a place where the rock was perfectly perpendi¬
cular ; and a vaft cavern feemed to open its mouth to
fwallow us up on one fide, while a wall of rygged
rock threatened to tear us to pieces on the other. I
was quite dilheartened at this terrible profpefl, and de¬
clared I would go back ; but our guides affured us
there was no danger ; and the reft of the company re-
folving to fee the bottom now they tvere come fo far, I
would not leave them : fo on we went to a corner w here
there
ANT [ 435 ] ANT
Autiparos. there was placed an old fllppery and rotten ladder,
which hung down clofe to the rock } and down this,
one after another, we at length all defcended. When
we had got to the bottom of this we found ourfelyes at
the entrance of another paBTage, which was terrible
enough indeed j but in this there was not wanting fome-
thing of beauty. This was a wide and gradual de-
fcent at the entrance of which one of our guides feat-
ed himfclf on his breech, and began to ilide down,
telling us wre rr.ult do the fame. We could difeover, by
the light of his torch, that this paflage wTas one of the
nobleft vaults in the world. It is about nine feet high,
feven wide, and as for its bottom a fine green gloffy
marble. The walls and arch of the roof of this being
as fmooth and even in moll places as if wrought by
art, and made of a fine glittering red and white gra¬
nite, fupported here and there with columns of a deep
blood-red ihining porphyry, made, with the reflection
of the lights, an appearance not to be conceived. This
paffage is at lead 40 yards long j and of fo deep a de-
i'cent, that one has enough to do, when feated on one’s
breech, not to defeend too quickly. Our guides, that wre
kept writh us, could here keep on each fide of us ; and,
what wuth the prodigious grandeur and beauty of the
place, our eafy travelling through it, and the diverfion
of our now and then running over one another whether
we would or not ; this was much the pleafanteft part of
our journey. Wheit we had entered this paffage, I
imagined we Ihould at the bottom join the two guides
we had firfl; fet down ; but alas ! when we were got
there we found ourfelves only at the mouth of ano¬
ther precipice, down which we defcended by a fecond
ladder not much better than the former. I could have
admired this place alfo, would my terror have fuftered
me ; but the dread of falling, kept all my thoughts
employed during my defeent. I could not but obferve,
however, as my companions were coming down after
me, that the wall, if I may fo call it, which the lad¬
der hung by, was one mafs of blood-red marble, co¬
vered with white fprigs of rock cryffal as long as my
finger, and making, with the glow of the purple from
behind, one continued immenfe flieet of amethyfts.
From the foot of this ladder we Aided on our bellies
through another {hallow vault of polifhed green and
white marble, about 20 feet: and at the bottom of this
joined our guides. Here we all got together once
again, and drank fome rum, to give us courage before
we proceeded any farther. After this fhort refrelh-
ment, we proceeded by a ftrait, but fomewhat flanting
paffage, of a rough, hard, and fomewhat coarfe ftone,
full of a thoufand rtrange figures of fnakes rolled round,
and looking as if alive ; but in reality as cold and hard
as the reft of the ftone, and nothing but fome of the
ftone itfelf in that fhape. We walked pretty eafily a-
long this defeent for near 200 yards ; where we faw
two pillars feemingly made to fupport the roof from
falling in ; but in reality it was no fuch thing ; for they
were very brittle, and made of a fine glittering yellow
marble. When we had paffed thefe about 200 yards,
we found ourfelves at the brink of another very terrible
precipice : but this our guides affured us was the laft ;
and there being a very good ladder to go down by, we
readily ventured. At the bottom of this fteep wall, as
I may call it, we found ourfelves for fome way upon
plain even ground j but, after about 40 yards walking,
were prefented by our guides with ropes again j which
we faftened about our middles, though not to be fwung
down by, but only for fear of danger, as there are lakes
and deep waters all the way from hence on the left hand.
With this caution, however, we entered the laft alley :
and horrible work it was indeed to get through it. All
was perfeSly horrid and difmal here. The Ikies and
roof of the paffage were all of black ftone j and the
rocks in our way were in fome places fo fteep, that we
were forced to lie all along on our backs, and Hide
down $ and fo rough, that they cut our clothes, and
bruifed us miferably in palling. Over our heads, there
was nothing but ragged black rocks, fome of them
looking as if they were every moment ready to fall in
upon us *, and, on our left hands, the light of our guides
torches ftiowed us continually the furfaces of dirty and
miferably looking lakes of water. If I had heartily
repented of my expedition often before, here I affure
you I was all in a cold fweat, and fairly gave myfelff
over for loft 5 heartily curling all the travellers that had
written of this place, that they had deferibed it fo as
to tempt people to fee it, and never told us of the hor¬
rors that lay in the way. In the midft of all thefe re¬
flexions, and in the very difmalleft part of all the ca¬
vern, on a fudden we had loft four of our ftx guides.
What was my terror on this fight ! The place was £
thoufand times darker and more terrible for want of
their torches 5 and I expeded no other but every mo¬
ment to follow them into fome of thefe lakes, into
which I doubted not but they were fallen. The remain¬
ing two guides faid all they could indeed, to cheer us
up ; and told us we Ihould fee the other four again
foon, and that we were near the end of our journey. I
do not know what effeX this might have upon the reft;
of my companions ; but I affure you I believed no part
of the fpeech but the laft, which I expeXed every mo¬
ment to find fulfilled in fome pond or precipice. Our
paffage was by this time become very narrow, and we
were obliged to crawl on all-fours over rugged rocks j
when in an inftant, and in the midft of thefe melancho¬
ly apprehenlions, I heard a little hilling noife, and faw
myfelf in utter, and not to be deferibed, darknefs. Our
guides called indeed cheerfully to us, and told us that
they had accidentally dropped their torches into a pud¬
dle of water, but we Ihould foon come to the reft of
them, and they would light them again ; and told us
there was no danger, and we had nothing to do but
to crawl forward. I cannot fay but I was amazed at
the courage of thefe people j who were iiv^a place where,
I thought, four of them had already perilhed, and
from whence we could none of us ever efcape ; and de¬
termined to lie down and die where I was. Words can¬
not deferibe the horror, or the extreme darknefs of the
place. One of our guides, however, perceiving that I
did not advance, came up to me, and clapping his hand
firmly over my eyes, dragged me a few paces forward.
While I was in this ftrange condition, expeXing every
moment death in a thoufand lhapes, and trembling to
think what the guide meant by this rough proceeding,
he lifted me at once over a great ftone, fet me down 011
my feet, and took his hand from before my eyes. What
words can deferibe at that inftant my aftonifliment and
tranfport! Inftetd of darknefs and defpair, all was
fplendour and magnificence before me : our guides all
appeared about us: the place was illuminated by 50
4 I 2 torches,
Antipara'.
ANT t 436 ] ANT
Antiparos. torches, and the guides all welcomed me into the gro-
v to of Antiparos. The four that were firfl: miffing, I
now found had only given us the Hip, to get the torches
lighted up before we came ; and the other two had put
out their lights on purpofe, to make us enter out of ut¬
ter darknefs into this pavilion of fplendour and glory.
I am now come to the proper bufmefs of this letter :
which was to deferibe this grotto. But I mufl confefs
to you that words cannot do it. The amazing beau¬
ties of the place, the eye that fees them only can con¬
ceive. The belt account I can give you, however,
pray accept of.
“ The people told us, the depth of this place was 485
yards, the grotto, in which we now were, is a cavern
of 120 yards wide, and 113 long, and feems about 60
yards high in moft places. Thefe meafures differ fome-
thing from the accounts travellers in general give us j
but you may depend upon them as exa£l, for I took
them with my own hand. Imagine then with your-
felf, an immenfe arch like this, almoft all over lined
with fine and bright cryftallized white marble, and
illuminated with 50 torches 5 and you will then have
fome faint idea of the place I had the pleafure to fpend
three hours in. This, however, is but a faint deferip-
tion of its beauties. The roof, which is a fine vaulted
arch, is hung all over with icicles of uffiite fhining mar¬
ble, fome of them ten feet long, and as thick as one’s
middle at the roof, and among thefe hang a thoufand
feftoons of leaves and flowers, of the fame fubftance ;
but fo very glittering, that there is no bearing to look
up at them. The fides of the arch are planted with
feeming trees of the fame white marble, riling in row's
one above another, and often enclofing the points of
the icicles. From thefe trees there are alfo hung fe.
ftoons, tied as it were from one to another in vaft
quantities ; and in fome places among them there feem
rivers of marble winding through them in a thoufand
meanders. All thefe things are only made, in a long
courfe of years, from the dropping of w ater, but really
look like trees and brooks turned to marble. The
floor wre trod upon was rough and uneven, with cry-
ftals of all colours growung irregularly out of it, red,
blue, green, and fome of a pale yellow. Thefe wrere
all lhaped like pieces of faltpetre ; but fo hard, that
they cut our fhoes: among thefe, here and there, are
placed icicles of the fame white Ihining marble w'ith thofe
above, and feeming to have fallen down from the roof
and fixed there; only the big end of thefe is to the floor.
To all thefe our guides had tied torches, two or three
to a pillar, and kept continually beating them to make
them burn bright. You may guefs wffiat a glare of
fplendour and beauty mull be the effeft of this illumina¬
tion, among fuch rocks and columns of marble. All
round the lower part of the fides of the arch are a thou¬
fand white maffes of marble, in the Ihape of oak trees.
Mr Tournefort compares them to cauliflowers, but I
fliould as foon compare them to toadftools. In fhort,
they are large enough to enclofe, in many places, a
piece of ground big enough for a bedchamber. One of
thefe chambers has a fair white curtain, whiter than
fatin, of the fame marble,- ftretched all over the front
of it. In this we all cut our names, and the date of
the year, as a great many people have done before us.
In a courfe of years afterwards, the Hone blifters out
like this white marble over the letters. Mr Tourne¬
fort thinks the rock grows like oaks or apple trees for
this reafon j but I remember I' faw fome of the finefl;
cockle and mufcle Ihells, in the rock thereabouts, that
ever I faw in my life. I winder wdrether he thinks
they grow there too. Befides, if this rock grows fo
faff, the cavern ought to be all growm up by this time ;
and yet, according to his meafures and mine, the ca¬
vern feems on the other hand to be turned larger fince.
Indeed, all that I can gather from his account of this
glorious place is, that he had drank a bottle or two too
much before he went down into it.”
ANTIPAS herod, or Heroo-Antipas, the fon
of Herod the Great, by one of his wives called Cleo¬
patra, a native of Jerufalem. Herod the Great, in
his firfl: will, appointed Antipas his fucceffor in the
kingdom ; but afterwards, altering that will, he named
his fon Archelaus his fucceffor, giving to Antipas the
title only of tetrarch of Galilee and Peraea.
Antipas took a great deal of pains in adorning and
fortifying the principal places of his dominions. He
married the daughter of Aretas king of Arabia ; whom
he divorced about the year of Chrift 33, to marry his
filler-in-law Herodias, wife to his brother Philip, who
was Hill living. St John the Baptift exclaiming con¬
tinually again!! this inceft, w'as taken into cuftody by
order of Antipas, and imprifoned in the caftle of Ma-
chaerus, (Mat. xiv. 3, 4. Mark i. 14. vi. 17, 18.
Luke iii. 19, 20.) Jofephus fays, that Antipas caufed
St John to be laid hold of, becaufe he drew too great a
concourfe of people after him •, and that he was afraid
left he fhould make ufe of the authority which he had
acquired over the minds and affedlions of the people,
to induce them to revolt. But the evangelifts, who
were better informed than Jofephus, as being eye-wit-
neffes of w:hat palled, and acquainted in a particular
manner w’ith St John and his difciples, allures us that
the true reafon ol imprifoning St John was, the averfion
which Herod and Herodias had conceived again!! him
for the liberty he had ufed in cenfuring their fcandal-
ous marriage. The virtue and holinefs of St John were
fuch that even Herod feared and refpefted him 5 but
his paffion for Herodias had prevailed w ith him to have
killed that prophet, had he not been reftrained by his
apprehenfions of the people, who efteemed John the
Baptift as a prophet. (Mat. xiv. 5, 6.) One day,
however, while the king was celebrating the feftival of
his birth, with the principal perfons of his court, the
daughter of Herodias danced before him ; and pleafed
him fo well, that he promifed with an oath to give her
whatever Ihe Ihould alk of him. By her mother’s ad¬
vice fire afked the head of John the Baptift : upon
which the king commanded John to be beheaded in
prifon, and the head to be given her. Aretas, king
of Arabia, to revenge the affront which Herod had
offered to his daughter, declared war again!! him, and
overcame him in a very obliinate engagement. Herod
being afterwards detected as a party in Sejanus’s con-
fpiracy, was banilhed by the emperor Cains to Lyons
in Gaul ; whither Herodias accompanied him.
This Antipas is the Herod who, being at Jerufalem
at the time of our Saviour’s paffion (Luke xxiii. 11.),
ridiculed him, by dreffing him in a white robe, and di-
recling him to be conduced back to Pilate, as a mock
king, whofe ambition gave him no umbrage. The
time when Antipas died is- not known : however, it is
certain
Antipa?.
ANT [ 437 ] ANT
Antipater, certain lie died in exile, as well as Herodias. Jofe-
Antipath*. phus Tays, that he died in Spain, whither Cains upon
*' v his coming to Gaul, the firft year of his banifhment,
might order him to be fent.
ANTIPATER, the difciple of Ariftotle, and one
of Alexander the Great’s generals, was a man of great
abilities, and a lover of the fciences ; but was accufed
of poifoning Alexander. He fubdued the revolted
Thracians, relieved Megalopolis, and overthrew the
Spartans there. He died 321 years before the Chrif-
tian era.
Antipater, an Idumean of illufirious birth, and
polfelfed of great riches and abilities, taking advantage
of the confufion into which the two brothers Hyrcanus
and Ariftobulus plunged Judea by their conteft for
the office of high prieft, took fuch meafures as to gain
Hyrcanus that office, and under his government to
obtain the abfolute direftion of all affairs ; while his
great abilities and application to bufmefs made him fo
conliderable, that he was honoured as much as if he
had been invefted with the royal authority in form :
but he was at laft poifoned by a Jew, named Mala-
chus, 43 years before the Chriftian era. He left
among his other children, the famous Herod king of
the Jews.
Anti pater, C<e/ius, a Roman hlftorian, who wrote
a hiflory of the Punic w’ar, much valued by Cicero.
The emperor Adrian preferred him to Salluft.
Antipater of Sidon, a Stoic philofopher, and like-
wife a poet, commended by Cicero and Seneca : he
flouriffied about the 171ft Olympiad. We have feveral
of his epigrams in the Anthologia.
ANTIPATHY, in Phyjiology, is formed from the
two Greek words am contrary, and TraOsj pajjion. Li¬
terally taken, the word fignifies incompatibility: but for
the moft part the term antipathy is not ufed to fignify
fuch incompatibilities as are merely phyfical \ it is re-
ferved to exprefs the averfion which an animated or
fenfitive being feels at the real or ideal prefence of par¬
ticular objefts. In this point of view, which is the
light in which we at prefent confider the term, antipa¬
thy, in common language, ftgnifies “ a natural hor¬
ror and deteftation, an infuperable hatred, an invo¬
luntary averfion, which a fenfitive being feels for feme
other objedl, whatever it is, though the perfon who
feels this abhorrence is entirely ignorant of its caufe,
and can by no means account for it. Such is, they
fay, the natural and reciprocal hoftility between the fa-
lamander and the tortoife ; between the toad and the
wealel ; or between fheep and wolves. Such is the in¬
vincible averfion of particular perfons againft cats,
mice, fpiders, &c. j a prepoffeffion which is fometimes
fo violent, as to make them faint at the fight of thefe
animals. Of thefe and a thoufand other antipathies
the ancient naturalifts, the fchoolmen, and the vul¬
gar, form fo many legends 5 and relate them as cer¬
tain fadts, that they may demand an explication of
them from the philofophers. But thefe fages begin
with inveftigating whether fuch antipathies adlually
exift or not.
To explore the matter without prejudice, we ffiall
find it neceffary to abftradl from the fubjedls of this
difquifition, 1. All fuch antipathies as are not afeer-
tained ; as that which is fuppofed to be felt by hens
at the found of an harp whofe firings are made of a
fox’s bowels, between the falamander and tortoife, and Antipatlv .
between the weafel and the toad. Nothing is lefs con- ^
firmed, or rather nothing is more falfe, than thefe
fadls, with which vulgar credulity and aftoniihment
are amufed and aftuated : and though feme of thefe
antipathies fhould be afeertained, this would be no
proof that the animals which feel them are not ac¬
quainted with their caufes, according to their mode and
proportion of knowledge j in which cafe it will be
no longer the antipathy which we have defined.
2. We muft abftraH thofe antipathies which can be
extinguifhed or refumed at pleafure j thofe fidlitious
averfions, which certain perfons feel, or pretend to feel,
with affefled airs, that they may appear more precife
and finical, or fingularly and prodigioufly elegant 5
that they may feem to have qualities fo exquifitely fine,
as require to be treated with peculiar delicacy. One
who bellows any attention on the fubjeft, would be
aftor.ifhed to find how many of thefe chimerical aver¬
fions there are, which are pretended, and paffed upon
the world by thofe who affe£l them as natural and un¬
conquerable.
3. When we abftrafl thofe averfions the caufes of
which are known and evident; we lhall be furprifed
after our dedudlion of thefe pretended antipathies from
the general fum, how fmall, how inconfidefable, is the
quantity of thofe which are conformable to our defini¬
tion. Will any one pretend to call by the name of an¬
tipathy, thofe real, innate, and incontellable averfions
wffiich prevail between fheep and wolves ? Their caufe
is obvious ; the wolf devours the ffieep, and fubfifts up¬
on his viflims j and every animal naturally flies, with
terror from pain or deftrudlion ; fheep ought therefore
to regard wolves with horror, which for their nutrition
tear and mangle the unrefifting prey. From principles
fimilar to this, arifes that averfion which numbers of
people feel againft ferpents 5 againft fmall animals, fuch
as reptiles in general, and the greateft number of in¬
fers. During the credulous and fufceptible period of
infancy, pains have been taken to imprefs on our minds
the frightful idea that they are venomous ; that their
bite is mortal •, that their fling is dangerous, produc¬
tive of tormenting inflammations or tumours, and
fornetimes fatal : they have been reprefented to us as
ugly and fordid ; as being, for that reafon, pernicious
to thofe who touch them ; as poifoning thofe who
have the misfortune to fwallow them. Thefe horrible
prepoffeflions are induftrioufly inculcated from our in¬
fancy ; they are fometimes attended and fupported by
difmal tales, which are greedily imbibed, and indeliblv
engraven on our memories. It has been taught us
both by precept and example, when others at their
approach have affumed in our view the appearance of
deteftation and even of terror, that we fhould flv from
them, that we ftiduld not touch them. Is it then won¬
derful (if our falfe impreffions as to this fubjecl have
been correfled neither by future reflefHons nor expe¬
riments), that we fhould entertain, during our whole
lives, an averfion for thefe objeffs, even when we
have forgot the admonitions, the converfations, and
examples, which have taught us to believe and appre¬
hend them as noxious beings ? and in proportion to the
fenfibility of our frame, in proportion as our nerves
are irritable, our emotions at the fight of rvhat we
fear will be more violent, efpecially if they anticipate.
our,
ANT [ 438 ] ANT
Antipathy, our expe&atlon, and feize us unprepared, though our
v " ideas of what we have to fear from them are the moif
confufed and indiifincf imaginable. To explain thde
fads, is it neceflary to fiy to the exploded fubterfuge
of occult qualities inherent in bodies, to latent relations
produftive of antipathies, of which no perfon could
ever form an idea ?
It is often fuihcient to influence a perfon who had
formerly no averfion for an object, if he lives with fome
other alTociate who gives himfelf up to fuch capricious
panics ; the habit is infenfibly contracted to be agitated
with difagreeable emotions at the prefence of an ob-
je£t which had been formerly beheld with indifference
and cold blood. I was acquainted (fays the author
of the article Antipathy in the French Encyclopedic)
with a perfon of a very found underftanding, whom
thunder and lightning by no means terrified •, nay,
to whom the fpeCtacle appeared magnificent and the
found majeltic : yet to a mind thus feemingly fortified
againft the infeCtious terror, no more was necefiary
than fpending the fummer with a friend in whom the
appearance of lightning excited the ftrongert emotions,
and whom the remoteit clap of thunder affeCled with
extravagant paroxyfms, to become timid in excefs at
the approach of thunder j nor could he ever afterwards
furmount the fear which it infpired. The frightful
dories of dogs and cats, which have killed their mailers,
or which have given them mortal wounds, are more
than fufficient to infpire a timorous perfon with aver¬
fion againft thefe animals $ and if the olfaftory nerves
of fuch a perfon be delicate, he will immediately dif-
cover the fmell of them in a chamber : difturbed by the
apprehenfion which thefe effluvia excite in his mind,
he gives himfelf up to the moft violent uneafinefs, which
is tranquillized when he is affured that the animal is no
longer in the room. If by chance, in the fearch which
is made to calm the uneafinefs of this timorous per¬
fon, one of thefe creatures ihould at laft be difcovered,
every one prefently exclaims, A miracle : and admits
the reality of antipathies into his cieed; whilft all this
is nothing but the effect of a childiih fear, founded
on certain confufed and exaggerated ideas of the ha¬
zard which one may run with theie animals. The anti¬
pathy which fome people entertain againrt eels, though
they are eaten by others with pleafure, arifes from no¬
thing but the fear of ferpents, to which thefe fifties are
in fome degree fimilar. There are likewife other anti¬
pathies which do not originate in the imagination, but
arife from fome natural incongruity •, fuch as we often
remark in children, for particular kinds of vi£tuals,
with which their tafte is not offended, but which their
ftomachs cannot digeft, and which are therefore dif-
gorged as foon as fwallowed.
To what then are thofe antipathies, of which we have
heard fo much, reducible ? Either to legendary tales ;
or to averfions againft objefts which we believe danger¬
ous ; or to a childilh terror of imaginary perils ; or to
a difrelifti, of which the caufe is difguiled ; or to a ri¬
diculous affeffation of delicacy ; or to an infirmity of
the ftomach 5 in a word, to a real or pretended reluc¬
tance for things which are either invefted, or fuppofed
to be invefted, with qualities hurtful to us. Too much
care c annot be taken in preventing, or regulating, the
antipathies of children ; in familiarizing them with ob-
jefts of every kind j in difcovering to them, without
1
emotion, fuch as are dangerous $ in teaching them the Antipathy
means of defence and fecurity, or the methods of efca- ^ . i|
ping their noxious influence ; and, when the rational; n lp '° bl
powers are matured by age, in reflecting on the na¬
ture of thofe objects which we fear, in afeertaining what
has been told concerning their qualities, or in vigor-
oufly operating upon our own dilpofitions to overcome
thofe vain repugnancies which vve may feel. See Sym¬
pathy, which is the oppoftte of Antipathy,
Antipathy, in Ethics, hatred, averfion, repug¬
nancy. Hatred is entertained againft perfons j aver-
Jian, and antipathy, indiferiminately againft perfons or
things ; and repugnancy, againft a&ions alone.
Hatred is more voluntary than averjion, antipathy, or
repugnancy. Thefe laft have greater affinity with the
animal conftitution. The caufes of antipathy are lefs
known than thole of averfon. Repugnancy is lefs per¬
manent than either the one or the other. We hate a
vicious chara£ter, we feel averjion to its exertions i we
are affefted with antipathy for certain perfons at firft
fight; there are fome affairs which we tranfaft with
repugnancy—Hatred calumniates $ averjion keeps us at
a diftance from certain perfons : antipathy makes
us deteft them; repugnancy hinders us from imitating
them.
ANTIPATRIS (A&s xxjii, 31.), a town of Pa-
leftine, anciently called Caphar Saba, according to Jo-
fephus, but named Antipatris by Herod the Great, in
honour of his father Antipater. It was fituated in a
pleafant valley near the mountains, in the way from
Jerufalem to Caffarea. Joiephus places it at about the
diftance of feventeen miles from Joppa.
ANTIPELARGIA, among the ancients, a law,
whereby children are obliged to furnilh neceffaries to
their aged parents. The ciconia, or ftork, is a bird
famous for the care it takes of its parents when grown
old. Hence, in fome Latin writers, this is rendered
lex ciconiaria, or the ftork’s law.
ANTIPHONARY, antiphonarium, a fervice
book, which contained all the invitatories, refponfories,
colle&s, and whatever elfe was fung or faid in the
choir, except the leffons. This is otherwife called re-
fponfarium, from the refponfes therein contained. The
author of the Roman antiphonary was Pope Gregory
the Great. We alfo find mention of nocturnal and
diurnal antiphonancs, for the ufe of the daily and night¬
ly offices 5 fummer and winter antiphonaries ; alfo an-
tiphonaries for country churches, &c. By the provin¬
cial conftitutions of Archbilhop Winchelfey, made at
Merton, A- D. 1305, it is required that one of thefe
fhouid be found in every church within the province of
Canterbury. The ufe of thefe, and many other popifti
books, was forbid by the 3d and 4th of Edward VI,
c. 10.
ANTIPHONY, the anfwer made by one choir to
another, when the pfalm or anthem is fung between
two.
Anti phony fometimes denotes a fpecies of pfal-
mody, wherein the congregation, being divided into
two parts, repeat the pfalms, verfe for verfe, alternate¬
ly. In this fenfe, antiphony ftands contradiftinguifhed
from fymphony, where the whole congregation fings
together.
Antiphony differs from refponforium, becaufe in this
latter the verfe is only fpoken by one perfon, where¬
as
ANT [4
Antiphony as in the funner, the verfes are fang by "the two choirs
II alternately. The original of antiphonal finging in the
Anttquare.^ weftem churches is referred to the time of St Am-
brofe, about the year 3^4. That father is faid to have
firft introduced it into the church of Milan, in imita¬
tion of the cuftom of the eaftern church, where it ap¬
pears to be of greater antiquity, though as to the time
of its inftitution, authors are not agreed •, it was moft
probably introduced at Antioch, between the year of
Chrift 347 and 356.
Antiphony is alfo ufed to denote the -words given
out at the beginning of the pfalm, to which both the
choirs are to accommodate their finging.
Antiphony, in a more modern fenfe, denotes a
kind of compofition made of feveral verfes extra&ed
out of dift'erent pfalms, adapted to exprefs the myftery
folemnized on the occafion.
AN FIPODES, in Geography, a name given to
thofe inhabitants of the globe that live diametrically
oppofite to each other. The word is Greek, and com¬
pounded of ctvTt, oppojite, and ws, a foot; becaufe their
feet afe oppofite to each other.
The antipodes lie under oppofite meridians and op¬
pofite parallels; in the fame degree of latitude, but of
oppofite denominations, one being north and the other
fouth. They have nearly the fame degree of heat and
cold, days and nights of equal length, but in oppofite
feafons. It is noon to one, when midnight to the
other ; and the longeft day with the one, is the Ihort-
eft with the other.
Plato is efteemed the firft who thought it poflible
that the antipodes fubfifted, and is looked upon as the
inventor of the wrord. As this philofopher apprehend¬
ed the earth to be fpherical, he had only one Hep to
make to conclude the exiftence of the antipodes.
The ancients, in general, treated this opinion w-ith
the higheft contempt ; never being able to conceive
how7 men and trees could fubfift fufpended in the air
with their feet upwards, for fo they apprehended they
muff be in the other hemifphere.
i hey never reflefted that thefe terms upwards and
downwards are merely relative ; and fignify only near¬
er to, or farther from, the centre of the earth, the
common centre to which all heavy bodies gravitate ;
and th&t, therefore, our antipodes have not their feet
upwards and head downwards any more than our-
felves ; becaufe they, like us, have their feet nearer the
centre of the earth, and their heads farther from it. To
have the head downwards and feet upwards, is to place
the body in a direftion of gravity tending from the feet
to the head : but this cannot be fuppofed with regard
to the antipodes ; for they, like us, tend toward the
centre of the earth, in a diredfion from head to foot.
AN PIPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, now Anti-
bfs, on the coaft of Provence, a colony of the Maf-
filians, near the river Verus, in Gallia Narbonenfis
(Livy), three leagues to the weft of Nice. E. Lons’. *7.
N. Lat. 43. 40.
ANPIQUARE, among Roman Laywers, properly
denotes the reje&ing of a new law7, or refufing to pafs
it. In which fenfe, antiquating differs from abrogating ;
as the latter imports the annulling an old law7, the for- ‘
mer the reje&ing a new7 one.
Antiqoare is alfo ufed for a law’s growing obfo-
lete, or into dilufe, either by age or non-obfervance.
39 1 ANT
ANTIQUARII, a name given to copiers of old ATiFquarfi,.
books. Alter the decline of learning among!! the Ro- Antiquary.
mans, and when many religious houfes were eredled, ^
learning was chiefly in the hands of the clergy 5 the
greateft number of whom were regulars, and lived in
monafteries. In thefe houfes rvere many induftiious men
who w7ere continually employed in making new copies
of old books, either for the ufe of the monaftery or for
their ow7n emolument. Thefe writing monks w7eredi-
ftinguifhed by the name of Antiquaril They deprived
the poor librarii, or common fcriptores, of great part
of their bufinefs, fo that thefe found it difficult to gain
a lubfiftence for themfelves and farnilies. This put
them upon finding out more expeditious methods of
tranfcribing books. They formed the letters fmaller,
and made ufe of more jugations and abbreviations than
had been ufual. They proceeded in this manner till
the letters became exceedingly fmall; the abbrevia¬
tions w7ere very numerous, and extremely difficult to
be read. Phis in !ome meafure accounts for the great
variety of hands in the fpecies of writing called Mo¬
dern Gothic. When a number of copies were to be
made of the fame w7ork, it was ufual to employ feveral
perfons at the fame time in writing it ; each perfon
except him w7ho wrote the firft fkin, began where his
fellow was to leave off.
ANTIQUARY, a perfon w7ho ftudies and fearches
after monuments and remains of antiquity ; as old me¬
dals, books, ftatues, fculptures, and infcriptions ; andy,
in general, all curious pieces that may afford any lioht
into antiquity.
In the chief cities of Greece and Italy, there w7ere
perfons of diftinaion called antiquaries, whofe bufinefs.
it was to ffiow ftrangers the antiquities of the place, to
explain the ancient infcriptions, and to give them5 all
the affiftance they could in this w7ay of learning.——
Paufanias calls thefe antiquaries H\riyxiTu.i. The Sicilians
call them myf agogi.
There w7as an ancient college of antiquaries ereaed
in Ireland by Ollamh Fedhla, 700 years before Chrift,
for compofing a hiftory of that country : And to this’
fay the Jriffi hiftorians, it is owing that the hiftory
and antiquities of that kingdom may be traced back
beyond thofe of meft other nations.
I here.is a fociety of antiquaries in London, and
another in Edinburgh, incorporated by the kino-’s
charter. See Society.
Antiquary is alfo ufed by ancient waiters for the
keeper of the antiquarium or cabinet of antiquities.
This officer is otherwife called archceota, or antiquary
of a king, a prince, a ftate, or the like.
Hemy VIII. gave John Lclrind the title of his an¬
tiquary ; a title which, fays the author of his life, no¬
body ever enjoyed befides himfelf. But the reftriflion,
w7e fuppofe, was only intended to the underftood in rc-
fpea of the kings of England. M. Schott, we find,
had the title of antiquary to the king of Pruffia [
R Pedruzzi, that of antiquary of the duke of Parma ;
M. Galland refided fome time in Turkey under the title
of antiquary of the king of France.—The univerfity
of Oxford have ftill their antiquary under the denomi¬
nation of cufos archivorum.—The kings of Sweden
have been at great expences in order to° illuftrate the
antiquity of their country, having eftabliffied an aca¬
demy of antiquaries with this fingle view.—The office
ANT [ 44
Antiquated of the ancient Irifh antiquaries was to preferve the ge~
. II . . nealogies of the kings of Ireland, to correct the regal
Antiquities. ta|:)]es 0£ fjccefTion, and deliver down the pedigree of
every collateral branch of the royal family.
ANTIQUATED, fomething obfolete, out of date,
or out of ufe.
ANTIQUE, in a general fenfe, fomething that is
ancient: but the term is chiefly ufed by fculptors,
painters, and architefts, to denote fuch pieces of their
different arts as were made by the ancient Greeks and
Romans. Thus we fay, an antique bull, an antique
ftatue, &c.
Antique is fometimes contradiftinguilhed from an¬
cient, which fignifies a lefs degree of antiquity. Thus,
antique architecture is frequently diftinguifhed from an¬
cient architefture.
ANTIQUITIES, a term' implying all teftimonies,
or authentic accounts, that have come down to us, of
ancient nations. Bacon calls antiquities the wrecks of
hifory, or fuch particulars as induftrious and learned
perfons have colle&ed from genealogies, infcriptions,
monuments, coins, names, etymologies, archives, in-
llruments, fragments of hiftory, See.
Antiquities form a very extenfive fcience, including
“ an hiftorical knowledge of the edifices, magirtrates,
offices, habiliments, manners, cuttoms, ceremonies,
worlhip, and other objects worthy of curiofity, of all
the principal ancient nations of the earth.”
This fcience is not a matter of mere curiofity, but
is indifpenfable to the theologian j who ought to be
thoroughly acquainted with the antiquities of the Jew’s,
to enable him properly to explain numberlefs paffages
in the Old and New Teftaments : to the lawyer 5 who,
without the knowledge of the antiquities of Greece and
Rome, can never well underftand and properly apply
the created: part of the Roman law’s ; to the phyfician
and ^the philofopher, that they may have a complete
knowledge of the hiftory and principles of the phyfic
and philoiophy of the ancients : to the critic, that he
may be able to underftand and interpret ancient au¬
thors : to the orator and poet} who will be thereby
enabled to ornament their writings with numberleis
images, allufions, comparifons, &c.
Antiquities are divided into facred and profane, into
public and private, univerfal and particular, &c. It is
true, that the antiquaries (efpecially fuch as are infedted
with a fpirit of pedantry, and the number of thefe is
great) frequently carry their inquiries too far, and em-
plov themfelves m laborious refeaiches a^tei learned
trifles, but the abufe of a fcience ought never to make
us negledt the applying it to rational and ufeful pur-
pofes.
Many antiquaries alfo reftrain their learned labours to
the eclairciffement of the antiquities of Greece and
Rome : but this field is far too confined, and by no
means contains the whole of this fcience, feeing it
properly includes the antiquities of the Jews, Egyp¬
tians. Perfians, Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Hetrufcans,
Germans, and, in general, all thofe principal nations
.mentioned in ancient hiftory : fo far as any accounts
of them are come dowm to us.
If to the general fubje£ls above mentioned we add
the particular ftudy of antiques, of the i; atr.es, briis-
• reliefs, and the precious relinks,of architePr e, paint
ing, camaieus, medal.v. Stc. it u e&Iy to con'er/e uv
]
ANT
antiquities form a fcience very extenfive and very com- Ani>qu:tk j.
plicated, and with wffiich only a very Imall acquaintance '—“-v---'
could have been attainable by any one man, if our pre-
deceffors had not prepared the way for us •, it they had
not left us fuch ineftimable works as thole of Gronovi-
us, Greevius, Montfaucon, Count Caylus, Winckelman,
the Hebraic antiquities of D. Iken oi Bremen, the
Grecian antiquities of Brunnings, the Roman antiqui¬
ties of Nieupoort, and elpecialiy that work which is
entitled Bibhographia Antiquaria Job. Alberti Fabricu,
profeffor at Hamburgh j &c. &c. Nor muft we here
forget that very valuable work, with which our coun¬
tryman Mr Robert Wood has lately enriched this
fcience, and which is fo w’ell known, and fo jultly
efteemed by all true connoifteurs, under the title of the
Ruins of Palmyra, and thofe of Balbec. It is by this
work that wTe are fully convinced of the grandeur and
magnificence, the tafte and elegance, of the buildings
of the ancients. We here fee that the invention of
thefe matters is not all owing to the Greeks, but that
there were other nations who lerved them as models.
For though many of the edifices of Palmyra are to be
attributed to the emperor Aurelian, and to Odenatus
and his wife Zenobia, wffio reigned there about the year
264, yet there are found at the fame place ruins of
buildings that appear to be of far greater. antiquity,
and that are not lefs beautiful. The ancient Perfe-
polis is fufficient to prove this aflertion. When w’e
duly reflect on all thefe matters, and efpecially if we
attempt to acquire any knowledge of this fcience, we
fliall foon be convinced that it but ill becomes a petit-
maitre to laugh at a learned antiquary.
The knowledge of thofe monuments of the ancients,
the works of fculpture, ftatuary, graving, painting, &c.
which they call antiques, requires a ftrift attention
with regard to the matter itfelf on which the art has
been exercifed ; as the w?ax, clay, wTood, ivory, Hones
of every kind, marble, flint, bronze, and every fort of
metal. " We Ihould begin by learning on what mat¬
ter each ancient nation principally worked, and in
which of the fine arts they excelled : For the matter
itfelf, as the different forts of marble, compofitions of
metals, and the fpecies of precious Hones, ferve fre¬
quently to charafterize the true antique, and to dif-
cover the counterfeit. The connoiffeurs pretend alfo
to know’, by certain diftinft charafteis in the defign
and execution of a work of art, the age and nation
w’here it was made. T hey find, moreover, in the in¬
vention and execution, a degree of excellence which
modern artifts are not able to imitate. Now, though
w’e ought to allow, in general, the great merit of the
ancients in the polite arts, we Ihould not, how’ever,
fuffer our admiration to lead us into a blind fuperfti-
tion. There are pieces of antiquity of every fort,
which have come down to us \ fome that are perfeftly
excellent ; and others fo wretched, that the meaneft
among modern artifts would not acknow ledge them.
The mixture of the good and bad has taken place in.
all fubje&s, at all times and in all nations. T he mif-
fortune is, that moft of our great antiquaries Lave
been fo little {killed in defigning as fcarcely to know¬
how to draw a circle with a pair of comnaffes. It is
preiudice. therefore, which frequently direfls them to
jive rhe palm to the ancients, rather than a judgment
:..&ed by a knowledge of the art. That charafter
ant
[ 441 ]
ANT
Antiquity of expreffion which they find fo marvellous in the
II works of antiquity, is often nothing more than a mere
Antifeptics.chimera> They pretend that the artifts of our days
^ ' conitantly exaggerate their expreflions 5 that a modern
Bacchus has the appearance of a man diftrafted with
intoxication-, that a Mercury feems to be animated with
the fpirit of a fury, and fo of the reft. But let them
not decide too haftily. Almoft all the antique fi¬
gures are totally void of all fpirit of expreffion j we
are forced to guefs at their charafters. Every artih-
cial expreffion requires, moreover, to be lomeyhat ex¬
aggerated. A ftatue or portrait is an ^animat^ ^
mire ; and muft therefore have a very different effect
from one which, being endowed with life, has the
mufcles conftantly in play, and where the continual
change of the features, the motion of the eyes, and t e
looks more or lefs lively, eafily and clearly exprefs the
paffions and fentiments. Whereas, m a figure, that is
the produce of art, the delicate touches, that ffiould
exprefs the paffions, are loft to the eyes of the fpedta-
tors: they muft therefore be ftruck by ftrong bold
charafters, which can affeft them at the firft glance ot
the eye. A very moderate artift is fenfible, at the
fame time, that he is not to give his figures extravagant
expreffions, nor to place them in diftorted attitudes.
ANTIQUITY fignifies times or ages paft long ago.
Thus, we fay, the heroes of antiquity, &c.
Antiquity is alio ufed to denote the works or mo¬
numents of antiquity. See Antiquities.
Antiquity likewife expreffes the great age ol a
thing 5 and in this fenfe we fay, the antiquity of a fa¬
mily, the antiquity of a kingdom.
ANTIRRHINUM, sna.p-dragon, or calves
snout. See Botany Index.
ANTIRRHIUM, in Ancient Geography, a pro¬
montory at the mouth of the Corinthian bay, where it
is fcarce a mile broad, and where it feparates zh.to-
lia from the Pelopcnnefus ; fo called from its oppo-
nte fituation to Rhium in Peloponnefus (Pliny) : both
are now called the Dardanelles of Lepanto. _
ANTISABBATARIANS, a modern religious fe£t
who oppofe the obfervance of the Chriftian fabbath.
The great principle of the Antifabbatarians is, that the
Tewifti fabbath was only of ceremonial, not moral ob¬
ligation j and confequently is aboliihed by the coming
cf Chrift. . .
ANTISAGOGE, in Rhetoric, a figure differing
little from that called concejwn. The following paffage
from Cicero is an inftance of it: Dificihs ratio belli ge-
rendl; at plena fidei, plena pietatis: etji die as, magnus
labor, mu/ta pericula proponuntur; at gloria ex his im-
mor tails efl confecutura. See Concession.^
ANTISCII, in Geography, people who live on dif¬
ferent fides of the equator, whofe ftiadows at noon are
proie&ed oppofite ways. Thus the people of the north
are Antifcii to thofe of the fouth ; the one projeamg
their ffiadows at noon towards the north pole, and the
other toward the fouth pole.
ANTISCORBUTICS, medicines good in fcorbu-
tic cafes.
ANTISEPTICS (from *vt; and o-»7rr«; putrid, ot
tTYtTso) to putrify), an appellation given to fuch fubftances
as refift putrefa&ion.
We have fome curious experiments in relation to an-
Vol. II. Part II.
tifeptic fubftances by Dr Pringle, who has afeertained Ant^Pti:s;
their feveral virtues. Thus, in order to fettle the an-^
tifeptic virtue of falls, he compared it with that of
common fea fait 5 which being one of the weakeft, he
fuppofes equal to unity, and expreffes the proportional
ftrength of the reft by higher numbers, as in the fol¬
lowing table.
Sea fait
Sal gemma:
Tartar vitriol ated
Spiritus Mindereri
’Tartarus folubilis
Sal diureticus.
Crude fal ammoniac
Salts, their antifeptic virtue.
1 Saline mixture - 3
1 -J- Nitre - 4T
2 Salt of hartffiorn 4-f-
2 Salt of wormwood 4-f-
2 Borax „ - 12-f-
2-|- Salt of amber - 20-f-
3 Alum - - 3°'t"
In this table the proportions are marked in integral
numbers : only to fome there is added the fign -f-, to
{how, that thofe falts are poffeffed of a ftronger anti¬
feptic virtue than the number in the table expreffes, by
fome fractions: unlefs in the three laft, where the lame
fign imports that the fait may be ftronger by lome
units.
Some refinous and other fubftances even exceed the
antifeptic virtues of the neutral falts j thus myrrh, afa-
feetida, terra japonica, and aloes, are at leaft 12 time*
more antifeptic than fea fait. Two grains of cam-
phor are equivalent to 60 grains of that lalt. An infu-
fion of a few grains of Virginian fnake-root, in pow¬
der, exceeds I 2 times its weight of fea fait. Chamo¬
mile flowers have nearly the fame extraordinary quali¬
ty. The Jefuits bark has it alfo. Befides thefe, pep¬
per, ginger, faffron, contrayerva root, are 12 times
more antifeptic than fea fait. Dried fage, rhubarb,
the root of the wild valerian, mint, angelica, ground
jvv, fenna, green tea, red roles, wormwood, mallard,
and horfe radiffi, w'ere likewife found more antifeptic
than the ftandard.
To the clafs of antifeptic medicines may likewde be
added fermented liquors, acids, fpirits, and even thofe
plants called anti-acids, and erroneoufly fuppofed haft-
eners of putrefadlion, particularly horfe radiffi. Now
vegetables, poffeffing this virtue, are the more valuable,
in that being ufually free of acrimony, they may be
taken in much greater quantities than either fpmts,
acids, refins, Or even the neutral falts.
Antifeptics are preferibed in all putrid, malignant,
and peftilential cafes. It is to be remarked, however,
that different kinds of them are to be given in different
difeafes, and even in different ftages of the fame dL-
eafe. Thus, the bark is a fpecific- in gangrene, when
the veffels are relaxed, and the blood refolved or dif-
• pofed to putrefaftion j but wdll fail, if the veffels are
too full, or the blood be too thick. With the fame
caution is the bark to be ufed in wmunds, viz. chiefly
in cafes of abforbed matter, when it infeas the hu¬
mours, and brings on a heaic fever.
By the great antifeptic virtue of alum, the, baik, and
other aftringents, it (hould ieem, that aftriaion h id no
fmall {hare in the cure of putrid diforders; ^nd in-
deed, the very nature of putrefaftion confifts in a^iepa-
ration or difunion of the parts. But as aftringents are
improper to be adminiftered in many cafes, contrayer
3 K. ^
A N T
Antittafis va root, iaake root, campkor, &c. may fupply their
Antitaclse. f.1^6 ’ which» though highly antifeptic, have very
>   ■ tittle, or any, oi an aftringent quality.
AN IISPASMODICS, are medicines proper for
the cure of fpafms and convulfions. Opium, balfam
ot I eru, and the effential oils of many vegetables are
the principal in this clafs of medicines. Opium ex¬
cels, for its immediate ellefts. Peruvian balfam, in
many mftances, produces more lading benefit than opi¬
um. and fometimes luccecds where opium fails. As
antifpafmodics, the effential oils differ in this from opi¬
um, that they aft more on a particular part than on
the fyffem in general, and have no foporific effeft.
Some medicines remove fpafms by immediate contaft,
as affes milk, cream, oil oi almonds ; others by repel-
ling heat, as gas, fulphur, nitre, fal ammoniac, &c.
And where the ftriflures are produced by inanition and
defect of vital heat, fpafms are removed by thofe me¬
dicares that reftore the vis vita;, fuch as valerian, caitor
mulk, &c. ’
^ ISTASLS, in Oratory, a defence of an aftion
from the confideration that had it been omitted worfe
would have enfued. This is called by Latin writers
comparativnm argumcntum; fuch, e. g. would be the
general’s defence who had made an inglorious capitu-
lation, That, without it, the whole army muff have
perilhed. /
AA i IS IHLNES, a Greek philofopher, and found¬
er of the Cynics. He was born at Athens, and paffed
the former part of his life as a foldier. Having'after-
wards been an attendant at the leflures of Socrates, he
was principally charmed with thofe exhortations of that
great philofopher, which perluaded to frugality, to tem¬
perance, and to moderation j thefe Antifthenes was re¬
vived to praffice by carrying every precept to its ut-
moft extent. Permitting therefore his beard to grow
lie went about the ftreets in a thread-bare coat, fcarcely
to be diftinguifhed from a common beggar. He prided
hrmfelf upon the molt rigid virtue, and thought himfelf
obliged to attack tne vicious wherever he found them.
This gave him fome reputation in the city 5 but it may
Ire fuppofed, that, in a: place fo very luxurious as A-
tnens, he had more enemies than difciples. His phi-
lofophy confifted rather in aaion than fpeculation : it
was therefore his conftant maxim, That to be virtuous
vyas to be happy, and that all virtue confifted in ac¬
tion ; that the wife man fhould live for himfelf, con¬
tented in all fituations, and happy alone in the con-
fcioufnefs of his own virtue. He acknowledged no-
tiimg to be good but what was honourable; and affert-
ed, that virtue might be acquired by praftice. Laer¬
tius tells us there were 10 tomes of his works; and he
has given us many of,his apophthegms.
AN x IS IOECHON, in Grammar, the ufing one
letter inffead of another : as olh for illi.
AN ns 1 ROPHE, in Grammar, a figure by which
two things mutually depending on one another, are re¬
ciprocally converted ; as, the fervant cf the mailer, the
majter of the fervant.
Antistrop he, among Lyric Poets, that part of a
fong and dance in ufe among the ancients, which
was performed before the altar, in returning from
weft to eaft; in oppofition to ftrophe. See Strophe
and Ode.
ANUTACTiE, in Church llijlary, a branch of
[ 442 ]
ANT
jr.OLtics, who held, that God was good and juft, but Antitlienar
that a creature had created evil; and confequently that jl
it is our duty to oppofe this author of evil, in order to Antitype-
avenge God of his adverfary. -.1-»- v—^
ANd 11 HENAR, in Anatomy, a name given to
the addudor indicis. See Anatomy, Table of the
Mufclcs.
. AN ITIHESIS, in Rhetoric, a contrail or oppofi-
tion of words or fentiments. Such is that of Cicero
m the fecond Catilinarian : “ On one fide Hands mo-
defty, on the other impudence ; on one fidelity, on
the other deceit; here piety, there facrilege ;* here
contmency, there lull, &c.” Such alfo is that of Au-
guitus to fome feditious young men, Auditc, juvenes,
Jenem, yuan juvenem fenes audivtrc. Such again is that
oi Seneca: Cura laves laquuntur, ingentes flupent. And
that of Virgil: '
Fieldere Ji nequeo ftperos, Acheronta movebo.
. ^ Auguftine, Seneca, Salvian, and many other an¬
cient writers, feem greatly to affeift antithefes ; but a-
mong the moderns they are generally decried. Defma-
retz reprefents them as the favourites of'young writers.
1 he following is an example of modern antithefis.
  hoisgh gentle, yet not dull ;
Strong, without rage; without o’erflowing, full.
Antithesis is fometimes ufed for controverfy. In
this fenfe, we meet with antithetic method, antithetic
difcourfes, &c. Marcion compofed a volume of Anti¬
thefes, or contrarieties and oppofitions between the
law and the gofpel.
AN 1 n RAGUS musculus, in Anatomy, a muf-
cle of the ear. See Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles
AN I 11 RiNI I ARIANS, thofe who deny the
tiinity, and teach that there are not three perfons in
the Godhead. 1 hus the Samofatenians who do not
believe the diftindion of perfons in God ; the Arians
who deny the divinity of the Word, and the Macedo¬
nians who deny that of the Holy Spirit, are all pro¬
perly Antitrinitarians. Among the moderns, Antitri-
nitarians are particularly underftood of Socinians, call¬
ed alfo Unitarians.
I Bibliotheca Antitrimiariovytm, or Antitrinitarian
Library, is a pofthurnous work of Chriftopher Sandius,
an eminent Antitrinitarian ; wherein he gives a lift,
digefted in order of time, of all the Socinian or mo¬
dern Antitrinitarian authors, with a brief account of
their lives, and a catalogue of their works. See Uni¬
tarian.
AN LITV PE, a Greek word, properly fignifying a
type or figure correfponding to fome other type.
The word antitype occurs twice in the New Tefta-
ment; viz. in the epiftle to the Hebrews, ix. 24. and
in St I eter, 1 Eph. iii. 21. where its genuine import
has been much controverted. The former fays, that
Chrift L not entered into the holy places made with
hands, which are, uiTiTvir*, the figures or antitypes of
the true—now to appear in the prefence of God for
us;” Now rt;x«5 fignifies the pattern by which another
thing is made ; and as .Mofes was obliged to make the
tabernacle, and all things in it, according to the pat¬
tern ftiown him in the mount; the tabernacle fo form¬
ed^ was the antitype of wdiat was fliown to Mofes: any
thing, therefore, formed according to a model or pat¬
tern,.
Antiiun
i.
Antoine.
NT [ 443 ] ANT
In the latter paffage, the apoftle feated among the mountains, 13 miles eafl of Lyons.
E. Long. 5. 20. N. Lat
tern, is an antitype.  r  _7 r 
fpeaking of Noah’s flood, and the deliverance only of
eight perfons in the ark from it, fays, y/uxg avn-
TVTrcy /ZctTTTitr/x*, Baptifin being an antitype to
that, now faves us; not putting away the filth of the
fiejhy but the anfwer of a good confidence towards God,
&£. The meaning is, that righteoufnefs, or the an¬
fwer of a good confcience towards God, now faves us
by means of the refurredtion of Chrift, as formerly
righteoufnefs faved thefe eight perfons by means of the
ark, during the flood. The word antitype, therefore,
here fignifies a general fimilitude of circumftances •,
and the particle u, whereunto, refers, not to the im¬
mediate antecedent, viart, water, but to all that pre¬
cedes.
Ant itype, among the Ancient Greek Fathers, and
in the Greek liturgy, is alfo applied to the fymbels of
bread and wine in the facrament. Hence it hath been
argued, by many Proteftants, that the Greeks do not
really believe the dodtrine of tranfubftantiation ; be-
caufe they call the bread and wine antitypes, avTirvicxy
d- hguresj fimilitudes j and this even after the con-
fecration.
AN I HIM, in Ancient Geography, a city of the
Yolfci, (Livy) 5 lituated on the Tufcan*fea, yet with¬
out a harbour, becaufe they had a neighbouring ham¬
let called Ceno, with a harbour, (Strabo). The Ro¬
mans gained their firft reputation in naval affairs a-
gainlt the Antiates; part of whofe fhips they convey¬
ed into the arfenal of Rome, and part they burnt; and
with their beaks or roltra adorned the pulpit eredled
m the forum, thence called Rofira, (Livy, Floras.)
Here flood a famous temple of Fortune, (Horace).
Addiion fays, there were two Fortunae worlhipped at
Antium.—It is now extindl, but the name flill remains
in the Capo dAn%o.
AN FIVARI, a llrong town of Turkey in Europe,
In Dalmatia, a Greek archbifhop’s fee, and fubjedl to
the Turks. E. Long. 29. 15. N. Lat. 43. o.
_ AN 1’IVIRGILIAN husbandry, an appellation
given to Mr Tull’s new method of horfe-hoeing huf-
bandry. See Agriculture.
AN FLER, among Sportfmen, a flart or branch of
a deer’s attire.
Bnorr-ANTfiER, denotes the branch next the head ;
and, ’
Bes-Antler, the branch next above the brow-hnt-
ler.
ANTLIA, an ancient machine, fuppofed to be the
fame with our pump. Flence the phrafe in antham con-
demnari, according to the critics, denotes a kind of pu-
nifliment^ whereby criminals were condemned to drain
ponds, ditches, or the like.
AN I OEICI, in Geography, thofe inhabitants of the
earth who live under the fame meridian, and at the
fame dufance from the equator : the one toward the
north, and the other toward the feuth. Hence they
have the fame longitude 5 and their latitude is alfo the
lame, but of a different denomination. They are in the
lame femicircle of the meridian, but oppofite in paral¬
lels. They have precifely the fame hours of the day and
night, but oppofite feafons *, and the night of the one
is always equal to the day of the other.
ANTOINE, a towiv of Trance, in Dauphiny, in
the diocefe of Vienne, with a celebrated abbey, "it is
20. IN. .Lat. 45. 43.
ANTONA, (Tacitus) \ a river of Britain, which
Camden fuppofes to be a faulty reading for Avuona
or Aufona, (the Avon).
ANFONACUM, Antonnacum, or Antunna-
cum, a town of the Treviri; now Andernach, below
Coblentz. E. Long. 7. 5. N. Lat. 50. 25.
ANTONIA, a citadel of Jerufalem, the origin of
which we have in Jofephus : who fays, that Hircanus,
the firfl high prieft of that name, built Baris near the
temple, a houfe with turrets, where ^he generally re¬
dded. Herod afterwards made it ftronger, for the fe-
curity and defence of the temple ; and in honour of
Marc Antony, who then commanded in the eafl:, called
it Antonia. It was very extenfive, and could accommo¬
date a Roman legion : from it there was a full view of
the temple.
ANTONIA, Saint, a town of France, in Rouer-
gue, in the diocefe of Rhodez, whofe fortifications are
demoliflied. It is feated on the river Aveiron. E. Long,
o. 55. N. Lat. 44. 10.
ANTONIAN waters, medicinal waters of Ger¬
many, very pleafant to the tafte, and effeemed good in
many chronic and hypochondriac cafes. See Ton s-
TElN.
ANTONIANO, Silvio, a man of great learning,
who raifed himfelf from a low condition by his merit,
was born at Rome in the year 1540. When he was but
ten years old, he could make verfes upon any fubjedl:
propofed to him ; and thefe fo excellent, though pro¬
nounced extempore, that even a man of genius could not
compofe the like without a good deal of time and pains.
The duke of Ferrara coming to Rome, to congratulate
Marcellus II. upon his being raifed to the pontificate,
was fo charmed with the genius of Antoniano, that he
carried him to Ferrara, where he provided able mafters
to inflrudl him in all the fciences. From thence he was
fent for by Pius iy. who made him profeffor of the
belles lettres m the college at Rome. Anteniano filled
this place with fo much reputation, that, on the day
wrhen he began to explain the oration pro Marco Mar¬
cello, he had a vafl: crow'd of auditors, and among thefe
no lefs than 25 cardinals. Fie wms aftenvards chofen
rector of the college j and after the death of Pius IV.
being feized with a fpirit of devotion, he joined himfelf
to Philip Neri, and accepted, the office of fecretary to
the facred college, offered him by Pius V. which he
executed for 25 years with the reputation of an honed:
and able man. He refufed a bifhopric which Grego¬
ry XIV. would have given him ; but he accepted the
office of fecretary to the briefs, offered him by Cle¬
ment VIII. who made him his chamberlain, and after¬
wards a cardinal. Antoniano killed himfelf by too
great fatigue : for he fpent whole nights in Writing
letters j which brought on a ficknefs, whereof he died,
in the 63d year of his age. He wTote with fuch eafe,
and fluency, that he never almoft made’ any blot or
raiure 5 and it is faid of him, that he preferved the
flower of his virginity during Ids whole life.
ANTONIDES Vander Goes, John, an eminent
Dutch poet, born at Goes in Zealand, the 3d of April
1647. His parents were Anabaptifts, people of good
charadter, but of low circumftances. They went to live
at Amfterdam when Antonides was about four years
3 K 2 old ;
Antona
ANT [ 44
Antonides, old j and, in the ninth year of his age, he began hisflu-
Antoninus. under the direftion of Hadrian Junius and James
' Cocceius. Antonides took great pleafure in reading
the Latin poets, and carefully compared them with
Grotius, Heinfius, &c. By this means he acquired a
tafte for poetry, and enriched his mind with noble
ideas. He firit attempted to tranflate fome pieces of
Ovid, Horace, and other ancients j and, having form¬
ed his talte on thefe excellent models, he at length
undertook one of the moil difficult talks in poetry, to
w^rite a tragedy : this was entitled Trazt/, or The m-
vafion of China. Antonides, however, was fo modeft,
as not to permit it to be publiffied. Vondel, who w^as
then engaged in a dramatic piece, which wras taken
alfo from fome event that happened in China, read An-
tonides’s tragedy, and was fo wTell pleafed with it, that
he declared, if the author w'ould not print it, he w ould
take fome paffages out of it, and make ufe of them in
his own tragedy. He accordingly did fo •, and it was
reckoned much to the honour of Antonides, to have
written what might be adopted by fo great a poet as
Vondel wTas acknowledged to be by all good judges.
Upon the conclufion of the peace between Great Bri¬
tain and Holland, in the year 1674, Antonides wrote
a piece, entitled Bellona aan band, i. e. “ Bellona
chained j” a very elegant poem, confifting of feveral
hundred verfes. He next wrote an ingenious^ heroic
poem, which he entitled The River T (the river on
which Amllerdam is built).
Antonides’s parents had bred him up an apothecary,
but his remarkable genius for poetry foon gained him
the elleem and friendlhip of feveral perfons of diitinc-
tion *, and particularly of Mr Buifero, one of the lords
of the admiralty at Amllerdam, and a great lover of
poetry, who fent him at his expence to purfue his llu-
dies at Leyden, where he remained till he took his de¬
gree of do&or of phyfic, and then his patron gave him
a place in the admiralty. In 1678, Antonides married
Sufanna Bermans, a miniller’s daughter, wffio had alio
a talent for poetry. His marriage w'as celebrated by
feveral eminent poets, particularly by the famous Pe¬
ter Francius, profeffor ot eloquence, wffio compoled
fome Latin verfes on the occafion. After marriage, he
did not much indulge his poetic genius ; and within a
few years he ffill into a confumption, of which he died
on the 18th September 1684, being then but thirty-
feven years and a few months old. He is etleemed the
moll eminent Dutch poet after Vondel. His works
have been printed feveral times, having been colle£led
by Father Anthony Tanfz. The lail edition w’as
printed by Nicholas Ten Hoom, at Amllerdam, in
the year 1714, in 4to, under the diredlion of David
Van Hoogftraaten, one of the mailers of the Latin
fchool of that city, wffio added to it alfo the life of the
poet.
ANTONINUS Pius, a celebrated Roman em¬
peror, was born A. D. 86, at Lavunium in Italy.
Diftinguilhed for eminence of chara£ler, his family
Fad long maintained the honour of the houfe of Nif-
mes in Gaul, from whence they had defcended. Both
his father and grandfather had held the office of con-
ful. Arius Antoninus his maternal grandfather by
his amiable difpofition, and love of literature, had ac¬
quired an eminent charadler, and was very intimate
with Pliny the younger. Under him the young Titus
4 ] ANT
after his father’s death completed his education. His Anto.iir.ns.
chara&er on arriving at the age of maturity, manifelledv——y—
itfelf in the moll promifing manner. To an improved
underllanding, a virtuous heart, a mild and dignified
character, and a noble eloquence, he joined a happy
phyliognomy. Simple in his talle, and guided by tem¬
perance in all his adlions and fentiments, he was entire¬
ly free from all affedlation and pompolity.
In the year 120, among the many public honours
which his birth and connexions gave him a claim to,
he was elevated to the high poll of conful, and wTas af¬
terwards appointed by Adrian to be one of the four
confulars, betwixt whom the fupreme power of Italy
wTas divided. Becoming in his turn proconful of Afia,
he acquitted himfelf with fuch reputation, that he even
excelled his grandfather Arius who had formerly en¬
joyed that high trull. Returning from Afia he was not
only received into the favour, but likewife the confi¬
dence and council of Adrian, and wras always difpofed
to adl with lenity. He married Annia Faultina, the
daughter of Annius Verus, whole character was far
from being untaxed with reproach, but his lenient dil-
polition induced him to avoid public fcandal, and he
behaved towards his aged father-in-law with the moll
becoming refpeft. Two fons and two daughters were
the fruits of this marriage. The fons died wffien they
were young, and the eldelt daughter, wffio wTas married
to Lamia Svlvanus, died wffien I itus proceeded towards
his Aliatic government. Faullina the youngelt married
Marcus Aurelius, who was afterwards emperor.
After the death of Verus, Adrian refolving to adopt
Antoninus, he w7as induced to accept of the fucceffion
to fo important a charge as the Roman empire, although
wdth a conlrderable degree of reluflance, and w7as ac¬
cordingly nominated by Adrian in February 25. A. D.
138, in the prefence of a council of the chief fenators,
and at the fame time created him his colleague in per¬
forming the proconfular and tribunitial duties. Extend¬
ing his plans of adoption Hill farther, Adrian caufed
Antoninus adopt the fon of Verus, then feven years of
age, and Marcus Annius, afterwards named Aurelius,
then feventeen years of age, a relation ol Adrian’s,
and nephew to his ow’n wife. T he dutiful and merited
attention which Antoninus bellow'ed on Adrian during
the lall months of his illnefs, gives a very high idea of
his char-after. On July 10. A. D. 138, he fucceeded to
the empire amidll the univerfal acclamations of the icnate
and people, who anticipated in his well tried virtues
that happinefs which a good and wife fovereign is able
to bellow upon his fubjefts.
The Roman world enjoyed fuch tranquillity under
his reign that it affords few materials for hiltory j y et
it is to be regretted that Capitolinus is the only hillo-
nan from wffiom any direft information can be received
concerning this peaceful period, and he is none of the
moll perfpicuous. It howrever appears that the ufual
honours and titles, together with the addition of the fur-
name of Pius, which both his conduft and zeal in de¬
fending and honouring the memory of his predeceffor
united to fuggeil, were wdllingly conferred upon him
by the fenate. In the beginning of his reign there
were feveral confpiracies formed againll him, but this
only afforded him an inllance of fignalizing his clemen¬
cy, which he did in the moll linking manner.. Although
he was unable to prevent jullice from taking its dua
couiie
ANT
[ 445 ]
ANT
• courfe againft the ringleaders, he prohibited all mvefu-
gation after their accomplices, and took the Ion ot At-
tilius, one ofathe principal confpirators, under his protec¬
tion. Various commotions were raifed m leveral parts of
the empire •, but by the vigilance of his lieutenants, theie
were eafily quelled. The incurfions of the Bngantes
in Britain were reftrained, and a new wall which was
built to the north of that of Adrian, from the mouth
of the Elk to that of Tweed, and which was called the
Wall of Antoninus, was fixed as the _ boundary of the
Roman province in Britain. The reign of Antoninus
upon the whole was Angularly peaceful, and realized
a faying of Scipio, “ That he preferred faving the life
of one citizen, to deftroying a thoufand enemies.
A defire of promoting the intereft of his people, of
prote£fing them from oppreflion, of adminiftering juftice
through every corner of his realm, and of being inifru-
mental to the happinefs and peace of his government,
influenced all his proceedings. He delighted greatly
in laying before the fenate the motives of all his adtions,
and in his manner of living and converfing he employ¬
ed the fame prudential oeconomy and air of equality,
which had fo diftinguilhed his predeceffors. Irajan and
Adrian. On account of the fweetnefs of his temper he
bore with firmnefs many indignities offered him ^ and
under his reign the race of informers wrere entirely ex-
tinguifhed, and condemnations and confifcations were
yery rare. The various public calamities wrhich occur¬
red in his time were all relieved by him with the great-
eft benevolence. He avoided as much as poflible lay¬
ing any burthens upon his people, and on this account
made few journeys through his dominions. He wras
frugal in the ufe of the public revenues, but profufe in
his own patrimony, a great ceconomift, devoid of ava¬
rice, and very liberal towrards wrorks of ornament aiH
utility, and even towards gratifying the pleafures of
his people. A temple in honour of Adrian in Rome,
and perhaps the amphitheatre and aqueduft at Nifmes,
W’ere his chief buildings.
Jurifprudence w?as to this emperor, like that of his
predeceifor, an interefting fubjeft for improvement, and
leveral decrees which he iflued, difplay his commend¬
able fpirit of equity. The natural confequence. of this
equity w^as, that Antoninus acquired a reputation and
fame which no military achievements could have con¬
ferred ; and his friendfliip w'as courted by the neigh¬
bouring princes.
There is fcarcely a blot to be found to tarnilh his
character j and frugality, modefty, and harmlefs amufe-
rnent continued to employ his private hours. It may
perhaps be admitted that he was too indulgent towards
an umvorthy wufe, and that the divine honours he be¬
llowed on her memory w’ere not merited by her conduft.
In the management of his complicated bufinefs, he was
exadlto fuch a degree that it was even ridiculed by fome;
but he found the daily advantage of this accuracy. The
growing virtues of Marcus Aurelius foon drew7 hr j atten¬
tion after he afcended the throne, and having given him
his daughter in marriage,, he declared him Caelar. Nor
was he miftaken in his choice j for Aurelius a£!ed with
the utmoftjfidelity and affedlion amid all the honours Antonin^
that he continued to confer upon him. Enjoying this
large lhare ofdomeftic blifs, in the 74th year of his life
he was feized with a fever at his favourite countty feai.
of Lori. Convinced of his approaching fate, he con¬
vened the principal officers of the ftate, and confiimed
his election of Aurelius, and gave him the imperial en-
figns. A delirium enfued, in an interval of which he
gave the watchword JEquammitas, and calmly refigned
his breath in the 23d year of his reign. His allies w’ere
configned to the tomb of Adrian, and divine honours
paid to his memory. He was univerfally regretted,
and fucceeding emperors bore his name as a badge of
honour. The fenate and his fuccefibr erefted a Iculp-
tured pillar to his memory, which is ftill Ihown to ftran-
gers as one of the chief ornaments of Rome. (Gen. Biogl)
Antoninus Philosophus, Marcus Aurelius, the
Roman emperor, born at Rome, the 26th of April,
in the 121 ft year of the Chriftian era. He was called
by feveral names till he was admitted into the Aure-
lian family, when he took that of Marcus Aurelius
Antoninus. Hadrian, upon the death of Cejonius Com-
modus, turned his eyes upon Marcus Aurelius j but, as
he was not then 18 years of age, and confequently too
young for fo important a ftation, he fixed upon Anto¬
ninus Pius, whom he adopted, upon condition that he
Ihould likewife adopt Marcus Aurelius. The year after
this adoption, Hadrian appointed him queftor, though
he had not yet attained the age prefcribed by the law.
After the death of Hadrian, Aurelius married Faufti-
na, the daughter of Antoninus Pius, by whom he had
feveral children. In the year 139, he was inverted with
new honours by the emperor Pius, in wdffch he behav¬
ed in fuch a manner as endeared him to that prince and
the whole people.
Upon the death of Pius, which happened in the year
161, he was obliged by the fenate to take upon him
the government \ in the management of which he took
Lucius Verus as his colleague. Dion Caflius fays, that
the reafon- of doing this was, that he might have leifure
to purfue his ftudies, and on account of his ill ftate of
health 5 Lucius being of a ftrong vigorous conftitution,
and confequently more fit for the fatigues of war. The
fame day he took upon him the name of Antoninus,
which he gave likewife to Verus his colleague, and be¬
trothed his daughter Lucilla to him. The two empe¬
rors went afterwards to the camp j where, after having-
performed the funeral rites of Pius, they pronounced
each of them a panegyric to his memory. They dif-
charged the government in a very amicable manner.
It is faid that, foon after Antoninus had performed the
apotheofis of Pius, petitions were prefented to him by
the Pagan priefts, philofophers, and governors of pro¬
vinces, i n order to excite him to perfecute the Chri-
ftians •, which he rejedfed with indignation, and inter-
pofed his authority for their protedlion, by writing a-
letter to the common affembly of Alia, then held at
Ephefus (a). The happinefs which the empire began
to enjoy under thefe two emperors w?as interrupted, in
the year 162, by a, dreadful inundation of the Tiber,
which
(a) Eufebius has preferved this letter, Hift. Ecclef. lib. iv. cap. 13. but he falfely aferibes it to Antoninus
Pius, whereas it was wrote by Marcus Antoninus, as Valerius makes it appear in his annotations on Euiebius.
ANT
Antoninus, •winch deftroyed a vaft number of cattle, and occafioned
r v a famine at Rome. This calamity,was followed by the
Parthian war j and at the fame time the Catti ravaged
Germany and Rhaetia. Lucius Verus went in perfon
to oppofe the Parthians j and Antoninus continued at
• Rome, where his prefence was neceffary.
During this war with the Parthians, about the year
163 or 164, Antoninus fent his daughter Lucilla to
Verus, (he having been betrothed to him in marriage,
and attended her as fap as Brundufmm : he intended to
have conduced her to Syria; but it having been infi-
nuated by fome per&ns, that his defign of going into
the eaft was to claim the honour of having finilhed the
Parthian war, he returned to Rome. The Romans
having gained a viftory over the Parthians, who were
obliged to abandon Mefopotamia, the two emperors
triumphed over them at Rome in the year 166 j and
were honoured with the title of Fathers of their coun¬
try. This year was fatal, on account of a terrible pefti-
lence which fpread itfelf over the whole world, and a
famine under which Rome laboured : it was likewife
in this year that the Marcomanni, and many other peo¬
ple of Germany, took up arms againft the Romans;
but the two emperors having marched in perfon againft
them, obliged the Germans to fue for peace. The war,
however, was renewed the year following, and the two'
emperors marched again in perfon j but Lucius Verus
was feized with an apopleftic fit, and died at Altinum.
The Romans were now defeated with great flaugh-
ter ; and the emperor, not choofing to burden his fub-
jetfts with new taxes, expofed to public fale the furni¬
ture of the palace, the gold and filver plate belonging
to the crown, arid his wife’s rich garments embroidered
with gold, and a curious colledion of pearls, which Adrian
had purchafed during his long progrefs through the pro¬
vinces of the empire, and was called Adrian's cabinet.
In the year 170, Antoninus made vaft preparations
againft the Germans, and carried on the war with great
vigour. During this war, in 174, a very extraordinary
event is faid to have happened, which, according to
Dion Caflius, wras as follows : Antoninus’s army being
blocked up by the Quadi, in a very difadvantageous
place, where there was no poflibility of procuring wa¬
ter \ in this fituation, being worn out with fatigue and
wounds, opprefied with heat and thirft, and incapable
of retiring or engaging the enemy, in an inftant the
Iky was covered with clouds, and there fell a vaft
quantity of rain : the Roman army were about to
quench their thirft, when the enemy came upon them
with fuch fury, that they muft certainly have been de¬
feated, had it not been for a fhower of hail, accompa¬
nied with a ftorm of thunder and lightning, which fell
I 446 ]
ANT
upon the enemy, without the leaft annoyance to the AntoniiM
Romans, who by this means gained the vidory ( b ).
In 175, Antoninus made a treaty with feveral nations
of Germany. Soon after, Avidius Caftius, governor
of Syria, revolted from the emperor : this infurredion,
however, vras put 'an end to by the death of Caflius,
who was killed by a centurion named Anthony. An¬
toninus behaved with great lenity towards thofe who
had been engaged in Caffius’s party ; he would not
put to death, nor imprifon, nor even fit in judgment
himfelf upon any of the fenators engaged in this re¬
volt j but he referred them to the fenate, fixing a day
for their appearance, as if it had been only a civil affair.
He wrote alfo to the fenate, defiring them to ad with
indulgence rather than feverity ; not to Ihed the blood
of any fenator or perfon of quality, or of any other per¬
fon whatfoeverj but to allow this honour to his reign,
that, even under the misfortune of a rebellion, none
had loft their lives, except in the firft heat of the tu¬
mult. In 176, Antoninus vifited Syria and Egypt:
the kings of thofe countries, and ambaffadors alfo from
Parthia, came to vifit him. He ft aid feveral days at
Smyrna \ and, after he had fettled the affairs of the
eaft, went to Athens, on which city he conferred feve¬
ral honours, and appointed public profeflbrs there.
From thence he returned to Rome with his fon Corn-
modus, whom he chofe conful for the year following,
though he was then but 16 years of age, having obtain¬
ed a difpenfation for that purpofe. On the 27th of
September, the fame year, he gave him the title of
Imperator ; and on the 23d of December, he entered
Rome in triumph, with Commodus, on account of the
vidories gained over the Germans. Dion Caflius tells
us, that he remitted all the debts which were due to
himfelf and the public treafury during 46 years, from
the time that Hadrian had granted the fame favour,
and burnt all the writings relating to thofe debts. He
applied himfelf likewife to corred many enormities,
and introduced feveral excellent regulations. In the
year 179, he left Rome with his fon Commodus, in
order to go againft the Marcomanni, and other bar¬
barous nations ; and the year following gained a confi-
derable vidory over them, and would, in all probabi¬
lity, have entirely fubdued them in a very {hort time,
had he not been taken with an illnefs, which carried
him off on the 17th of March 180, in the 59th year of
his age, and 19th of his reign. The whole empire re¬
gretted the lofs of fo valuable a prince, and paid the
greateft regard to his memory : he was ranked amongft
the gods, and almoft every perfon had a ftatue of him
in their houfes. His book of meditations has been
much admired by the beft judges.
Antonine's
(b) The Pagans, as well as Chriftians, according to Mr Tillemont (p. 621. art. xvi.), have acknowledged
the truth of this prodigy, but have greatly differed as to the caufe of fucb a miraculous event •, the former afcri-
bing it, fome to one magician and fome to another : In Antoninus’s pillar, the glory is afcribed to Jupiter, the
god of rain and thunder. But the Chriftians affirmed, that God granted this favour at the prayer of the Chri-
ftian foldiers in the Roman army, who are faid to have compofed the twelfth or Melitene legion 5 and, as a mark
of diftinftion, we are told that they received the title of the Thundering Legion, from Antoninus (Eufeb. Ec-
clef. Hift. lib. v. cap. 3.) Mr Moyle^ in the letters publifhed in the fecond volume of his works, has endea¬
voured to explode this ftory of the Thundering Legion; which occafioned Mr Whifton to publifh an anfwer, in
1726, entitled, Of the Thundering Legion ; or. Of the miraculous deliverance of Marcus Antoninus and his army,
upon the prayers of the ChriJHans.
ANT [
Antonim:s. diiTONiNt's Column. See Column.
v Antoninus's Wall, the name of the third rampart or
detence that had been built or repaired by the Romans
againil the incurfions of the North Britons. It is call¬
ed by the people in the neighbourhood, Graham's Dyke;
from the notion that one Graham, or Grimus, firit made
a breach in it after the retreat of the Romans out of
Britain. The fir ft barrier ere&ed by the Romans was
♦ See Agri- the chain of forts made by Agricola * from the frith of
lorth to that of Clyde, in the year 81, to protect his
conquefts from the inroads of the Caledonians, The
* See Adri- fecond was the vallum, or dyke, flung up by Adrian f
in the year 12r. It terminated on the weftern fide of
the kingdom at Axelodunum, or Brugh, on the Solway
lands, and was fuppofed to have reached no further
than Pons JElli, or Newcajlle, on the eaftern. But from
an infcription lately difcovered, it appears to have ex-
$ See Sevc- tended as far as the wall of Severus |. This rampart
r,ls. of Adrian’s was fituated much farther fouth than A-
gricola’s chain 5 the country to the north having been
either, according to fome authors, recovered by the na¬
tive Britons after the departure of Agricola j or, ac¬
cording to others, voluntarily flighted by Adrian.
However, this work of Adrian’s did not long continue
to be the extreme boundary of the Roman territories
to the north in Britain. For Antoninus Pius, the
adopted ion and immediate fucceflbr of Adrian, hav-
by his lieutenant Lollius Urbicus, recovered the
country once conquered by Agricola, commanded ano¬
ther rampart to be eredled between the friths of Forth
and Clyde, in the track where Agricola had formerly
built his chain of forts.' T he great number of infcrip-
tions which have been found in or near the ruins of
this wall, or rampart, to the honour of Antoninus Pius
leave us no room to doubt its having been built by his
dire cl ion and command. If the fragment of a Roman
pillar wfth an micnption, now in the college library of
Lain burgh, belonged to this work, as it is generally
iuppofed to have done, it fixes the date of its execution
to the third confullhip of Antoninus, which was A. D.
140, only 20 years after that of Adrian, of which this
ieems to have been an imitation. This wall or ram-
part as fome imagine, reached from Caer-ridden on
t.ie frith of forth to Old Kirkpatrick on the Clyde-
o:, as others think, from Kinniel on the eaft to Dun-
gia.s on the weft.. Thefe different fuppofitions hardly
make a mile of difference in the length of this work
which, from feveral a&ual menfurations, appears to’
have.been 37 Engllfh or 40 Roman miles. Capitoli-
nus, m Ins life of Antoninus Pius, dire&ly affirms, that
1 ie, W^| ,wHcb that, emperor built in Britain was of
turi. I his in the main is unqueftionably true 5 thoup'h
it is evident (from the veftiges of it ffiill remaining,
which not very many years ago were dug up and ex¬
amined for near a mile together) that the foundation
was of itone. Mr Camden alfo tells us, from the pa¬
pers of one Mr Anthony Pont, that the principal ram¬
part was.faced with fquare ftone, to prevent the earth
worn falling into the ditch. The chief parts of this
worK were as follows : 1. A broad and deep ditch
whole dimenfions cannot now be difcovered with cer¬
tainty.and exaPtnefs, though Mr Pont fays, it was 12
feet wide.. 2. The principal wall or rampart was about
12 met thick at the foundation, but its original height
cannot now be determined. This wall was fitnat.
447 I ANT
the fouth brink of the ditch. 3. A military way on Antoninus*
the fouth. fide of the principal wall, well paved, and
rafted a little above the level of the ground. This
work, as well.as that of Adrian, was defended by gar-
iiions placed in forts and ftations along the line ei it.
The number of thefe forts or ftations, whofe veftiges
were vifible in Mr Font’s time, was 18, fituated at
about the diftance of two miles from each other. In
the intervals between the forts, there were turrets or
watch towers. But the number of thefe, and their
diftan.ce from each other, cannot now be difcovered.
It is not a little furprifing, that though it is now
more than 1600 years fince this work was finiflied, and
more than 1300 fince it was flighted, we can yet dif-
cover, from authentic monuments, which are ftill re¬
maining, by what particular bodies of Roman troops
almoft every part of it was executed. This difeovery
is. made from inferiptions upon ftones, which were ori¬
ginally built into the face of the wall, and have been
found in or near its ruins, and are carefully preferved-
1 ne number of ftones with inferiptions of this kind now-
extant, is 11 : of which fix may be feen at one view in
the college of Glafgow, one in the college of Aber¬
deen, one in the college of Edinburgh, one in the col-
leudon of Baron Clerk, one at Cochnoch houfe, and
one at Calder houfe. From thefe inferiptions it ap¬
pears in general, that this great work was executed bv
the fecond legion, the vexillations of the fixth legiok
and ot the twentieth legion, and one cohort of auxilia¬
ries. If thefe corps were all complete, they would
ma.ke.m all a body of 7800 men. Some of thefe inT
fenptions have fuffered greatly by the injuries of time
and other accidents; fo that we cannot difeover from
them, with abfolute certainty, how- many paces of this
work were executed by each of thefe bodies of troops.
The fum of the.certain and probable information con¬
tained in thefe inferiptions, as it is collePed by the
learned and illuftrious Mr Horfley, Hands thus :
The fecond legion built , -
ft he vexillation of the fixth legion
The vexillation of the twentieth legion
11,603
7411
7801
All certain
The vexillation of the twentieth legion, the mo¬
nument certain, and the number probable
The fame vexillation, on a plain monument, no
number vifible, fuppofed
ft he fixth legion, a monument, but no number
fuppofed - . ’
Cohors prima Cugernortim
26,815
34ii
3500
3000
3000
Total
39,726
or 39 miles 726 paces, nearly the whole length of the
w-ali. It would have been both ufeful and agreeable to
have Known how long time thefe troops were employ¬
ed in the execution of this great work. But of this
w-e have no information. Neither do we know what
particular bodies of troops were in garrifon in the fe¬
veral forts and ftations along the line of this wall, be-
caui'e thefe garrifons were withdraw-n before the Not ilia
Imperii was written.
Fhough we cannot difeover exaclly how- many years
. 1 thin.
ANT
[ 448 1
ANT
Antor.lo. tliis wall of the emperor Antoninus continued to be
1 *   the boundary of the Roman territories in Britain, yet
we know with certainty that it was not very long. 1‘ or
we are told by an author of undoubted credit, that, in
2);9,1. 72, the reign of Commodus, A. D. 180, “ he had wais
p. 802. with feveral foreign nations, but none fo dangerous as
that of Britain. For the people of the ifland, having
paffed the wall which divided them from the Romans,
attacked them, and cut them to pieces.”
ANTONIO, Nicholas, knight of the order of St
James and canon of Seville, did great honour to the
Spanifh nation by his Bibliotheque of their writers.
He was born at Seville in 1617, being the fon of a
gentleman whom King Philip IA. made prefident of
the admiralty eftablilhed in that city in 1626. After
having gone through a courfe of philofophy and divi¬
nity in his owm country, he went to ftudy law at Sala¬
manca ; where he clofely attended the leaures of Fran-
cifco Ramos del Manzano, afterwards counfellor to the
king and preceptor to Charles II. Upon his return to
Seville, after he had finifhed his law lludies at Sala¬
manca, he {hut himfelf up in the royal monaftery of
Benediaines, where he employed himfelf feveral years
in writing his Bibhotbecu llifpanicci, having the ufe of
the books of Bennet de la Sana, abbot of that mona¬
ftery and dean of the faculty of divinity at Salamanca.
In the year 1659, he wras lent to Rome by King Phi¬
lip IV. in the charaaer of agent general from this
prince : he had alfo particular commiflions from die
inquifition of Spain, the viceroys of Naples and Sicily,
and the governor of Milan, to negotiate their affairs at
Rome. The cardinal of Arragon procured him, from
Pope Alexander VII. a canonry in the church.of Se¬
ville, the income whereof he employed in charity and
purchafing of books j. he had above 30,000 volumes in
his library. By this help, joined to continual labour,
and indefatigable application, he was at laft enabled to
finiih his Bibliotheca Hifpanica, in four volumes in fo¬
lio, two of which he publiihed at Rome in the year
1672. The work confifts of two parts ; the one con¬
taining the Spamff wTiters who ilouriflied before the
13th century, and the other thole {luce the end of thas,
century. After the publication of thefe two volumes,
he was recalled to lYIadrid by King Charles II. to take
upon him the office of counfellor to the crulade j which
he difcharged with great integrity till his death, which
happened in 1684. He left nothing at his death but
his vaft library, which he had brought from Rome to
Madrid •, and his two brothers and nephews being un¬
able to publifh the remaining volumes of his Biblio¬
theca, fent them to Cardinal d’Aguiine, who paid the
charge of the imprefiion, and committed the care there¬
of to Monfieur Marti, his librarian, who added notes
to them in the name of the cardinal.
Antonio, St, one of the Cape de \'erd itlands,
lying in E. Long. o. 26. N. Lat. 18. 10. It is fe-
parated from St Vincent’s by a clear navigable chan¬
nel two leagues in breadth. On the north ilde it has a
good road for hipping, with a colleftion of frefh v.a-
ter rifing from fprings, which, however, fcarcely merits
the name of a pond. The ifland ftretches from north-
eaft to fouth-weft, and is filled with mountains ; one of
which is of fo extraordinary a height, as to be compa¬
red with the Peak of Teneriffe: Its top is conftantly
covered with fnow, and, notwithilanding the clearnefs
of the Iky, is generally hid in clouds. Here are pro¬
duced a variety of fruits j oranges, lemons, palms, me-
Ions, &c. and fome fugar canes. The potatoes and
melons are particularly excellent, and are much iouglit
after by mariners. But notwdthftanding all this p±en-
ty, the inhabitants live in the mod wretched poverty.
They are in number about 500, chiefly negroes, un¬
der the prote&ion of the Portuguefe, whofe language
they fpeak, and imitate their manners. To the north-
weft ft and s a village, containing about twenty nuts 9
and at leaft 50 families, under the direftion of a go¬
vernor, or, as they call him, a captain, a prieft, and a
fchoolmafter. < .
Antonio, St, a Hutch fort in Axim, on -he Gold
coaft of Africa. It ftands on a high rock, which pro-
je£ts into the fea in form of a peninfula 5 and is fo en¬
vironed by rocks and dangerous (hoals, as to be inac-
ceflible to an enemy but by land, where it is -mortified
by a parapet, drawTbfidge, and twro batteries of hetivy
cannon. Befides this it has a battery towards the fea.
The three batteries confift of 24 cannon. Its form is
triangular 9 the building is neat, ftrong, and commo¬
dious for the extent, that being but {mall., on account
of the narrowneis of the rocK 011 which it is built. I ne
garrifon is ufually compofed of 25 white men, and an
equal number of negroes, under the command of a fer-
jeant. It is maintained at the expence of the Weft
India Company 9 and when wTell ftored vvith provifions,
is capable of making a long defence againft any num¬
ber of negroes. It is, however, as well as all other forts
on this coaft, liable to inconveniences from the heavy
and continual rains, wdiich damage the walls, and ren¬
der frequent reparations neceffary. This obliges the
Dutch always to keep ready a quantity of lime or ce¬
ment made of calcined oyfter {hells, of which the coaft
produces great numbers. This fettlement was fir ft
founded by the Portuguefe during the reign of Ema¬
nuel. They fixed it firft upon a fmall point 9 where,
finding themfelves infecure, they built the fort where it
now ftands. They were driven out by the Dutch in
1642 9 and, upon the conclufion of a peace with the
States'General, the fort remained by treaty in the hands
of the Dutch Weft India Company, who have kept
poffeflion of it ever fince.
ANTONIUS Marcus, a famous Roman orator.
While he filled the office of praetor, Sicily fell to his
lot, and he cleared the feas of the pirates which infeft-
ed'that coaft. He was made conful with A. Pofthumi-
us Albinus, in the year of Rome 653 9 when he oppof-
ed the turbulent defigns of Sextus Titusr tribune of
the people, with great refolution and.fuccefs. Some
time after, he was made governor of Cilicia, in quality
of proconful 9 where he performed fo many great ex¬
ploits, that he obtained the honour of a triumph. W*
Antonio*
Antoniui.
cannot omit obferving, that, in order to improve his
o-reat talent for eloquence, he became, a fcholar to the
greateft men at Rhodes and Athens, in his wTay to Ci¬
licia, and when on his return to Rome. Soon after, he
was appointed cenfor 9 which office he difcharged with
great reputation, having carried his caufe before the
people, againft Marcus Duronius, who had preferred
an accufation of bribery againft him, in revenge for
Antonius’s having erafed bis name out of the lift o.
fenators, which this wife cenfor had done, became JJu-
ronius, when tribune of the people, had abrogated a
7 law
ANT- [
Antcninus. lawwnicli reftrained irmnoderate expence in feafts.
> ~Tlt~' was one of the greateft orators ever known at Rome j
and it was owing to him, according to the teftimony of
Cicero, that Rome might boaft herielf a rival even to
Greece itfelf in the art of eloquence. He defended,
amongft many others, Marcus Aquilius ;* and moved
the judges in fo fenfible a manner, by the tears he fhed,
and the fears he fhowed upon the breaft of his client,
that he carried his caufe. He never would publilh any
of his pleadings, that he might not, as he fajd, be
proved to fay in one caufe, what might be contrary to
what he Oiould advance in another. He affected to be
a man of no learning. His modefty, and many other
qualifications, rendered him no lefs dear to many per-
ions of diftinftion, than his eloquence made him uni-
verfally admired. He was unfortunately killed dur¬
ing thofe bloody confufions raifed at Rome by Marius
and Cinna. He was difeovered in the place where he
had hid himfelf, jmd foldiers were fent to defpatch him :
but his manner of addreffmg them had fuch an effeft,
that none but he who commanded them, and had not
heard his difeourfe, had the cruelty to kill him. His
head was expofed before the roftra, a place which he
had adorned with his triumphal fpoils. This happen¬
ed 90 years before the Chriftian era.
Antonius, Marcus, the triumvir, grandfon to the
former, was very handfome in his youth 5 for which
reafon he was greatly beloved by Curio, a fenator, who,
by carrying him about in all his debaucheries, made him
contrafl fuch heavy debts, that his own father forbade
him his houfe. Curio, however, was fo generous as to
bail him for 250 talents. When the civil war broke
out. Curio took Caefar’s party, and prevailed with An-
tonius to do the fame 5 for which he was made a tri¬
bune of the people, and in that office did Caefar great
fervice. C;efar having made himfelf mafter of Rome,
gave Antonins the government of Italy : At the battle
of Pharfalia, Caefar confided fo much in him, that he
gave him the command of the left wing of his army,
whilft he himfelf led the right. After Caefar was made
dilator he made Antonins general of the horfe, though
he had never been praetor; in which command he ex¬
erted his power with the utmoft violence. He was made
conful, when Cmfar enjoyed that honour for the fifth
time, the laft year of that uffirpev’s life. On Ctefar’s
death, he harangued the populace with great art, and
raifed their fury againfl his murderers j flattering him¬
felf that he ffiould eafily get into the place which Cae¬
far had filled 5 but his haughty behaviour made him
lofe all the advantages his affected concern for Ceefar
had gained him. His ill treatment of Q&avius, and
quarrel with him, produced another civil war} which
ended in an accommodation between him, Oftavius, and
Lepidus, fatal to the peace of Rome. They agreed to
fhare the fupreme power among them •, and many of the
moft illuftrious Romans were faerificed by profeription
to cement this bloody league, which is known by the
name of the Second Triumvirate. But the triumvirs
were too ambitious, and hated one another too much,
to be long united. Antonius went into Afia to raife
money for his foldiers; during his abfence, Fulvia his
wife quarrelled with O&avius, When Antonius was in
Afia, Indulging himfelf in all manner of luxury, the
famous Cleopatra infpired him with the moft violent
paffion. Hearing of the quarrel between Fulvia and
Vo Li II. Part II.
449 ] ANT
He Oflavius, and finding Ocfavius urns become publicly his
enemy, Antonius entered into a confederacy with Sex¬
tus Pompeius, who was dill mafter of Sicily. He then
went into Italy, in order to fight Octavius ; but Fulvia,
who had been the author and promoter of this war,
dying, Octavius and Antonius came to an agreement.
One of the conditions of this new peace was, that they
fhould together attack Pompey, though the former had
lately make an alliance with him. Antonius then mar¬
ried Oftavia, fifter to Oitavius, as a pledge of their re
newed friendftup : but returned foon after to his belov¬
ed Cleopatra, and again lived with her in Alexandria.
Octavius took hold of this pretence to inveigh again ft
him, and begin the war again. At laft they engaged
in a fea fight at Aftium, in which Octavius gained a
complete victory 5 which was followed by the deaths
both of Antonius and Cleopatra, The infatuated An¬
tonius fell upon his own fword 5 and Cleopatra ftung
herfelf to death with an afp, as was fuppofed, to avoid
gracing the victor’s triumph at Rome.
ANTONOMASI A, a form of fpeech, in which,
for a proper name, is put the name of feme dignity,
office, profeffion, feience, or trade ) or when a proper
name is put in the room of an appellative. Thus a
king is called his majejfy; a nobleman, his lordjhip.
We fay x\\a philofopber in Head of Ariftotle, and the ora¬
tor for Cicero : Thus a man is called by the name of
his country, a German, an Italian ; and a grave man is
called a Cato, and a wife man a Solomon.
ANTOSIANDRIANS, a fe<ft of rigid Lutherans,
who oppofe the dodrine of Ofiander relating to juftifi-
catiom Thefe are otherwife denominated OJiandro.
majligesAntofiandrians deny that man is made
juft, with that juftice wherewith God himfelf is juft ;
that is, they aftert, that he is not made eflentially, but
only imputatively, juft 5 or, that he is not really made
juft, but only pronounced fo.
ANTRIM, the moft northerly county of Ireland.
It is bounded by that of Down on the fouth-eaft,
that of Londonderry on the weft, from which it is fe-
parated by the river Bann, part of Armagh on the
Ibuth, St George’s channel on the eaft, and the Deu-
Caledonian ocean on the north. Its greateft length is
about 46 miles, its greateft breadth about 27 ; and the
number of acres it contains, plantation meafure, is
computed at 383,000. Though the country is much
encumbered with bogs and mrarfhes, yet it enjoys a
pretty good air, and is well peopled, chiefly with Pro-
teftants. Where it is free from bogs the foil is fruit¬
ful. It lends two members for the (hire, and two for
each of the following towns, viz. Lilburn, Belfaft,
Antrim, and Randalftown.
Certain narrow valleys, called glyus, beginning here,
and running a great way along the coaft, belonged
formerly to the Biflets, noblemen of Scotland, who,
having been obliged to quit that country for having
affaffinated Patrick earl of Athole upon a private quar¬
rel, came hither, and had a great eftate bellowed up-1,
on them by Henry III. of England ; of which, in the
reign of Edward II. a part was forfeited by the rebel¬
lion of Hugh, then chief of the family. Another
traft near this, called the RoiOtc, belonged anciently
to the Macguillers, but now to the M‘Donnels earls
of Antrim,
Upon the coaft: of-this county are the promontories^
3 L called
Artonajpa
fm
!!
Antnm.
ANT [ 450 J ANT
called by Ptolemy, Robogdium, Vennicinium, and Bo-
rtf urn, now Fair Foreland, Ramfkead, and St Helen's
head. The rivet- alfo, ftyled by the fame author Vi¬
dua, and now Crodach, runs through this county.—
Here alfo is the remarkable natural curiofity called
the Giant's Caufeway, for a particular defcription of
which fee that article.
Antrim, the capital town of the county of An¬
trim, in Ireland, feated at the north end of the lake
Lough Neagh, about fix miles from the mouth of the
bay, having a good road before it, with a pier near
the place, within which veffels lie dry at low w7ater.
It was anciently a borough of great confequence, as
appears from the mayor’s being admiral of a confider-
able extent of coaft, as well in Dowrn as in this coun¬
ty ; the corporation enjoying the cuftoms paid by all
velfels within thofe bounds, the creeks of Bangor and
Belfaft only excepted. This grant, however, the crown
repurchafed, and thereupon transferred the cuftom-
houfe to Belfaft, to which town it is now much infe¬
rior as well in fize as in trade. It is, however, ftill a
place of note, and fends twm members to the houfe of
commons. It gives the title of earl to the noble fa¬
mily of M‘Donnel.—At Antrim is a feat, with noble
demefnes, and beautiful and highly cultivated lands, of
the earl of Malfareene. W. Long. 6. 26. N. Lat.
54-4?-
ANTRUM, among Anatomijls, a term ufed to de¬
note feveral cavities of the body : as the antrum high-
morianum, or that in the maxillary or jaw bone j an¬
trum pylori, or that at the bottom of the pylorus, &c.
ANTWERP, a city of the duchy of Brabant, in
the Auftrian Netherlands, capital of the marquifate of
Antwerp, otherwife called the marquifate of the holy
Roman empire, fituated in E. Long. 4. 15. N. Lat. 51.
12. It lies in a low marfhy ground on the Scheld,
24 miles from BruiTels to the north. It is the third
city in rank in Brabant, large and wTell built, contain¬
ing 22 fquares, and above 200 ftreets, all ftraight and
broad, efpecially that called the Mere, in which fix
coaches can go abreaft. Moft of the houfes are of
freeltone, and have an air of antiquity, being high,
■with courts before and gardens behind. At the head
of the Mere is a crucifix of brafs thirty-three feet high.
The cathedral dedicated to the Virgin Mary, the
Itadthoufe, and the exchange, are magnificent ftruc-
tures: the latter is the firft building of that kind in
Europe, and on its model the exchanges of London
and Amfterdam are built. Its pillars are all of blue
marble, and carved, but all in a different manner.
The exchange coft the city 300,000 crowns. Ant¬
werp, towards the end of the fifteenth century, wTas
one of the moft celebrated towms that ever exifted.
The Scheld, on which it ftands, being 20 feet deep at
low water, and rifing 20 feet more at flood, (hips of the
greateft burden came tip to the quays, as in the river
Thames at London j but when the United Provinces
formed themfelves into a free ftate, after having Ihaken
off the yoke of Spain, they got the entire command of
the navigation of the Scheld } which ruined the trade
of Antwerp, and transferred it to Amfterdam. This
made the inhabitants turn their heads to painting,
jewelling, and banking, which they have continued to
this day with great fuccefs and reputation 5 for at Ant¬
werp bills of exchange may be negotiated for any fum
to any part of Europe ; and m the time of Queen Antwerp.
Anne’s wars, two brothers of the name of De Koning,
paid the one the army of France, and the other that of
the confederates. Befides, here is a fine manufacture
of tapeftry and lace 5 and, for the promoting of trade,
an infurance company has beep ereCled. This city is
the fee of a bifhop, who, as abbot of St Bernard, is
the fecond prelate in Brabant. The bifhopric is of
great extent, and the cathedral a moft noble pile, with
one of the fineft fteeples in the world. The emperor
Charles V. -when he made his entry into Antwerp,
faid it ought to be put in a cafe, and ftiowed only once
a year for a rarity. The houfe of the hanfe towns,
built when the city was in its flouriftiing condition, is
a ftately building, with magazines above for dry goods,
and cellars below for wet, and in the middle ftory
were 300 lodging rooms for merchants j but now it is
turned to a horfe barrack. There is a market here
called the Friday's market, becaufe it is held every
Friday, where all forts of houfehold goods, pictures,
and jewels, are fold by auClion. No city in the Ne¬
therlands has fo many and fo fine churches as this.
Many of them, particularly the cathedral and Jefuits
church, are adsrned with paintings, by Sir Peter Paul
Reubens, who was a native of this city 5 and by Quin-
tin Maffeys, who is faid to have been a blackfmith j
but having fallen in love with a painter’s daughter,
and been told by her father, when he alked her of
him in marriage, that he would have none but a paint¬
er for his fon-in-law', he went to Italy to ftudy paint¬
ing, and, in a few years, returned fo eminent in his
new profeflion, that he found no difficulty in obtain¬
ing the father’s confent. He is interred at the entry
of the cathedral, where his effigy is put up, with an
infcription, fignifying, that conjugal love made an A-
pelles of a blackfmith. The above-mentioned Jefuits
church is extremely magnificent, and the chapel of
the Virgin, joining to it, ftill more fo. Among the
cloifters the moft remarkable are, the noble and lich
abbey of St Michael, on the banks of the Scheld, the
apartments of which are truly royal, and in which all
fovereign princes that pafs this way aClually lodge 5
and the Englifli nunnery, of the order of St Tereia,
the nuns of which never wear linen, nor eat flefli, and
lie upon ftraw : the grates of the convent are fo dif-
mal, that it looks like a prifon. As to the fortifica¬
tions of the city, it is environed with a fine wall, plant¬
ed with rows of trees on each fide, with wralks between,
broad enough for twro coaches to go abreaft, being alfo
defended by a very ftrong, large, regular citadel, in
form of a pentagon, eretted by the duke of Alva in
1568, which commands the towm and the neighbour¬
ing country. The magiftracy of this city is chofen
only out of the feven patrician families ; and confifts
of two burgomafters and 18 echevins, befides inferior
magiftrates. Among the privileges granted to it by
its princes, there is one by which every perfon born in
it is a citizen, though both his father and mother were
foreigners.
In 1585, Antwerp underwent a remarkable fiege
by the duke of Parma. It was then the moft wealthy
city in the Netherlands, and had long been the objecft
of his defigns •, but the difficulties attending the enter-
prife obliged him to poftpone it for a confiderable time.
In order to fucceed, it was neceffary to cut off the
communication.
ANT
Antwerp, communication of the city with Holland, Ghent, and
‘ all places above and below Antwerp on the Scheld,
To elfeft this, he laid fiege to Liikenhoulk and d’illo,
places of the utmoft conlequence to the fecurity and
commerce of the city : both were obftinately defend^
•ed \ and the fiege of the latter was railed, after it had
been carried on for three months : however, the duke
gained feveral other polls on the river, where he built
forts,. and greatly annoyed the {hipping and trade of
the city. He next laid fiege to Pendermonde, in or,
der to cut off the communication with Ghent, in which
he fycceeded by the redu&ion of the tow n. His next
attempt was on Vilvorde : this place he took by af-
fault, and thereby cut off the communication with
Bruffels, Finding, however, this method of hemming
in the city tedious, and ineffe£lual w’hile an opening
to the mouth of the river remained, he formed a de*
lign of building a bridge acrofs the Scheld, the extre,
mities of which w-ere to be defended by ftrong forts
and outworks, He began with coile&ing great quan,
titles of wood at Gallo and Fort St Philip, where he
intended the bridge ffiould be built} but his projedff
was for fome time retarded by the Antwerpeis, wThq
broke down the dykes, overdotved the whole country,
and carried off his magazines by the inundation, Not
difcouraged by this lofs, he applied himfelf diligently
to repair it, and with incredible expedition cut a canal
from Steken to Callo, by which he carried off the w’a*
ters, He then fet to work upon the bridge, and Q.
niliied it in feven months, without any interruption
from the Zealanders, During the building of this
bridge, Aldegonde, governor of Antwerp, propofed
to build a fort on Convenffeyn dyke, in order to fe»
cure that important poft, and then breaking doxvn the
dyke when the bridge xvas near dnilhed ; but he was
violently oppofed by certain citizens, who apprehend-
t-d that their lands and villas would be deffroyed by
the inundation. This unfeafonable dppofition, with
the negligence of the magiftrates, who, becaufe the
maikets were high, had not laid in a fufficient ffock
of corn, occafioned the lofs of the eity, However, in
dcfpite of all the duke of Parma’s precautions, the
Zealanders found means to throw in a convoy of corn *
hut the citizens, knowing they would hot run the rids,
or carrying it back again, lb cheapened the price, that
thefe bold traders reftifed ever to bring their goods
ugain to lb bad a market. The Antwerpers, having
thus through avarice brought on their ruin, began in
•* 'hort time to fuffer by famine $ they then prefled the
Zealanders to attempt feroetbing for their relief/but it
was now too late. While the magiffrates were ddibe,
rating on fome means for dedroving the bridge, which
they might have prevented from being ever completed,
one Guiebelli, a Mantunn engineer, offered his fer*
vices, undertaking at a certain expence to blow' it into
toe air. Even in this extremity the expence was
grudged ; but neceffity at laft overcame this obffsde s
Ginebelli was furni(lied with two large veflels, a num¬
ber of frnall boats, and every thing neccffary, He
formed the two large veffels into fire flrips, which he
let adint wuh the ffream, deceiving the enemy by
means of falfe fires lighted up in the fleet of fmall
boats. The train of one of the fire fliipg was expended
before the time expected, and fne blew up with a ter-
xiole cxplofion, but with little damage to the bridge,
E 4H ]
A N U
The other was more fuccefsful, carrying off all the Ar
outworks, fetting fire to the whole bridge, and bury¬
ing above 5C0 foldiers in the ruins it made. The fire, U"'
however, was (bon extinguiffied, and the bridge re¬
paired by the duke of Parma, while the Antwerpers
were prevented by avarice from repeating the experi¬
ment x, fo that they were foon reduced to the greateft
limits, and obliged to furrender. It is faid that the.
city of Amfterdam had obftrmfted every meafure for
the relief of Antwerp, hoping to profit by its dellruc-
tion. It was not doubted but the Protcftants would
forfake it as foon as it fell into the hands of an arbi¬
trary Catholic prince j and this conjeflure was foon
fulfilled by the removal of many families with their ef,
fe&s to Am{terdam._wAfter the battle of Ramillier,
the city of Antwerp furrendered to the duke of Marl¬
borough, It was taken by the French in 1746, but
rellored to the houfe of Auftria at the treaty of Aix-
1??-Chapeile,
ANUBIS, a fymbolical deity of the Egyptians, was
regarded as the faithful companion of Ofiris and of
Ifis, Temples and priefts were coniecrated to hims
and his image was borne in all religious ceremonies.
Cynopolis, the prefent Minieh, fftuated in the Low¬
er Thebais, was built in honour of Anubis. The
temple wherein he was warfhipped no longer fubfifts,
I he pnefts celebrated his fcftivals there with great
pomp, and confecrated the dog to him as his living
reprefentation, « Anubis (fays Strabo) is the city of
dogs, the capital of the Cynopolitan prefecture. Thefa
animals are fed there on faered aliments, and religion
has decreed them a wQr^Tup»*, An ei'ent, however, re¬
lated by Plutarch, brought them into confiderable dif,
credit with the people, Cambyfe* having (lain the
god Apis, and thrown his body into a field, all ani¬
mals refpe&ed it except the dogs, which alone ate of
bis^ flefh, This impiety diminUhed the popular vene¬
ration for them,
Cynopolis was not the only eity which burned in-
cenfe on the altars of Anubis. He had chapel® in ak
moft all the temples. On folemnities, his image al¬
ways accompanied thofe of Ifis and Ofiris, Rome hav¬
ing adopted the ceremonies of Egypt, the emperor
Commodus, to celebrate the Ifiac feaffs, ihaved his
head, and himfelf carried the god Anubis, The ffa-
tue of this god was either of maffive gold or gilt, as
well as the attributes that accompanied him. Anubis
fignifies gilded. The denomination tvas myllerious *
and the Egyptian prieffs, ft would feem, had not gi¬
ven it without reaibn, 5
The fignificatipn of this emblematical deity is thus
explained by Plutarch : “ The circle which touches
and Separates the two hcmifpheres, and which is the
caufe of this divifion, receiving the name of bormon,
is called dlnubis. He is reprefented under the form of
a dog, beanie that animal watches day and night,
St Clemens of Alexandria, who was well informed in
the rnyflic theology of the Egyptians, favours this ex¬
plication. The two dogs, fays he, (the two Anubes)
are the^fymbolg of two hemifphercs which environ the
terreftrial globe. He adds in another place : Others
pretend that thefe animals, the faithful guardians of
men, indicate the tropics, which guard the fun on the
ihutli and on the north like porters,
According to the former of thefe interpretations,
3L
the
ADR [ 452 ] A O R
Arm Si j the prieits, regarding Anubis as the horizon, gilded
II . his ftatue j to mark, that this circle, receiving the firft
, rays of the fun, appears fparkling with brightnefs on
his riling, and that at his fettinghe refle&s his lalt rays
upon the eartlt. They faid in their facred fables, that
Anubis was the fon of Ofiris, but illegitimate. In faff,
he only gives to the earth a borrowed light •, and can¬
not be efteemed, like Horus, as the father of the day,
or as the legitimate offspring of Ofiris. It may be add¬
ed, that the vifible horizon turning with the fun, is
his infeparable companion.
In the latter of thefe explications, where Anubis
reprefents the tropics, he is alio the faithful guardian
of Ills and Qliris. In facl, the courfe of the fun and
of the moon is contained between the ciixles wherein
the folilices are performed. They neither deviate to
the right nor left. Thefe limits affigned by the Au¬
thor of nature might therefore, in hieroglyphic lan¬
guage, be reprefented by a divinity with the head of
a dog, who feemed to oppofe their paffage on the fide
of the two poles. The other opinion, notwithftand-
ing, feems more natural, and to be more analogous to
the ideas of the priefts.
Upon the whole, it is reafonable to imagine, that
Anubis at firft was only a fymbolical image, invented
by aftronomers to give a fenfible expreflion of their
difeoveries ; that afterwards, the people, accuftomed
to fee it in their temples, which were the depofitaries
of fcience, adored it as a deity *, and that the priefts
favoured their ignorance by connecting it with their
religion. The worfhip of Anubis introduced, that of
the dog became his emblem. Almoft all the gods of
the Gentiles have originated in this manner.
ANUS, in Anatomy, the lower extremity of the in-
teftinum refturn, or orifice of the fundament.
ANVIL, a fmith’s utenfil, ferving to place the
work on to be hammered or forged. 'I he face or up-
permoft furface of the anvil, muft be very flat and
fmooth, without flaws, and fo hard that a file will not
touch it. At one end there is fometimes a pike, bic-
kern or "beak-iron, for the rounding of hollow wTork.
The whole is ufually mounted on a firm wooden
block.—Forged anvils are better than thofe of call
work, and the beft have the upper part made of fteel.
Lockfmiths have a fmaller kind of anvil called thtjlahe,
which is moveable, and placed ordinarily on their
work bench. Its ufe is for fetting fmail cold, work
ftraight, or to cut or punch on with the cold chiffel or
cold punch.
ANXUR, in Ancient Geography, a city of the Vol-
fet, in Latium ; called Tarracina, by the Greek* and
Latins: Now ’Terracina; fituated on an eminence
(Livy, Horace, Sil. Italicus). Anxuras, a citizen
of Anxur (Livy). And the epithet Anxurus, a name
of Jupiter, worfhipped without a beard at Anxur
(Virgil). Though others read Ax liras, or Axyrus,
without a razor. E. Long. 14. 5* Lat. 41. 18.
AONIDES, in Mythology, one of the many appel¬
lations of the Mufes j fo called from Aonia, a part of
ancient Boeotia.
AORASIA, in Antiquity, the invifibility of the
gods. The word is Greek, uooxa-ix, and derived from
« priv. and oeu,o, to fee. The opinion ,of the ancients
with regard to the appearance of the gods to men, was
that they never, fhowed themfelves face to face, but
were known from their backs as they withdrew. Nep-
tumed affumed the form of Calchas to fpeak to the two
Ajaces ; but they knew him not till he turned his back c.
to leave them, and difcoverecl the god by bis majeftic
flep as he went from them. Venus appeared to Aineas
in the character of a huntrefs : but her fon knew her
not till flie departed from him ; her divinity was then
betrayed by her radiant head, her flowing robe, and
her majeftic pace.
AORIST, among Grammarians, a tenfe peculiar
to the Greek language, comprehending all the tenfes ; -
or father, expreffmg action in an indeterminate man¬
ner, without any regard to paft, prefent, or future.
AORISTIA, in the Sceptic Phi/ofophy, denotes that
ftate of the mind wherein we neither affert nor deny
any thing pofitively, but only fpeak of things as feem-
ing or appearing to us in fuch a manner. The aoriltia
is one of the great points or terms of fcepticifm, to
which the philofophers of that denomination had con¬
tinual recourfe by way of explication, or fubterfuge.
Their adverfaries, the dogmatifts, charged them with
dogmatizing, and afferting the principles and pofitions
of their fe£l to be true and certain.
AORNUS, a very high rock of India, having its
name from its extraordinary height, as being above the
flight of a bird. Its circuit was about 25 miles, its
height 11 furlongs, and the way leading up to the top
artificial and narrow. At the bottom, on one fide, ran
the river Indus ; on the top was a fine plain, part of
which was covered with a thick wood ; the reft arable
land, with a fountain furnifliing abundance of excel¬
lent water. This rock was taken by Alexander the
Great, in whofe time there was a report that Hercules
had attempted it in vain j however, according to Ar¬
rian, this report was without foundation. It is proba¬
ble indeed, that it was railed after the place was tak¬
en, in order to magnify Alexander’s exploit. While
the Macedonian monarch was preparing all things ne-
ceffary for the fiege, an old man with his two fons,
who had long lived in a cave near the fummit, came
and offered to ftiow him a private way of afeending.
This being readily accepted, Ptolemy, with a conli-
derable body of light-armed troops, was defpatched
with them, with orders, in cafe they fucceeded, to in¬
trench themfelves ftrongly upon the rock, in the wood
to which the old man was to direft them, before they
ventured to attack the Indians. Ptolemy exactly exe¬
cuted his orders ; and gave notice, by a lighted torch
fet upon a pole, that he had got fafely up. Upon
this, Alexander gave immediate orders for a body ef
troops to attempt the paffage by which the rock was
commonly afeended ; but they were repulfed with great
{laughter." Pie then fent an Indian with letters to Pto¬
lemy, defiring him, the next time an attack was made
by the common way, to fall upon the enemy behind.
But in the mean tinfe, thofe who defended the rock
attacked Ptolemy with great vigour ; but were at laft
repulfed, though with much difficulty : but the next
day, when Alexander renewed the attack, though
Ptolemy attacked the Indians in the rear, the Mace¬
donians were repulfed on both fides. At laft, the king
perceiving that the ftrength of the Indians lay in the
ftraitnefs and declivity of the way by which they were
attacked, caufed a great quantity of trees to be felled,
and with them filled the cavities between the plain.on
which
Aornus.
fia.
A P Ai [
wYrch the Indians were encamped and the higheft
his own advanced polls. The Indians at firft derided
 his undertaking •, but at length perceiving the ardour
with which the work was carried on, and having felt
the effects ot the miffile weapons of the Macedonians,
they fent deputies to propofe terms of capitulation.
Alexander, fulpeeving that their defign was only to
amufe him till they made their cfcape, withdrew his
guards from the avenues. As foon as he knew the
Indians were defeended, he, with 700 of Ptolmy’s
light-armed foot, took pofleffion of the deferted rock,
and then made a fignal for his forces to fall upon the
flying Indians. They, fetting up a loud fhout, fo ter¬
rified the fugitives, that numbers of them fell from
the rocks and precipices, and were dallied to pieces,
while the greateft part of the remainder were cut off
in the roads.
AOR 1 A, in Anatomy, the great artery which rifes
immediately from the left- ventricle of the heart, and
is from thence diftributed to all parts of the body. It
is divided into two grand trunks, diftinguilhed by the
epithets afeending and defeending. See Anatomy.
AOUSFA, or Aost, a town of Italy, in Pied¬
mont, and capital of the duchy of the fame name, a
bifhop’s fee, and fubjeft to the king of Sardinia. It
is remarkable for feveral monuments of the Romans,
and for the birth of Anfelm archbifhop of Canterbury.
It is ieated at the foot of the Alps, on the river Doria.
E. Long. 7. 33. N. Lat. 4*. 38.
Aousta, a territory of Piedmont, with the title of
a duchy. It is a valley 30 miles in length, and ex¬
tends from the pafs of St Martin’s, near the frontiers
of Wree, to St Bernard. It abounds in paftures,
and all forts of fruits. The capital is of the fame
name.
AOU PA, the name of the paper mulberry tree at
Otaneite, in the South fea, from which a cloth is ma-
nufadtured that is worn by the principal inhabitants.
See the article Bark.
APACHES, a people of New Mexico in North
America. I hey are brave, refolute, and warlike, fond
ot liberty, and the inveterate enemies of tyranny and
oppreflion. Of this difpofition the Spaniards had fatal
experience towards the end of the laft century, w-hen
they revolted againfl the Catholic king, maffacred fe¬
veral of his officers, and committed the greateft devaf-
tations. Ever fince, they have remained the allies,
not the fubjects of the Spaniards; and the viceroy of
Mexico has been obliged to maintain a more formida¬
ble garrifon, and a greater number of troops.
„ APyEDUSIA, denotes ignorance or unlkilfulnefs
in what relates to learning and the fciences. Hence
ullo perfons uninftrudfted and illiterate are called apee-
deutcc. 1 he term apeedeutee w-as^ particularly ufed
among the French in the time of Huet ; when the men
of wit at Paris were divided into two fatdions, one
called, by way of reproach apeedeutm, and the others
eruditi. The apeedeutee are reprefented by Huet as per-
fons.who, finding themlelves either incapable or un¬
willing to undergo a fevere courfe of ftudy in order to
become truly learned, confpire to decry learning, and
turn, the knowledge of antiquity into ridicule0, thus
making a merit of their own incapacity. The apee-
dentce in effea were the men of pleafure 5 the eruditi
the men of ftudy. The apccdeutcc in every thing pre-
453 1 A F A
of ferred the modern writers to the ancient, to fuperfede Apagog?
the neceffity of ftudying the latter. The eruditi de- U
rided the moderns, and valued themfelves wholly on , Apamca
their acquaintance with the ancients.
APAGOGE, in Logic. See Abduction.
Apagoge, in the Athenian Law, the carrying a
criminal taken in the fact to the magi ft rate. If the
accufer was not able to bring him to the magiftrate, it
was ufual to take the magiftrate along with him to the
houfe where the criminal lay concealed, or defended
himfelf.
Apagoge, m Mathematics, is fometimes ufed to de¬
note a progrefs or paffage from one propofition to ano¬
ther ; when the firft having been once demonftrated,
is afterwards employed in the proving of others.
APAGOGICAL demonstration, an indireft
way of proof, by Ihowing the abfurdity of the con¬
trary.
APALACHIAN Mountains, more properly
called the Allegany Mountains, have their fouthern be¬
ginning near the bay of Mexico, in the latitude of 30°,
extending northerly on the back of the Britilh colo¬
nies, and running parallel with the fea coaft to the la¬
titude of 40°.north ; but their diftance from the fea,
on the weft, is not exaftly known, though it is gene¬
rally thought to be above 200 miles. A great part of
thefe mountains is covered with rocks, fome of which
are of. a ftupendous height and bulk ; the foil between
them is generally black and Tandy, but in fome places
differently coloured, compofed of pieces of broken
rock and fpar, of a glittering appearance, which feem
to be indications of minerals and ores, if proper fearch
was made for them. Chefnuts and fmall oaks are the
trees that principally grow on thefe mountains, with
fome chinkapin * and other fmall flirubs. The grafs is * Fagus
thin, mixed with vetch and fmall peafe ; and in fome pumila.
places there is very little vegetable appearance.
I he rocks of the Apalachian mountainsTeem to en-
grofs one half of the furface. They are moftly of a
light gray colour ; fome are of a coarfe grained marble
like.alabafter ; others of a metallic luftre : fome pieces
are in the form of flate, and brittle j others in lumps,
and hard : and fome appear with fpangles, or covered
over with innumerable fmall fhining fpecks, like filver.
Thefe frequently appear at the roots of trees when
L.own down. 1 he different fpars are found moftly on
the.higheft and fteepelt parts of the hills, where there
is little grafs and few trees ; but the greateft part of
the foil between the rocks is generally a dark fandy-
coloured kind of mould, and lhallow; yet fertile, and
produftive of good corn, which encourages the Talli-
poofes, a clan of the Cherokee Indians, to fettle among
them in latitude 340 : and they are the only Indian
nation that has a conftant refidence upon thefe moun¬
tains.
. APAMEA, or Apamia, the name of feveral an¬
cient cities.
1 • Orm of Bithynia, formerly called Myrlea, from
Myrlus, general of the Colophonians : deftroyed by
Philip, father of Perfeus ; and given to his ally Prufias,
who rebuilt it, and called it Apamea, from the name of
his queen A.pama (Strabo). Stephanus fays, that Ni-
comedes Epiphanes, fon of Prufias, called it after his
mother j and that it had its ancient name from Myrlea,
an Amazon. I he,Romans led a colony thither (Stra¬
bo) 5,
A P A [ 454 J - A F A
Apamea bo) j called Colonia Apamena (Pliny, Appian). The
II gentilitious name is Apamcem and Apatnenus (Traian
Apanthro- tQ Pliny()
* r- < 2. Another Apamea, called Cibotos, of Phrygia, at
fome diftance from the Meander (Agathodsemon) j but
by a coin of Tiberius, on the Meander, The name is
from Apame, mother of Antiochus Soter, the found¬
er, and the daughter of Artabazus (Strabo). The
rife, or at leaft the increafe, of Apamea, was owing to
the ruins of Celense. The inhabitants were called
Apamienfes; and, though inland, were worfhippers of
Neptune, The reafon, it has been eonje&ured, was,
that they had fuffered often from earthquakes, of
which he was fuppofed the author, Mithridates gave
a hundred talents towards the relloration of the city ;
which, it is faid, had likewife been overthrown in the
time of Alexander, Their tribute money was remit¬
ted to them for five years on the fame account under
the emperor Tiberius, The fubterraneous paltage of
the Lycus and the other ftreams (bowed that the ground
had many cavities j and thefe, it has been furmifed,
rendered the region very liable to be fhaken,
3. A third, on the confines of Parthia and Media,
furnamed Raphane (Strabo, Pliny).
4. A fourth A panic c, a town of Mefene, an ifiand in
the Tigris (Pliny, Ammian) $ where a branch of the
Euphrates, called the Royal River, falls into the Tigris
(Ptolemy).
5. A fifth in Mefopotamia, on the other fide the
Euphrates, oppofite to Zeugma on this fide, both found¬
ed by Seleucus, and joined by a bridge, from which
the latter takes its name (Pliny, Ifidor. Characenus),
6. A fixth Apamea, now Famia, alfo in Syria, below
the confluence of the Orontes and Mariyas 5 a ftrong
city, and fituated in a peninfula, formed by the Oron¬
tes and a lake. “ It is here (fays Strabo) that the
Seleucid® had eftablifhed the fchool and rmrfery of
their cavalry.” The foil of the neighbourhood, abound¬
ing in pailurage, fed no lefs than 30,000 mares, 300
ifallions, and 500 elephants inftead of which, the
marfhes of Famia at prefent fcarcely afford a few buf¬
faloes and fheep. To the veteran foldiers of Alexan¬
der, -who here repofed after their vi&ories, have fuc-
ceeded wretched peafants, who live in perpetual dread
of the opprefiiom of the Turks and the inroads of the
Arabs.
Apamea was alfo the ancient name of Pella, in the
Decapolis.
APANAGE, or Appendage, in the French cuf-
toms, lands afligned by a fovereign for the fubfiftence
of his younger Tons, which revert to the crown upon
the failure of male iffue in that branch to which the
lands are granted.
APANOMIA, a town of Santorin, an ifiand in the
Mediterranean lea, called in this part by fome the/cti
of Candia* It has a fpacious harbour, in the form of a
half moon *, but the bottom is fo deep, that Ihips can¬
not anchor there. E. Long. 25. 59' Lat. 36. 18.
APANTHRQPY, in Medicine, denotes a love of
folitude, and averfion for the company of mankind.
Apanthropy is by fome reckoned among the fymptoms,
by others among the fpecies or degrees of melancholy •,
und alfo paiTes for an ill indication in leucophlegmatic
rafes.
APARINE, in Botany, a fynonyme of the urticu- Aparina
laria and feveral other plants, 8 .
APARITHMESIS, in Rhetoric, denotes the an- , APa|llia*
fwer to the protafis or propofition itielf. Thus, if the
protafis be, Appellandi tempus non The aparxth-
mefis is, At tecum anno plus vixi.
APARTISMENUS, in the ancient poetry, an ap¬
pellation given to a verfe, which comprehended an en¬
tire fenfe or fentence in itfelf. This is fometimes alfo
xvritten apartemenus, i. e. finpended, as not needing any
following verfe.
APATHY, among the ancient phjlofophers, im¬
plied an utter privation of paffion, and an infenfibility
of pain. The word is compounded of « priv, and
proffo?, ajfe&ion. The Stoics affefted an entire apathy j
they confidered it as the higheft wifdom to enjoy a per¬
fect calmnefs or tranquillity of mind, incapable of be¬
ing ruffled by either pleafure or pain. In the firft ages
of the church, the Chriftians adopted the term apathy
to exprefs a contempt of all earthly concerns \ a ffate of
mortification, fuch as the gofpel preferibes. Clemens
Alexandrinus, in particular, brought it exceedingly in
vogue 5 thinking hereby to draw the phjlofophers to
Chriftianity, who afpired after fuch a fublime pitch of
virtue, Qj.ietifm is only apathy difguifed under the
appearance of devotion,
APATURIA, in Antiquity, a folemn feaft cele¬
brated by the Athenians in honour of Bacchus, The
word is ufually derived from fraud. It is faid to
have been inflituted in memory of a fraudulent victory
obtained by Melanthus, king of Athens, over Xanthusy
king of Beeotia, in a Angle combat, which they agreed
upon, to put an end to a debate between them relating
to the frontiers of their countries. Hence Budteua
calls it fejlum decepthnis, 44 the feaft of deceit,”
Other authors give a different etymology of this
feaft; They tel] us, that the young Athenians were
not admitted into the tribes on the third day of the
apaturia, till their fathers had firft (worn that they
were their own children $ and that, till that time, they
were fuppofed, in fome meafure, to be without fathers,
*?r*Te£t?; whence the feaft, fav they, took its name,
Xenophon, on the other hand, informs us, that the re¬
lations and friends met on this oeealian, and joined
with the fathers of the young people who were to be
received into the tribes $ and that from this aflembly
the feaft took its name : that in the far
from being a privative, being here a eonjumftive, figni-
fies the fame thing withtogether* This feaft Med
lour days; the firft day, thofe of the fame tribe made
merry together; and this they called fifogwas. The fe-
eond day, which they called enc^vctj, they facrificed to
Jupiter and Minerva. The third day, which they call¬
ed fueh of their young men and maids as were
of age were admitted into their tribes. The fourth
day they called tin fin?.
APAULIA, in Antiquity, the third day of a mar¬
riage fo!enmity. It was thus called, becaufe the bride,
returning to her father’s houfe, did a’xx.vhdyAm rtt
wpftN, lodge apart from the bridegroom. Some will
have the apaulia to have been the fecond day of thg
marriage, viz, that whereon the chief ceremony was
performed ; thus called by way of contradiftbftion
from the firft day, which was called 7r§c*v>w#t (In
APE [ ,
Ap- t'le day called xvxuAtx (whenever that was), the bride
. prefented her bridegroom with a garment called xttccv-
APE, in Zoology, the general Englilh name of a
very numerous race of animals, the natural hiltory of
which is given at large under the article Simia j com¬
prehending y//>f.r, properly fo called, or luch as want
tails; and Monkeys and Baboons, or fuch as have
tails, the former long, and the other Jhort, ones. See
SI M 1 A.
Sea Apr, a name given by Steller to a marine ani¬
mal which he faw on the coaft of America, and is thus
77//?. of defcribed *. “ The head appeared like that of a dog,
Kumtfchat- with (harp and upright ears, large eyes, and with both
ba, p. 136. lipS bearded : the body round and conoid ; the thickeft
part near the head : the tail forked ; the upper lobe
the longeft : the body covered with thick hair, gray on
the back, reddilh on the belly. It feemed deftitute of
feet. It was extremely wanton, and played a multi¬
tude of monkey tricks. It fometimes fwam on one
fide, fometimes on the other fide of the Ihip, and gazed
at it with great admiration. It made fo near an ap¬
proach to the veflel, as almoft to be touched with a
pole j but if anybody moved, it inftantly retired. It
would often Hand ereft for a confiderable fpace, with
one-third of its body above water ; then dart beneath
the fhip, and appear on the other fide ; and repeat the
fame thirty times together. It would frequently arife
with a fea plant, not unlike the bottle gourd, tofs it
up, and catch it in its mouth, .playing with it number-
lefs fantaftic tricks.
APELYTES, Chriftian heretics in the fecond cen¬
tury, who affirmed that Chrilt received a body from
the four elements, which at his death he rendered back
to the world, and fo afcended into heaven without a
body.
, APELLA, among Phyjtcians, a name given to
thole whofe prepuce is either wanting or fhrunk, fo
that it can no longer cover the glans. Many authors
nave fuppofed this fenfe of the word Afella warrant¬
ed from the paflage in Horace, crerlat Judaus Apella
non ego. But, according to Salmafius and others, y/-
pslla is the proper name of a certain Jew, and not an
adje&ive fignifying circumcifed.
APELLES, one of the moft celebrated painters of
antiquity. He was born in the ille of Cos, and flou-
nlhed in the time of Alexander the Great, with whom
he was in high favour. He executed a pifture of this
prince, holding a thunderbolt in his hand : a piece,
fmifhed with fo much ikill and dexterity, that it ufed
to be laid there were two Alexanders ; one invincible,
the fon of Philip ; the other inimitable, the produc¬
tion of Apelles. Alexander gave him a remarkable
proof of his regard : for when he employed Apelles
to draw Campafpe, one of his miilreffes, having found
that he had conceived an affe&ion for her, he refigned
her to him j arid it was from her that Apelles is faid to
have drawn his Venus Anadyomene.
One of Apelles’s chief excellencies w'as his making
hie pi&ures exa&ly refemble the. perfons reprefented 3
mfomuch that the phyfiognomifts are faid to have been
able, to form a. judgment of the perfon’s deftiny as
readily from his portraits as if they had feen the ori-
ginals. But what is called was the charafleriftic
•1 this artilL His pencil was fo famous for drawing
SS 1 APE
fine lines, that Protogenes difcovered by a fingle line Apeffe?.
that Apelles had been at his houfe. Protogenes lived ' y »'ii
at Rhodes : Apelles failed thither, and went to his
houfe with great eagernefs, to fee the works of an ar-
tifl who was known to him only by name. Protoge¬
nes was gone from home : but an old woman was left
watching a large piece of canvafs, which was fitted in
a frame for painting. She told Apelles that Protoge¬
nes was gone out 3 and afked him his name, that fhe
might inform her mafter who had inquired for him.
“ Tell him (fays Apelles) he was inquired for by
this perfon 3”—at the fame time taking up a pen¬
cil, he drew on the canvafs a line of great delicacy.
When. Protogenes returned, the old wmman acquainted
him with what had happened. That artift, upon con¬
templating the fine ffroke of the line, immediately
pronounced that Apelles had been there ; for fo finifli-
ed a work could be produced by no other perfon. Pro-
togenes, however, himfelf drew a finer line of another
colour 3- and, as he was going away, ordered the old
u oman to fhow that line to Apelles if he came again 3
and to fay, “ I his is the perfon for whom you are in¬
quiring.” Apelles returned, and faw the line : he
would not for fliame be overcome 3 and therefore, in a
colour different from either of the former, he drew
fome lines fo exquifitely delicate, that it was utterly
impoffible for finer ftrokes to. be made. Protogenes
now confeffed the fuperiority of Apelles, flew to the
harbour in fearch of him, and refolved to leave the
canvafs with the lines on it for the aftonifhment of fu¬
ture artills.
Apelles (howed great liberality of mind towards Pro¬
togenes. With ideas enlarged by education and litera-
tuie, he was incapable of harbouring little jealoufies of
noble competitors 3 on the contrary, he was the firft
who made the works of Protogenes to be valued as
they deferved among the Rhodians. He acknowledged
that Protogenes, was in fome refpefts fuperior to him¬
felf 3 but that in one particular himfelf excelled, viz.
in knowing when to take his hand from the pidlure 3
an art which Protogenes had not yet learned, and
therefore over-worked his pieces. Apelles equally
difapproved of too elaborate diligence, or too hafty
negligence in execution. A ftudied work of Proto¬
genes he efteemed lefs on the one account; and on the
other, when a filly painter once brought him a piffure,
and. laid, “ This I painted in a hurry,”.—he replied,
.1 hough you had not told me fo, I perceived it was
painted in hafte : but I wonder you could not execute
more fuch pieces in the fame time.”
There are two ftories related of Apelles, which fhow
him to. be at once an artift of modefty, in amending
even trifling improprieties, when pointed out to him
by competent judges 5 and yet of felf-confidence fuffi-
cient to. make him know the perfedion and value of his
own paintings. It was cuftomary with Apelles to ex-
pofe to public view the works wffiich he had finifhed,
and to hide himfelf behind the pidure, in order to hear
the remarks paffed on it by perfons who chanced to
view it. He rmce overheard himfelf blamed by a fhoe-
maker for a fault in the flippers of fome pidure : he
corieded the fault which the man had noticed : but
on the day following the fhoemaker began to animad¬
vert on the leg 3 upon which Apelles with fome an¬
ger looked out from behind the canvafs, and bade him
IS
N. Lat. ^5. 4.
APENZEL, a
of the fame name,
i. N. Eat. 47
A P E [ 456 ]
keep to Ins own province, “ Ne futor ultra crepidam.” ridge of mountains
It is well known that Alexander forbade any one befides
Apelles to paint his portrait. We are not, however,
to conclude from this, that Alexander was a more
Ikilful judge of painting than he was of poetry. Like
Auguftus, he cheriihed the fine arts more from vanity
than tafte. A remarkable proof is given of this prince's
inability to difcern merit, and of the painter’s freedom
in expreffing the mortification he felt, when a work of
his was not fufficiently commended. “ Alexander
(fays Ailian, Lib. ii, c. 3. Var, HUE) having viewed the
picture of himfelf which was at Epheius, did not praife
it as it deferved. But when a horfe was^ brought in,
and neighed at feeing the figure of a hori’e in the pic¬
ture, as though it had been a real hori’e 5 Q king! find
Apelles) this horfe feems to he by far a better judge of
painting than you''’ It happened more than once that
the horfes drawn by him were miftaken for real ones,
by living horfes which faw and neighed at the pictures.
In his fimihing a drawing of this animal, a remarkable
circumftance is related of him. He had painted a horfe
returning from battle, and had lueceeded to his wiihes
in defcribing every other mark that could indicate a
mettlefome fteed, impatient of reftraint $ there _ was
wanting nothing but a foam of a bloody hue iiluing
from the mouth. He again and again endeavoured to
exprefs this, but his attempts were unfuceefsful. ^ At
laft, with vexation, he threw againft the reins of the
horfe a fponge which had in it many coloursa mixture
of which coming out of the fponge, and tinging the
rexns, produced the very effeft defired by the painter.
The works of Apelles were all admired j but the
moft celebrated were the pi&ure of Alexander in the
temple of Diana at Epheius, and that of Venus emer¬
ging from the fea. Alexander was drawn with thun¬
der in his hand •, and fuch relief was produced by the
chiaro fcuro in his piece, that the fingers feemed to
(hoot forward, and the thunderbolt to be out of the
picture. His Venus was eileemed the moft
exquifite figure which the pencil could create : it is
therefore extolled by the Roman poets Propertius and
Ovid \ and the poet of Sidon, Antipater, has left us
the following Greek epigram on it;
Apepfia,
APE
running through the middle of Apenml?
Italy, from north-well to fopth-weif for yco miles,
in the form of a cvefcent (Pliny)-, beginning at the ,
Alps in Liguria, or the Rivierra di Genoa; and ter¬
minating at the ftrait of Meffana, or at Reggio, and
the promontory Leucopetra $ and Separating, as by a
back or ridge, the Adriatic from the Tufcan lea
(Pliny, Strabo, Ptolemy, Polybius, Vitruvius). This
mountain, though high, is greatly (hort of the height
of the Alps. Its name is Celtic, fignifying a high
mountain.
APENRADE, a town of Denmark in the duchy
of Slefwick, feated at the bottom of a gulf in the
Baltic fea, between Fienihourg and HadafcMeben. It
miles north from Sleiwick, E. Long. 9, 28,
T«tv u.'tctii-jspit&v ttiro /uxllfif xgh SahaTi&i
KvTr^iv, ATTikteiis #ge» yf
fig ciy.iActefoieot, vchtli KXiittv
xP$?v vrXoxet/'itof,
Avlxi pvr eganriv A$>yucw T& kcai U^i
“ Ovx ill era e$‘v t'Wprf&e '
Aath, iv. 12.
Graceful as from her natal fea Hie Springs,
Venus, the labour of Apelles, view :
With prefiing hand her humid locks (he wrings,
While from her treffes drips the frothy dew :
Ev’n Juno and Minerva now declare,
<l No longer we contend whofe form’s moll rare.”
APENE, in Antiquity, a kind of chariot wherein
the images of the gods were carried in procefiion on
certain "days, attended with a folemn pomp, longs,
hymns, dancing, &c. It was very rich, made fome-
times of ivory, or of filver itfelf, and varioufiy decora¬
ted.
APENNINUS, now the Apennines a mountain,pr
town of Switzerland, in the canton
feated on the river Chus, E. Long,
_______ 31. The canton itfelf, which was
allied to the others in 1513, confifts only of three or
four valleys having the town and abbey of St Gall on
the north $ the county of Toggenbnrg on the weft j
the lordfiiip of Sax in the canton of Zurich, and that
of Gambs in the canton of Schweitz, on the fouth *,
and the Rheinthall, or Rhine-valley, on the eaft; Its
greateit length is about thirty miles, and its breadth
about twenty. It yields good pafturage, and confe-
quently is not deftitute of cattle, milk, butter, or cheefe.
Confiderable quantities alfo of wheat, rye, barley, oats,
beans, peafe, flax, and wine, are produced in it 5 be¬
fides a great deal of fruit, wood, and turf, with mi¬
neral waters, and warm baths. 1 here are many moun¬
tains in the canton, the higheft of which is that called
the Hahefantis, or the liobe Hefner, which commands
a profpekt of a prodigious extent. There are alio fe-
veral lakes and rivers. The inhabitants, who are
partly Proteftants, and partly Roman Catholics, fubftft
chiefly by their manufadlures of linen, crape, fuftian,
and thread, or by bleaching, and the fale of their cat-
tie, butter, cheefe, horfes, wood, and coal. Qf the
twenty-three parifhes in the canton, four are Popifh,
and nineteen Proteftant. Before the Reformation, the
inhabitants were fubjetft to the abbot of St Gall but
they then {hook off his yoke, and united thetnielves
with the other cantons • after that, however, there were
violent animofities between the Papifts and Proteftants,
the former continually perieeuting the latter, till at
laft, in 1587, by the mediation of the other cantons,
the two parties came to an accommodation, by which
certain dUmets were afligned to each party, whereas
before they lived promifcuoufly together j and though
thefe two divifions now conftitute but one canton, yet
each forms a diftinft community or free ftate, lending
its particular reprefentatives to the diets of the confe¬
deracy, and having its feparate councils and officers.
In fpirituals the Papifts are fubjeft to the bifnop of
Conftance, but the Proteftants to their own confiftory.
The militia of the former does not exceed 300©, where¬
as thofe of the latter amount to 10,coo.
APEPSIA, (from « negative, and wWi*, to digef )
Indigeftion. ,
Abftemioufnefs nnd exccfs ^like ot mai*
geftion. An over-diftenfion of the ftomach may in
feme meafure injure its proper tone } ^and long failing,
by inducing a bad quality in tne juices ieccrned into
A P H [ 457 ] A P H
A per the ftomach, renders it feeble, and generates wind,
i! Hard drinking, and any of the caufes of an anorexy,
Apb.ifia. ^ a^0 Jnjure digellion.
The columbo root is faid to be particularly ufeful
when the ftomach is languid, the appetite defeftive,
digeftion with difficulty carried on, or when a naufea
with flatulency attends. It is prefcribed in fubftance,
with any grateful aromatic, or infufed in Madeira wine,
now and then interpofing gentle dofes of the tin&ure
of rhubarb.
A mixture of muftard feed with the columbo root is
of admirable utility in complaints of this kind ; parti¬
cularly where acidity and flatulence prevail much in the
the primae vise.
' APER, in Zoology, a fynonyme of the fas fcrofa.
See Sus.
APERIENTS, in the Materia Medica, an appel¬
lation given to fuch medicines as facilitate the circula¬
tion of the humours by removing obftru£Hons. The
five aperient rQots of the (hops are, fmallage, fennel,
afparagus, parlley, and butchers broom.
APERTURE, the opening of any thing, or a hole
or cleft in any continuous fubjedl.
Aperture, in Geometry, the fpace between two
right lines wdiich meet in a point and form an angle.
Aperture, in Optics, a round hole in a turned bit
of wood or plate of tin, placed within the fide of a te-
lefcope or microfcope, near to the object glafs, by
means of which more rays are admitted, and a more
diflimR appearance of the objedl is obtained.
Apertures, or A per lions, in ArchiteBure, are ufed
to fignify doors, windows, chimneys, &c.
APETALOSE, or Apetalous, among Botanifls,
an appellation given to fuch plants as have no flower
leaves.
APEX, the vertex or fummit of any thing.
Apex, in Antiquity, the creft of a helmet, but more
efpecially a kind of cap worn by the flamens.
Apex, among Grammarians, denotes the mark of a
long fyllable, falfely called a long accent.
APH AC A, in Ancient Geography, the name of a place
in Syria, fituated between Heliopolis and Byblus, near
Lebanon •, infamous for a temple of Venus, called
Aphacetis, near which w’as a lake, round which fire
ufually burfi forth, and its w7aters were fo heavy, that
bodies floated on them. The temple was deftroyed by
Conftantine, as being a fchool of incontinence, (Eu-
febius.) The name is of Syriac origin, fignifying em¬
braces.
APHriERESIS, in Grammar, a figure by which a
letter or fyllable is cut off from the beginning of a wTord.
Thus ciconia, by aphaerefis, is written conia ; contcmnere,
ternnere; omittere, mitt ere, &c,
A like retrenchment at the end of a word is called
APOCOPE.
A phoresis, in Medicine, denotes a neceffary ta¬
king away or removal of fomething that is noxious.—
In furgery, it fignifies an operation whereby fomething
fuperfluous is taken away.
APHANES. See Botany Index.
APHASIA, (from *, and (pr./xt, “ I fpeak,”) in the
fceptic philofophy, denotes a ftate of doubt, wffierein
a perfon not knowing wffiat to determine on, it is beft
for him to be filent. In this fenfe. aphajia Hands op-
Vol. II. Part II.
pofed to phajis, under which are included both affer- Ap’iek
lion and negation. .
APHEK, the name of feveral cities mentioned in ■ Td.'..
Scripture. I. Aphek in the tribe of Judah, where the
Philiftines encamped when the ark was brought from
Shiloh, which w'as taken by them in battle, I Sam. iv.
I, 2, &c. It is thought to be the fame with Aphe-
kah mentioned in Jolh. xv. 53. 2. Aphek in the val¬
ley of Jezreel, where the Philiftines encamped w hile
Saul and his army were near Jezreel, upon the moun¬
tains of Gilboa, 1 Sam. xxix. 1, &c. 3. Aphek a city
belonging to the tribe of Aftier, near the country of
the Sidonians ; (Jolh. xix. 30. and xlii. 4.) 4. Aphek
a city of Syria, one of the principal in Benhadad’s
kingdom, near which the battle rvas fought between
Ahab and Benh^dad, wherein the Syrians were worft-
ed ; and whereof, as they retreated with precipitation
into the city, the walls fell upon them, and crufhed
in pieces 27,000, (1 Kings xx. 26, etfeqi) This city
lay between Heliopolis and Byblus.
APHELIUM, or Aphelion, in AJlronomy, is that
point in any planet’s orbit, in which it is fartheft di-
ftant from the fun, being that end of the greater axis
of the elliptical orbit of the planet moft remote from
the focus where the fun is.
APHIOM, karahissart, atown of Natolia, in A-
fiatic Turkey 5 it is named Aphiom, becaufe it produces
a great deal of opium, called aphiom by the Turks.
E. Long. 32. 18. N. Lat. 38. 35.
APHIS, the puceron, vine fretter, or PLANl-
louse. See Entomology/Wear.
Linnaeus enumerates 33 fpecies of the aphis, all of
them inhabitants of particular plants, from which their
trivial names are taken \ as aphis rihis, ulmi, rofae,
&c. And he adds, that there feems to be a greater va¬
riety of plants producing aphides than there are dif¬
ferent forts of this infeft. But fome late obfervers have
been able to diftinguiftr more than double the above
number of fpecies j and it is probable that many more
remain ftill to be added, as many of the fame kind of
plants are found to fupport twm or three quite different
forts of aphides. Thus the plum tree has two forts
very diftituR from each other j one of a yellowifh green,
with a round Ihort body ; the other of a blueifti green,
as it were enamelled with wffiite, and the fhape more
oblong. On the goofeberry bufti and currant the fame
aphides may be found ; but each of thefe is inhabited
by two very different fpecies : the one being of a duiky
green, with a fhort plump body \ the other of a paler
green, the body more taper, and tranfverfely w'rink-
. led. The rofe tree, again, fupports not lefs than three
diftimR fpecies : the largeft is of a deep green, having '
long legs of a brownifli caft, with the joints of a very
dark browm, as are alfo the horns and antennse ; a fe-
cond fort is of a paler green, has much ftiorter legs, and
a more flat body j the third fort is of a pale red, its
body tranfverfely w'rinkled, and is moft; frequently on
the fwTeet-briar.
The extraordinary nature of thefe infetRs has far
fome time part juftly excited the wonder and atten¬
tion of naturalifts. They were long ranked among
the animals wfliich had been claffed with the true an¬
drogynes fpoken of by Mr Breynius ; for having never
been catched copulating, it was haftily concluded that
3 M they
A P H [ 458 ] A P H
’iif. they multiplied without copulation. This, however,
was but a doubt, or at bed a mere furmife : but this
furmife was believed and adopted by Mr Reaumur ; and
though he fupported it by fome obfervations peculiar to
himfelf, the queftion remained dill undecided, till Mr
Bonnet feemed to have cleared it up in the affirmative,
by taking and fhutting up a young aphis at the indant
of its birth, in the mod perfect folitude, which yet
brought forth in his fight 95 young ones. The fame
experiment being made on one of the individuals of
this family, that had been tried with its chief, the
new hermit foon multiplied like its parent 5 and one of
this third generation, in like manner brought up in
folitude, proved no lefs fruitful than the former. Re¬
peated experiments, in this refpedf, as far as the fifth
or fixth generation, all uniformly prefenting the obfer-
ver with fecund virgins, were communicated to the
Royal Academy of Sciences; when an unforefeen and
very drange fufpicion, imparted by MrTrembley to Mr
Bonnet engaged him anew in a feries of dill more
painful experiments than the foregoing. In a letter
which that celebrated obferver wrote to him from the
Hague, the 27th January 1741, he thus exprefles him-
lelf: “ I formed, fince the month of November, the
defign of rearing feveral generations of folit^y puce-
rons, in order to fee if they would all equally bring
forth young. In cafes fo remote from ufual circum-
dances, it is allowed to try all forts of means j and I
argued with myfelf, Who knows but that one copula¬
tion might ferve for feveral generations ?” This “ vuho
knows f to be fure, was next to avouching nothing ;
but as it came from Mr Trembley, it was fufficient to
perfuade Mr Bonnet that he had not gone far enough
in his invedigation. If the fecundity of aphides was
owing to the fecret copulation fuggeded by Mr Trem¬
bley 5 this copulation ferved at lead five or more fuccef-
five generations. Mr Bonnet therefore reared to the
amount of the tenth generation of folitary aphides,
and had the patience to keep an account of the days
and hours of the births of each generation. In diort,
it w7as difcovered, That they are really didinguifhed by
lexes: That there are males and females amongd them,
whofe amours are the lead equivocal of any in the
world : that the males are produced only in the tenth
generation, and are but few in number : that thefe,
foon arriving at their full grow’th, copulate with the
females : that the virtue of this copulation ferves for
ten generations : that all thefe generations, except
the fird, (from the fecundated eggs), are produced vi¬
viparous ; and all the individuals are females, except
thofe of the lad generation, among whom, as we have
already obferved, fome males make their appearance,
to lay the foundation of a frefh feries.—Thefe circum-
ftances have been confirmed by other naturalids. In
particular we have a curious and accurate detail of
them by Dr Richardfon of Rippon, in the Philofophi-
cal Tranfaftions, vol. xi. art. 22. an extract of which
we fhall here infert, in order to give the reader as full
an infight into the nature of thefe fingular infefts, as
can be done by a mere detail of fads in themfelves ut¬
terly unaccountable.
“ The great variety of fpecies which occur in the
infe&s now under confideration, may make an inquiry
into their particular nature feem not a little perplexed ;
having them, however, Ikilfully reduced under tjreir pro¬
per genus, the difficulty is by this means confiderably Aphis,
diminifhed. All the infeds comprehended under any ——y~™
didind genus, we may reafonably fuppofe to partake
of one general nature ; and, by diligently examining
any of the particular fpecies, may thence gain fome in¬
fight into the nature of all the red. With this view
I have chofen, out of the various forts of aphides, the
larged of thofe found on the rofe tree j not only as its
fize makes it the more confpicuous, but as there are
few others of fo long a duration. This fort appearing
early in the fpring, continues late in the autumn j
wdrile feveral are limited to a much diorter term, in
conformity to the different trees and plants from whence
they draw their nouridiment.
1. “ If at the beginning of February the weather
happens to be fo warm as to make the buds of the
rofe tree fwell and appear green •, fmall aphides are
frequently to be found upon them, not larger than the
young ones in fummer when fird produced. But there
being no old ones to be found at this time of the year,
which in fummer I had obferved to be viviparous, I
was formerly not a little perplexed by fuch appearan¬
ces, and almod induced to give credit to the old doc¬
trine of equivocal generation. That the fame kind of
animal diould at one time of the year be viviparous,
and at another time oviparous, was an opinion I could
then by no means entertain. This, however, frequent
obfervation has at lad convinced me to be fad! ; having
found thofe aphides which appear early in the fpring,
to proceed from fmall black oval eggs, which were de-
pofited on the lad year’s droots in autumn ; though when
it happens that the infers make too early an appear¬
ance,: I have obferved the greated part to differ from the
drarp weather that ufually fucceeds, by which means the
rofe trees are fome years in a manner freed from them.
“ Thofe which withdand the feverity of the weather
feldom come to their full growth before the month of
April ; at which time they ufually begin to breed, af¬
ter twice cading off their exuviae or outward covering.
It appears then that they are all females, which pro¬
duce each of them a very numerous progeny, and that
without having intercourfe writh any male infed!. As
I obferved before, they are viviparous j and what is
equally uncommon, the young ones all come into the
wrorld backwards. When they fird come from the pa¬
rent they are enveloped by a thin membrane, having
in this fituation the appearance of an oval egg j which,
I apprehend, mud have induced Reaumur to fufped!
that the eggs difcovered by Bonnet w7ere nothing more
than mere abortions. Thefe egg-like appearances ad¬
here by one extremity to the mother j wdiile the young
ones contained in them extend the other; by that
means gradually drawing the ruptured membrane over
the head and body to the hind feet. During this ope¬
ration, and for fome time after, by means of fome-
thing glutinous, the fore part of the head adheres to
the vent of the parent. Being thus fufpended in the
air, it foon frees itfelf from the membrane in which it
wTas confined, and, after its limbs are a little drengthen-
ed, is fet down on fome tender dioot, and then left to
provide for itfelf.
2. “In the fpring months, there appear on the rofe
trees but twm generations of aphides, including thofe
which immediately proceed from the lad year’s eggs $
the warmth of the fummer adds fo much to their ferti-
tility.
A P H [ 459 ] A P H
Aphis, litjr, tKat no lefs than five generations fucceed one ano-
^ ther in the interval. One is produced in May, which
calls off its covering; while the months of June and
July each fupply two more, which cart off their cover¬
ings three or four times, according to the different
warmth of the feafon. This frequent change of the
outward covering is the more extraordinary, as it is
the ofteneft repeated when the infefts come the fooneft
to their growth 5 which I have fometiraes obferved to
happen in ten days, where warmth and plenty of nou-
rifhment have mutually confpired. From which confi-
derations I am thoroughly convinced that thefe various
coverings are not connate with the infeft 5 but that
they are, like the fcarf Ikin, fucceflively produced.
“ Early in the month of June, fome of the third
generation which were produced about the middle of
May, after carting off their laft covering, difcover four
eredt wings, much longer than their bodies ; and the
fame is obfervable in all the fucceeding generations,
which are produced during the fummer months ; with¬
out, however, diftinguiffnng any diverfity of fex, as
is ufual in fevcral other kinds of infedls. For fome
time before the aphides come to their full growth, it is
eafy to difcover which of them will have wings, by a
remarkable fulnefe of the breaft, which, in the others,
is hardly to be diftinguilhed from the body. When
the laft covering is rejeded, the wings, which were be¬
fore folded up in a very narrow compafs, gradually ex¬
tend themfelves in a moll furprifing manner, till thefe
diinenfions are at laft very confiderable. But thefe
winged ones have the peculiarity, that the number of
them does not feem fo much to depend on their origi¬
nal ftrudure, as on the quantity or quality of the nou-
riihment with which they are fupplied ; it being fre¬
quently obferved, that thofe on a fucculent fhoot have
few or none, with wings among them, while others of
the fame generation, on a lefs tender branch, are moft
of them winged ; as if only the firft rudiments of wings
were compofed in the former, while nature thought
proper to expand them in the latter, that they might
be more at liberty to fupply their wants.
T he increafe of thefe infeds in the fummer time
is fo very great, that, by wmunding and exhaufting the
tender (hoots, they would frequently fupprefs all vege¬
tation, had they not many enemies which reftrain them.
To enumerate the variety of other infeds that in their
worm and fly ftate are conftantly deftroying them,
would exceed the bounds of the prefent defign : there
is one, however, fo Angular in the manner of executing
its purpoi'e, that I cannot pafs by it without fome fur-
ther notice. This is a very fmall black ichneumon
fly, with a (lender body and very long antennae, which
daits its pointed tail into the bodies of the aphides, at
the fame time depofiting an egg in each. This egg
produces a w’orm, which feeds upon the containing in-
fed till it attains its full growth ; when it is ufual-
ly changed to that kind of fly from whence it came.
In this, however, it is iometimes prevented by ano¬
ther fort of fmall black fly, which wounds this worm
tlnough its pearl-like habitation; and by laying one
of its eggs therein, inftead of the former fly, produces
its own likenefs. I muft, however, further obferve,
notwithftanding thefe infeds have many enemies, they
are not without friends; if we may confider thofe as
fiuch who are very officious in their attendance, for the
goods things they exped to reap thereby. The ant Aphis,
and the bee are both of this kind, colleding the honey
in which the aphides abound ; but with this difference,
that the ants are conftant vifitors, the bee only when,
flowers are fcarce. To which let me alfo add, that the
ants will fuck in the delicious nedar while the aphides
are in the ad of difcharging it from the anus ; but the
bees only colled it from the leaves on which tliis honey
dew has fallen.
3. “ In the autumn I find three more generations
of aphides to be produced j two of which make their
appearance in the month of Auguft, and the third
ufually appears before the middle of September. As
the two firft: differ in no relped from thoie which we
meet with in fummer, it would be wafting time to
dwell any longer upon them; but the third, differing
greatly from all the reft, demands our giving it a more
ferious attention. Though all the aphides which have
hitherto appeared were females, in this tenth genera¬
tion are found feveral male infeds 5 not that they are
by any means fo numerous as the females, being only
produced by a fmall number of the former generation.
To which I muft further add, that I have obferved
thofe which produced males, previoufly to have produ¬
ced a number of females 5 which in all refpeds refem-
bling thofe already defcribed, I (hall decline taking in¬
to any further confideration.
“ The females have at firft altogether the fame ap¬
pearance with thofe of the former generations j but
in a few days their colour changes from a green to a
yellow, which is gradually c'onverted into an orange
colour before they come to their full growth. They
differ likewife in another refped, at leaft from thofe
which occur in the fummer, that all thofe yellow fe¬
males are without wings. The male infeds are, hovf-
ever, ftill more remarkable, their outward appearance
readily diftinguifliing them from the females of this and
of all other generations. When firft produced, they
are not of a green colour like the reft, but of a red-
difh brown ; and have afterwards, when they begin
to thicken about the breaft, a dark line along the mid¬
dle of the back. Thefe male infeds come to their full
growth in about three weeks time, and then call off
their laft covering; the whole infed being, after this
operation, of a bright yellow colour, the wings only
excepted. But after this they foon change to a darker
yellow : and in a few hours to a very dark brown 5 if
we except the body, which is fomething lighter co¬
loured, and has a reddiftr call. They are all of the
winged fort : and the wings, which are white at firrt,
foon become tranfparent, and at length appear like very
fine black gauze.
“ The males no fooner come to maturity than they
copulate with the females : in which ad they are rea¬
dily difcovered, as they remain in conjundion for a
confiderable time, and are not eafily difturbed. The
commerce between them continues the whole month of
Odober, and may be obferved at all times of the day,
though I have found it moft frequent about noon 5
efpecially when the weather is moderately warm, and
the fun overcaft. The females, in a day or two after
their intercourfe with the males, I have obferved to
lay their eggs j which they ufually do near the buds,
when they are left to their own choice. Where there
are a number crowded together, thev of courfe inter-
3^2 fere
A P H [ 460 j API
Ap-is fere wxtli each other j in which cafe they will frequent-
, ,.r ly clepofite their eggs on other parts of the branches, or
1 ' ro'|,L''• even on t}!C fplnes with w’hich they are befet.”
Thefe infe61s are found in great numbers not only
on the ftems and leaves, but even upon roots of many
trees and plants. Thofe trees that are moil loaded
with the infecls, as already obferved, fuffer greatly from
them. The plant liv»e thrulf their iharp pointed roftrum
into the fubftance of the leaf to draw out their fufte-
nance, wrhich warps the Hems and leaves, and occafions
in the latter cavities underneath, and fwellings above ;
nay, even in fome, a kind of hollow gall filled with in-
fedts, as is often feen on elm leaves.
It appears aftonilhing that the flight pun&ure of fo
fmall an animal fhould fo greatly disfigure a plant;
but it mull be remembered, that plant lice always live
' in numerous aflbciations, which increafe vifibly by the
prodigious fruitfulnefs of thofe infefts j fo that although
each puhdture be flight, yet the number of them is fo
great, fo reiterated, that it is no longer a wonder the
leaves fliould be disfigured. Lovers of gardening and
plants are extremely anxious to free and cleanfe their
trees from this vermine ; but their care often proves
unavailing, the infeft is fo fruitful that it foon produ¬
ces a frelh colony. The beft and furefl: method of ex¬
tirpating it is to put on the trees ipfefted with them
fome larvae of the plant-loufe lion, or aphidivorous
llies ; for thofe voracious larvae deftroy every day a
great number of the ilifefts, and that with fo much
the more facility, as the latter remain quiet and mo-
tionlefs in the neighbourhood of thofe dangerous ene¬
mies, who range over heaps of plant lice, which they
gradually w7afte and diminifti.
APPILASTUM, in the ancient navigation, a
wooden ornament, ftiaped like a plume of feathers,
faftened on the goofe’s or fwan’s neck ufed by the an¬
cient Greeks in the heads of their fliips. The aphlaf-
tum bad much the fame office and efieft in a flap that
the creft had on the helmet. It feems alfo to have had
this further ufe, viz. by the waving of a party coloured
ribband faftened to it, to indicate from what quarter
the wind blew.
APPIONIA, among 'Phyficians, fignifies a fuppref-
fion or total lofs of voice. It is never a primary dif-
cafe \ but a confequence of many different diforders.
The cure is to be effected by removing the diforder
from whence the aphonia proceeds.
APHORISM, a maxim or principle of a fcience •,
or a fentence which comprehends a great deal in a few
words. The word comes from ctQc^H, I feparate;
q. d. a choice or feleft fentence. The term is chiefly
ufed in medicine and law. We fay the aphorifms of
Hippocrates, of Sandlorius, of Boerhaave, &c. apho¬
rifms of the civil law, &c.
APHRACTI, in the ancient military art, denotes
open vends, without decks or hatches, furnilhed only
at head and Hern with crofs planks, whereon the men
flood to fight.
APHRODISIA, in Antiquity, feftivals kept in ho¬
nour of Venus, the moft remarkable of which was that
celebrated by the Cyprians. At this fclemnity feveral
myfterious rites were pradifed : all who were initiated
to them offered a piece of money to Venus as a har¬
lot, and received as a token of the goddefs’s favour a
meafure of ftyt, and a ; the former, becaufe fait
is a concretion of fea water, to which Venus was AphrodL
thought to owe her birth ; the latter, becaufe flie was *’acs
the goddefs of wantonnefs. A-
APHRODISIACS, among Phyjicians, medicines . A
which increafe the quantity of iemen, and create an in¬
clination to venery.
APHRODITA. See PIelminthology Index.
APHRODITE, in Mythology, a name of Venus,
derived from froth ; becaufe, according to the
poets, Venus is fuppofed to have been produced from
the froth or foam of the fea.
APHRON1TRE, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given
by the ancients to a particular kind of natrum.
APPITPLE, in Medicine, fmall, round, and fuper-
ficial ulcers arifing in _the mouth. See Medicine
Index.
APPITHARTODOCETzE, a fed, (worn enemies
of the council of Chalcedon. The word is derived
from incorruptible, and hiKiu, I imagine; and
was given them, becaufe they imagined the body of
Jefus Chiift was incorruptible and impaffible, and not
capable of death. They arofe among the Eutychians,
and made their firft appearance in the year 535.
APPIYLLANTPIES, leafless flower, or blue
MONTPELIER PINK. See BOTANY
APIARY, a place where bees are kept. See the
article Bee.
A PIASTER, in Ornithology, the trivial name of a
fpecies of the merops. See Merops, Ornithology
Index.
APICES, in Botany, the fame with Antherze.
APICIUS. There were at Rome three of that
name, famous for their gluttony, j the fecond is the moft
celebrated of the three. He lived under Tiberius,
fpent immenfe fums on his belly, and invented divers
forts of cakes which bore his name. He kept as it
were a fchool of gluttony at Rome. Alter having
fpent two millions and a half in entertainments, finding
himfelf very much in debt, he examined into the ftate
of his affairs and feeing that he had but 250,000 livres
remaining, he poifoned himfelf, out of apprehenfion of
ftarving with fuch a fum. He had proilituted himfclf
when very young to Sejanus.
APINA, or Apime, a town of Apulia, built by
Diomedes, as was alfo Trlcae (Pliny). Apince and
Triae is a proverbial faying for things trifling and of
no value (Martial) 5 and Apinarii was the appellation
for triflers or buffoons, (Trebellius Pollio).
APION, a famous grammarian, born in Egypt,
was a profeffor at Rome in the reign of Tiberius. He
had all the arrogance of a mere pedant, and amufcd
himfelf with difficult and infignificant inquiries. One
of his piincipal works was his Antiquities of Egypt.
APIS, in Mythology, a divinity worfhipped by the
ancient Egyptians at Memphis. It was an ox, having
certain exterior marks j in which animal the foul of
the great Ofiris was fuppofed to fubfift. This animal
had the preference to all others, as being the fymbol of
agriculture, the improvement of which that prince had
fo much at heart.
According to feveral learned writers on the Egyp¬
tian religion, Apis was only a fymbolical deity. “ A-
mongft the animals confecrated to ancient rites (fays
Ammianus Marcellinus), Mnevis and Apis are the moft
celebrated : the firft is an emblem of the fun, the fe¬
cond
API [ 461 ] API
cond of the moon.” Porphyry tells us, that Apis bore
" the charafterifdc figns of the two liars; and Macrobius,
who confirms this opinion, adds, that he was equally
confecrated to them both.
This bull, become the objefl of public adoration, it
may be iuppofed, coAd not be born like other animals;
accordingly the priefts publifhed that his origin was
celellial. “ An Apis is feldom born, (fays Pomponius
Mela). He is not produced by the ordinary laws of
generation. The Egyptians fay he owes his birth to
celellial fire.” Plutaixh explains this paffage : “ The
prietls pretend that the moon diffufes a generative in-
tluence, and as foon as a cow who takes the bull is
ftruck by it, Ihe conceives an Apis. Accordingly wre
difeover in him the figns of that liar.”
Such were the fables indullrioully fpread by thofe
who prefided over the divine inflitutions. The vulgar,
to whom this emblematical deity prefaged abundance,
received them eagerly, and implicitly believed them.
Pliny has deferibed the charadlers which diftinguillied
this facred bull: “ A white fpot, refembling a cref-
cent, on the right fide, and a lump under the tongue,
were the dillinguilhing marks of Apis.” When a cow,
therefore, which wras thought to be ftruck with the
rays of the moon, produced a calf, the facred guides
went to examine it, and if they found it conformable to
this defeription, they announced to the people the birth
of Apis, and fecundity.
“ Immediately (fays TElian) they built a temple to
the new god, facing the rifing fun, according to the
precepts of Mercury, where they nourilhed him w ith
milk for four months. This term expired, the priells
repaired in pomp to his habitation, and faluted him by
the name of Apis. They then placed him in a velfel
magnificently decorated, covered with rich tapeftry,
and refplendent with gold, and conducted him to Nilo-
pohs, finging hymns, and burning perfumes. There
they kept him for forty days. During this fpace of
time, women alone had permiffion to fee him, and fa-
luted him in a particular manner. After the inaugu¬
ration of the god, in this city, he w7as conveyed to
Memphis with the fame retinue, followed by an innu-
unerable quantity of boats, fumptuoufly decked out.
I lie re they completed the ceremonies of his inaugura¬
tion, and he became facred to all the world. Apis was
fuperbly lodged, and the place where he lay wras my-
ftically called //>e bed. Strabo having vifited his pa¬
lace, thus deferibes it : “ The edifice wirere Apis is
kept, is'Stuated near the temple of Vulcan. He is fed
in a facred apartment, before which is a large court.
I he houfe in which they keep the cow that produced
him, occupies one of its fides. Sometimes, to fatisfy
the curiolity of ftrangers, they make him go out into
this court. One may fee him at all times through a
w indow ; but the priefts produce him alfo to public
view.” Once a year (fays Solinus) they prefent a hei¬
fer to him, and the fame day they kill her.
A bull, born in fo marvellous a manner, muft be
poflefied of fupernatural knowledge. Accordingly the
priefts publiftied, that he predifted future events by
geftures, by motions, and other w7ays, which they con-
ftrued according to their fancy. “ Apis (fays Pliny)
has tw’o temples called Beds, which ferve as an augury
for the people. When they come to confult him, if
he enters into a particular cne, it is a favourable pre-
fage, and fatal if he pafies into the other. He gives
anfwrers to individuals by taking food from their hands.
He refufed that offered him by Germanicus, who died
foon after.” It wmuld be unjuft: to conclude, that this
refpedlable writer gave credit to fuch auguries. He
relates the opinion of the Egyptians, and contents
himfelf with citing fafts without offering his judge¬
ment.
Such wras the inftaliation of Apis. His anniverfary
wTas always celebrated for feven days. The people af-
fembled to offer facrifices to him, and what is extraor¬
dinary, oxen were immolated on the occafion. This
fclemnity did not pafs without prodigies. Ammianus
Marcellinus, who has collected the teftimonies of the
ancients, relates them in thefe words : “ During the
feven days in W'hich the priefts of Memphis celebrate
the birth of Apis, the crocodiles forget their natural
ferocity, become gentle, and do no harm to anybody.”
This bull, however, fo honoured, muft not exceed
a myfterious term fixed for his life. “ Apis (fays
Pliny) cannot live beyond a certain number of years.
When he has attained that period they drown him in
the fountain of the priefts ; for it is not permitted,
adds Ammianus Marcellinus, to let him prolong his
life beyond the period preferibed for him by the facred
books.” When this event happened, he w;as embalm¬
ed, and privately let down into the fubterraneous places
deftined for that purpofe. In this circumftance, the
priefts announced that Apis had difappeared ; but when
he died a natural death, before this period arrived, they
proclaimed his death, and folemnly conveyed his body
to the temple of Serapis.
“ At Memphis was an ancient temple of Serapis
which ftrangers w7ere forbidden to approach, and where
the priefts themfelves only entered when Apis was in¬
terred. It was then (fays Plutarch) that they opened
the gates called Lethe and Cocythe (of oblivion and la¬
mentation), which made a harfti and piercing found.”
Ammianus Marcellinus, and Solinus, paint wdth great
energy the general defpair of the Egyptians, who with
cries and lamentations demanded another Apis from
heaven.
According to Plutarch, the term preferibed for the
life of Apis was 25 years; which number marked a
period of the fun and of the moon, and the bull W’as
confecrated to thefe two bodies. Syncellius, in his
Chronography, when he comes down to the 3 2d Pha¬
raoh, called -d/feth, fays, “ before Afeth, the iblaryear'
confifted of 360 days. This prince added five to com¬
plete its couvfe. In his reign a calf was placed amongft
the gods, and named dlpis.” And in the Bibliotheca
of Fabricius we have the following paffage : “ It w>as
cuftomary to inaugurate the kings of Egypt at Mem¬
phis, in the temple of Apis. They v/ere here firft ini¬
tiated in the myftenes, and were religioufiy invefted ;
after which they were permitted to bear the yoke of
the god, through a town to a place called the SanBuary,
the entrance of which was prohibited to the profane.
There they were obliged to fwear that they would nei¬
ther infert months nor days in the year, and that it
ftnould remain compofed of 365 days, as had been efta-
blilhed by the ancients.” From thefe fails, Mr Sava-
ry, in his letters on Egypt, infers, that Apis was the
tutelar divinity of the new form given to the folar
year, and of the cycle of 25 years, difeovered at the
fame.
t
Apis
A P O [ 462 ] A P O
fame time. This deity, befides, had a marked rela¬
tion to the fwelling of the Nile, as is teilified by a great
number of hiilorians. The new moon which followed
the fummer folftice, was the era of this phenomenon,
on which the eyes of every body were fixed : And
Pliny fpeaks as follows on this fubjeft : “ Apis had on
his right fide a white mark, reprefenting the crefcent :
This mark (continues vTlian) indicated the commence¬
ment of the inundation.” If Apis pofieffed the cha-
racteriftic figns which proved his divine origin, he
promiied fertility and abundance of the fruits of the
earth. It feems demonftrated, therefore, Mr Savary
adds, that this facred bull, the guardian of the folar
year of 36 .; days, was alfo regarded as the genius who
prefided over the overflowing of the river. The priefls
by fixing the courfe of his life to 25 years, and by ma--
king the inftallation of a new Apis concur with the
renewal of the period above mentioned, had probably
perceived, as the refult of long meteorological obferva-
tions, that this revolution always brought about abun¬
dant feafons. Nothing was better calculated to pro¬
cure a favourable reception of this emblematical deity
from the people, fince his birth was a prefage to them
of a happy inundation, and of all the treafures of teem¬
ing nature.
The folemnity of his inauguration was called Appa¬
rition. That which was renewed every year towards
the 12th or 13th of the month Fayn, which corre-
fponds writh the 17th or iBth of June, w'as called the
birth of Apis. It w'as a time of rejoicing, which iElian
defcribes in the following manner : “ What feltivals !
what facrifices take place in Egypt at the commence¬
ment of the inundation ! It is then that all the people
celebrate the birth of Apis. It would be tedious to
defcribe the dances, the rejoicings, the fhows, the ban¬
quets, to which the Egyptians abandon themfelves on
this occafion, and impotlible to exprefs the intoxication
of joy which breaks forth in all the towns of the king¬
dom.”
Thefe obfervations Mr Savary thinks further con¬
firmed by the name of this refpedlable bull j Apis, in
the Egyptian tongue, fignifying number, meafure.
This epithet perfectly chara&erizes an animal efta-^
blifhed as the guardian of the folar year, the type of
the cycle of 25 years, and the prefage of a favourable
inundation.
Monfieur Huet, bilhop of Avranches, has endea¬
voured to prove that Apis was a fymbolical image of
the patriarch Jofeph, and has fupported his opinion
with all his erudition. Dr Bryant apprehends that the
name of Apis was an Egyptian term for a father ; that
it referred to the patriarch Noah; and that the cref¬
cent which was ufually marked on the fide of the ani¬
mal, was a reprefentation of the ark.
Apis, or Bee. See Entomoi,ogy Index and Bee.
APIUM, parsley. See Botany Index.
APIVOROUS, in Ornithology, a fynonyme of a fpe-
.cies of falco. See Falco, Ornithology Index.
APLUDA. See Botany Index.
APOBATANA, the metropolis of Media, and
where the kings kept their treafure (Ifidorus Chara-
cenus) ; fuppofed to be the fame with Ecbatana.
APOBATERION, in Antiquity, a valediflcry
Speech or poem made by a perfon on departing out of
his own countiy, and addreiTed to his friends or tela- Apobathra,
tions. Apoca-
APOBATHRiV, a place near Seftos (Strabo) 5, ^^ie' ,
the landing place where Xerxes’s fhips were frozen and
ftuck in the ice (Euftathius).
APOCALYPSE, Retelation, the name of one
of the facred books of the Neiv Eeftament, containing
revelations concerning feveral important doftrines of
Chrillianity. The word is Greek, and derived from
uTsoKotXvTVTiti, to reveal or difcover.
This book, according to Irenaeus, was written a-
bout the year 96 of Chrift, in the illand of Patmos,
whither St John had been banifhed by the emperor
Domitian. But Sir Ifaac Newton places the writing
of it earlier, viz. in the time of Nero. Some attri¬
bute this book to the arch heretic Cerinthus : but the
ancients unanimoufly afcribed it to John, the fon of
Zebedee, and brother of James 5 whom the Greek fa¬
thers called the Divine, by w^ay of eminence, to dillin-
guifh him from the other evangelifts. This book has
not, at all times, been efteemed canonical. There
were many churches in Greece, as St Jerome informs
us, which did not receive it j neither is it in the cata¬
logue of canonical books prepared by the council of
Laodicea, nor in that of -St Cyril of Jerufalem : but
Juftin, Irenseus, Origen, Cyprian, Clemens of Alex¬
andria, Tertullian, and all the fathers of the fourth,
fifth, and the following centuries, quote the Revela¬
tion as a book then acknowledged to be canonical.
The Alogians, Marcionites, Cerdonians, and Luther
himfelf, rejected this book : but the Proteflants have
forfaken Luther in this particular; and Beza has
ftrongly maintained againft his objections, that the A-
pocalypfe is authentic and canonical.
The Apocalypfe confifts of twenty-twm chapters.
The three firlt are an inftru&ion to the bifliops of the
feven churches of Afia Minor. The fifteen following
chapters contain the perfecutions which the church wTas
to fuffer from the Jews, heretics, and Roman empe¬
rors. Next St John prophefies of the vengeance of
God, which he will exercife againft thofe perfecutors,
againft the Roman empire, and the city of Rome j
w7hich, as the Proteftants fuppofe, he defcribes under
the name of Babylon the great wBore, feated upon
feven hills. In the laft place, the tqth, 20th, 21ft, and
22d chapters, defcribe the triumph of the church over
its enemies, the marriage of the Lamb, and the hap-
pinefs of the church triumphant.
“ It is a part of this prophecy (fays Sir Ifaac New¬
ton), that it ftiould not be underftood before the laft age
of the world ; and therefore it makes for the credit of
the prophecy, that it is not yet undevftood. The folly
of interpreters has been to foretel times and things
by this prophecy, as if God defigned to make them
prophets. By this ralhnefs they have not only expofed
themfelves, but brought the prophecy alfo into com-
tempt. The defign of God was much otherwife : He
gave this and the prophecies of the Old Teftament,
not to gratify men’s curiofities, by enabling them to
foreknow things j but that, after they were fulfilled,
they might be interpreted by the events *, and his own
providence, not the interpreters, be then manifefted
thereby to the %vorld. And there is already fo much
of the prophecy fulfilled, that as many as will take
pains
A P O
Apocope pains in tnis ftudy, may fee fufficient inflances of God’s
li providence.
- There have been feveral other works publifhed un¬
der the title of Apocalypfes. Sozomen mentions a
book ufed in the churches of Paleftine, called the A-
pocalypfe or Revelation of St Peter. He alfo men¬
tions an Apocalypfe of St Paul: which the Coph-
tse retain to this day.- Eufebius alfo fpeaks of both
thefe Apocalypfes. St Epiphanius mentions an Apo¬
calypfe of Adam ; Nicephorus, an Apocalypfe of Ef-
dras : Gratian and Cedrenus, an Apocalypfe of Mofes,
another of St Thomas, and another of St Stephen j
St Jerome, an Apocalypfe of Elias. Porphyry, in his
life of Plotin, makes mention of the Apocalypfe or
Revelations or Zoroalter, Zollrian, Nicothteus, Allo-
genes, &c.
APOCOPE, among Grammarians, a figure which
cuts oft a letter or fyllable from the end of-a wordj as
ingeni for ingenii.
APOCRISARIUS, in Ecclefajlical Antiquity, a
fort of relident in an imperial city, in the name of a
foreign church or bilhop, whofe office was to nego¬
tiate, as prodtor at the emperor’s court, in all eccle-
fraftical caufes in which his principals might be con¬
cerned. I ne inftitution of the office leems to have
been in the time of Conllantxne, or not long after,
when, the emperors being become Chriftians, foreign
churches had more occafions to promote their fuits at
court than formerly. However, we find it eftablifired
by law in the time of Juftinian. In imitation of this
officer, almoft every monaftery had its Apocrifarius, or
refident, in the imperial city.
The title and quality of Apocrifary became at length
appropriated to the pope’s agent, or nuncio, as he is
now called ; who refided at Conflantinople, to receive
tae pope’s defpatches, and the emperor’s anfwers. The
woid is formed ixora. to anfwer.
APOCRUSTICS, in Medicine, the fame wuth re¬
pellents.
APOCRYPHA, or APOCRYPHAL books, fuch
books as are not admitted into the canon of Scripture,
being either not acknowledged as divine, or confider-
ed as fpurious. The word is Greek j and derived from
and y-svpT*/ to hide or conceal.
When the Jews publiffied their facred books, they
ga»e the appellations of canonical and divine only to
Inch as they then made public : fuch as w7ere ftill re¬
tained in their archives they called apocryphal, for no
other reafon but becaufe they were not public ; fo
that they might be really facred and divine, though not
promulged as fuch.
Thus, in refpea of the Bible, all books were called
apocryphal which were not inferted in the Jewiffi canon
[ 463 ]
A P O
Baiuch the prophet, the Song of the Three Children, Apocrypha
the Hilfory of Sufannah, the Hiftory of Bell and the « .
Dragon, and the firft and fecond books of the Mac- Apod .
cabees.
It is now pretended that thefe books were not receiv¬
ed by the Jew7s, or fo much as known to them. None
Oi the writers of the New Teftament cite or mention
t.remneither Philo nor Jofephus fpeak of them. The
Cluiftian church w?as for fome ages an utter ftranger
to thefe books. Origen, Athanafius, Hillary, Cyril of
Jerulalem, and all the orthodox writers, who have given
catalogues of the canonical books of Scripture ; unani-
moufiy concur in rejeding thefe out of the canon. And
for the New 1 eilament, they are divided in their cpi-
mons, w-hether the epiftle to the Hebrews, the epiltle
of St James, and the fecond epiftle of St Peter, the
fecond and third epiftles of St John, the epiftle of St
Jude, and the Revelation, are to be acknowledged as
canonical or not.
1 he Proteftants acknowledge fuch books of Scripture
only to be canonical as wTere fo efteemed to be in the
firft ages of the church ; fuch as are cited by the ear-
heft writers among the Chriftians as of divine authori¬
ty,^ and after the moft diligent inquiry wrere received
and lo judged to be by the council of Laodicea. The
leveral epiftles above mentioned, and the book of Re¬
velation, whatever the fentiments of Tome particular
perlons are or may have been of them, are allowed by
all the reformed churches to be parts of the canon of
the New Teftament.
I he apocryphal books, howrever, according to the
fixtn article of the church of England, are to be read
for example of life and inftru&ion of manners; but it
doth not apply them to eftabliih any doftrine.
APOCYNUM. See Botany Index.-
APODECTTE, in Antiquity, a denomination giv¬
en to ten general receivers appointed by the Athe¬
nians to receive the public revenues, taxes, debts
and the like. The apodedee had alfo a power to de¬
cide controverfies arifing in relation to money and
taxes, all but thofe of the moft difficult nature and
higheft concern, which were referved to the courts of
judicature.
APODECTTEI, in the Athenian government, of¬
ficers appointed to fee that the meafures of corn were
juft.
APODES, in a general fenfe, denotes things with-
out feet Zoologifts apply the name to a fabulous
iort ot birds, laid to be found in fome of the iflands
of the new world, wffiich, being entirely without
feet, fupport themfelves on the branches of trees by
their crooked bills. :
Apodes, in the Linnaean fyftem, the name of the
.hetrrr kVoffius obc™Yto- ** .x .,ns sc;
the lacred books, none are to be accounted snno™.  ’ tj. 0 Deu7 hns.
the facred books, none are to be accounted apocry
phal, except fuch as had neither been admitted into
the fynagogue nor the church, fo as to be added to the
canon, and read in public.
The Proteftants do not only reckon thofe books to
be apocryphal which are efteemed fuch in the church
of Rome, as the prayer of Manaffeh king of Judah,
trie third and fourth books of Efuras, St Barnabas’s
epilile, the book of Hermos, the addition at tile end
or Job, and the 151ft pfalm; but alfo Tobit, Judith,
Eiir.fr, the book of Wifdom, Jefus the fon of Sirach,
See Ichthyology Index.
APODICT ICAL, among Philofophers, a term im¬
porting a demonftrative proof, or fyftematical method of
teaching.
APODOSIS, in makes the third part of
a complete exordium, being properly the application
or relcrichon of the protafu. The apodofis is the fame
with what is otherwife called axiojis; and Hands op
pofed to protafis: e. g. protafis, all branches of hif-
tory are neceffary for a ftudent ; catefcene, fo that,
without thefe, he can never make any confiderable fi!
gure;
■*
A P O
[ 4^4 ]
A P O
gurc *, apodofis, but literally hiflory is of a more efpe-
cial ufe, which recommends it, &c.
APODYTERIUM, in the ancient baths, the a-
partments where perfons dreffed and undreffed.
APOGEE, in Ajironomy, that point in the orbit
of a planet which is at the greateft diftance from the
earth. The apogee of the fun is that part of the earth’s
orbit which is at the greateft diftance from the fun ;
and confequently the fun’s apogee, and the earth’s
aphelion, are one and the fame point.
APOLIDES, in Antiquity, thofe condemned for
life to the public works, or exiled into fome illand,
and thus divefted of the privileges of Roman citizens.
APOLLINARIAN GAMES, in Roman Antiquity,
were inftituted in the year of Rome 542. The occa-
lion was a kind of oracle delivered by the prophet Mar¬
cus after the fatal battle at Cannae, declaring that to
expel the enemy, and cure the people of an infectious
difeafe which then prevailed, facred games were to be
annually performed in honour of Apollo m, the praetor
to have the direction of them, and the decemviri to of¬
fer facrifices after the Grecian rite. The fenate order¬
ed that this oracle fhould be obferved the rather, be-
caufe another of the fame Marcus, wherein he had
foretold the overthrow at Cannse, had come true 5 for
this reafan they gave the praetor 12,000 afes out of the
public cafti to defray the folemnity. There were facri-
liced an ox to Apollo, as alfo two white goats, and a
cowtoLatona; all with their horns gilt. Apollo haft
alfo a colleCHon made for him, befides what the people
who wTere fpeCtators gave voluntarily. The firft prae¬
tor by whom they were held was P. Cornelius Sylla.
For fome time they were moveable or indidtive; but at
length were fixed, under P. Licinius Varus, to the fifth
of July, and made perpetual. The men, who were
fpeflators at thefe games, w'ore garlands on their heads;
the women performed their devotions in the temples at
the fame time, and at laft they caroufed together in the
veftibules of their houfes, the doors Handing open. The
Apollinarian games were merely fcenical; and at firft
only obferved with finging, piping, and other forts of
mufic ; but afterwards there were alfo introduced all
manner of mountebank tricks, dances, and the like :
yet fo as that they ftill remained fcenical, no chariot
races, wreftling, or the like laborious exercifes of the
body, being ever praftifed at them.
APOLL1NARIANS, Apollinarists, called al¬
fo by Epiphanius Dimaritce, ancient heretics, who de¬
nied the proper humanity of Chrift, and maintained
that the body wdiich he affumed was endowed with a
fenfitive, and not a rational, foul, but that the Divine
Nature fupplied the place of the intellectual principle
in man. This feCt derived its name from Apollinaris,
bilhop of Laodicea, in the fourth century.
The Apollinarians have been charged with other
opinions, fuch as, the Millenarian and Sabellian, the
pre-exiftence of the body of Chrift, and the paffion of
his Deity; but ecclefiaitical writers are not agreed with
refpeft to thefe and other particulars. Their doCtrine
was firft condemned by a council of Alexandria in the
year 362, and afterwards in a more formal manner by
a council at Rome in 375 ; and by another council in
378, which depofed Apollinaris from his bilhopric.
NotwuthHanding all, his doftrine fpread through moft
,of the churches of the eaft: and his followers were fub-
divided into various feCl's. In 388, the emperor The-Ap
odofius enafted a law, forbidding them to hold afi’em-
blies, to have any ecclefiaftics or bilhops, or to dwell in
cities. The rigorous execution of this law, in concur- u
rence with the decrees of different councils, reduced
them to a very fmall number, and their doClrine had no
long duration.
APOLLINARIS, Caius Svlficius, a very learn¬
ed grammarian, born at Carthage, lived in the 2d cen¬
tury, under the Antonines; he is iuppofed to be the
author of the verfes which are prefixed to the comedies
of Terence, and contain the arguments of them. He
had for his fucceffor in the profeffion of grammar Hel-
vius Pertinax, who had been his fcholar, and was at
laft emperor.
Apollinaris Si don i us, Caius Loliius, an emi¬
nent Chriftian writer and bilhop in the 5th century, was
born of a noble family in France. He was educated
under the beft mafters, and made a prodigious pro-
grefs in the feveral arts and fciences, but particulaily
in poetry and polite literature. After he had left the
fchools, he applied himfelf to the profeffion of war. He
married Papianilla, the daughter of Avitus, who was
conful, and afterwards emperor, by whom he had three
children. But Majorianusin the year 457 having de¬
prived Avitus of the empire, and taken the city of
Lyons, in which our author refided, Apollinaris fell
into the hands of the enemy. However the reputation
of his learning foftened Majorianus’s refentment, fo
that he treated him with the utmoft: civility, in return
for which Apollinaris compofed a panegyric in his ho¬
nour; which was fo highly applauded, that he had a
ftatue erefted to him at Rome, and was honoured with
the title of Count. In the year 467 the emperor An¬
themius rewarded him for the panegyric which he had
written in honour of him, by railing him to the poll of
governor of Rome, and afterwards to the diginity of a
patrician and fenator, and erefting a ftatue to him.
But he foon quitted thefe fecular employments for the
fervice of the church. The bilhopric of Clermont be¬
ing vacant in 472 by the death of Eparchus, Apolli¬
naris, who was then only a layman, was chofen to
fucceed him without any intereft or felicitation on his
part, in which fee he a&ed wdth the greateft inte¬
grity. Clermont being befieged by the Goths, he
animated the people to the defence of that city, and
would never confent to the furrender of it; fo that,
when it wras taken about the year 480, he was obli¬
ged to retire ; but he wTas ibon rettored by Evariges
king of the Goths, and continued to govern the church
as he had done before. He died in peace the 21ft of
Auguft 487 ; and his feftival is ftill obferved in the
church of Clermont, where his memory is held in great
veneration. He is efteemed the moft elegant writer of
his age, both in profe and verfe. He wrote a great
many little pieces ; but preferved none but thofe which
he thought were worthy of being continued down to
pefterity. He colleded himfelf the nine books which
we have remaining of his letters. His chief pieces in
poetry are the three panegyrics upon the emperors A-
vitus, Majorianus, and Anthemius. 1 he reft of them
are a collection of poems addreffed to his friends upon
particular fubjecls. His letters contain a variety of
particulars relating to polite literature and protane
hiftorv.
Apoliina-
APOLLINARIUS,
A P O
ApoUinari-
us,
A.po!!o.
[
APOLLINARIUS, Claudius, a learned biiliop
of Hierapolis, who, about the year 170, prefented to
j Marcus Aurelius an excellent Apology for the Chri-
ftians.
Apolmnaiuus the Younger., thus called to dr-
ftinguiih him iroin his father, called Apollinarius the
FJderj, was at fir ft leftor or reader of Laodicea, and af¬
terwards biftiop of that city. He was Univerfally
efteemed the greateft man of his age, both for learning
and piety, and a moft accurate and nervous defender of
the faith againft all its enemies: but notwithftanding
this, on his advancing fome opinions that were not ap¬
proved, he was anathematized as an heretic by the fe-
cond general council of Conftantinople in 381.
APOLLO, in Mythology, a Pagan deity worfhip-
ped by the Greeks and R.omans. Cicero mentions
four of this name : the moft ancient of whom was the
fon of Vulcan ; the fecond a fon of Corybas, and born
in Crete ; the third an Arcadian, called Nomian, from
his being a great legiOator ; and the laft, to whom the
greateft honour is afcribed, the fon of Jupiter and La-
tona.
Apollo had a variety of other names, either derived
from his principal attributes, or the chief places where
he was worfttipped. He was called the Healer, from
his enlivening warmth and cheering influence ; Pcecm,
from the peftilential heats : to figuify the former, the
ancients placed the Graces in his right hand •, and for
the latter, a bow and arrows in his left: Nomius, or
the fhepherd, from his fertilizing the earth, and thence
Juftaining the animal creation : Delius, from his ren¬
dering all things manifeft : Pythius, from his vidlory
oyer Python ; Lycias, Phoebus, and Phaneta, from
his purity and fplendour. As Apollo is alraoft always
confounded by the Greeks with the fun, it is no won¬
der that he fhould be dignified with fo many attributes.
It was natural for the moft glorious objecft in nature,
whofe influence is felt by all creation, and feen by eve¬
ry animated part of it, to be adored as the fountain
of light, heat, and life. The power of healing dif-
eafes being chiefly given by the ancients to medicinal
plants and vegetable productions, it was natural to ex¬
alt into a divinity the vifible caufe of their growth.
Hence he was alfo ftyled the God of Phyfic ; and that
external heat which cheers and invigorates all nature,
being transferred from the human body to the mind,
gave rife to the idea of all mental effervefcence coming
from this god $ hence, likewife, poets, prophets, and
muficians, are faid to be Numine afflati, infpired bv
Apollo.
Whether Apollo was ever a real perfonage, or only
the great luminary, many have doubted. Indeed, Vof-
fms has taken great pains to prove this god to be only
a metaphorical being, and that there never was any
other Apollo than the fun.” “ He was ftyled the Son
of Jupiter (fays this author), becaufe that god was
reckoned by the ancients the author of the wmrld. His
mother was called Latona, a name which fignifies hid-
den; becaufe, before the fun was created, all things
were wrapped up in the obfcurity of chaos. He is al¬
ways reprefented as beardlefs and youthful, becaufe
the fun never grows old or decays. And what elfe
can his bow and arrows imply,’ but his piercing beams ?”
And adds, “ that all the ceremonies which were per¬
formed to his honour, had a manifeft relation to the
Vol. II. Part II.
4% 1 A P O
great fource of light which he reprefented. Whence Apol.'c.
(he concludes) it is in vain to feek for any other divi- L ir —
mty than the fun, which was adored under the name
of Apollo.” However, though this be in general
true, yet it does appear, from many paifages in ancient
authors, that there was fome illuftrious perfonage
named Apollo, who, after his apotheofis, was taken
for the fun ; as Ofiris and Orus in Egypt, whofe ex-
iftence cannot be called in queftion, were, after their
death, confounded with the fun, of which they be¬
came the fymbols, either from the glory and fplendoui*
of their reigns, or from a belief that their fouls had
taken up their refidence in that luminary.
Of the four Apollos mentioned by Cicero,- it ap¬
pears that the three laft were Greeks, and the firft an
Egyptian j who, according to Herodotus, was the fon
of Oliris and Ifis, and called Orus. Paufanias is of
the fame opinion as Herodotus, and ranks Apollo
among the Egyptian divinities. The teftimony of
Diodorus Siculus is Hill more exprefs ; £or in fpeaking
of Ifis, after faying that fhe had invented the pra&ice
of medicine, he adds, that fhe taught this art to her
fon Orus, named Apollo, who was the laft of the gods
that reigned in Egypt.
It is eafy to trace almoft all the Grecian fables and
mythologies from Egypt. If the Apollo of the Greeks
was faid to be the fon of Jupiter, it was becaufe Orus
the Apollo of the Egyptians had Ofiris for his father,
whom the Greeks confounded with Jupiter. If the
Greek Apollo was reckoned the god of eloquence, mu-
fic, medicine, and poetry, the reafon was, that Ofiris,
who was the fymbol of the fun among the Egyptians^
as well as his f'on Orus, had there taught thofe liberal
arts. If the Greek Apollo was the god and conduc¬
tor of the Mufes, it was becaufe Ofiris carried with him
in his expedition to the Indies finging women and mu¬
ficians. This parallel might be carried on ftill fur¬
ther j but enough has been faid to prove that the true
Apollo was that of Egypt.
To the other pertetftions ef this divinity the poets
have added beauty, grace, and the art of captivating
the ear and the heart, no lefs by the fweetnefs of his
eloquence, than by the melodious founds of his lyre.
However, with.all thefe accomplifhments, he had not
the talent of captivating the fair, with whofe charms
he was enamoured. But the amours and other adven¬
tures related of this god during his refidence on earth
are too numerous, and too well known, to be inferted*
here. His mufical contefts, however, being more con-f
nefted with the nature of this work, mult not be whol¬
ly unnoticed.
To begin, therefore, with the difpute which he had
with Pan, that was left to the arbitration of Midas.
Pan, who thought he excelled in playing the flute,
offered to prove that it was an inftrument fuperior to
the lyre of Apollo. The challenge was accepted $
and Midas, who was appointed the umpire in this
conteft, deciding in favour of Pan, was rewarded by
Apollo, according to the poets, with the ears of an
afs for his ftupidity.-—This fiiftion feems founded upon
hiftory. _ Midas, according to Paufanias, was the fon
or Gordius and Cybele ; and reigned in the Greater
Phrygia, as we learn from Strabo. He was poffeffed
of fiich great riches, and fuch an inordinate defire of
increafing them by the moft contemptible parfimony,
3 ‘nT that,
A P O [ 466 ] A P O
that, according to the poets, he converted whatever
he touched into gold. However, his talent for accu¬
mulation did not extend to the acquirement of taile
and knowledge in the fine arts } and, perhaps, his dul-
nefs and inattention to thefe provoked fome mufical
poets to invent the fable of his decifion in favour of
Pan againft Apollo. The fcholiaft upon Ariflophanes,
to explain the fiftion of his long ears, fays, that it w'as
defigned to intimate that he kept fpies. in all parts of
his dominions.
Marfyas, another player on the flute, was ftill more
unfortunate than either Pan or his admirer Midas.
This Marfyas, having engaged in a mufical difpute
with Apollo, chofe the people of Nifa for judges. A-
pollo played at firfl: a Ample air upon his inllrument ;
but Marfyas, taking up his pipe, ftruck the audience
lo much by the novelty of its tone, and the art of his
performance, that he feemed to be heard with more
pleafure than his rival. Having agreed upon a fecond
trial of fkill, it is faid that the performance of Apollo,
by accompanying the lyre with his voice, was allowed
greatly to excel that of Marfyas upon the flute alone.
Marfyas, with indignation, proteft^d againfl: the deci-
Aon of his judges; urging that he had not been fairly
vanquifhed according to the rules flipulated, becaufe
the difpute was concerning the excellence of their fe-
veral inftruments, not their voices j and that it was
wholly unjufl to employ two arts againfl: one.
Apollo denied that he had taken any unfair advan¬
tages of his antagonift, Ance Marfyas had employed
both his mouth and Angers in performing upon his
inftrument ; fo that, if he rvas denied the ufe of his
mouth, he would be ftill more difqualifled for the con¬
tention. The judges approved of Apollo’s reafoning,
and ordered a third trial. Marfyas was again van-
quiihed; and Apollo, inflamed by the violence of
the difpute, flea’d him alive for his prefumption. See
Mars yas.
Paufanias relates a circumftance concerning this con-
teft, that had been omitted by Diodorus, which is, that
Apollo accepted the challenge from Marfyas, upon
condition that the viftor ftiould ufe the vanquiihed as
he pleafed.
Diodorus informs us, that Apollo foon repenting of
the cruelty with which he had treated Marfyas, broke
the firings of the lyre, and by that means put a flop,
for a time, to any farther progrefs in the praftice of
that new inftrument.
The next incident to be mentioned in the hiftory of
Apollo is his defeat of the ferpent Python.
The waters of Deucalion’s deluge, fays Ovid, which
had overflowed the earth, left a flime from whence
fprung innumerable monfters *, and among others the
ferpent Python, which made great havock in the coun¬
try about Parnaffus. Apollo, armed with his darts,
put him to death j which phyftcally explained, im¬
plies, that the heat of the fun having diflipated the
noxious fleams, thefe monfters foon difappeared : or if
this fable be referred to hiftory, the ferpent was a rob¬
ber, who haunting the country about Delphos, and
very much infefting thofe who came thither to facri-
Ace } a prince, who bore the name of Apollo, or one
of the priefts of that god, put him to death.
This event gave rife to the inftitution of the Pythian
games, fo frequently mentioned in the Grecian hifto¬
ry j and it was from the legend of Apollo's victory Apollo,
over the Python that the god himfelf acquired the 'r~~'
name of Pythius, and his prieftefs that of Pythia.
The city of Delphos, where the famous oracles were
fo long delivered, was frequently ftyled Pytho.
As Apollo was the god of the flue arts, thofe who
cultivated them were called his fans. Of this number
wTas Philammon of Delphos, whom the poets and my-
thologifts make the twdn-brother of Autolychus, by
the nymph Chione, and Apollo and Mercury. It is
pretended that both thefe divinities were favoured by
the nymph on the fame day, and that their Ares were
known from their different talents. Philammon, a
great poet and muAcian, was reported to be the off-
fpring of the god who preAdes over thofe arts j and
Autolychus, from the craftinefs and fubtility of his dif-
poAtion, was faid to have fprung from Mercury, god
of theft and fraud. Philammon is one of the flrft,
after Apollo, upon fabulous record, as a vocal per¬
former, who accompanied himfelf wuth the found of
the lyre : his fon was the celebrated Thamyris. See
Thamyris.
There can be no doubt but that Apollo -was more
generally revered in the Pagan world than any other
deity 5 having, in almoft every region of it, temples,
oracles, and feftivals, as innumerable as his attributes :
the wmlf and hawT were confecrated to him, as fym-
bols of his piercing eyes; the crow^ and the raven, be¬
caufe thefe birds w^ere fuppofed to have by in ft in £1 the
faculty of prediftion ; the laurel, from a perfuafton
that thofe who flept with fome branches of that tree
under their heads received certain vapours, which ena¬
bled them to prophecy. The cock was confecrated to
him, becaufe by his crowdng he announces the riftng
of the fun j and the gralhopper on account of his Ang-
ing faculty, which w'as fuppofed to do honour to the
god of muAc. Moft of the ancient poets have cele¬
brated this tuneful infeft, but none better than Ana¬
creon, Ode xliii.
Plato fays that the gralhopper Angs all fummer
without food, like thofe men w'ho, dedicating them-
felves to the Mufes, forget the common concerns of
life.
The Avan w’as regarded by the ancients as a bird fa-
cred to Apollo in two capacities •, flrft, as being, like
the crow and raven, gifted with the fpirit of predic¬
tion ; and, fecondly, for his extraordinary vocal powers.
The fweetnefs of his fong, efpecially at the approach
of death, was not only extolled by all the poets of
antiquity, but by kiftorians, philofophers, and fages j
and to call a great writer the/wan of his age and na¬
tion, was a full acknowledgment of his fovereignty.
Thus Horace calls Pindar the Theban fwan.
Plutarch, wdio was himfelf a prieft of Apollo, im-
preffed with the higheft refpeft and veneration for him
and for muAc, in his dialogue upon that art, makes
one of his interlocutors fay, that an invention fo ufe-
ful and charming jcould never have been the work of
man, but muft have originated from fome god, fuch
as Apollo, the inventor of the flute and lyre, impro¬
perly attributed to Hyagnis, Marfyas, Olympus, and
others *, and the proofs he urges in fupport of this af-
fertion, fhow, if not its truth, at leaft that it was the
common and received opinion.
All dances and facrifices. fays he, ufed in honour of
Apollo,
A P O
Apollo. Apollo, are performed to the found of flutes : the fl:a-
r ~v tLle this g°d at Delos, erefted in the time of Hercu¬
les, had in its right hand a bow 5 and on the left flood
the three Graces, who were furnilhed with three kinds
of inftruments j the lyre, the flute, and the fyrinx.
The youth alfo who carries the laurel of Tempe to
Delphos, is accompanied by one playing on the flute j
and the facred prefents formerly fent to Delos by the
Hyperboreans, were conduced thither to the found of
lyres, flutes, and Ihepherds pipes. He fupports thefe
facts by the teftimonies of the poets Alcaeus, Aleman,
and Corinna.
It feems as if the account of Apollo could not be
concluded by any thing that is left to offer on the fub-
ject, fo properly, as by part of the celebrated hymn
of Callimachus, which during many ages was performed
and heard by the moft polilhed people on the globe
with the utmoft religious zeal, at the feftivals inftituted
to this god.
Ha ! how the laurel, great Apollo’s tree,
And all the cavern, fhakes ! Far off, far off,
The man that is unhallow’d : for the god
Approaches. Hark ! he knocks ; the gates
Feel the glad impulfe, and the fever’d bars
Suomi (five clink againft their brazen portals.
Why do the Delian palms incline their boughs,
Self-mov’d j and hovering fwans, their throats releas’d
110m native filence, carol founds harmonious ?
Begin, young men, the hymn : let all your harps
Break their inglorious filence j and the dance,
In myftic numbers trod, explain the mufic.
But firft, by ardent pray’r and clear luftration,
1 urge the contagious fpots of human weaknefs :
Impure, no mortal can behold Apollo.
So may you flourifli, favour’d by the god,
In youth with happy nuptials, and in age’
c ^ver ^ajrs» and fair defeent of children :
So lay foundations for afpiring cities,
And blefs your fpreading colonies increafe.
Pay facred rev’rence to Apollo’s fong:
Left wrathful the far-ftiooting god emit
His fatal arrows. Silent nature Hands :
And feas fubfide, obedient to the found
Of lo ! lo Paean ! nor dares Thetis
Longer bewail her lov’d Achilles’ death.
For Phoebus was his foe. Nor muft fad Niobe
I n huitlefs forrow perfevere, or weep,
^/h;°\the, Phrygian marhle. Haplefs mother !
VV hole fondnefs could compare her mortal offspring
1 o thole which fair Latona bore to Jove,
lo ! again repeat ye, lo Pgean !
Recite Apollo’s praife till night draws on.
The ditty ftill unfinifh’d ; and the day
Unequal to the godhead’s attributes
Various, and matter copious of your fongs.
Sublime at Jove’s right hand Apollo fits,
And thence dillributes honour, gracious king
And theme of verfe perpetual. From his robe
flows light ineffable ! his harp, his quiver.
And Radian bow, are gold : with golden fandals
His feet are Ihod. How rich ! how beautiful !
Beneath his fteps the yellow min’ral rifes •
And earth reveals her treafures. Youth and beauty
[ 467 1
A P O
Eternal deck his cheek : from his fair head
Perfumes diftil their fweets j and cheerful health,
His duteous handmaid, through the air improv’d
With lavilh hand diffufes feents ambrofial.
The fpearman’s arm by thee, great god, direcled,
Sends forth a certain wound. T. he laurel’d bard.
Infpir’d by thee, compofes verfe immortal.
T aught by thy art divine, the fage phyfician.
Eludes the urn, and chains or exiles death.
Perpetual fires fliine hallow’d on thy altars,
When annual the Camean feaft is held ;
The warlike Libyans, clad in armour, lead
d he dance •, with clanging fwords and fluelds they beat
The dreadful meafure : In the chorus join
Their women j brown, but beautiful : Inch rites
Fo thee well pLafing-
Apollo,
Apollodo-
rus.
-The monftrous Python
Durft tempt thy wrath in vain ; for dead he fell,
To thy great ftrength and golden arms unequal.
lo ! while thy unerring hand elanc’d
Another and another dart, the people
Joyfully repeated lo ! lo Pzan !
Elance the dart, Apollo; for the fafety
And health of man, gracicus thy mother bore thee !
Prior.
. Apollo Belvidere, one in the firft clafs of the an¬
cient ftatues. The excellence of this ftatue confifts in
the expreflion of fomethmg divine, whereas the reft ex¬
cel only in things that are common to men. This fta¬
tue may perhaps juftly enough claim the preference
even in the fuperior and diftinguifhed clafs of the beft
remains of all antiquity. There are about twenty an¬
cient ftatues which the moderns have difeovered that
are referred to the firft clafs, and confidered each as
the chief beauty in its kind.
. A POLL ODOR US, a famous architeft under Tral
jan and Hadrian, was born at Damafcus. He had the
direftion of the bridge of ftone which Trajan ordered
to be built over the Danube in the year 104, which
was efteemed the moft magnificent of all the works of
that emperor. Hadrian, one day as Trajan was dif-
courfing with this architeft upon the buildings he had
railed at Rome, would needs give his judgment, and
mowed he underftood nothing of the matter. Apollo-
dorus turned upon him bluntly, and faid to him. Go
paint citruls, for you are very ignorant of the fubiett
we are talking upon. Hadrian at this time boafted of
his painting citruls w ell. This infult coft Apollodo-
rus his life.
Apollodorus, a celebrated painter of Athens a
bout 408 years before the birth of Chrift, w as the firft
who invented the art of mingling colours, and of ex-
p re fling the lights and fhades. Lie w>as admired alfo
for his judicious choice of fubjefts, and for beauty
and ftrength of colouring furpaffed all the mafters that
went before him. He excelled likewife in ftatuary
Apollodorus the Athenian, a famous grammari¬
an, the fon of Alciepiades and diiciple of Ariftarchus.
De wrote many works not now extant : but his moft
famous produdhon was his Bibliotheca, concernin£ the
origin of the gods. This work confifted of 24 books
but only three are now m being. Several other pieces
of his are to be jound in Fabncius’s Bibliotheca Greece.
i here were various other perfons of this name. Sci-
3 N 2 pj0
A P O [ 468 ] A P O
A polloma,
Apollonius.
pio Tefli, a Neapolitan, has written a treatife of the
Apollodorufes, which was printed at Rome in 1555 j
and Dr Thomas Gale publifhed a work of the lame
kind in 1675.
APOLLONIA, the name of feveral ancient cities,
particularly of a colony of the Milefians in Thrace,
from which Lucullus took away a coloffus of Apollo,
and placed it in the capitol. The greatefl part of the
town w7as lituated in a fmall illand on the Euxine, in
which wTas a temple of Apollo (Strabo). Pliny fays
the coloffus was 30 cubits high, and coll 500 talents.
There was alfo an Apollonia at Mount Parnaffus, near
Delphi (Stephanas). Troezen was formerly called
Apollonia.
Apollonia, feafts facred to Apollo, inllituted up¬
on the following occalion. Apollo, having vanquifhed
Python, wrent with his filler Diana to ALgialea } but,
being driven from thence, he removed to the illand
Crete. The ASgialeans were foon after vifited with a
plague \ upon which, confulting the foothfayers, they
were ordered to fend feven young men and as many
virgins, to appeafe thofe deities and bring them back
into their country. Apollo and Diana being thus ap-
peafed, returned to iEgialea ; in memory of which,
they dedicated a temple to Pitho, the goddefs of per-
fuajion ; whence a cuftom arole of choofing every year
feven young men, and as many virgins, to go as it
were in fearch of Apollo and Diana.
Apollonia, in Geography, a promontory of Africa,
upon the coall of Guinea, near the mouth of the river
Mancu.
APOLLONIUS, the author of the Argonautics,
and furnamed TZ>e Rhodian, from the place of his refi-
dence, is fuppofed to have been a native of Alexan¬
dria, where he is faid to have recited fome portion of
his poem while he vras yet a youth. Finding it ill re¬
ceived by his countrymen, he retired to Rhodes; where
he is conjectured to have polilhed and completed his
w’ork, fupporting himfelf by the profeffion of rhetoric,
and receiving from the Rhodians the freedom of their
citv. He at length returned, with confiderable ho¬
nour, to the place of his birth ; fucceeding Erato-
fthenes in the care of the Alexandrian library in the
rei^n of Ptolemy Euergetes, wdio afcended the throne
of Egypt in the year before Chrill 246. That prince
had been educated by the famous Ariftarchus, and ri¬
valled the preceding fovereigns of his liberal family in
the munificent encouragement of learning. Apollo¬
nius was a difciple of the poet Callimachus ; but their
connexion ended in the moft violent enmity, which
wras probably owing to fome degree of contempt ex-
prefied by Apollonius for the light compofitions of his
matter. The learned have vainly endeavoured to dii-
cover the particulars of their quarrel.—The only work
of Apollonius which has defcended to modern times is
his poem above mentioned, in four books, on the Ar-
gonautic expedition. Both Longinus and Quintilian
have attigned to this work the mortifying charafter of
mediocrity : “ But (fays MrHayley) there lies an ap¬
peal from the fentence of the moft candid and enlight¬
ened critics to the voice of Nature; and the merit of
Apollonius has little to apprehend from the decifion of
this ultimate judge. His poems abound in animated
defcription, and in paffages of the moft tender and pa¬
thetic beauty. How finely painted is the firft letting
forth of the Argo ! and how beautifully is the wife of-^poftomusr
Chiron introduced, holding up the little Achilles in .
her arms, and ftiowing him to his father Peleus as he
failed along the fhore ! But the chief excellence in our
poet, is the fpirit and delicacy with which he has de¬
lineated the paflion of love in his Medea. That Vir¬
gil thought very highly of his merit in this particular,
is fufficiently evident from the minute exaflnefs with
which he has copied many tender touches of the Gre¬
cian poet. Thofe wdio compare the third book of A-
pollonius with the fourth of Virgil, may, I think, per¬
ceive not only that Dido has fome features of Medea,
but that the two bards, how7ever different in their re¬
putation, refembled each other in their genius ; and
they both excel in delicacy and pathos.”—The ancient
fcholia upon his Argonautics, ftill extant, are extreme¬
ly ufeful, and full of learning.
Apollonius of Perga, a city of Pamphylia, w-as a
great geometrician, under the reign of Ptolemy Euer¬
getes, which reaches from, the 2d year of the 133d O-
lympiad to the 3d year of the 139th. He fludied a
long time at Alexandria, under the difciples of Euclid ;
and compofed feveral w'orks, of which that only of the
Conics remains.
■Apollonius, a Pythagorean philofopher, born at
Tyana in Cappadocia, about the beginning of the firft
century. At 16 years of age he became a ftrift ob-
ferver of Pythagoras’s rules, renouncing wine, w’omen,
and all forts of flefh ; not wearing ftioes, letting his
hair grow, and wearing nothing but linen. He foon
after fet up for a reformer of mankind, and chofe his
habitation in a temple of Alfculapius, w’here he is faid
to have performed many wonderful cures. Philoftra-
tus has wrote the life of Apollonius, in which there
are numberlefs fabulous ftories recounted of him. We
are told that he went five years without fpeaking ; and
yet, during this time, that he flopped many feditions
in Cilicia and Pamphylia : that he travelled, and fet
up for a legiflator ; and that he gave ojrt he under-
ftood all languages, without having ever learned them :
that he could tell the thoughts of men, and underftocd
the oracles which birds gave by their finging.. The
Heathens were fond of oppofing the pretended miracles
of this man to thofe of our Saviour ; and by a trea¬
tife which Eufebius wrote againft one Plierocles, w7e
find that the drift of the latter, in the treatife wLich
Eufebius refutes, feems to have been to draw a paral¬
lel betwixt Jefus Chrift and Apollonius, in which he
gives the preference to this philofopher. M. du Pin
has wrote a confutation of Philoftratus’s life of Apol¬
lonius.
Apollonius wrote fome works, viz. four books of
judicial aftrology ; a treatife upon the facrifices, ihow7-
ing what wras proper to be offered to each deity ; and
a great number of letters ; all of which are now loft.
APOLLOS, in Scripture Hi/lory, a Jew of Alex¬
andria, who came to Ephefus during the abfence of
St Paul, who was gone to Jerufalem (A£ls xviii. 24.)
Apollos was an eloquent man, and w’ell verfed in the
Scriptures ; and as he fpoke with zeal and fervour, he
taught diligently the things of God : but knowing on¬
ly the baptifm of John, he w7as no more than a cate¬
chumen, or one of the loweft order of Chriftians, and
did not as yet diftin&ly know7 the myfteries of the
Chriftian dodrine. However, he knew that Jefus
Chrift
A P O
t 4<59 ]
A P O
Chxift was the Mfcfliah, and declared himfelf openly
to be his difciple. When therefore he was come to
Ephefus, he began to fpeak. boldly in the fynagogue,
and to fliow’ that Jefus was the Chrift. Aquila and
Prifcilla having heard him, took him home with them j
inftrutled him more fully in the w-ays of God ; and
baptized him, probably in the name of Jefus Chrift.
Some time after this he had a mind to go into A-
chaia •, and the brethren having exhorted him to un¬
dertake this journey, they wrote to the difciples, de¬
firing them to receive him. He arrived at Corinth 5
and was there very ufeful in convincing the Jews out
of the Scriptures, and demonftrated to them that Jefus
wras the Chrift. Thus he watered what St Paul had
planted in this city (1 Cor. iii. 6.) but the great fond-
nefs which his difciples had for his perfon had like to
have produced a fchifm ; fome “ faying, I am of Paul j
others, I am of Apollos; I am of Cephas.” However,
this divifion wdrich St Paul fpeaks of in the chapter
laft quoted, did not prevent that apoftle and Apollos
from being clofely united by the bands of charity.
Apollos hearing that the apoftle was at Ephefus, wTent
' to meet him, and w7as there when St Paul wrote the
firft epiftle to the Coidnthians ", wherein he teftifies that
he had earneftly entreated Apollos to return to Co¬
rinth, but hitherto had not been able to prevail wdth
him ; that, neverthelefs, he gave him room to hope
that he would go when he had an opportunity. St
Jerome fays, that Apollos was fo diffatisfied with the
divifion which had happened upon his account at Co¬
rinth, that he retired into Crete with Zena, a dodlor
of the law ; and that this difturbance having been ap-
peafed by the letter which St Paul wwote to the Corin¬
thians, Apollos returned to this city, and was biftrop
thereof. The Greeks make him biftiop of Duras j
others fay, he was biftiop of Iconium in Phrygia j and
others, that he was biihop of Caefarea.
APOLLYON, a Greek wmrd that fignifies the de-
JJroyer, and anfwers to the Ilebrew Abaddon. St John
in the Revelation (ix. 11.) fays, that an angel having-
opened the bottomlefs pit, a thick fmoke iflued out
of it} and with this fmoke locufts, like horfes, pre¬
pared for battle, and commanded by the angel of the
bottomlefs pit, called in Hebrew Abaddon, but in the
Greek Apollyon.
APOLOGETIC, Apologetical, fomething faid
or written, by w’ay of excufe or apology, for any ac¬
tion or perfon.
The Apologetic of Tertullian is a work full of
ftrength and fpirit. He there vindicates the Chriftians
from all that had been objedled to them ; particularly
from the abominable crimes faid to be perpetrated at
their meetings, and their w’ant of love and fidelity to
their country. The ground of this laft accufation was,
their refufing to take the accuftomed oaths, and fwear
by the tutelar gods of the empire.—Tertullian ad-
drefles his Apologetic to the magiftrates of Rome, the
emperor Severus being then abfent.
APOLOGUE, in matters of literature, an inge¬
nious method of conveying inftrudlion by means of a
feigned relation called a moral fable.
The only difference between a parable and an apo¬
logue is, that the former, being drawm from what paf-
fes among mankind, requires probability in the narra¬
tion > whereas the apologue, being taken from the fup-
Apono.
pofed aflions of brutes, or even of things inanimate, is Apology
not tied dowm to the ft rift rules of probability. zEfop’s
fables are a model of this kind of writing.
APOLOGY, a Greek term, literally importing an
excufe or defence of fome perlon or aclion.
APOMELI, among Ancient Phy/icians, a decoc¬
tion of honey and vinegar, much ufed as a detergent,
promoter of ftool, urine, &c.
APOMYOSdeus (Wu, and pvicc.fy'), in the Hea¬
then mythology, a name under which Jupiter w7as wor-
ftiipped at Elis, and Hercules as well as Jupiter at the
Olympic games. Thefe deities w7ere fupplicated under
this name, to deftroy or drive away the vaft number
of P.ies which ahvays attended at the great facrifices ;
and in thofe which accompanied the Olympic games,
the firft was always to the Apomyos, or Myiagrus
Deus, that he might drive aw7ay the flies from the reft.
The ufual facrifice wTas a bull.
APONEUROSIS, among Phyfcians, a termfome-
times ufed to denote the expanfion of a nerve or ten¬
don in the manner of a membrane j fometimes for the
cutting off a nerve ; and, finally, for the tendon itfelf.
APONO, Peter d’, one of the moft famous philo-
fophers and phyficians of his age, born in the year x 2 50,
in a village about four miles from Padua. He ftudied
fome time at Paris, and was there promoted to the de¬
gree of doftor in philofophy and phyfic. When he came
to praftife as a phyfician, he is faid to have infilled on
very large fums for his vifits : we are not told what he
demanded for the vifits he made in the place of his re-
fidence j but it is affirmed, that he would not attend the
fick in any other place under 150 florins a-day j and
when he was fent for by Pope Honorius IV. he de¬
manded 400 ducats for each day’s attendance. He wTas
fufpedled of magic, and profecuted by the Inquifition
on that account. “ The common opinion of almoft all
authors (fays Naude) is, that he was the greateft ma¬
gician of his age ; that he had acquired the know¬
ledge of the feven liberal arts, by means of the feven
familiar fpirits, which he kept enclofed in a cry-
ftal 5 and that he had the dexterity to make the mo¬
ney he had fpent come back into his purfe.” The
fame author adds, that he died before the procels
againft him wras finilhed, being then in the 8cth year
of his age j and that, after his death, they ordered
him to be burnt in effigy, in the public place of the
city of Padua ; defigning thereby to ftrike a fear into
others of incurring the like puniihment, and to fup--
prefs the reading three books which he had wrote j the
firft being the Heptameron, which is printed at the
end of the firft volume of Agrippa’s work j the fecond,
that which is called by Trithemius, Elucidareum ne-
cromanticum Petri de Albano ; and the laft, that which
is entitled by the fame author, Liber experintentormn
mirabilium de annulis fecundum xxviii. manfones luna.
His body being fecretly taken up by his friends, efcap-
ed the vigilance of the inquilitors, who would have
burnt it. It was removed feveral times, and was at
laft placed in the church of St Auguftin, without an
epitaph or any mark of honour. The moft remarkable
book which Apono wrote, -was that which procured
him the furname of Conciliator; he wTrote alfo a piece
entitled De rnedicina omnimoda. There is a ftory told
of him, that, having no well in his houfe, he caufed
his neighbour’s to be carried into the ftreet by devils,
when
A P O [ 47
Apono.ge- when he heard they had forbidden his maid fetching
t0" water thence. He had much better (fays Mr Bayle)
Aporia. ^ave einpl°yed the devils to make a well in his own
i——y—_ houfe, and have flopped up his neighbour’s; or, at
leaft, tranfported it into his houfe, rather than into the
flreet.
APONOGETON. See Botany Index.
APONUS, a hamlet near Patavium, with warm
baths. It was the birth-place of Livy, (Martial) j and
is now called Albano. E. Long. 10. N. Lat. 45. 15.
APOPEMPTIC, in the ancient poetry, a hymn
addrefled to a ftranger on his departure from a place to
his own country. The ancients had certain holidays,
wherein they took leave of the gods with apopemptic
longs, as fuppofing them returning each to his owrn
country. The deities having the patronage of divers
places, it was but juft to divide their prefents, and al¬
low fome time to each. Hence it was, that among the
Delians and Milefians wTe find feafts of Apollo, and
among the Argians feafts of Diana, called Epidemia,
as fuppofing thefe deities then more peculiarly refi-
dent among them. On the laft day of the feaft they
difmiffed them, following them to the altars with apo¬
pemptic hymns.
APOPHASIS, a figure in Rhetoric, by which the
orator, fpeaking ironically, feems to wave what he
would plainly infinuate : as, Neither will I mention
thofe things ; which, if I Jhould, you notwithjlanding
could neither confute, nor /peak againjl them.
APOPHLEGMATIZANTS, in Pharmacy, medi¬
cines proper to clear the head from fuperfluous phlegm,
whether by fpitting or by the nofe.
APOPHTHEGM,. a Ihort, fententious, and in-
ftru&ive remark, pronounced by a perfon 01 diftinguifh-
ed character. Such is that of Cyrus : He is unworthy to
be a magijlrate, who is not better than his fubjeBs.
Or this : He that will not take care of his own bujinefs,
will be forced to take care of that of others. Or that of
Artaxerxes Mnemon, when reduced to hunger by the
lofs of his baggage : How much pleafure have I hither¬
to lived a f ranger to ? Or that of Cato, Homines nihil
agendo difcunt male agere. Or, finally, that of Au-
guftus, Fefina lente. The apophthegms of Plutarch
are well known.
APOPHYGE, in Architecture, a concave part or
ring of a column, lying above or below the flat mem¬
ber. The French call it le conge d'en has, or d'en haul:
the Italians, cavo di bajfo, or di fopra ; and alfo il vivo
di bajfo. The apophyge originally was no more than
the ring, or ferril, at firft fixed on the extremities of
wooden pillars, to keep them from fplitting j which af¬
terwards was imitated in ftone.
APOPHYSIS, in Anatomy, a procefs or protube¬
rance of a bone. See Anatomy.
APOPLEXY, a diftemper in which the patient is
fuddenly deprived of all his fenfes, and of voluntary
motion. See Medicine Index.
APORIA, is a figure in Rhetoric, by which the
fpeaker (hows, that he doubts where to begin for the
multitude of matter, or w'hat to fay in fome ftrange and
■ ambiguous thing j and doth, as it wrere, argue the cafe
with himfelf. Thus Cicero fays, Whether he took them
from his fellows more impudently, gave them to a harlot
more lafcivioufy, removed them from the Roman people
] A p o
more wickedly, or altered them more prefumptuoufy, lean- Aporon
not well declare. II
APORON, or Aporime, a problem difficult to re- , AP°ftai)'-i
folve? and wfiiich has never been refolved, though it be
not, in itfelf, impoflible. .
The word is derived from eeTr^a;, which fignifies
fomething very difficult, and impra&icable $ being
formed from the privative «, and pajfage. Such
we conceive the quadrature of the circle ; the dupli-
cature of the cube; the trife&ion of an angle, &.c.
When a queftion w^as propofed to any of the Greek
philofophers, efpecially of the fed of Academifts $ if
he could not give a folution, his anfwer was
/ cannot fee through it.—This word is alfo ufed by iome
law writers for an inexplicable fpeech or difeourfe.
APOSIOPESIS, in Rhetoric, othervvife called re-
ticency, and fupprejfion; a figure, by which a perfon
really fpeaks of a thing, at the fame time that he
makes a fhow as if he would fay nothing of it. The
word comes from uTromuTsota), I am flent.—It is com¬
monly ufed to denote the fame with ellipsis. Jul.
Scaliger diftinguifhes them. The latter, according to
him, behrg only the fuppreffion of a w ord j as, me,
me; adfutn quifeci; the former, the omitting to relate
fome part of the a&ion j as,
Dixerat, atque illam media inter talia ferro
Collapfam adfpiciunt 
where the poet does not mention how Dido killed her-
felf.—This figure is of ufe to keep up the grandeur
and fublimity of a difeourfe.
APOSPHRAGISMA, (from XTCO, and o-tp^ay/gv, /
feaf), in Antiquity, the figure or impreflion of a leak—
It was forbid among the ancients to have the figure or
image of God on their rings and feals. To this pur-
pofe the precept of Pythagoras, E» ukmu. ©«»
! But in procels of time, this was little re¬
garded ; it was ufual enough to have the figures of E-
gyptian and other deities, as wHl as of heroes, mon- '
fters, friends, anceftors, and even brutes, on their dac-
tyli, or ring-feals. Thus Cadfar had the image of Ve¬
nus, Pollio of Alexander, Auguftus of the Sphinx,
Pompey of a frog, Lentulus of his grandfather, &c.
APOSTASIS, in Medicine, the fame with abfeefs.
APOSTASY, the abandoning the true religion.
The primitive Chriftian church diftifiguiflied feveral
kinds of apoftafy. The firft, of thofe who went over
entirely from Chriftianity to Judaifm j the fecond, of
thofe w'ho mingled Judaifm and Chriftianity together j
and the third, of thofe who complied fo far with the
Jews, -as to communicate with them in many of their
unlawful praftices, without making a formal profeflion
of their religion. But the fourth fort was of thofe
who, after having been fome time Chriftians, voluntarily
relapfed into Paganifm.
The perverfion of a Chriftian to Judaifm, Paganifm,
or other falfe religion, was puniftied by the emperors
Conftantius and Julian with confifcation of goods; to
which the emperors Theodofius and Valentinian added
capital punilhment, in cafe the apoftate endeavoured to
pervert others to the fame iniquity : A punifliment too
fevere for any temporal laws to inflifl ; and yet the
zeal of our anceftors imported it into this country -, for
vie find by Bradlon, that in his time apoftates were to
be
A P O [ 47i ] A P O
Apotafy be burnt to death. Doubtlefs the prefervation of Chrx-
I! ftianity, as a national religion, is, abftrafled from its
, Apo e~ , own intrinfic truth, of the utmoft confequence to the
civil ftate : which a fingle inftance will fufficiently de-
monftrate. The belief of a future ftate of rewards and
puniftiments, the entertaining juft ideas of the moral
attributes of the fupreme Being, and a firm perfuafion
that he fuperintends and will finally compenfate every
a£lion in human life (all which are clearly revealed in
the dottrines, and forcibly inculcated by the precepts,
of oyr Saviour Chrift), thefe are the grand foundation
of all judicial oaths : which call God to witnefs the
truth of thofe fa&s, which perhaps may be only
known to him and the party attefting: all moral evi¬
dence therefore, all confidence in human veracity,
muft be weakened by apoftafy, and overthrown by to¬
tal, infidelity. Wherefore all affronts to Chriftianity,
or endeavours to depreciate its efficacy, in thofe who
have once profeffed it, are highly deferving of cenfure.
But yet the lofs of life is a heavier penalty than the
offence, taken in a civil light, deferves •, and, taken in
a fpiritual light, our laws have no jurifdidlion over it.
This punifhment, therefore, has long ago become ob-
folete •, and the offence of apoftafy was for a long time
the object only of the ecclefiaftical courts, which cor-
refted the offender pro falute animce. But about the
clofe of the laft century, the civil liberties to which
we were then reftored being ufed as a cloak of malici-
oufnefs, and the moft horrid do&rine fubverfive of all
religion being publicly avowed both in difcourfe and
writings, it was thought neceffary again for the civil
power to interpofe, by not admitting thofe mifcreants
to the privileges of fociety, who maintained fuch prin¬
ciples as deftroyed all moral obligation. To this end
it was enabled, by ftatute 9 and 10 William III. c. 32,
That if any perfon educated in, or having made pro-
feflion of, the Chriftian religion, fhall by writing,
printing, teaching, or advifed fpeaking, deny the
Chriftian religion to be true, or the holy Scriptures to
be of divine authority, he fhall upon the firft offence
be rendered Incapable to hold any office or place of
truft; and, for the fecond, be rendered incapable of
bringing any a&ion, or of being guardian, executor,
legatee,, or purchafer of lands, and fhall fuffer three
years imprifonment without bail. To give room, how¬
ever, for repentance, if, within four months after the
firft conviction, the delinquent will in open court pu¬
blicly renounce his error, he is difcharged for that once
from all difabilities.
APOSTATA capiendo, in the Englifh Law, a
writ that formerly lay againft a perfon who, having
entered into fome order of religion, broke out again,
and wandered up and down the country.
APOSTATE, one who deferts his religion. Among
the Romanifts, it fignifies a man who, without a legal
difpenfation, fcrfakes a religious order of which he had
made profeffion.
A POSTERIORI, or demonftration a pojleriori.
See Demonstration.
APOSTIL, in matters of Literature, the fame with
a marginal note.
APOSTLE properly fignifies a meffenger or perfon
lent by another upon fome bufinefs ; and hence, by way
of eminence, denotes one of the difciples commiffioned
by Jefus Chrift to preach the gofpel.
Our bleffed Lord felefted twelve out of the number Apoftle.
of his difciples to be invefted with the apoftlefhip. ■v~"“
Their names were Simon Peter, Andrew, Jhmes the
greater, John, Philip, Bartholomew, Thomas, Mat-
thew, James the lefs, Judefurnamed Lebbeus or Thad-
deus, Simon the Canaanite, and Judas Ifcariot. Of
thefe Simon, Andrew, James the greater, and John,
were fifhermen j and Matthew a publican, or receiver
of the public revenues: of what profeffion the reft
were, wTe are not told in Scripture) though it is pro¬
bable they were fifhermen.
There are various conjeftures as to the reafon of our
Saviour’s making choice of twelve apoftles. The moft:
probable is, that it might be in allufion to the twelve
patriarchs, as the founders of their feveral tribes j or to
the twelve chief heads or rulers of thofe tribes, of
which the body of the Jewifh nation confifted. This
opinion feems to be countenanced by what our Saviour
tells his apoftles, that “ when the Son of man fhall
fit on the throne of his glory, they alfo fhall fit upon
twelve thrones judging the twelve tribes of Ifrael.”
Our Lord’s firft commiffion to his apoftles was in the
third year of his public miniftry, about eight months
after their folemn eleftion $ at which time he fent them
out by two and two. They wrere to make no provi-
fion of money for their fubfiftence in their journey,
but to expeCl it from thofe to whom they preached.
They were to declare, that the kingdom of heaven,
or' the Meffiah, was at hand ; and to confirm their
do&rine by miracles. They were to avoid going ei¬
ther to the Gentiles or to the Samaritans, and to con¬
fine their preaching'to the. people of Ifrael. In obe¬
dience to their Mafter, the apoftles went into all the
parts of Paleftine inhabited by the Jews, preaching
the gofpel, and working miracles. The evangelical
hiftory is filent as to the particular circumftances at¬
tending this firft preaching of the apoftles; and only
informs us, that they returned, and told their Mafter
of all that they had done.
Their fecond commiffion, juft before our Lord’s ,af-
cenfion into heaven, was of a more extenfive and par¬
ticular nature. They were now' not to confine their
preaching to the Jews, but to “ go and teach all na¬
tions, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and
of the Son, and of the Holy Ghoft.” Accordingly
they began publicly, after our Lord’s afcenfion, to ex-
ercife the office of their miniftry, working miracles
daily in proof of their million, and making great num¬
bers of converts to the Chriftian faith. This alarmed
the Jewifh Sanhedrim ; whereupon the apoftles wrere
apprehended, and, being examined before the high
prieft and elders, wrere commanded not to preach any
more in the name of Chrift. But this injunction did
not terrify them from perfifting in the duty of their
calling j for they continued daily, in the temple, and
in private houfes, teaching and preaching the gofpel.
After the apoftles had exercifed their miniftry for
twTelve years in Paleftine, they refolved to difperfe
themfelves in different parts of the W’orld, and agreed
to determine by lot what parts each fhould take. Ac¬
cording to this divifion, St Peter went into Pontus,
Galatia, and thofe other provinces of the Leffer Afia.
St Andrew had the vaft northern countries of Scythia
and Sogdiana allotted to his portion. St John’s was
partly the fame with Peter’s, namely the Leffer Afia.
St
A P O
C 472 ]
A P O
ApotUe. gt Philip had the Upper Afia affigned to him, with
—V"-"^ feme parts of Scythia and Colchis. Arabia Felix fell
to St Bartholomew’s (hare. St Matthew preached in
Chaldsea, Perfia, and Parthia, St Thomas preached
likewife in Parthia ; as alfo to the Hyrcanians, Ba<Bri-
ans, and Indians. St James the lefs continued in Je-
rufalem, of which church he was bifhop, St Simon
had for his portion Egypt, Cyrene, Libya, and Mau¬
ritania j St Jude, Syria and Melopotamia 5 and St Mat¬
thias, who was chofen in the room of the traitor Ju¬
das, Cappadocia and Colchis, I hus, by the difperfion
of the apoftles, Chriitianity was very early planted in
a great many parts of the world, vVe have but very
fhort and imperfedt accounts of their travels and ac¬
tions.
In order to qualify the apofiles for the arduous talk
of converting the world to the Chriftian religion, they
were, in the firft place, miraculouily enabled to Ipeak
the languages of the feveral nations to whom they were
to preach : and, in the fecond place, were endowed
with the power of working miracles, in confirmation
of the doarines they taught; gifts which were unne-
ceffary, and therefore ceafed, in the after ages of the
church, when Chriitianity came to be eltablilhed by
the civil power.
St Paul is frequently called the apq/Ue, by way of
eminence ; and the apojlle of the Gentiles, becaufe his
miniftry tvas chiefly made ule of for the converfion of
the Gentile world, as that of St Peter was for the
Jews, who is therefore ftyled the apojlle of the circitm-
'cljion. The feveral apoftles are ufually reprefented
with their refpe&ive badges or attributes ; St Peter
with the keys; St Paul with a fword} St Andrew
with a crofs or faltier j St James minor with a fuller’s
pole St John with a cupj and winged ferpent flying
from it; ' St Bartholomew with a knife •, St Philip
with a long ftaff, whofe upper end is formed into a
crofs *, St Thomas with a lance; St Matthew with
a hatchet j St Matthias with a battle-axe •, St James
major with a pilgrim’s ftaff and a gourd bottle 5 St Si¬
mon with a faw \ and St judewdth a club*
This appellation was alfo given to the ordinary tra¬
velling minifters of the church—Thus St Paul, in the
Epiftle to the Romans, xvii. 7. fays, “ Salute Andro-
nicus and Junia, my kinfmen and fellow prifoners, who
are of note among the apoftles,” It was Hkewife a
title given to thofe fent by the churches to carry their
alms to the poor of other churches. This ufage they
borrowed from the fynagogues, who called thofe whom
they fent on this meffage by the fame name •, and the
function or office itfclf «7r«fflA>}, apq/lle, q. d, mi(fiQn,
Thus St Paul, writing to the Philippians, tells them
that Epaphroditus their apoftle had miniftred to his
wants, ch. ii. z 5.
The appellation is given in like manner to thofe per-
fons who firft planted the Chriftian faith in any place.^
Thus Dionyfius of Corinth is called the cipofile oj
France ; Xavier, the apojlle of the Indies, See. In the
Eaft Indies the Jefuit miflionaries are alfo called a-
pojlles.
Apostle is alfo ufed among the Jews for a kind
of officer anciently fent into the feveral parts and pro¬
vinces in their jurifdiCtion, by way of vifitor or com-
miffary, to fee that the laws were duly obferved, and
to receive the monies colleckd for the reparation of
the temple, and the tribute payable to the Romans, Apaftl*.
The Theodofian code, lib. 14. De Juda-is, calls thofe
apofloli, qui ad exigendum aurum atque argentum, a pa -
triarcha certo tempore diriguntur. Julian the apoiiale
remitted the Jews the apoftle, utto^oM that is, as he
himielf explains it, the tribute they had been accu-
ftomed to fend him. Thefe apoftles were a degree
below the officers of the fynagogue called patriarchs,
and received their comroiiiions from them. Some au¬
thors obferve, that St Paul had borne, this office j and
tfiat it is this he alludes to in the beginning of the
epiftle to the Galatians : as if fie had laid, Paul, no
longer an apoftle of the fynagogue, nor lent thereby
to maintain the law of Moles, but now an apoftle. and
envoy of Jelus Chrift, &c. St Jerome, though he does
not believe that St Paul had been an apoftle of this
kind, yet imagines that he alludes to it in the paffage
juft cited.
Apostle, in the Greek liturgy, is particularly
ufed for a book containing the epiftles of St Paul,
printed in the order wherein th-y are to be read in
churches, through the courfe of the year. Another
book of the like kind, containing the Gofpels, is called
Gofpel. —• I he apoftle, ot late days, has alio
contained the other canonical epiftles, the adts of the
Apoftles, and the Revelation. Hence it is alfo called
ABs of the Jpofles, } that being the firft
book in it.
Apostle is alfo thought by many to have been the
original name for bifhops, before tne denomination
bifhop was appropriated to their order. Thus Thecdo-
ret fays exprefsly, the fame perfons were anciently cal¬
led promifeuouily both bifhops and prelbyters, whilft
thole who are now called bithops were caked apojtles.
In the arfenai of Bremen, there are twelve pieces of
cannon called the Twelve Apojlles, on a fuppofition that
the whole world muft be convinced, and acquielce in
the preaching of fuch apoftles.
Apostles Creed: a formula, or fummary of the
Chriftian faith, draw . up, according to Ruffinus, by
the apoftles themfelves : who, during their ftay at Je-
rufalem, foon after our Lord’s afcenfion, agreed upon
this creed, as a rule of faith, and as a word of df inc-
tion by which they wer-c to know friends from foes,
Baronins, and fome other authors, conjedlure, that
they did not compol'e it till the fecond year of the reign
of Claudius, a little before their difperfion. As to
their manner of corapofmg it, fome fancy, that each
apoftle pronounced his article, which is the reafon of
its being called fymbolutn apqftolkum, it being made up
of fentences jointly contributed, after the manner of
perfons paying each their club (Jymbolum) or ihare of
a reckoning.
But there are reafons which may induce us to que-
ftion whether the apoftles compofed any fuch creed as
this. For, firft, Neither St Luke in the Acts, nor any
other ecclefiaftical writer before the 5th century, make
any mention of an affembly of the apoftles m order ky
the compofing of a creed. Secondly, The fathers of
the three firft centuries, in difputing againft the here¬
tics, endeavoured to prove that the doctrine contained
in this creed was the fame which the apoftles taught j
but they never pretend that the apoftles compofed it.
Thirdly, If the apoftles had made this creed, it would
have been the fame in all churches, and ia all ages •,
ana
A P O [ 473 ] A P O
Apoftolare and all authors would have cited it after the fame man-
li ner. But the cafe is quite othcrwife. In the fecond
Apoftolie. and third
ages of the church, there were as many
creeds as authors, and one and the fame author fets
down the creed after a different manner in feveral pla¬
ces of his wrorks ; which is an evidence that there was
not at that time any creed which was reputed to be
the apoltles. In the 4th century, Ruffinus compares
together the three ancient creeds of the churches of
Aquileia, Rome, and the Eaft, which differ very con-
liderably in the terms. Befides, thefe creeds differed
not only in the terms and expreffions, but even in the
articles, fome of which were omitted in one or other
of them ; fuch as thofe of the defcent into hell, the com¬
munion of the faints, and the life everlajling. From
thefe reafons it may be gathered, that though this
creed may be faid to be that of the apoftles in regard
to the doftrines contained therein, yet it is not to be
referred to them as the authors and firft compofers of
it. Who was the true author of it, is not fo eafy to
determine •, though its great antiquity may be inferred
frem hence, that the whole form, as it now Hands in
the Engliih liturgy, is to be found in the works of
St Ambrofe and Ruffinus, the former of whom flou-
nfhed in the 3d century, and the latter in the 4th
century.
The primitive Chriftians, in regard they always con¬
cealed this and their other myfteries, did not publicly
recite the creed, except at the times of baptifm ; which,
unlefs in cafes of neceffity, were only at Eaffer and
vVhitfuntide. The conftant repeating it was not in¬
troduced into the church till the end of the 5th cen¬
tury ; about which time Petrus Gnapheas, bifhop of
Antioch, prefcribed the recital of it every time divine
fervice was performed.
APOSTOEARE, Apostolicare, apofolixing, in
fome middle age waiters, denotes the being preferred
to the dignity of pope.
APOSTOLATE, in a general fenfe, is ufed for
miflion. In this fenfe, Olearius has a difcourfe con¬
cerning the apollolate of Chrift.
Apostolate more properly denotes the dignity or
office of an apoftle of Chrift ; but it is alfo ufed, in
ancient writers, for the office of a biftiop. In this
lenfe we meet with feveral letters, petitions, requefts,
&c. direfted to biffiops, under the title of your apq/lo-
late, or apojlolatus vejler. But as the title apofolicus
had been appropriated to the pope, fo that ef apojlo-
late became at length reftrained to the foie dignity of
the popedom. Every bifhop’s fee was anciently dig¬
nified with the title oifedes apofolica, an apoftolical
lee, which is now the peculiar denomination of the fee
of Rome,
APOS FOLI, in Law, denote thofe letters miffive
which are demanded in cafes of appeal.
APOS FOLIC, Apostolical, fomething that re¬
lates to the apoftles, or defcends from them. Thus we
iuy, the apofolica l age, apofolical doclrine, apofolical
chara&er, conftitutions, traditions, &.c.
Apostolic, in the primitive church, was an appel¬
lation given to all fuch churches as were founded by
the apoftles; and even to the bifhops of thofe churches,
as being the reputed fucceflbrs of the apoftles Thefe
were confined to four, viz. Rome, Alexandria, Anti¬
och, and Jerufalem. In after times, other churches
Vol. II. Part II.
afiumed the fame quality, on account, principally, of Apoftohcal
the conformity of their doctrine with that of the A H
churches which were apoftolical by foundation, and ‘.
becaufe all bilhops held themfelveS fuccefibrs of the
apoftles, or afted in their diocefes with the authority
of apoftles.
The firrt time the term apofolical is attributed to
biffiops, as fuch, is in a letter of Clovis to the council
of Orleans, held 01511, though that king does not
there exprefsly denominate them apofolical but (" apo¬
folica fede dignifimi) highly worthy of the apoftolical
fee. In 581, Guntram calls the bifliops, met at the
council of Maijon, apofolical pontiff's, apofolici ponti-
fces.
In progrefs of time, the biftiop of Rome growing in
power above the reft, and the three patriarchates of
Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerufalem, falling into the
hands of the Saracens, the title apofolical w^as reftrain¬
ed to the pope and his church alone. Though fome
of the popes, and St Gregory the Great, not content¬
ed to hold the title by this tenure, began, at length,
to infift, that it belonged to them by another and pe¬
culiar right, as being the fucceflbrs of St Peter. The
country of Rheims in 1049 declared that the pope was
the foie apoftolical primate of the univerfal church.
And hence a great number of apoftolicals ; apofolical
fee, apofolical nuncio, apofolical notary, apofolical
brief, apofolical chamber, apofolical vicar, &c.
Apostolical Confitutions. See Constitution.
Apostolical ‘Traditions. See Tradition.
Apostolical Fathers is an appellation ufually given
to the wwiters of the firft century who employed their
pens in the caufe of Chriftianity. Of thefe writers,
Cotelerius, and after him Le Clerc, have publifhed a
collection in two volumes, accompanied both with their
own annotations and the remarks of other learned
men.
APOSTOLIANS, a feel of the IVIennonites,
which firft fprung up in the year 1664, and derived
its name from Apoftool, one of the Mennonite mini-
flers at Amfterdam. They concurred with them in
doftrine, and admitted to their communion thofe only
who profefled to believe all the fentiments which are
contained in their public confeffion of faith.
APOSFOLICI, or Apostolics, was a name af-
fumed by three different feds, on account of their pre¬
tending to imitate the manner and praftice of the apo¬
ftles. The firft apoftolici, otherwife called Apotaftitcc
and ApotaBici, rofe out of the Encratitse, and Catha-
ri, in the third century. They made profeffion of ab-
ftaimng from marriage, and the ufe of wine, flefti, mo¬
ney, &c.
Gerhard Sagarelli w^as the founder of the fecond
fed j he obliged his followers to go from place to
place as the apoftles did, to wander about clothed in
white, with long beards, diftievelled’ hair, and bare
heads, accompanied with women, whom they called
their fpiritual fifters. They likewife renounced all
kinds of property and poffeffions, inveighed againft the
growing corruption of the church of Rome, predicled
its overthrow, and the eftablifliment of a purer church
on its ruins. Sagarelli was burnt alive at Parma in
the year 1300, and w’as afterwards fucceeded by Dnl-
cinus, wTho added to the charader of an apoftle thole
of a prophet and a general, and carried on a bloody
3 O and
A P O [ 474 ] A P O
Apoftoli-
cum
and dreadful war for the fpace of more than two years
againft Reynerius, bilhop of Vercelli he was at
length defeated, and put to death in a barbarous man¬
ner in the year i 307. Neverthelefs, this fe£l fubfilled
in France, Germany, and in other countries, till the
beginning of the fifteenth century, when it was totally
extirpated under the pontificate of Boniface IX.
The other branch of apoftolici was of the twelfth
century. Thefe alfo condemned marriage, preferring
celibacy, and calling themfelves the chafte brethren
and fifters 5 though each was allowed a fpiritual fifter,
with whom he lived in a domeftic relation j and on
this account they have been charged with concubi¬
nage : they held it unlawful to take an oath j they fet
afide the ufe of baptifm 5 and in many things imitated
the Manichees. Bernard wrote againft this feft of
apoftolici.
APOSTOLICUM is a peculiar name given to a
kind of fong or hymn, anciently ufed in churches.
The apoflolicum is mentioned by Greg. Thaumatur-
gus as ufed in his time. Voflius underftands it as
fpoken of the apoftles creed : Suicer thinks this impof-
iible, for that this creed was then unknown in the
churches of the eaft.
APOSTROPHE, in Rhetoric, a figure by which
a perfon who is either abfent or dead is addrefifed as if
he were prefent and attentive to us. This figure is,
in boldnefs, a degree lower than the addrefs to perfo-
nified objedts (See Personification) j fince it re¬
quires a lefs effort of imagination to fuppofe perfons
prefent who are dead or abfent, than to animate infen-
fible beings and diredl our difcourfe to them. The
poems of Oflian abound with the moft beautiful in-
ftances of this figure. “ Weep on the rocks of roar¬
ing winds, O Maid of Iniftore ! Bend thy fair head
over the waves, thou fairer than the ghoft of the hills
when it moves in a funbeam at noon over the filence
of Morven ! He is fallen ! Thy youth is low : pale
beneath the fword of Cuchullin !”
Apostrophe, in Grammar, the contraction of a
word by the ufe of a comma : as call'd for called, tho'
for though.
APOTikCTITiE, or Apotactici, an ancient fed!,
who affedling to follow the evangelical counfels of po¬
verty, and the examples of the apoftles and primitive
Chriftians, renounced all their effedls and poffeffions.
It does not appear that they gave into any errors dur¬
ing their firft ftate •, fome eccleliaftical writers affure
us they had divers holy virgins and martyrs under the
perfecution of Diocletian in the fourth century •, but
they afterwards fell into the opinions of the Encrati-
t*, and taught that the renouncing of all riches was
not only a matter of counfel and advice, but of pre¬
cept and necefiity. And hence the fixth law' in the
Theodofian code joins the Apotadlitae with the Euno-
mians and Arians.
APOTEICHISMUS, in the Ancient Military Art,
a kind of line of circumvallation drawm round a place
in order to befiege it. This was alfo called periteichif-
mus. The firft thing the ancients went about, when
they defigned to lay clofe fiege to a place, was the apo-
teichifmus; which fometimes confifted of a double wrall
or rampart, raifed of earth 5 the innermoft to prevent
fudden fallies from the towm, the outermoft to keep off
foreign enemies from coming to the relief of the be-
fieged. This anfwered to wdiat are called lines of con- ApotLeca-
travallation and circumvallation among the moderns. r>‘
APOTHECARY, one who pradtiies the art of Ap0fhe0f,s
pharmacy. In London, the apothecaries are one of d y—
the city companies. They were incorporated by a
charter from King James I. procured at the felicita¬
tion of Dr Mayerne and Dr Aitkins ; till that time
they only made a part of the grocers company.; plums,
fugar, fpice, Venice treacle, mithridate, &c. were
fold in the fame Ihop and by the fame perfon. rI he
reafon of feparating them was, that medicines might
be better prepared, and in oppofition to divers perfons
who impoled un whole fome remedies on the people.
By an aft which was made perpetual in the ninth year
of George I. they are exempted from ferving upon ju¬
ries, or in ward and parifti offices. They are obliged
to make up their medicines according to the formulas
preferibed in the college difpenfatory ; and are liable
to have their ftrops vifited by the cenfors @f the college,
who are empowered to deftroy fuch medicines as they
think not good.
They have a hall in Black Friars, where there are
two fine laboratories, out of which all the furgeons
chefts are fupplied with medicines for the Britifh royal
navy.
To his majefty belong two apothecaries: the falary
to the firft, 3 20I.; to the fecond, 27 jl.—To the houfe-
hold belong alfo two.
The charitable difpenfation of medicines by the Chi-
nefe is w7ell deferving notice. They have a ftone,
w'hich is ten cubits high, erefted in the public fquares
of their cities ; on this ftone are engraved the names
of all forts of medicines, with the price of each ; and
W'hen the poor ftand in need of any relief from phyfic,
they go to the treafury, where they receive the price
each medicine is rated at.
Apothecary, Apothecarius, in writers of the mid¬
dle age, denotes a fhop-keeper or warehoufe-keeper.
Apothecarius is alfo ufed to denote a ftore-keep-
er, or officer appointed to have the direftion of a ma¬
gazine, granary, &c. In which fenfe apothecaru is
fometimes rendered by horearii and rationaru.
APOTHEOSIS, in Antiquity, a heathen ceremo¬
ny, whereby their emperors and great men were placed
among the gods. The word is derived from xv, and
©f«f, God.
After the apotheofis, which they alfo called deifica¬
tion and confecration, temples, altars, and images were
erefted to the new deity ; facrifices, &c. were offered,
and colleges of priefts inflituted.
It was one of the doftrines of Pythagoras, which he
had borrowed from the Chaldees, that virtuous perfons
after their death were raifed into the order of the gods.
And hence the ancients deified all the inventors of
things ufeful to mankind ; and thofe rvho had done
any important fervice to the commonwealth.—Tibe¬
rius propofed to the Roman fenate the apotheofis of
jefus Chrift, as is related by Eufebius, Tertullian, and
Chryfoftom.
Juvenal rallying the frequent apotheofes, introduces
poor Atlas, complaining that he v7as ready to fink un¬
der the burden of fo many new gods as were every day
added to the heavens. Seneca ridicules the apotheofis
of Claudius with admirable humour.
The ceremony, according to Herodian’s defeription,
was
A P P [ 475 1 A ' P P
Apothera- was as follows : After the body of the deceafed had
P!a been burnt with the ufual folemnities, an image of wax,
exadfly refembling him, was placed on an ivory couch,
> - - > ‘ where it lay for feven days, attended by the fenate and
ladies of the higheft quality in mourning 5 and then
the young fenators and knights bore the bed of Hate
through the Via Sacra to the old forum, and from
thence to the Campus Martius, where it was depofited
upon an edifice built in form of a pyramid. The bed
being thus placed amidft a quantity of fpices and other
combuftibles, and the knights having made a folemn
proceflion round the pile, the new emperor, with a
torch in his hand fet fire to it, whilrt an eagle, let fly
from the top of the building, and mounting in the air
with a firebrand, was fuppoied to convey the foul of
the deceafed to heaven; and thenceforward he was
ranked among the gods.
We often meet with the confecration or apotheofis
of emperors reprefented on medals 5 where we fee the
pyramids of feveral rtories, each growing lefs and lefs ;
we lee alfo the eagles flying away with the fouls of the
deceafed emperors. A gem in the mufeum of Bran¬
denburg reprefents the apotheofis of Julius Ctefar,
mounted upon the celeftial globe, and holding a helm
in his hand, as if he were now the governor of heaven,
as before of the earth. See Deification.
APO1 H-ERAPIA, (from Icure^, in
Phyjic, properly denotes a complete or finifhed cure.
Apother,apia is alfo ufed in the gymnaftic art, for
the laft part of all regular exercife, viz. friftion or unc¬
tion wuth oil, before as well as after bathing. The de-
fign of this was partly to cleanfe the fkin from any filth
or dull; it might have contra&ed during the exercife,
and partly to remove wearinefs.
APQTOME, in Geometry, the difference between
two incommenfurable lines.
Apotome, in Mujic, the difference between a
greater and leffer femi-tone ; expreffed by the ratio,
128; 1 25.
APO I R OP/EA, (from euriTpivu, I avert), in the
Ancient Poetry, verfes compofed for averting the wrath
of incenfed deities ; and the deities invoked for avert¬
ing any threatened misfortune were called Apotrepe-
ons i they were alfo called Alexicaci, from /
drive away; and Averrunci from averrunco, which
denotes the fame.
APOZEM, in Medicine, the fame with decoction.
See Decoction.
APPARAT US, a term ufed to denote a complete
fet of inftruments, or other utenfils, belonging to any
artift or machine.
Apparatus is frequently ufed for the operation of
cutting tor the ftone. For this there are three forts
of apparatus, viz. the fmall, great, and high appara¬
tus. See Surgery.
Apparatus is alfo ufed as a title of feveral books
compoied in form of catalogues, bibliothecas, didfion-
aries, &c, for the cafe and conveniency of ffudy. The
apparatus to Cicero is a kind of concordance, or col¬
lection of Ciceronian phrafes, &c. The apparatus
facer of Poffevin, is a colledtion of all kinds of eccle-
fiaftical authors printed in 1611, in three volumes. 
Gloffaries, comments, &c. are alfo frequently called
apparatifes.
APPARENT, in a general fenfe, fomething that Apparent,
is vifible to the eyes, or obvious to the underftanding. Ap Mnuon.
Apparent, among Mathematicians and AJlronomers,
denotes things as they appear to us, in contradiitinc-
tion from real or true *, thus we fay, the apparent dia¬
meter, diftance, magnitude, place, figure, &c. of bo¬
dies.
Apparent Heir, in Law. No inheritance can veil,
nor can any perfon be the adtual complete heir of ano¬
ther, till the anceftoris previouily dead. Nemo ejl hee-
res viventis. Before that time the perfon who is next
in the line of fucceflion is called an heir apparent, or
heir prefumptive. Heirs apparent are fuch, whofe right
of inheritance is indefeafible, provided they outlive the
anceftor ; as the eldefl fon or his iffue, who muff by
the courfe of the common law be heirs to the father
whenever he happens to die. Heirs prefumptive are
fuch, who, if the anceftor ihould die immediately, would
in the prefent circumftances of things be his heirs:
but whofe right of inheritance may be defeated by the
contingency of fome nearer heir being born ; as a bro¬
ther, or nephew, whofe prefumptive fucceflion may be
deftroyed by the birth of a child 5 or daughter, whofe
prefent hopes may be hereafter cut off by the birth of
a fon. Nay, even if the eftate hath defeended, by the
death of the owner, to fuch brother, or nephew, or
daughter, in the former cafes, the eftate {hall be di¬
verted and taken away by the birth of a pofthumous
child •, and, in the latter, it ftrall alfo be totally divert¬
ed by the birth of a pofthumous fon.
APPARITION, in a general fenfe, denotes fimply
the appearance of a thing. In a more limited fenfe,
it is ufed for a fpedlre or ghoft. Several inftances of
apparitions occur in the Bible ; that of Samuel, raifed
by the witch of Endor, has occafioned great difputes.
We find great controverfies among authors, in relation
to the reality, the exiftence or non-exiftence, the pofli-
bility or impoflrbility, of apparitions. The Chaldeans,
the Jew^s, and other nations, have been the fteady af-
fertors of the belief of apparitions. The denial of
{pints and apparitions is by lome made one of the
marks of infidelity, if not of atheifm. Many of the ap¬
paritions wTe are told of in writers, are doubtlefs mere
delufions of the fenfe ; many others are fidlitious, con¬
trived merely to amufe, or anfwer fome purpofe. Ap¬
paritions, it is certain, are machines that on occafion
have been of good fervice both to generals, to minifters
of ftate, to priefts, and others.
Partial darknefs, or obfeurity, are the moft powTerful
means by which the fight is deceived : night is there¬
fore the proper feafon for apparitions. Indeed the ftate
of the mind, at that time, prepares it for the admiflion
of thefe delufions of the imagination. The fear and
caution which muft be obferved in the night; the op¬
portunity it affords for ambufeades and affaffinations;
depriving us of fociety, and cutting off many pleafing
trains of ideas, which objedls in the light never fail to
introduce, are all circumftances of terror : and perhaps,
on the whole, fo much of our happinefs depends upon
our fenfes, that the deprivation of any one may be at¬
tended with proportionable horror and uneafinefs. The
notions entertained by the ancients refpecling the foul,
may receive fome illuftration from thefe principles. In
dark or twilight, the imagination frequently transforms
3 O 2 * an
Apparitor
tl
Appeal.
A P P [ 476 j A P P'
an inanimate body into a human figure j on approach¬
ing, the fame appearance is not to be found: hence
they fometimes fancied they faw their anceftors 5 but
not finding the reality, diftinguifhed thefe illufions by
the name of jhades.
Many of thefe fabulous narrations might originate
from dreams. There are times of dumber when we are
not fenfible of being aileep. On this principle, Hobbes
has ingenioufly accounted for the fpeclre wrhich is laid
to have appeared to Brutus. “ We read,” fays he,
“ of M. Brutus, that at Philippi, the night before he
gave battle to Auguftus Caefar, he faw a fearful appa¬
rition, which is commonly related by hiftorians as a
vifion ; but, confidering the circumftances, one may
eafily judge it to have been but a Ihort dream. For
fitting in his tent, penfive, and troubled with the hor¬
ror of his rafh aft, it was not hard for him, {lumber¬
ing in the cold, to dream of that which moft affright¬
ed him 3 which fear, as by degrees it made him wake,
fo it mutt needs make the apparition by degrees to
vanifh : and having no affurance that he ilept, he could
have no caufe to think it a dream, or any thing but a
vifion.”—-The W'ell known flory told by Clarendon, of
the apparition of the duke of Buckingham’s father,
will admit of a fimilar folution. There w’as no man
in the kingdom fo much the fubjeft of converfation as
the duke 3 and from the corruptnefs of his charafter,
he was very likely to fall a facrifice to the enthufiafm
of the times. Sir George Villiers is laid to have ap¬
peared to the man at midnight : therefore there is the
greateft probability that the man was afieep 3 and the
dream affrighting him, made a ftrong impreffion, and
was likely to be repeated.
APPARITOR, among the Romans, a general term
to comprehend all attendants of judges and magiftrates
appointed to receive and execute their orders.
tltor, in England, is a meffenger that ferves the procefs
of a fpiritual court, or a beadle in a univerfity who
carries the mace.
AP AUMEE, in Heraldry, denotes one hand ex¬
tended, with the full palm appearing, and the thumb
and fingers at full length.
APPEAL, in Law, the removal of a caufe from an
inferior to a fuperior court or judge, when a perfon
thinks himfelf aggrieved by the fentence of the inferior
judge. Appeals lie from all the ordinary courts of
juftice to the Ploufe of Lords. In ecclefiaftical cafes,
if an appeal is brought before a bifhop, it may be re¬
moved to the archbiftiop 3 if before an archdeacon,
to the court of arches, and thence to the archbilhop 3
and from the archbifhop’s court to the king in chan¬
cery.
Appeal, in Common Law, denotes an accufationby
a private fubjeft againft another for fome heinous crime 3
demanding punilhment on account of the particular in¬
jury fuffered, rather than for the offence againlt the
public.
This private procefs, for the punifhment of public
crimes, had probably Its original in thole times, when
a private pecuniary fatisfaftion, called a weregild, was
conftantly paid to the party injured, or his relations,
to expiate enormous offences. This was a cullom de¬
rived to the Englilh, in common with other northern
nations, from their anceftors the ancient Germans 3
among whom, according to Tacitus, luitur ho?nicidiiim
certo anncntorum ac pecorum numero ; reciphqve fatis- Appeal!
faBionem vniverfa domus. In the fame manner, by the '—^~
Irifti Brehon law, in cafe of murder, the brehon or
judge was ufed to compound between the murderer
and the friends of the deceafed who profecuted him,
by cauftng the malefaftor to give unto them, or to the
child or wife of him that was {lain, a recompenfe which
they called an eriach. And thus we find in the An¬
glo-Saxon laws (particularly thofe of King Athelftan)
the feveral weregilds for homicide eftabliihed in pro-
greflive order, from the death of the ceorl or peafant,
up to that of the king himfelf. And in the laws of
Henry I. we have an account of what other offences
were redeemable by weregild, and what were not fo.
As, therefore, during the continuance of this cuftorti, a
procefs was certainly given for recovering the weregild
by the party to whom it w>as due 3 it feems that, when
thefe offences by degrees grew no longer redeemable,
the private procefs was ftill continued, in order to en-
fure the infiiftion of punilhment upon the offender,
though the party injured was allowed no pecuniary
compenfation for the offence.
But though appeals were thus, in the nature of pro-
fecutions for fome atrocious injury, committed more im¬
mediately againft an individual, yet it alfo was ancient¬
ly permitted, that any fubjeft might appeal another
fubjeft of high treafon, either in the courts of common
law, or in parliament, or (for treafons committed be¬
yond the feas) in the court of the high conftable and
marlhal. The cognizance of appeals in the latter ftill
continues in force 3 and fo late as 1631, there was a
trial by battle awarded in the court of chivalry, on fuch
an appeal of treafon : but that in the firft was virtu¬
ally aboliftied by the ftatutes 5 Edw. III. c. 9. and
2 Edw. III. c. 24. and in the fecond exprefsly by fta-
tute 1 Hen. IV. c. 14. So that the only appeals now
in force for things done within the realm, are appeals
of felony and mayhem.
An appeal of felony may be brought for crimes com¬
mitted either againft the parties themfelves or their re¬
lations. The crimes againft the parties themfelves are
larceny, rape, and arfon. And for thefe, as well as for
mayhem, the perfons robbed, ravilhed, maimed, or
whofe heufes are burnt, may inftitute this private pro¬
cefs. The only crime againft one’s relation, for which
an appeal can be brought, is that of lilhfi^ him, by ei¬
ther murder or manflaughter. But this cannot be
brought by every relation 3 but only by the wife for
the death of her hufband, or by the heir male for the
death of his anceftor 3 which heirftiip was alfo confined
by an ordinance of Henry I. to the Four neareft de¬
grees of blood. It is given to the wife on account of
the lofs of her hufiband 3 therefore, if ftie marries again,
before or pending her appeal, it-is loft and gone 3 or,
if ihe marries after judgment, {he {hall not demand ex¬
ecution. The heir, as was faid, muft alfo be heir male,
and fuch a one as wras the next heir by the courfe of
the common law at the time of the killing of the an¬
ceftor. But this rule has three exceptions : 1. If the
perfon killed leaves an innocent wfife, ftie only, and not
the heir, {hall have the appeal. 2. If there be no wife,
and the heir be accufed of the murder, the perfon, who
next to him would have been heir male, ftiall bring the
appeal. 3. If the wife kills her hufband, the heir may
appeal her of the death. And, by the ftatute of Glou-
cefter,
1
I
A P P [ 477 T A P P
Appeal, cefter, 6 Edw. I. c. 9. all appeals of death mail be fued
■—v ' within a year and a day after the completion of the fe¬
lony by the death of the party : which feems to be only
declaratory of the old common law 5 for in the Gothic
conftitutions we find the fame “ prafcriptio annalis, qua
currit ndverfus a^orem, Ji de homicida ei non eonjlat in¬
tro annum a ccede faBa, nec quenquam interea arguat et
accufet.'1'1
Thefe appeals may be brought previous to any in¬
dictment ; and, if the appellee be acquitted thereon, he
cannot be afterwards indiCted for the fame offence. In
like manner as by the old Gothic conftitution, if any
offender gained a verdift in his favour, when profecu-
ted by the party injured, he was alfo underftood to be
acquitted of any crown profecution for the fame of¬
fence : but, on the contrary, if he made his peace with
the king, ftill he might be profecuted at the fuit of the
party. And fo, in England, if a man be acquitted on
an indictment of murder, or found guilty, and pardoned
by the king, ftill he ought not (in ftriCtnefs) to go at
large,, but be imprifoned or let to bail till the year and
day be paft, by virtue of the ftatute 3 Hen. VIII. c. 1.
in order to be forthcoming to anfwer any appeal for
the fame felony, not having as yet been punifhed for it:
though, if he hath been found guilty of manflaughter
on an indictment, and hath had the benefit of clergy,
and fuffered the judgment of the law, he cannot after¬
wards be appealed j for it is a maxim in law, “ that
nemo bis punitur pro eodem deliBo.'" Before this fta¬
tute wTas made it wras not ulual to indift a man for ho¬
micide within the time limited for appeals ; tvhich pro¬
duced very great inconvenience.
If the appellee be acquitted, the appellor (by vir¬
tue of the ftatute of Weftm. 2. 13 Edw. I. c. 12.)
{hall fufter one year’s imprifonment, and pay a fine to
the king, befides reftitution of damages to the party
for the imprifonment and infamy which he has fuftain-
ed : and, if the appellor be incapable to make reftitu¬
tion, his abettors {hall do it for him, and alfo be liable
to imprifonment. This provifion, as wras forefeen by
the author of Fleta, proved a great difcouragement to
appeals j fo that thenceforward they ceafed to be in
common ufe.
If the appellee be found guilty, he {hall fuffer the
fame judgment, as if he had been convicted by indict¬
ment : but with this remarkable difference, that on an
indictment, which is at the fuit of the king, the king
may pardon and remit the execution ; on an appeal,
which is at the fuit of a private fubjeCt, to make an
atonement for the private wwong, the king can no more
pardon it, than he can remit the damages required on
an aCtion of battery. In like manner as, while the
weregild continued to be paid as a fine for homicide,
it could not be remitted by the king’s authority. And
the ancient ufage was, fo late as Henry IV’s time, that
all the relations of the {lain ftiould drag the appellee to
the place of execution : a cuftom, founded upon that
favage fpirit of family refentment 'which prevailed uni-
verfally through Europe after the irruption of the
northern nations, and is peculiarly attended to in their
feveral codes of law' ; and which prevails even now
among the wild and untutored inhabitants of Ameri¬
ca : as if the finger of nature had pointed it out to
mankind, in their rude and uncultivated ftate. How’-
ever, the punilhment of the offender may be remitted
and difcharged by the concurrence of all parties inte- Appear-
refted 5 and as the king by his pardon may fruftrate an a"ce
indiChnent, fo the appellant by his releafe may dif- ^ppepa_
charge an appeal: “ nnm quilibet potejl renunciare jun (;on,
pro fe introduBo.'1'1 —-y--—-
APPEAR ANCE, in a general fenfe, the exterior
furface of a thing, or that w’hich immediately ftrikes
the fenfes.
Appearance, in Law, fignifies a defendant’s filing
a common or fpecial bail, on any procefs iffued out of
a court of judicature.
APPELLANT, in a general fenfe, one who ap¬
peals. See Appeal.
Appellants, in Church Hi/lory, an appellation giv¬
en to fuch of the catholic clergy as appeal from the
conftitution unigenitus to a general council.
APPELLATION, the name by which any thing
is knowm or diftinguiftied when fpcken of. See Name.
Nothing can be more foreign to the original mean¬
ing of many words and proper names, than their pre-
fent appellations, frequently ow’ing to the hiftory of
thofe things being forgotten, or an ignorance of the
language in which they were expreffed. Who, for ex¬
ample, when the crier of a court bawls out, “ O yes,
O yes,” would dream that it was a proclamation com¬
manding the talkers to become hearers, being the
French wrord Oyc%, “ liften,” retained in our courts
ever fince the law pleadings were held in French ? Or
would any perfon fuppofe that the headland on the
French coaft, near Calais, called by our feamen Black-
nefs, could be fo titled from its French name of Blanc
Nez, or, the White Headland.
King Henry the Eight having taken the town of
Boulogne in France, the gates of which he brought to
Hardes in Kent, where they are ftill remaining, the
flatterers of that reign highly magnified this a6Hon,
which, Porto Bello like, became a popular fubject for
figns 5 and the port or harbour of Boulogne, called
Boulogne Mouth, wTas accordingly fet up at a noted
inn in Holburn ; the name of the inn long outliving
the fign and fame of the conqueft, an ignorant painter
employed by a no lefs ignorant landlord, to paint a
new one, reprefented it by a bull and a large gaping
human mouth (anfwering to the vulgar pronunciation
of Bull and Mouth'). The fame piece of hiftory gave
being to the bull and gate, originally meant for Bou-
logne gate, and reprefented by an embattled gate or
entrance into a fortified town.
The barber's pole has been the fubjeft of many con¬
jectures ; fome conceiving it to have originated from
the vrord poll, or head, with feveral other conceits as
far-fetched* and as unmeaning : but the true intention
of that party-coloured ftaff was to {how that the ma-
fter of the {hop pradifed furgery, and could breathe a
vein as well as mow a beard ; fuch a ftaff being to this
day, by every village praClitioner, put into the hand of
a patient undergoing the operation of phlebotomy.
The white band which encompaffes the ftaff, was
meant to reptefent the fillet, thus elegantly twined
about it.
Nor were the chequers (at this time a common lign
of a public houfe) lefs expreflive, being the reprefenta-
tion of a kind of draught-board called tables, and {bow¬
ed that there that game might be played. From their
colour, w’hich w as red, and the ftmilarity to a lattice,
it
/
A P P [ 478 ] A P P
Appellative It tvas corruptly called the red lettuce, which word is
H.
Apptt'tc
frequently uled by ancient writers to fignify an ale-
j houfe.
The Speftator has explained the fign of the bell fa-
•vage inn plaufibly enough, in fuppofing it to have been
originally the figure of a beautiful female found in the
woods, called in French la bellefauvage. But another
reafon has fince been afligned for that appellation,
namely, that the inn was once the property of Lady A-
rabella Savage, and familiarly called Bell Savage's Inn,
probably reprefented, as at prefent, by a bell and a fa-
vage or wild man, which was a rebus for her name ;
rebuffes being much in falhion in the 16th century j of
which the bolt and tun is an inftance.
The three blue balls prefixed to the doors and win¬
dows of pawnbrokers fhops, by the vulgar humorcufiy
enough faid to indicate that it is tw?o to one that the
things pledged are never redeemed, was in reality the
arms of a fet of merchants from Lombardy, who wTere
the firft that publicly lent money on pledges. They
dwelt together in a flreet, from them named Lom¬
bard Street, in London, and alfo gave their name to an¬
other at Paris. The appellation of Lombard wras for¬
merly all over Europe confidered as fynonymous to
that of ufurer.
At the inftitution of yeomen of the guards, they
ufed to w'ait at table on all great folemnities, and w ere
ranged near the buffets j this procured them the name
of buffetiers, not very unlike in found to the jocular ap¬
pellation of beaf-eaters, now given them ; though pro¬
bably it was rather the voluntary mifnomer of fome
wicked wit, than an accidental corruption arifing from
ignorance of the French language.
The opprobrious title of bum bayliffe, fo conflantly
bellowed on the Iherift'’s officers, is, according to Judge
Blackftone, only the corruption of boundbayliffe, every
ffieriff’s officer being obliged to enter into bonds and
to give fecurity for his good behaviour, previous to his
appointment.
A cordwainer feems to have no relation to the occu¬
pation it is meant to exprefs, which is that of a ffioe-
maker. But cordonier, originally fpelt cordaunier, is the
French word for that trade j the bell leather ufed for
(hoes coming originally from Cordova in Spain. Spa-
nilh-leather ffioes w'ere once famous in England.
APPELLATIVE names, in Grammar, in contra-
dillinflion to proper names, are fuch as Hand for uni-
verfal ideas, or a whole rank of beings, whether gene¬
ral or fpecial. Thus fifh, bird, man, city, river, are
common or appellative names; and fo are trout, eel,
lobjler; for they all agree to many individuals, and
fome to many fpeeies. See Name.
APPELLEE, among Lawyers, the perfon againll
whom an appeal is brought. See Appeal.
APPENDIX, in Literature, a treatife or fupple-
ment added at the end of a work, to render it more
■complete.
APPERCEPTION, or Adferception, a term
ufed by Leibnitz and his followers for confcioufnefs.
APPETITE, in a general fenfe, the defire of en¬
joying fome objedl, fuppofed to be conducive to our
happinefs. When this inclination is guided by reafon,
and proportioned to the intrinfic value of the obje6l, it
is called rational appetite ; as, on the other hand, it is
.denominated fenftive appetite, when we have only a
blind propenfity to a thing, without determinate ideas
of the good qualities for which we defire it.
Appetites are paffions direcled to general objefls, in
contradillinftion to paffions diredled to particular ob-
je£is, which retain their proper name. Thus we fay,
an appetite for fame, for glory, for conquell, for riches j
but we fay the pafjion of love, of gratitude, of envy,
&c. Appetite may be alfo diftinguiflied from paffion,
fince the latter has no exiHence till a proper obje£t be
prefented ; whereas the former exifts firll, and then is
dire£led to an obje£l.
Appetite, in Medicine, a certain painful or uneafy
fenfation, always accompanied with a defire to eat or
drink.—An exceffive appetite is called by phyficians
bulimy or fames canina ; a defe£l or lofs of it, anorexy ;
and that after things improper for icodi, pica,
APPIA via, a way reaching from Rome through
Capua to Brundunum, between 330 and 350 miles long.
Appius Claudius, furnamed Ccecus, in the year of the
city 441, carried it from the Porta Capena to Capua
(Livy, Frontinus). It was afterwards carried on to
Brundufium j but by whom, or when, is uncertain. It
was laid with very hard Hone, brought from a great di-
ftance, large and fquared (Diodorus) ; and it was fo
wade, that feveral waggons could go abreaft. Statius
calls it the queen of roads. Its courfe is deferibed by
Horace, Strabo, and Antonine.
APPIAN, an eminent writer of the Roman hiffory
in Greek, under the reign of Trajan and Hadrian. Fie
was of a good family in Alexandria in Egypt; whence
he went to Rome, and there diftinguiihed himfelf fo
well as an advocate, that he was chofen one of the pro¬
curators of the empire, and the government of a pro¬
vince was committed to him. He did not complete the
Roman hillory in a continued feries ; but wrote diftindl
hiftories of all nations that had been conquered by the
Romans, in which he placed every thing relating to
thofe nations in the proper order of time. His llyle is
plain and Ample : in the opinion of Phocius, he has
ffiown the greatell knowledge of military affairs, and
the happieft talent at deferibing them, of any of the
hiltorians j for while we read him, we in a manner fee
the battles which he deferibes. Of all this voluminous
work there remains only what treats of the Punic, Sy¬
rian, Parthian, Mithridatic, and Spaniih wars, with
thofe againlt Hannibal, the civil wars, and the wars in
Illyricum, and fdme fragments of the Celtic or Gallic
wars.
APPIUS Claudius, a Sabine by birth, one of the
principal inhabitants of Regillum : His fhining merit
having drawn the envy of his fellow citizens upon him,
he retired to Rome with all his family. Appius was
admitted into the fenate, and was made conful, with
Publius Servilius Prifcus, in 258 from the building of
Rome : but he was hated by the plebeians, being an
auftere oppofer of their clamours and feditions. The
Claudian family continued long one of the mofl illuftri-
ous of the patrician families in Rome 5 and feveral in
fucceffion of the name of Appius fupported the fame
Hern chara£ler that diftinguiffied their firll founder.
APPLAUSE, an approbation of fornetbing, figni-
fied by clapping the hands, ftiJl praftiied in theatres.
-—Applaufe, in antiquity, differed from acclamation,
as the latter was articulate and performed with the
voice, the former with the hands. Among the Ro¬
mans,
Appetite
A P P
[ 479 ]
A P P
Apple mans, applaufe was an artificial mufical kind of noife,
II made by the audience or fpeffators to exprefs their fa-
^P°‘»tee-, tisfaftion. There were three fpecies of applaufe, de-
v nominated from the different noifes made in them, viz.
Bombus, Imbrices, and Tejce ; the firft a confufed din,
made either by the hands or the mouth ; the fecond
and third, by beating on a fort of founding veffels pla¬
ced in the theatres for this purpofe. Perfons were in-
ftru&ed to give applaufe with {kill; and there were
even maflers who profeffed to teach the art. The pro¬
ficients in this way let themfelves out for hire to the
. vain-glorious among the poets, adlors, &c. and were
properly difpofed to fupport a loud applaufe. Thefe
they called Laudicecm, and "ZotpotiXus. At the end of
the play, a loud peal of applaufe was expefled, and
even alked of the audience, either by the chorus or
the perfons who fpoke laft. The formula was, SpeEla-
tores plaudite, or Valete et p/audite. The plan fores, or
applauders, were divided into chori, and difpofed in
theatres oppofite to each other, like the chorifters in
cathedrals, fo that there was a kind of concert of ap-
plaufes. '
APPLE, the fruit of the pyrus malus. See Pyrus,
Botany Index.
Applk of the eye, a name not unfrequently given to
the pupil. See Anatomy.
Apples of Love. See Lycopersicon, Botany
Index.
Mad Apples. See Melongena, Botany Index.
APPLEBY, the county town of Weftmorland,
where the afiizes are held, is feated on the banks of the
river Eden, which almoft furrounds it. It was for¬
merly a very confiderable town, and had great privi¬
leges •, but it is long ago gone to decay, and now only
confifts of mean houfes in one broad ftreet, which runs
with an eafy afcent from north to fouth 3 at the head
of which is the caftle, almoft entirely furrounded by
the river. It has two churches 3 a town hall, in which
the aflxzes are held 3 a county jail 3 and an hofpital for
a governefs and twelve widows, founded in 1651 by a
daughter of Lord Clifford. It is governed by a mayor,
twelve aldermen, a common council, and two ferjeants
at mace, &c. Here is faid to be the beft corn market
in thefe northern parts. It fends two members to
parliament. W. Long. 3."52. N. Lat. 54. 30.
APPLICATION, in a general fenfe, is the laying
two things together, in order to difcover their agree¬
ment or difagreement.
Application, in Geometry, is ufed either for di-
vifion, for applying one quantity to another, whofe
areas, but not figure, (hall be the fame ; or, for tranf-
ferring a given line into a circle, or other figure, fo
that its ends {hall be in the perimeter of the figure.
Application, in Theology, is particularly ufed, by
fome divines, for the a£t whereby our Saviour transfers,
or makes over to us, what he had earned or purchafed
by his holy life and death. Accordingly it is by this
application of the merits of Chrift that we are to be
juftified and entitled to grace and glory. The facra-
ments are the ordinary means or inftruments whereby
this apnlication is effedfted.
APPOGIATURA, in Mufc, a fmall note inferted
by the practical mufician, between two others, at fome
diftance.
APPOINTEE, a foot foldier in the French army
before the revolution, &c. who for long fervice and bra- Appointee
very received pay above private fentinels. They were II
fuppreffed in France, except in the regiment of French " j-on_
guards, where forty appointees tvere retained to each v ■ .1.
company of 150 men.
Till the year 1670, they had alfo captains and lieu¬
tenants under the appellation of appointees, who, with¬
out refiding in the regiment, received their pay.
Appointee, in Heraldry, the fame as aguifee:
Thus we fay, a crofs appointee, to lignify that with two
angles at the end cut off, fo as to terminate in points.
APPOINTMENT, in a general fenfe, the fame as
Assignation.
Appointment, in a particular fenfe, denotes a pen-
fion or falary given by great lords and princes to per¬
fons of worth and parts, in order to retain them in their
fervice. The term is chiefly ufed among the French.
The king of France gave large appointments to feve-
ral of the officers in his fervice. Appointments differ
from wages, in that the latter are fixed and ordinary,
being paid by the ordinary treafurers 3 •whereas ap¬
pointments are annual gratifications granted by brevet
for a time uncertain, and are paid out of the privy
purfe.
APPOSER fignifies an examiner. In the court of
exchequer, there is an office called the foreign appofer.
In the office of confirmation, in the firft liturgy of
Edward VI. the rubric directs the bifhop, or fuch as he
{hall appoint, to appofe a child 3 and a bilhop’s exa¬
mining chaplain was anciently called his pofer.
APPOSITION, in Grammar, the placing two or
more fubftantives together, in the fame cafe, without
any copulative conjundlion betrveen them 3 as Ardebat
Alexim, delicias domini.
APPRAISER (from ad, “ to,” and pretium, “ va¬
lue”), one who rates or fets a value upon goods, &c.
He muft be a Ikilful and honeft perfon. It is not a
bufinefs of itfelf, but is praftifed by brokers of houfe-
hold furniture 3 to which fet of men the word is chiefly
applied : Yet upholfterers and other brokers are em¬
ployed, or even any perfon or perfons who are fuppofed
to be {killed in the commodities to be appraifed or
valued. They are employed in cafes of death, exe¬
cutions brought in upon goods, or of ftock to be turn¬
ed over from one perfon to another, or divided between
copartners ; and are called fivorn appraifers, from their
taking an oath to do juftice between party and party.
They fometimes appraife on behalf of both fides, each
party agreeing to have the fame appraifer or appraif¬
ers 5 fometimes in oppofition, each party choofing one
or more of a fide 3 and fometimes by commiflion or
deputation of truftees, mafters in chancery, &c.
APPRAISING, the a£l of rating, valuing, or fet-
ting a price on goods, by a perfon who is a competent
judge, and is authorized thereto. See Appraiser.
APPREHENSION, in Logic, denotes the Ample
attention of the mind to an objedt prefented either to
our fenfe or our imagination, without palling a judge¬
ment or making any inference.
Apprehension, is likewifed ufed to exprefs an ina¬
dequate and imperfect idea 3 and thus it is applied to
our know ledge of God in contradiftinclion to compre-
henfion.
Apprehension, in Law, fignifies the feizing a cri¬
minal, in order to bring him to juftice. *
APPRENTICE,
A P P - [ 480 ] A P P
Apprentice, APPRENTICE, (^iroxaapprencire, “ to learn,”)one
Apprenr ce-w]i0 js 'Doun(j jjy covenant to lerve a tradefman or ar-
1 ^11'' tif'cer a certain time, upon condition of the mafter’s
inftrucHng him in his art or myftery.
Apprentices may like wife be bound to hulbandmen,
or even to gentlemen ; and they, as well as tradefmen,
in England, are compellable to take the children of the
poor, whom the overfeers, with the confent of two
jutlices, may bind till the age of 24 years. Appren¬
tices may be difcharged on reafonable caufe ; but if
any, whofe premium has been lefs than ten pounds,
run away from their mailers, they are compellable to
ferve out the time of abfence, or give latisfaflion for
it, at any period within feven years after expiration of
the original contrad. Apprentices gain a fettlement
in that parifh where they laft ferved 40 days •, and by
the 5th of Elizabeth, c. 4. they have an exclufive right
to exercife the trade in which they have been inftrudl-
ed, in any part of England. However, the refolu-
tions of the courts have in general rather confined than
extended the rellriftion of this ilatute. See Blackllone’s
Com. Vol. I. p. 426, &.c.
In France, the fons of tradefmen, living in their fa¬
ther’s houfe till feventeen years of age, are reputed to
have ferved an apprenticelhip. In that country, the
times of ferving are different in the different profeffions,
from three years to eight. After ferving out an ap¬
prenticelhip, the perfon becomes what they call an af-
pirant, or candidate for mafterlhip, and is to be exa¬
mined by proper officers as to his Ikill and proficiency,
and alfo to exhibit a chef d'ceuvre or mafterpiece in
the art he has been bred to, before he be fuffered to
fet up to pra&ife for himfelf. And the cullom of
France in regard to apprentices, is not unworthy the
imitation of other nations.
Anciently, benchers in the inns of court were called
apprentices of the law, in Latin, apprentic'd juris no-
htliores; as appears by Mr Selden’s note on Fortef-
cue: and fo the learned Plowden llyles himfelf. Sir
Henry Finch, in his Nomotechnia, writes himfelf, ap¬
prentice de ley: Sir Edward Coke in his Injl. fays,
Apprenticn legis, in pleading, are called homines conf-
liaru et in lege periti; and in another places, apprentices
and other counfellors of law.
Apprentices indentures and articles of clerklhip, pay
of duty 6s. Parifh indentures are excepted, and pay
6d. only, by 5 William III. c. 21. For fees given
with apprentices, clerks, or fervants, bound or articled
by indentures, from il. to 50I. mailers pay for every
pound 6d. j and for fees above 50I. one Ihilling in the
pound. 8 Ann. c. 9.
APPRENTICESHIP, the fervitude of an appren¬
tice, or the duration of his indenture.
Seven years feem anciently to have been, all over
Europe, the ufual term eltablilhed for the duration of
apprenticelhips in the greater part of incorporated
trades. All fuch incorporations were anciently called
univerf ties ; which, indeed, is the proper Latin name
for any incorporation whatever. The univerfity of
fmiths, the univerfity of taylors, &.c. are expreffions
which we commonly meet with in the old charters of
ancient towns. When thofe particular incorporations
which are now peculiarly called univerfties were firll
ellablilhed, the term of years which it was neceffary to
iiudy, in order to obtain the degree of mailer of arts,
appears evidently to have been copied from the term of Apprentice
apprenticelhip in common trades, of which the incor-
porations were much more ancient. As to have
wrought feven years under a mailer properly qualified
was neceffary in order to entitle any perfon to become
a mailer, and to have himfelf apprentices in a common
trade ; fo to have lludied feven years under a mailer
properly qualified was neceffary to entitle him to be¬
come a mailer, teacher or doftor (wrords anciently
fynonymous), in the liberal arts, and to have fcholars
or apprentices (words likewife originally fynonymous)
to lludy under him.
By the 5th of Elizabeth, commonly called the_/?a-
tute of apprenticefhip, it was enafled, that no perfon
ffiould for the future exercife any trade, craft, or my-
llery at that time exercifed in England, unlefs he had
previoully ferved to.it an apprenticelhip of feven years
at leall j and wffiat before had been the bye-law of
many particular corporations, became in England the
general and public law of all trades carried on in
market towns. For though the words of the Ilatute
are very general, and feem plainly to include the whole
kingdom, by interpretation its operation has been li¬
mited to market towns 5 it having been held, that in
country villages a perfon may exercife feveral different
trades, though he has not ferved a feven years appren-
ticelhip to each, they being neceffary for the conve-
niency of the inhabitants, and the number of people
frequently not being fufficient to fupply each with a
particular fet of bauds.
By a ftrifl interpretation of the words, too,' the
operation of this llatute has been limited to thofe
trades which were ellablilhed in England before the
5th of Elizabeth, and has never been extended to fuch
as have been introduced fince that time. This limi¬
tation has given occafion to feveral diltinftions which,
confidered as rules of police, appear as foolilh as can
well be imagined. It has been adjudged, for example,
that a coachmaker can neither himfelf make, nor em¬
ploy journeymen to make, his coach wheels, but muff
buy them of a mailer wheelwright, this latter trade
having been exercifed in England before the 5th of
Elizabeth. But a wheelwright, though he has never
ferved an apprenticelhip to a coachmaker, may either
himfelf make, or employ a journeyman to make, coaches j
the trade of a coachmaker not being within the Ilatute,
becaufe not exercifed in England at the time when it
was made. The manufacturers of Manchefter, Birming¬
ham, and Wolverhampton, are many of them upon this
account not within the Ilatute •, not having been exer¬
cifed in England before the 5th of Elizabeth.
In France the duration of apprenticelhips is different
in different towns and in different trades. In Paris,
five years is the term required in a great number j but
before any perfon can be qualified to exercife the trade
as a mailer, he mull, in many of them, ferve five years
more as a journeyman. During this latter term he is
called the companion of his mailer, and the term itfelf
is called his companionjlnp.
In Scotland there is no general law which regulates
univerfally the duration of apprenticelhips. The term
is different in different corporations. Where it is long,
a part of it may generally be redeemed by paying a
fmall fine. In moll towns, too, a very fmall fine is
fufficient to purchafe the freedom of any corporation.
The
a p p r 481 ] a p p
Appren- The weavers of linen and hempen cloth, the principal
ticefliipJ, manufactures of the country, as well as all other arti-
Appniing.^ gcers fubfervient to them, wheelmakers, reelmakers,
&c. may exercife their trades in any town corporate
without paying any fine. In all towns corporate, all
perfons are free to fell butcher’s meat upon any lawful
day of the week. Three years is in Scotland a com¬
mon term of apprenticefhip, even in fome very nice
trades : and in general there is no country in Europe
in which corporation laws are fo little oppreflive.
Apprenticeihips were altogether unknown to the
ancients. The reciprocal duties of mailer and appren¬
tice make a confiderable article in every modern code.
The Roman law is perfeftly filent with regard to them.
There is no Greek or Latin word which expreffes the
idea we now annex to the word apprentice ; a fervant
bound to work at a particular trade for the benefit of
a mailer during a term of years, upon condition that
the mailer lhall teach him that trade,
Wealth of Long apprenticefliips Dr Smith confiders as alto-
Nattons, gather unnecelfary. The arts, which are much fupe-
f ‘ijo r'°r to comrnon trades, fuch as thofe of making clocks
and watches, contain no fuch myllery as to require a
long courfe of inllruflion. The firlt invention of fuch
beautiful machines, indeed, and even that of fome
of the inllruments employed in making them, mull, no
doubt, have been the work of deep thought and long
time, and may jullly be confidered as among the hap-
piell efforts of human ingenuity: but when both
have been fairly invented and are well underltood j to
explain to any young man, in the completed manner,
how to apply the inllruments, and how to conltrudl
the machines, cannot well require more than the lef-
fons of a few weeks; perhaps thofe of a few days might
be fufficient. In the common mechanic trades, thofe
of a few days might certainly be fufficient. The dex¬
terity of hand, indeed, even in common trades, cannot
be acquired without much praftice and experience.
But a young man would pra£lice with much more
diligence and attention, if from the beginning he
wrought as a journeyman, being paid in proportion
to the little work which he could execute, and pay¬
ing in his turn for the materials which he might
fometimes fpoil'through awkwardnefs and inexperi¬
ence. His education in this way generally would be
more effectual, and always lefs tedious and expenfive.
The mafter, indeed, would be a lofer; he would lofe
all the wages of the apprentice, which he now faves,
for feven years together. In the end perhaps, the
apprentice himfelf would be a lofer. In a trade fo
eafily learnt he would have more competitors ; and his
wages, when he came to be a complete workman,
would be much lefs than at prefent. The fame in-
creafe of competition would reduce the profits of the
mailers as well as the wages of the workmen. The
trades, the crafts, the myfteries, would all be lofers :
but the public would be a gainer : the work of all ar¬
tificers coming in this way much cheaper to market.
APPRISING, in Scots Law, the name of that ac¬
tion by which a creditor formerly carried off the ellate
of his debtor for payment. It is now abolilhed, and
adjudications are appointed in place of it. Adju¬
dications, charter, refignation, dare conjlat^ cognition
of. heirs, heritable right, confirmation, novodamus,
principal and original infaument of furrender, retour
Vol. IL Part II. > ^ >
feilin, and fervice in Scotland, pay by different acls Approadi
4s, 9d. duty. |j
APPROACH, or Approaching in a general Api^£na''
fenle, the acceding or coming together of two or more ■ ■
things.
APPROACHES, in Tonification, the works thrown
up by the beliegers, or order to get nearer a fortrefs,
without being expoied to the enemy’s cannon.
APPROACHING, in Fowling, a term ufed to ex-
prefs fuch devices as are contrived for the getting with¬
in {hot of fiiy birds. It is principally ufed in marlhy
low places. I he belt method of approaching is by
means of three hoops tied together at proper diftances-
according to the height of the man that is to ufe it,
and having boughs of trees tied all round it, with cords
to hang it over his Ihoulders ; a man getting into this,
conceals himfelf, and approaches by degrees towards
his game in the form of a moving bulh. Geefe, ducks,
and teal, quit the waters in the evening, and pafs the
night in the fields; but at the approach of morning
they return to the water again, and even when on the
w’ater they will retire to great diftances, on the ap¬
proach even of a horfe or cow-, fo that the bufinefs of
the {talking horfe is of little ufe ; but this device of ap¬
proaching by the moving bufh fucceeds tolerably well
with them.
Approaching, in Gardening, the inoculating or
ingrafting the fprig of one tree into another, without
cutting it off the parent tree.
APPROBATION, a {late or difpofition of the
mind, wherein we put a value upon, or become pleafed
with, fome perfon or thing. Moralifts are divided on
the principle of approbation, or the motive which de¬
termines us to approve and difapprove. The Epicu¬
reans will have it to be only felf-intereft : according to
them, that which determines any agent to approve his
own adtion, is its apparent tendency to his private hap-
pinefs; and even the approbation of another’s adlion
flows from no other caufe but an opinion of its tenden¬
cy to the happinefs of the approver, either immediate¬
ly or remotely. Others relolve approbation into a mo¬
ral fenfe, or a principle of benevolence by which we are
determined to approve every kind affedtion either in
ourfelves or others, and all publicly ufeful adlions,
which we imagine to flow from fuch affedlien, without
any view therein to our own private happinefs.
Approbation, is more particularly ufed, in fpeak-
ing of recommendations of books, given by perfons
qualified or authorized to judge of them. Thofe ap¬
pointed to grant licenfes and imprimaturs, frequently
exprefs their approbation of books. Books were for¬
merly fubjedled to a licenfer in England, (fee 13th
Car. II. c. 33.), which adl is long fince expired : and
being incompatible with the noble principles of the
Revolution, has never fince been, and it is hoped never
will be, revived.
APPROPRIATION, in the Canon Law, a fever-
ingt of a benefice ecclefiaftical to the proper and per¬
petual uie of fome religious houfe. See the article
Parson.
The contrivance of appropriations feems to have
fprung from the policy of the monadic orders, who
have never been deficient in iubtle inventions for the
increafe of their own power and emoluments. - At
the firil eftablilhment of parochial clergv, the tithes
3 P ' of
A p p [48
^ppropria.- ot the parlili were dihributed in a fourfold divxfion j
, uon' , one for the ufe of the bhhop, another for main¬
taining the fabric of the church, a third for the poor,
and the fourth to provide for the incumbent. When
the fees of the bifhops became otherwife amply endow¬
ed, they were prohibited from demanding their ufual
(hare of thefe tithes, and the divifion was into three
parts only. And hence it was inferred by the mo¬
narteries, that a fmall part was fufficient for the offici¬
ating priert ; and that the remainder might well be
applied to the ufe of their own fraternities (the en¬
dowment of which was conftrued to be a work of the
mort exalted piety), fubjeft to the burden of repairing
the church and providing for its conftant fupply. And
therefore they begged and bought, for maffes and
obits, and fometimes even for money, all the advowfons
within their reach, and then appropriated the benefices
to the ufe of their own corporation. But, in order to
complete fuch appropriation effeftually, the king’s li-
cenfe, and confent of the biffiop, muft firft be obtain¬
ed 5 becaufe both the king and the biffiop may fome
time or other have an intereft, by lapfe, in the pre-
fentation to the benefice } which can never happen
if it be appropriated to the ufe of a corporation,
which never dies : and alfo becaufe the law repofes a
confidence in them, that they will not confeat to any
thing that ffiall be to the prejudice of the church. The
confent of the patron alfo is necefiarily implied, be¬
caufe the appropriation can be originally made to
none but to fuch fpiritual corporation as is alfo the
patron of the church j the whole being indeed nothing
elfe but an allowance for the patrons to retain the
tithes and glebe in their own hands, without prefent-
ing any clerk, they themfelves undertaking to provide
for the fervice of the church. When the appropriation
is thus made, the appropriators and their fucceffors are
perpetual parfons of the church 5 and muft fue and be
fued, in all matters concerning the rights of the church,
by the name of parfons.
This appropriation may be fevered, and the church
become difappropriate, two ways j as, firft, If the pa¬
tron or appropriator prefents a clerk, who is inftituted
and induced to the parfonage : for the incumbent fo
inftituted and indufted is to all intents and purpofes
complete parfon •, and the appropriation being once, fe¬
vered, can never be reunited again, unlefs by a repe¬
tition of the fame folemnities. And, when the clerk
fo prefented is dirtinft from the vicar, the reftory thus
vetted in him becomes what is called a Jine-care; be¬
caufe he hath no cure of fouls, having a vicar under
him to wffiom that cure is committed. Alfo, if the
corporation which has the appropriation is diffolved,
the parfonage becomes difappropriate at common law 5
becaufe the perpetuity of perfon is gone, which is ne-
ceflhry to fupport the appropriation.
In this manner, and fubjecl to thefe conditions, may
appropriations be made at this day : and thus were
moft, if not all of the appropriations at prefent exiftjag
originally made ; being annexed to biffiopricks, pre¬
bends, religious houfes, nay, even to nunneries, and
certain military orders, all of which were fpiritual cor¬
porations. At the diflolution of monafteries, by ftatutes
27 Hen. VIII. c. 28, and 31 Hen. VIII. c. 13. the
appropriations of feveral parfonages, which belonged
to thofe refpettive religious houfes (amounting to more
Appulfe.
2 ] A P P
than one third of all the pariffies in England), tvould Approver
have been by the rules of the common law difappro-
priated 5 had not a claufe in thofe ftatutes intervened,
to give them to the king in as ample a manner as the
abbots, 8tc. formerly held the fame at the time of
their diffolution. This, though perhaps fcarcely de-
fenfible, was not without example : for the fame was
done in former reigns, when the alien priories (that
is, fuch as were filled by foreigners only) were dilfol-
ved and given to the crown. And from thefe two
roots have fprung all the lay appropriations or fecular
parfonages which we now fee in the kingdom •, they
having been afterwards granted out from time to time
by the crown. See the article Parson and Vicar.
APPROVER, in Law, one who, confeffing felony
in himfelf, appealeth or impeacheth another or more of
his accomplices. He is fo called from the French
approuver, comprobare, becaufe he muft prove what he
hath alleged in his appeal. This proof was anciently
either by battle, or by the country, at the choice of
the appellee ; and the form of this accufation may be
found in Crompt. Juft. 250.
Approvers of the king, are thofe who have the
letting of the king’s demefnes in fmall manors, Stc.
In the ftatute of the ift of Ed. III. c. 8. ffieriffs are
called the king’s approvers.
It being in the diferetion of the court to fuffer one
to be an approver, this method of late hath feldom
been praftiied. But we have, in cafes of burglary and
robbery on the highway, what feems to amount to the
fame by ftatute ; it being ordained, that where perfons
charged with fuch crimes out of prifon, difeover two
others concerned in the crime, they ffiall have a par¬
don, &c. Stat. 5th Anne, c. 31.
Approver is particularly ufed in ancient law* writ¬
ers, for a bailiff or land fteward, appointed to have the
care of a manor, franchife, or the like, and improve
and make the moft of it for the benefit of his mafter.
In this fenfe, the word is alfo written appniare.
APPROXIMATION, in Arithmetic and Algebra,
the coming nearer and nearer to a root, or other quan¬
tity fought, without expefting to be ever able to find it
exaftly.
APPUI, in the Manege, (q. d. reft; or flay upon
the hand), is the reciprocal effort between the horfe’s
mouth and the bridle-hand, or the fenfe of the adtion
of the bridle on the hand of the horfeman.
A juft appui of the hand, is the nice bearing up or
flay of the bridle, fo that the horfe, being awed by the
fenfibility and tendernefs of his mouth, dares not reft
too much upon the bitmouth, nor check or beat up¬
on the hand to withftand it. A horfe is faid to have
no appui, when he is too apprehenfive of the hand,
and cannot bear the bit. He is faid to have too much
appui, when he refts or throws himfelf too much upon
the bit. Horfes defigned for the army ought to have
a full appui upon the hand. To give a horfe a good
appui, he ffiould be galloped, and put often back.
APPULSE, in AJiromony, the approach of any
planet to a conjundlion with the fun, or a ftar. It is a
ftep towards a tranfit, occultation, conjundlion, eclipfe,
&c. Mr Flamfted, M. de la Hire, and others, have
given obfervations of the moon’s appulfes to the Pleia¬
des. Phil. Tranf. N° 76. p. 361. M.Acad. Science, an.
1708,
/ APRICOT,
APT
Apricot APRICOT, in Botany. See Prunus.
ii A PRIES, ion of Pfammis, king of Egypt; the
A^Ka' . fame with Pharaoh Hophrah in Jeremiah and Ezekiel.
He ruifted Sidon, and fome fay he put Jeremiah to
death. He thought neither God nor man could de¬
throne him j which yet was eafily done by Amafis,
and he himfelf was ftrangled by the Egyptians.
APRIL, the fourth month of the year, according
to the common computation ; but the fecond, accord¬
ing to that of the aftronomers. It contains 30 days.—
The word is derived from aprilis, of aperio, “ I open j”
becaufe the earth, in this month, begins to open her
bofom for the produftion of vegetables. In this month
the fun travels through the fign Taurus.
A PRIORI, a kind of demonftration. See De¬
monstration.
APRON, in Naval Architecture, is a piece of cur¬
ved timber fixed behind the lower part of the ftern,
immediately above the foremoft end of the keel.
Apron is alfo a name given to a platform or floor¬
ing of plank, raifed at the entrance of a dock, againfl
which the dock gates are ftmt.
Apron, in Gunnery, a piece of lead wdiich caps or
covers the vent or touch-hole of a great gun.
APSIS or Absis, fignifies the bowed or arched
foof of a houfe, room, or oven, &c. as alfo the ring
or compafs of a wheel.
Apsis, in Ecclejiajiical Writers, denotes an inner part
in the ancient churches, wherein the clergy fat, and
■where the altar was placed. It is fuppofed to have
been thus called, becaufe covered with an arch or
vault of its own, by the Greeks called by the
Latins ohjis. Apfis, in this fenfe, amounts to the
fame with what is otherwife called choir, concha, came¬
ra, and prejbyterium ,• and Hands oppofed to the nave
or body of the church.
Apsis is more particularly ufed for the bifliop’s feat,
or throne, in ancient churches. This was peculiarly
called apfis gradata, becaufe raifed on Heps above the
ordinary Halls. It was alfo denominated exedra, and
in latter times tribune.
Apsis is alfo ufed for a reliquary, or cafe, wherein
the relicks of faints were anciently kept. It took the
name apjis, from its being round or arched at the
top ; or perhaps from the place where it was kept.
The apjis was commonly placed on the altar: it w^as
ufually of wood, fometimes alfo of gold and filver,
with fculptures, &c.
Apsis, in AJlronomy, a term ufed indifferently for
either of the two points of a planet’s orbit, where it
-is at greateH or leaff diHance from the fun or earth ;
and hence the line connetting thofe points is called the
line of the apjides. The word is Greek, and derived
from ktctu, to connect. The apfis, at the greatefl di¬
Hance from the fun, is called the aphelion, and at the
greatefl diHance from the earth the apogee ; while that
at the leafl diHance from the fun is termed the perihe¬
lion, and at the leafl diHance from the earth the peri-
APSIRTIDES. See As SORUS.
APTA, or A pta Julia, (Pliny); now Apte, in
Provence, on the river Calavon, feven leagues to the
north of Aix, and nine to the north of Avignon. In
the Notitiae it is called Civitas Aptenjium : Pliny rec¬
kons it among the Latin towns. That it was a co-
A P U
lony, appears from an infcription on a Hone found at Aptera
Arles, (Sirmond). E. Long. 5. 56. N. Lat. 43. 23.
APTERA, (Strabo, Stephanus) ; Apteron, (Pli-
ny) ; Apteria, (Ptolemj J : An inland town of Crete,
whole port was Cifamus, on the welt fide of the ifland,
(Strabo); 12 miles to the fouth of Cydonia towards
the Montes Leuci, and as many from the Sinus Am-
phimales. So called from the Sirens, who, being there
vanquifhed in fong by the Mufes, flript themfelves of
their wings, and out of grief leaped into the fea, (Ste¬
phanus). There w'as a towm of Lycia of the fame
name. E. Long. 25. N. Lat. 35. 5CX
Aptera, a term ufed by Linnaeus for his feventh
order of infefts, comprehending fuch as have no wingsv
APTHANE, a title anciently given to the higher
degrees of nobility in Scotland. See Thane.
APTITUDE, (from aptus, “fit”), the natural dif-
pofition any thing hath to ferve for fuch or fuch a pur-
pofe.—Thus, oil hath an aptitude to burn, and water
to extinguifli fire.
Aptitude, or Aptness, is often ufed, in fpeaking
of the talents of the mind, for a promptitude, or diL
pofition to learn things with eafe and expedition : in
which fenfe aptnefs amounts to the fame with w’hat the
Greeks call bona indoles, and w^e fometimes do¬
cility. Charlton divides aptnefs into thefe parts, viz.
acutenefs,fagacity, and memory.
APTOTE, among Grammarians, an indeclinable
noun, or one which has no variation of cafes.
APULEIUS Lucius, a Platonic philofopher,
univerfally knowm by his performance of the Golden
Afs. He lived in the fecond century, under the An-
tonines ; and was born at Madaura, a Roman colony
in Africa. He fludied firff at Carthage, then at
Athens, and afterwards at Rome, where he learned the
Latin tongue without the help of a mafler. He w>as
a man of a curious and inquifitive difpofition, efpecial-
ly in religious matters : this prompted him to take fe-
veral journeys, and to enter into feveral focieties of re¬
ligion. He fpent his whole fortune almofl in travel¬
ling ; fo that, at his return to Rome, wdien he was about
to dedicate himfelf to the fervice of Ofiris, he had not
money enough to defray the expence attending the ce¬
remonies of the reception, and was obliged to pawrn
his clothes to raife the neceffary fum. He fupported
himfelf afterwards by pleading caufes : and as he was
a great mafler of eloquence, and of a fubtle genius,
many confiderable caufes were trufled to him. But he
availed himfelf more by a good marriage than by his
pleadings; a widow,, named Pudentilla, wrho was nei¬
ther young nor handfome, but wanted & hulband and
was very rich, took a great fancy to him. This mar¬
riage drew upon him a troublefome law' fuit. The la¬
dy’s relations, pretending he made ufe of forcery to
gain her heart and money, accufed him of being a ma¬
gician before Claudius Maximus proconful of Africa.
Apuleius was under no great difficulty of making his
defence. As Pudentilla w'as determined from confi-
derations of health, to enter upon a fecond marriage,
even before Ihe had feen this pretended magician, the
youth, deportment, pleafing converfation, vivacity, and
other agreeable qualities of Apuleius, were charms fuf-
ficient to engage her heart. He had the mofl favour¬
able opportunities too of gaining her friendlhip, for he
lodged fome time at her houfe : Pudentilla’s eldeff fon
3 P 2 having
[ 483 1
A P IT [ 484 ] A u
Ap«1 eius having a great friend (hip for him, was likewife defirous
II of the match, and folicited him in favour of Pudentil-
A^u5' , la. “ Do you make a wonder (faid Apuleius, in his
defence) that a woman Ihould marry again, after ha¬
ving lived a widow 13 years ? It is much more wonder¬
ful that fhe did not marry again fooner. You think
that magic mull have been employed to prevail with a
widow of her age to marry a young man ; on the con¬
trary, this very circumftance Ihows how little occafion
there was for magic.” He offered to prove by his
marriage contraff, that he got nothing of Pudentilla
but a promife of a very moderate fum, in cafe he fur-
vived her and had children by her. He was alfo obli¬
ged to make fuch confeffions in court as Pudentilla
would gladly have excufed. He faid fhe was neither
handfome nor young, nor fuch as could any ways tempt
him to have recourfe to enchantments : moreover, he
added, that Pontianus her fon propofed the marrying
his mother to him only as a burden, and the action of a
friend and philofopher. Pie alfo took notice of many
inconveniences which attend the marrying of widows,
and fpoke highly of the advantages of a maid above a
widow : A handfome virgin (faid he), let her be ever
fo poor, is abundantly portioned ; fhe brings to her
hufband a heart quite new, together with the flower
and firfl fruits of her beauty. It is with great reafon
that all hufbands fet fo great a value upon the flower
of virginity : all the other goods w hich a woman brings
her hufband are of fuch a nature, that he may return
them again, if he has a mind to be under no obliga¬
tion to her : that alone cannot be reftored, it remains
in the poffeffion of the firft hufband. If you marry a
widow, and ihe leaves you, fire carries awray all that Ihe
brought you.” Upon which paffage Mr Bayle makes
a very coarfe remark, viz. “ That this good wdiich is
never taken back out of the hands of a hufband, is
very chimerical ; and that there is never a baker nor
a butcher, who would lend fixpence upon this un-
perifhable poffeffion.” The apology is ftill extant, and
is reckoned a very fine piece. Apuleius was extremely
indefatigable in his ffudies : and compofed feveral
books, fome in verfe, and others in profe ; but moft
of them have been loft. He took great pleafure in de¬
claiming, and was heard generally with great applaufe:
When he declaimed at Oeca, the audience cried out
with one voice, that they ought to confer upon him
the honour of citizen. The citizens of Carthage heard
him with great fatisfa&ion, and erefted a ftatue to him j
and feveral other cities did him the fame honour. Se¬
veral critics have publifhed notes on Apuleius’s Golden
Afs, and there have been tranfiations of it into different
languages.
APULIA, now7 Puglia, a territory of Italy, bor¬
dering on the Adriatic, and extending from the river
Frento to Tarentum in length, and from the Adriatic
to the Lucani in breadth. Apuli the people (Horace) •,
divided into the Apulia Daunia, now called Puglia
Pinna, or the Capitanata ; and into the Apulia Peucclia,
now Terra di Bari, (Pliny, Ptolemy). Apulia abound¬
ed in fheep, which yielded the fineft wool (Martial).
It is now the eaft fide of the kingdom of Naples.
APUS, Avis Indie a, in AJlronomy, a conftellation of
the fouthern hemifphere placed near the pole, between
the triangulum auftrale and the chameleon, fuppofed
to reprefent the bird of paradife.
APYCNI suoni, in Mujic, founds diftant one or Apycnr
more oftaves, and yet concord. II
APYCNOS, in Mujic, is faid of the diatonic genus, "
on account of its having fpacious intervals, in compa-u—y—j
rifon of the chromatic and enharmonic.
APYREXY, among Phyficians, denotes the inter-
miffion of a fever.
APYROUS, a w7ord applied to denote that proper¬
ty of fome bodies, by which they refift the moft violent
fire without any fenfible alteration. Apyrous bodies
ought to be diftinguifhed from thofe which are refrac¬
tory. Refractory fubftances are thofe which cannot
by violent heat be fufed, whatever other alteration they
may fuftain. But a body, properly fpeaking, apyrous,
can neither by fufed by heat, nor can undergo any
other change. Diamonds w7ere long thought to be
poffefied of this property. But fome late experiments
have fhown, that diamonds may be entirely diflipated
or evaporated by heat, and are therefore not entitled
to be ranked among apyrous fubftances. Perhaps there
is no body in nature effentially and rigoroufly apyrous.
But it is fufficient that there be bodies apyrous rela¬
tively to the degree of fire which art can produce, to
entitle them to that name.
AQUA, a term frequently met wdth in the waitings
of phyficians, chemifts,"&c. for certain medicines, or
menftruums, in a liquid form, diftinguifhed from each
other by peculiar epithets as Aqua Alexitena, Aqua
Aluminofa, Aqua Mirabilis, &c. for which fee Phar¬
macy.
Aqua ExtinEla, or Extingui/ked Water, is aquafortis
into which fome river water has been poured, in order
to qualify it, and render it lefs corrofive. Its ufe is
to get the filver from the aquafortis that ferved to part
gold from it.
Aqua Fords, a name given by artifts to nitric acid
of a certain ftrength, from its diffolving power. See
Chemistry Index.
Aqua Marina, a name by wffich the jewellers call
the beryl, on account of its fea-green colour. See
Beryl.
Aqua Regia, a compound of nitric and muriatic
acid, in different proportions according to the purpofe
for which it is intended. It is ufually made by dif¬
folving it in nitric, acid, fal ammoniac, or common fait,
both which are combinations of muriatic acid with al¬
kali. When made with fal ammoniac, the common
proportion is one part of this fait to four parts of nitric
acid *, but to diffolve platina, equal parts are requifite.
A purer aqua regia may be made by Amply mixing the
two acids.
Aqua regia is particularly ufed as a menftruum for
gold 5 it likewdfe diffolves all other metals, except fil¬
ver. The gold diffolved in aqua regia is, in fa£l, dif-
folved in the oxygenated muriatic acid only, which
gives cut its oxygen to the gold, and then diffolves the
the oxide : for metals are not foluble in acids until
they are oxidated. See Chemistry Index.
Aqua Secunda, aquafortis diluted with much pure
water. It is employed in feveral arts, to clear the fur-
face of metals and certain ftones, and for various other
purpofes.
Aqua Vita is commonly underftood of what is
otherwife called brandy, or fpirit of wine, either Am¬
ple, or prepared with aromatics. Some, however,
diftinguilh
.^.qua: Au-diftinguifh between them 5 appropriating the term
guftae brandy to what is drawn from wine, or the grape j and
^ Q aqua vitcs to that drawn after the fame manner, from
Aquae Pan- ‘
nonise. malt, &c. , ,r
■ v ■ * slgjjJE Augujlce (Ptolemy) *, Aqua larbelhcce (An-
tonine) j Aquenfis Civil as, in the Notitia. Now Acqs,
or Dax, a town in Gafcony, on the river Adour, fa¬
mous for its baths. W. Long. 1. 40. N. Lat. 43.
56.
A gym Bilbilitance, (Antonine) : baths 24 miles to
the welt of Bilbilis. Now Banos de Alhama, in Ara-
gon.
Agyjs Calida, (Ptolemy, Aqua Solis, (Antonine) 5
a place of the Belgae in Britain, famous for its hot wa¬
ters. Now Bath in Somerfetlhire. W. Long. 1. 5.
Lat. ci. 20.
A gym Calidce, (Ptolemy) ; Aquicaldenjis, (Pliny) ;
formerly in great repute, and a public bath ; whofe
ruins ftill remain, teitimonies of the Roman grandeur.
Now Orenfe, in Galicia, Itill famous for its baths; on
the river Minho, 54 miles fouth-eaft of Compoftella.
W. Long. 8. 30. N. Lat. 42. 30. Alfo a place in the
bay of Carthage, (Strabo). Other Aquicaldenfes, to
the north of Gerunda in Catalonia, (Ptolemy).
Agum Calidce, a colony between the rivers Serbetes
and Savus, in Mauritania Caelarienfis (Ptolemy).
Agym Celeince, (Ptolemy) •, or Cihna, ( Antonine).
Now Caidas, a hamlet on the Minho, in Galicia.
Agym Convenarum, a hamlet of Gaul, in Aquitaine,
(Antonine), and on the borders of the Convenae, or
le Cominge, at the foot of the Pyrenees, near the fource
of the Garonne. Now Bagneres. W. Long. 3. 39.
N. Lat. 42. 20.
Agym Cutilire, a lake of the Sabines, in the territo¬
ry of Rear (Pliny) •, Lacus Cutilienjis, (Varro)j with a
moveable illand in it, (Seneca, Pliny); fuppofed to be
the centre of Italy, (Varro). The waters were me¬
dicinal, and extremely cold, good for a weak ftomach
and in weak nerves ; they leemed to aft by a kind
of fuftion, which approached to a bite, (Pliny). Vef-
palian ufed them every fummer •, and there he died,
(Sueton. Xiphilin from Dio.) Now Lago di Contig-
liano.
Agym Flav'ue, a town on the confines of Galicia
and Portugal, fo called from Vefpafian and Titus. The
inhabitants are called Aquijlavienfes on coins. Now
called Chiaves, a mean hamlet ; but the ruins of its
bridge teftify its former grandeur. W. Long. 6. 6.
N. Lat. 41. 40.
A gym Helvetia, defcribed by Tacitus as a munici¬
pal town, and much frequented for its excellent water ;
and though he does not mention its name, Cluverius
fuppofes it to be Baderi, in Switzerland, on the ri¬
vulet Limat, which foon after falls into the Aar. It
is called the Upper, to diltinguilh it from another call¬
ed the Lower Baden, in Alface. E. Long. 8. 49.
N. Lat. 47. 55.
Agym Merom (Jofhua), famous for the defeat of
Jabin : fuppofed to be the lake called Samachonites, or
Semechonites, by Jofephus ; into which the river Jordan
falls, before it comes to the fea of Genefereth, or Ga¬
lilee.
Agym Pannonix, famous baths of Auftria, now call¬
ed Baden, 28 miles to the fouth of Vienna.
Agym Patavina, are baths in the territory of Ve- Aquse Pae
nice near Padua, (PlinyJ; called Pontes Afioni (Livy, tavinae
Martial). Now Bagni d'Abano. E. Long. 13. 48. .
N. Lat. 45. 15. _ v
Agym ^umtiana, put by Ptolemy in room of the
Aqua Cihna of Antonine. Now fuppofed to be Sarria,
a town of Galicia, on a rivulet of the famename, three
leagues to the fouth of Lugo.
Agym Sextia, a colony to the north of Marfeilles,
fo called both from the founder Sextius Clavinus, and
from its quantity of water, and number of cold and
hot fprings; built after the defeat of the Salyes, or
Salvii, whofe territory in the fouth of Provence reach¬
ed from the Rhone to the borders of Italy, (Livy, Vel¬
leius, Strabo, Ptolemy). By an infcription the colony
appears to have been either increafed or renewed by
Auguftus. In the Notitia it is called Civitas Aquen-
Jis. Now Aix. Here the Teutones and Cimbri were
defeated with great daughter by Marius. E. Long.
6. 4. N. Lat. 48. 4.
Agym Statiella, or Statiellorum, (Pliny), a town in
Liguria, or the river Bormia. Now Acqui, a town of
Montferrat. E. Long. 8. 40. N. Lat. 44. 45;.
Agym Tauri, hot waters or baths in Tufcany at
the diftance of three miles from the fea, faid to be
difcovered by a bull, hence the appellation. There
are ftill to be feen the ruins of thefe baths. Now
Aquapendente, in Orvieto. E. Long. 12. 40. N. Lat.
42. 40.
AQU/EDUCT, in Hydraulics and ArchiteBure, a
ftrufture formed for conveying water from one place to
another, over grounds that are unequal. The word is
compounded of the Latin lubftantive aqua water, and
duBus a channel by which that -water may be con-
dufted.
Architefts diftinguilh two kinds of aqufedufts ; the
vijible, and thefubterraneous.—The vijible are conftruft-
ed in valleys or marlhes, and protrafted in longitude
or latitude as the lituation requires. They are compof-
ed of adminicula for fupporting the arches and con¬
fining the ftream, and of arcades.—The fubterraneous
are formed, by piercing the mountains, and condufting
them below the furface of the earth. They are built of
ftone hewn or rough : and covered above with vaults,
or with flat ftones, which may be termed flags ; thefe
flags fhelter the waters from the heat of the fun.
They divide them ftill into double and triple aquae-
dufts; that is to fay, fuch as are fupported either by
twTo or by three ranges of arcades. Such was the aquae-
duft which Procopius records to have been built by
Cofrees king of the Perfians, for the city of Petra in
Mingrelia : it had three conduits upon the fame line,
each elevated above the other.
Frequently aqufedufts are paved. Sometimes the
waters flow through a natural channel of clay. Fre¬
quently they are conveyed by pipes of lead into re-
fervoirs of the fame metal, or into troughs of hewn
ftone. The channels are cut with an imperceptible
defeent, that the current may be accelerated by its
own weight. Parallel to its courfe, on each fide, is cut
a narrow footpath, where people may walk when ne-
ceflary. By. conduits, or grooves, the waters are con¬
veyed into large citterns, but not forced above their
original level. To make them rife and iilue from their
apertures
A u [ 4S6 i
apertures with force, they mull be confined In tubes of jo miles his+e
V a imsj 11 nicim#af#»»*  a.1 11 £  r* 1 , . . o
tf Italy
vol. i.
a fmall diameter, and abruptly fall from a confiderable
declivity.
Aqumdufts of every kind were long ago the wonders
of Rome : the vaft quantity of them which they had j
the prodigious expence employed in conducing waters>
, over arcades from one place to another, at the diftance
of 30, 40, 60, and even 100 miles, which were either
continued or fupplied by other labours, as by cutting
mountains and piercing rocks ; all this ought to fur-
prife us : nothing like this is undertaken in our times :
we dare not e\ en think of purchaling public conveni-
ency at io dear a rate.- Appius the cenfor advifed and
conttrufted the firlt aquaedudf. His example gave the
public luxury a hint to cultivate thefe obje&s; and the
force of prodigious and indefatigable labour diverted
the courfe of rivers and floods to Rome. Agrippa, in
that year when he was aedile, put the laft: hand to the
magnificence of thefe works. It is chiefly in this re-
fpedt that the modern fo much refembles the ancient
city of Rome. For this advantage, (he is peculiarly
indebted to Sextus \. and to Paul V. who for gran¬
deur and magnificence emulated the mailers of the uni-
* See New verfe *. There are Hill to be feen, in different places
Memoirs contiguous to Rome, linking remains of thefe aquae-
dudls ; arches continued through a long fpace, over
which were extended the canals which carried the wa¬
ter to the city. The arches are fometimes low, fome-
times railed to a vail height, to humour the tumidities or
depreflions of the ground. There are fome which have
two arcades; one conllru&ed above the other ; and this
precaution was obferved, left the height of a Angle ar¬
cade, if extended as far as the fituation required, might
render the ftrufture lefs firm and permanent. They are
commonly of bricks 5 which by their cement cohere fo
ftrongly, that the parts are not feparated without the
iitmoft difficulty.—When the elevations of the ground
were enormous, it became neceffary to form fubterrane-
x>us aqmedufls. Thelc carried the waters to fuch aquse-
dufls as were raifed above ground, in the declivity or at
the foot of mountains. If the artificial channel of the
water was not Tufceptible of a downward bias but by
palling through a rock, through this they cut a paffage
at the fame height with the fuperior aquaedufl: fuch
a one may be feen above the city of Tivoli, and at the
place called Vicavaro. The canal which formed the
courfe of the aquseduft is hewn out of the rock to the
extent of more than a mile, about five feet in height
and four in breadth.
There is one thing, however, which deferves to be
remarked. It is, that thefe aqusedufls, which might
have been direfled in a ftraight line to the city, did not
arrive at it but by frequent and winding mazes. Some
have faid that this oblique track was purfued to avoid
the expence which mull attend the building of arcades
t o an extraordinary height: others, that it w^as their
intention to diminiffi the impetuofity of the current j
which, rolling in a ftraight line through an immenfe
ipace, mull always have increafed its velocity, mult
have worn the canals by perpetual and forcible attri¬
tion, and of confequence afforded an impure and un-
wholefome draught to the inhabitants. Eut fince there
was fo great a defcent between the cafcade of Tivoli and
Rome, it is demanded why they fhould go to draw
water from the fame river at the diftance of more than
A u
, nay> of more that 30 miles, if we Aqu^di^.
reckon . the curvatures of its direftion through that u-—\  
mountainous country ? It is replied, the motive of ob¬
taining the water more falubrious, and more limpid,
was fufficient to make the Romans think their labour
neceffary, and their expence properly bellowed j and to
thofe who refledl that the waters of this river were im¬
pregnated with mineral particles, and by no means
wholefome, the anfwer will appear latisfaftory.
If any one will call his eyes upon Plate 128th of V01. ir.
the Antiquities of Father Montfaucon, he will fee
urth how much care thefe immenfe wmrks wrere con-
ftru&ed. From diftance to diftance fpiramenta were
lelt, that, if the wrater Ihould happen to be Hopped by
any accident, it might gradually difembogue, till they
could clear its ordinary paffage. There were likewife, ,
even in the very canals which conveyed the water, ca¬
vities confiderably deeper than its internal furface/into
which the flream was precipitated, and where it re-
mained ftagnant till it was refined from mud and fecu¬
lence ) and ponds, w here it might expand itfelf till it
was purified.
The aqua:ducl of the ^cjua Marcia had an arch of
16 feet in diameter. The whole was compofed of three
different kinds of Hone ; one of them reddilh, another
browm, and a third of an earth colour. Above, there
appeafed two canals ; of which the higheft was fed by
the new waters of the Tiverone, and the lower by what
they call the Claudian river. The entire edifice is 70
Roman feet high. Near this aqua^duft, we have in
Father Montfaucon the plan of another with three ca¬
nals; the higheft fupplied by the water called 'Julia,
that in the middle from Fepula, and the low^eft from
the Aqua Marcia.
Fhe arch of the aquadufl of the Aqua Claudia is of
hewn ftone, very beautiful ; that of the aquaduft of
the Aqua Neronia is of bricks : they are each of them
72 Roman feet in height.
The canal of the aquaduft which was called the
Aqua Appia, deferves to be mentioned for a Angularity
which is obferved in it; for it is not, like the others,
plain, nor gradual in its defcent; but much narrower
at the lower than the higher end.
rl he conful Frontinus, who fuperintended the aqua-
dmfts under the emperor Nerva, mentions nine of them
which had each 13,594 pipes of an inch in diameter.
Vigerus, obferves, that, in the fpace of 24 hours, Rome
received 500,000 hogflieads of w?ater.
We might likewife have mentioned the aquadnft of
Drulus, and that of Riminius : but we fliall fatisfy
ourfelves with obferving here, that Auguftus caufed all
the aquiedu&s to be repaired ; and afterwards pafs to
other monuments of the fame kind, and ftill more im¬
portant, which give the moft ftriking ideas of Reman
magnificence.
One of thefe monuments is the aquseduft of Metz,
of W'hich a great number of arcades ftill remain. Thefe
arcades croffed the Mofelle, a river which is broad and
vaft at that place. The copious fources of Gorze fur-
nifhed water for the reprefentation of a fea fight. This
water was collefted in a refervoir: from thence it was
conduced by fubterraneous canals formed of hewn
ftone, and fo fpacious that a man could w7alk eresft in
them : it traverled the Mofelle upon its fuperb and lof¬
ty arcades, which may ftill be feen at the diftance of
two
A QU [ 487 ] A U
Aquamboe two leagues from Metz j fo nicely wrouglit and fo
II . firmly cemented, that, except thofe parts in the mid-
.Aquarius., ^ ^ave ^een carried away by the ice, they have
v refilled, and will Hill refill, the feverell Ihock^, of the
moll violent feafons. From thefe arcades, other aquae-
drifts conveyed the waters to the baths, and to the
place where the naval engagement was mimicked.
If we may trull Colmenarus, the aqureduft of Sego¬
via may be compared with the molt admired labours of
antiquity. There Hill remain 159 arcades, wholly con-
filling of Hones enormoully large, and joined without
mortar. Thefe arcades, with what remains of the edi¬
fice, are 102 feet high *, there are two ranges of ar¬
cades, one above another. The aquccduB flows through
the city and runs beneath the greateH number of houfes
which are at the lower end.
After thefe exorbitant firuftures, we may be in fome
degree believed when we fpeak of the aqiueducl which
Louis XIV. caufed to be built near Maintenon, for
carrying water from the river Bucq to Verfailles : it is
perhaps the greateH aquaeduft which now fubliits in
the world : it is 7000 fathoms in length, and contains
242 arcades.
AQUAMBOE, one of the greateH monarchies on
the coaH of Guinea in Africa, llretching 20 miles in
breadth, and ten times that fpace in length from eafl
to ivefl. According to Bofman, the coafi is divided
into a great number of petty royalties, but all of them
fubjeft to the king of Aquamboe, who indiferimi-
nately ufes an unlimited authority over them and the
meaneH of his fubjefts. His defpotifm gave rife to a
proverbial faying, 'that “ there are only two ranks of
men at Aquamboe 5 the royal family, and Haves.”
The natives of this country are haughty, turbulent,
and warlike ; and their power is formidable to all the
neighbouring nations. They grievoully infefi fuch na¬
tions as are tributaries to the king of Aquamboe, en¬
tering their territories by troops, and carrying off
from the inhabitants whatever they think proper j nor
do they ever meet with any oppofition from the inha¬
bitants, as they are fenuble the king would not fail to
relent this as an indignity offered to him.
AQUAPENDENTE. See Fabricius.
AQUARIANS, Chriflians in the primitive church
who conlecrated water in the euchariil initead of wine.
This they did under pretence of abfiinence and tempe¬
rance j or, becaufe they thought it univerfaily unlaw¬
ful to eat flelh or drink wine. Epiphanius calls them
Eucratites, from their abllinence •, St Aufiin, Aqua¬
rians, from their ufe of water; and Theodoret, who
fays they fprang from Tatian, Hydroporq/iatec, becaufe
they offered water inllead of wine.
Befides thefe, there was another fort of Aquarians,
who did not rejeft the ufe of wine as unlawful 5 for
they adminillered the euchariff in wine at evening
fervice y but, in their morning aflemblies, they com¬
monly ufed water, for fear the fmell of wine ihould
difeover them to the heathens.
AQUARIUS, the water-carrier, in AJirono-
my, the 11th fign in the zodiac, reckoning from A-
ries y from which alfo the 1 ith part of the ecliptic
takes its name The fun moves through Aquarius in
the month of January *, it is marked thus, ZZ.
The poets feign, that Aquarius was Ganymede,
whom Jupiter ravilhed under the fiiape of an eagle,
and carried away into heaven, to ferve as a cup-bear- Aquartia
er, in the room of Hebe and Vulcan $ whence the It
name.——Others hold, that the fign was thus called,, clua^irita\
becaufe, when it appears in the horizon, the weather
ufually proves rainy.
The Hars in the conffellation Aquarius, in Ptole¬
my’s catalogue, are 45 y in Tycho’s 41 y in Hevalius’s
47 ; in Flamfled’s 108.
AQUARTIA. See Botany Index.
AQUATIC, in Natural Hijlory, an appellation gi¬
ven to fuch things as live or grow in water.
AQUATINTA, a method of etching on copper,
lately invented, by which a foft and beautiful effeft is
produced, refembling a fine drawing in water colours
or Indian ink.
Previous to the operation upon the plate, the fol¬
lowing powder muff be prepared.—Take of afphaltum
and fine tranfparent rofin, equal parts, fuppofe two
ounces of each, and pound them feparately. Through
a mullin fieve (which may be formed with part of a
chipbox of three or four inches diameter) lift upon a
fiieet of paper a thin flratum of the afphaltum, above
which lift a fimilar layer of the rofin, and upon this
another layer- of afphaltum, continuing thefe alternate
layers till both of the powders are exhauffed ; then
pafs the mixture through the fame fieve upon the paper
once or twice, or till both appear to be fufficiently in¬
corporated y when the powder is ready for ufe. Some, in-
Head of the above mixture, ufe gum fandarach pounded-
The main procefs is as follows :—A copperplate be¬
ing poliihed in the ufual way, lay the etching ground
upon it, and etch the outlines of your defign in the
manner direfted under the article Etching: The-
ground is then to be foftened with a little greafe, and
wiped off with a piece of rag : leaving, however, as
much greafe upon the plate as juH to dim the cop¬
per. You now lift your powder upon the furface of
the plate y after which, firike the other fide of it pret¬
ty fmartly againff the edge of the table, in order to
difeharge it of the loofe powder : This done, with a
hand-vice hold the back of the plate over a chaffing
diffi of charcoal fire, till it become fo hot as to give
pain upon being touched with the back of the hand y
and the powder which adhered to the greafe will now
be fixed to the plate. The plate being then fuffered
to cool, take turpentine varnilh mixed with ivory
black •, and with a hair pencil dipt in it, cover all the
lights or places where there is no work or ffiades. A
rim or border of becs-wax is now to be raifed round
the plate : Then having reduced the aquafortis to a
proper ftrength by vinegar or water, you pour it on,
and let it Hand five minutes for the firff or lighteff
ffiade : after which, pour it off y and having walked
the plate with water, fet it on edge to dry : Then with
the varnilh Hop up ycur light lhades, pour on the
aquafortis for the fecond tint, and let it Hand five mi¬
nutes more y proceeding in the fame manner for every
tint till you produce the darkeff ffiades. If a bold
open ground is wanted in any part, this requires an
after operation : The ground muH be laid as the other,
by fifting on the powder y only this powder is much
coarfer, and the plate muff be much more heated in-
order that the particles of the powder may fpread, and
form finall circles : even good clean rofin will do by
A U f 438 1
In ^etching landfcapes, the fky and diftant objefts bruary 1J03.
are alfo^ performed by a fecond operation, and the
powder is fifted upon the plate with a finer fieve. If
the trees or any part of the fore-ground require to be
higher finifhed, the plate muft be entirely cleanfed
from greafe with bread, and a ground laid in the com¬
mon way of etching ; when you may finifh as highly
and neatly as you pleafe with the needle or point, by
ifippling with dots, and biting up thofe parts, or by a
rolling-wheel.
The preceding is the method for prints of one Angle
tint. But if different colours are to be expreffed, there
will be required as many different plates, each plate
having only the part etched upon it which is defigned
to be charged with its proper colour: unlefs (as may
happen in particular fubje&s) fome of the colours are
lo diftant from each other as to allow the printer room
to fill them in with his rubber without blending them ;
in which cafe, two or more different colours may be
printed from the fame plate at once.—Where different
plates are neceffary, a feparate one, having a pin in
each corner, muft be provided as a foie or bottom to
the aquatinta plates; and thefe again muft be exa&ly
fitted, having each a fmall hole in their corners for paf-
fing over the pins of the foie ; the faid pins ferving the
double purpofe of retaining the plates fucceflively in
their due pofition, and of direfting the printer in pla-
cing the paper exaftly on each plate fo as not to fhift;
by which means each tint or colour will be exaflly re¬
ceived on its proper place.—This is the method prac-
tifed at Paris. A landfcape or fimilar fubjefl, how¬
ever, may be printed off at once in the different pro¬
per colours, by painting thefe upon the plate. In this
cafe, the colours muft be pretty thick in their confift-
ence ; and the plate muft be carefully wiped in the
ufual way after the laying on of each tint, as well as
receive a general wipe upon its being charged with all
the tints.
This art is kept as fecret as poffible by thofe who
praftife it j and it is believed that no particular expla¬
nation or direffions, before the prefent, have been
communicated to the public. In order to fucceed,
however, great care and judgment are requifite $ and
much depends upon a certain nicety of management,
which is only attainable by practice.
AQUAVIVA, a town of the kingdom of Naples,
and province of Bari.
AQUEDUCT. See Aqu DEDUCT,
AQUEOUS, in a general fenfe, fomething partak¬
ing of the nature of water, or that abounds with it.
Agyzovs Humour. See Anatomy, p. 276.
AQUIL A, in Ornithology, a fynonyme of the ea¬
gle. See Falco.
Aquila, the Eagle, in Agronomy, a conftella-
tion of the northern hemifphere ; ufually joined with
Antinous. The ftars in the conftellation Aquila and
Antinous, in Ptolemy’s catalogue, are 15 ; in Ty¬
cho’s 19 j in Hevelius’s 42 ; in the Britannic cata¬
logue, 71.
Aquila, a fine large city of Italy, and the capital
of Abruzzo, feated on a hill, on the banks of the ri¬
ver Pefcaro, near its fource. It has an ancient caftle,
and is a biihop’s fee immediately under the pope. The
land about it produces great plenty of faffron. It was
very near being all deftroyed by an earthquake, in Fe-
A CL u
 j ., _0. The firft fhock was fo terrible, that the Aquilegia,
inhabitants abandoned the city ; but returning to vef- A(luikia.
pers, it being Candlemas day, the fliocks followed one
another with fuch violence, that 24 000 people pe-
riflied, and great numbers were wounded \ 8co were
killed in one fingle church ; many other churches, mo-
nafteries, noble buildings, and the townhoufe, w7ere
either Iwalhwved up or overturned, together with the
greater part of the city and its walls. Aquila ftands
30 miles from the fea, and about 16 from the confines
of the pope’s dominions. E. Long. 14. 20. N. Lat.
42. 20.
AQUILEGIA, columbine. See Botany In¬
dex.
AQUILEIA, a large city of the Carni, or Veneti,
and a noble Roman colony, which was led thither be¬
tween the firft and fecond Macedonian wars, (Livy).
It is wrafhed by two rivers, the Natifo and Turrus,
(Pliny). The reafon of leading this colony w'as, in
order to be a bulwark againft the neighbouring bar¬
barians. The colony was afterwards increafed with
1500 families by a decree of the fenate, (Livy) 5 from
which it became a very famous port town, (Herodian).
The emperor Julian afcribes the appellation to the au¬
gury of an eagle at the time of building it; but Ifaac
Voffius on Mela, to the great plenty of w'ater, as if
the town w7ere called Aquilegia. The harbour, at the
mouth of the Natifo, is diftant 60 ftadia from the city j
fo that fliips of burden are tow^ed up the river, (Stra¬
bo).- In 452 it was befieged by Attila wdth an innu¬
merable hoft of barbarians. The walls were affaulted
by a formidable train of battering rams, moveable tur¬
rets, and engines, that threw ftones, darts, and fire $
and the monarch of the Huns employed the forcible
impulfe of hope, fear, emulation, and intereft, to fub-
vert the only barrier which delayed the conqueft of
Italy. Aquileia w7as at that period one of the richeft,
the moft populous, and the ffrongeft of the maritime
cities of the Hadriatic coaft. Three months were
confumed without effeft in the fiege j till the want of
provifions and the clamours of his army compelled
Attila to relinquifh the enterprife, and reluftantly to
iffue his orders that the troops fhould ftrike their
tents the next morning and begin their retreat. But
as he rode round the walls, penffve, angry, and difap-
pointed, he obferved a ftork preparing to leave her
neft in one of the towers, and to fly with her in¬
fant family tow-ards the country. He feized, with the
ready penetration of a ftatefman, this trifling incident
w'hich chance had offered to fuperftition } and exclaim¬
ed, in a loud and cheerful tone, that fuch a domeftic
bird, fo conftantly attached to human fociety, would
never have abandoned her ancient feats, unlefs thofe
tow^ers had been devoted to impending ruin and foli-
tude. The favourable omen infpired an affurance of
vidtory the fiege was renewed and profecuted with
frelh vigour; a large breach was made in the part of
the wall from whence the ftork had taken her flight j
the Huns mounted to the afiault w'ith irrefiftible fury j
and the fucceeding generation could fcarcely difcover
the ruins of Aquileia. The place, however, is ftill
called Aquileia ; and there are feveral infcriptions and
antiquities to be feen in it, which are worthy of a tra¬
veller’s notice ; and, though dwindled into a poor vil¬
lage, it gives a title to the patriarch of Aquileia.
The
A U [ 489 ] A R A
Aquilkium The patriarch is named by the Venetians, and refides
.11 at Udino, becaule the town of Aquileia belongs to
A the Houle of Aulfria. E. Long. 13. 30. N. Lat.
46. 20.
AQUILICIUM, or Aqx;iliciana, in Roman Aji-
tiquity, facmfices performed in times of exceffive
drought, to obtain rain of the gods.
AQUILINE, fomething belonging to or refemb-
ling an eagle : Thus an aquiline nole is one bent fome-
what like an eagle’s beak.
AQUILO, is ufed by Vitruvius for the north-eaft
wind } or that which blows at 450 from the north to¬
ward the eafl: point of the horizon.—The poets gave
the name aquilo to all ttormy winds dreaded by the
mariner.
AQUILUS, among the ancients, a dark, or dufky
colour approaching to black. Hence fome of the Hea¬
then gods were called dii aqui/i, q. d. nigri.
AQUIMINARIUM, in Antiquity, a kind of lu-
flral veflel, wherein the Romans carried their holy wa¬
ter for expiation and other religious offices.
AQUINAS, St Thomas, ftyled the Angelical
Dotlor, was of the ancient and noble family of the
counts of Aquino, defcended from the kings of Sicily
and Arragon ; and was born in the caftle of Aquino,
in the Terra di Lavora in Italy, in the year 1224 or
1 225. He entered into the order of the Dominicans j
and, after having taught fchool divinity in moft of the
univerlities of Italy, at lall fettled at Naples $ where
he fpent the reft of his life in ftudy, in reading of lec¬
tures, and in atfts of piety j and was fo far from the
views of ambition or profit, that he refufed the arch-
bilhopric of that city, when it was oftered him by Pope
Clement IV. He died in 1274, leaving an amazing
number of writings, which were printed at Venice in
17 vols. folio, in the year 1490. He was canonized
by Pope John XXII. in the year 1323 ; and Pius V.
who was of the fame order with him, gave him, i'n
1567, the title of the Fifth Doflor of the church, and
appointed his feftival to be kept with the fame folem-
nity as thofe of the other four doctors. His authority
has always been of great importance in the fchools of
the Roman Catholics. Lord Herbert, in his life of
Henry VIII. tells us that one of the principal rea-
fons which induced that king to write againft Luther
was, that the latter had fpoken contemptuouily of A-
quinas.
AQUINO, Philip d’, in Latin Aquinas or Aqui-
nius, having turned from Judaifm, had a penfion from
the clergy of France ; and acquired much reputation
by his knowledge of the Hebrew language, which he
taught at Paris, in the reign of Louis XIII. and by
the books he publilhed, among which is his DiElio-
narium Hebrieo-Chahlceo-Thalmudico-Rabbinicum. His
grandlon, Anthony D’Anquin, was firft phyfician to
Louis XIV.
Aquino, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Na¬
ples, and Ferra di Lavora ; a bilhop’s fee, but ruined
by the emperor Conrade, and now confifting of about
39 houfes. It was the birthplace of the poet Juvenal,
and of Thomas Aquinas. E. Long. 14. 30. N. Lat.
41- 32. t .
AQU IN UM, in Ancient Geography, a large muni¬
cipal towm, and a Roman colony on the borders of the
Samnites, waftied by the river Melpha (Strabo). The
Vol. il. Part II.
inhabitants are called Aquinates. Now Aquino, but Aquitaaia
almoft in ruins, in the territory of Lavora. E. Long. I! .
17. 11. N. Lat. 41. 35.' Arabia. ^
AQUITANIA, in Ancient Geography, one of the
three principal divifions of Gallia Comata (Caefar) ;
bounded by the Garonne, the Pyrenees, and the ocean ;
this is the A quit an ia Ctefariana, or Vetus. Auguftus
fet the different boundaries, viz. the Loire, the Ce-
vennes, the Pyrenees, and the ocean (Strabo). It
was called Gall/a Aquitanica (Pliny) ; and in the old
Notitiae, Frovmcia Aquitanica. The people are called
Aquitam (Ceelar). Now comprifmg Guienne (which -
leems to be a corruption of Aquitania) and Gaicony.
AR, in Ancient Geography, the metropolis of Moab,
in Arabia Petraea (Moles) j and the royal refidence,
fituated on the call fide of the river Amon. It was
called alfo Rabba (Joffiua) ; and to diftinguilh it from
Rabba of the Ammonites, Rabbat Moab, and on coins
Rabbath Moma (Reland). Eufebius fays it was called ,
Areopohs in his time, from Ar and Polls. The inha¬
bitants are called Areopolita. St Jerome fays that this
city was entirely deftroyed by an earthquake when he
was a young man.
ARA thuribuli, the altar of incenfe, in AJIro-
nomy, a fouthern conftellation, not vifible in our he-
mifphere, confifting, according to Ptolemy, of fevert
ftars $ and according to Sharp’s Catalogue, annexed to
that of Mr Flamfted, of nine ftars.
Ara, in AJlronomy, a fouthern conftellation, con¬
taining eight ftars.
ARAB, or Arabian horse. See Equus.
ARABESQUE, or Arabesk, fomething done af¬
ter the manner of the Arabians. Arabefque, Grotefque,
and Morefque, are terms applied to fuch paintings, or¬
naments of friezes, &c. wherein there are no human
or animal figures, but which confift wholly of imagi¬
nary foliages, plants, ftalks, &c. The words take
their rife from hence, that the Moors, Arabs, and
other Mahometans, ufe thefe kinds of ornaments
their religion forbidding them to make any images or
figures of men or other animals.
ARABIA, a country of Alia, famous from the re-
moteft antiquity for the independency of its inhabitants
during the vaft conquefts of the Affyrians, Perfians,
Greeks, and Romans; and, in later times, for being
the centre of an empire equal, if not fuperior, in ex- .
tent to any that ever exifted. ^
This country, or at leaft the greater part of it, was Whence
in the earlieft ages called Arabah. Concerning the named,
etymology of this word there are various conjec¬
tures. It has moft generally been derived from the
Hebrew word :ix, lignifying, the 'ivejl, mixture, or
traffic; but, according to M. Volney, Arab, in the
ancient language of thefe countries, fignifies a folitude
or defect. In its largeft extent, Arabia lies between
the 1 2th and 35th degrees of N. Lat. and the 36th
and 61ft of E. Long. Its greatell length from north
to fouth is about 1430 miles, and its breadth from eaft
to weft is 1200. It is bounded on the weft by Pale- 2
Bine, part of Syria, the ifthmus of Suez, and the Red Boundaries,
fea, called by the Arabs the fea Al Kol%om ; on the ^c*
eaft by the Euphrates, the Perfian gulf, and bay of
Ormus 5 on the north, by part of Syria, Diyar Beer,
Irak, and Khuzeftan y and on the fouth by the ftraits
of Babelmandel and the Indian ocean. It grows n^r-
■3 Q^. rower
A R A [ 490 ] A R A
Arabia rower as we approach the frontiers of Syria and Diyar
v Beer : and, by reafon of the proximity of the Euphra¬
tes to the Mediterranean, may be looked upon as a
peninfula, and that one of the larged in the whole
world.—Arabia Proper, however, is much narrower,
including little more than what was comprehended by
the ancients under the name of Arabia Felix, which
we fhall prefently deferibe ; and here the Arabs have
3 been fettled almoft fince the flood.
Divifion. The firft divifion of the peninfula of Arabia .was in¬
to Arabah and Kedem, as we learn from Scripture ;
the firfl: of which implies the weft, and the other the
eaft, denoting the fituation of the two countries. Pto¬
lemy was the firlt who divided the peninfula we fpeak
of into three parts, Arabia Petraea, Arabia Deferta,
and Arabia Felix, which divifion has generally pre¬
vailed fince his time.
Arabia Petraa, on the eaft, wTas bounded by Syria
and Arabia Deferta ; on the wTeft, by Egypt, or ra¬
ther the ifthmus of Suez which feparates Afia from A-
frica, and the Hieropolitan gulf or weftern arm of the
Red fea ; on the north, by Paleltine, the lake Afphal-
tites, and Coelofyria ; and on the fouth by Arabia Fe¬
lix. This traft did not admit of much cultivation,
the greateft part being covered with dry fands, or ri-
fing into rocks, interfperfed here and there with fome
fruitful fpots. Its metropolis was Petra, which by the
Syrians was ftyled Rakam, and in Scripture Joktbeel.
Several other cities of Arabia Petrtea are mentioned
by Ptolemy 5 but as it is very improbable fuch a bar¬
ren country fhould abound with large cities, we mull
look upon them as inconfiderable places.
Arabia Deferta was bounded on the north by the
Euphrates, which feparated it from the Mefopotamia j
on the welt, by Syria, Judaea, and Arabia Petraea ; on
the eafl, by a ridge of mountains udiich feparated it
from Babylonia and Chaldea 5 on the fouth, by Ara¬
bia Felix, from which it was like wife feparated by fe-
veral ridges of hills. By far the greatefl part of this
kingdom, as well as the former, w-as a lonefome de-
fert, diverfified only wdth plains covered with fand, or
mountains confifting of naked rocks and precipices 5
nor were they ever, unlefs fometimes at the equinoxes,
refrefhed with rain. The few vegetables which they
produced were Hinted by a perpetual drought, and the
nouriihment afforded them by the nodlurnal dew7s was
greatly impaired by the heat of the fun in the day¬
time. Throughout the deferts wrere found huge moun¬
tains of land, formed by the violence of the winds that
continually blew; over them in the day-time, though
they ceafed in the night. Wells and fountains were
for the moll part exceedingly rare } however, notwith-
llanding the fterility of thefe countries, the vaft plains
of fand juft now mentioned were interfperfed with fruit¬
ful fpots, which appeared here and there like fo many
illands in the midft of the ocean. Thefe being ren¬
dered extremely delightful by their verdure, and the
more fo by the neighbourhood of thofe frightful de¬
ferts, the. Arabs encamped upon them : and having
confumed every thing they found upon one, removed
to another, as is the cuftom of their defeendants the
Bedoweens at this day. Thefe fruitful fpots -were like-
wife frequent in Libya, and by the Egyptians called
anafes, or abefes, as we learn from Strabo. The bar¬
ren part of Arabia Felix, bordering upon the Red fea,
was in like manner interfperfed with abafes1, which Arabia,
probably gave the name of Abafeni to a nation fettled v—
there, and in the adjacent fertile region. A body of
thefe, it is faid, crofting the ftraits of Babelmandel,
paffed into Ethiopia, which from them received the
name of AbaJJia. From this account of Arabia De¬
ferta, we may reafonably conclude, that the towns faid
by Ptolemy to have been fituated in it ivere places of
very little confequence.
Arabia Felix was founded on the north by the two
kingdoms juft deferibed •, on the fouth, by the Red
fea ; on the eaft and weft, by part of that fea, toge¬
ther with the Arabian and Perfian gulfs. In Strabo’s
time, it was divided into five provinces, by the orien¬
tal hiftorians called 'Taman, Hejatz, Tchamah, Najd,
and Tamama. In this diftridt flood feveral towns,
particularly Nyfa, famous for being the birthplace of
Bacchus j and Mula, or Muza, a celebrated empo¬
rium or harbour, where the Arabian merchants refort-
ed with their frankincenfe, fpices, and perfumes.
Thefe two were fituated in the province ofYaman.
In that of Hejaz flood the ftill more famous cities of
Mecca and Medina *, alfo Thaifa or Taifa, Gjudda or
Jodda, Yanbo or A1 Yanbo, and Madian, the Mo-
diana of Ptolemy, and the Midian or Madian of Scrip¬
ture. 4
At what time the above-mentioned kingdoms were Wlien peo-
firft peopled we have no certain accounts. The moft
confiderable nations inhabiting Arabia Petraea, in the
early ages, were the Iflimaelites, the Nabatad or Na-
batheans, the Cedraei or Kedareni, and the Agareni or
Hagareni ; and of thefe the Khmaelites were the moft
powerful, if they cTid not comprehend all the reft ; and
if the Hagareni were not the fame people with them,
they muff at leaft have been nearly related. Kimchi,
an oriental hiftorian, infinuates, that they rvere origi¬
nally the children of Hagar by an Arab, after fhe had
left Abraham. In after ages, the names of all the na¬
tions fituated here were aSforbed in that of Saracens,
by which the Ilhmaelites are diftinguiftied in the Jeru-
falem Targum. A nation alio is mentioned by Pliny, !
called Arraceni, and Saraceni by Ptolemy and Diofco-
rides, which was probably no other than the lihtnael-
ites above mentioned. In Arabia Deferta feveral tribes
refided, all of whom were very obfeure, except the
Aifitae and Agraei. The former are fuppofed by Bo-
chart to have been Job’s countrymen, and the latter
to 'have been the fame with the Hagareni, Arraceni,
or Saraceni, above mentioned. Arabia Felix was in¬
habited by many different tribes ; the moft remarkable
of which were the Sabrei, Gerraei, Minaei or Minntei,
Atramitae, Maranitae, Catabani, Afcitae, Homeritae,
Sapphoritae, Omanitae, Saraceni, Nabathaei, Thamy-
deni, and Bnizomenae *, but neither their limits nor fi¬
tuation can now be determined with any manner of
precifion. c;
According to the oriental hiftorians, the Arabs are Divificn of
to be divided into two claffes 5 viz. the old/<f Ara-l^e
bians, and the prefent The moft famous tribes among
the former were thofe of Ad, Thamud, Tafm, Jades,
Jorham, Amalek,- Amtem, Halbem, Abil, and Bar.
Concerning thefe, though now entirely loft and fwal-
lowed up among other tribes, there are fome remark¬
able traditions, of which the following may ferve as a
fpecimen,.
The
A R A [491]
The tribe of Ad deduced their origin from Ad the of that
A R A
Arabia.
^ ion of Aws, or Uz, the fon of Aram, the fon of Shem,
Tradition w^°» after the confufion of tongues, fettled in A1
concerning Abkaf, or the winding fands in the province of Ha-
the tribe of'dramant, on the confines of Yaman, where his polle-
rity greatly multiplied. Their firft king was Shed-
dad, the fon of Ad, who built a flately palace, and
made a delightful garden in the deferts of Aden,
which he defigned as an imitation of the celeftial para-
dife. This garden he called Irem: and when it was
finiflied, he fet out with a great retinue to take a view
of it ; but, having fome thoughts of affuming divine
honours, he was deftroyed by a tempefl from heaven,
while yet a day’s journey from his paradife. The gar¬
den and palace, however, were preferved, though in-
vifible, as a monument of divine vengeance.
After the death of Sheddad, the kingdom of Ad
was governed by a long feries of princes, concerning
whom many fables are related by the eaftem writers.
I he conclufion of their hiftory, however, is as follows.
“ The Adites, in procefs of time, falling from the
worfhip of the true God into idolatry, God fent the
prophet Hud, fuppofed to be the fame with Heber, to
preach to and reclaim them. But they refufing to ac¬
knowledge his miffion or to obey him, God fent a hot
and fuffocating wind, which blew feven nights and eight
days, and entering at their noftrils paffed through their
bodies, and deftroyed them all, a very few’ only except¬
ed, who had liftened to Hud, and retired with him to
another place.” Others relate, “that, before this ter¬
rible catallrophe, they had been previoully chaftifed
with a three years drought; and therefore fent Kail
Ebn Ithar, and Morthed Ebn Sdaa, wnth 70 other
principal men to Mecca, then in the hands of the tribe
of Amalek, whofe prince was Moahwiyah Ebn Beer, to
obtain ol God fome rain. Kail having begged of God
that he would fend rain to the people of Ad, three
clouds appeared, a white, a red, and a black one ; and
a voice from heaven ordered him to choofe which he
would. Kail failed not to make choice of the laft,
thinking it would be laden with moft rain ; but when
this cloud came over them, it proved to be fraught
with the divine vengeance, and a temped; broke forth
7 from it which deftroyed them all.
r hom de°m • ^'^e Prefcnt according to their own hifto-
ftended. r*ans> are fprung from Kahtan, the fame with Joktan, •
the fon of Eber, and Adnan, defeended in a diredt line
from Ithmael the Ion of Abraham. The former of
thefe they called the genuine or pure Arabs, and the lat¬
ter the nulurali%ed or injititious Arabs.
Joktan the fon of Eber had 13 fons, wrho fome time
after the confufion of languages fettled in Arabia, ex¬
tending themfelves from Meilia to Sephar, a mountain-
«us place in the louth-eaftern part of that peninfula.
According to the Arabian hillorians, he had 31 fons,
all of whom left Arabia and went into India, except
two, viz. Yarab and Jorham; the former ol whom, they
fay, gave the name both to their country and language,
lihmael and his mother Hagar having been difmifled
by Abraham, entered into the wildernefs of Paran, as
related in the book of Genefis. The facred hiilorian
informs us, that during his refidence in the wildernefs
he married an Egyptian ; and the Arabian writers fay
that he alfo took tO'wdfe the daughter of Modab king
of Hejaz, lineally defeended from Jorham the founder
Arabia.
. c the queen
of Sheba.
kingdom. By the Egyptian he was probably
the father ol the Scenite or wild Arabs ; and having —v~-“'
allied himfelf to the forhamites, he is coniidered by
the Arabians as the father of the greateft part of their
nation. g
Kahtan, or Joktan, is faid to have firfl reigned, and Joktan the
worn a diadem, in Yaman; but the particulars of his ^ kinS-
reign we nowhere learn. He was fucceeded by Yarab
already mentioned, he by Yalhab, and Yartiab by Abd
Shems. He was fuccefsful in his expeditions againft
his enemies, carried off great fpoils, and took many ^ ^
of them prifoners. He is faid to have built the cityot-ga^a
' of Saba or March, and above it a ftupendous mound
or building, which formed a vaft refervoir, containing
all the water that came down from the mountains.. By
means of this refervoir the kings of Yaman not only
fupplied the inhabitants of Saba and their lands with
w^ater, but likewife kept the territories they had fub-
dued in greater awe, as by cutting off their communi¬
cation with it they could at any time greatly diltrefs
them.
Abd Shems wms fucceeded by his fdn Elamyar, from
whom the tribe of Hamyar is faid to take its name ;
and he by a feries of 17 kings, concerning whom we
have no remarkable particulars, except that from one of
them, called Africus, the continent of Africa took its x0
name. The laft of thefe was fucceeded by a daughter Balkis fup-
named Balkis or Belkis, whom fome will have to be P0^ to De
the queen of Sheba who paid a vifit to Solomon,
ter 'Balkis came Malca, furnamed Najherolneam on ac¬
count of his magnificence and liberality. Having had
bad fuccefs in an expedition, where his army wTas over¬
whelmed by torrents of fand, he caufed a brazen ftatue
to be erebled, with the following infc nipt ion in the bid
Hamyaritic charafter : “ There is no paflage behind
me, no moving farther; the fon of Sharhabil.” He wTas
fucceeded by Shamar Yaraalh, fo called on account of ri
his being aft'edled with a conftant tremor. To this Samarcar.d,
prince the city of Samarcand is faid to ©we its exiftence. by whom
After Shamar Yaraalh we have a lift of 15 kings, ofbu^t'
whom nothing worth mentioning is recorded, except
of one Abu Carb Afaad, who adorned the Caaba or
temple of Mecca with tapeftry, and firft introduced
Judaifm among the Hamyarites. He was put to death
by his fubjeefts probably on account of religion. The
laft of the 15 kings above mentioned wTas called Abra-
hah, who was fucceeded by his fon Sabban. He had
that famous fword called Satnfannah, which afterwards
came into the hands of the caliph A1 Ralhld. This
prince was fucceeded by Dhu. Shanater, who had fix
fingers on each hand. He was abandoned to unnatu¬
ral lull, and dethroned for abufing ibme of the nobleft ^ .I.2
youths in the kingdom. To him fucceeded Yufef, who bloocK Vr
lived about 70 years before Mahomet. He perfecuted iecutor.1 U”
all thofe wdio would not turn Jews, putting them to
death by various tortures, the moft common of vrhich
was throwing them into a glowing pit of fire ; wdience
he had the appellation of the lord of the pit. This per-
fecution is taken notice of in the Koran. The laft of
the Hamyaritic monarchs was Dhu Jadan, according
to Abulfeda ; but, according to others, the Yufef juft
mentioned, who was furnamed Dhu Novuas on account
of his flowing curls, and was the laft who reigned in
an uninterrupted fucceflion. He was a bigotted fewg
as already mentioned ; and treated his fubje&s with
3 Qj* fuch
Arabia.
16
Terrible
inundation
by the
breaking
clown of
the reier-
voir of
Saba.
A R A [49
fuch barbarity, that they were obliged to alk the affift-
^ ance of Elelbaas, or Elafbaan, king of Ethiopia, a*
His fubje&s kim. Dhu Nowas, not being able to make head
call in the againft the Ethiopians, was at laft driven to fuch ex-
king of E- tremity, that he forced his horfe into the fea, and loit
thio|Ha,nhoboth his life and crown together.
Yufef. ' The king of Ethiopia, having thus become mafter of
14 Yaman, eftablifhed there the Chrillian religion, and fix-
Chriftian ed upon the throne one Abryat an Ethiopian. He was
ftaWifhed* kicceeded by Abraha-Ebn-Al-Sabab, furnamed the S/it-
inlArabia no.fe^i from a wound he had formerly received in it.
He was liketvile ftyled lord of the elephant, from a (lory
too ridiculous to deferve notice. He was fucceeded
by two other Ethiopian princes ybut at laft Sief Ebn
Dhu Y azan, of the old royal family of Hamyar, having
obtained aftiftance from the king of Perfia, which had
15 been denied him by the emperor Heraclius, recovered
Ethiopians bis throne, and drove 'out the Ethiopians; but was
dnven out. himfelf ilain by fome of them who were left behind.
The facceeding princes were appointed by the Per-
ftans, till Yaman fell into the hands of Mahomet.
We have already taken notice of the vaft mound or
refervoir made by Abd Shems, from which he fupplied
the city of Saba with water. This building flood like
a mountain above the city, and was by the Sabaeans
efte^med fo ftrong, that they were under ho fear of its
ever failing. The ivater rofe almoft to the height of
20 fathoms; and was kept in on every fide by a work
fo folid, that many of the inhabitants had their houfes
upon it. About the time of Alexander the Great,
however, a terrible inundation happened. According
to the Arabian hiftorians, God being difpleafed at the
pride and infolence of the inhabitants of this city, re-
folved to humble them ; and for this purpofe font a
mighty flood, which broke down the mound by night
whilft the inhabitants were afleep, and carried away the
whole city with the neighbouring towns and people.
This inundation is ftyled in the Koran the inundation
of udl-Haram; and occaftoned fo terrible a deftrueftion,
that from thence it became a proverbial faying to
exprefs a total difperfion, “ that they were gone and
foattered like Saba.”—By this accident no lefs than
eight tribes were forced to remove their habitations;
fome of which gave rife to the kingdoms of Hira and
Ghaffan. •
Origin, &c. The kingdom of Plira was founded by Malec, a de-
ot the king- foemdant of Cahlan the brother of Hamyar j but after
three difeents, the throne came by marriage to the
Lakhrnians, who were defeendants of Lakhm the fon
o' Amru, the fon of Abd Ems. Thefe princes, whofe
general name was Mondar, preferved their dominion,
notwithftanding fome fmall interruption from the Per-
fians, till the caliphate of Abu Beer, when A1 Mondar
Maghrur, the laft of them, loft his life and crown by
the arms of Khaled-Ebn-Al-Walid. This kingdom
continued 622 years and eight months, according to
Ahmed Ebn Yufef. Its princes were under the pro-
teftion of the kings of Perfia, and were their lieutenants
over the Arabs of Irak, as the kings of Ghaffan were
18 for the Roman emperors over thofe of Syria.
OfGhaffah. The kingdom of Ghafian was founded by the tribe
of Azd, who according to fome, fettling in Syria Da-
mafeena, near a water called Gh'affan, from thence took
their name *, but others fay they went under this ap¬
pellation before they left Yaman, Having driven out
dem o
ra.
Hi-
2 ] A R A
the Dajaamian Arabs, who before poffefied the country, Arabia.
they made themfelves mailers of a confiderable tend-  J
tory. Plere they maintained themfelves, according to
fome 400, according to others 600, and according to
Abulfeda 613 years, when the laft of their kings fub-
mitted to the caliph Omar, and embraced the Maho¬
metan religion : but receiving afterwards a difguft, foon
returned to Chriftianity, and took refuge in Conftan-
tinople. I9
The kingdom of Hejaz was founded by Jorham theOfHejaz.
fon of Kahtan, where princes of his line reigned till
the time of Ilhmael, who married the daughter of Mo-
dad one of thole princes. Some authors relate that
Kidar, one of Ilhmael’s fons, had the crown religned
to him by bis uncles the forhamites: but, according to
others, the defeendants of Ifhmael expelled that tribe j
who, retiring to Johainab, were after various adventures
deftroyed by an inundation. After the expulfion of
the Jorhamites, the government of Hejaz feems not to
have continued long, in the hands of one prince, but to
have been divided among the heads of tribes, almoft
in the fame manner as the Arabs of the defert are go- 2.
verned at this day. The tribe of Khozaab, after the Tribe of
above-mentioned inundation of Saba, tied into the king - Khozaab
dom ol Hejaz, and fettled tbemfelves in a valley ca]l_aflumes the
ed Marri near Mecca. Here they founded an arif-£
tocracy, affirming to themfelves both the government Mecca,
of the city of Mecca, and the cuftody of the Caaba or
temple there. They continued mailers of this city and
territory, as well as prefidents of the Caaba, for many
ages, till at length one Kofa, of the tribe of Koreifti,
circumvented Abu Gablhan, a wreak and filly man, of
whom, while in a drunken humour, he bought the kevs
of the temple for a bottle of wine; but when Abu Gab¬
lhan grew cool, and reflefted on his imprudence, he fuf-
ficiently repented of what he had done; whence the A- 2I
rabian proverbs, “ More vexed with late repentance Folly of A-
than Abu Gablban; More foolilh than Abu Gabfhan,” ^ni Gab-
Sec. The tribe of Khozaab endeavoured afterwards to ^ian‘
give fome difturbance to the Koieilh in the poffiffion of
the keys of the Caaba, which fumiftved the latter with
a pretence for depriving them of the civil government
of Mecca. After the Korelili had poiTeffid themfelves
of this city, they kept up the lame form of govern¬
ment which had prevailed there before. Beiides thefe
kingdoms, there were many others of lefler note, of
which we find nothing remarkable.
Thus we have briefly mentioned the moft memorable
events recorded by the Arabian hiftorians previous fo
the time of Mahomet; but, before entering upon an
account of that famous impoftor and the kingdom
founded by him, it will be proper to take notice of fe-
veral circumftances in different parts of the world,
which at that time concurred to facilitate his fcheme,
and without which, in all probability, he would never
have been able to accomplilh it. 22
The firft and great caufe of Mahomet’s fuccefs in Caufes of^
his impofture, was the grofs corruption and fuperfti-^la^E jt J
tion with which the Chriitian religion was at that time
obfeured in all parts of the world. Had the pure
doctrines of Chriftianity been then as publicly known
as the ridiculous fopperies which deformed the Eaftern
and Weftern churches, Mahometanifm could never
have got a hearing. But along with the true reli¬
gion, mankind feemed alfo to have loft the ufe of their
rational.
A R A - r 493 ] A R A
Avahia. rational faculties, fo that they were capable of fwal-
' V lowing the grofieft abfurdities ; fuch as it now appears
almoft incredible that any of the human race could
receive as truths. Another caufe was, the manner of
government and way of life among the Araos. Di¬
vided into fmall independent tribes, they never were
capable of a firm union but by fuperllition ; and had
Mahomet attempted their conqueft in any other way,
it was impoffible he could have fucceeded. As there
were alfo among them Jews, Pagans, and Chriftians of
all forts, this impoftor, by adopting fomething out of
every religion then extant, cunningly recommended
himfelf to the profeffbrs of every one of them. Add
to all this, that by allowing of polygamy, and fetting
forth his paradife as confifting in the enjoyment of wo¬
men, he adapted himfelf to the corrupt difpofitions of
mankind in general.
If the diftrafted Hate of religion favoured the de-
figns of Mahomet on the one hand, the weaknefs of
the Grecian and Perfian monarchies aflilled him no lefs
powerfully on the other. Had thofe once formidable
empires been in their vigour, either of them would have
been fufficient to cruflr Mahometanifm in its birth; but
both of them were then llrangely reduced. The Ro¬
man empire had continued to decline after the time of
Conftantine; the weftern parts of it were then entirely
overrun by the Goths and other barbarous nations }
and the eaftern, or Greek empire, was fo much redu¬
ced by the Huns on the one hand, and the Perfians on
the other, as to be incapable of making any great effort.
The Perfian monarchy itfelt was in little better con¬
dition. It is true, they ravaged the dominions of the
Greeks, and often overcame them in the field ; but
that was owing more to the weaknefs of the Grecian
empire, than to the ftrength of the Perfians, and fo
elfeclually did the inteftine broils, which arofe chiefly
on account of religion, weaken the kingdom of Perfia,
that the molt confiderable part of it was annexed by
the caliph Omar to his dominions.
As the Greeks and Perfians were then in a languifli-
ing fituation, fo the Arabs were ftrcng and flourifliing.
Their country had been peopled at the expence of the
Grecian empire •, whence the violent proceedings of the
different religious fedlaries forced many to take refuge
in Arabia. The Arabs wTere not only a populous na¬
tion but unacquainted with the luxuries and delicacies
of the Greeks and Perfians. They were inured to hard-
fhips of all kinds, and confequently much better fitted
than their effeminate neighbours to endure the fatigues
23 ©f war, as the event very fully verified.
Mahomet’s Mahomet was bom in the year of Chrift, 569. Ac-
birth, de- cording to the eaftern hiftorians, he vras defcended in
fcent. Sec. a dlreft Hne from Ifhmael. Kedar, or, as the Arabians
call him Kidar, after his father Iftirnael’s death, com¬
municated his name to the greateft part of Arabia Pe-
traea. He was fucceeded in his authority and poffef-
fions by his fon Hamal •, Hamal by Nabat, and Nabat
by Salaman. After Salaman came A1 Homeifa, then
A1 Yafa, whofe fon Odad was fucceeded by Odd the
father of Adnan. Counting ten generations forward in
the fame line, we come at laft to Fehr, who feems to
Felir head have diftinguifhed himfelf by fome glorious adlions, as
of the Ko- he wras denominated Koreijh, on account of his bravery,
reiih. pje js to ^ confidered as the root of the politeft and
moft celebrated tribe of the Arabs, He had three fons,
Galeb, Mohareb, and A1 Hareth. From Mohareb the Arabia.
Eanu Mohareb, denominated likewife Sbeiban, took
their origin ; from A1 Hareth, the Banu A1 Kholoj :
and from Galeb in a direft line, the impoftor Mahomet.
Galeb was the father of Lowaj and he of Caab, whofe
fon Morrah had for his immediate defcendant Kelab
the father of Kofa. It was this Kofa wrho aggrandized
the tribe of the Koreilh, by purchafing the keys of the
Caaba from Abu Gabflian, as we have already related.
By this he not only aggrandized his tribe, but became
the prince of it himfelf. He was fucceeded by his fe-
cond fon Abd Menaf, to whom the prophetic light,
which is faid to have manifefted itfelf in his face, gave 2
the right of primogeniture. Abd Menaf wTas fucceed-Hafliem’s
ed by his Ion Amni, furnamed Hajhem, or “one thatgeneroiity,
broke bread,” on account of his lingular generofity
during a famine at Mecca. Having amaffed great fums
of money, he took a journey into Syria, wdrsre he pur-
chafed a vaft quantity of meal, which he made into
cakes, and divided with his own hands amongft the peo¬
ple of Mecca. He likewife killed a prodigious number
of camels, with which he fed them, and relieved them
in the time of their diftrefs 5 and finding that the foil
about Mecca was fo barren as to produce no fruits
but w'hat are common in the deferts, and confequently
no corn or grain, w-hich the Meccans are obliged to
bring from other places, he appointed two caravans to
fet out yearly for that purpofe, the one in fummcr, and
the other in w-inter; by means of which the city wTas
amply fupplied with provifions of all kinds. The pro-
vilions brought by them, were diftribnted twice a year y
and Haftiem, by his prudent conduift, raifed the glorv
of his people to the higheft pitch ; infomuch, that alt
the neighbouring great men and heads of tribes made
their court to him. Nay, fo great veneration is the
memory of Haftiem held in by the Arabs, that from
him the family of Mahomet among them are called
Hajhemitcs; and he who prefides over Mecca and Me¬
dina, wrho muft always be of the race of Mahomet, has
to this day the title of the “ Chief or Prince of the
Halhemites.
Halliem died at Gaza in Syria, and wras fucceeded
by his fon Abdal Motalleb or Mateleb. He is faid to
have been extremely affable and eafy of accefs, as w-ell
as juft and generous to a great degree 5 fo that, in the
beginning of the month Ramadan, he entertained the
poor upon the flat roof of his houfe, and afterwards
fupplied the fowls of the air and wild beafts of the
field with provifions of various kinds, rvhich he ordered
his fervants to leave upon the fummits of the neighbour- 2(>
ing mountains. The well which God fhowred to Hagar Well Zenw
in the wildernefs is faid to have been miraculoufly dif- zem chlco-
covered to Abdal Motalleb, about 500 years after it ^bd'il'Mo
had been filled up by Amru prince of the Jorhamites. tallefa.
This well is by the Arabs called Zem%em; which fome
derive from her calling to Ilhmael, wThen flie fpied it,
in the Egyptian tongue, 'Zem, Zem, i. e. Stay, Stay j
though others afcrihe it to a different origin. The
water of this well, which is on the eaft fide of the
Caaba, and covered with a fmall building and cupola,
is highly reverenced; being not only drank w-ith parti¬
cular devotion by the pilgrims, but alfo fent in bottles
as a great rarity to moft parts of the Mahometan do¬
minions.
Abdalla the father of Mahomet, was a younger fon
of
Arabia.
A R A [ 494 ]
of Abdal Motalleb, and remarkable for his beauty. followers.
27
Mahomet
at firit a
merchant.
28
Begins to
broach his
eioftrine.
29
Converts
his wife and
coufin, See.
In his 24th or 25th year, he married Amina the
daughter of Waheb, the fon of Abdal Menaf. She is
reprefented as the moft beautiful, prudent, and virtuous
lady of her tribe ; and confequently the moft worthy
of luch an extraordinary perfbn as Abdalla. He died
young and, in his father’s life-time, left his widow
and infant fon in very mean circumftances; his whole
ubltance confifting only of five camels and one female
Ethiopian flave. Abdal Motalleb was, therefore, obli¬
ged to take care of his grandfon Mahomet ; w’hich
he not only did during his life, but at his death en¬
joined his eldeft fon Abu Taleb to provide for him for
the future. Abu Faleb was extremely kind to his
nephew, and inftrufted him in the bufinefs of merchan-
dife; for which purpofe he took him into Syria when
he was but 13 years of age, recommending him to
Iv laaijah, a noble and rich widow, for her factor j in
whofe ferviye he behaved fo well, that fhe married him,
and thus raifed him to an equality with the richeft in
Mecca.
Though Mahomet had probably formed a defign of
introducing his new religion pretty early, he did not
think proper to avow it till the 40th year of his age.
The grand article of his faith was, the unity of the di¬
vine nature, which he pretended was violated by the
Jews and Chriftians no lefs than by the Pagans 5 for
which reafon, he refolved to make an attempt to refeue
the world from the ignorance and fuperftition which
prevailed at that time. This reformation he intended
fliould begin in his own family ; and therefore, having
retired with his houfehold to a cave in Mount Hara,
near Mecca, he there opened the fecret of his miffion
to Khadijah ; acquainting her that the angel Gabriel
had juft appeared to him, and told him that he was
appointed the Apoftle of God. He alfo repeated to
her a pafiage which he faid had been revealed to him
by the miniftry of the angel, with an account of many
prodigies which happened at his birth (See Maho¬
met). Ibis pretended revelation was received by
Khadijah with the greateft joy ; and in a kind of eefta-
fy A16 immediately communicated the good news to
her coufin \\ araka Ebn Nhwfal, who, being a Chrifti-
an, could write in the Hebrew' charafter, and was pret¬
ty well verfed in fhe Scriptures both of the Old and
New Teftament. He very readily came into her opi¬
nion, fwore by God that what fhe faid was true, and
that “ Mahomet was the great prophet foretold in the
law' by Mofes the fon of Amram.”
Mahomet finding his firft ftep fo fuccefsful, as Wa-
raka w'as a very confiderable perfon, began to entertain
great hopes of accomplifhing his defign. He next
converted his fervant Zeid, to whom he gave his liber¬
ty on the occafion, which afterwards became a rule to
his followers : and then Ali the fon of Abu Taleb,
though at that time only nine or ten years of age. This
laft, how'ever, making no account of the other two, he
ufed to call the JlrJl of believers. The next perfon he
applied to was Abu Beer, a man of very confiderable
authority among the Koreifh. He w'as eafily gained
over, and by his influence feveral others 5 fo that Ma¬
homet nowT made his million no longer a fecret. To
Abu Beer he gave the name of Al Saddik, or the faith¬
ful witnefs; becaufe he not only vouched for every thing
he faid, but alfo greatly increafed the number of his
A R A
Mahomet likewife complimented him with Arabia,
the title oi Auk, or preferved; intimating thereby that l—-v—
he was certainly faved from hell fire.
Having given out that he was commanded from hea¬
ven to admonifh his near relations, Mahomet direded
Aii to prepare an entertainment, and invite to it the
fons and defeendants of Abdal Motalleb. He intended
to^ open his mind to them 5 but Abu Laheb, one of
Mahomet’s uncles, making the company break up be¬
fore the prophet had an opportunity of fpeaking to
them, he was obliged to invite them again the next
day. Having now propofed the matter, he afked which
of them would become his w’azir, prime minifter, or
vicegerent. This wTas accepted by Ali; upon which
Mahomet faid to him, “ This is my brother, my de¬
puty, and my (caliph) iuccdfor, or vicar5 therefore
Ihow yourfelves fubmiflive and obedient to him.” At Rejected br
this ipeech all the.company fell a-laughing, telling Abu theKoreifln
Taleb that he muft now pay obedience and fubmiflion
to his own fon. Notwithftanding this repulfe, how'-
ever, IMahomet was fo far from being drfeouraged, that
he began to preach to the people in public. They
heard him with fome patience till he began to upbraid
them with the idolatry, obftinacy, and perverfenefs of
themfelves and their fathers j which fo highly provoked
them, that they openly declared themfelves his enemies,
except fome fewT who were converted. The prophet was
now protedled by the authority of his uncle Abu Ta¬
leb j who, however, was earneftly folicited to perfuade
his nephew to defift, and at laft threatened with an
open rupture in cafe he could not prevail on him fo to
do. This had fuch an effedl upon Abu Taleb, that he
advifed his nephew not to puftr the matter any fhrther;
reprefenting the great danger he and his followers
would otherwife run : but our prophet was not to be
fo intimidated 5 and told his uncle plainly, that “ if His mblu-
they fet againft him the fun on his right hand, and the tion.
moon on his left, he wrould not abandon his enter-
prife.” Abu Taleb, therefore, finding him fo firmly
refolved, uled no further arguments, but promifed to
ftand by him to the utmoft of his power : fo that not¬
withftanding the people of his tribe came to a determi¬
nation to expel both Mahomet and his followers, he
found a powerful fupport in his uncle againft all their
machinations.
Mahomet now entered upon his apoftolic function
with uncommon diligence and application ; and fcon
gained over his uncle Hamza, and Omar Ebn Al
Khattah, a perfon very much efteemed, and who be¬
fore had been his violent oppofer. Notwithftanding
this fuccefs, however, the Koreifh continued their op-
pofition, and came to a refolution to proferibe all who
had embraced Mahomet’s doftrine. In confequence of
this refolution, the Mofems, as his followers were call-
led, were now treated with fuch feverity, that they His foLw-
found it no longer fafe to continue in Mecca nay, fe- ers perfecu-
veral of them in the fifth year of his miflion foundted-
themfelves obliged to fly into Ethiopia, where they
were kindly received by the Najaftii or king of that
country, who refufed to deliver them up to thofe whom
the Koreilh fent to demand them. At this refufal they
were fo exafperated, that they came to a refolution to
fupprefs efiefmally the new religion which had now
made a confiderable progrefs. In order to this, they
entered into a folemn league or covenant againft the
Hafhemites,
A R A
[ 495 ]
A R A
Arabia.
33
The Kd-
reirti enter
into a
league a-
gainft him.
.34
Their writ¬
ing deft toy¬
ed by a
35
Mahomet
Drill perfe-
cuted by
theKoreifli
Hafliemites, and the family of Abdal Motalleb in par¬
ticular, engaging themfelves to contract no marriages
with them, nor to have any manner of communication
with them otherwife 5 and, to give this the greater
weight, they reduced it into writing, and laid it up in
the Caaba. Upon this the tribe became divided into
two faftrons *, and all the family of Hafhem, both Mof-
lems and unbelievers, repaired to Abu Taleb as their
head 5 except only Abdal Uzza, furnamed Abu La-
heb, the fon of Abdal Motalleb, who, out of hatred
to his nephew and his doftrine, went over to the op-
pofite party* After this the authority of Abu Taleb
was fcarce fiifficm.it to proteft Mahomet from the fury
of the Koreilh 5 who, according to A1 Jannabi, made
frequent attempts upon him 5 fometimes endeavouring
to deftroy him by force, at other times by fedret wiles
and machinations : nay, to compafs their end, he tells
ns that they had recourfe to magic, enchantments, and
diabolical illufions. In Ihort, they gave him at laft fo
much trouble, that he was obliged to change his habi¬
tation, and feek 'a new^ afylum for himfelf and his com¬
panions. This he found in the houfe of one Orkam,
which was advantageouily fituated on a hill called Safa.
Here he converted Orkam’s family, and the houfe was
afterwards held in high eftimation by the Modems.
The twTo fa&ions into which the tribe of Koreifh
was divided fubfifted for live years, w7hen they w7ere
put an end to by a very ftrange accident. Mahomet
told his uncle Abu Taleb, that God had manifeftly
fhowred his difapprobation of the covenant entered into
againft them, by fending a worm to eat out every w'ord
of the inftrument except the name of God. With
this particular Abu Taleb immediately acquainted the
Koreilh ; offering, in cafe it proved falfe, to deliver up
his nephew to them •, but if it (horrid prove true, he
infilled that they ought to lay afide their animofity,
and annul the league they had made againft the Ha-
(liemites. To this they acquiefced ; and going to in-
fpe6t the writing, found it to be as Abu Taleb had
told them ; the words “ In thy name, O God,” being
the only ones which remained. On fo remarkable a
proof of the divine difpleafure, the league was imme¬
diately annulled, and all a£ts of hoftility'between the
twro parties ceafed.
After this memorable event Mahomet remained with
his uncle Abu Taleb, vrho furvived the reconciliation
only about eight months. The fame year alfo died
Khadijah, Mahomet’s wife. Her death, as well as that
of his uncle, proved a great detriment to his affairs j
for the Koreifh, notwithftapding the former reconcilia¬
tion, began now to profecute him with more violence
than ever. He rvas therefore obliged to fly for (belter
to A1 Tayef; w-hich he chofe on account of its being
the refidence of his uncle A1 Abbas, whofe proteftion
he imagined he would be able to fecure. In this, how¬
ever, he found himfelf miftaken : and though he (laid
a month in the city, during which time he gained over
a fewq yet .at laft the lower fort of people rofe againft
him, and obliged him to return to Mecca. This refu-
fal, though it greatly difcouraged the new converts,
did not in the leaf! abate the zeal of Mahomet : on the
contrary, he continued to preach boldly to the public
affemblies at the pilgrimage to Mecca, exclaiming
againft idolatry, and particularly againft the worfhip
of two idols Allat and A1 Uzza, to which- the tribes,
efpecially the women of that of Thakif, were very Arabia,
much addicted. By this the prophet wTas often expo- v
fed to great danger : however, he gained fomc converts,
and amongft them fix of the inhabitants of Yathreb,
of the Jewifh tribe of Khazraj •, who, on their return
home, failed not to fpeak much in commendation of
their new religion, and exhorted their fellow7 citizens 36
immediately to embrace it. Thefe converts of theAnfars3
tribe of Khazraj are by the Arab waiters called
Anfar, Al Anfaru, or Anfars; that is, afliftants, fa¬
vourers, fupporters, &c. becaufe they aftifled and fup-
ported the prophet when he w'as purfued to the very
brink of deftruftion. They fiift met Mahomet on a
little hill called A/ Akabah, w here a temple flood, and
wdiere they firft took an oath to exert themfelves in
fupport of their new apoftle and his religion. An un¬
interrupted friendlhip and harmony reigned for a long
time amongft the members of the Jewifh tribes of
Khazraj, Koreidha, and Nadir, whofe great progeni¬
tor, fay the Arabs, was Aaron the fon of Amram. Ma¬
homet therefore infinuating himfelf into the good graces
of the Anfars, they readily embraced his religion, and
proved of very confiderable fervice.
The next remarkable thing recorded of Mahomet is Mahomet ’s
the invention of his night journey to heaven. This hejourney ta
probably intended to fupply the place of miracles. ^eaven-
The abfurdities contained in that relation, howTever,
are fo great, that when he related it to his uncle Al
Abbas, and Omm Hana the daughter of Abu Taleb,
they endeavoured to diffuade him from making it pub¬
lic. This advice he w7as fo far from following, that
he related the w'hole to Abu Jahl, one of his moft in¬
veterate enemies, who ridiculed him for it, and placed
the ftory in fuch a ridiculous light to the Koreifh, that
they were on the point of infulting him 5 feveral of his „g
followers alfo left him •, and the whole defign had pro-almoft
bably been ruined, had not Abu Beer vouched for his proves the
veracity, and declared, that, if Mahomet affirmed it toriun °Gns
be true, he firmly believed the whole. This declara-cau c‘
tion not only retrieved the prophet’s credit, but in-
creafed it to fuch a degree, that he w7as fure of making
his difciples fwallow w'hatever he pleafed } and on this
occafion it is faid by fome that he gave Abu Beer the
name of the faithful witnefs, as w7e have already re¬
lated.
In tV twelfth year of Mahomet’s miffion, twelve
men of Yathreb, or Medina, of wdrom ten w7ere of the
tribe of Kharaj, and twTo of that of Aw7s, came to Mec¬
ca, and took aft oath of fidelity to the prophet at the
hill Al Akabah. When they had folemnly engaged
to do all required of them, Mahomet fent one of bis
difciples, named Mafab Ebn Omair, home wfith them,
to inftrufl them more fully in the grounds of their new
religion. Mafab being arrived at Medina, with the
affiftance of the new profelytes, gained feveral others p
and acquainting Mahomet with the fuccefs of his mif¬
fion, defired leave to form a congregation of Modems
at Medina. This the prophet readily granted; inconfrega-
confequence of which, the new7 Modems regularly af-tionofMof-
fembled, to the number of forty perfons, in the houfekms form-
of Saad Ebn Khaithama. The next year Mafab re-^ at
turned to Mecca, accompanied by 73 men and tw7owo-(
men of Medina, who had profeffed Mahometanifm, be-
fides feveral others who were yet unbelievers. On
their arrival they fent immediately to Mahomet, and
' offered'
39
A R A [ 496 ] A R A
Arabia, offered him their afliftance, of which he now flood in
1 '"“‘V- the greateft need ; for his adverfaries w'ere by this time
grown fo powerful in Mecca, that he could not flay
there much longer without imminent danger. He
therefore accepted their propofal, and met them one
night by appointment at the hill A1 Akabah. At
this interview he w^as attended by his uncle A1 Ab¬
bas ; who, though then an unbeliever, wifhed his ne¬
phew well, and made a fpeech to the people of Medi¬
na ; wherein he told them, that as Mahomet w as obli¬
ged to quit his native city and feek an afylum elfe-
where, and as they had offered him their protedlion,
they would do well not to deceive him 5 and if they
were not firmly refolved to defend, and not to betray
him, they had better declare their minds, and let him
feek for protedlion fomewhere elfe. Upon their pro¬
telling their fincerity, Mahomet fwore to be faithful
to them, a part of the Koran being read to all prefent,
on condition they fhouid proteft him againft all infults,
as heartily as they would do their own wives and fa-
v milies. They then alked him what recompenfe they
were to expedt if they fhould happen to be killed in
his quarrel : he anfwered, Paradife j upon which they
pledged their faith to him, after Mahomet had chofen
twelve out of their number, who were to have the
fame authority under him that the twelve apoftles had
under Chriil.
Finding nowT a confederacy formed in his favour,
our prophet began to pull off the malk as to his true
fentiments concerning the means of reformation. Hi¬
therto he had propagated liis religion by fair means on¬
ly j and in feveral paffages of the Koran, w7hich he pre¬
tended were revealed before this time, he declared, that
his bufinefs was only to preach and admonifh ; that he
had no authority to compel any perfon ; and that
whether they believed or not, w as none of his concern,
but belonged folely to God. Eut no fooner did he find
himfelf enabled, by the alliance above mentioned, to
refift his enemies, than he gave out that God had al-
krwed him and his followers to defend themfelves ; and
at length, as his forces increafed, he pretended not
only to have leave to adl on the defenfive, but to attack
the infidels, deftroy idolatry, and fet up the true re¬
ligion by the powrer of the fword. To this he was ex¬
cited by an apprehenfion that pacific meafures would
greatly retard, if not entirely overthrow, his defigns;
and therefore he determined to ufe the moft violent
methods to convert the Pagan Arabs, or rather to ex-
40 tend his own authority.
The Ko- qphe Koreifh, in the mean time, finding that Maho-
tuHv to" nit met: confiderably extended his influence, and hear-
Mahomet inS tim league concluded with the Anfars, began to
to death, think it abfolutely neceffary that he fhculd be prevent¬
ed from efcaping to Medina •, and, in order to do this
the more effedlually, they refolved in a council, where¬
in it is laid the devil alTilled’ in perfon, to put an end
to his life. To accomplilh this with the greater fafe-
ty, they agreed that a man fliould be chofen out of
every tribe, and that each fliould have a blow at him ;
that fo the guilt of his death might fall equally on all
the tribes j and thus the Hafliemites would be prevent¬
ed from attempting to revenge the death of their kinf-
man, as they were much inferior in power to the reft
of the tribes put together. Mahomet now diredled his
companions to repair to Medina, where, in confequence
of the late treaty, they might be affured of protedlion. Arabia.
This they accordingly did : but he himfelf, with Abu ' «—
Beer and Ali, remained behind j not having received,
as he pretended, the divine permiflion to retire. Here
he narrowly watched the motions of the Koreifli, and
was foon apprised of their machinations : for the
above-mentioned ccnfpiracy was fcarce formed, when
by fome means or other it came to Mahomet’s know¬
ledge ; and he gave out that it was revealed to him
by the angel Gabriel, who alfo commanded him to re¬
tire from Mecca. T he confpirators were already af-
fembled at the prophet’s door *, but he, to amule them,
ordered Ali to lie down in his place, and wrap him¬
felf in his green cloak : this Ali complied with, and jje outwits
Mahomet miraculoufly, according to the Arabs, efca-them, and
ped to the houfe of Abu Beer. The confpirators, in efcapes.
the mean time, perceiving through a crevice Ali w rap¬
ped up in the green cloak, took him for Mahomet him-
ielf, and Vatched there till morning, when Ali arofe, 42
and they found themfelves deceived. The prophet In great
next retired in company with Abu Beer to a cave in t‘:inger at
Mount Thur, a hill a little fouth of Mecca. Here he^V5™1
had a ftill more narrow7 efcape ; concerning which we
have the following account from an Arabic tradition.
“ The Koreiih having detached a party from Mecca
to reconnoitre the mouth of the cave, when they came
there, found it covered by a fpider’s web, and a neft
built at the entrance by two pigeons, which they fawr,
and which had laid two eggs therein. On fight of
this they reafoned with thcmfelves in the following
manner : “ If any perfon had lately entered this ca¬
vern, the eggs nowr before us would infallibly have
been broken, and the fpider’s web demolifhed ; there
can therefore be nobody in it after which they im¬
mediately retired. As the prophet, therefore, and his
friend, wrere now faved fo miraculoufly by means of
the pigeon’s eggs and the interpofition of the fpider’s
w7eb, he afterwards enjoined his followers, in memory
of fo remarkable an event, to look upon pigeons as a
kind of facred animals, and never to kill a fpider.” ^
The prophet and Abu Beer having ftaid in this cave He is pur-
three days in order to recover a little from their conAuecl and
fternation, fet out for Medina 5 but the Koreifli, being
informed of the route they had taken, fent a party af- efcapes.
ter them, under the command of Soraka Ebn Malec.
Thefe overtook them •, and, as the Arab hiftorians tell
us, Soraka’s herfe fell dowm when he attempted to
feize Mahomet. Upon this he recommended himfelf
to the prophet's prayers, and remounted his herfe with¬
out hurt: but, as he ftill continued the purfuit, liis
horfe fell down with him a fecond time •, upon wdiich
he returned to Mecca, without offering any farther
violence : and Mahomet, thus happily delivered from
the greateft dangers, arrived without farther molefia-
tion at Medina, where he was received with the great-
eft demonftrations of joy.—This flight of the prophet
from Mecca to Medina was reckoned fo remarkable
by the Modems, that they made it the era from whence
all their remarkable tranfaftions were dated, calling it
the Era of the Hegira, or fight. The beginning 0fp;ra
the Hegira correfponded with the 16th of July, A. I). Hegira.
622.
On Mahomet’s arrival at Mecca, his firft care was to
build a mofque for his religious worlhip, and a houfe
for bimfelf. The city of Medina at that time was in¬
habited
A R A [ 497 ] A
partly by Jews and partly by heretical Chri- backs of a thoufand camels
•45 r
Union of
the Anfars
and Moha-
jeno.
46
Mahomet
takes a ca¬
ravan, and
gains the
hattie of
Bedr.
Ilians, that formed two fadlions which perfecuted one
another with great violence. This gave the impoftor
fuch an opportunity of propagating his new religion,
that in a fliort time the city was entirely at his devo¬
tion. Here he llrengthened himfelf by marrying Ay-
efha the daughter of Abu Beer, though then only fe-
ven years of age, and gave his own daughter Fatima
in marriage to Ali, the fon of Abu Taleb. The next
point he had in view' was the union of the Mohajerin,
or thofe who fled from Mecca on account of their re¬
ligion, with the Anfars above mentioned. To facili¬
tate this, after his mofque and houfe were finifhed, he
eftabliflied among the Modems a fraternity, the prin¬
cipal ftatute of which rvas, that they fliould not only
treat one another like brethren, but likewife molt cor¬
dially love and mutually cherifh one another to the ut-
moft of their power. But left even this fhould prove
infufficient, he coupled the individuals of the tw’o bo¬
dies of Anfars and Mohajerin ; and this was the laft
tranfaflion of the firft year of the Hegira.
The next year was ufhered in, according to Abul-
feda, with a change of the /feb/<7, or place whither the
Mahometans were to turn their faces in prayer. At
firft it had been declared to be perfe&ly indifferent
where they turned their faces. Afterwards he diredl-
ed them to pray with their faces towards the temple of
Jerufalem, probably with a view' to ingratiate himfelf
with the Jews ; and now, in order to gain the Pagan
Arabs, he ordered his foliow’ers to pray wdth their
laces towrards the eaft. This inconftancy gave great
offence, and occafioned the apoftafy of many of his dif-
tiples. About this time Mahomet receiving advice
that a rich caravan of the Koreifh was on the road from
Syria to Mecca, he detached his uncle Hamza, at the
head of 30 horfe, to feize upon it; who accordingly
lay in w'ait for it in one of the woods of Yamama,
through which it was to pafs : here, however, he wms
informed that the caravan w^as guarded by 300 men,
fa that he returned w'ithout making any attempt 5 but
the prophet made the proper difpofitions for adling here¬
after againft the Koreiftt with fuccefs. This year alfo
Mahomet fent out a party of 60 or 80 horfe, all Mo¬
hajerin, except one who was an Anfar, to make repri-
lals on the Koreilh. They were met by a party of their
enemies, and both hides immediately prepared for an
engagement : however, they parted without bloodlhed,
except one of the Koreilh, who was killed by an arrow
ftiot by one of the Moflems.
Mahomet having now put himfelf into an offenlive
pofture, began in earneft to make reprifals on the Ko¬
reilh. His firft exploit was the taking of a caravan
attended by a fmall guard ; and this being accomplilh-
ed by a party confifting only of nine men, contributed
greatly to encom-age the Mollems. - But what moft
eftabliflied the impoftor’s affairs, and was indeed the
true foundation of all his future greatnefs, was his gain¬
ing the battle of BeJr; of which we have the follow'-
ing account.—The prophet being informed that Abu
Sofian Ebn Harb efcorted a caravan of the Koreilh
with only 30 or 40 men, refolved to advance at the
head of a fmall detachment of his troops to intercept
it. To this he was excited by the riches of the cara¬
van, which conlifted of a large quantity of merchan-
dife, confifting of the riches of Syria, carried on the
Vol. II. Part II.
Arabia.
R A
Fie therefore fent out a
party to reconnoitre it, with orders to wait in fome W~V 1
convenient place, where they might remain undilco-
vered. But Abu Sofiau having notice of Mahomet’s
motions, defpatched a courier to Mecca, requefting
fuccours from his countrymen, that he might be able to
defend the caravan. Upon this Mahomet drew toge¬
ther all his forces, which amounted to no more than
313, while his enemies conlifted of very near ioco,
Abu Sofian having been reinforced by the Meccans
with 950 men. The two armies did not long remain
in a ftate of ina&ion : but before the battle three cham¬
pions from each party engaged each other in fingle
combat. In this the Modem champions were vi<fto-
rious, and the event greatly difeouraged the Koreilh,
Mahomet, in the mean time, taking advantage of
this lucky event, oftered up his prayers to God with
great fervency and vehemence j after which, feigning
himfelf in a trance, he pretended that God had affured
him of victory. Then throwing an handful of dull or
gravel towards the enemy, he cried cut, “ May the
faces of them be confounded 5” and attacked the Ko¬
reilh with fuch bravery, that they w'ere foon put to
flight, leaving 70 dead on the fpot, and having as tea-
ny taken prifoners. The lofs on Mahomet’s Vide was
only 14 men, and among the prifoners was A1 Abbas,
the prophet’s uncle.
Though this aftion may feem of little confequence
in itfelf, it was of very great advantage to Mahomet’s
affairs at that time. He wras immediately treated with
the higheft refpeift by the Najalhi, or king of Ethio¬
pia, wTho received a particular account of the viclory
foon after it was gained ; while the fuperftitious Mof¬
lems did not fail to look upon it as an evident declara¬
tion of heaven in their favour. Nay, notwithftanding
the fmall number of enemies to be overcome, and who
were only mortal men, thefe ignorant bigots did not
hefitate to own the afliftance of no lefs than 4000 an¬
gels, w'ho, according to them, rode on black and white
horfes, having on their heads white and yellow lalhes,
that hung down between their Ihoulders.
Notwithftanding this difafter, however, Abu Sofian
made a pretty good retreat, and conduced the greateft
part of the caravan to Mecca. This chagrined the
Moflems, though they found great fpoil on the field
of battle ; the divifion of which had likely to have
proved fatal to their caufe, by the quarrels that it oc¬
cafioned among them. So violent, indeed, were the dif-
putes on this occafion, that the impoftor was obliged His law
to pretend an immediate revelation from heaven, em- concerning
powering him to retain a fifth part for religious pur-the diY11!™
pofes, and to diftribute the reft equally. This became<>f ipuii3‘
a law' for his fucceffors 5 but, with regard to himfelf,
the prophet often took the liberty of infringing it ;
for which, no doubt, a new revelation was always a
ready and convenient falvo. As for thofe who were
ftain oy Mahomet’s part in this battle, they were all
looked upon by the Moflems as martyrs; and the pro¬
phet perceiving among the prifoners two of his invete¬
rate enemies, immediately caufed their heads to be
ftruck off.
The Koreiih, in order to be revenged on Mahomet
for their late defeat at Bedr, fent Amru Ebn A1 As,
who afterwards conquered Egypt, with fome other of
their principal people, on an embaffy to the king of
3 R Ethiopia,
A R A [ 49S ] A R A
Arabia. Ethiopia, in order to intereft him in their quarrel. To
'-“'■"“v'”—-'' do jhis the more effectually, they accufed Mahomet
and his followers of fpeaking difrefpeCtfully of Jesus
and his mother Mary which accufation they ho¬
ped would likewife induce him to deliver up the Mof-
lem refugees that were then at his court. But the bad
fuccefs that had attended the arms of the Koreifh hi¬
therto, joined to the excufes made by the refugees,
not only hindered the Najalhi from delivering them up,
but alfo prompted him to difmifs the ambaffadors, and
return the prefents they had brought him. In the
mean time, Abu Sofian, who had fworn never to ufe
perfumes or enjoy women till he had another battle
with Mahomet, fet out from Mecca with a body of 200
horfe. He advanced to a poft within three miles of
Medina ; from whence he fent a detachment, who
burnt a barn, together with a man in it that was wdn-
nowing wheat. Mahomet being informed of this
AbuSofi- outrage, moved immediately towards him with a de¬
an’s eowar-tachment of cavalry } but Abu Sofian was fo intimi-
dice. dated by his approach, that he fled with precipitation,
leaving behind him all the lacks of flour or meal that
had been brought for the fubfiftence of his troops. In-
ftead therefore of coming to an engagement with the
impoftor, as he had fworn, he contented himfelf wuth
alarming the country, and pillaging fuch as he fufpeCI-
ed of favouring Mahometanifm.—This year alfo Ma¬
homet conquered the tribes called Banu Solaim, Ghat-
fan, and the Banu Kalnoha; plundering likewife a
rich caravan belonging to the Koreilh, and acquiring
from thence 25,000 dirhems for his own lhare of the
plunder.
In the year of Chrift 625, being the third of the He¬
gira, the Koreilh affembled an army of 3000 men,
among whom wrere 200 horfe and 700 armed w-ith coats
of mail. The command of this army was given to
Abu Sofian, wdro was attended by his wife Henda
Bint Otba, and fat down at a village about fix miles
diftant from Medina. Mahomet, being much inferior
to the enemy, refolved at firft to keep himfelf within
the town, and receive them there ; but afterwards, by
the advice of his companions, marched out againlt
them at the head of IOOO according to fome, 1050
according to others, or, as fome fay, only 900 men.
Of thefe 200 were cuirafliers ; but he had only one
horfe befides his own in the whole army. He diftri-
buted three ftandards among his troops ; of which one
wTas given to the tribe of Aw’S, another to that ot
Khazraj, and the third to the Mohajerin. The grand
ftandard was carried before the prophet by Mofaab
B ittufof Ebn t)mair- tbefe forces Mahomet formed a
Ohoj! ° camp in >a village near Ohod, a mountain about four
miles north of Medina, which he contrived to have on
his back j and the better to fecure his men from being
furrounded, he placed archers, the flower or his
troops, in the rear, with ft rift orders not to quit their
poft! On the other hand, the army of the Koreifti w-as
drawn up in the form of a crefcent, and made a very
good appearance. The right wing was commanded
by Khaled Ebn A1 Walid, afterwards fo terrible to
the Greeks ; the left by Acrema Ebn Abu Jahl ; and
the centre by Abu Sofian. The corps de referve
was headed by Abu Sofian’s wife, accompanied by 15
other matrons, who performed the office of drummers,
lamenting the fate of their countrymen fiain at Bedr, Arabia.
in order to animate the troops who attended them. ' *
The attack was begun by the Modems, who fell upon
** e enemy wuth fuch fury, that their centre immedi¬
ately began to give way. Ali, or, according to Abul-
feda, Hamza, flew Arta the enemy’s great ftandard-
bearer ; which ft ruck them with fuch terror, that they
foon betook themfelves to flight, falling foul upon
their own corps de referve. Vidlory had now been
no longer doubtful, notwithftanding the vaft inferiori¬
ty of Mahomet’s troops, had not the 50 archers, con¬
trary to the prophet’s exprefs command, quitted their
poft to pillage the enemy. Upon this Khaled, per¬
ceiving the Mofiem army to be greatly expoled, at¬
tacked them in the rear wuth fuch bravery, that he
turned the fortune of the day. Not content with put- s
ting the troops there in diforder, he cried out with all
his might, “ Mahomet is {lain j” and this had/uch an
effedf upon the Modems, that they immediately took
to their heels, nor could the utmoft endeavours of the
prophet himfelf afterwards rally them. He therefore Maj1'^net
found himfelf obliged to quit the field of battle 5 in defeated,
doing which he was very near lofing his life, being
ftruck dowm by a ffiower of ftones, and wounded in
the face by two arrow’s, which occafioned the lofs of
twTo of his fore-teeth. He likewife received a contu-
fion on his upper lip 5 and had even been killed on the
fpot, had not one of his companions, named "Telha,
Abu Beer’s nephew, received a blow that was levelled
at him. On this occafion Telha received a wound in his
hand, which deprived him ever after of the ufe of fome
of his fingers. Of the Moftems 70 wrere flain } among
whom were Hamza the prophet’s uncle, and Mofaab
the ftandard-bearer. Amongft the wounded were A-
bu Beer, Omar, and Othman ; but as foon as they un-
derftood that the prophet was fafe, they returned to
the charge wuth a confiderable body, and, after an ob-
ftinate difpute, carried him off. The good retreat made
by thefe champions fo difeouraged the troops of Abu
Sofian, that they did not purfue the flying enemy, but
contented themfelves with remaining mailers oi the
field of battle ; nor did that general, though he exulted
not a little in his victory, make any further ufe of it
than to give Mahomet a challenge to meet him the
next year at Bedr, which wTas accepted *, and after his
return to Mecca, he defired a truce with the Modems,
which was readily granted. _
This defeat had like to have proved the total ruin of He ap0i0g;_
the impoftor’s affairs, and muft inevitably have done fo zes for his
had the conquerors made the leaft ufe of their vidlory. defeat.
Some of his follow’ers now afferted, that had he been
really a prophet fent from God, he could not have
been thus defeated : and others were exafperated on ac¬
count of the lofs of their friends and relations who had
been {lain in the late engagement. To ftill the mur¬
murs of the former, he laid the blame on the fins of
thofe who had accompanied him j and, to pacify the
latter, he pretended a revelation from heaven, wherein
the period of all men’s lives was faid to be unalterably
fixed without regard to their own adbions, or to any
external objedls ; fo that thofe who were killed in bat¬
tle behoved to have died, though they had remained at
home in their own houfes. By the affiftance of this
laft do&rine he encouraged his followers to fight, with¬
out
Anbia.
52 ,
ISiege of
Medina.
- - A R A , [ ,499 ]
out fear, for the propagation of their faith, as all their 600 or
caution would not be fufficient to avert their deftiny,
or prolong their lives even for a fingle moment.
The next year, (A. D. 626), Mahomet, belides fe-
veral other lefs confiderable i'uccefles, reduced a fortrefs
belonging to the Jewilh tribe of A1 Nadir, who had
revolted on account of the defeat at Ohod : on this
occalion, by an exprefs revelation, as he pretended, he
kept the whole booty to himfelf: and, about the fame
time, forbade his followers the ufe of wine, or to play
at games of chance, on account of the difturbances and
quarrels which were likely to be excited by that means
among them. This year alfo he marched with a body
of infantry to Bedr, to meet Abu Sofian, as he had
proraifed the year before : but that general’s heart fail¬
ing him, he returned home without facing the prophet-,
and this piece of cowardice the Modems did not fail to
impute to a terror fent immediately from God. The
year following, however, the Koreith, in conjunction
with the tribe of Ghatfan, and the Jews of A1 Nadir
and Koreidha, aiTembled an army of 1 2,000 men, with
which they formed the fiege of Medina j thus threaten¬
ing the impoftor and all his followers with utter de-
llruClion at once. On the enemy’s approach, Maho¬
met, by the advice of a Perfian named Sa/man, or¬
dered a deep ditch to be dug round the city, and went
out to defend it with 3000 men. The Arabs having
inyefted the town, both fides remained in a Hate of in-
affivity for fome time ; which was fo well employed by
the impoftor, that he found means to corrupt fome of
the leading men in the enemy’s camp. The good effefts
of this foon appeared ; for a champion having advan¬
ced to the Moflem intrenchments, and challenged the
heft man in their drmy to fight him in fingle combat,
the challenge was immediately accepted by Ali, who
flew him and another that came to his aflxftance ; after
A R A
70c, to be immediately maffacred. The wo- Arabia,
men and children were alfo carried into captivity. J
Their immoveable poffefiions were given to the Moha-
jerin, and the goods divided equally.
Mahomet now continued to be fuccefsful, gradually
reducing the Arab tribes one after another. In 628,
he fent an agent to Conftantinople, defiring leave of the
Greek emperor to trade with his fubjeCls } which was
immediately granted. The fame year alfo he conclud¬
ed a peace for ten years with the inhabitants of Mecca,
and obtained liberty the next year to perform his devo¬
tions at the Caaba. What tended confiderably to bring
about this pacification was an account brought to the
Koreifli by one whom they had fent w ith an adual de¬
fiance to IVlahomet, of the prodigious veneration w hich Prodi huus
his followers had for him. This meffenger acquainted veneration
them that he had been at the courts both of the Ro-fOT Maho-
man emperors and of the kings of Perfia, but nevermet'
faw any prince fo highly refpefted as Mahomet was
by his companions. Whenever he made the ablution,
in order to fay his prayers, they ran and caught the
water which he had ufed 5 wdienever he fpit, they licked
it up, and gathered up every hair that fell from him,
with great veneration. This intimated how- defpe-
rately they would fight in his defence, and probably ^
inclined his enemies to avoid hoftilities. In 629, the He invites
impoftor began to think of propagating his religion be- foreign
yond the bounds of Arabia, and fent meffengers to fe. Pr'nces
veral neighbouring princes to invite them to embrace religion! ' ^
Mahometanifm ; but, before fending the letters, he &
caufed a lilver feal to be made, on w!hich were engra¬
ved in three lines the following w-ords, “ Mahomet
the Apostle of God.” This feal he believed would
procure the letters to which it was affixed a more fa¬
vourable reception at the courts of thofe princes whi¬
ther they were diredled. The firft to whom he applied
which, thofe who had been corrupted by Mahomet’s was Khofru Parvis the king of Perfia ; but he, finding
S3
The fiege
railed.
agents fo foured a confiderable part of the forces, that
they deferted their camp ; upon which all the reft w-ere
obliged to raife the fiege and return home.
The prophet, being now happily delivered from the
moft powerful combination that had ever been formed
againft him, was vilited by the angel Gabriel 5 who
alked him, whether he had fuffered his men to lay down
their arms, when the angels had not laid down theirs ?
ordering him at the fame time to go immediately againft
the tribe of Koreidha, and alluring him that he himfelf
would lead the way. Upon this Mahomet immediate¬
ly fet out for the fortrefs of the Koreidhites, and pulh-
ed on the fiege with fo much vigour, that, though it
was deemed impregnable, he obliged the garrifon to
capitulate in 25 days. The Koreidhites, not daring
to truft themfelves to the impoftor’s mercy, furrender-
ed at difcretion to Saad Ebn Moadh, prince of the
tribe of Awrs, hoping that he, being one of their old
friends and confederates, would have fome regard for
them. Here, however, they found themfelves difap-
pointed 5 for Saad, being highly provoked at them for
affifting the Koreilh wdrile in league with Mahomet,
ordered the men to be put to the fword, the women
and children made flaves, and their goods divided
among the Moflems. This fentenoe was no fooner
heard by Mahomet, than he cried out that Saad had
Khoreid- pronounced the fentence of God ; and, in confequence
lutes mafla-of decifion, ordered the men, to the number of
ered.
54
that Mahomet had put his own name before his, tore the
letter in pieces, and fent away the meffenger very ab¬
ruptly. He alfo fent a letter to the fame purpofe to Con¬
ftantinople -, but though the emperor Heraclius difmif-
fed his mellengers honourably, he refufed to abandon
the Chriftian faith. Befides thefe, he wrote five other
letters, which he diftributed among thofe who he thought
would be moft likely to acknowledge him for an apoftle.
However, we do not hear that by means of letters he
ever introduced his religion into a foreign country.— 57
But while our impoftor was thus going on in the full ca-Is poii med,
reer of fuccefs, and induftrioufly propagating his infa- but rec0'
mous falfehoods by all the means he could think of, he vers'
was poifoned by a maid, who wanted, as ihe laid, to
make an experiment whether he was a prophet or not.
This was done by communicating fome poifon to a
ftioulder of mutton, of which one of his companions, na¬
med Bajhar Ebn Al eating heartily, died upon
the fpot; and Mahomet himfelf, though he recovered
a little, and lived three years after, yet never enjoyed
perfea health. Notwithftanding this misfortune, how¬
ever, he ftill continued his enterprifes. The year 630
proved remarkably fortunate. It was ufhered in by
the converfion of Khaled Ebn Al Walid, Amru Ebn
Al As, and Othman Ebn Telha, three of the moft
confiderable perfons among the Koreiffi ; and this foon
enabled him to become mailer of the whole peninfula
of Arabia. I his year alfo the inhabitants of Mecca
3 ^ 2 took
\
,A R A C 5
took It into tkcir heads to violate the treaty concluded
' with Mahomet : for the tribe of Beer, who were the
Meccans confecierates of the Koreilh, attacking thofe of Kho-
violate the vvh° were in alliance with Mahomet, maflfacred
treaty with 2o of them, and afterwards retired ; being fupported
hlaliomet. in this a ft ion by a party of the Koreifh themfelves.—
file confequence of this violation was foon apprehend¬
ed j and Abu Sofian himfelf made a journey to Medi¬
na, in order to heal the breach and renew the truce :
but in vain 5 for Mahomet, glad of this opportunity,
refufed to lee him. Upon this he applied to Abu
Beer, Ali, Omar, and Fatima, to intercede for their
countrymen with the prophet ; but fome of thefe giving
him rough anfwers, and others none at all, he was obli¬
ged to return to Mecca as he came. Mahomet im¬
mediately gave orders for the necefiary preparations,
that he might furprife the Meccans, who were by no
means in a condition to receive him ; but Hateb Ebn
Abu Baltaa, hitherto a faithful Modem, attempted to
give them notice of their danger by a letter j though
without effeft. His letter was intercepted : and he
alleged in his excufe, that the only reafon he had for
his conduft was to induce the Koreilh to treat his fa¬
mily with kindnefs. This excufe the prophet accepted,
as he had greatly didinguidied himfelf at the battle of
Bedr, but ftriftly forbade any fuch praftices for the
future ; which having done, he immediately made the
neceiTary difpofitions for letting forward.
Mahomet’s army, on this occafion, was compofed of
Mohajerin, Anfars, and other Arabs, who'had lately
become profelytes. As they drew near to Mecca, he
fet up his ftandards, and advanced in order of battle
to Mar A1 Dharan, a place about four parafangs from
Mecca, where the whole army encamped. Here he
ordered 10,000 fires to be lighted, and committed
the defence of the camp to Omar, who cut off all com¬
munication with the town, fo that the Meccans could
receive no certain advice of their approach. Among
others that came from Mecca to reconnoitre the Mo-
flem camp, Abu Sofian Ebn Harb, Hakim Ebn He-
zam, and Bodail Ebn Warka, fell into Omar’s hands 5
and being condufted to Mahomet, were obliged to
embrace Mahometanifm in order to fave their lives.
The firft rumour of this expedition had not a little
terrified the Koreifh, though they were not apprifed
that the prophet had refolved upon a war ; but perceiv¬
ing now,' upon the report of Abu Sofian, wbo had been
fent back to them, that the enemy wTas at their gates,
they were thrown into the utmoft confternation. Of
this Mahomet being informed, he refolved to take ad¬
vantage of the confufion that then reigned among them.
He therefore firft defpatched Hakem and Bodail to the
Meccans, inviting them to take an oath of allegiance
to him, and become converts to his new religion 5 after
which, he made the following difpofition of his forces.
A1 Zobeir was ordered to advance with a detachment
toward the town on the fide of Mount Cada. Saad
Ebn Obad, prince of the tribe Khazraj, marched by
his order with another detachment towards the height
of Coda, which commands the plain of Mecca. Ali
commanded the left wing of the army, confifting of An¬
fars and Mohajerin. The prophet put into his hands
the great ftandard of Mahometanifm, with orders to
poft himfelf upon Mount A1 Hajun, and to plant the
ftandard there j ftriftly enjoining him, however, not
00 ] A R A
to ftir from thence till he himfelf arrived, and till a Arabia.
proper fignal Ihould be given him from Saad for that
purpofe. Khaied led the right wing, confifting of-the
Arabs lately converted, with which he was to poffefs
himfelf of the plain of Mecca. Abu Obeidah com¬
manded in the centre, which confifted entirely of infan¬
try ; the prophet himfelf remained in the rear, fiom
whence he could moft eafily defpatch his orders to all
the generals as occafion fliould require. He exprefsly
prohibited Khaied and all his other officers from afting
oflenfively unlefs they were firft attacked. Things be¬
ing in this fituation, the army upon a fignal given put
itfelf immediately in motion. The prophet mounted his
camel with great alacrity, and was that day clothed
in red. Al Zobeir purfued the route affigned him with¬
out oppofition ; nor did Saad difeover the fainteft tra¬
ces of an enemy : Ali took poffeflion of his poft with¬
out the lofs of a man ; and in like manner Abu Obeidah
feized on the fuburbs. Khaied, however, in his march
to the plain, was met by a large body of the Koreifh
and their confederates, whom he immediately attacked
and defeated, putting 28 of them to the fword. Not
content with this, he purfued them into the town, and Mecca ta-
maffacred a great number of the inhabitants ; which foken.
terrified the reft, that fome ftrut themfelves up in their
houfes, while others fled different ways in order to avoid
the fury of the mercilefs and impious tyrant, who w'as
now become mafter of the city. Thus was Mecca re¬
duced, with the lofs only of twro men on the fide of the
impoftor.
Mahomet being now mafter of the city, made his
public entry into it exaftly at funrifing. W hen thefirft
tumult wTas over, he went in proceffion round the Caaba
feven times, touching the corner of the black ftone w ith
the ftaff in his hand, as often as he palled it, with
great devotion. Then he entered the Caaba 5 w here
obferving feveral idols in the form of angels, and the
ftatues of Abraham and Uhmael with the arrows of
divination in their hands, he caufed them all to be de-
ftroyed. He alfo broke in pieces with his own hands
a wooden pigeon, that had long been efteemed a deity
by the idolatrous Koreilh. Afterwards entering into
the interior part of the Caaba, he repeated w ith a loud
voice the form ufed at this day by the Mahometans,
“ Allah Akbar, God is great,” &c. turning towards
every part of the temple. Then he prayed between
the tw’o pillars there, with twro inclinations, as well as
without the Caaba ; faying to thofe that attended him,
“ This is your Kebla, or the place towards which you
are to turn your faces in prayer.”
Having thus effeftually fubdued the Koreifh, put
an end to all commotions, and purged the Caaba of
360 idols, the prophet’s next care was to ingratiate
himfelf with the people. Sending therefore for fome
of the principal of them, he alked them what kind of
treatment they expefted from him, nowr he had con¬
quered them ? To this they replied, “ None but what
is favourable, O generous brother upon which he
difrniffed them, telling them they were from that mo¬
ment a free people. After this, pretending a new re¬
velation, he reftored the keys of the Caaba, to Othman
Ebn Telha, who was in poffeffion of them before ; and
who was now fo much affefted by this piece of juftice,
that he immediately became a profelyte. Next day
the prophet declared Mecca an afyluxn, and publicly
gave
A R A
[ 5°
60
Mahomet
dies.
Arabia, gave out that he would maintain to the utrnoft of his
—"v n- J pow'er the inviolable fecurity of the place. Pie then
was folemnly inaugurated j after which he profcribfed,
according to fome, fix men and four women, according
to others, eleven men and one woman : but of thefe
only three men and one woman were put to death j the
reft being pardoned on their embracing Mahometan-
ifm, and one woman making her efcape. The re¬
mainder of this year wras fpent in various expeditions
againft different tribes of the Arabs, which were in
general attended with fuccefs.
The 9th year of the Hegira, being that of Thrift
631, is called by the Mahometans the year of Em-
baffles ; for the Arabs, who had hitherto been expecling
the iffue of the war between Mahomet and the Koreiih,
no fooner fawT that tribe, which was the moft confiderable
of the whole, fubmit to him, than they began to come
in to him in great numbers, and to fend embaffies to.
make their fubmiflions to him, both while at Mecca
and after his return to Medina, whither he' had return¬
ed foon after the taking of Mecca : and thus good for¬
tune continued without interruption to the year 632,
when this famous impoftor breathed his laft, having
juft reduced under his fubjeftion the wftiole peninfula
of Arabia, and being ready to break into the neigh-
61 bouring kingdoms in order to fatisfy his ambition.
Great con- death of Mahomet occafioned fuch a conrterna-
death ^ ^ t*on Mecca, that the governor hid himfelf, fearing
to be called to an account for his former condudft 3 and
the inhabitants, upon the firft arrival of this melancholy
news, confidered themfelves as deftitute of all manner
of protection. After the firft impreffions of their fear,
however, were over, they began to meditate a revolt 3
but rvere prevented by one Sohail Ebn Amru, a prin¬
cipal man of the Koreiih. The tumults at Medina, how¬
ever, wTere not fo eafily appeafed. I he news of this fad
event wfas no fooner publilhed there, than a number of
people aiTembled before his door, crying out, “ How'
Can our apoftle be dead ? Our interceflbr, our media¬
tor, has not entirely left us ! Pie is taken up into hea¬
ven, as wras Ifa (]efus)3 therefore he ftiall not be buried.”
This was confirmed by Omar ; who drew his fword, and
fwrore, that if any prefon affirmed Mahomet to be dead,
he would cut off his hands and his feet. “ The apo-
itle of God (fays he) is not dead : he is only gone for
a feafon, as Mofes the fon of Amfam was gone from
the people of Ifrael for 40 days, and then returned
to them again.” The populace therefore kept the body
* above ground, even after the belly began to fwell 3
nor could the prophet’s uncle A1 Abbas, notwithftand-
ing this, convince them to the contrary. Upon hear¬
ing of thefe tranfaftions, Abu Beer immediately polled
from A1 Sonah, another quarter of the city, and ex-
poftulated with them in the following manner : “ Do
you worlhip Mahomet, or the god of Mahomet ? If
the latter, he is immortal, and liveth for ever 3 but if
the former, you are in a manifeft error, for he is cer¬
tainly dead.” The truth of this affertion he imme¬
diately evinced from feveral paffages of the Koran, in
fo clear and conclufive a manner, that he not only fatis-
fied Omar, but calmed the minds of all the people.
The prophet having left no directions concerning a
fucceffor, very wrarm difputes arofe between the Moha-
jerin and the Anfars about the right of eleCling a ca¬
liph. The former infilled on having that right, becaufe
Arabia.
1 ] A R A
they had attended Mahomet in his flight to Medina;
and the others, becaufe they had fupported him when
expelled from his native city, &c. In Ihort, the dif¬
putes became fo hot, that an open rupture mult have
commenced, had not they been terminated by a propo-
fal that each party IhoUld choofe a caliph. This amufed
them a little for the prefent ; but not proving perfectly
agreeable to the Mohajerin, Abu Beer propofed two
perfons, Omar and Abu Obeidah, offering to fwear al¬
legiance to him on whom the fuftrages of both parties
Ihould fall. But this producing no decifion, Omar
fwore fealty to Abu Beer, and his example was follow- ^
ed by all the Modems V>n the fpot; upon which he was Abu Beer
acknowledged both by the Mohajerin and Anfars asfucceeds
the rightful fucceffor of Mahomet.
Thefe tranfaClions, however,, were not at all agree- 63
able to Ali, who, as Ibn-in-law to the prophet, had dhlkfff*
undoubtedly the bell title to the fuccefiion. He expo-^’
llulated with Abu Beer about the manner of his elec¬
tion, which had been eft'eCled without his knowledge 3
and received for anfwer, that the exigence of affairs
would not admit of deliberation 3 and that, had not the
eleftion been fo fudden, the oppofite party would have
wrefted the power entirely out of their hands. Ali was-
in Fatima’s apartment when Abu Beer had the good
luck to be eleCted caliph 3 and, upon the arrival of the
news, expreffed great diffatisfaClion. He found him¬
felf, however, foon obliged to change his note, when
the new caliph fent Omar with orders to burn the houfe
where he and his friends were affembled, in cafe he did
not concur in fupportjng the eleCtion. But notwith-
Handing his forced compliance on this occafion, it is •
not to be doubted that he reckoned himfelf injured 3
and his pretenfions were thought to be juft by a great
number of Modems : which notion is entertained by a
very confiderable party of Mahometans even at this
day 3 and thefe are called Shiites or feclaries.
Soon after Abu Beer’s acceffion, many of the Arabs
refufed to pay the tribute impofed upon them by Ma¬
homet, and .even attempted to lhake off his yoke alto¬
gether. This fo alarmed the caliph and his fubjefts at
Medina, that, fearing a general revolt, they fent all not
able to bear arms into the cavities of the rocks and
mountains, and put themfelves in as good a pofture of
defence as the fhort time would permit. In the mean
64
time Khaledwas defpatched with an army of 4 500 men Rebellions-
to reduce the rebels; and he foon coming up with them,
gave them a total defeat, brought off a vaft quantity of^^Y Kha-
plunder, and made many of their children flaves. Nor 1 “
was he content with this ; for being fent by Abu Beer
to Malec Ebn Noweirah, an eminent perfon among the
Arabs, and famous for his Ikill in poetry as well as his
horfemanfhip and bravery, to bring him over by fair
means, he immediately ordered his head to be cut off.
By this means, indeed, he extinguiffied all the remains
of rebellion 3 but rendered himfelf exceedingly obnoxi¬
ous to Abu Beer, who would have put him to death,
had not Omar ftrongly interceded for him : for Khaled
had greatly exceeded his cornmiffion, as Malek had re¬
turned to Mahometanifm, and had offered to pay the
money. This was not, however, the only piece of fer-
vice Khaled performed at this time 3 he alfo defeated
and killed Mofeilama, who had fet up for a prophet in
the time of Mahomet, and even wanted to take the
grand impoftor himfelf into company with him. The
fame
A-rabia.
65
War with
the Greek:
66
Kingdom
ofHira de
ftroyed.
6?
Abu Beer’s
diredlions
to his ge¬
neral.
. . A. R A [ 5
fame general likewife defeated and difpeiTed the troops
of another prophet, called Toleiah Ebn Khozvailed, obli
ging himfelf to remain concealed till after the death of
Abu Beer. About the fame time another body of re¬
bels committed great diforders in the province of Bah¬
rein. Againft thefe Abu Beer defpatched A1 Ola at
the head of a confiderable army, who foon obliged
them to return to Mahometanifm ; having put great
numbers of them to the fword, and plundered their
country in a dreadful manner,
Abu Beer having now no enemy to contend with in
• Arabia, and being free from all apprehenfions of a com¬
petitor, refolved next to turn his arms againft the
Greek emperor. Some fkirmifties had happened, in
the time of Mahomet, between the Modems and
-Greeks j in one of which Zeid, a Modem commander,
Bad been killed. To revenge his death, his fon Ofa-
ma was on the point of making an irruption into Syria
at the time of Mahomet’s deceafe. This enterprife
the caliph ordered him to go on with j and it was ex¬
ecuted by Ofama with great fuccefs. He entered
Syria, and laid wafte the country, doing the Greeks a
good deal of damage : after which he returned to A-
rabia without any confiderable lofs.
Soon after the caliph fent Khaled at the head of a
-powerful army to invade Irak, and put an end to the
kingdom of Hira. In this undertaking he was attend¬
ed with his ufual fuccefs. The king A1 Mondar Al
Maghrur loft his life in defence of his dominions ; and
the kingdom was totally deftroyed, after it had conti¬
nued 622 years and eight months, as we have already
Tinted. The inhabitants became tributaries ; and, ac¬
cording to Eutychius,- the tribute colle&ed on this oc-
cafton amounted to 70,000 pieces of money. This,
according to Al Makin, was the firft tribute money
ever brought to Medina.
The exigence of the caliph’s affairs in Syria, how¬
ever, did not fuffer Khaled long to remain in Irak.
Before the departure of the army under his command,
Abu Beer had come to a refolution to invade Svria;
and finding his defign approved by the principal offi¬
cers of his court, he fent circular letters to the petty
princes of Yaman, the chief men of Mecca, &c. in¬
forming them of his intention to take Syria out of the
hands of the infidels ; acquainting them, at the fame
time, that a war for the propagation of the true reli¬
gion was an aft of obedience to God. To thefe letters
they paid a proper regard ; and in a very ftiort time
appeared at Medina at the head of their refpeftive
troops, and pitched their tents round the city. Here
they ftaid till the Moflem army deftined to aft againft
the emperor was completely formed, and in a capacity
to begin its march. The caliph having viewed the
troops from the top of a hill, and prayed to God for
fuccefs, attended the generals a little way on foot. As
the generals were on horfeback, they could not forbear
expreffiag their uneafmefs at the caliph’s thus demean¬
ing himfelf 5 but he told them, that it fignified little
whether they walked on foot or rode, as they had all
the fame views, viz. the fervice of God, and the pro¬
pagation of religion. At parting, he addreffed Yezid
Ebn Abu Sofian, whom he had invefted with the fu-
preme command, in the following manner : “ Take
.care, Yezid Ebn Abu Sofian, to treat your men with
tendernefs and lenity. Confult with your officers on
02 ] A R A
all preffing occaffions, and encourage them to Tee the Arabia,
enemy with bravery and refolution. If you ftiall hap-v~—
pen to be viftorious, deftroy neither old people, wo¬
men, nor children. Cut down no palm trees, nor burn
any fields of corn. Spare all fruit trees, and flay no
cattle but fuch as you (hall take for your own ufe.
Adhere always inviolably to your engagements, and
put none of the religious perfons you (hall meet with
in monafteries to the (word. Offer no violence to the
places they ferve God in. As for thofe members of
- the fynagogues of Satan who Jlmv-e their crowns^ cleave
their (hulls, and give them no quarter, except they em¬
brace Iflamilm (Mahometanifm), or pay tribute.”
The Greek emperor was greatly alarmed at the ap¬
proach of the Moflem army ; however, he made all
neCeffary preparations for his defence, and fent out a
detachment to reconnoitre the enemy. Thefe having
fallen in with the Arabs, a battle enfued, in which the
Greeks were defeated with the lofs of 1 200, while the
Arabs loft only 120 men. This was fucceeded by a
great many (kirmiffies, in which the Modems were ge¬
nerally vi6torious. I he rich Ipoil taken on thefe oc-
cafions was fent as a prefent to the caliph j who having
acquainted the inhabitants of Mecca with his good fuc¬
cefs, they were thereby fo elated, that they furnifhed
him with a ftrong reinforcement, which was immedi¬
ately ordered into Syria. The Greek emperor, in the
mean time, having ordered another body of his troops
to advance towards the frontiers, they found an oppor¬
tunity of engaging the Moflem army under Abu Obei- 6g
dab, a perfon of great piety, but little experience in The M01-
war. Him they totally defeated ; and Abu Beer was lems de- ~ '
fo much provoked at his defeat, that he deprived himfeated<
of the command, which was given to Khaled, who was
for this purpofe recalled from Irak. That general’s
firft exploit was the reduction of Boftra, a very rich and
populous city of Syria Damafcena j which, however,
he accompliffied by treachery rather than by force of
arms. Having left a garrifon of 400 men in Boftra,
and being joined by Abu Obeidah’s forces, he laid 6
fiege to Damafcus with an army of 45,000 men. ThisDamafcus
io alarmed the emperor, that he defpatched an army ofbdieged,
100,000 men, commanded by one Werdan to the re¬
lief of that city. Khaled, on hearing of the approach
of this formidable army, was for marching immediate¬
ly with all his forces, and giving them battle ; but this
was oppofed by Abu Obeidah, as it would enable the
inhabitants of Damafcus to procure frelh fupplies both
of arms and provifions, and confequently render the re-
duflion of the place more difficult. It was, therefore,
at laft agreed, that a body of troops fliould be detached
under Derar Ebn Al Wazar, an excellent officer, and
an implacable enemy to the Chriftians (as indeed were
all the Moflem generals except Abu Obeidah), to fight
the enemy, whilft the fiege was carried on by the two
generals. _0
Khaled, fearing left Derar’s furious zeal and hatred The Greeks
to the Chriftians ffiould prove fatal to his troops, told de/eated
him before his departure, that though they were com-lvltiVlrcat
manded to fight for the propagation of their religion, <lu° 1 '
yet they were not allowed to throw away the lives of
their men ; and therefore ordered him to retire to the
main body of the army, in cafe he found himfelf pref-
fed by a fuperior force. But Derar, deaf to this falu-
tary admonition, with his (mail body of troops rulhed
• upon
A ’R A [5°3] A R A
Ar>b:». upon the whole Chrifttan army, notwithftanjing the tlah fent a detachment of 5C0 horfe to a place called . Arabia.
  vaft difproporticn of numbers." He charged them, Dair Abel Kodosy about 30 miles from Damafcus, to
however, vyuth fuch bravery, that he penetrated to the plunder the Chriilians there. In this place tnere lit ed
{pot where the general gave his orders, killed the (land- a pried fo eminent for his fanftity, that the neighbour-
aid-bearer, and' carried off the dandard itfelf, in which ing people of all ranks reforted to him for his bleding
was a crofs richly adorned with precious dones. Nay, and indruftion. When any perfon of didimdion mar-
he would in all" probability have put Werdan’s army ried, he took with him his new fpoufe, in order to re-
to flio-ht had not that general’s fon, the commandant ceive this holy man’s benedidlion. The fame of this
of Hems, arrived in the heat of the engagement with priedVfanftity drew fuch nmpbers of people to that
a body of 10,000 men ; with which he attacked the place every Eader, that a great fair was kept annually
Modems fo brifkly in the rear, that he forced them to at his houfe to which were brought vad quantities of
retire, and took Derar himfelf prifoner. I his fo dif- the riched (ilks, plate, jewels, bcc. \v hen the Arabs
couraged them, that they would have taken to their drew near to this place, to which they were conduded
heels, had not Rad Ebn Omeirah animated them with by a Chrillian, they wrere informed that the governor
the following words : “ What ! do not you know, that of Tripoli had married his daughter to a perfon of di-
whoever turns his back upon his enemies offends God dincticn, who had carried his lady to the above-men-
and his prophet ? and that the prophet declared the tioned pried. She was attended by a guard of 50CO
gates of paradife diould be open to none but fuch as men •, befides which, the Jews, Greeks, Copts, and
fought for religion ? Come on ! I will go before you. Armenians, at that time affembled about the monade-
If your captain be dead, or taken prifoner, yet your ry, amounted to io,coo. Notwithdanding this, the
God is alive, and fees what you do.” This exhorta- Modem commander determined to carry off. the lady $ Gov^noI.
tion had fuch an effeft upon his troops, that returning and having told his men, that they ihould either enjoy 0f Tripoli’s
t© the charge, they maintained their ground w4th un- the riches of the Chridians, or the pleaiures of para-daughter.
paralleled bravery, till Khaled arrived with a confide- dife, he commanded them to fall on the enemy. The earned oft,
rable body of infantry and icoo horfe. The arrival' impetuofity of thefe enthufiads at fird bore all down
of this general foon turned the fortune of the day. A before them ; but tne Chridians, perceiving they were;
party of the imperial army went over to the Modems, but a handful oi men, furrounded them on all fides,
and the red took to their heels. Derar alfo was re- and refolved to make them pay dear for their temerity,
taken,, and carried off in triumph. However, Whr- But Abu Obeidah, being informed of their dangerous
dan, having colle£led the (battered remains of his for- fftuation, immediately deipatched Ehaled with a inong
ces, and received a reinforcement from the emperor, detachment to the reliei of his didrefled countrymen,
found his army dill to amount to 70,000 men, with The confequence of this wms, that the Chridians were
which he refolved to make another attempt for the re- entirely defeated, and the unhappy lady carried ofr,
lief of Damafcus. They wTere attended writh dill Worfe with 40 maids that waited upon hei, as well as all the
fuccefs in this fecond attempt than they had been be- wealth brought to the above-mentioned fair 5 among
fore ; being utterly defeated, with the lofs of 50,000 which were many rich garments cunoufly. wrought,
men, fo that they wrere no more in a condition to at- and in particular one adorned wuth the effigies of our
The 1ft 1 tempt any thing 5 and, in coniequence of this, the city Saviour. All thefe were fold for ten times their weight
taken. was foon taken, notwithdanding the utmod efforts of of gold to (ome of the opulent Arabs of T aman. 1 he
the befieged. young lady was given to Abdallah, wdio kept her to
Ahu^Becr This difadrous event happened in the year 634; and the reign of-Yezid. Of . this advantage Abu Obei-
tlies, and is the very day that Damafcus wTas taken, Abu Beer died dah fent notice to the caliph by a letter, in w hich ne 74
fucceeded 0f a Confumption in the 63d year of his age. He was alfo acquainted him that feme of his men had drunk Puniihment
by Omar. fuccee^ by Omar, who was proclaimed caliph that wine. Thefe delinquents, by the advice of Ah, had°
very day 5 and the fird title affigned him was, T/ae ca- each of them 80 dripes bedowed upon the foies of whoViad
liph of the caliph of the apojlle of God. But the Arabs their feet : after which, many others,, who had never drurikwine.
confidering, that by the additions to be continually been fulpecfed of drinking this piohibited liquor, made
made at the acceffion of every new caliph, the title a voluntary confedion, and received the fame chaffiie-
would become too long, they wuth one voice (abated ment. ^ _
him, Emperor of the believers ,* which illudrious title T he Mlodem general next fet about reuucmg the
defeended aftenvards to his fucceffors by a kind of in- principal fortreffes in Syria, and foon became mailer of
contedable right. Kinnifrin, Baalbec, Adedan, Shaizar, and Hems ; on
The new caliph was no fooner fettled than he repla- the new^s of which, the Greek emperor Heraclius, re-
ced Abu Obeidah in the command of the army in Sy- folving if podible to put a dop to the cruel, and unpro-
ria, being greatly difpleafed with’the cruel and blood- voked ravages of thefe barbarians, fent againd them an
thirdy difpofition of Khaled. He alfo commanded A- army of 240,000 men, commanded by one Manuel, 7 „
bu Obeidah to have an eye upon Paleiline, and to in- whom the Arabs call Mahan. But this vad multitude The Greeks
vade it as foon as an opportunity offered. Khaled bore was utterly defeated by Khaled 5 upon whom Abu O-utterly de-
his difgrace with' great magnanimity •, and (wore, that beidah conferred the fupreme command, on account
though he had ahvays had the greated regard for Abu his fuperior (kill in military affairs. 1 his battle was
Beer,’ and the utmod averfion to Omar, he would fub- fought near a village called Yermouhj and, according
mit to God’s will, and obey the new^ caliph as the law- to the Arabian hidorians, the Chridians had 150,000
ful fucceffor of Mahomet. The Modem forces in the men killed and 40,000 taken piifoners, while the Mo-
mean time having made all proper difpofitions for im- flems lod no more than 4030 men.
proving the advantages they had gained, Abu Obei- The defeat at Yermouk was immediately followed
A R A
Arabia.
77
Anecdote
*if him.
by tbe lofs of the whole province of Palefline. The
^ reduction of Jerufalem was one of its firft confequences ;
Omar vifits and Omar, being apprifed of the fuccefs of his arms,
Jerufalem. immediately fet out to vifit that holy place, at the re-
queft, it is {aid, of the inhabitants. The caliph was
attended in his journey by a numerous retinue, moil of
whom afterwards returned home. He rode upon a red
camel, and carried with him two facks, one of which
contained a fort of provifion confiding of barley, rice,
or wheat, fodden and unhulked, and the other fruits.
Before him he had a leather bottle, very neceffary in
thefe defert countries to nut water in j and behind him
a wooden platter. Before he left the place where he
had refted the preceding night, he conftantly faid the
morning prayer ; after which he addrefled himfelf to
his attendants in a devout ftrain, always uttering be¬
fore them fome pious ejaculations. Then he commu¬
nicated his prOvifion to them ; every one of his fellow
travellers eating with him out of the fame platter, with¬
out the leafi: diftinflion. His clothes were made of
camels hair, and were in a very tattered condition j
nor could any thing be more mean or fordid than the
figure he made. On the road he diftributed juftice
among his fubjefls ; concerning which wre have feveral
anecdotes ; but that mofi: to his honour is the follow¬
ing : Having obferved fome poor tributaries expofed
to the heat of the fun, a very cruel punifirment in thofe
hot countries, for not being able to pay the fum de¬
manded of them, he ordered them to be releafed ; tel¬
ling his attendants, that he once heard the apolile of
God fay, “ Do not afflift men in this world *, for thofe
who do fo, God {hall punifii in hell fire at the day of
judgment.” His orders were immediately executed,
to the great grief of the oppreffors; and the caliph
continued his route. On the confines of Syria he was
met by Abu Obeidah attended by an efcort, who con-
dufted him to the Mofiem camp, where he was re¬
ceived with the utmoft demonftrations of joy ; and
from thence to Jerufalem. The morning after his ar¬
rival, he faid prayers and preached to the troops. In
his fermon he repeated the follow ing paffage out of the
Koran. “ Whomfoever God {hall diredl, he fhall be
rightly diredled 5 and whomfoever he fhall caufe to
err, thou {halt not find any to defend or to direft.”
Upon this a Chriftian role up, and faid aloud twice,
God caufes no one to err.” Omar made no anfwer
to him, but commanded the Modems near him to-
ftrike off the infidel’s head if he repeated thofe wmrds
again j but the prieft took care to give him no further
interruption. After the conclufion of his fermon, he
pitched his tent, made of hair, within fight of the ci¬
ty : then he figned the articles of capitulation; by
which the inhabitants were entitled to the free exer-
cife of their religion, the poffeflion of their properties,
and his protedlion.
The articles of capitulation being figned, Omar, in
purfuance of his engagements, gave the inhabitants a
fchedule, by which they were fecured in the full pof¬
feflion of all that had been agreed upon : after which
the gates w-ere opened to him, and he entered the town.
He was waited upon by the patriarch Sophronius,
with whom he converfed familiarly, and afked him
many queftions concerning the antiquities of the city.
One of the fii'ft places they vifited w’as the temnle of
the refurre&ion, iq the midft of which Omar fat down ;
[ J°4 1
A R A
and when the hour of prayer was come, told the pa- Arabia,
triarch he had a mind to pray, and defired him to fliow
him a place for that purpofe. Sophronius told him he
might do fo where he was j but this he abfolutely re-
fufed. Then the patriarch led him to St Conflantine’s
church } but he likewife declined praying there. At
lalt he faid his prayers upon one of the iteps of the eaft
gate of the church 3 telling the patriarch afterwards,
that had he prayed in any of the churches, the Mo¬
dems would infallibly have taken it from them, which,
he faid, they might attempt as it wds, and therefore
gave him a paper, wherein the Mofiems were com¬
manded not to pray on the fteps of St Ccnflantine’s
church in any numbers, but only one by one. After
this he defired the patriarch to fliow him a place where
he might erect a mofque 3 and was conducted to the
place where Jacob’s Hone lay, on which he flept when •
he faw the vificn of the ladder. This ftone had been
hitherto flighted, and no building fuffered to be erefl-
ed upon it, in order to fulfil our Saviour’s prophecy,
that the habitation of the Jews fliould be left unto
them defolate, and that not one ftone ftiould be left
upon another. In confequence of this negledt it was
entirely covered with dirt, which the caliph immedi¬
ately began to carry away in his veft 3 and the Mollems N
foon haftening to aflift him, the ftone was cleared in a
very Ihort time. We are told by Theophanes, that
when Omar entered the temple of the refurredtion, he
was clad in fuch mean and dirty apparel, that the pa¬
triarch took great offence at his appearance, and with
much difficulty at laft prevailed upon him to put on
fome clean linen and clothes till his own could be wafli-
ed. The fame author relates, that when the patriarch
firft faw Omar in that place, he could not forbear cry¬
ing out, “ This is of a truth the abomination of de-
folation, fpoken of by Daniel the prophet, {landing
in the. holy place !” Thefe words, as Mr Ockley ima¬
gines, being overheard by the Moflems, they trumped
up a ftory of the patriarch’s having owned that the
conqueft of Jerufalem by Omar was foretold by the
prophet Daniel 3 and that an ancient prophecy was
kept in Jerufalem concerning Omar, wherein his per-
fon was defcribed, bis name and religion fpecified, and
he declared to be the only man that could reduce that
city.
Before the caliph left Syria, he divided that country
into two parts 3 one of which, that lay between Had-
ran or Auran and Aleppo, which was not perfectly
conquered, he committed to the care of Abu Obeidab,
giving him the ftridfieft orders to reduce it as fcon as
poftible. Yezid Ebn Abu Sofian was commanded to
take upon him the care of the other, which compre¬
hended Paleftine, and the fea coaft, and to make him¬
felf abfolute mafter of it, having a body of troops af-
figned him for that purpofe. He alfo direfted Amru
Ebn A1 As to invade Egypt, then in a very languifli-
ing condition, with a body of Mollem forces. After
having made thefe difpofitions for extending his con-
quefts, Omar fet out for Medina, where he arrived in He returns
perfe£t health, to the great joy of the inhabitants, who to Medina,
apprehended, from his long flay at Jerufalem, that he
had intended to fix his refidence there.
Soon after Omar’s departure, Yezid advanced to
Caffarea 3 but found the place fo ftrong that he was
obliged to Continue fome time in a Hate of inadtion.
Abu
A R A [ 505 ] A R * A
Arabia. Abu Obeidah, in tbe mean time, advanced towards
~   ' Aleppo, the citadel of which was at that time the
ftrongell in Syria. The citizens were {truck with the
utmod confternation at his approach. They had at
that time two governors, who were brothers, and re-
fided in the cattle, which was fituated at a little di-
ftance from the city. The names of thefe two gover¬
nors, who were of very different difpofitions, were
Youkinna and John. Their father, by the emperor
Heraclius’s appointment, prefided over all that traft
which lay betwixt Aleppo and the Euphrates; and,
after his death, the chief management of affairs de¬
volved upon Youkinna, his brother John fpending his
time moftly in devotion and a£ts of charity. He would
thefefore gladly have prevailed on Youkinna to pur-
chafe a peace from the Arabs with money, rather than
make his country a fcene of blood and ravages; but
this not fuiting the martial genius of Youkinna, he
armed a confiderable number of the citizens, among
whom were feveral Chriftian Arabs, and diflributed
money among them. He then told his men that he
intended to a£t offenfively againff the Arabs, and even
to engage them if poffible before they drew too near.
To infpire them with the greater refolution, he ob-
ferved, that the Modem army was divided into feveral
bodies j one of which had orders to befiege Caefarea,
another to march to Damafcus, and the third to in¬
vade Egypt. Having thus animated his troops, he
put himfelf at the head of 1 2,000 of them, and march-
•79 ed forwards to get intelligence of the enemy’s motions.
A Moflem Abu Obeidah, in the mean time, had fent before him
Caab Ebn Damarah, with 1000 men; giving himex-
Youkinna ^ Pre^s orders not to fight till he had received informa¬
tion of the enemy. Youkinna’s fpies difcovered Caab
and his men relting themfelves and watering their hor-
fes without the leaf! apprehenfion of danger ; of which
the general being apprifed, he ported one part of his
troops in ambufcade, and with the other attacked the
Moilems. The Arabs behaved with their ufual va¬
lour ; and at firft repulfed the Chriftians, notwithftand-
ing their fuperiority in numbers ; but being attacked
by the troops that lay in ambufh, they were at laft
forced to retire ; having 170 killed, and almoft all
80 the reft wmunded.
Aleppo fub- After Youkinna’s departure, the inhabitants of A-
t)>itSid° h^U^e^°’ co"fiderinS t^le ca^am*ties that awaited them if
JL1 a ‘ their city rtiould be taken by ftorm, fubmitted with¬
out delay to Abu Obeidah, and were taken under the
protection of the caliph. This difagreeable news be¬
ing communicated to Youkinna, he ported home with
all poftible expedition, left an attempt fhould be made
on the.cattle in his abfence. On his arrival at Alep¬
po, he was fo highly incenfed againft the inhabitants,
that he threatened them with death if they did not dif-
gr annul the treaty wuth the Arabs, and deliver up the
Cruelty of authors of it into his hands. This demand not being
Youkinna. immediately complied with, he fell upon the citizens
with great fury, and killed 300 of them ; among whom
was his brother John, whole head he caufed to be
ftruck off, charging him with being the author and
abettor oi the late pernicious fcheme. He would have
made a much: greater flaughter, had not the Moflem
army at that inftant arrived before the town ; upon
which Youkinna retired into the caftle with a confide¬
rable body of troops : but before this could be effeft-
Voi. II. Part II.
ed, he was obliged to fuftain an attack from the A- Arabia,
rabs, in which he loft 3000 men. The aclion was no v J
fooner ended than the inhabitants of Aleppo brought
out forty of Youkinna’s men, and as a proof of their
fidelity delivered them into Abu Obeidah’s hands. Of
thefe feven embraced Mahometanifm, and the reft
were beheaded. g3
Immediately after Youkinna had ftmt himfelf up in He is befie-
the caftle, a council of war wTas held in the Moflem ged m t'ie
camp, wherein it was deliberated what meafures werecitatle!’
to be purfued on the prefent occafion. Khaled gave it
as his opinion, that the caftle ought immediately to be
attacked with all the Arab forces, before the emperor
had time to fend them any afliftance. This advice was
followed by Abu Obeidah, who caufed the citadel to
be immediately inverted ; and foon after he had fur-
rounded it w ith all his forces, made a moil vigorous af-
fault. The befieged defended themfelves with great
■bravery, and after a very warm difpute drove the enemy
into their camp ; and as they threw a great many (tones
out of their military engines, many of the Moflems
were killed, and a much greater number wounded. This
encouraged Youkinna to make a fally with a ftrong
party of the garrifon the following night. The fires
being then out in the Moflem camp, and the beliegers
not expe&ing fuch an unfeafonable vifit, 60 of them
W'ere killed on the fpot, and 50 taken prifoners. You¬
kinna, however, being brilkly attacked by Khaled, who
foon drew together a body of troops to eppofe him, loft
about 100 men in his retreat. The next day, he caufed
the prifoners to be beheaded in fight of the Moflem
camp ; and receiving advice that a ftrong party of A-
rabian cavalry was fent out to forage, he ordered a
body of his horfe to drive them to their camp ; which
they accordingly did, killed 130 of them, feized all
their camels, horfes, &c. and then retired to the moun¬
tains. Here they propofed to remain concealed till the
following night, and then return to the caftle ; but
Abu Obeidah, being informed of what had happened,
detached Khaled and Derar writh a body of troops to
purfue the Greeks, and revenge the late affront. Kha¬
led, being informed of the route the Chriftians had ta¬
ken, poffeffed himfelf of the only pafs by which they
could return to the caftie ; and having ported there a
body of his men whole courage he could depend upon,
took 300 of the Greeks prifoners as they attempted
to return, and put all the reft to the fword* The next
morning, to retaliate Youkinna’s cruelty, the prifoners
were all brought out and beheaded in fight of the
garrifon.
Not v i th ft an d i n g this difafter, Youkinna made feve- h;s vigor-
ral fallies with good fuccefs, wherein he killed a greatousdefence,
number of the enemy, and haraffed them to fuch a de¬
gree, that Abu Obeidah found himfelf obliged, for
his greater fecurity, to remove his camp to about a
mile’s diftance from the caftle ; by which manoeuvre
he likewife hoped that Youkinna would be Id’s upon
his guard. Herein, however, he found himfelf mif-
taken : for the Greek commander, by the prudent
meafures he took, eluded all furprife ; and though A-
bu Obeidah continued the fiege for four months after
the laft mentioned blowr given to the garrifon by Kha¬
led, yet he had fcarce- any hopes of making "himfelf
mailer of it at laft. Having nothing material to write
to the caliph, he remained a long time filent; at which
3 S Omar
A R A
ftratarrem.
Aratua. Omar being very much concerned, wrote to him, defir-
ing an account of the affairs in Syria. Abu Obeidah
acquainted him that the city of Aleppo had fubmitted
to him ; and that the citadel was the only place which
held out in all that country, before which he had loll
a great number of men* which, he laid, had induced
him to think of railing the liege, and moving with his
army in that track which.lay between Antioch and A-
leppo. This news was no by means agreeable to the
caliph, who commanded his general to continue the
liege at all events, and fent him a reinforcement of
Arab troops, together with 70 camels, to affilt the in-
84 fantry in their march.
The citadel Among the troops fent by Omar on this occalion,
taken by there was an Arab of a gigantic lize, called Dames,
who was a man of great; courage and refolution. He
obferving the little progrefs made by the Modems, be¬
thought himfelf of a ftratagem by which that fortrefs
might be reduced, which feemed fo difficult to be ac-
compliffied by force. He therefore delired that Abu
Obeidah would affign him the command of a party con¬
fiding only of thirty men j -which at Khaled’s requed
was readily granted. Then he begged the general to
raife the liege, and retire to about three miles didance
from the cadle, which was Kkewife immediately com¬
plied with. The following night Dames, who had
poded himfelf with his party very near the citadel,
found means to feize a Greek, from whom he learned
that Youkinna, after the liege wTas raifed, had exacted
large &ms of money from the citizens, on account of
the treaty they had concluded with the Arabs j and
that he was one of thofe who had endeavoured to make
their efcape from the opprefiion of fuch a tyrant, by
leaping down from the wall. This man Dames took
under his protedlion ; but beheaded five or fix others
wffio fell into his hands, and could give no good account
of themfelves. He then covered his head and Ihoulders
with a goat’s Ikin, and took a dry cruft in his hand,
creeping on the ground till he got clofe to the foot of
the wall. If he heard any noife, or fufpefted any
perfon to be near, he made fuch a noife with his cruft
as a dog does when he is gnawang a bone ; his compa¬
nions fometimes walking, and fometimes creeping after
him in the fame manner. He had before defpatched
two of his men to Abu Obeidah, to defire that a de¬
tachment of horfe might be fent him by break of day
to fupport his fmall party, and facilitate the execution
of the plan he had formed. At laft Dames found
an opportunity of railing feVen men upon his Ihpul-
ders, who flood upon one another’s ftioulders in fuch
a manner that the higheft reached the top of the
wmll. Here he foon placed himfelf, feized a watch¬
man whom he found alleep, and threw' him over the
wall. Two others, whom he found in the fame condi¬
tion, he ftabbed with his dagger, and threw them over
likewife. Then he laid dowm his turban, and drew
up the fecond of his brethren, as they twTo did the
third, and by their help Dames himfelf and all the
reft wrere enabled to mount the wall. He then private¬
ly ftabbed the fentry at each of the gates, and put
his men in pofteffion of every one of them. The fol-
diers of the garrifon, however, were at laft alarmed,
and furrounded the Arabs, who were on the point of
perifhing, wffien Khaled appeared at the head of a de¬
tachment of cavalry. On the fight of that general,-who
[ ]
A R A
was now7 grown terrible to the Chriftians, the befieged Arabia.
threw down their arms, and furrendered at diferetion.  ’
Youkinna and fome of the principal officers turned Youkinna’'
Mahometans, in order to fave their polfeffions j and the apoitafy.
caftle, being taken by ftorm, wms pillaged by the Mo¬
dems. Dames acquired great glory by this exploit 5
and, out of complaifance to him, the army did not de¬
camp from Aleppo till he and his men were perfedlly
cured of their wounds.
After the redudlion of the citadel of Aleppo, Abu
Obeidah intended to march to Antioch 5 but was di¬
verted by Youkinna, wffio wras now become a violent
enemy to the Chriftians. He told the Mcllem gene¬
ral, that his conqueft of that part of the country would
not be complete without the redudlion of Azaz, a
place of great importance, where Theodorus, Youkin-
na’s coufin-german, was commandant. This fortrefs he
propofed to become mailer of, by putting himfelf at
the head of 100 Arab horfe, drefled in the Greek habit,
wdio wmre to attend him to Azaz. Upon his arrival
there, he w'as to affure Theodorus that he was ftill in
reality a Chriftian, and had taken that opportunity to
efcape from the Moflem camp. But to make his fto-
ry more probable, Abu Obeidah w'as to fend after him
a detachment of 1000 horfe, who were to purfue him
as far as Morah, a village in the neighbourhood of
Azaz, wdth orders to poll themfelves there 5 from
rvhence, if fuch a meafure fhould be found necelTary,
they might eafily advance to Azaz, to facilitate the
conqueft of that place. To this fcheme Abu Obeidah
agreed j but Youkinna with all his men wTere immedi¬
ately taken prifoners by Theodorus, who had been in¬
formed of the wffiole affair by a fpy in the Moftem
camp, wffio had fent him a letter by a pigeon. The
fortrefs, howmver, w7as foon reduced, and Youkinna re-
gained his liberty j but wTas foon after taken prifoner a jje js tajien
fecond time, and brought before his old mailer Hera-prifoner
clius, wffio then relided at Antioch. He told the em-and brought
peror, that he had only pretended to embrace Maho-bet°re ^e"
metanifm, in order to be able to do his imperial ma-
jefty the more effential fervice j and fo far gained upon
him, that he wTas foon after appointed governor of that
city ; the confequence of which w7as, that the Arabs
were put in poffeffion of it by his treachery.
The emperor being quite dilheartened at his conti-Attempt to
nual bad fuccefs, it was fuggefted to him by the king aflaffinate
of Ghaffan, who had fled to him for refuge, as*we
have already obferved, that, however defperate bis af-1*'1111'’
fairs might be, they w7ould be perfeftly reftored by the
affaffination of the caliph. This piece of fervice he
undertook to perform for the emperor 5 and defpatch¬
ed one Wathek Ebn Mofafer, an Arab of his tribe,
and a refolute young man, to Medina for that purpofe.
Wathek, fome time after his arrival there, having ob¬
ferved the caliph to fall afleep under a tree, on which
he had placed himfelf fo as not to be obferved by any
one, drew his dagger, and wras upon the point of ftab-
bing him 5 but, as the Arab writers tell us, he was de¬
terred by a lion, who wralked round the caliph, and lick¬
ed his feet till he awoke, after which he inftantly went
away.* This ftruck Wathek wdth a profound reverence
for Omar ; he came dowm from his tree where he had
been confined by the lion, confeffed his defign, and em¬
braced the Mahometan religion. ss
Soon after the redudlion of Antioch, Abu Obeidah The Greeks
fentdekliUd
A R A [ 507 ] A R A
Arab;a~ , fent an account of his fuccefs to Omar j and receiving by a young Arab officer of Yaman ; who being ani- Arabia.
' an order to invade the mountainous parts of Syria, he mated by a notion, derived from the prophet himfelf, rv-—'
afked his general officers which of them would com- that “ the fpirits of the martyrs reft in the crops of
maud the body of troops deftined for this purpofe. green birds, that eat of the fruits and drink of the ri-
One Meifarah Ebn Mefrouk having offered his fervice, vers of paradife,” difcovered an uncommon eagernefs
the _ general gave him a black ftandard, with the fol- to encounter his enemy. But the Chriftian officer not
lowing infcription upon it in white letters : “ There only killed this youth, but Uy? or three more of the
i.s but one God 5 Mahomet is the Apoftle of God.” Moflems who came to his affiftance. He was then at-
The body affigned him for this purpofe confifted of tacked by Serjabil Ebn Hofanah, one of the generals,
300 Arabs, and 1000 black Haves commanded by but a man fo weakened by falling, that he could fcarce
.Dames.. Meifarah, at. the head of his troops, with Hand before him, and wrould therefore have been uu-
fome difficulty afcended the mountains, and, with doubtedly killed, had not a Greek horfeman very op-
much more, advanced to that part where the emperor’s portunely interpofed, and with one blow of his fci-
forces were polled. The cold was fo intenfe on the mitar cut off the Chriftian’s head. Senabil, greatly
iUmrnits ot thofe mountains, that the Arabs, wTho had furprifed at this deliverance, allied the horfernan who
been accuftomtd.to a warm climate, could hardly bear he was, and from whence he came 5 to which he replied gcj
it. For fome time they could not meet with a fingle in the following terms : “ I am the unfortunate To- Account of
perfon to give them intelligence of the enemy’s mo- leiha Ebn Khowaid, who fet up for a prophet, and, ly„Toeiha
tions ; but at laft they took a Greek prifoner, who in- ing againft God, pretended to infpiration.” ’ In cen-^! pr°*
formed them, that the imperial army, which confifted fequence of having faved his life, Serjabil introduced1^”
of 30,000 men, lay encamped on a fpot not three him to Amru ; and writing a letter to Omar, wherein
leagues diftant. The prifoner refufing to profefs Ma- he acquainted him with the lig'nal proof Toieiha had
hometamfm,. they cut off his head, and then marched given of his repentance, he obtained his pardon from
towards the imperial camp. File Greeks, hearing of the caliph.
their approach, advanced to meet them; and the Mof- Though the two armies did not come to a general
lems being furrounded on all fides, were on the point engagement, yet they had frequent Ikirmiihes, in which
oi. being all cut off, when Khaled appeared at the head the Arabs always got the better, and in fome the Greeks
ot 3000 horfe, and after him Ayab Ebn Ganem with fuffered very confiderably. This, together with the fe-
2000 more. At the approach of the horfe under the verity of the feafon, which was then uncommonly cold
command ot the terrible Khaled, the Greeks retired, fo dejefted the foldiery, that they began to defert in
leaving all their tents, together with their rich furni- great numbers. Conftantine, therefore, findinghis troops
ture and effects to. the Arabs. In this engagement, to diminifli daily, and the Arabs to grow ftronger and
one of Omar’s chief favourites, named Abdalla Ebn ftronger, took the advantage of a tempeftuous night to
llodafa, was taken prifoner, and fent diredly to Con- efcape to Ctefarea, which Yezid had not been able to
ftantmople. The caliph was fo much concerned at take, leaving his camp to be plundered by the enemy,
this, that he fent a letter to Heraclius, defiring his re- This city was foon after invefted by Amru ; and at the
leale ; which the emperor not only complied with, but fame time, Youkinna having made himfelf mafter of
made him many valuable prefents, fending at the fame Tripoli by treachery, feized 50 ftiips from Cyprus and
g9 time a jewel of immenfe value as a prefent to the ca- Crete, which carried a fupply of arms and provifions for
^ u ' 1 rhlS 0rn.ar offered to the jewellers of Medina, the emperor’s troops, and had entered the port with-
Zs 1 7ey were of its value: the Moflems out knowing that the Arabs were mafters of the town
therefore begged him to keep it for his own ufe ; but With thefe (hips he undertook an expedition againft
t 11s he laid he could not be anfwerable for to the pub- Tyre ; and telling the inhabitants that he brought a
lie. It was therefore fold, and the money depofited in fupply of arms and provifions for Conftantine’s army
the public treafury. . he was admitted into the town, and received with great ox -
1 '?out this time alio Knaled advanced wdth a bo- kindnefs. Here, however, he had not been long before Wukinna
; y troops as far as the Euphrates, and took Man- he was difcovered by one of his own foldiers and put ta^en
bij, Beraa, Bales or Balis, exafling of the inhabitants under arreft, with 900 of his men. He was, however loner'
100,000 dinars for their prefent fecurity, and impofing fet at liberty by thofe to whofe care he was committed ■
on them an annual tribute for the future. . Fie alfo and then opened the gates of the town to Yezed. by
made himfelt mafter of Raaban, Dulouc, Korus, the wffiom it had been invefted. Conftantine having got
Cyrus or Cyrrhus of the ancients, and feveral other intelligence at Caffarea of the lofs of Tripoli and Tyre
fortified towns, nothing being now able to Hand before was fo difheartened, that he fet fail from that city with 92
him. Amru Ebn A1 As now likewife prepared for all his family and the greateft part of his wealth : and Tyre ail<*
the pducing fome places in Paleftine that Hill held out. the citizens then thought proper to make the befit erms ^£cfarea re-
VV hfte he remained in this province, he had a conference they could with Amru. The furrender of this ( ityaUCed'
vuth Conftantine the emperor’s fon, who endeavoured was followed by that of all the other cities and for-
to perfuade him to make peace with the Chriftians ; treffes in the province ; and thus the Arabs drove the
but this he not agreeing to, unlefs they would confent Greeks out of the whole country of Syria extending
to pay tribute, all hopes of an accommodation vanifh- from the Mediterranean to the Euphrates. This con¬
ed, and the generals on both fides prepared to enter que'ft was completed in the 18th year of the Hegira
upon action. In the mean time an officer came from fix years after it had been undertaken ‘S ’
the Chriftian camp, dreffed in very rich apparel, who This year there happened fuch violent florins of hail Violent
challenged the ftouteft man among the Moflems to fight in the peninfula of the Arabs, that a confiderable extent
iam m fingle combat. 1 he challenge was accepted of territory was laid wafte by them, and a great num-pla2ues>&c‘
, 3 ^ 2 ber
Afabia.
94
Ilgypt re¬
duced ;
95
fogether
with Barca
and Tripo¬
li.
A R A
ber of animals of various kinds deftroyed.
mical diftemper likewile raged at Medina, which fpread
itfelf all over the neighbouring territory, and Avept
away great numbers of people. Syria alfo was vifitcd
by a dreadful plague; lb that the Moflems loft there
• 25,000 men, among whom were Abu Obeidah him-
Yezid Ebn Abu Sofian, Serjabil, and many other
perfons of diftinciion. In Ihort, fo great was the mor¬
tality occafioned by the plague, both in Arabia and
Syria, that the Arabs ftyle the 18th year of the Hegira
the year of defruclion.
Amru Ebn A1 As having now executed the caliph’s
orders in Syria, fet out on his expedition againft Egypt.
Hie firft attempt was on Tarma, a town fttuated on the
ifthmus of Suez. 1 his he reduced after a month’s
liege ; and having narrowly viewed its fituation, he
formed a delign of cutting through the ifthmus, and
thus joining the Mediterranean and Rea fea : but this
project was not well relilhed by the caliph, who appre¬
hended that it would facilitate the entrance of the
Chriitians into the peninfula of Arabia. From Tarma
he marched to Mefr, the Memphis of the ancient geo¬
graphers ; which, after a liege of feven months, was
delivered up to him by the treachery of A1 Mokawkas
the governor. From Mefr he continued his march to-
wards Alexandria, and, having defeated the emperor’s
army, clofely invefted that city. While his army lay be¬
fore this capital, Amru himfelf had the misfortune to
be taken prifoner and carried into the town. Being
brought before the governor, he alked him why he
committed fuch ravages and depredations in the Chri-
ftian territories ? To this Amru refolutely anfwered,
“ We are come hither to oblige you either to profefs
Mahometanifm, or pay an annual tribute to the ca¬
liph ; to one of which conditions you muft fubmit, or be
all of you put to the fword.” A Greek wdio flood by
hearing this, told the governor that Amru ■was cer¬
tainly the Moflem general, and therefore defired him
to cut off his head. Upon this Werdan, one of Am-
ru’s Haves, perceiving the extreme danger his mafter
was in, gave him a box on the ear, exclaiming againft
his impudence for talking in fuch a manner. The go¬
vernor being impofed upon by this lhallowr artifice,
not only faved his life, but, to ftiow his generofity, dif-
miffed him without ranfom. This was foon followed by
the lofs of Alexandria, and that by the conqueft of the
•whole kingdom : after which, Amru defpatched Okba
Ebn Nafe with a body of troops to penetrate farther
into Africa ; and that general made himfelf mafter of
all the country lying between Barca and Zoweilah, re¬
ducing under his dominion alfo that part of the conti¬
nent which now forms the piratical kingdom of Tripoli
in Barbary.
Soon after the Mofiems had made themfelves mafters
of Alexandria, a grievous famine raged in Arabia, par¬
ticularly at Medina, then the refidence of the caliph.
This obliged Omar to write to Amru to fend him a
fupply of corn, with -which Egypt at that time abound¬
ed. In compliance wdth this order, Amru lent a train
of camels laden with corn, in a continued line from
Egypt to Medina 5 the firft of which were entering
Medina when the laft were leaving Alexandria. But
this method of conveying corn proving too tedious
and expeniive, he ordered him to clear the Amnis
Trajanus of Ptolemy, now the Khalis, which runs from
Teated.
[ 50S ] A R A
An epide- one end of Cairo to the other, of the fund and gravel Arabia.
with which it was choked. This he accordingly did, v-*—-
and by that means rendered the communication be¬
tween Egypt and Arabia much more eafy than it had
formerly been. ^5
While the Arabs thus extended their conquefts in The Per-
the weft, they were no lefs fuccefsful in the eaft. We|lans be¬
have already taken notice of Khaled’s having been fenU
into Irak to reduce the kingdom of Hira, and of his
being recalled to affift in the conqueft of Syria. As
the kings of Hira were under the protection of the
Perfian monarchs, the deftruftion of that kingdom ne-
ceffarily brought on a war with the Perfians. After
the departure of Kbaled, the command of the forces
was left with Abu Obeid Ebn Mafud, together w ith
A1 Mothanna Ebn Haretha, Amru Ebn Hafem, and
Salit Ebn Kis. Abu Obeid having palled a river con¬
trary to the advice of the other generals, was killed,
and his troops in great danger 5 how;ever, A1 Mothanna
made an excellent retreat, and repaffed the river with¬
out any confiderable lofs. After this he fortified him¬
felf in his camp till he received a confiderable reinforce¬
ment from the caliph *, when the Moflem army marched
to Dir Hind, and thence continued to make frequent
excurfions, ravaging that part of Irak that lay next to
the Euphrates. A body of x 2,000 chofen horfe was now
del’patched againft thole invaders, under the command
of one Mahran. At firft the Perfians had the advan¬
tage, and obliged the Arabs to retire j but they were
foon brought 'back by A1 Mothanna, and the battle
lafted from noon till funfet. At laft A1 Mothanna, en¬
gaging Mahran in fingle combat, laid him dead at his
feet 5 upon which the Perfians fled to A1 Madayen, a
town fituated on the Tigris, about a day’s journey from
Bagdad. After this a powerful army was defpatched by
the Perfians under the command of one Ruftam ; but he
alfo was killed, and his troops were entirely difperfed.
At the fame time, Abu Mufa, another Moflem general,
defeated a formidable body of troops under the com¬
mand of A1 Harzaman, a noble Peifian, at AhwTaz.
Not content with thofe victories, foon after the re¬
duction of Damafcus, the caliph defpatched Saad Ebn
Abu Wakkas, to diflodge the Perfians from fome di-
ftriCts they poffeffed in the neighbourhood of the Eu¬
phrates. Saad having drawn together a body of 12,000
men, advanced to Kadefia, a city bordering upon the
deferts of Irak ; where, having utterly defeated an ar-
mv of 1 20,000 Perfians, he made himfelf mafter of the
opulent city of A1 Madayen, and poffeffed himfelfincrg^ib]e
of Yezdejerd’s treafury, W'hich w7as fo rich, if we maytreafure
believe the Arabian writers, that Saad took out of it taken from
three thoufand millions of dinars, amounting to two1*10111*
thoufand and twTenty-five millions of pounds fterling j
an enormous and almoft incredible fum. From thence
Saad went to that part of the palace where the king’s
plate was depofited, which he carried off, as wTell as an
immenfe quantity of camphire with which another part
of the palace was entirely filled. This laft the Arabs-
feem to have carried off merely for the lake of plun¬
dering, as they wTere lb much unacquainted with the
nature of it, that they mixed it with their bread, which
gave it a bitter and difagreeable tafte. Afterwards the
Arab general carried off the crown and royal garments,
adorned with gold and jewels of ineftimable value.
He alfo plundered his armoury, y.hich was well ftored
with
9S
rVIefopota-
niia redu¬
ced.
A R
Arab'a. with all forts of weapons
—* ' roof of his porch to be opened, where he found ano¬
ther treafure equal in value to ten millions of crowns.
He alfo found among the furniture of the palace a
piece of fiik tapeftry, 60 cubits fquare, which was
adorned with a great variety of beautiful flowers, herbs,
and plants, formed of gold, filver, and jewels, the moll
valuable that could be procured. This being brought
to Omar, he cut it in pieces, and diftributed it among
the Modems ; and that part which fell to Ali’s fhare,
and which was yet none of the belt, he fold for 20,oco
crowns.
In the 20th or 21 ft year of the Hegira, the Arabs,
ftill unfated with conqueft, invaded Mefopotamia under
Aiyad Ebn Ganem, where the city of Edefia fubmit-
ted on the firft fummons. From Edefta he marched
to Conftantia, or Conftantina, fuppofed to be the Ni-
cephorium of the ancients. This he took by ftorm,
as likewife Daras, where he maflacred all the people
he found in the place ; and thefe repeated fuccefles fo
terrified the reft of the fortified towns, that they all fub-
mitted without refiftance. At the fame time A1 Mog-
heriah Ebn Shaabah, one of the caliph’s commanders,
made himfelf mafter of Shiz, a place famous for the
birth of Zerdulht the Perfian philofopher, and over¬
ran the wiiole province of Aderbijan. He alfo poflef-
fed himfelf of all the country of Armenia bordering
on Mount Taurus ; nay, he in a manner obliged the
wiiole region to own the authority of the caliph, and
penetrated into Cappadocia. The fame year alfo Saad
made himfelf mafter of Ahwas, the capital of Khuzef-
tan (the ancient Sufiana); in confequence of which
he became mafter of the greateft part, if not the wiiole,
of that province ; at the fame time that A1 Nooman
Omar"mur- conquered the greateft part of Khorafan. But while
dered. Omar’s troops were thus irrefiftibly overrunning the
finert countries in the known wnrld, a period was put
to his conquefts and his life, by a Perfian named Stbu
Lulua, who ftabbed him thrice in the belly wiiile he
w’as performing his devotions at Medina. The reafon
of this was, becaufe the caliph refufed to remit him
fome part of the tribute which, according to the Ma¬
hometan cuftom, he wras obliged to pay for the free ex-
ercife of his religion. The Arabs, perceiving that he
had killed their fovereign, immediately ruflied upon
him ; but the affaflin defended himfelf fo defperately,
that he killed feven of them and wounded thirteen :
but at laft one of the caliph’s attendants threw7 his veft
over him, and feized him; upon which he ftabbed
himfelf, and foon after expired.
Omar having languifhed three days after the wounds
given him by the Perfian, expired in the loth, i ith, or
T 2th year of his reign, and after his death Othman
fy Othman. Alban wras chofen ; though Ali had a better title,
and feems indifputably to have been the moft virtuous,
if not the only virtuous perfon, as wrell as the braveft
warrior, among them. He was inaugurated in the
24th year of the Hegira, nearly coincident with the
year of our Lord 645.
Othman was no looner fettled on the throne, than
he commanded A1 Mogheirah to complete the conqueft
of the territory of Hamadan ; w'hich he eafily accom-
plifhed, and at the fame time reduced Bira, a ftrong
caftle in Mefopotamia, wThich either had never fub-
mkted, or had revolted on the departure of the Mof-
A [509 ] A R A
after which he caufed the lem troops out of that province. Another army, un¬
der Abdallah Ebn Amar, was alfo defpatched into Per-
fia, to deprive Yezdejerd of the poor remains of his
dominions
Arabia*
99
too
Succeeded
and this w'as done fo effe£tually, that the
unhappy monarch was obliged to fly to Sijeftan and
abandon Perfia altogether.
In the 27th year of the Hegira, the ifland of Cy¬
prus was reduced by Moawiyah j w:ho foon after con¬
quered the ifland of Aradus, and took Ancyra 5 after
which he reduced the ifland of Rhodes, broke in pieces I„I
the famous Coloffus, and fold the metal of it to a Jewcoloflusof-
of Edefla. In the mean time another of the Arab com-Rhodes de-
manders entered Ifauria, where he committed dreadful ftr°yecl-
depredations, plundering many towns and villages, put¬
ting a great number of people to the fword, and car¬
rying oft' 5000 prifoners. In the 31ft year of the He¬
gira, one Habib having made an irruption into that
part of Armenia which was ftill unconquered, defeat¬
ed a body of the emperor’s troops, purfuing them as
far as Mount Caucafus, and laying wafte all the neigh¬
bouring territory. About the fame time alfo, Abul
Abar, who had been conftituted admiral by Moawiyah,
gave the emperor Conftans a lignal defeat by fea, on
the coaft of Lycia, in which fuch a number of Chrift-
ians were killed, that the neighbouring fea was dyed
with their blood.
But while Othman was thus carrying every thing Jr- lufurrec-
refiftibly before him abroad, he neglefted to fecuretl0ns a*
the affections of his fubjefts at home, which foon prov- the
ed his ruin. Sedition was induftrioufly propagatedC;Uiph"
through all the provinces of the empire, and articles of
accufation brought againft the caliph. The chief of
thefe were, That he had recalled one who had been ba-
nifhed by the prophet 3 that he had removed Saad, am
officer of diftinguhhed bravery, and fupplied his place
by one who drank wine, and was otherwife of a fcan-
dalous life 3 that he had fquandered away vaft fums-
among his favourites 3 that he had removed Amrufrom
the government of Egypt, to which he had preferred
his own fofter brother 3 and, laftly, that he had pre¬
fumed to fit on the top of Mahomet’s pulpit, whereas
Abu Beer had always fat on the higheil ftep and Omar
on the loweft. To this formidable accufation the poor
caliph pleaded guilty, and prornifed to make all the re¬
paration in his power 3 but his condefcenfion only fer-
ved to increafe the infolence of the rebels. They were
however appealed by Ali 3 and public tranquillity had
undoubtedly been reftored, had it not been for Ayeftia,
one of Mahomet’s widows, who procured the deftruc-
tion of the caliph by a fcheme truly worthy of the wife
of fuch a hufband. That traitrefs, being defirous of
raifing one of her favourites named Telha to the digni¬
ty of caliph, prevailed on Merwan the fecretary of ftate
to write a letter to the prefeCl of Egypt, enjoining him
to put to death Mahomet Ebn Abu Beer, with whom
it was fent, and who was to be his fucceflsr. This
letter Merwan took care fhould be difeovered : and Ma¬
homet taking it for a genuine order of the caliph, pu-
blifhed the fuppofed injury all over the neighbouring
countries. He then marched with a body of rebels to
Medina, where the innocent caliph was befieged in his
palace 3 and, notwithftanding all his proteftations, no¬
thing lefs than his death could fatisfy the enraged mul¬
titude. In this deplorable fituation Othman fent to
Ali for afliftance ; who commanded his two fons Hafan
and-
A R A [ 5
Arabia, and Hofein to deiend the palace gates. This they did
for fome time with fidelity enough, till finding the
caliph reduced to great ftraits for want of water,1 they
abandoned their polls ; upon wdiich the rebels eafily
H I03 made themfelves mailers of the palace, and cruelly
dered.inUr" mur^ere^ ^ caliph, in the Sad year of his age, after
he had reigned 12 years. His body remained three
days unburied j and tvas at lall throwm into a hole
made for it, without the ufual ablution, or the lealt
funeral folemnity.
The arms of the Mofiems had hitherto been fo fuc-
cefsful : and their conquells fo rapid, that they may
feem not only to have vied with Alexander, but to have
bid fairer for univerfal monarchy than any nation ei¬
ther before or fince.—The ruin of mighty empires al¬
ways originates from the impoffibility of keeping them
united. Divifions arife j civil wars break out ; and the
kingdom being weakened by thefe intelline feuds, the
common enemies take advantage of them to ruin the
whole fabric. If w’e conlider Mahomet, as in truth
he w-as, not as an enthufialt, but as a politician and
the founder of an empire ; w'e lhall find him in that
capacity fuperior perhaps to any that ever exilled.
The empire of Alexander the Great, which arofe with
Hill more rapidity than that of the Arabs, had no fup-
port but from his own ambition and perfonal qualifi¬
cations. While he lived, he wras w ithout a rival, be-
caufe all w’ere afraid of him •, but wdien he died, the
bands of union, wTereby his empire had been held to¬
gether, were immediately diflblved. His captains wTere
not infpired with the fame veneration for his fon, who
Tvas unborn at the time of his death, that they had for
his father $ and therefore they fought not to conquer
for him, but for themfelves •, and the confequence was,
that the kingdom fell to pieces the moment that he
died. The fame thing happened to the empires of
Jenghiz Khan, Tamerlane, and others, who made'vaft
conquefts in a ftiort time. They erected mighty em¬
pires indeed j hut their duration, we may fay, was but
momentary. The empire of the Romans was founded
on a kind of enthufiaftic defire of aggrandizing the city
of Rome : patriotifm became fafhionable ; and as the
city never ceafed to exift, thofe who conquered always
had the fame end in view, namely to exalt the republic
more and more. This empire, therefore, was not only
very extenfive, but very durable 5 though, as it was
impoffible that mankind could always continue to vene¬
rate a city, the fame divificns that ruined other em¬
pires at laft brought this to an end. The foundation
of Mahomet’s empire feemed to be Hill more firm. He
was not only the king, but, we may fay, the god of
his people. Whatever enthufiafm people may ftiow in
defending their country, nay even their nearcft rela¬
tions, experience has taught us that it is greatly infe¬
rior to what is ftiown by thofe who fight in defence of
religion. This enthufiafm Mahomet had taken care
not only to bring over to his fide, but to exalt to its
higheft pitch, by inculcating upon his followers, that
their rewards in the next world fhould be proportion-
able to the fury with which they fought in this. To
live at peace, except with thofe who fubmitted to his
will, did not at all enter into his plan ; and he who
made no conquefts, or at leaft did not ftrive to make
them, wras no true believer. By this means, let his
pmpire be ever fo much extended, the temptation to
10 ] A R A
making frefti conquefts was fiili equally ftrong; and not Arabia,
only the commanders of armies, but every private per- 1 ~' v 1
ion, had the molt powerful motives, to urge him towards c-iufesof
the conqueft of the wliole world, had that been pof- the decline
fible. The only thing Mahomet feems to have failed ol'the Mof-
in was, the appointment of the fucceflion to the apoftle- em-
ftiip } and why he was deficient in this is inconceivable. Pire'
From this one fource proceeded the divifions which
ruined his empire when it was fcarce eredled, and of
which we are now to give the hiftory.
1 hough the prophet had been fo deficient inproviding
for the fafety of his kingdom as not to name a fuccel-
for at his death } yet his lon-in-law Ali was always of
opinion that the fucceftion belonged of right to him ;
and that it ought to be, like that of other kingdoms,
hereditary. This difpofition to render the apoftleflup
hereditary in the family, was in all probability, what
difgulled the Moflems with Ali; againft whom they j0;
could otherwife have no objeftion ; for he was endowed Charadter
with every amiable quality ; a firm believer in Ma- °* Ah.
hornet; and of fuch unparalleled ftrength and courage,
that he never declined a combat to which he was
challenged, nor ever failed to come off viGlorious ; for
which reafon he was ftyled by his countrymen, “ the
lion of God.”
On the death of Othman, however, notwithftanding
the prejudices againft Ali, as none could pretend lb i_(.
good a right to the caliphate as he, the Arabs imme- He is cho-
diately took the oath of allegiance to him, though with fen caliph,
an intention to break it as foon as poflible, as w'as fully
evinced by the event. The difturbances which hap¬
pened immediately on Ali’s acceflion were owing part¬
ly to the machinations of Ayeftia, who having got
Othman murdered on purpofe to raife Telha to the dig¬
nity of caliph, and nowJ finding Ali unanimoufiy cho-
fen, refolved to deftrcy him alfo. She therefore pre¬
tended great concern for the death of the late caliph,
and accufed Ali of being his murderer; but being re¬
proved by one of the Moflems for endeavouring to
blacken an innocent perfon, when flie could not but
knowr herfelf guilty ; ftie replied, that Othman’s infide¬
lity had indeed made her his enemy, but that fire had
forgiven him upon his repentance. At the time of
Ali’s inauguration fire was at Mecca, where (he enjoyed
a very confiderable (hare of influence and authority.
At her inftigation, Telha Ebn Obeidallah, and Zobeir Difturban-
Ebn A1 Aw am, began to reprefent to Ali, that the ces raifed
murderers of Othman ought to be brought to condign by Ayeflia
punifhment : offering themfelves at the fame time for
that purpofe. This they did purely to fow diflenfion,
for they themfelves had been deeply concerned in the
murder ; and Ali, fufficiently aw'are of their intention,
told them it was impoflible till the empire (hould be
more fettled. Finding themfelves difappointed in this
attempt, they next begged the government ol Cufa and
Bafra, that they might with the greater facility extin-
guiftr any rebellion that (hould happen. Here again
Ali was aware of their intention ; and refufed their re-
' quell, under pretence that he flood in need of perfons
of their great capacity, as counfellors, about his per¬
fon. Then they defired leave to perform a pilgrimage
to Mecca, which the caliph could not refufe ; and they
were no fooner got there, than they fet about raifing
an army againft him without any provocation at all.
This, however, was not the only fource of difcord
_ tit
Arabia
108
and Moa
wiyah.
Top
All raifes
an army.
no
He defeats
and takes
Ayeflia pri-
foner.
r 4.A R .A. .. r j
at prefent. Ali had been difpleafed with the governors
' of prcwHiGes appointed by Othman ; and therefore
diimiffed them immediately upon his acceffion. This
wras very impolitic ; but he was prompted to do it by
that rafhnefs and want of prudence which is infeparable
from, or rather is the very effence of, great courage.
The confequence of this was, that Moawiyah, gover¬
nor of Syria, was, immediately upon his difmilTion by
AH, proclaimed caliph by the troops under his 'com¬
mand. Thus the Modems were divided into two fac¬
tions •, the one under Moawiyah and Ayelha, who ad¬
hered to the houfe of Ommiyah, to which Othman
and Moawiyah belonged ; and the other to Ali. The
adherents of the houfe of Ommiyah were called Mo-
taza/ites, or feparatifis.
Ali, finding how matters were fituated, and that a
very flrong party was formed againft him, endeavoured
to ingratiate himfelf as much as poffible with the Ko-
reifh •, and to raife an army againtl Ayefha, who had
now taken the field, and even reduced the city of Bafra.
fie made a formal fpeech to the people on hearing this
bad news, and defired their afiiftance. But though he
was very much beloved on account of his perfonal merit,
and the bell orator of the age, he could not with all
his eloquence for fome time prevail on them to give a
decifive anfwer in his favour. At laft Ziyad Ebn
Hantelah ftept to Ali of his own accord, and faid,
“ Whofoever retreats, we will advance.” Upon this
two Anfars, doftors of the law, Hood up, and pro-
pounced Ah innocent of the death of Othman j which
decifion foon induced the Anfars and the body of the
people to efpoufe his quarrel. He then left Medina
with a body of 900 men, and advanced to Arrabah,
where he was joined by feveral other parties. From
this place he wrote to the people of Cufa and Medina,'
preuing them to fend him farther affillance, and to dif-
pofe the Motazalites to an accommodation. From
Medina he very foon obtained a large fupply of horfes,
arms, and other neceffaries ; and from Cufa he obtain¬
ed with difficulty a reinforcement of 8000 men.
Being greatly animated by this feafonable fupply,
Ali, advanced towards Bafra, where the troops of A-
yeffia were ready to receive him. Both parties feemed
averfe to an engagement j and Ayeffia began to be very
much intimidated at the fight of Ali’s army, which
however, was inferior to her own : but, by fome means
or other, a battle was at laft brought about, in which
Ayeffia was defeated and taken prifoner. The only
remarkable effort that was made by the troops of Aye-
fiiain this engagement, was in defence of her perfon.
It is faid, that no fewer than 70 men who held her camel
by the bridle, had their hands cut off fucceffively ; and
that the pavilion in which Hie fat was fo full of darts
and arrow's, that it refembled a porcupine. Ayeffia
was treated very kindly .by Ali, who at firff fet her at
liberty, but afterwards confined her to her houfe at
Medina, and commanded her to interfere no more with
Hate affairs, though he ftill alloived her to perform the
pilgrimage to Mecca.
^ After this victory, Ali had no enemies to contend
with either in Arabia, Irak, Egypt, Perfia, or Khora-
fan. A ftrong party, however, ftill remained in Sy¬
ria, headed by Moawiyah, wffio founded his claims to
the caliphate on a pretended declaration of Othman that
he ffiould be his fucceffur. In this defection he was
11] A R A
joined by Amru Ebn A1 As, who had obtained a pro- Arabia,
nine of the government of Egypt, provided Moawiyah v
could be advanced to the dignity of caliph.
Ali, with his uiual good nature, endeavoured to bring
the rebels to a fenfe of their duty, and often fent pro-
pofals of accommodation to Moawiyah; but he ftill re¬
mained inflexible. Perceiving, therefore, that it would
be neceffary to invade Syria, he entered that country
w'ith an army of 70,000 men, while Moawiyah ad¬
vanced to meet him with 80,000 j and by repeated rein¬
forcements Ali’s army at laft; amounted to 90,000,
and Moawiyah’s to 120,000. The two armies came
in fight of each other tow-ards the clofe of the 36th
year of the Hegira, when they feemed ready to en¬
ter upon action j but only fome Ikirmiffies happened
between them", wffierein neither party fuftained anycon-
fiderable lofs. The firft month of the 37th year was
fpent in fruitlefs negotiations j but in the fecond month
they began to fight indifferent parties, without ever
hazarding a general engagement. Thefe battles con¬
tinued, according to fome, for 40 days, and accord¬
ing to others, no. Moawiyah’s lofs amounted to
45,000 men, and Ali’s to 25,000, among whom were
2,(5 who had been intimately acquainted with Mahomet
himfelf, and w'ere dignified with the title of The Coin-
panions. The moft famous of thefe was Ammar Ebn
^ afar, Ali’s general of horfe, wffio was upwards of 90
years of age, and was highly eftegmed by both parties. -
The lofs of this general fo exafperated Ali, that he
charged the Syrians with a body of 12,000 men, 111
broke them, and challenged Moawiyah to fight him Moawiyah.
in Angle combat. This challenge Moawiyah declined, challenged
infilling that it w'as not a fair one, as Ali could nott0 a fingle
but be.fenfible of his fuperiority in ftrength. As the^j™^'^
challenge w'as given in the hearing of both armies,
Amru infilled that Moawiyah could not in honour re-
fufe it; but the cow'ard made no other reply than that
Amru afpired to the caliphate himfelf, and wanted to
enjoy it after his death. The battle being now renew'-
ed with great fury, Moawfiyah’s forces were pulhed to
their camp ; which had certainly been taken, had not Ir„
Amru bethought himfelf of the following ftratagem Amrn’s
to retrieve Moawiyah’s affairs, when he feemed on the ftratagem.
very brink of deftru&ion. He ordered fome of his
men to fix copies of the Koran to the points of their
lances, and carry them to the front of the Eattle, cry- -
ing out at the fame time, “ This is the book that
ought to decide all differences between us ; this is the
book of God betw'een us and you, that abfolutely pro¬
hibits the eftufion of Moflem blood.” This produced
the defired effetff. The caliph’s troops threw down
their arms, and even threatened him with death if he
did not found a retreat; wffiich he therefore found him¬
felf obliged to do, and thus had a decifive viftory wreft-
ed out of his hands.
According to this new'mode of decifion, the two par¬
ties w’ere each to choofe their arbitrator ; but even this
was not allowTed to Ali, though Moawfiyah had liberty
to choofe A mru Ebn A1 As. The troops of Irak, not
content with offering fo grofs an affront to the caliph,
infilled on naming for his arbitrator Abu Mufa A1
Afliavi ; a very weak man, and one who had already
betrayed him. The confequence of this appointment 1T
was, that Ali was depofed by both the arbitrators ; and Alidepofed,
he accordingly dropt his title to the caliphate, but
without /
A R A [ 51
Arabia, without laying down his arms, or putting himfelf in
' ' Moawiyah’s power.
After his decifion, All retired to Cufa ; where he
was no fooner arrived, than i2,ooq of thefe troops
who had themfelves forced him to accept of the arbi¬
tration, pretending to be offended with the Hep he had
taken, revolted from him. Thefe were called Khare-
Jites, that is, rebels or revolters : and Mohakhemites,
or judiciarians, becaufe they affirmed that All had re¬
ferred to the judgment of men what ought to have
been only referred to the judgment of God ; and,
therefore, that inffead of keeping the peace he had
made with Moawiyah, he ought to purfue his enemies,
who were likewife the enemies of God, without mercy.
To this Ali replied, That as he had given his word, he
ought to keep it; and, in fo doing, he only followed
what was prefcribed by the law of God. The Kha-
rejites replied, That God was the only judge between
him and Moawiyah, and that confequently he had com¬
mitted an enormous fin, of which he ought fincerely
to repent. This irritating Ali, he with fome warmth
replied, That if any fin had been committed on this
occafion, it was by themfclves, who had forced him
to take the fteps of which they now complained. This
anfwer not proving agreeable, they chofe for their ge¬
neral Abdallah Ebn Waheb, who appointed for their
rendezvous Naharwan, a town fituated between Wafet
and Bagdad, about four miles to the eaftward of the
Tigris. Here they affembled an army of 25,000 men j
and Ali, having tried gentle methods ineffedfually, at
laft marched againft them in perfon. Before he attack¬
ed them, however, he planted a flandard without the
camp, and made proclamation by found of trumpet,
that whoever fhould repair to it fliould have quarter,
and whoever wTould retire to Cufa flrould find a fanftu-
ary there. This had fuch an effect, that Abdallah’s
^ army was foon reduced to 4000 men, with whom he
He defeats rufhed upon the caliph’s forces ; but all of them were
the Khare- cut in pieces, except nine who efcaped.
jttes. Had Ali marched againft Moawiyah immediately af¬
ter the defeat of the Kharejites, and while his troops
were flufhed with victory, he had probably reduced him
entirely : but by allowing his troops to refrefh them¬
felves, they all deferted him, and Moawiyah’s party
had an opportunity of gathering ftill more ftrength 5
and though Moawiyah’s troops often made incurfions
into the territories of Ali, the latter feems afterwards
to have afted only on the defenfive. At laft the Kha-
murder Ali rcjites, imagining that it would be for the good of the
Amru, and’Modem affairs, that Moawiyah, Ali, and Amru, were
Moawiyah. dead, defpatched affhftins to murder all the three. Moa¬
wiyah was wounded, but recovered 5 Amru’s fecretary
wras killed by miftake ; but Ali was wounded with a
poifoned fword, which occafioned his death. The af-
faftin was taken, and Ali would have pardoned him
had he recovered, but ordered him to be put to death
if he died, that he njight, as he faid, “ have an imme¬
diate opportunity of accufing him before God.” Even
in this order he {bowed his ufual clemency, as he or¬
dered the aflafiin to be defpatched at one blow7, and
without torture of any kind.
Thus fell Ali, the moft virtuous of all the Maho¬
metan caliphs, after he had reigned near five years,
and lived 63. He w7as prefled by thofe about him to
nominate a fucceffbr before he died 5 but this he de-
11S
They at¬
tempt to.
116
Ali affaffi
nated.
2 ] A R A
dined, faying, he would follow7 the example of the Arabia,
Apoftle of God, w7ho had not named any : and, as his ^
fon Hafan inherited his father’s piety, though not hisSucC(!(7de(i
courage, he was declared caliph without any fcruple.by Hafan;
Moawiyah, however, behaved in fuch a manner to¬
wards him, as {bowed his hoftile intentions 5 and thofe
about Hafan preffed him to declare w7ar immediately.
This Hafan, who was of an exceeding mild and peace¬
able difpofition, could hardly be perfuaded to do *, and
though he at laft took the field, yet he immediately
perceived his incapacity to difpute the empire with tbe cali-
Moawiyah *, and therefore refigned it, in fpite of allphateto
the remonftranc.es of his friends, to a traitor, who cauf-Moawiyah.
ed him after fome years to be poifoned by his wufe.
Moawiyah being thus kft foie mailer of the Mofiem
empire, found himfelf under the neceflity of reducing
the Kharejites, who were his enemies as well as All’s,
and had now gathered together a confiderable army.
Againft thefe rebels the caliph would have defpatched
■Hafan, but that prince refufed ; upon which he fent
the Syrian troops againft them, who were defeated :
however the Cufans, being at laft perfuaded to take up
arms, foon extinguiftied the rebellion, and fettled Moa¬
wiyah more firmly than ever on the Mofiem throne.
In the 48th year of the Hegira, the caliph fent his fon Ir?)
Yezid with a powerful army to befiege Conftantinople. Conitanti-
In this expedition he was attended by three or four °f^ople be*h
the Companions, who, notwithftanding their age, were fu(^efe.~
prompted by zeal to undergo incredible fatigues. rI he
Moftem forces, too,though they fuffered extremely, wrere
animated to furmount all difficulties by a tradition,
according to which the prophet in his lifetime declared,
“ That the fins of the firit army that took the city of
Conftantinople ftvould be forgiven.” Concerning the
particulars of this expedition wTe are in the dark : only,
in general, that it proved unfuccefsful; and in it Abu
Ayub, who had been with Mahomet at the battles of
Bedr and Ohod, loft his life. His tomb is held in fuch
veneration by the Moflems, that the fultans of the Ot¬
toman family gird their fwords on at it on their accef-
fion to the throne. In the 54th year of the Hegira,
the Arabs made an irruption into Bukharia, and de- I20
feated a Turkifh army that oppofed them. The Turks Turks de¬
loft a great number of men $ and the queen, who com-^ate^*
manded in perfon, with great difficulty made her efcape.
She had only time to put on one of her bufkins ; the
other fell into the hands of the Arabs, who valued it
at no lefs than 2000 dinars. About this time alfo,
according to the Greek hiftorians, a treaty w7as con¬
cluded between the emperor and the Modems, where¬
by the latter w7ere allowed to keep the territories they
had feized 5 in confideration of which they w7ere to pay
3000 pounds weight of gold, 50 ilaves, and as many
choice horfes. To thefe difhonourable conditions they
were obljged to fubmit, in confequence of their late
unfuccefsful expedition to Conftantinople, and fome
other defeats they had received. This peace was to
continue for 30 years. The next year, Moawiyah,
having conferred the government of Khorafan upon
Saad, Othman’s grandfon, that general, foon after his
promotion, paffed the Jihun, or xYmu, the Oxus of the
ancients, and advanced with a body of troops to Sa-
marcand, which opened its gates to him on his ap¬
proach 5 foon after which he defeated an army of Tf-
beck Tartars, and marched diredlly to 1l armud, or Tar-
Arabia.
I 21
Moawiyah
dies.
122
Succeeded
by Yezid.
z 23
Hofein and
Abdallah
refute to
acknovv-
ftdge him.
A R A [ 5
mid, which alfo furrendered without oppofition. The
57th year of the Hegira was remarkable for nothing
but vaft fwarms of locufts, which did incredible da¬
mage in Syria and Mefopotamia j and great difcontents
on account of the caliph’s having nominated for his
fucceflbr his fon Yezid, a perfon of fcandalous life, and
no way worthy of the throne. The 58th year of the
Hegira was rendered remarkable by the death of Aye-
fha, Mahomet’s widow ; and the 60th by that of Moa¬
wiyah, after having reigned, from Hafan’s refignation,
nineteen years, three months, and five days; but con¬
cerning his age authors are not agreed. He was in¬
terred at Damafcus, which was made the refidence of
the caliphs as long as the houfe of Ommiyah continued
on the throne.
Yezid was proclaimed, in confequence of his nomi¬
nation, the fame day his father died. His inaugura¬
tion was performed on the new moon of the month Ra-
jeb, correfportding to April 7. 680. Immediately af¬
ter his eleflion, lie wrote to A1 Walid, governor of Me¬
dina, to feize Hofein, the remaining fon of Ali, and
Abdallah Ebn Zobeir, in cafe they refufed to acknow¬
ledge his right. He accordingly tendered the oath of
allegiance to Hofein, who returned an evafive anfwer,
and found means to efcape to his own houfe. As for
Abdallah, he delayed waiting upon the governor, under
various pretences, for 24 hours ; after which he made
his efcape to Mecca ; hither Hofein followed him j but
received an invitation from the people of Cufa, who
promifed' to affift him in vindicating the rights of his
father Ali and himfelf. In the mean time, Yezid, being
informed of A1 Walid’s negligence in fuffering Abdal¬
lah and Hofein to efcape, removed him from his em¬
ployment, appointing in his room Amru Ebn Saad, at
that time commandant of Mecca. The new governor
immediately defpatched againfl: Abdallah Amer Ebn
Zobeir, Abdallah’s own brother, who mortally hated
him : but Abdallah having engaged Amer in the field,
defeated and took him prifoner; which greatly raifed
his reputation at Medina, although Hofein’s fuperior
intereft among them ftill rendered him incapable of
afpiring to the caliphate by himfelf.
While Abdallah was thus ftrengthening himfelf at
Mecca and Medina, Hofein was doing the fame at
Cufa. On the firft notice of their inclinations, he had
fent to them Moflem Ebn Okail, to whom, as repre-
fentative of the fon of Ali, they had taken an oath of
allegiance, and were now very preffing on Hofein to
honour their city with his prefence. Befides this, Ho¬
fein was lupported by the forces of Irak, who retained
a great veneration for the memory of his father, and
had all along confidered the government of Moawiyah
as a downright ufurpation.
Notwithftanding all thefe fleps taken at Cufa in fa¬
vour o: Hofein, the deliberations of the confpirators
were earned on with fuch fecrecy, that A1 Nooman,
the governor, continued a flranger to them, even after
the Cafans had determined immediately to enter upon
aftion with an army of 18,000 men. At laft, how¬
ever, he began to be roufed from his lethargy ; but
Yezid being difpleafed with his condudl, removed him
from his government, appointing for his fucceffbr O-
beidallah Ebn Ziyad. This governor entered thecity
in the evening, and wras received with all poflible de-
rnonftrations of joy by the Cufans, who millook him
Vol. II. Part H.
13 j A R A
for Hofein, owing to a black turban which he had on Arabia,
his head, refembling that which Hofein ufually wore. ’ * “
His firft care was to extinguilh the fedition that had
been excited by Moilem. In order to this, he com¬
manded a trufty fervant to difguife himfelf, and pen'on-
ate a ftranger come out of Syria to fee the inaugura¬
tion of Hofein : that he might get admiflion into Mof-
lem’s houfe, and penetrate all his councils. This com-
miffion was faithfully executed ; and Obeidallah under-
ftanding that Moflem lodged in the houfe of one Shu¬
rik, who was then fick, fent a meffenger to Sharik,
letting him know that he intended to vifit him on a
certain day. Sharik immediately came to a refolu-
tion to receive him, and appointed Moilem a place in
the corner of the room whence he might rufh out up¬
on Obeidallah and kill him. The vifit w7as according¬
ly iftade ; but Moilem’s heart failing him, the gover¬
nor efcaped : Hani, however, in whofe houfe Moflem
had firft lodged, was imprifoned by Obeidallah. Up¬
on the news of this, Moflem afiembled about 4000
men, and befieged Obeidallah in the caftle. The go¬
vernor, however, not in the leaft difpirited, made a
fpeech to Moflem’s followers j wftiich had fuch an ef-
feft upon them that they all deferted him except about
30. By the favour of the night, Moflem efcaped to
a poor woman’s cottage in the neighbourhood ; but
being betrayed by her fon, Obeidallah fent a detach¬
ment of 80 horfe to feize him. Moflem made a gal¬
lant refiftance, and thrice cleared the houfe of them j
but being at laft overpowered with numbers and griev-
oufly wounded, he was taken and brought to Cufa.
While on the road, he endeavoured to fend an account
of his bad fuccefs to Hofein, then, as he fuppofed, on
the road to Cufa 5 but without fuccefs. When arrived
at the caftle he begged a draught of w'ater : but thofe
who flood by told him he fhould have none till he drank
the hamim, or boiling liquor, which the Mahometans
pretend is drunk by the damned in hell; and foon af¬
ter this, being brought before the governor, he was
beheaded along with Hani, and both their heads fent
as a prefent to Yezid. I2^
Hofein, in the mean time, was preparing to fet out Hofein’s
for Cufa, having received the moft favourable advices obftinacy*
from Moflem, of whofe fate he was ignorant, and wEo
had fent him a lift of 140,000 men that were ready to
obey his orders. This the wifeft of his friends repre-
fented as a defperate enterprife, and entreated him to
drop it, or at leaft to defer his journey till he fhould be
better affured of fuccefs: but Hofein w7as deaf to ali
falutary counfel; nay, he rvould not, by the moft ear¬
ned: entreaties, be prevailed upon to forbear taking his
wives and children along with him. The confequences
of this obftinacy may eaffly be imagined : Obeidallah
defpatched firft 1000, and then 5000 men again!! him;
with orders, however, not to offer any violence to him
provided he fubmitted himfelf. To thefe terms the
infatuated Hofein would not agree : he offered indeed
to return home, if Obeidallah would permit; but that
not being granted, he defperately engaged the troops .
of Obeidallah, and was, after long refiftance, cut in He is de-
pieces with all his men. His head was brought to feated am!
Obeidallah, who ftruck it over the mouth with a ftick, killed,
and treated it with great contempt. He was alfo in¬
clined to have put his family to death : but probably
feared an infurre&ion, as the people of Cufa exprefled
3 T great
A R A
Arabia-
[
126
Abdallah
>clai
iph.
great refentment on account of Hofein’s death j nor
was it at all agreeable to the caliph Yezid, who treated
the family of the unfortunate Hofein with the greatefl
kindnefs.
This year, the bill of the Hegira, Yezid appointed
Salem Ebn Ziyad governor of Khorafan •, who, foon
alter entering upon the government, made an irruption
into the Turkilh territories. He took his wife along
with him in this expedition, who was delivered of a
child in the neighbourhood of Samarcand j on which
occafion Ihe is faid to have borrowed fome jexvels from
the prince of Sogd’s lady, which fhe afterwards carried
off with her. In the mean time Salem detached Mo-
halleb with a confiderable body of troops to Khow'a-
razm, the principal city of the Turks or Tartars in
thofe parts, from which he extorted the immenfe fum
of 50,000,000 pieces of money ; from whence advan¬
cing to Samarcand, he forced the inhabitants of that
city alfo to pay him an immenfe fum ; and then reti¬
red, with little lofs, into the province he governed.
In the mean time Abdallah Ebn Zobeir, finding
himfelf, by the death of Hofein, at the head of the
partizans of the houfe of Hafhem, who were greatly
opprefied by Yezid, began in earned: to afpire to the
caliphate. As he had therefore never owned the autho¬
rity of Yezid, he now openly declared againft him,
and was proclaimed caliph at Medina foon after the
arrival of Hofein’s family in that place. Soon after his
oalT ^nau?urati°n> 1:0 render himfelf the more popular, he
expatiated on the circumftances of Hofein’s death,
which indeed were very tragical, and reprefented the
Cufans as the mod abandoned and perfidious villains
upon earth. This went fo well down with the citi¬
zens of Mecca and Medina, that they docked to him
in great numbers, fo that he foon found himfelf at the
head of a confiderable force. The caliph Yezid being
informed of his progrefs, fwore he would have him in
chains ; and accordingly fent a filver collar for him to
Menvan, then governor of Medina : but the intered of
Abdallah was now fo drong, that he laughed at the
- menaces both of the caliph and Merwan. Nay, the
governor of Mecca, though he fecretly hated him,
thought it good policy, as matters then dood, to keep
up a good underdanding wnth Abdallah : but this co¬
ming to the ears of Yezid, he depofed the governor 5
appointing in his place Walid Ebn Otbah, a man of
known fidelity, and a bitter enemy-of Abdallah. The
new governor, therefore, immediately on his acceflion,
ufed all his art and fkill to circumvent Abdallah ; but
to no purpofe, as the latter was always on his guard.
This condudi, however, giving him great difgud, as
'well as terrible apprehenfions, he wrote to the caliph,
informing him that all the didurbances were owdng to
the untraffable difpofition of Walid 5 and that, if he
would fend a perfon of a different charafler, peace
wTould foon be redored. This letter the caliph very
injudicioufiy gave ear to, and difmiffed his faithful go¬
vernor, appointing in his room one who was totally un¬
qualified for that pod. The people of Medina now
having frelh intelligence of Yezid’s diffolute manner of
127 life, renounced their allegiance to him, and formally
Yezid tor- depoled him in a very fingular manner. After they
^olii ^C” affembled in the mofque, about the pulpit there,
one of them faid, “ I lay afide Yezid as I do this tur¬
ban,” and immediately threw his turban on the
14 ] A R A
ground. Another faid, “ I put awray Yezid as I do Arabia,
this flioe,” cading away his dioe at the fame time.1 v”'—’
Thefe examples being followed by others, there was a
large heap of ihoes and turbans almod indantly form¬
ed upon the fpot. They then difmiffed Yezid’s gover¬
nor, and banidied from the city all the friends and de¬
pendents of the houfe of Ommiyah. Thefe, to the num¬
ber of about 1000, took refuge in the houfe of Merwan
Ebn A1 Hakem, where they w’ere fo clofely befieged
by Abdallah’s party, that they found themfelves ob¬
liged to fend to Yezid for immediate adidance j ac¬
quainting him, that if they were not fuccoured, they
mud all inevitably perifh. The caliph, though he
wandered that fuch a number of men fhould fuffer
themlelves to be fo cooped up without making the
lead refidance, defpatched Modem Ebn Okba to Me¬
dina, with a confiderable body of troops, to quell the
didurbances. He ordered him to fpare Ali the fon of
Hofein and his family, as they* had no hand at all in
the didurbances: then he was to fummon the town
of Medina to lurrender for three days fuccedively }
which if they refufed, he was to take it by dorm, and
give it up to be plundered by the foldiers for three
wEole days.
The inhabitants of Medina being now fenfible of
their danger, differed the friends of the houfe of Om¬
miyah to withdraw quietly out of the city ; though be¬
fore they departed, a promife wras extorted from them
not to appear in arms againd the reigning faftion.
Modem, in the mean time, advanced towards the city
at the head of 5000 foot and 1 2,000 horfe 5 and having
fummoned it according to his indruclions, upon its re-
fufal made the neceffary preparations for an attack.
The garrifon, howrever, for a confiderable time, made
a vigorous defence ; but at lad, mod of the Anfars
and principal officers being killed, the Arabs propofed l2g
a capitulation. Modem, however, -would hearken to Medina ta-
no terms, and infided on their furrendering at difere-lien an(l
tion ; which being refufed, he entered the city after a
faint refidance. Ali was treated with great refpeft ; Hj'h’s for.
but all the men that had carried arms were put to the res.
fword, and Modem differed his troops to ravidi 1000
ivomen, and to pillage the city for three days fuccef-
fively. Thofe that elcaped the (laughter he forced to
acknowledge themfelves the (laves and vaffals of Yezid.
For this extreme feverity he was furnamed by the A-
rabs A1 Mufrif, or The extravagant, and ever after
confidered as an impious perfon, efpecially as the pro¬
phet had declared that the wrath of God fhould mod
certainly remain upon thofe who facked or plundered
the city of Medina.
After the reduction of Medina, Modem dire&ed his
courfe to Mecca, where Abdallah then redded 5 but he
died by the way, and the command of the troops de¬
volved upon Hofein Ebn Thamir A1 Selwi. This ge¬
neral advanced to Mecca, which he befieged for 40
days, battering the town with fuch fury, that he beat
down a great part of the famous temple there, and
burnt the red ; nor would the city itfelf have efcaped
the fame fate, had not an end been put to the war by t2^
the arrival of certain accounts of the death of Yezid, Yezid dies,
who departed this life in the 64th year of the Hegira,
anfwering to the year 684 of the Chridian era, having
lived 39, and reigned three years and fix or eight
mouths. On the news of his death, Hofein offered to
take
Arabia.
130
Moawiyah
II. pro¬
claimed
caliph, and
reiigns.
13^
Obeidallah
forced to
fly into Sy¬
ria.
A R A [ 5
take the oath of allegiance to Abdallah ; but the latter
at that time durft not truft him, of which he had after-
wards fufficient reafon to repent.
Yezid was fucceeded by his fon Moawiyah II. wrho
was proclaimed caliph at Damafcus the fame day that
his father died ; but being of a weakly conflitution, and
unable to bear the fatigues of government, refigned the
crown fix weeks after his inauguration, and died foon
after without naming a fucceffor.
This abdication having left the Modem empire ab-
folutely without a matter, great commotions enfued.
On the death of Yezid, Obeidallah Ebn Ziyad, go¬
vernor of Bafra, reprefented to the citizens that they
ought to choofe a proteftor till a new paliph ttiould be
chofen j and if the perfon fo chofen ttiould be difagree-
able to them, they might then remain in a ftate of in¬
dependency under the prote&or whom they had cho¬
fen. The inhabitants, perceiving the drift of this
fpeech, complimented him with that honour; which
he accepted with feeming difficulty : but fending a
deputy to Cufa, the inhabitants of that city not only
refufed to acknowledge his authority, but threw duft
and gravel at his meflenger. This coming to the ears
of the people of Bafra, they not only deprived Obei¬
dallah of the dignity they had newly conferred upion
him, but even expelled him the city. Nor could he
prevail upon the Najari, a tribe of Anfars, to efpoufe
his quarrel, nor even upon his own relations, though
he dittributed among them great part of the fixteen
millions of pieces of money which he had found in the
treafury of Bafra, and kept the remainder to himfelf.
Nay, fo odious had he rendered himfelf to all ranks,
on account of his cruelties, particularly the death of
Hofein the fon of Ali, that his brother Abdallah wras
unable to protefl him from the fury of the populace,
though he kept him concealed in women’s clothes, and
diftributed among the mob 200,000 pieces of money.
He was therefore at laft conftrained to leave the city,
attended by a guard of too men. Immediately after
his departure, the mdb plundered his houfe, and purfu-
ed him, fo that he was obliged to exchange his camel
for an afs, and thus with the utmoft difficulty efcaped
into Syria.
In the mean time, Hofein Ebn Thamir, being re¬
turned into Syria with the forces under his command,
gave a faithful account of the fituation of affairs in A-
rabia to Merw'an Ebn Al Hakem. He alfo acquainted
him of the offer he had made to Abdallah of the oath
of allegiance, which the latter had refufed, or at leaft
would not come to Damafcus in order to be invefted
with the fupreme authority there. On this account he
advifed Merwan to take care of himfelf and the reft
of the houfe of Ommiyah, who had fled to Damafcus
after their expulfion from Medina. On this difcourfe
Merwan was inclined to fubmit to Abdallah ; but was
diverted from it by Obeidallah, who infifted that no
fuperior ought to be acknowledged by Merwan, who
was at the head of the Koreilh. The people of Da¬
mafcus had conftituted Dahak Ebn Kais their protec¬
tor, w'ho inclined to Abdallah. The Bafrans were at
this jun&ure entirely in tumult and confufion, not be¬
ing able to agree about a protedlor after the expulfion
of Obeidallah ; fo that at laft they wrote to Abdallah,
offering him the government of their territory. This
lie accepted, but could not be prevailed upon to ftir
ij 1 A R A
from Mecca : nor could Merwan be perfuaded to fuf- Arabia,
fer any of the Syrians to perform the pilgrimage to
Mecca, left they Ihould join Abdallah, and thereby
contribute to his exclufion from the throne. . I32
In the midft of this confufion Abdallah might have Merwan
eafilyfecured the caliphate to himfelf, had he not with proclaimed
the utmoft imprudence as well as inhumanity given at
orders for the extermination of the houfe of Ommiyah. dU; '-v—*
This ruined his affairs $ for they being now obliged to
provide for their own fafety, Merwan was proclaimed
caliph at Damafcus 5 and thus the whole Moflem empire
was rent into two potent fadtions, the one under Mer¬
wan and the other under Abdallah.
We have already obferved, that Dahak Ebn Kais
inclined to favour Abdallah. This he continued to do
after Merwan was proclaimed caliph, infomuch that a
battle foon enfued between his followers and thofe of
Merwan, in which Dahak was defeated and killed j and
thus Merwan became matter of all the province of Sy¬
ria. Soon after this victory, Merwan advanced with a
confiderable body of troops towards Egypt 5 but fent
before him Amru Ebn Said with a detachment, in or¬
der to facilitate his paffage. That general having de¬
feated Abdalrahman, Abdallah’s lieutenant, in feveral
brilk actions, he at laft furrendered the whole country
to Merwan for a fum of money, and retired with the
Arabs under his command to Hejaz. The Syrian
troops, therefore, immediately took poffeffion of that
country, and obliged the inhabitants to take an oath
of allegiance to Merwan •, who having appointed his
fon Abdalaziz to prefide over Egypt, returned with
the greateft part of his forces to Damafcus. Here he j
was informed that Abdallah had defpatched againft him Abdallah’s
his brother Mufab with a confiderable army. Againft forces de-
him Merwan defpatched Amru Ebn Said •, who having
foon come up w-ith him, gave him a total defeat, and*
difperfed his troops in fuch a manner that Mufab found
it impofiible to rally them again. r ^
In the 6 5th year of the Hegira, the inhabitants of The Cufans
Cufa, pretending to be feized with remorfe of con- revolt,
fcience for their treachery to Hofein the fon of Ali,
railed an infurreftion againft both the caliphs, and
therefore affembled a body of 16,000 men, under the
command of one Soliman, who was to revenge the death Joined" by
of Hofein upon Obeidallah Ebn Ziyad and his adhe- Al Mokh-
rents. But while Soliman and bis troops remainedtar‘
yet inaftive, Al Mokbtar, who had ferved under Ab¬
dallah, and was difgufted at not having been promoted
as he expedfted, arrived at Cufa, and reprefenting the
incapacity of Soliman, who indeed appears to have
been totally unfit for fuch an enterprife, offered to take
the command upon himfelf. This, however, was re¬
fufed ; and as Al Mokhtar had no opinion of Soliman’s
military capacity, he found means to draw' oft' 2000 of
his troops 5 while 10,000 more chofe rather to violate
the oaths they had taken, than run the rilk of being
cut to pieces by a fuperior enemy. .Soliman, however,Soliman’s
put a good face upon the matter j and, telling his folly and
troops that they were to fight for another world and enthufiai'ra’
not this, fet forward to invade Syria with the 4000
who remained with him : but being advanced as far as
Ekfas upon the Euphrates, he found that he had loft
xooo men by defertion ; nor was he joined by the Se-
paratifts of Baira and Al Madayen, though they had
promifed him a reinforcement. Firmly perfuaded,
3 T 2 however,
Arabia.
137
He is cut in
pieces with
all his men.
138
Merwan
dies.
*39
Narrow e-
fcape of the
family of
All.
A. R A [5
however, that his caufe was the caufe of heaven, Soli-
man continued his march all night, and next day ar¬
rived at the tomb of Hofein, where his men performed
their devotions with fuch enthufiafm of penitence, that
one prefent Iwore he never faw fuch crowding about
the black ftone in the temple of Mecca itfelf.—Conti¬
nuing Hill to advance, he received a friendly letter
from Abdallah Ebn Yezid, the governor of Cufa, ad-
vifing him to return, and reprefenting to him the folly
of engaging fo powerful an army as would be fent
againft him, with a handful of men : but Soliman,
imagining that he was only recalled in order to fupport
Abdallah Ebn Zobeir in his pretenfions to the cali¬
phate, perfifted in his refolution of penetrating into
Syria. He told his troops, that they would never be
nearer the two Hofeins (Hofein, and his brother Ha-
fan, to whom alfo the Shiites gave that name) than
they rvere at prefent; and that ihould they at this time
meet with death, they would be in a Hate of repent¬
ance, and confequently could never die in a more pro¬
per time ; and after this fpeech, continuing dill to ad¬
vance, he was at laft met by Obeidallah at the head
of 20,000 horfe, who, after an obftinate engagement,
cut to pieces Soliman and all his troops.
Soon after this deciiive a£fion died the caliph Mer¬
wan, after he had reigned eleven months. He is faid
by fome authors to have been poifoned by his wife
Zeinab, Moawiyah’s widow. Her he had married, with
a promife that her fon Khaled fhould fucceed him; but
afterwards altering the fucceflion in favour of his own
fon Abdalmalec, young Khaled reproached him with
his breach of promife : upon this Merwan calling him
bqflard, the child complained to his mother •, who, to
be revenged for this aifront, is faid to have poifoned
him, or frnothered him wdth a pillow.
In the beginning of the caliphate of Abdalmalec,
A1 Mokhtar, who had been imprifoned by the gover¬
nor of Cufa, wras releafed at the interceflion of Abdal¬
lah Ebn Omar, who had married his filler. The year
following, having put himfelf at the he^d of the Shiite
fecilaries, he fent propofals of alliance to Abdallah Ebn
Zobeir ; but he, jullly fufpedling his fincerity, by a
llratagem cut off near 3000 of his men. Upon this dif-
aller, Al Mokhtar, fearing the houfe of Ali might be
intimidated, fent a letter to Mahomet Ebn Hanifyah,
one of that family, in which he offered his affdlance
with a powerful army. This offer Mahomet declined,
declaring himfelf only for pacific meafures } but though
he and all the reft of All’s family behaved in the molt
peaceable manner, Abdallah did not think himfelf fafe
till they owned his authority. He therefore imprifon¬
ed them, together with 17 of the principal citizens of
Cufa, whom he threatened to put to death, and after-
•wards burn their bodies, if they did not within a limit¬
ed time take an oath of allegiance to him. Al Mokhtar
being informed of the diftreffed fituation they were in,
fent a body of 750 horfe to Mecca, under Abu Ab¬
dallah, to releafe them. That general not only execu¬
ted his orders with great bravery, but took Abdallah
himfelf prifoner, rvhom he would have cut to pieces on
the fpot, had he not been releafed at the interceffion of
Mahomet, who for the prefent adjufted the differences
to the mutual fatisfa6lion of all parties. After this re¬
conciliation, Abu Abdallah, or rather Mahomet him¬
felf, diftributed among 4000 of Ali’s friends a fum of
16 ] A R A
money brought for that purpofe, in order to indemnify Arabia,
them for the Ioffes they had fuftained. Thus the friends ' v
of Ali were happily delivered, when only two days of
the time granted them by Abdallah remained, and a
fufficient quantity of wood and other combuftibles was
colledled, in order to confume their bodies. Notwith-
ftanding the reconciliation, however, that had lately
taken place, Mahomet Ebn Hanifyah thought proper
to poft himfelf on a mountain near Mecca with a body
of 4000 men.
The Cufans having received advice before Meman’s
death, that he had fent Obeidallah wdth a powerful
army towards their city, and even given him permif-
fion to plunder it in cafe it fhould be taken, appointed
Yezid Ebn Ares, a man of undaunted courage, to op-
pofe him ; but Meman dying before Obeidallah could
execute his commiffion, an end was put for the prefent
to this expedition. The memory of it, however, ftill
remained j and Al Mokhtar, to whom Obeidallah wyas
perfonally obnoxious, aflembled a body of troops to
aft offenfively againft him, and even againft the Sy¬
rian caliph himfelf in cafe he fhould fupport Obeidallah. r^0
Among other preparations for this enterprife, Al Impiety of
Mokhtar caufed a kind of portable throne to be made, Mokh-
telling his troops, that, “ it wrould be of the fame ufe tar‘
to them that the ark w?as to the children of Ifrael.” It
was therefore carried on a mule before the troops that
were to march againft Obeidallah, and the following
prayer faid before it : “ O God ! grant that we may
live long in thy obedience ; help us > and do not for¬
get us, but proteft us.” This expedient w’as fo well
adapted to the hot-headed enthufiafts who compofed
Al Mokhtar’s army, that they attacked Obeidallah’s Obeidallah
camp, defeated him, and gained a complete vidlory.
Obeidallah himfelf was killed in the a£lion, his head billed,
fent to Al Mokhtar, and his body reduced to afhes.—
By this viflory the fe&aries were rendered fo formi¬
dable, that Nifibin or Nifibis, and feveral other cities,
fur rendered to them without oppofition. They now
began to entertain thoughts of depofing both the ca¬
liphs, and placing on the Moflem throne one of the fa¬
mily of Ali •, but all their towrering hopes were foon
fruftrated by the defeat and death of Al Mokhtar by
Mufab brother to Abdallah Ebn Zobeir. Al Mokh- Al Mokh¬
tar, after being defeated in a general engagement bytar defeat-
Mufab, lied to the caftle of Cufa, where he defended ^ ”
himfelf with great bravery for fome time ; but being fab.
at laft killed, his men, to the number of 7000, fur-
rendered at difcretion, and were all of them put to
the fword on account of the outrages they had com¬
mitted.
The next year, the 68th of the Hegira, the Azara-
kites, fo denominated from Nafe Ebn Al Azarak, the
author of their feft, having affembled a confiderable
force, made an irruption into Irak. They advanced
almoft to the gates of Cufa, and penetrated to Al Ma- Horrid
dayen. Being fworn enemies of the houfe of Ommi- cruelties
yah, and acknowledging no government, fpiritual or
temporal, they committed terrible ravages in every part Zarakites>~
of the Moflem territories through which they paffed.
They carried their exceffes to fuch a height as to mur¬
der all the people they met with, to rip open women
with child, and commit every fpecies of cruelty that
could be invented upon the inhabitants without diftinc-
tion. The governor of Mavvfel and Mefopotamia, be¬
ing
Arabia.
144
They are
defeated
and diiperf-
ed.
I4S
Barbarity
of Abdal-
raalec.
146
Drfgrace-
ful treaty
with the
Greeks.
T47
Mufab de¬
feated and
killed by
Abdalma-
lee.
A R A [5
ing informed of thefe unparalleled outrage;?, marched
again ft them with a body of troops, and carried on a
brilk war with them for eight months. During this
period their leader Nafe Ebn A1 Azarak died •, and was
iucceeded by Katri Ebn A1 Fojat, under whofe con¬
duit they continued their depredations. Mufab not
being pleafed withliis lieutenant’s management of the
■war, recalled him, and fent in his place one Omar Ebn
Abdallah Temini, who gave the Azarakites a great
overthrow at Naifabur in Khorafan, put many of them
to the fword, and purfued the reft as far as Ifpahan
and the province of Kerman. Here having received
a reinforcement, they returned into the province of
Ahwaz, and did incredible damage to the country
through wdiich they paffed. But Omar advancing a-
gainft them a fecond time, they retired at his approach
to A1 Madayen, ravaging the diftriit belonging to
the city in a dreadful manner. However, Omar pur-
fuing them thither alfo, they fled into the province of
Kerman, and thence gradually difperfed themfelves.
This year there wras a grievous famine in Syria, which
fufpended all military operations.
The next year, being the 69th of the Hegira, Ab-
dalmalec left Damafcus to march againft Mufab. In
his abfence he left Amru Ebn Said governor of the
city ; but he immediately feized upon it for himfelf,
which obliged the caliph to return. After feveral Ikir-
mifties had happened between fome detachments of the
caliph’s troops with thofe of Amru, a pacification was
concluded at the intercefl'ion of the women : but Ab-
dalmalec barbaroufly put Amru to death with his own
hand, notwithftanding his proraife ; and was imme¬
diately feized wdth fuch a tremor, that he loft the ufe
of almoft all his faculties, and was obliged to be laid
in bed. In the mean time the palace was attacked by
Yahyah, Amru’s brother, at the head of 1000 flaves.
After a warm difpute, they forced open the gates,
killed feveral of the guards, and w'ere upon the point
of entering the palace, when the people within threw
Amru’s head among them. This fo cooled their ar¬
dour, that they defifted from the attempt ; and fome
money having been afterw-ards diftributed among them,
they retired. So great, however, wms Abdalmalec’s
avarice, that after the tumult w7as appeafed, he recal¬
led all the money which had been diftributed, and
commanded it to be depofited in the public treafury.
In the 70th year of the Hegira, the Greeks made
an irruption into Syria *, and Abdalmalec having oc-
cafton for all his forces to aft againft Abdallah Ebn
Zobeir, wTas obliged to pay a tribute of icoo dinars
per day, according to Theophanes, and fend every
year 365 fiaves and as many horfes to Conftantinople.
In this treaty, it wms alfo ftipulated, that the reve¬
nues of Cyprus, Armenia, and Heria, fhould be
equally divided between the caliph and the Greek em¬
peror.
Abdalmalec being now at leifure to purfue his in¬
tended expedition againft Mufab, marched againft him
in perfon ; and having arrived at Mafken, a fmall town
on the frontiers of Mefopotamia, where he w;as waited
for by Mufab, the latter was defeated through the
treachery of his troops, and himfelf killed. After the
battle, Abdalmalec repaired to Cufa, where lie w7as re¬
ceived with the utmoft fubmiffion j and people of all
ranks came in crowds to take the oath of allegiance to
I
7 1 A R A
him. He then ordered vaft fums of money to be dif- Arabia. ^
tributed among them, and gave a fplendid entertain- v
ment to his new fubjefts, to which even the meaneft of
them w7ere not refufed admittance. During this enter¬
tainment, the unfortunate Mufab’s head was prefented
to the caliph ; upon which one of the company took
occafron to fay to him, “ I faw7 Hofein’s head in this
fame caftle prefented to Obeidallah •, Obeidallah’s to
A1 Mokhtar •, A1 Mokhtar’s to Mufab j and now at
laft Mufab’s to yourfelf.” This obfervation fo aflfeft-
ed the caliph, that, either to avert the ill omen, or
from fome other motive, he ordered the caftle to be
immediately demoliihed. Abdallah Ebn Zobeir, in
the mean time, having received the melancholy news
of the defeat and death of his brother, aflembled the
people of Mecca, and from the pulpit made a fpeech
fuitable to the occalion. He alfo did his utmoft; to
put Mecca in a proper pofture of defence, expefting
a fpeedy vifit from his formidable competitor, who
now gave law to Irak, Syria, and Egypt, without
controul.
Soon after Abdalmalec’s return to Damafcus, heap
pointed his brother Bafliar governor of Cufa, and Kha-
led Ebn Abdallah governor of Bafra. The latter had
no fooner entered upon his office, than he indifcreetly
removed from the command of the army A1 Mohalleb,
one of the greateft generals of the age ; appointing iru
his room Abdalaziz, who was greatly his inferior in
military Ikill. Of this difmiflion the Azarakites being
informed, they immediately attacked Abdalaziz, en¬
tirely defeated him, and took his w7ife prifoner. A dif¬
pute arifing among the viftors about the price of that
lady, one of them, to end it, immediately cut off her
head. Upon this difafter, Khaled wras commanded to
replace A1 Mohalleb, which he did 5 and having in 148
conjunftion wdth him attacked the Azarakites, forced Azarakites-
their camp, and entirely defeated them. defeated.
In the 7 2d year of the Hegira, Abdalmalee having
no enemy to contend with but Abdallah Ebn Zobeir,
made great preparations for an invafion of Hejaz, giv¬
ing the command of the army to be employed on this
occafion to A1 Hejaj, one of his moft warlike and elo¬
quent captains. Before that general had put his army
in march for Mecca, he offered his proteftion to all the
Arabs there that w?ould accept of it. Abdallah being
informed of the enemy’s approach, fent out feveral par¬
ties of horfe to reconnoitre, and give him intelligence
of their motions. Between thefe and fome of Al He-
jaj’s advanced guards feveral fkirmifties happened, in
which Abdallah’s men had generally the worft. This
encouraged Al Hejaj to fend to the caliph for a rein¬
forcement, his troops amounting to no more than 2000
men, who were infufficient for reducing Mecca. He
affured him at the fame time, that Abdallah’s fierce-
nefs w7as very much abated, and that his men deferted
to him daily. The caliph, upon this, ordered a rein¬
forcement of 5000 men under the command of Tharik
Ebn Amer •, but notwithftanding this additional ^
ftrength, he made but little progrefs in the ftege for Mecca be-
fome time. While he battered the temple of Mecca fieged
wdth his machines, it thundered and lightened fo dread-
fully, that the Syrians were ftruck with terror, and re¬
fufed to play them any longer upon that edifice. Upon
this Al Hejaj ftuck the corner of his veft into his gir¬
dle, and putting into it one of the ftones that was to
be
ft
A R A - [5
Arabia, be difcliargesl out of the catapults, flang it into the
town, and this occafioned the recommencement of the
operations. The next morning the Syrians were an¬
noyed by frefh ftorms, which killed 12 men, and quite
difpirited them. A1 Hejaj, however, animated them,
by obferving that he was a fon of Tehama ; that this
was the ftorm of Tehama, and that their adverfaries
fuffered as much as they. The day following fome of
Abdallah’s men were killed by a very violent ftorm,
which gave A1 Hejaj a further opportunity of animat¬
ing his troops. At laft, Abdallah having been defert-
ed by moft of his friends, 10,000 of the inhabitants of
Mecca, and even by his own fons Hamza and Kho-
beib, defired to know his mother’s fentiments as to
what courfe he was to take. He reprefented to her,
that he was almoft entirely abandoned by his fubjects
and relations •, that the few who perfifted in their fide¬
lity to him could fcarce enable him to defend the city
any longer ; and that the Syrian caliph would grant
him any terms he ftiould think fit to demand. ^ His
mother, however, being of an inflexible refolution,
and not able to bear the thoughts of feeing her fon re¬
duced to the rank of a private perfon, being herfelf the
daughter of Abu Beer, the firft caliph, advifed him
by no means to furvive the fovereignty, of which he
rvas on the point of being deprived. This advice be¬
ing agreeable to his own fentiments, he refolved to die
, in defence of the place. In purfuance of this refolu¬
tion, he defended the city, to the amazement of the
befiegers, for ten days, though deftitute of arms,
troops, and fortifications. At laft, having taken a fi¬
nal leave of his mother, and being animated by de-
fpair, he made a fally upon the enemy, deftroyed a
150 great number of them with his own hand, and was at
Abdallah length killed fighting valiantly upon the fpot. At
-killed. tbe ]aft interview he had with his mother, Ihe is faid
to have defired him to put off a coat of mail he had on
for his defence ; and, in order to infpire him with the
greater fortitude, Ihe gave him a draught in which a
whole pound of mufk had been infufed. A1 Hejaj or¬
dered his head to be cut off, and his body to be af¬
fixed to a crofs ; and by reafon of the mufk he had
^ drank, the body emitted a grateful odour for feveral
da5rs.
By the redu&ion of Mecca, and the death of Ab¬
dallah Ebn Zobeir, Abdalmalec remained foie mafter
of the Moflem empire ; but he fuftained a great lofs
next year, in having an army of 100,000 men totally
cut off by the Khazarians in Armenia. The gover¬
nor, however, having marched in perfon againft them
151 at the head of only 40,000 men, but all chofen troops,
Khazanans penetrated into the heart of Armenia, defeated and
reduced. difperfed a large body of the Khazarians, drove them
into their temples, and reduced them to aflies. One
of his generals alfo defeated an army of 80,000 Kha¬
zarians at the Iron or Cafpian Gates, and deftroyed a
great number of them, obliging the reft to embrace
the Mahometan religion.
•Cruelty of A1 Hejaj, in cdnfequence of his fervices, wras made
A1 Hejaj. governor, firft of Medina, and then of Irak, Khora-
fan, and Sijiftan \ in all wdiich places he behaved ivith
the greateft cruelty. Having entered the city of Cufa
muffled up in his turban, he was furrounded by crowrds
of people who preffed forward to fee him. He told
ihem their curiofity would foon be gratified j which he
i $ j A R A
effeftually did, by afeending the pulpit, and treating Arabia.
them in a very coarfe manner ; fwearing that he would ' ^ 
make the wicked bear his own burden, and fit him
with his own ihoe •, and telling them, among other
things, that “ he imagined he faw the feeds of men
ripe and ready to be gathered, and turbans and beards
befprinkled with blood.” At Bafra he made a fpeech
much to the fame purpofe ; and, to give the inhabi¬
tants a tafte of his difeipline, caufed one of them who
had been informed againft as a rebel to be beheaded
on the fpot without any trial. So great indeed was
the abhorrence in which he was held by thofe over
whom he prefided, that having once recommended
himfelf to the prayers of a religious Moflem, the latter
inftantly prayed that it would pleafe God to kill A1
Hejaj quickly ; “ for nothing, faid he, could be more
advantageous for himfelf or the people.” In confe-
quence of thefe cruelties, rebellions were foon raifed
againft him; but they w-ere eafily fuppreffed, and A1
Hejaj continued in the full enjoyment of all his em¬
ployments till he died.
In the 76th year of the Hegira, one Saleh Ebn Sal/h and
Marj, a hot-headed enthufiaft, and Shebib Ebn Zeid, Siiebjb re-
a Kharejite, took up arms againft the caliph. Theyt>e-‘
had confpired againft him the year before when on a
pilgrimage to Mecca ; and A1 Hejaj had been ordered
to feize them : but at that time they found means to
make their efcape ; and having now affembled about
120 men, Saleh was proclaimed emperor of the faith¬
ful at Daras in Mefopotamia. The governor foon re¬
ceived intelligence of their motions; and ordered a
body of 500 men, under the command of one Adi, te>
march againft them : but that general, being afraid to
attack them notwithftanding his fuperiority in num¬
bers, demanded a reinforcement. He therefore was
fupplied with 500 more troops, with which he advan¬
ced to Daras : but being ftill afraid of the rebels, he
entered into negociations with them ; during which
they attacked him, entirely defeated his army, and
made themfelves mafters of his camp. Upon this the
governor fent a detachment of 1500 horfe againft them ; Their bra.
but the rebels, notwithftanding the fmallnefs of their ver>''
number, defended themfelves in fuch a manner, that
the caliph’s troops were forced to difmount and fight
on foot. The engagement continued till night; when
the rebels, finding themfelves unable to contend with
fuch numbers, retired to Mawfel. After this, A1
Hejaj being informed that they had taken poll at Daf-
cara, fent againft them an army of 5000 men. The
rebels, hearing of this formidable army, abandoned
their camp ; but w'ere fo clofely purfued, that they
found themfelves obliged to ftand an engagement at
Modbaj, a fmall village on the Tigris. Saleh’s for- j --
ces, confifting only of three companies of 30 men each, Saleh kili-
wrere foon thrown into diforder, and himfelf killed :ecb
but Shebib made an excellent retreat to a neighbour¬
ing caftle ; from whence he fallied out at midnight on
the caliph’s forces, penetrated to the very heart of the
camp, where he wounded the general himfelf, and dif-
perfed the greateft part of his army. r ,6
After this vidlory, the rebels became terrible even Al Hejaj
to Al Hejaj himfelf, whom they afterwards defeated defeated by
in feveral engagements ; and taking advantage of his^6^’
being at Bafra, made themfelves mafters of Cufa with
little oppofition. Al Hejaj was now conftrained to
write
IS7
Shebib’s
155
bels.
159
They are
ed.
A R A [ 5
Arabia, write to the caliph for a ftrong detachment of the Sy-
‘ rian troops, with which he advanced againft Shebib ;
w’hofe army bearing no proportion to that of A1 He-
jaj, the former was totally defeated, had his wife’s
brother killed in the a&ion, and was obliged to fly in¬
to Kerman. Having refrefhed his men in this province,
he again advanced to Ahwaz, where he was met by
one of A1 Hejaj’s generals at the head of the Syrian
army. Shebib defended himfelf with incredible va-
v.tlour and lourj an(j feveral times repulfed the caliph’s forces ;
but being overpowered by numbers, as his army con¬
fided of no more than 600 men, he was at lad put to
flight, and, in palling a bridge, was thrown off by his
hsrfe and drowned. His body was drawn up by a
net, and the head fent to A1 Hejaj, who was not a
little pleafed at the fight. After his death, the rebels
quarrelled among themfelves, fo that the caliph’s
troops cut off the greated part of them. The remain¬
der, under Katri Ebn Fojat, fled to Tabreflan. Here
they were kindly received by Afliid the king, who af-
figned them a part of his territories for their habita-'
tion. But they had not been long fettled before they
Ingratitude infided upon Afliid’s either embracing Mahometanifm,
ot the re- or paying them an annual tribute ; wliich he refufing,
they drove him into Irak, where he implored the ca¬
liph’s protedlion. Afliid afterwards conduced a body
of Modem troops into Tabreflan *, where they fell up¬
on the rebels with fuch fury, that they killed Katri
all deftroy- himfelf, cut a great number of his men to pieces, and
took all the refl prifoners.
This year alfo (the 76th of the Hegira) money
was firfl coined in Arabia. Before this time, the di¬
nars, or gold coins, had Greek infcriptions ; and the
dirhems, or filver ones, Perfic infcriptions. The firfl
ereflion of a mint in Arabia was occafioned by the fol¬
lowing accident. Abdalmalec added to the letters he
wrote to the Greek emperor this Ihort paflage of the
Ko ran, “ Say, God is one 5” or “ Say, there is one
God }” and then inferted the year of the Hegira, with
thq name of the prophet, in fuch a manner as gave the
emperor great offence. Upon this he wrote to Abdal-
160 malec, defiring him to alter that manner of writing,
Money firft or he would lend him lome coins in which the name
of Mahomet ftiould be mentioned in fuch a manner as
would not prove very agreeable. Abdalmalec now’ re-
folved to coin money of his own ; and accordingly
fprae dirhems were this year damped by A1 Hejaj,
with the infcription Alla Samad, “ God is.eternal
which gave great offence to the fuperditious Modems,
as they imagined that the name of God would be
thereby profaned by the touch of unclean pcrfons.
In the 77th year of the Hegira, the Arabs made an
incurfion into the imperial territories, and had Lazica
and Bernucium betrayed to them ; and the next year
they made themfelves maders of Africa Propria, de-
molifiling the city of Carthage fo effedlually, that
demqlifhed. fcarce a veflige of it wras left. They wxre foon driven
out, however, by John the Patrician, a man of great
valour and experience in war 5 but returning wuth a
fuperior force, they obliged John in his turn to fly to
Conftantinople.
The 79th year of the Hegira-is remarkable for no¬
thing but the rebellion of Abdalrahman in Perfia j
who drove the khan, or emperor of the Turks,
Tartars, or Moguls, out of that country : but the fol-
coined in
Arabia.
zGi
Carthage
19 J A R A
lowing year, one of the Greek generals, named Hera- Arabia.
chus, penetrated into Syria as far as Samofata, and 1 v 1
deflroyed 200,000 Arabs, ravaging the country in a ^
terrible manner; and Abdalrahman wTas defeated andra|,s’^e_
killed by A1 Hejaj, after a great number of engage-ftroyed by
ments, fome fay 81, and others 100. In the 83d Heraclius.
year of the Hegira, the nobility of Armenia revolting,
drove the Arabs out of that province ; but Mahomet,
one of the caliph’s generals, entering the country with
a powerful army, got the authors of the revolt into his
hands, and caufed them all to be burnt alive. En¬
couraged by this fuccefs, the Modems invaded Cilicia
under one Azar ; but wrere, to the number of 10,coo,
cut in pieces by Heraclius; and the next year, having
again entered that country, 1 2,000 of them were de¬
flroyed by the fame general, and the red forced to fly
into their own country. t£„
In the 86th year of the Hegira died the caliph Abdaima-
Abdalmalec, after a reign of 21 years. He is faid to lec dies,
have had fuch a flinking breath, that the flies w7hich
accidentally fettled on his lips were almofl inflantly
flruck dead by it. He wms fucceeded by A1 Walid,
who greatly extended the Moflem dominions. The firfl:
year of his reign, one of his generals having palled the
Oxus (now the Jihun), defeated a numerous army of
Turks and Tartars. Pie then overran and entirely re¬
duced the countries of Sogd or Sogdiana, Bagrafs,
Shalh, Targana, and the whole immenfe traft going
under the name of Mawaralnahr, or Great Bukharia. r, f
He alfo conquered the khan of Khowarazm, obliging Prodigious-
him to pay an annual tribute of two millions of di-conquefts
nars. About the fame time another general, called °f t^ie Mof-
Mahomet, made an irruption into India, and fubdued lems’
a confiderable part of that country. He alfo entirely
fubdued the kingdom of A1 Sind, lying between Per-
fia and India. In this expedition, Derar king of A1
Sind w7as defeated and killed, and had his head cut off
by Mahomet.
In the 90th year of the Hegira, the Modems made
an irruption into Cappadocia, defeated the emperor’s
army who oppofed them, and took the city of Tyana.
The next year they made another incurfion into the
imperial territories, whence they carried oif vafi num¬
bers of Haves ; and the year following one Othman
penetrated into the heart of Cilicia, where he made
himlelf mafler of feveral cities, but does not appear to
have long kept his conquefls. ^
In the 93d year of the Hegira, anfwering to that They make
of Chrifl 712, Tarik Ebn Zarka made a defcent on a defcent
Spain, defeated Roderic the lad king of the Goths, re- on Spain,
duced the city of Toledo, and overran a confiderable
part of the kingdom. Being afterwards joined by
Mufa, commander of the African Modems, the twm
generals made themfelves maders of mod of the for-
trefles, fubjugating in a manner the whole country, I(j£
and obliging it to pay tribute to the caliph. In thefe and over¬
expeditions the Modems acquired fpoils of immenfe va- mn the
lue ; and, amongfl other things, an exceeding rich wllole
table, called by the Arab writers “ the table of Solo- countr'’*
mon the fon of David.” According to thefe writers,,
thjs table confided entirely of gold and filver, and was
adorned with three borders of pearls ; but Roderic of
Toledo, a Spanilh hi dorian, fays it confided of one en¬
tire done, of a green colour, and of an immenfe fize,
having no lefs than 365;feet. He adds, that it was
found.
A R A
Arabia.
xG-j
A1 Hejaj
dies.
^ found in a certain village or town, near the mountain
called in his days Jtbal Solitnan, or “ the mountain of
Solomon.”
Alter Mufa and Tarik had committed dreadful de¬
predations in Spain, they were both recalled by the
caliph ; but the next year, Tarik having undertaken
another expedition into the fame country, landed a
t 52° ]
A R A
the greateft extremities of hunger, being forced to live Arabia,
upon hides, the roots and bark of trees, the muft noi- v—
fome animals, and even the dead bodies of their com¬
panions. This year aH'o (the 99th of the Hegira) is I7o
remarkable for the death of the caliph Soliman. Ac-Death of
cording to fome, he was poifoned by Yezld his brother, s°hman'
governor of Perfia, who wras difpleafed with his having
76$
A1 Wajid
dies, and is
fuccfeeded
by Soliman.
body ol 12,000 men at Gibraltar, with which he plun- ■ appointed his coufm-german, Omar Ebn Abdalaziz,
dered the whole province of Baetica, and overran the
greatcfl part of Lufitania. Roderic hearing of thefe
depredations, fent againft him an army of raw undifci-
plined troops, wTho, were eafily defeated, and molt of
them left dead on the fpot; which fo animated the A-
rab commander, that he refolved not to lay down his
arms till he had made an abfolute conqueft of Spain.
About the fame time that Tarik made fuch progrefs
in Spain, another Modem general entered Pilidia with
a powerful army, took the city of Antioch, and, after
having ravaged the country, retired into the caliph’s
territories with very little lofs.
In the 95th year of the Hegira died A1 Hejaj go¬
vernor of Irak, &c. after he had prelided over that
country 20 years. He exercifed fuch cruelties upon
thofe who were in fubjeftion to him, that he is faid to
have killed 1 20,000 men, and to have fuffered 50,000
men and 30,000 women to perilh in prifon. To ex-
cufe this cruelty, he ufed frequently to fay, That a
fevere, or even violent government, is better that one
too weak and indulgent; as the firft only hurts parti¬
cular perfons, but the latter the whole community.
This year alfo the Arabs gained a complete vidlory in
Spain over Roderic king of the Goths, who perilhed
in the adlion. In this campaign, Tarik pofleffed him-
felf of immenfe treafures ; by wdiich means he was ena¬
bled to reward not only his officers, but common fol-
diers alfo. In the eaftern parts of the wmrld alfo, the
Arabs were this year very formidable $ Mollema, an A-
xab general, having entered the imperial territories, ra¬
vaged the whole province of Galatia, carrying off with
him many rich fpoils, and a vaft number of prifoners.
The Greek emperor, hearing that A1 Walid defigned
to attack him both by fea and land, fent fome of his
nobles to treat of a peace ; and, among other things,
tielired them to bring him a particular account of the
force wdth which the caliph defigned to invade the
Greek empire. This they reprefented as fo terrible}
that it would be next to impoffible to oppofe it. The
emperor therefore caufed a great number of light fhips
•to be built, the walls to be repaired, and ordered fuch
of the citizens as had not laid up provifions for three
years to depart the city. A1 Walid, in the mean time,
continued his warlike preparations with the utmoft vi¬
gour, being determined to make himfelf mafter of Con-
ftantinople in a fingle campaign.
In the 96th year of the Hegira died the caliph A1
I7I
169
Conftanti-
nople un-
fuccefsfully
jadieged.
Walid} and w^as fucceeded by bis brother Soliman.
This year the Mofiem conquefts on the eaft fide were
increafed by the reduction of Tabreftan and jurgan or
Georgia. In Spain, alfo, the city of Toledo which
had revolted was reduced, and Caefarea Augufta, now
Saragofla, as well as feveral others. The next year
Moflema fet out for Conllantinople, which he befieged
without fucceis till the 99th year of the Hegira 5 at
wdiich time he wras obliged to return, after having loft
before it 120,000 men. The foldiers were reduced to
as his fucceffor, to the exclufion of himfelf. Accord¬
ing to others, he died of an indigellion } which is not
greatly to be wondered at, if, as thofe authors.fay, he
ufed to devour 100 pounds weight of meat every day,
and dine very heartily after eating three lambs rgafted
for breakfall. In the latter part of his reign, the Mof-
lems were by no means fuccefsful in Spain : the king¬
dom of Navarre being founded at this time by Pela-
gius, or Pelayo, whom the Arabs W’ere never able to
reduce.
The new caliph Omar Ebn Abdalaziz was by no
means of a martial character } but is faid to have been
very pious, and poffeffed of very amiable qualities. He
fuppreffed the ufual maleditlion, which was folemnly
pronounced by the caliphs of the houfe of Ommiyah
againft the houfe of Ali; and always ihowed great kind-
nefs to the latter. He wTas poifoned by Yezid, after New calipa
a ffiort reign of two years and five months. It is re-P01fgncib
lated, as an inftance of this caliph’s humility, thatwffien
Moflema vifited him in his laft ficknefs occafioned by
the poifon, he lay upon a bed of palm tree leaves, fup-
ported by a pillow formed of beafts fkins, and covered
with an ordinary garment. He had alfo on a dirty
ftiirt 5 for which Moflema blamed his filler Fatima,
Omar’s wife ; but flie excufed herfelf by telling him,
that the emperor of the faithful had not another Ihirt
to put on.
Concerning Yezid the fucceffor of Oman we find
very little worth mentioning. He did not long enjoy
the dignity he had fo iniquitoufly purchafed, dying af¬
ter a reign of little more than four years. He died of
grief for a favourite concubine named Hababah, wffio
was accidentally choked by a large grape which ftuck
in her throat.
Yezid w7as fucceeded by his brother Hefliam, wffio
afcended the throne in the 105th year of the Hegira.
In the fecond and third year of his reign, feveral in-
curfions were made into the imperial territories, but
generally without fuccefs. In the 109th year of the 172
Hegira, Moflema drove the Turks out of Armenia and The Turk*
Aderbijan, and again confined them w ithin the Cafpian^eteate<*'
Gates. The next year he obliged them to take an oath
that they Ihould keep their own country ; but this they
foon violated, and were again driven back by Moflema.
About this time alfo the Arabs, having palled the Py- 173
renees, invaded France to the number of 400,000, in-Trance^in-
cluding wTomen and Haves, under the command of one the Arabs.
Abdalrahman. Having advanced to Arles upon the
Rhone, they defeated a large body of French that op-
pofed them ; and having alfo defeated Count Eudo,
they purfued him through feveral provinces, willed the
whole country with fire and fword, making themfelves
mailers of the city of Tours, molt of which they redu-
ced to allies. Here, however, a flop wras put to their They are
devaltations by Charles Martel} who, coming up with utterly de-
them near the above-mentioned city, engaged them for bjr
feven days together, and at lait gave them a total MarteJ
overthrow.
,*75
Heign of
Merv/an.
A U A [ 5
Arabia, overtlarow. The French general made himfelf mafter
of all their baggage and riches •, and Abdalrahman,
with the (hattered remains of his army, reached the
frontiers of Spain with the utmoft difficulty. The fol¬
lowing year alfo, according to Ipme hiftorians, the
Arabs were overthrown at llliberis, fcarce any of them
making their efcape. To make amends for this bad
fortune, however, the caliph’s arms were fuccefsful
againft the Turks, who had again invaded fome of the
eaftern provinces.
In the 125th year of the Hegira died the caliph He-
fh'am, after a reign of 19 years, feven months, and ele¬
ven days. He w-as fucceeded by A1 Walid II. who is
reprefented as a man of a mod diffolute life, and was
affaffinated the following year on account of his profef-
fing Zendicifm, a fpecies of infidelity nearly refembling
Sadducifm. He wras fucceeded by Yezid the fon of
A1 Walid I. who died of the plague, after a reign of
fix months •, and was iucceeded by Ibrahim Ebn A1
Walid, an imprudent and ftupid prince. He was depof-
ed in the 1 27th year of the Hegira by Merwan Ebn
Mahomet, the governor of Pvlefopotamia; who gave
out, as an excufe for his revolt, that he intended to re¬
venge the murder of the caliph A1 Walid II. He
was no fooner feated on the throne, than the people
of Hems rebelled againft him. Againft them the ca¬
liph marched with a powerful army $ and afking them
what could excite them to this rebellion, fummoned
them to furrender. They aflured him that they were
difpofed to admit him into their city j and, accord-
ingly, one of the gates being opened, Merwan en¬
tered with about 300 of his troops. The men that
entered with him were immediately put to the fword j
and the caliph himielf efcaped with great difficulty.
However, he afterwards defeated them in a pitched
battle, put a great number of them to the fword, dif-
mantled the city, and crucified 600 of the principal
authors of the revolt.
This, however, was far from quieting the commotions
In difterent parts of the empire. The inhabitants of
Damafcus foon followed the example of thofe of Hems,
and depoCed the caliph’s governor j but Merwan, im¬
mediately after the extinction of the former rebellion,
marched to Damafcus with great celerity, entered the
city by force, and brought to condign puniftnnent the
authors of the revolt. Peace, however, was no fooner
eftablifhed at Damafcus, than Soliman Ebn Hefham
fet up for himfelf at Bafra, where he was proclaimed
caliph by the inhabitants. Here he aflembled an army
of 10,000 men, with whom he marched to Kinniflin,
where he was joined by vaft numbers of Syrians who
flocked to him from all parts. Menvan, receiving ad¬
vice of Soliman’s rapid progrefs, marched againft him
with all the forces he could afiemble, and entirely de¬
feated him. In this engagement Soliman loft 30,000
men; fo that he was obliged to fly to Hems, where
900 men took an oath to ftand by him to the laft. Hav¬
ing ventured, however, to attack the caliph’s forces a
.fecond time, he was defeated, and again forced to fly
to Hems. But, being clofely purfued by Merwan,
he conftituted his brother Said governor of the city,
leaving with him the fhattered remains of his troops,
and himfelf fled to Tadmor. Soon after his depar¬
ture Merwan appeared before the town, which he be-
fieged for feven months ; during which time he bat-
Vol. II. Part II.
Arabia
176
party
21 ] A R A
tered it inceflantly with 80 catapults. The citizens,
being reduced to the laft: extremity, furrendered, and
delivered Said into the caliph’s hands. In confidera-
tion of this fubmiflion, Merwan pardoned the rebels,
and took them all under his proteftion. About the
fame time, another pretender to the caliphate appeared
at Cufa ; but Merwan took his meafures fo well, that
he extinguiflred this rebellion before it could come to
any height.
Notwithftanding the fuccefs, however, that had hi-A
therto attended Merwan, a ftrong. party was formed
againft him in Khorafan by the houfe of A1 Abbas. fnHg!lonr.!
The firft of that houfe that made any confiderable fi-fan.
gure was named Mahomet, who ftourilhed in the reign
of Omar Ebn Abdalaziz. He was appointed chief of
the houfe of Al Abbas about the hundredth year of the
Hegira j and is faid to have prophefied, that after his
death, one of his fons, named Ibrahim, ftiould prefide
over them till he was killed, and that his other fon Ab¬
dallah, furnamed Abut Abbas Al Sajfah, fhould be ca
liph, and exterminate the houfe of Ommiyah. Upon
• this Al Saffah ■was introduced as the future fovereign,
and thofe prefent kiffed his hands and feet.
After the deceafe of Mahomet, his fon Ibrahim no¬
minated as his reprefentative in Khorafan one Abu
Moftem, a youth of 19 years of age j who beginning
to raife forces in that province, Merwan defpatched
againft him a body of horfe under the command of Nafr 177
Ebn Sayer •, but that general was entirely defeated by Merwan’s
Abu Moftem, and the greateft part of his men killed.
The next year (the 128th of the Hegira) Merwan ea e ’
made vaft preparations to oppofe Abu Moflem, who
after the late viftory began to grow formidable to fe-
veral parts of the empire. According to fome authors,
Merwan gained two viftories over fome of Ibrahim’s
generals j but the year following, Abu Moflem brought
fuch a formidable army into the field, that the caliph’s
troops could not make head againft: them ; his officers
in Khorafan therefore were obliged either to take an
oath of allegiance to Ibrahim, or to quit the province
within a limited time.
In the 130th year of the Hegira, the caliph’s gene¬
ral Nafr having drawn together another army, was
again defeated by Khataba another of Ibrahim’s gene¬
rals, and forced to fly to Raya, a town of Dylam, ac¬
cording to fome, or of Khorafan, according to others. j.g
The next year Ibrahim having fooliflily taken it into Ibrahim put
his head to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca, attended by to death,
a numerous retinue fplendidly accoutred, was feized
and put to death by Menvan j and the year following
Abu Abbas was proclaimed caliph at Cufa. As foon
as the ceremony was ended, he fent his uncle Abdallah
with a powerful army to attack Merwan’s forces that
were encamped near Tubar at a fmall diftance from
Moful, where that caliph was then waiting for an ac¬
count of the fuccefs of his troops under Yezid gover¬
nor ef Irak, againft Khataba one of Al Saffah’s gene¬
rals. Khataba receiving advice of Yezid’s approach,
immediately advanced againft: him, and entirely defeat¬
ed him ; but in crofting the Euphrates, the waters of
which were greatly fwelled, he was carried away by
the current and drowned. The purfuit, however, was
continued by his fon Hamid, who difperfed the fugi¬
tives in fuch a manner that they could never afterwards
be rallied. At the news of this difafter. Merwan was
3 U
Arabia.
179
Merwan
.A R A . f 5
at flrft greatly difpirited •, bat foon recovering himfelf,
he advanced to meet Abdallah.- In the beginning of
j.iciwau t^le the caliph happened to difmount j and his
himfelfde- tioops perceiving their lovereign’s horfe without his
feated, rider, concluded that he w'as killed, and therefore im¬
mediately fled nor was it in the power of the caliph
himfelf to rally them again, fo that he was forced to
fly to Damafcus : but the inhabitants of that city, fee¬
ing his condition defperate, fhut their gates againfl: him.
Upon this he fled to Egypt, where he maintained him¬
felf for fome time ; but was at laft attacked and killed
, ^7 Saleh, Abdallah’s brother, in a town of Thebais,
called Bujir Kurides. The citizens of Damafcus, though
they had lhamefully deferted Merwan, refufed to open
their gates to the vidtors; upon which Saleh entered
the city by force, and gave it up to be plundered for
three days by his foldiers.
By the total defeat and death of Merwan, A1 SafFah
remained foie mafter of the Moflem throne ; but we
hear of no very remarkable events that happened during
his reign r only that he maffacred great numbers of the
partifans of the houfe of Ommiyah ; and that Conftan-
tine Copronymus, taking advantage of the inteftine
divifions among the Moflems, ravaged Syria. The
caliph died of the fmall pox in the 136th year of the
181 Hegira, in the 33d year of his age ; and was fucceeded
Reign of A1 by his brother A1 Manfur. In the beginning of Al-
Manfur’s reign, hoftilities continued againft the houfe
of Ommiyah, wrho Hill made refiftance, but were al¬
ways defeated. Abdallah, however, the caliph’s uncle,
caufed himfelf to be proclaimed caliph at Damafcus j
and having aflembled a powerful army in Arabia, Sy¬
ria, and Mefopotamia, advanced with great expedition
to the banks of the Maflus near Niflbis, where he en¬
camped. A1 Manfur, being informed of this rebellion,
defpatched Abu Moflem againfl: Abdallah. This gene¬
ral, having harafled him for five months together, at
lafl: brought him to a general aftion 5 and having en¬
tirely defeated him, forced him to fly to Bafra. Nut-
withftanding all his fervices, however, Abu Moflem w-as
foon after ungratefully and barbaroufly murdered by
A1 Manfur, on fome ridiculous pretences of being de¬
ficient in refpeft towards him.
After the death of Abu Moflem, one Sinan a Ma-
gian, or adorer of fire, having made himfelf mafter of
that general’s treafures, revolted againft the caliph; but
he was foon defeated by Jamhur Ebn Morad, wdio had
been lent againft him with a powerful army. In this
expedition Jamhur having acquired immenfe riches,
the covetous difpofition of the caliph prompted him to
fend a perfon exprefs to the army to feize upon all the
wealth. This fo provoked Jamhur, that he immediate¬
ly turned his arms againft his mafter ; but was foon de-
Manfur.
iSa
He mur¬
ders Abu
Moflem.
*83
Abdalrah- feated, and entirely reduced. The following year (the
man pro¬
claimed
caliph in
Spam.
139th of the Hegira, one Abdalrahman, of the houfe
of Omrniyah, after the entire ruin of that family in
Alia, arrived in Spain, where he was acknowledged ca¬
liph ; nor did he or his defeendants ever afterwards
1S4 dwn fubjeftion to the Arabian caliphs.
AUempc to The j^oth year of the Hegira is remarkable for an
mate attempt t0 aflaflinate the caliph. This attempt was
made by the Rawandians \ an impious fedl, who held
the doftrine of metempfyehofis or tranfmigration.—
I hey firft offered A1 Manfur divine honours, by going
in proceflion round his palace, as the Moflems were
the caliph.
22 ] A R A
wont to do round the Caaba j but the caliph, highly in- Arabisr.
denied at this impiety, ordered 100 of the principal of' v—'
them to be imprilbned. Thefe, however, tvere foon re¬
leafed by their companions 5 who then went in a body
to the palace with an intention to murder their fove-
reign : but he being a perfon of uncommon bravery,
though he was furprifed wdth very few attendants,
mounted a mule, and advanced towards the mutineers,
with an intention to fell his life as dear as poflible. In
the mean time, Maan Ebn Zaidat, one of the chiefs of
the Ommiyan faction, wrho had concealed himfelf in
order to avoid the caliph’s refentment, fallied out of
his retreat, and putting himfelf at the head of A1 Man-
fur’s attendants, charged the rebels with fuch fury',
that he entirely defeated them. This generofity of
Maan was fo remarkable, that it afterwards pafled in¬
to a proverb. On this occafion 6coo of the Raw an¬
dians were killed on the fpot, and the caliph delivered
from inftant death : he was, however, fo much dif-
gurted with the Arabs on account of tbis attempt, that
he refolved to remove the capital of his empire out of
their peninfula; and accordingly founded a new city on
the banks of the Tigris, which from that time to this
has been known by the name of Bagdad. The foun- He removes
dations of it were laid in the 145th year of the Hegira, the feat of
and finilhed four years after. empire to
On the removal of the feat of government to Bagdad, Bagdad*
the penii.fula of the Arabs feems all at once to have loft
its confequence, and in a ftiort time the inhabitants
feem even to have detached themfelves from the jurif-
diftion of the caliphs : for in the 156th year of the
Hegira, while A1 Manfur was yet living, they made
irruptions into Syria and Mefopotamia, as if they had
deftgned to conquer thefe countries over again for
themfelves ; and though the Arabs, properly fo called,
continued nominally fubjeft to the caliphs of Bagdad
till the abolition of the caliphate by Hulaku the Tar¬
tar, yet they did not become fubjedl to him when he
became mafter of that city. There is even the ftrong-
eft reafon to believe that the Arabs (i. e. the inhabi¬
tants of the peninfula properly called Arabia) have re¬
mained independent, not only of Hulaku, but of every
other conqueror that the world hath yet produced.
The perpetual independence of the Arabs, indeed, ,
“ has been the theme of praife among ftrangers and jfji/l \o\. v.
natives. The kingdom of Yemen, it is true, has been p. 178.
fucceflively fubdued by the Abyflinians, the Perfians, 186
the fultans of Egypt, and the Turks; the holy cities of N^tl0riaj
Mecca and Medina have repeatedly bowled under a the
Scythian tyrant ; and the Roman province of Arabia Arabs,
embraced the peculiar wildernefs in which Ifmael and
his fons muft have pitched their tents in the face of
their brethren. Yet thefe exceptions are temporary or
local; the body of the nation has efcaped the yoke off
the moft powerful monarchies : the arms of Sefoftris
and Cyrus, of Pompey and Trajan, could never a-
chieve the conqueft of Arabia ; the prefent fovereign
of the Turks may exercife a Ihadow of jurifdidlion,
but his pride is reduced to folicit the friendihip of a
people whom it is dangerous to grovokti and fruitlefs
to attack. The obvious caufes of their freedom are
inferibed on the charafter and country of the Arabs.
Many ages before Mahomet, their intrepid valour had
been feverely felt by their neighbours in offfenfive and
defenfive war. The patient and a&ive viitues of a fol-
dier
A R A [ 5
Avalna. dier are infenfibly nurfed in the habits and difcipline
0f a pa floral life. The care of the iheep and camels
is abandoned to the women of the tribe ; but the mar¬
tial youth, under the banner of the emir, is ever on
horfeback, and in the field, to praflife the exercife of
the bow, the javelin, and the fcjmitar. The long
memory of their independence is the. firmed: pledge of
its perpetuity j and fucceeding generations are animated
to prove their defcent and to maintain their inheri¬
tance. Their domeftic feuds are ful’pended on the ap¬
proach of a common enemy j and in their lad hoftili-
ties againft the Turks, the caravan of Mecca was at¬
tacked and pillaged by fourfcore thoufand of the con¬
federates. When they advance to battle, the hope of
vidory is in the front; and in the rear, the affurance of
a retreat. Their horfes and camels, who in eight or
ten days can perform a march of four or five hundred
miles, difappear before the conqueror } the fecret wa¬
ters of the defert elude his fearch; and his viflorious
troops are confumed with thirili, hunger, and fatigue,
in the purfuit of an invifible foe, who fcorns his efforts,
and fafely repofee in the heart of the burning folitude.
The arms and deferts of the Bedoweens are not only
the fafeguards of their own freedom, but the barriers
alfo of the Happy Arabia, whofe inhabitants, remote
from war, are enervated by the luxury of the foil and
climate. The legions of Auguflus melted away indif-
eafe and lafiitude ; and it is only by a naval power that
the reduction cf Yemen has been fuccefsfully attempt¬
ed. When Mahomet erefted his holy ftandard, that
kingdom was a province of the Perfian empire •, yet
feven princes of the Homerites Hill reigned in the
mountains j and the vicegerent of Chofroes was tempt-
, ed to forget his diftant country and his unfortunate
mailer. The hiftorians of the age of Juftinian repre-
fent the Hate of the independent Arabs, who were di¬
vided by interefl or affeflion in the.long quarrel of the
Eaft : the tribe of Ghaflan was allowed to encamp on
the Syrian territory j the princes of Hira were per¬
mitted to form a city about 40 miles to the fouthward
of the ruins of Babylon. Their fervice in the field
was fpeedy and vigorous; but their friendlhip was ve¬
nal, their faith inconflant, their enmity capricious :
it was an eafier talk to excite than to difarm thefe
roving barbarians : and, in the familiar intercourfe of
war, they learned to fee, and to defpife, the fplendid
weaknefs both of Rome and of Perfia. From Mecca
to the Euphrates, the Arabian tribes vtfere confound¬
ed by the Greeks and Latins, under the general ap¬
pellation of Saracens ; a name which every Chriftian
mouth has been taught to pronounce with terror and
1S7 ' abhorrence.
Their do- “ The ilaves of domellic tyranny may vainly exult in
<1 (hn*a’*|C6"their national independence; but the Arab is perfon-
-chara&er. *'ree ’ an(* enj°ys? ^ fome degree, the benefits
of fociety, without forfeiting the prerogatives of na¬
ture. In every tribe, fuperftition, or gratitude, or
fortune, has exalted a particular family above the heads
of their equals. The dignities of Iheich and emir in¬
variably defcend in this chofen race ; but the order of
fucceffion is loofe and precarious ; and the rnofl worthy
or aged of the noble kinfmen are preferred to the
fimple, though important, office of compoling difputes
by their advice, and guiding valour by their example.
The momentary jumflion offeveral tribes produces an
3 ] • A R A
army : their more lading union conllitutes a nation ; Arabia,
and the fupreme chief, the emir of emirs, whofe ban- ■ v
ner is difplayed at their head, may deferve, in the eyes
of Itrangers, the honours of the kingly name. If the
Arabian princes abufe their power, they are quickly
punifhed by the defertion of their fubjedts, who had
been accullomed to a mild and parental jurildidtion.
Their fpirit is free, their Heps are unconfined, the de¬
fert is open, and the tribes and families are held toge¬
ther by a mutual and voluntary compadl. The fofter na
tives of Yemen fupported the pomp and majefty of a
monarch ; but if. he could not leave his palace without
endangering his life, the adlive powers of government
mull have been devolved on his nobles and magillrates.
The cities of Mecca and Medina prefent, in the heart of
Alia, the form or rather the fubftance of a common ¬
wealth. The grandfather of Mahomet, and his lineal
ancellors, appear in foreign and domellic tranfadtions
as the princes of their country ; but they reigned like
Pericles at Athens, or the Medici at Florence, by the
opinion of their wifdom and integrity : their influence
was divided with their patrimony ; and the feeptre was
transferred from the uncles of the prophet to a younger
branch of the tribe of Koreilh. On folemn occafions
they convened the aflembly of the people ; and, fince
mankind mull be either compelled or perfuaded to
obey, the ufe and reputation of oratory among the an¬
cient Arabs is the cleared: evidence of public freedom.
But their Ample freedom was of a very different call
from the nice and artificial machinery of the Greek and
Roman republics, in which each member polfelfed an
undivided lhare of the civil and political rights of the
community. In the more Ample Hate of the Arabs,
the nation is free, becaufe each of her Ions difdains a
bafe fubmiflion to the will of a mailer. His breaft is
fortified with the auftere virtues of courage, patience,
and fobriety ; the love of independence prompts him
to exercife the habits of felf-command ; and the fear
of dilhonour guards him from the meaner apprehenfion
of pain, of danger, and of death. The gravity and
firmnefs of the mind is confpicuous in its outward de¬
meanour : his fpeech is flow, weighty, and concife ; he
is feldom provoked to laughter; his only geflure is
that of ftroaking his beard, the venerable fymbol of
manhood ; and the fenfe of his own importance teaches
him to accoft his equals without levity, and his fuperi-
ors without awe. The liberty of the Saracens furvi-
ved their conquefts : the firft caliphs indulged the bold
and familiar language of their fubje£ls: they afeended
the pulpit to perfuade and edify the congregation ;
nor wTas it before the feat of empire was removed to
the Tigris, that the Abbaflides adopted the proud
and pompous ceremopial of the Perfian and Byzantine
courts. igg
“ In the fludy of nations and men, we may obferve civil wars
the caufes that renderThem hoflile or friendly to each and private
other, that tend to narrow7 or enlarge, to mollify or1'6'’611©0,
exafperate, the focial character. The feparation of
the Arabs from the reft of mankind has accuftomed
them to confound the ideas of ftranger and enemy ;
and the poverty of the land has introduced a maxim
of jurifprudence, which they believe and praclife to
the prefent hour. They pretend, that in the divifion
of the earth the rich and fertile climates were afligned
to the other branches of the human family ; and that
3 U 2 the
s
A R A
Arabia.
189
Annual
truce.
the pollerity of the outlaw Ifmael might recover, by
J fraud or force, the portion of inheritance of which he
had been unjuftly deprived. According to the remark
of Pliny, the Arabians tribes are equally addi&ed to
theft and merchandile : the caravans that traverfe the
defert are ranfomed or pillaged j and their neighbours,
lince the remote times of Job and Sefoflris, have been
the victims of their rapacious fpirit. If a Bedoween
difcovers from afar a folitary traveller, he rides furi-
oufly againft him, crying, with a loud voice, “ Undrefs
thyfelf; thy aunt, {my wife) is without a garment.” A
ready fubmiffion entitles him to mercy; refillance will
provoke the aggreffor, and his own blood muft expiate
the blood which he prefumes to fhed in legitimate de¬
fence. A fingle robber, or a few aflbeiates, are brand¬
ed with their genuine name *, but the exploits of a
numerous band affume the charafler of lawful and ho¬
nourable war. The temper of a people, thus armed
ag'ainft mankind, was doubly inflamed by the domellic
licenfe of rapine, murder, and revenge. In the con-
ftitution of Europe, the right of peace and war is
now confined to a fmall, and the actual exercife to a
much fmaller, lift of refpeftable potentates ; but each
Arab, with impunity and renown, might point his
javelin againft the life of his countryman. The union of
the nation confifted only in a vague refemblance of lan¬
guage and manners; and in each community the jurif-
diction of the magiftrate was mute and impotent. Of
the time of ignorance which preceded Mahomet, 1700
battles are recorded by tradition : hoftility was embit¬
tered with the rancour of civil faftion ; and the re¬
cital, in profe or verfe, of an obfolete feud was fuf-
ficient to rekindle the fame paflions among the defeend-
ants of the hoftile tribes. In private life, every man,
at leaft every family, was the judge and avenger of its
own caufe. The nice fenfibility of honour, which
■weighs the infult rather than the injury, Iheds its dead¬
ly venom on the quarrels of the Arabs : the honour
of their women, and of their beards, is moft eafily
wounded ; an indecent aflion, a contemptuous word,
can be expiated only by the blood of the offender;
and fuch is their patient inveteracy, that they expedt
whole months and years the opportunity of revenge.
A fine or compenfation for murder is familiar to the
barbarians of every age : but in Arabia the kinfmen
of the dead are at liberty to accept the atonement, or
to exercife w ith their owrn hands the law of retaliation.
The refined malice of the Arabs refufes even the head
of the murderer, fubftitutes an innocent to the guilty
perfon, and transfers the penalty to the beft and moft
confiderable of the race by whom they have been in¬
jured. If he falls by their hands, they are expofed in
their turn to the danger of reprifals ; the intereft and
principal of the bloody debt are accumulated 5 the in¬
dividuals of either family lead a life of malice and fuf-
picion, and 50 years may fometimes elapfe before the
account of vengeance be finally fettled. This fangui-
nary fpirit, ignorant of pity or forgivenefs, has been
moderated, however, by the maxims of honour, which
require in every private encounter fome decent equa¬
lity of age and ftrength, of numbers and weapons.
An annual fellival of two, perhaps of four months,
was obferved by the Arabs before the time of Mahomet;
during which their fwords were religioufly (heathedboth
in foreign and comeftic hoftility : and this partial truce
[ SH 1
A R A
is more ftrongly expreftive of the habits of anarchy Arabia,
and warfare. 1 v -1
“ But the fpirit of rapine and revenge w’as attempered
by the milder influence of trade and literature. The ciai quaii_
folitary peninfula is encompaffed by the moft civilized fications
nations of the ancient world ; the merchant is the and virtues,
friend of mankind j and the annual caravans imported
the firft feeds of knowledge and politenefs into the cities,
and even the camps of the defert. The arts of gram¬
mar, of metre, and of rhetoric, were unknown to the
freeborn eloquence of the Arabians; but their pene¬
tration wras fliarp, their fancy luxuriant, their wit
ftrong and fententious, and their more elaborate com-
pofitions were addreffed with energy and efteft to the Love of
minds of their hearers. The genius and merit of a poetry,
rifing poet was celebrated by the applaufe of his owrn
and the kindred tribes. A folemn banquet w7as pre¬
pared, and a chorus of women, ftriking their cymbals,
and difplaying the pomp of their nuptials, fung in the
prefence of their fons and hufbands the felicity of their
native tribe } that a champion had now appeared to
vindicate their rights; that a herald had raifed his
voice to immortalize their renow n. The diftant or
hoftile tribes reforted to an annual fair which was abo-
liflied by the fanaticifm of the firft Moilems 5 a nation¬
al affembly that muft have contributed to refine and
harmonize the barbarians. Thirty days wrere employ¬
ed in the exchange, not only of corn and wane, but
of eloquence and poetry. The prize w’as difputed by
the generous emulation of the bards j the vidlorious
performance was depofited in the archives of princes
and emirs j and we may read in our own language the
feven original poems which w7ere inferibed in letters of
gold and fufpended in the temple of Mecca. The
Arabian poets were the hiftorians and moralifts of the
age ; and if they fympathized with the prejudices, they
infpired and crowned the virtues of their countrymen.
The indifibluble union of generofity and valour wras
the darling theme of their fong •, and when they point¬
ed their keeneft fatire againft a defpicable race, they
affirmed, in the bitternefs of reproach, that the men
knew not how to give, nor the women to deny. The
fame hofpitality which was pra&ifed by Abraham, and
celebrated by Homer, is ftill renewed in the camps
of the Arabs. The ferocious Bedow-eens, the terror
of the defert, embrace, without inquiry or hefitation,
the ftranger who dares to confide in their honour and
to enter their tent. His treatment is kind and re-
fpeftful: he fliares the wealth or the poverty of his
hoft ; and, after a needful repofe, he is difmifled on
his way, with thanks, with bleffings, and perhaps with
gifts.
o f m m J O'Z
“ The religion ox the Arabs, as well as of the Indi- Ancient
ans, confifted in the w orfliip of the fun, the moon, and idolatry,
the fixed ftars 5 a primitive and fpecious mode of fu-
perftition. The bright luminaries of the (ky difplay
the vilible image of a Deity : their number and diftance
convey to a philofophic, or even a vulgar eye, the idea
of boundlefs fpace : the charafler of eternity is mark¬
ed on thefe folid globes, that feem incapable of cor¬
ruption or decay : the regularity of their motions may
be aferibed to a principle of reafon or. inftinfl ; and
their real or imaginary influence encourages the vain
belief that the earth and its inhabitants are the object
of their peculiar care. The fcience of aftronomy was
cultivated
- A R A
Arabia, cultivated at Babylon ; but the fcbool of the Arabs
i-—~v ' “1' was a clear firmament and a naked plain. their
nofturnal marches, they fleered by the guidance of the
Bars : their names, and Older, and daily llation, were
familiar to the curiofity and devotion of the Bedo-
ween 5 and he was taught by experience to divide in
28 parts the zodiac of the moon, and to blefs the con-
ftellations who refrefhed, with falutary rains, the thiril
of the defert. The reign of the heavenly orbs could
not be extended beyond the viable Iphere j and fome
metaphyfical powers were neceffary to fuflain the tranf-
migration of fouls and the refurredlion of bodies ; a
camel was left to perifh on the grave, that he might
ferve his mailer in another life *, and the invocation of
departed fpirits implies that they were ftill endowed
with confcioufnefs and power. Each tribe, each fami¬
ly, each independent warrior, created and changed the
rites and the obje£l of his fantaftic worfhip ; but the
nation, in every age, has bowed to the religion as
■well as to the language of Mecca. The genuine an-
ii, tiquity of the Caaba extends beyond the Chriilian era.
The Caaba In defcribing the coaft of the Red fea, the Greek hi-
or temple llorian Diodorus has remarked between the Thaumau-
ot Mecca, dites and the Sabaeans, a famous temple, whofe fupe-
rior fan£lity was revered by a// the Arabians : the li¬
nen or filken veil, which is annually renewed by the
Turkifh emperor, was firil offered by a pious king of
the Homerites, who reigned 700 years before the time
of Mahomet. A tent or a cavern might fuffice for
the worfhip of the favages, but an edifice of flone and
clay has been creeled in its place ; and the art and
power of the monarchs of the call have been confined
to the fimplicity of the original model. A fpacious por¬
tico enclofes the quadrangle of the Caaba; a fquare cha¬
pel, 24 cubits long, 23 broad, and 27 high ; a door and
a window admit the light ; the double roof is fupported
by three pillars of wmod ; a fpout (now of gold) dif-
charges the rain wrater, and the well Zemzem is pro-
te£led by a dome from accidental pollution. The tribe
of Koreiih, by fraud or force, had acquired the cuftody
of the Caaba ; the facerdotal office devolved through
four lineal defcents to the grandfather of Mahomet •,
and the family of the Haffiemites, from whence he
fprung, was the moft refpedlable and facred in the eyes
of their country. The precindls of Mecca enjoyed the
rights of fancluary ; and, in the laft month of each
year, the city and the temple were crowded with a
long train of pilgrims, who prefented their vows and
offerings in the houfe of God. The fame rites which
are now accomplifhed by the faithful Muffulmen were
invented and pradlifed by the fuperffition of the idola¬
ters. At an awful diftance they caff away their gar¬
ments : feven times, with hafty fteps, they encircled
the Caaba, and kiffed the black ftone ; feven times
they vifited and adored the adjacent mountains ; feven
times they threw Hones into the valley of Mina; and
the pilgrimage was achieved, as at the prefent hour,
by a facrifice of fheep and camels, and the burial of
their hairs and nails in the confecrated ground. Each
tribe either found or introduced into the Caaba their
domeftic worlhip ; the temple was adorned or defiled
with 360 idols of men, eagles, lions, and antelopes ;
and moft confpicuous was the ftatue of Hebal, of red
agate, holding in his hand feven arrows, without head?
or feathers, the inftruments and fymbols cf profane di-
A R A
vination. But this ftatue wTas a monument of Syrian Arabia*
arts ; the devotion of the ruder ages was content with V ‘ J
a pillar or a tablet ; and the rocks of the defert were
hewn into gods or altars, in imitation of the black
ftone of Mecca, which is deeply tainted with the re- ^
proach of an idolatrous origin. From Japan to Peru, Sacrifices
the ufe of facrifice has univerfally prevailed ; and the and rites,
votary has expreffed his gratitude or fear by deftroying
or confirming, in honour of the gods, the deareft and
moft precious of their gifts. The life of a man is the
moft precious oblation to deprecate a public calamity;
the altars of Phoenicia and Egypt, of Rome and Car¬
thage, have been polluted with human gore , the cruel
pradlice was long preferved among the Arabs ; in the
third century, a boy wras annually facrificed by the
tribe of the Dumatians ; and a royal captive was pi-
oufly flaughtered by the prince of the Saracens, the
ally and foldier of the emperor Juftinian. The father
of Mahomet himfelf was devoted by a rafh vow, and
hardly ranfomed for the equivalent of 100 camels. The
Arabs, like the Jews and Egyptians, abftained from
the tafte of fwine’s flefh ; and they circumcifed their
children at the age of puberty : the fame cuftoms,
without the cenfure or the precept of the Koran, have
been lilently tranfmitted to their pofterity and profe-
lytes *, and it has been fagacioufly conjectured, that the
artful legillator indulged the ftubborn prejudices of his
countrymen. „
“ Arabia was free: From the adjacent kingdoms,Intrcduc--
wffiich wTere ftraken by the ftorms of conqueft and ty-fton.°ftlie
ranny, the perfecuted lefts fled to the happy land where Sabians'
they might p.rofefs what they thought, and praftife
what they profeffed ; and the religions of the Sabians
and Magians, of the Jewrs and Chriftians, were diffe-
minated from the Perfian gulf to the Red fea. In
a remote period of antiquity, Sabianifm was diff'ufed
over Afia by the fcience of the Chaldeans and the
arms of the Affyrians. From the obfervations of 2000
years, the priefts and aftronomers of Babylon deduced
the eternal laws of nature and providence. They ado¬
red the feven gods or angels who direfted the courfe
of the feven planets, and Ihed their irrefiftible influence
on the earth. The attributes of the feven planets,
with the twelve figns of the zodiac, and the twenty-
four conftellations of the northern and fouthern hemi-
fphere, were reprefented by images and talifmans;
the feven days of the week wyere dedicated to their re-
fpeftive deities ; the Sabians prayed thrice each day ;
and the temple of the moon at Haran was the term of
their pilgrimage. But the flexible genius of their faith l9g
was always ready either to teach or to learn. The al-The Magi*
tars of Babylon were overturned by the Magians ; butans*
the injuries of the Sabians wrere revenged by the fword
of Alexander. Perfia groaned about 500 years under
a foreign yoke ; and the pureft difciples of Zoroafter
efcaped from the contagion of idolatry, and breathed
with their adverfaries the freedom of the defert. Se¬
ven hundred years before the death of Mahomet the
Jews were fettled in Arabia : and a far greater multi-The Jews,
tude wras expelled from the holy land in the wars of
Titus and Hadrian. The induftrious exiles afpired to
liberty and powder : they erefted fynagogues in the
cities and caftles in the wildernefs; and their Gentile
converts were confoimded with the children of Ifrael,
whom they refembied in the outward mark of circum-
cifion.
[ 5>s 1
A R A
[ 5^6 ]
A R A
193
The Chri
Ilians.
Arabia, cinon. The Chriftian rniffionaries were ftill more ac-
' tire and fuccefsful: the Catholics afferted their univer-
fal reign ; the fe£b whom they oppreffed fuccetlively
retired beyond the limits of the Roman empire ; the
Marcionites and Manichseans difperfed their fantqftic
opinions and apocryphal gofpels j the churches of Ye¬
men, and the princes of Hira and Ghaffan, were in-
fcru&ed in a purer creed by the Jacobite and Neftorian
bifhops.” Such was the Hate of religion in Arabia
previous to the appearance of Mahomet- See 22.
fupra.
As the Arabs are one of the moft ancient nations in
the world, having inhabited the country they at prefent
polfefs almoft from the deluge, without intermixing
with other nations, or being fubjugated by any foreign
power, their language mull have been formed foon af¬
ter, if not at, the confufion of Babel, The two princi¬
pal dialedls of it were, that fpoken by the Hamyarites
and other genuine Arabs, and that of the Koreifh, in
which Mahomet wrote the Koran. The firft is Hyled by
the Oriental writers the Arabic of Hamyar, and the
other the pure or defecated. As Yarab, grandfather of
Hamyar, is fuppofed by the Oriental writers to have
been the firll whofe tongue deviated from the Syriac to
the Arabic, the Hamyaritic dialeft according to them
rauft have approached nearer to the purity of the Sy¬
riac 5 and confequently have been more remote from the
true genius of the Arabic than that of any other tribe.
The dialeft of the Koreifh, termed by the Koran the
perfpicuous and clear Arabic, is referred to Ifhmael as
its author 5 who, fay the above-mentioned writers, firlt
fpoke it $ and, as Dr Pococke believes, after he had con-
trafted an alliance with the family of Jorham by mar¬
riage, formed it of their language and the original He¬
brew. As, therefore, the Hamyaritic dialeft partook
principally of the Syriac, fo that of the Koreilh w7as
fuppofed to confift chiefly of the Hebrew. But, ac¬
cording to Tallalo’ddin, the politenefs and elegance
of the dialefi of the Koreifh ought rather to be attri¬
buted to their having, from the remotefl: antiquity,
the cuflody of the Caaba, and dwelling in Mecca the
centre of Arabia. The Arabs are full of the commert-
dations of their language, which is very harmonious,
expreflive, and, as they fay, fo immenfely copious, that
no man uninfpired can be a perfeft mailer of it in its
utmoft extent. How much, in this laft article, it is
liiperior to the Greek and Latin tongues, in fome
meafure appears from hence, that fometimes a bare
enumeration of the Arabic names of one particular
thing, and an explication of them, will make a confi-
derable volume. Notwithflanding this, the Arabs
believe the greateft part of their language to be loll j
which will not feem improbable, when we confider how
late the art of writing became generally pra£lifed
among them.' For though it was known to Job their
countryman, to the Edomites, as well as the other Ara¬
bian nations bordering upon Egypt and Phoenicia, and
to the Hamyarites many centuries before Mahomet, as
appears from fome ancient monuments faid to be re¬
maining in their character : yet the other Arabs, and
thofe of Mecca in particular, unlefs fuch of them as
were either Jews or Chriftians, were to the time of Mo-
tamer perfectly ignorant of it. It was the ancient A-
rabic language preceding the reign of Jullinian, which
fo nearly refembled the Ethiopic ; for fmee that time,
and efpecially fmee the age of Mahomet, all the Arabic Arabia,
dialefts have been not a little corrupted. This is now
the learned language of the Mahometans, who ftudy it •
as the European Chriftians. do the Hebrew, Greek, and
Latin. < 19,
The character ufed by them, the moH ancient of any Lettew.
peculiar to the Arabs, wherein the letters were not di-
llindtly feparate, -went by the appellation of Al Mof-
nad, from the -mutual dependency of its letters or parts
upon one another. This was neither publicly taught,
nor fuffered to be ufed, without permiflion firlt obtain¬
ed. Could we depend upon what Al Firauzabadius re¬
lates from Ebn Halhem, this charadler mult have been
of a very high antiquity $ fince an infeription in it, ac¬
cording to the tail author, was found in Yaman as old
as the time of Jofeph. Be that as it will, Moramer
Ebn Mona of Anbar, a city of Irak, who lived not
many years before Mahomet; was the inventor of the
prelent Arabic character, which Balhar the Kendian,
who married the filler of Abu Sofian, is faid to have
learned from the houfe of Anbar, and to have introdu¬
ced at Mecca but a little time before the inltitution of
Mahometifm. M'oramer’s alphabet the Oriental au¬
thors agree to have been very different from the an¬
cient one of the Hamyarites, fince they diltinguilh the
Hamyaritic and Arabic pens. In Mahomet’s time,
the Morameric alphabet had made fo fmall a progrels,
that no one in Yaman could either write or read it $
nay, Mahomet himfelf was incapable of doing either j
for which reafon he was called the illiterate prophet.
The letters of this alphabet were very rude ; being ei¬
ther the fame with, or very much like, the Cufic;
which character is Hill found in inlcriptions and the
titles of ancient books ; nay, for many years, it was
the only one ufed by the Arabs, the Koran itlelf being
at firlt written therein. In order to perpetuate the
memory of Moramer’s invention, fome authors call the
Arabic letters al Moramer, i. e. the progeny of Mora¬
mer. The moH remarkable fpecimens ol the Cufic cha¬
racter (fo denominated from Cufa, a city of Irak,
where lome.of the firH copies of the Koran were writ¬
ten) are the following : Part of that book in it on vel¬
lum, brought from Egypt by Mr Greaves ; fome other
fragments of the fame book in it publiflied by Sir John
Chardin ; certain paifages of a MS. in the Bodleian
library ; the legends on leveral Saracenic coins dug
up not many years ago on the coaH of the Baltic, not
far from Dantzic ; and, according to Mr Profefl’or
Plunt, thofe noble remains of it that are, or were late¬
ly, to be feen in Mr Jofeph Ames’s valuable collection
of antique curiofities. As to the true origin of the an¬
cient and modern Arabic alphabets, we mult own our-
felves pretty much in the dark. See Alphabet. ^
The Arabian learning may be divided into two pe- Learning,
riods, viz. Ante-Mahometan and Mahometan. &.c.
The Arab learning, in this firH period, confifted,
according to Abulpharagius, in the knowledge of their
language, the propriety of difeourfe, the compofitiou
of verfe, and the fcience of the flars ,: but their chief
attention feems to have been direCted to oratory and
poetry.
The fame period is more diltinguifhed, at leafl
from the time of Al-Mamon, the feventh caliph of
the family of the Abaflides, who flouriflied about the
year 820, and has the honour of being the founder of
the
A R A
Arabia, the modern Arabian learning. Ke fent for all the bell
v books out of Chaldea, Greece, Egypt, and Periia, re¬
lating to phyfic, aftronomy, cofmography, muftc, chro¬
nology, &c. and penfioned a number of learned men,
{killed in the feveral languages and fciences, to tranf-
late them into Arabic. By this, means, divers of the
Greek authors, loft in their own country and language,
have been preferved in Arabic. From that time Ara¬
bia became the chief feat of learning ; and we find
mention by Abulpharagius, Pococke, D’Herbelot, and
Hottinger, of learned men, and books without number.
The revival of learning in the tenth century, by
Gerbert, known after his elevation to the pontificate
by the title of Silvefter II. and afterwards among the
Europeans in general, may be afcribed to the inftruc-
tions and waitings of the Arabian doctors and philofo-
phers, and to the fchools which they founded in feve¬
ral parts of Spain and Italy. And in the 12th centu¬
ry, the inquifitive of different countries frequented the
fchools of the Saracens in Spain, and difieminated the
knowledge which they obtained there after their re¬
turn. At this time, many of the learned produtffions
of the Arabians were tranflated into Latin, which fa-
^cilitated the general progrefs of fcience.
The philofophy of the Arabians, before Mahomet,
was Sabian, and included the fyftem and ceremonies
of that fe6l of idolaters. This it was that Mahomet
fet himfelf to decry \ and he is even faid by fome to
have carried his oppofition fo far, as to prohibit, if not
punifti, all ftudy of philofophy. But his followers,'by
degrees, got over this reftraint : the love of learning
increafed 5 till, under the memorable caliphate of A1
Mamon, Ariftotle’s phflofophy was introduced and
eftablifhed among them j and from them propagated,
with their conquefts, through Egypt, Africa, Spain,
and other parts.. As they chofe Ariftotle for their
mafter, they chiefly applied themfelves to that part of
philofophy called logic, and thus became proficients in
the knowledge of words rather than things. Whence
they have been fometimes denominated Majlers of the
wiflom of words ; fometimes the Talking feSl. Their
philofophy was involved in quaint arbitrary terms and
notions, and their demonftrations drawn from thence
as from certain principles, &c. Walch Hill. Lo?. Lib.
Tl.fec. 2. $1.
Their phyfic fucceeded the Grecian *, and their phy-
ficians handed down the art to us, having made confi-
derable improvements, chiefly in the pharmaceutical
and chemical parts.
It is certain we owe to them moft of our fpices and
aromatics, as nutmegs, cloves, mace, and other matters
of the produce of India. We may add, that moft of
the gentler purgatives were unknown to the Greeks,
and firft introduced by the Arabs, as manna, fenna,
rhubarb, tamarinds, caffia, &c. They likewife brought
fugar into ufe in phyfic, where, before, only honey *
was ufed. I hey alfo found the art of preparing wa¬
ters and oils, of divers fimples, by diftillation and fub-
limation. The firft notice of the finallpox and the
meafles is likewife owing to them. Laftly, The refto-
ration of phyfic in Europe took its rife from their
writings. M. le Clerc has given a {ketch, and Dr
Freind an ample hiftory, of the Arabian phyfic. We
have alfo a Notiiia of all the Arabian phvficians by Fa-
bricius.
[ 527 ]
A R A
Their poetry may be divided into two ages. The Arabia,
ancient, according to Voftius, was no other than rhym- ' ''
ing j was'a ftranger to all meafure and rule j the ver-
fes loofe and irregular, confined to no feet, number of
fyllables, or any thing elfe, fo that they rhymed at the
* end : oftentimes all the verfes in the poem ended with
the fame rhyme. It is in fuch verfe that the Alcoran is-
faid to be written.
The modern Arabian poetry takes its date from the
caliphate of A1 Rafchid, who lived toward the dole
of the eighth century. Under him poetry became an
art, and laws of profody were laid down. Their com-
parifons, in which they abound, are -.akeh, with little
choice, from tents, camels, hunting, and the ancient
manners of the Arabs. 20r
That fome of the Arabs had a good degree of know- Mechanical
ledge in feveral mechanical arts, appears from Strabo, arts*
who informs us, that the people of Tamna and the ad¬
jacent provinces had magnificent temples, and elegant
houfes, built in the Egyptian tafte. The fame author
likewife relates, that in Arabia Felix, befides the hui-
bandmen, there were many artificers j and, amongll
others, thofe who made palm wine, which, he inti¬
mates, was much ufed by the Arabs. As for the ex-
ercife of arms and horfemanlhip, they looked upon this
as one of their principal accompliftiments, being oblig¬
ed to pra&ife and encourage it by reafon of the inde¬
pendency of their tribes, whole frequent jarring made
wars almoft continual amongft them, which for the moft
part ended in field battles. Hence it became an ufual
faying amongft them, that God had beftowed four pe¬
culiar things on the Arabs, viz. turbans infead of dia¬
dems, tents infead of walls and houfes, fwords infead
of intrenchments, and poems irfead of written laws.
The principal arms ufed by the ancient Arabs were
bows and arrows, darts or javelins, and broadfwords
or feimitars. The bows and arrows were the moft an¬
cient.of thefe ; being ufed by Iftvmael himfelf, accor¬
ding to Scripture. It is probable alfo, that fome of
them were acquainted with every branch of the mili¬
tary art cultivated by their neighbours the Egyptians^
Syrians, and Phoenicians.
Before the Portuguefe interrupted the navigation of Commerce,
the Red fea, the Arabs were the fadlors of all the trade
that paffed through that channel. Aden, which is
fituated at the moft fouthern extremity of Arabia upon
the Indian ocean, was the mart in thofe parts. The
fituation of its harbour, which opened an eafy commu¬
nication with Egypt, Ethiopia, India, and Perfia, had
rendered it, for many ages, one of the moft flourilhing
fa&ories in Afia. Fifteen years after it had repulfed
the great Albuquerque, who attempted to demolilh it
in 1513, it fubmitted to the Turks, who did not long
remain mafters of it. The king of Yemen, who pof-
fcfted the only diftridl in Arabia that merits the title
of Happy, drove them from thence, and removed the
trade to Mocha, a place in his dominions which till
then was only a village.
This trade was at firft: inconfiderable; confifting
principally in myrrh, incenfe, aloes, balm of Mecca,
fome aromatics, and medicinal drugs. Thefe articles,
the exportation of which is continually retarded by
exorbitant impofts, and does not exceed at prefent
30,625!. wmre at that time more in repute than they
have been fince : but muft have been always of littls
confequence.
A R A [ 52S ] A R A
Arabia, confequence. Soon after a great change enfued from
tjle Jntrodu6lion of coffee.
Though this article is generally ufed in the Arabian
entertainments, none but the rich citizens have the
pleafure of tailing the berry itfelf. The generality are
obliged to content themfelves with the Ihell and the
hulk of this valuable production. Thefe remains, fo
much defpifed, make a liquor of a pretty clear colour,
which has a talle of coffee without its bitternefs and
ftrength. Thefe articles may be had at a low price at
Betelfagui, which is the general market for them.
Here likewife is fold all the coffee which comes out of
the country by land. The reft is carried to Mocha,
which is 35 leagues diftant, or to the nearer ports of
Lochia or Hodeida, from whence it is tranfported in
fmall veffels to Jodda. The Egyptians fetch it from
the laft mentioned place, and all other nations from
the former.
The quantity of coffee exported may be eftimated at
twelve millions five hundred and fifty thoufand w'eight.
The European companies take off a million and a hall;
the Perfians three millions and a half; the fleet from
Suez fix millions and a half; Indoftan, the Maldives,
-and the Arabian colonies on the coaft of Africa, fifty
thoufand ; and the caravans a million.
As the coffee which is bought up by the caravans
and the Europeans is the beft that can be procured,
it cofts about 84-d. a pound. The Perfians, wrho con¬
tent themfelves with that af an inferior quality, pay
no more than about 6\d. a pound. The Egyptians
purchafe it at the rate of about 8d; their cargoes
being compofed partly of good and partly of bad cof¬
fee. If we eftimate coffee at about 7-|d. a pound,
which is the mean price, the profits accruing to Arabia
from its annual exportation will amount to 384,343b
15s. This money does not go into their coffers; but
it enables them to purchafe the commodities brought
from the foreign markets to their ports of Jodda and
Mocha.
Mocha receives from Abyffinia, fheep, elephants
teeth, mufk, and flaves. It is fupplied from the eaft-
ern coaft of Africa with gold, flaves, amber, and ivo¬
ry ; from the Perfian gulf, with dates, tobacco, and
corn ; from Surat, with a vaft quantity of coarfe, and
a few fine linens ; from Bombay and Pondicherry, with
iron, lead, and copper, which are carried thither from
Europe ; from Malabar, with rice, ginger, pepper, In¬
dian faffron, with coire, cardamom, and alfo with
planks ; from the Maldives, with gum, benzoin, aloes
wood, and pepper, wrhich thefe illands take in ex¬
change ; from Coromandel, with 40Q or 500 babes of
cottons, chiefly blue. The greateft part of thde com¬
modities, which may fetch 262,500b are confumed in
the interior part of the country. The reft, particular¬
ly the cottons, are difpofed of in AbyfTmia, Socotora,
and the eaftern coaft of Africa.
None of the branches of bufinefs which are managed
at Mocha, as well as throughout all the country of Ya-
man, or even at Sanaa the capital, are in the hands of
the natives. The extortions with which they are per¬
petually threatened by the government deter them from
interfering in them. All the w^arehoufes are occupied
by the Banians of Surat or Guzerat, who make a point
of returning to their own country as foon as they have
made their fortunes. They then refign their fettlements
to merchants of their own nation, who retire in their Arabia,
turn, and are fucceeded by others. .
The European companies, wftio enjoy the exclufive
privilege of trading beyond the Cape of Good Hope,
formerly maintained agents at Mocha. Notwithftand-
ing it was ftipulated by a folemn capitulation, that the
impofts demanded ihould be rated at two and a quar¬
ter per cent, they were fubjeft to frequent extortions:
the governor of the place infilling on their making him
prefents which enabled him to purchafe the favour of
the courtiers, or even of the prince himfelf. However
the profits they obtained by the fale of European goods,
particularly cloths, made them fubmit to thefe repeat¬
ed humiliations. When thefe feveral articles were fur-
nilhed by Grand Cairo, it was then impoflible to with-
ftand the competition, and the fixed fettlements were
therefore given up.
The trade was carried on by ftrips that failed from
Europe with iron, lead, copper, and lilver, fufficient
to pay for the coffee they intended to buy. The fuper-
cargoes, who had the care of thefe tranfaflions, fettled
the accounts every time they returned. Thefe voyages,
which at firft w7ere pretty numerous and advantageous,
have been fucceflively laid afide. The plantations of
coffee, made by the European nations in their colonies,
have equally leffened the confmnption and the price of
that which comes from Arabia. In procefs of time,
thefe voyages did not yield a fufficient profit to anfwer
the high charges of undertaking them on purpofe.
The companies of England and France then refolved,
one of them to fend ftrips from Bombay, and the other
from Pondicherry, to Mocha, with the merchandife of
Europe and India. They even frequently had recourfe
to a method that was Ids expenfive. The Englifh and
French vifft the Red fea every year. Though they dif-
pofe of their merchandife there to good advantage, they
can never take in cargoes from thence for their return.
They carry, for a moderate freight, the coffee belong-'
ing to the companies, who lade the veffels with it,
which they defpatch from Malabar and Coromandel to
Europe. The Dutch company, who prohibit their
fervants from fitting out (hips, and who fend no veffels
themfelves to the gulf of Arabia, are deprived of the
{hare they might take in this branch of commerce.
They have alio given up a much more lucrative branch,
that of Jodda.
Jodda is a port fituated near the middle of the gulf
of Arabia, 20 leagues from Mecca. The govern¬
ment there is of a mixed kind : the grand fignior and
the xeriff of Mecca {hare the authority and the reve¬
nue of the cuftoms between them. Thefe impofts are
levied upon the Europeans at the rate of 8 pet' cent.
and upon other nations at 13. They are always paid
in merchandife, which the managers oblige the mer¬
chants of the country to buy at a very dear rate. The
Turks who have been driven from Aden, Mocha, and
every part of Yaman, would long ago have been ex¬
pelled from Jodda, if there had not been room to ap¬
prehend that they might revenge themfelves in fuch a
manner as to put an end to their pilgrimages and com¬
merce. > 203
The coins which are current at Mocha, the prin- Coins,
cipal port of the Red fea, are dollars of all kinds ; but
they abate five per cent, on the pillar dollars, becauie
they are reckoned not to be the pureft fflver, and the
dollar
A R A [ 529 ] A R A
Oum Ara- dollar weight with them is 17 drachms 14 grains. All
'(’1C their coins are taken by weight, and valued according
Aracan. to thm1- purenefs. The gold coins current here are
i*—y—w ducats of Venice, Germany, Turkey, Egypt, &c. The
comafles are a fmall coin, which are taken at fuch a
price as the government fets on them j and they keep
their accounts in an imaginary coin, called cabecrs, of
which 80 go to a dollar. For an account of the an¬
cient coins called dinars and dirhems, fee thefe two ar¬
ticles.
Gum ARABIC. See Gum.
AR/kBICI, a fe£! who fprung up in Arabia about
the year 207, whofe diftinguifhing tenet was, that the
foul died with the body, and alfo rofe again with it.
Eufebius, lib. vi. c. 38. relates, that a council w7as
called to Hop the progrefs of this riling feft ; and that
Origen affitted at it, and convinced them fo thorough¬
ly of their error that they abjured it.
ARABIS, BASTARD TOWER MUSTARD. See Bo-
tany Index.
ARABISM, Arabimus, an idiom or manner of
ipeaking peculiar to the Arabs or the Arabic lan-
guage.
ARABIST, a perfon curious of, and (killed in, the
learning and languages of the Arabians : fuch were
Erpenius and Golius. The furgeons of the 13th cen¬
tury are called Arabijis by Severinus.
ARABLE lands, thofe which are fit for tillage,
or which have been formerly tilled.
ARACAN, the capital of a fmall kingdom to the
north-eail of the bay of Bengal, fituated in E. Long.
93. o. N. Lat. 20. 30. It has the conveniency of afpa-
cious river, and a harbour large enough to hold all the
ihips in Europe. It is faid by Schouten to be as large
as Amlterdam j but the houfes are flight, being made
with palm trees and bamboo canes, and covered with
leaves of trees. They are feldom above fix feet high,
but have many windows or air holes. But the people
of the higheft rank are much better accommodated.
They have no kitchens, chimneys, or cellars, which
obliges the women to drefs the viftuals out of doors.
Some of the ftreets are on the ridges of rocks, where¬
in are a great many fliops. Their orchards and gar¬
dens contain all the fruits common to the Indies, and
their trees are green all the year. Their common drink
is toddy ; which is the fap of the cocoa-tree, and wdien
new, will intoxicate like wine, but foon grows four.
Elephants and buffaloes are very numerous here, and
are made ufe of in Head of horfes. They have plenty
of provifions, and but little trade : for when Mr Char-
nock was here in 1686, with fix large ihips, there was
nothing to be had in the way of commerce $ and yet
the country produces lead, tin, flick lac, and elephants
teeth. The Mogul’s fubje£fs come here to purchafe
thefe commodities} and fometimes meet with diamonds,
rubies, and other precious Hones. They were former¬
ly governed by a king of their own, called the king of
the White Elephant; but this country has been con¬
quered by the king of Pegu. They pay little or no
regard to the chailityof their women, and the common
failors take great liberties among them. Their reli¬
gion is Paganifm ; and the idols, temples, and priefls
are very numerous. The drefs of the better fort is
very flight, for it confills chiefly of a piece of white
cotton over their arms, breaH, and bellv, with an apron
Vol II. Part II.
before. The complexion of the women is tolerable ; AraduV
they wear thin flowered gauze over their breafl and II
fhoulders, and a piece of cotton, which they roll three Ar‘K^~
or four times round their waift, and let it hang as low
as their feet. They curl their hair, and put glafs rings
in their ears, and flretch them of a monflrous length.
On their arms- and legs they have hoops of copper,
ivory, filver, &c. The country produces great quanti¬
ties of rice, and the water is good. Their flocks of
ffieep and herds of cattle are alfo numerous near Ara¬
can ; but what they fay of the towns and villages, with
which the country is pretended to be overfpread, may
be doubted. Captain Hamilton affirms, that there are
but few places inhabited, on account .of the great num¬
ber of wild elephants and buffaloes, which would de-
ftroy the fruits of the ground } and that the tigers
would deffroy the tame animals. There are Ibme
villages near the fea, inhabited by a few miferable fifher-
men, who can juft keep themfelves from ftarving,
though they are out of the reach of oppreffion. The
rich burn the dead bodies •, but the poor, who are not
able to buy wood, throw them into the river.
ARACHIS. See Botany Index.
ARACHNE, in Fabulous Hi/lory, a young maid of
Lydia, faid to have been the inventrefs of fpinning.
She is fabled to have been fo fkilful in this art, as to
challenge Minerva at it; who tore her work, and ftruck
her, which difgrace driving her to defpair, Hie hanged
herfelf. Minerva from compaffion brought her to life,
and transformed her into a fpider, which Hill employs
itfelf in fpinning.
ARACHNOIDES, in Anatomy, an appellation
given to feveral membranes j as the tunic of the cry-
ftalline humour of the eye, the external lamina of the
pia mater, and one of the coverings of the fpinal mar¬
row.
ARACK, arrack, or rack, a fpirituous liquor
imported from the Eaft Indies, ufed by way of dram
and in punch.
The word arach, according to Mr Lockyer, is an
Indian name for Hrong waters of all kinds : for they
call our fpirits and brandy Englijh arack. But wffiat
we underftand by the name arach, he affirms is really
no other than a fpirit procured by dill illation from a
vegetable juice called toddy, which flow's by incifion out
of the cocoa nut tree, like the birch juice procured
among us. The toddy is a pleafant drink by itfelf,
when new, and purges thofe wTho are not ufed to it :
and, wffien Hale, it is heady, and makes good vinegar.
Hie Engliih at Madras ufe it as leaven to raife their
bread with.
Others are of opinion, that the arack or arrack, is a
vinous fpirit obtained by diftillation, in the Eaft Indies,
from rice or fugar, fermented with the juice of cocoa
nuts.
The Goa arack is faid to be made from the toddy,
the Batavia arack from rice and fugar ; and there is
likewife a kind of fhrub from which arack is made.
Goa and Batavia are the chief places for arack. At
Goa there are divers kinds 5 Angle, double, and treble
diftilled. The double diitilled, which is that common¬
ly fent abroad, is but a wreak fpirit in comparifon with
Batavia arack yet, on account of its peculiar and
agreeable flavour, is preferred to all the other aracks
of India. This flavour is attributed to the earthen vef-
3 X fels
\
A R A [ 5
{CiS v.j'uch they uib at Goa to draw the fpirit; where-
" as at Batavia they ufe copper ftills.
The Parier arack made at Madras, and the Columbo
and Qnilone arack at other places, being fiery hot spi¬
rits, are little valued by the Europeans, and therefore
rarely imported 5 though highly prized among the na¬
tives. In the belt Goa arack, the fpints of the cocoa
juice do not make above a fixth or eighth part.
T he manner of making the Goa arack is this : The
juice of the trees is not procured in the way of tapping,
as we do j but the operator provides himfelf with a
parcel of earthen pots, with bellies and necks like our
ordinary bird bottles : he makes fall a number of thefe
to his girdle, and any way elle that he commodioufly
can about him. Thus equipped, he climbs up the
trunk oi a cocoa tree ; and when he comes to the
boughs, lie takes out his knife, and cutting off one of
the fmall knots or buttons, he applies the mouth of
the bottle to. the wound, faftening it to the bough W'itlr.
a bandage j in the fame manner he cuts off other but¬
tons, and fallens on his pets, till the whole number is
ufed : this is done in the evening, and defeending from
the tree, he leaves them till the next morning} when
Ire takes off the bottles, which are moftly filled, and
empties the juice into the proper receptacle. This is
repeated every night, till a lufficient quantity is produ¬
ced ; and the whole being then put together, is left to
ferment, which it foon does. When the fermentation
is over, and the liquor or wafh is become a little tart,
it is put into the ftill, and a fire being made, the ftill is
buffered to work as long as that w'hich comes over has
any cojifiderable tafte of fpirit.
The liquor thus procured is the low wine of arack;
and this is fo poor a liquor, that it will foon corrupt
and fpoil, if not diftilled again, to feparate fome of its
phlegm; they therefore immediately after pour back
this low wine into the ffill, and reftify it to that very
*■ weak kind of proof fpirit, in which date we find it.
The arack we meet with, notwithftanding its being of
* proof teft, according to the way of judging by the
crown of bubbles, holds but a fixth, and fometimes but
an eighth part of alcohol, or pure fpirit ; whereas our
other fpirits, when they fhow that proof, are generally
eileemed to hold one half pure fpirit. Shaw’s Ejjhy
on Dijlilling.
There is a paper of obfervations on arack, in the Me¬
langes d'HiJioire Natur. tom. v. p. 302. By ferment¬
ing, diftilling, and rectifying the juice of the American
maple, rvhich has much the fame tafte as that of the
cocoa, the author fays, he made arack not in the leaft
inferior to any that comes from the Eaft Indies; and
he thinks the juice of the fycamore and of the birch
trees wTould equally anfwer the end.
Befides the common forts of Goa and Batavia arack,
there are two others lefs generally known; thefe are
the bitter arack and the black arack.
By flat, nth Geo. I. c. 30. arack, on board a fliip
within the limits of any port of Great Britain, may be
fearched for and feized, together with the package ; or
if found unfhipping or unfhipped, before entry, may be
feized by the officers of excife, in like manner as by the
officers of the cuftoms.—Upon an excife officer’s fufpi-
cion of the concealment of arack, and oath made of the
grounds of fuch fufpicion before the commiflioners or a
juitice of pesce. they may empower him to enter fuck
30 ] A R A
fufpefted places, and feize the liquors, with the calks, Arsck
&c. If the officers are obftruCled, the penalty is 1 ool. !i
Arack is not to he fold but in warehoufes, entered as
directed in the 6th of Geo. I. c. 21. upon forfeiture
and the calks, &c. If permits are not returned which
are granted for the removal of arack, or if the goods
are not fent away within the time limited, the penalty
is treble the value. If the permits are not returned,
and the decreafe is not found to be fufficient, the like
quantity is forfeited. Permits are not to be taken
out but by diredlion in writing of the proprietor of the
Hock, or his known fervant, upon forfeiture of 50I. or
three months imprifonment.
By flat. 9th Geo. II. c. 35. if arack is offered to fale
without a permit, or by any hawker, pedlar, &c. with
a permit, the perfon to whom it is offered may feize
and carry it to the next warehouse belonging to the
cuftoms or excife, and bring the perfon offering the
fame before any juftice of the peace, to be committed
to prifon, and profecuted for the penalties incurred by
fuch offence. The perfon feizing fuch goods may pro-
fecute in his own name ; and on recovery is entitled to
one-third part of the grofs produce of the fale ; and
the commiffioners are, if defired, upon a certificate from
the juftice of the offender’s being committed to prifon,
to advance to the feizer 15s. per gallon for the arack
fo feized.
Arack (except for the ufe of feamen, two gallons
each) found in any Ihip or veffel arrived from foreign
parts, at anchor, or hovering within the limits of any
port, or within two leagues of the ffiore ; and not pro¬
ceeding on her voyage (unlefs in cafe of unavoidable
neceffity and diftrefs of weather, notice whereof mult
be given to the colleftor or chief ofticer of the port
upon the (hip’s arrival), is forfeited, with the boxes,
calks, or other package, or the value thereof.
Arack is alfo the name of a fpirituous liquor made
by the Tartars of Tungulia, of maxes milk, left to four,
and afterwards diftilled twice or thrice between two
earthen pots clofely (topped, whence the liquor runs
through a fmall wooden pipe. It is more intoxicating
than brandy.
ARAD, in Ancient Geography, a city lying to the
fouth of Judah and the land of Canaan, in Arabia Pe-
trsea. The Ifraelites having advanced towards the
land of Canaan (Numb. xxi. 1.), the king of Arad
oppofed their paffage, defeated them, and took a great
booty from them ; but they deftroyed his country as
foon as they became mailers of the land of Canaan
(Numb, xxxiii.) Arad was rebuilt, and Eufebius
places it in the neighbourhood of Kades, at the di-
ftance of 20 miles from Hebron. The Ifraelites, in
their paffage through the wildemefs, having departed
from Sepher, came to x\rad, and from thence to Mak-
kelath.
ARADUS, in Ancient Geography, an ifland be¬
tween the borders of Phoenicia and Seleucia, at the
diftance of 20 ftadia from a dangerous coaft : all of it
a rock furrounded by the fea, in compafs feven ftadia;
and forming a very powerful city and republic. It is
now called Ronad; but not a fingle wTall is remaining
of all that multitude of houfes which, according to
Strabo, were built wdth more ftories than even thofe
of Rome. The liberty enjoyed by the inhabitants had
rendered it very populous; and it fubfifted by naval
cca:maerce3
A R A
♦
non_
Araeome¬
ter.
A - R M [ n
Arae PKIlas-commerce, manufaftures, and arts. At prefent the
ifland is defected ; nor has tradition even retained the
memory of a fpring of frefh water in its environs,
which the people of Aradus difcovered at the bottom
of the fea, and from which they drew water in time of
war by means of a leaden bell and a leathern pipe fit¬
ted to its bottom.
ARM Phil^n on, or Phil^enorum (Strabo) ;
to the fouth of the Syrtis Major; but in Peutinger
more wefterly, to the fouth almoft of the Syrtis Mi¬
nor. In Strabo’s time, the altars were not extant, but
a village of the fame name flood on the fpot. On a
difpute about limits, between the Cyreneans and Car¬
thaginians, it was agreed that two of each people
(hould fet out on the fame day, and that where they
ihould happen to meet,' there the limits of both {hould
be fixed. The Phibeni, two brothers, Carthaginians,
undertook it for Carthage : thefe, after having advan¬
ced a great many miles into the territory of the Cy¬
reneans, were met by their antagonifts ; who, enraged
at their being beforehand with them fo far, gave them
the option of either returning back, or of being bu¬
ried alive on the fpot. Like zealous patriots, they
chofe the latter ; and there the Carthaginians raifed
two altars in honour of the Philaeni. (Salluft, Vale¬
rius Maximus.)
AliiEOMETER, an inftrument to meafure the
denfity or gravity of fluids.
The araeometer, or waterpoife, is ufually made of
glafs y confifting of a round hollow ball, which termi¬
nates in a long flender neck hermetically fealed at top:
there being fir A as much running mercury put into it
as will, ferve to balance or keep it fvvinjming in an
crefl pofition.
T he ilem is divided into degrees (as reprefented
Plate XXXVI. fig. 23.) j and by the depth of its de¬
ment into any liquor, the lightnefs of that liquor is
concluded : for that fluid in which it finks leaft tnuft
be heavieft : and that in which it finks loweit lightefl.
Mr Hombetg has invented a new araeometer, de-
feribed in Phil. Tranfact N° 262. thus : is a glafs
bottle or matrafs, with fo flender a neck that a drop
of water takes up in it above five or fix lines, or half
•fi an inch. Near that neck is a fmall capillary tube
D, about fix inches long, and parallel to the neck.—
I o fill the veffel, the liquor is poured in at the mouth
# (which is widened to receive a tunnel), till it run
cat at I),, that is, till it rife in the neck to the mark
<?, by which means you have always the fame bulk or
quantity of liquor ; and confequently, by means of the
balance, can eafily tell, when different liquors fill it,
which weighs moft, or is mofl intenfely heavy.
Some regard, however, is to be had in thefe trials
to the feafon of the year, and degree of heat and cold
in the weather ^ becaufe iome liquors rarefy with heat
and condenfe with cold more than others, and accord¬
ingly take up more or lefs room.
% means of this inflrument, the ingenious author
15 made a tabic to (how the different weights of the
fame bulk of the mofl confiderable chemical liquors
both in fummer and winter, as follows:
■ ]
The araeometer full of
Spirit of urine,
Oil of vitriol,
Spirit of nitre,
Spirit of fait,
Aquafortis,
Vinegar,
Spirit of wine,
River water,
Diftilled water,
Weighed in fummer.
oz. dr. gr,
00 32 -
03
01
CO
01
ox
Cl
PI
01
ox
53
40
39
3 8
00 07 55
00 06 47
00 07 53
CO 07 50
In winter.
dr. gr.
GO 43
°4 03
01 70
00 47
01 55
c%
ox
01
ox
01
Cl
00 07
00 06
00 07
CO C7
Arkdp&g&f
II
Aral.
60
61
.57
54
Weighed in fummer. In Winter.
The araeometer full of oz.dr.gr. oz.dr.gr.
Qmckfilver, - 11 00 06 - xx 00 32
Oil Oi tartar, • 01 03 08 - 01 03 31
Tim inflvument itfelf weighed, when empty, one
drachm twenty-eight grains. See Hydrometer.
AR/EOPAGUS. See Areopagus.
ARiEOST\ LE, in dtrchitedlure, a term ufed by
Vitruvius, to fignify the greateft interval which can be
made between columns.
AR/EO {ICo, in Medicine, remedies which rarefy
the humours, and render them eafy to be carried off
by the pores of the fldn.
ARAF, among the Mahometans. See Alaraf.
ARAFAH, the ninth day of the laft month of the
Arabic year, named Dhoulhegiat; on which the pil¬
grims of Mecca perform their devotions on a neigh¬
bouring mountain called Arafat. The Mahometans
have a very great veneration for this mountain, be-
cauie they believe that Adam and Eve, after they
were banifhed out of Paradife, having been feparated
Tom each other during 120 years, met afterwards on
this mountain.
ARAFAT, or gibel elorphat, the mountain of
knowledge, a mountain in Arabia near Mecca. The
Mahometans fay this was the place where Adam firfl
met with and knew his wife Eve after their expulfion
from Paradife. This mountain not being large enough
to contain all the devotees that come annually in pil¬
grimage to Mecca, flones are fet up all round it to
fliow how far it reaches. The pilgrims are clad iu
robes of humility and mortification, with their heads
uncovered. They feem to be very much affeaed ; for
the tears flow down their cheeks, and they fob and
figh moft bitterly, begging earneflly for remiflion of
fins, and promifmg to lead a new life. They continue
here about four or five hours, and at half an hour af-
ter funfet they all decamp to perform a religious duty
called Ajhani' nomas. After this, they all receive the
honourable title of hadgees, which is conferred upon
them by the imam or prieft. This being pronounced,
the trumpet founds, and they all return to Mecca. *
ARAGON, bee Arragon.
ARAL, a great lake in the kingdom of Khowa-
razm, lying little to the eaftward of the Cafpian
fea. Its length from north to fouth is faid to be near
150 miles, and its breadth from eaft to weft about 7o.
The fhore on the weft fide is high and rocky, and de-
flitute of good water : yet there are abundance of wild
horfes, afles, antelopes, and wolves j as alfo a fierce
creature called a jolbart, which the Tartars fay is of
fuch a prodigious ftrength as to carry off a horfe. It
is furprifing that this lake ihould be quite unknown -to
geographers till within thefe few years. Several great
rivers, which were fupppfed to run ii/co the Cafpian
fea, are now known to fall into this lake, particularly
the Siliuu or Sirr, and the Ghihun or Amo, fo ofteit
3 ^ 2 mentioned
A R A [ 53
Ara’hum mentioiTcd by the Oriental hiftorians. This lake, like
the Cafpian fea, has no vifible outlet. Its water is alfo
Ai anjuez. falt. ancJ f0r that reafon is conveyed by the neigh¬
bouring inhabitants by {mall narrow canals into fandy
pits, where the heat of the fun, by exhaling the water,
leaves them a fufficient quantity of fait. The fame
kinds of fiih are found in the Aral that are found in
the Cafpian fea. The former is alfo called the Lake
of Eagles.
ARAHUM, or Harahum, in ancient writers, de¬
notes a place confecrated or fet apart for holy purpofes.
Hence the phrafe in araho jurare, or conjurare, “ to
make oath in the church becaufe, by the Ripuarian
laws, all oaths were to be taken in the church on the
relicks of the faints.
ARALIA, the Angelica tree. See Botany
Index.
ARAM, or Aramata Regio, in Ancient Geography,
the Hebrew name of Syria, fo called from Aram the
fon of Shem, (Mofes, Jofephus).
Aram Beth-Rehob, in Ancient Geography, was that
part of Syria lying to the north of Paleftine 5 becaufe
Rehob was its boundary towards that quarter, (Mo-
fes) ; allotted to the tribe of Alher, (Judges) 5 where
it joins Sidon, ( Jofhua).
ARAM- Dammafeh, or Syria Damafcena, in Ancient
Geography, a principal part of Syria, and more power¬
ful than the reft (2 Sam.), taking its name from Da-
mafcus, the principal city.
ARAM-Maacha, in Ancient Geography, a diftridl of
Syria, at the foot of Mount Hermon, (2 Samuel,
I Chronicles) *, on the borders of the half tribe of Ma-
naffeh, on the other fide the Jordan, called the coaft
of Maachathi, (Moles, Joftiua).
ARAM-Nakaraitn, in Ancient Geography, i. e. Aram
or Syria of the Rivers, or Mefopotamia, fituated be¬
tween the Euphrates and Tigris j which is the reafon
of the name.
Aram-Soba, or Zoha, in Ancient Geography, which
David conquered, was a country near the Euphrates,
where afterwards Palmyra ftood : the Euphrates
bounded it on the eaft, as the land of Canaan and Sy¬
ria Damafcena did on the wrcft, (2 Samuel).
ARAMQNT, a town of Languedoc in France,
feated on the river Rhone. E. Long. 4. 52. N. Lat.
See Entomology /«-
43- 54- , n
ARANEA, the Spider.
dex.
ARfkNJUEZ, a town in the province of New' Ca-
ftile, where the king of Spain has a palace and gar¬
dens which are reckoned the moft delightful in the
world.
This place is 20 miles from Madrid, by a noble
road, planted on each fide with trees, lately made at
the expence of E20,oool. fterling. It is delightfully
fituated at the conflux of the rivers Tagus and Jara-
ma ; which run through the gardens, and add new'
beauty to this charming fpot, where art and nature feem
to go hand and hand with the moft pleafing and rural
fimplicity. On one fide, fine avenues of ftately oaks
and lofty elms convey the trueft ideas of magnificence,
while they afford the moft reviving {hade 5 on the
other, the hidden tranfitions to lawms and wdldernefs, the
cafcades of water breaking through the thickets, the
tuneful fongs of mimberlefs birds Iheltered in thefe
i ] A R A
cool receffes, the occafional appearance and paffage of Aranjuez,
the monarch attended by the grandees of his kingdom j
all thefe objeds united, and concentred in one point,
fill the imagination wdth pleafing ideas, and imprefs
the mind of a traveller with a thoufand agreeable fen-
fations.
The general fituation is in a very large plain fur-
rounded with large hills, of a moft difagreeable aiped
indeed, but feldom appearing, being well hidden by
the noble rows of trees that extend acrofs the flat in
every direction. The main body of the palace is an
old building, to which have been lately added two
new' wings. The firft part of the building w'as ereded
by Philip II. who purchafed the eftate, planted many
of the avenues, and, in order to extend his chale, or
to indulge his fplenetic difpofition, had all the vines
that grew on the hills rooted up. By that means he
drove away the inhabitants, and rendered the environs
of his villa a perfed defert.—The apartments are good j
but contain nothing very particular to take off from
the enjoyment of fo many fine objeds abroad. In one
of the new wings is a playhoufe, and in the other a
chapel. Part of the deling of the former was painted
by Mengs, who was alfo fent to Rome to paint a holy
family for the principal altar in the chapel. There
are feven fine pidures of Luca Jordano in the apart¬
ment called El Cabinete Antiguo, and fix others in that
Be los Mayordomos. The portraits of the grand duke
and duchefs of Tufcany, by Mengs, are in a new apart¬
ment called the king's drejjing room. In the chapel,
over the great altar, there is a fine pidure of the An¬
nunciation, by Titian, prefented by him to Charles V.
and brought from the convent of Julte, after the death
of that emperor. The porcelain cabinet, where there
are feveral large pieces of the king’s owm manufadure,
is alfo a objed of curiofity to a traveller.
As to the gardens, the whole of them may be
thrown into three grand divifions, diftinguiftied by the
names of La Huerta Valenciana, Los Deleites, and El
Cortijo. In the Huerta Valenciana, agriculture and
gardening are carried on in the fame manner as in that
fruitful province, and they plough with horfes. In the
Cortijo they ufe oxen, as in Andalufia j and in other'
places they fcratch up the ground with mules, as is
ftill pradifed in fome parts of Spain. Whichever way
one looks round, a conftant variety pleafes the eye,
and enraptures the mind. At one moment the fturdy
buffalo moves before you, drawing his heavy burden y
foon after, the flow' camel, with his ponderous, load ^
while the fwift zebra with his ftriped garment frilks
over the plains. If you approach the farm, every ob¬
jed of convenience is confulted, and in the dairy every
degree of neatnefs. The Dutch cow enjoys a luxuri¬
ant pafture, the brood mares greatly enliven the land-
fcape, and the ftables are filled with the moft excellent
horfes; and an immenfe nurfery furnifhes all manner
of trees and plants. The fine avenue, which ferves alfo
for a public walk, called Calle de Reyna, has nothing
equal to it at Verfailles. It is three miles long, quite
ftraight from the palace gate, crofting the Tagus twice
before it lofes itfelf in the thickets, where fome noble
fpreading elms and weeping poplars hang beautifully
over the deep ftill pool. Near this road is a flower
garden for the fpring, laid out with great tafte by Mr
Wall during his miniftry. The gay variety of flowers-
at
A R A t 533 ]
at this time of year is particularly pleafing to the eye ;
but its beauty loon fades on the approach of fummer.
As the weather grows hot, the company that choofe
to walk retire to a garden in an ifland of the l agus,
on the north fide of the palace. I his is a heavenly
place, cut into various walks and circular lawns, which
in their primitive. ftate may have been very IbfF and
formal : but in the courfe of a century. Nature has
obliterated the regular forms of art *, the trees have
fwelled out beyond the line traced for them, and de-
iiroyed the enfilade by advancing into the walks or re¬
tiring from them. The fweet flowering flirubs, in-
ftead of being clipped and kept down, have been al¬
lowed to Ihoot up into trees, and hang over the ftatues
and fountains they were originally meant to ferve as
humble fences to. The jets-d’eau dafli up among the
trees, and add frefh verdure to the leaves. The ter¬
races and baluftrades built along the river, are now
overgrown with rofes, and other luxuriant bullies,
hanging down into the llream, which is darkened by
the large trees growing on the oppofite banks. Many
of • the ftatues, groupes, and fountains, are handlome,
fome mafterly, the works of Algardi : all are placed
in charming points of view, either in open circular
fpots, at a diftance from the trees, or elfe in gloomy
arbours, and retired angles of the wood. The banks
of this wood, called the 11a, are alfo enlivened by
elegant yachts for the amufement of the royal family.
The town or village formerly confifted of the pa¬
lace, its offices, and a few miferable hut§, where the
ambaffadors, and the attendants of the court, endea¬
voured to lodge themfelves as well as they could, but
always very uncomfortably ; many of the habitations
were vaults half under ground. What determined the
king to build a new town, and to embellifli the envi¬
rons, was an accident that happened at the nuncio’s j
a coach broke through the cieling of his dining-room,
and fell in upon the table. The court then began to
apply very confiderable firms to the purpofe of ereffing
proper dwellings for the great number of perfons that
flock to the place where the fovereign refides ; near
10,000 are fuppofed to live here two or three months
in fpring •, the king keeps i x 5 fets of mules, which re¬
quire a legion of men to take care of them. Above a
million fterling has been laid out at Aranjuez fince
the year 1763-, and it muft be acknowledged, that
wonders have been performed : feveral fine ftreets drawn
in llraight lines with broad pavements, a double row
of trees before the houfes, and a very noble road in
the middle ; commodious h otels for the minifters and
ambaffadors ; great fquares, markets, churches, a thea¬
tre, .and an amphitheatre for bull fealfs, have been
railed from the ground ; befides the acceflion of two
new wings to the palace. Neatnefs and convenience
have been more Ifudied and fought for than fliow in
the architeffure, but altogether the place has fome-
thing truly magnificent in the coup d’^il.
ARAR, (Caefar, Strabo) •, Araris, (Dio Caflius)3
Saucona, (Ammian) : A river of Celtic Gaul, now
the Saone ; which rifes out of Mount Vogefus on the
confines of Lorrain, runs through the Tranche Comte
and Burgundy, and below Lyons falls into the Rhone.
It is fo incredibly flow, that the eye cannot diftinguiffi
which way it moves, (Caefar) ; and therefore Pliny
calls it the S/uggiJh river. Its courfe is from north to
A R A
fouth. It is famous for a bridge of Cadar, which was
built by the foldiers in one day. It is navigable equal- ^
ly with the Rhone.
ARARAT, the name of the mountain on which
Noah’s ark relied, after the abatement of the waters
of the univerfal deluge. Concerning this mountain
there are various conjedlures} though it is almoft uni-
verfally allowed to be in Armenia Major. Some are
of opinion that it is one of the mountains which divide
Armenia on the fouth from Mefopotamia and that part
of Alfyria inhabited by the Curds ; from whom thefe
mountains took the name of Curdu or Cardu, by the
Greeks turned into Gordycei, &c. Others, that it lies
towards the middle of Armenia, near the river Araxes,
above 280 miles diftant from the above-mentioned
mountains, making it belong to Mount Taurus j but the
Armenians are pofitive that Noah’s Ararat is no other
than a mountain to which they now give the name of
Ma/ts, which lies about 12 leagues to the call of Eri-
van, and four leagues from the Aras. It is encompaf-
fed by feveral petty hills : on the tops of them are found
many ruins, thought to have been the buildings of the
firft men, who were, for fome time, afraid to defcend
into the plains. It Hands by itfelf, in form of a fugar-
loaf, in the midll of a very large plain, detached, as it
were, from the other mountains of Armenia, which
make a long chain. It confills, properly fpeaking, of
twm hills ; the lefier of which is the more flrarp and
pointed : the higher, on which it is faid the ark relied,
lies to the north-well of it, and rifes far above the
neighbouring mountains. It feems lo high and big,
that, wffien the air is clear, it may be feen four or five
days journey off; yet travellers think the height is not
extraordinary. Chardin is of opinion that he pafled a
part of Mount Caucafus wffiich is higher ; and Poullet
thinks the height of Mount Mafis, or Ararat, not above
twfice as great as that of Mount Valerian near Paris.-
They therefore think that its being vifible at fuch a
great diftance is owing to its lonely fituation in a vail
plain and upon the moll elevated part of the country,
wfithout any mountains before it to obllruft the view-
Nor is the fnow wfith which it is always covered from
the middle upwards any argument of its height 5 for
in this country, ice hath often been obferved in the
mornings of the middle of July. CSee Armenia)..
Certain it is, however, that this mountain hath never
yet been afcended ; which the Armenians pretend w as
owing to the interpofition of angels, in order to difap-
point the curiofity of thofe wffio wTanted to advance to
fuch a facred place as that whereon the ark relied : but
the excefs of cold may very reafonably be fuppofed
able to frultrate all fuch attempts, without any fuper-
natural £interpofition. The moll dillinft account we
have of this mountain is that given by M. Tournefort:
which, however, being much fwelled with immaterial
circumllances, it is needlefs to trouble our readers with
at length. He tells us, that this mountain is one.
of the moll difagreeable fights upon earth, without
either houfes, convents, trees, or ffirubs ; and feems as
if continually walling and mouldering away. He di¬
vides it into three regions : The lowermolt, he fays, is
the only one which contains any human creatures, and
is occupied by a few miferable Ihepherds that tend fcab-
by flocks j and here are alfo found fome partridges:
the fecond is inhabited by crows and tigers j and all.
■ the
Ararat.
A R A
Ararat
i
Aratus,
the reft is covered \vith fnow, which half the year is
involved in thick clouds. On the fide of the moun*
^ tain that ^ooks toward Erivan is a prodigious preci*
pice, fioixi whence rocks of an immenfe fize are con¬
tinually tumbling down with a hideous noife. This
precipice feems quite perpendicular j and the extremi¬
ties are rough and blackiih, as if fmutted with fmoke.
d'he foil of the mountain is loofe, and on the fandy
parts it is impoffible to take a firm ftep j fo that our
traveller encountered great difficulties in his afeent and
defeent of this mountain j being often obliged, in or¬
der to avoid the fand, to betake himfelf to places
wire re great rocks were heaped on one another, under
which he paffed as through caverns, or to places full
of Hones, where he wras forced to leap from one ftone
to another. If we may believe Struys, a Dutch writ¬
er, however, all thefe difficulties may be furmounted.
He affures us, he went five days journey up Mount A-
laiat, to ice a Romxffi hermit i that he palled through
three regions of clouds; the firft dark and thick, the
next cold and full of fnow, and the third colder Hill;
that he advanced five miles every day ; and when he
came to the place where the hermit had his cell, he
breathed a very ferene and temperate air j that the
hermit told him, he had perceived neither wfind nor
rain all the 25 years he had dwelt there j and that on
the top of the mountain there reigned a ftill greater
tranquillity, whereby the ark was preferved uncorrupt¬
ed. He farther pretends, that the hermit gave him a
crofs made out of the wood of the ark, together with
a certificate j a formal copy of which the author has
given in his ftiam relation.
ARASSI, a maritime, populous, and trading town
of Italy, in the territory of Genoa. E. Long. 7. 20.
N. Lat. 44. 3.
ARATEI A, in Antiquity, a yearly feftival celebrat¬
ed at Sicyon, on the birth day of Aratus, wherein
divers honours were paid by a prieft confecrated to
this fervice, who for diftintfion’s fake wore a ribband
befpangled with white and purple fpots. The Arateia
were folemnized with much pomp of mufic, the chorirt-
ers of Bacchus attending,
ARATUS, general of the Achneans, conquered
Niocles tyrant ot Sicyon. Two years after he fur-
prifed the caftle called Acrocorlntbus, and drove out
the king of Macedonia : he delivered Argos from its
tyrants, and was poifoned by Philip II. king of Ma¬
cedonia, whom he had newly reftored. Lie was about
6.2 when he died, the fecond year of the 141ft Olym- ~
piad. He was interred at Sicyon, and received’the
greateft honours from his countrymen. His fon, who
had alfo been praetor, was poifoned by King Philip.
Polybius gives us fo great a charafter of Aratus the
father’s Commentaries or Hiftory, that the lofs of fo
valuable a work is highly to be regretted.
Aratus, a Greek poet, born at Soli, or Soke,
a town in Cilicia, which afterwards changed its name,
and was called Fompeiopolis, in honour of Pompey the
Great. He fiouriftied about the 124th, or according
to lome, the x 26th Olympiad, in the reign of Ptole¬
my Philadelphus king of Egypt. He difeovered in
his youth a remarkable poignancy of wit, and capacity
for improvement; and having received his education
under Dionyfius Heracltotes, a Stoic phiffifopher, he
efpoufed the principles of that left. Aratus was phy-
[ 534 1
a a a
ficiau to Antigonus Gonatus, the On of Eom-nV'
Poliorcetes, king of Macedon : this prince, being a
greaj encourager of learned men, fent for him to court,
admitted him to his intimacy, and encouraged him in
his ftudies. T he Fhcenomena of Aratus, w hich is full
extant, gives him a title to the character of an aftre-
nomer as well as a poet ; in this piece he deferibes the
nature and motion of the ftars, and (hows the particular
influences of the heavenly bodies, with their various dif-
pofitions and relations. He wrote this poem in Greek
verfe ■; it was translated into Latin by Cicero; who tells
us, in his firft book De Oratore, that the vertes of Ara¬
tus are very noble. This piece was tranhated by others
as well as Cicero ; there being a tranllation bv Genna-
nicus Caefar, and another into elegant verle Lv Feftus
Avienush An edition of the Fhtnomer.a was puhlifhed
by Grotius, at Leyden, in quarto, 16c-. in Greek
and Latin, with the fragments ot Cicero s verfion,
and the tranflations of Germamcus and Avienus ; all
which the editor has illuilrated with etneus notes.
He was certainly much elteemed by the ancients, fince
we find fo great a number of hcholiafts and cotcmema-
tors^ upon him. i here are feveral other works slho
aferibed to Aiatus. Suidas mentions the f-\.kowffig
Hymns to Pan j Aftrology and AftrotheA ; a cotnpo-
fition of Antidotes j an £fr.?vT.’«*r on 1 heonropus ; an
HfoTroieton Antigonus j an Epignm an PiaV. the daugh¬
ter of Antipater, and wife ot Antigonus . an Enice-
dium of Cleombrotus j a Correction A -ne 0,tv£eV •
and lome Epiftles m prole. \ irgil, in his Georgies,
has imitated or tranfiated many patTages from this au-
tnor ; and St Paul has quoted a padage of Aratii=,
It is in his fpeech to^the Athenians (Acts v-ii. 28.)
wherein he tells them, that ibme of their own poets
have laid, T tv yut? irtur : ** For we are alio his
offspring.” Theie words are the beginning of the fifth
line of the Phenomena of Aratus.
ARAVA, a fortrefs of Upper Hungary, in a couiv
ty and on a river of the fame name. E. Long. zz. z,
N. Lat. 49. 20.
ARAUCO, a fortrefs and town of Chili, in South
America ; fituated in a fine vailev, o*i a river of the
fame name. The bravery of the natives drove the
Spaniards out of their country even without fire arm-'.
W. Long. 51. 20. S. Lat. 42. 30.
ARAUSIO, or Civil as Arattjienor Aranfa'i.
rum (Notrtiae) 5 Colonist Secunda/t'^um Meh,, PHn v.
Coins)5 fo called, becaufc the veterans of the fecond
legion were there fettled : The capita] of the Gavares,
in Gallia Narboncnfis. Now Orcn? \ in the weft of
Provence, on an arm of the rivulet Egae, w hich foon
after falls into the Rhone,, from which it is diftant a
league to the eaft, at the foot of 3 mountain. Here is
•an ancient amphitheatre to be ftill item E. Lone. •.
46. N. Lat. 44. 10.
ARAW, a town of Swifferland, in Argow, feated
on the river Aar. It is handfome, large, and remark¬
able for its church, its fountain, and the fertility of
the foil. E. Long. 18. o. N. Lat. 47. 25.
ARAXES, now the Aras, a river o: Armenia
Major, which takes its rile in a mountain called A: !oty
where the Euphrates alio hath its origh . Frcm this
mountain it runs eaftward with a ferpentinc ccurle, dif-
charging itfelf into the Cafpian lea, after 'cn of up¬
wards qf cco miles, during which it receives feme con-
fiderible
Arum
|
An vp«.
Arba
A R -B ' [ 5
fid^rable rivers. Some have imagined that it hath its
' in Mount Ararat •, but Tournefort affures us that
it comes no nearer that mountain than i 2 miles. The
Araxes is a very rapid river, and is fuppofed to be the
G;non mentioned by Moles. Beiides this extreme ra-
piditv, it is very apt to overflow after rains ; fo that
they have in vain endeavoured to build bridges over
rt; though iome of them appear, from the few arches
remaining, to have been built of the bell materials,
and in the Itrongeli manner. Such is the vehemence
ot its current after the thawing of the adjacent Ihows,
or Pome fierce rains, that neither banks nor dikes can
reiifl it : fo that nothing can be more terrible than the
noiie and violence of its waves at fuch times : but in
winter, when its waters are low, it is fordable in fome
places o» camels.
AivBm. vn. Ancient Geography, an ifland and city
of Ikynr. now Arbe, in the gulf of Quarnaro. Of
tnis ifland, which has been but flightly noticed by
geographers, we have the following defcription by the
Abbe Forth.
In the Roman times, it is probable that there were
no other cities in Arbe but that which bears the name
of the iiland, in the neighbourhood of which ancient
monuments are frequently dug up.
This city of Arbe, though the capital of a fmall
itland, not above thirty miles round, wholly unculti¬
vated, and uninhabitable in the higheft part that faces
the channel of Morlacca, has always maintained itfelf
Wi.h decomm. That it was inhabited by civilized peo¬
ple in tne Roman times, is evident, by the infcriptions
that have been frequently difcovered there, and others
nhi remaining at Arbe.' In the lower times it fuffered
au the calamities to which the neighbouring countries
were fubjeeted, but it always recovered itfelf with
honour even after difToiution.
Tne archives of the community of Arbe contain
fome ancient papers that are truly valuable, and they
are kept with great jealoufy ; byT them it appears, that,
in the eleventh century, gold and filk were not rare
among the inhabitants. Arbe was fubjeift to the kings
ot Hungary •, afterwards it became dependent on Ve¬
netian feudatories j and at laft was taken under the im¬
mediate dominion of the moil; ferene republic, by which
a governor is appointed who has the title of count and
captain. The number of people on the ifland does
not much exceed three thoufand fouls, diftributed in
a few parithes, which might be officiated by a fmall
numoer ot priefts : ^ et, through a monftrous incon-
flftency that falls very heavy on the poor inhabitants,
they ha\e to maintain no leis than three convents of
ftiars, and as many of nuns, befides the confiderable
charge of near fixty priefts, who have a very fcanty
prcvifion. J
% ^ climate of Arbe is none of the happieft ; the
■winter feafon is horrid, eipecially when agitated by the
vioient northerly winds, winch fometimes transform
the intermediate ieafons into winter, and caufe the fum-
mer itfcii to difappear. Thefe furious winds do great
damage to the riland, particularly in the winter and
fpring. Two years ago, about twelve thoufand Iheep
perilned in one night, of cold, in the common paf-
tures of the mountain ; where, according; to the cu-
tom over all Dalmatia, they are left in the open air the
whole year round. The fait fog raifed by the dread-
iS ] ARB
ful commotion of the waves, -which often roar, be¬
tween the mountains of Arbe and the oppofite Alps,
in the narrow channel of Morlacca, confumes all the
buds of the plants and corn, if it happens to be driven
upon the iiland by the wind : and it is followed by a
cruel fcarcity of every kind of produef. This ca¬
lamity communicates its baneful influence even to the
fleflr of the animals left on the paftures, that becomes
ill tailed, in confequence of the bitternefs and bad
nouriftiment of the food. Abftradling from tbefe ir¬
regularities, the air of Arbe is healthful; nor ought
the conftant fummer fevers among the inhabitants to
be attributed to its influence, as they are, more proba¬
bly, derived from umvholefome food, and a way of life
differing little from that of the Hottentots.
I ire appearance of tire ifland is exceedingly pleaffant.
On the eaft it has a very high mountain, of the fame
fubftance as the Morlacca, of which it was once a part.
At the foot of this mountain, the reft of the ifland is
extended to the weftward, and divided into beautiful
and fruitful plains interfperfed with little hills fit to
bear the richeft produdts. At the extremity that
looks to the north, a delightful promontory, called
Loparo, ftretches into the lea \ it is crowned with lit¬
tle hills, which almoft quite enclofe a fine cultivated
plain. Near this promontory are the two fmall iflands
of S. Gregorio and Goli, very ufeful to ftiepherds and
fifliers. . The coaft of Arbe, that faces the Morlacca
mountains, is quite fteep and inacceffible ; and the
channel between them is extremely dangerous, being
expofed to furious winds, and without a fingle port on
either fide. The long and narrow ifland of Dolin,
tying parallel to the ifland of Arbe, along the coart of
Barbado, forms a channel lefs dangerous, though by no
means fo fecure as it is beautiful to look at. There
are feveral harbours in the neighbourhood of the city
of Arbe, by which the trade of the beft part of the
ifland is facilitated.
1 he city ftands on a rifing ground between two har¬
bours, which form a peninfula; it contains about a
thoufand inhabitants, among whom are many noble fa¬
milies, but few of them are rich. Among the moft
remarkable curiofities of the. ifland, the Arbegiani are
proud of many egregieus relicks, and particularly of
the head of S. Criftofano their proteftor but the lovers
of facred antiquity will find fomething much more An¬
gular in the three heads of Shadrach, Meffiech, and
Abednego, which are venerated there with great de¬
votion. Four of the principal gentlemen are keepers
of the fan&uary, and to their care the precious records
of the city are alfo committed. Among thefe records
there is a tranfa&ion of MXVIII, by which the city
of Arbe promifes to the doge of Venice, Ottone Or-
feolo, a tribute of fome pounds de feta /erica, “ of
wrought filk,” and in cafe of contravention, pounds de
auro obrixo, “ of pure gold.”
In the laft age there w’as a learned bilhop of Arbe,
named Ottavio Spaderi, who would not permit the re¬
licks of S. Criftofano to be expofed to the public ve¬
neration, on the folemnity of the faint’s day, becaufe
he doubted of their authenticity. The mob rofe, and
was going to throw him down from the top of the hill
on which the cathedral ftands ; nov did the tumult
ceafe after the day was part. The government fent
an armqd veffel to deliver the prelate from the danger
fte.
Aiba,
ARB [ 536 ] ARB
he was in ; and the Pope thought proper to give him
a more tra&able fpoufe in Italy.
The nature of the foil of Arbe is not the fame in
every lituation; nay it would be difficult to find a coun¬
try where there is fo £reat a variety in fo little fpace.
There is a very great difference between the ground of
the extremity of the mountain above the channel of
Barbado, and the fides of it on the one part towards the
iiland, and on the other facing the ridge of Morlacca.
Nor is the top of the mountain itfelf always of the fame
ftrufture : for in fome parts it is extended in a fine le¬
vel plain, partly woody and partly cultivable 5 in other
places it is quite rocky, and compofed of bare marble.
The ground at the foot of the mountain, where it
ftretches towards the ffiore, oppofite to Jablanaz, is
nothing but marble $ and, in the diftrift of Barbado
it is gravelly, and a good foil for vines. The wine of
Barbado is of excellent quality, and in great eftima-
tion ; hardly any other produdl is cultivated along that
coaft, as the vines fucceed fo well, notwithftanding
the negligent culture. Below the pretended ruins of
Colento the land bears vines, olives, mulberry, and
other fruit trees, and alfo corn in the lowed: parts. All
the lower part of the ifiand is compofed alternately of
little hills and valleys, and of a fubftance for the moll
part very different from that of the mountain and its
adjacencies. As the organization of the mountain is
wffiolly of marble, fo that of the hills is generally are¬
naceous. The whetftone forms a large part, and fre¬
quently contains ojlracltes and lenticulares; the ex¬
terior ftratum is commonly friable. The valleys, which
according to appearances Ihould be full of fand, are
provided with an excellent foil, with fuch a mixture
of very minute fand as is requifite to keep it light.
Springs of frelh wTater are by nature well diftributed
over the illand, and maintain a proper humidity wffien
the fummer is not exceffively dry } fo that the dark ver¬
dure of the hills covered wdth wrood, the luxuriance of
the vines, and freffinefs of the corn ground, form a
fpedlacle extremely cheerful and agreeable.
The ifland of Arbe would have every thing requi¬
fite for the fubfiftence of its fmall population, if the
land wTas cultivated by a people lefs ftupid and lazy.
It produces, howxver, firewood, of wdiich many car¬
goes are annually fent to Venice •, corn, oil, excellent
wine, brandy, and filk, fince very ancient times; it alfo
exports hides, wool, ffieep, hogs, and horfes of a good
breed. There is alfo abundance of good fait made on
the ifland *, and the fifhing of tunny and mackerel, not-
withftanding it is managed in a flovenly and awkw ard
manner, makes no inconfiderable article of trade to the
Arbegiani, wffio, like all their neighbours, find their ac¬
count in fellirtg this commodity to ftrangers rather than
to the Venetians. Yet, wdth all thefe natural products,
the ifland is very far from being rich, or even in a tole¬
rably flouriffiing ftate •, becaufe there is piuch land left
uncultivated, and the peafants are lazy.
ARBACES governed Media under Sardanapalus.
Seeing him fpinning among a company of his women,
he llirred up his people to revolt, and dethroned Sar¬
danapalus •, wrho thereupon burnt himfelf in his palace.
Arbaces being crowned, began the monarchy of the
Medes, which lafted 317, years under nine kings, till
Aftyages wras expelled by Cyrus. Arbaces reigned 22
years, and died A. M. 3206. See Media.
ARBALEST, or Cross Bow. See Cross Bow. Arbaieft,
ARBELA, now Irbil, a city of Affyria, lying in Arbela-
E. Long. 44. 5. N. Lat. 35. 15. It is famous for' v
the laft and decilive battle fought in its neighbourhood
between Alexander the Great and Darius Codoman-
nus. This battle was foaght 331 years before Chrift.
and the event of it determined the fate of the Perfian
empire. Arrian relates, that Darius’s army confiffed
of a million of foot and 40,000 horfe ; according to
Diodorus, there w^ere 200,000 horfe and 800,000 foot j
Plutarch relates, that the horfe and foot together made
up a million ; and Juftin gives us exaftly half Diodo¬
rus’s number. The Macedonian army, according to
Arrian, confifted of 40,000 foot and 7000 horfe.
Upon receiving notice of the vaft llrength of the
enemy, Alexander expreffed neither furprife nor appre- Gillies’*
henfion; but having “ commanded a halt, he encamped Hift. of
four days, to give his men reft and refreffiment. His Greece.
camp being fortified by a good intrenchment, he left
in it the lick and infirm, together with all the baggage j
and, on the evening of the fourth day, prepared to
march againft the enemy with the effeeftive part of his
army, which w-as faid to confift of 40,000 infantry and
7000 horfe, unencumbered wfith any thing but their
provifions and. armour. The march was undertaken at
the fecond watch of the night, that the Macedonians,
by joining battle in the morning, might enjoy the im¬
portant advantage of having an entire day before them,
to reap the full fruits of their expedled viftory. About
half way between the hoftile camps, fome eminences
intercepted the view of either army. Having afeend-
ed the rifing ground, Alexander firft beheld the bar¬
barians, drawm up in battle array, and perhaps more
fkilfully marfhalled than he had reafon to apprehend.
Their appearance, at leaft, immediately determined him
to change'his firft refolution. Pie again commanded
a halt, fummoned a council of war ; and difterent mea-
fures being propofed, acceded to the Angle opinion of
Parmenio, who advifed that the foot Ihould remain fta-
tionary until a detachment of horfe had explored the
field of battle and carefully examined the difpofition of
the enemy. Alexander, whofe conduft was equalled
by his courage, and both furpaffed by his activity, per¬
formed thofe important duties in perfon at the head of
his light horfe and royal cohort. Having returned
with unexampled celerity, he again affembled his cap¬
tains, and encouraged them by a fliort fpeech. Their
ardour correfponded with his own ; and the foldiers,
confident of vidlory, were commanded to take reft and
refrefhment.
“ Meanwhile Darius, perceiving the enemy’s ap¬
proach, kapt his men prepared for action. Notwith¬
ftanding the great length of the plain he was obliged
to contrail his front, and form in tw-o lines, each of
which wras extremely deep. According to the Perfian
cuftom, the king occupied the centre of the firft line,
furrounded by the princes of the blood and the great
officers of his court, and defended by his horfe and
foot guards, amounting to 15,000 chofen men. Thefe
fplendid troops, who feemed fitter for parade than bat¬
tle, were flanked on either fide by the Greek merce¬
naries and other warlike battalions, carefully fele&ed
from the whole army. The right wing confifted of the
Medes, Parthians, Hyrcanians and Sacae j the left was
chiefly occupied by the Ba&rians, Perfxans, and Car-
dufians.
[ 537 ] ARB
Arbela. dufians. The various nations compofing this immenfe
“'■"V'"*' hoft were differently armed, with fwords, fpears, clubs,
and hatchets : while the horfe and foot of each divi-
fion were promifcuoufly blended, rather from the re-
lult of accident than by the direftion of defign. The
armed chariots fronted the firft line, whofe centre was
farther defended by the elephants. Chofen fquadrons
of Scythian, Baftrian, and Cappadocian cavalry advan¬
ced before either wing, prepared to bring on the ac¬
tion, or after it began to attack the enemy in dank
and rear. The unexpedled approach of Alexander
within fight of his tents prevented Darius from forti¬
fying the wide extent of his camp ; and, as he dreaded
a nocturnal affault from enemies who often veiled their
defigns in darkhefs, he commanded his men to remain
all night under arms. This unufual meafure, the
gloomy fiience, the long and anxious expectation, to¬
gether with the fatigue of a reftlefs night, difcouraged
the whole army, but infpired double terror into thofe
who had witneffed the miferable difafters on the banks
of the Granicus and the Iflus.
“ At daybreak Alexander difpofed his troops in
a manner fuggefted by the fuperior numbers and deep
order of the enemy. His main body confifted in two
heavy-armed phalanxes, each amounting to above
10,000 men. Of thefe the greater part formed into
one line ; behind which he placed the heavy-armed
men, reinforced by his targeteers, with orders, • that
when the out-fpreading wings of the enemy prepared
to attack the Hanks and rear of his firft line, the fecond
fhould immediately wheel to receive them. The caval¬
ry and light infantry were fo difpofed on the wings,
that while one part refifted the fhock of the Perfians
in front, another, by only facing to the right or left,
might take them in flank. Skilful archers and darters
were ported, at proper intervals, as affording the beft
defence againft the armed chariots, which (as Alexan¬
der well knew) muft immediately become ulelefs when¬
ever their conduClors or horfes were wounded.
“ Having thus arranged the feveral parts, Alexan¬
der with equal judgment led the whole in an oblique
direction towards the enemy’s left; a manoeuvre which
enabled the Macedonians to avoid contending at once
with fuperior numbers. When his advanced battalions,
notwithftanding their nearnefs to the enemy, ftill ftretch-
ed towards the right, Darius alfo extended his left, till,
fearing that by continuing this movement, his men
fhould be drawn gradually oft the plain, he command¬
ed the Scythian fquadrons to advance, and prevent the
farther extenfion of the hoftile line. Alexander imme¬
diately detached a body of horfe to oppofe them. An
equeftrian combat enfued, in which both parties were
reinforced, and the barbarians finally repelled. The
armed chariots then iffued forth with impetuous vio¬
lence ; but their appearance only w^as formidable ; for
the precautions taken by Alexander rendered their af¬
fault harmlefs. Darius next moved his main body,
but with lo little order, that the horfe, mixed with
the infantry, advanced, and left a vacuity in the line,
which his generals wanted time or vigilance to fupply.
Alexander feized the decifive moment, and penetrated
into the void with a wedge of fquadrons. He was
followed by the neareft feClions of the phalanx, who
Tuflied forward with loud fhouts, as if they had already
purfued the enemy. In this part of the field, the vic-
Vol. II. Part 'll. '
tory was not long doubtful j after a feeble refiftance, Arherg
the barbarians gave way ; and the pufilanimous Darius .11
was foremoft in the flight. Arbitrary.
“ 1 he battle, however, wras not yet decided. The
more remote divifions of the phalanx, upon receiving
intelligence that the left wing, commanded by Parme-
nio, wTas in danger, had not immediately followed
Alexander. A vacant fpace was thus left in the Ma¬
cedonian line, through which feme fquadrons of Per-
fian and Indian horfe penetrated with celerity, and
advanced to the hoftile camp. It was then that’Alex¬
ander derived fignal and ’well-earned advantages from
his judicious order of battle. The heavy-armed troops
and targeteers, which he had fldlfully ported behind
the phalanx, fpeedily faced about, advanced with a ra¬
pid ftep, and attacked the barbarian cavalry, already
entangled among the baggage. The enemy, thus fur-
prifed, were deftroyed or put to flight. Meanwhile,
the danger of his left w ing recalled Alexander from
the purfuit of Darius. In advancing againft the ene¬
my’s right, he was met by the Parthian, Indian, and
Perfian horfe, who maintained a fharp conflift. Sixty
of the Companions fell •, Hephaeftion, Coenus, and Me-
nidas, w ere wmunded. Having at length diffipated this
cloud of cavalry, Alexander prepared to attack the
foot in that wing. But the bufinefs was already effect¬
ed, chiefly by the Theflalian horfe ; and nothing re¬
mained to be done, but to purfue the fugitives, and to
render the victory as decifive as poflible. ,
“ According to the leaft extravagant accounts, with
the lofs of 500 men, he deftroyed 40,000 of the bar-
- barians, who never thenceforth affembled in fufficient
numbers to difpute his dominion in the eaft. The in¬
valuable provinces of Babylonia, Sufiana, and Perfis,
with their refpedtive capitals of Babylon, Sufa, and
Perfepolis, formed the prize of his Ikill and valour.
The gold and filver found in thofe cities amounted to
thirty millions fterling •, the jewels and other precious
fpoil, belonging to Darius, fufficed, according to Plu¬
tarch, to load 20,000 mules, and 5000 camels.” The
confequences of this vidtory the reader will find nar¬
rated under the article Persia.
ARBERG, a town of Swdfferland, in the canton
of Bern, with a handfome caftle, where the bailiff re-
fides. It is feated on the river Aar, in a kind of ifland.
E. Long. 17. 15. N. Lat. 47. o.
ARBITER, in the Civil Law, implies a judge no¬
minated by the magiftrate, or chofen voluntarily by
the two contending parties, in order to decide their
differences.
The civilians make a difference between arbiter and
arbitrator, though both found their power on the com-
promife of the parties ; the former being obliged to
judge according to the cuftoms of the law, wEereas the
latter is at liberty to ufe his own diferetion, and ac¬
commodate the difference in the manner that appears
to him molt juft and equitable.
ARBITRARY, that which is left to the choice or
arbitration of men, or not fixed by any pofitive law or
injundlion.
^RSiTRARr Punijhment, In Law, denotes, fuch pu-
nifhments as are by ftatute left to the diferetion of the
judge. It is a general rule in arbitrary punifljments,
that the judge cannot inflidft death. Hence all punifti-
ments that are not capital have acquired the name of
3 Y arbitrary
A
ARB [ 533 ] ARB
Arbltra. arbitrary punijhments, even although they be exprefsly
l“n pointed out by ftatute.
Arburg.
ARBITRATION Is where the parties, Injuring
and injured, fubmit all matters in difpute, concerning
any perfonal chattels or perfonal wrong, to the judge¬
ment of two or more arbiters or arbitrators ; who are
to decide the controverfy : and, if they do not agree,
it is ufual to add, that another perfon be called in as
umpire, imperator or impar), to whofe foie judgment it
is then referred ; or frequently there is only one arbi¬
trator originally appointed. This decifion, in any of
thefe cafes, is called an award. And thereby the
queftion is as fully determined, and the right transfer¬
red or fettled, as it would have been by the agreement
of the parties or the judgment of a court of juftice.
See Law.
ARBITRATOR, a private extraordinary judge,
chofen by the mutual confent of parties, to determine
controverfies between them. See Arbiter and Arbi¬
tration.
ARBOIS, a fmall populous town of France, in the
department of Jura, formerly Franche Compte, famous
for its wines. E. Long. 5. 40. N. Lat. 46. 55.
ARBON, an ancient town in Swifferland, on the
fouth banks of the lake Conftance, in Thurgaw. It
has a caftle built by the Romans, and is under the ju-
rildiclion of the bifhop of Conftance. In the time of
war, the Swifs have a right to put in a garrifon. The
Popifh and Proteftant religions are equally tolerated in
this town. E. Long. 9. 30. N. Lat. 4. 38.
ARBOR, in Botany, a tree. Trees are by Linnaeus
claffed in the feventh family of the vegetable kingdom,
and are diltinguifhed from flirubs in that their Items
come up with buds on them ; but this diftin&ion holds
not univerfally, there being rarely any buds on the
large trees in India.
Arbor, in Mechanics, the principal part of a ma¬
chine, which ferves to fuftain the reft; alfo the axis or
fpindle on which a machine turns, as the arbor of a
crane, windmill, &c.
jUrbor Diancc. See Chemistry Index.
Mrbor Vitce. See Thuya, Botany Index.
ARBORESCENT, an epithet applied to fuch ob-
je£ts as refemble trees.
Sirs ore sc ent Star-JiJh, in Zoology, a fpecies of afte-
rias. See Aster 1 as.
ARBORIBONSES, in Modern Hi/lory, priefts of
japan, who live an erratic life, and fubiift on alms.
They dwell in caverns, and cover their heads with
bonnets made of the bark of trees.
ARBORIST, a perfon fkilled in that part of botany
which treats of trees.
ARBOUR, in Gardening, a kind of fliady bowTer,
formerly in great efteem } but of late rejedted on ac¬
count of its being damp and unwholefome.
Arbours are generally made of lattice work, either
of w7ood or iron , and covered with elms, limes, horn¬
beams *, or with creepers, as honeyfuckles, jafmines, or
paflion flowers *, either of which will anfwer the purpofe
very well, if rightly managed.
ARBROATH. See Aberbrothick.
ARBURG, a town of Swiiferland, in the canton
of Bern, on the river Aar. It is fmall, but very
ftrong, being feated on a rock, and defended by a good
fortrefs cut out of the rock. E. Long. 17. 55. N. Lat. Arbufcula
47. 10. II
' ARB USCULA is ufed by Bradley to denote aArbuthnot-
little or dwarf tree, above the rank of flirubs, but be- v
kuv that of trees } fuch, e. g. as the elder.
ARBUSTUM implies a number or multitude of
trees planted for the fruit’s fake.
The word wTas more peculiarly applied to a place
planted with trees for faftening vines to, which are
hence called by Columella arbujhva.
Arbustum is fometimes alfo ufed to denote an or¬
chard, or field wherein trees are planted at fuch di-
flance that there is room for ploughing and growing
corn between.
ARBUTHNOT, Alexander, principal of the
univerfity of Aberdeen in the reign of James VI. of
Scotland, was born in the year 1538. He lludied firfl
at Aberdeen j and w7as afterwards fent over to France,
where, under the famous Cujacius, he applied himfelf
to the ftudy of the civil law7. In the year 1563, he
returned to Scotland, and took orders. Whether he
was ordained by a bifhop or by prefhyters, is a matter
of uncertainty. In 1568, he was appointed minifter of
Arbuthnot and Logie Buchan j and in the following
year, Mr Alexander Anderfon being deprived, our au¬
thor w'as made principal of the king’s college at Aberr
deen, in his room. In the general affembly which met
at Edinburgh in the years 1573, and 1577, he was
chofen moderator j and to the end of his life w7as an
active fupporter of the reformed religion. He died in
1583, in the 45th year of his age ; and w7as buried in
the College church of Aberdeen. We are told in the
Biographia, that he was eminent as a poet, a philofo-
pher, a mathematician, a lawyer, a divine, and a phy-
fician. He wrote Orationes de origine et dignitatcjuris,
printed at Edinburgh, 1572, 410. His cotemporary
Thomas Maitland wrote a copy of Latin verfes on the
publication of this book : they are printed in the Delic.
Poetar. Scot. He publifhed Buchanan’s Hiftory of
Scotland in the year 1582.
Arbuthnot, John, M. D. the fon of an Epifcopal
clergyman in Scotland, was born foon after the Reflo-
ration at Arbuthnot near Montrofe. After aquiring
a competent knowledge of the elementary parts of
education, he was fent to the college of Aberdeen,
where the buddings of thofe great qualities and thofe
failles of wit, which contributed fo much to his future
greatnefs, foon made their appearance. Having there
gone through a courfe of academical lludies, and ob¬
tained the degree of doflor of phyfic, he went to Lon¬
don, in order to reap the fruits both of his natural and
acquired abilities. He then began to diiplay his ta¬
lents, in teaching mathematics, in which he was very
expert. “ An Examination of Dr Woodward’s Ac¬
count of the Deluge,” &c. in 1697, firft made him
known to the learned world. This performance was
received with great applaufe •, and in 17CO a treadle
“ On the Ufefulnefs of Mathematical Learning” dill
increafed his reputation. A very interefting paper
“ On the Regularity of the Births of both Sexes,”
demonftrating from authentic proofs the univerfal li-
milarity which is obferved by nature in this circum-
ftance, and drawing from thefe leveral political and
moral inferences, which he prelented to the Royal So¬
ciety,
ARB [ 539 ] ARC
Arbuthnot. ciety, procured his ele£tion in 1704 into that body.
‘ ■ ' v~"—' Meanwhile, in his own proper profedion, he wras ac¬
quiring confiderable eminence, and was appointed on
account of his great medical knowledge, phylician ex¬
traordinary to Prince George of Denmark, and Ihortly
afterwards one of the phyficians in ordinary to Queen
Anne. He was admitted in 1710 a fellow of the col¬
lege. He formed about this period a very intimate
acquaintance, which lafted with unabating tendernefs
and afte&ion during the reft of his life, with thefe
great literary men, Pope, Gay, and Swift. In 1714
he engaged in an extenftve defign, of making a fatire
upon all the abufes of fcience in every branch, in co¬
operation with Pope and Swift, which was to be writ¬
ten under the form of the hiftory of a fiftitious cha¬
racter, and in the grave ironical ftyle. The plan was
never finilhed, but the “ Memoirs of Martinus Scrib-
lerus,” publiftied in Pope’s works, form a part ; of
which, much is the performance of Dr Arbuthnot.
It is very probable, that the whole of the firft book is
of his compofition, in which the great profoundnefs of
knowledge that is difcerned, and the good-natured
pleafantry with which the fatire is direCted, has gain¬
ed it the character of one of the moft original, learn¬
ed, and interefting pieces in the Englifti language.
Thofe parts which relate to anatomy, the manners
and cuftoms of antiquity, and logic, are particularly his
performance. On the death of Queen Anne, he made
a vifit to Paris, in order to drive away the melancholy
which attended him on account of that circumftance,
which was a fevere ftroke to him, and deftruCtive not
only to his perfonal, but alfo to his political views. Re¬
turning from thence, as his medical fervices were no
longer required at St James’s, he retired from it, and
followed at large the praftice of his profeflion j yet
he did not thence give up his literary purfuits, but
purfued them with great ardour, although long in¬
tervals take place between the times of his publi¬
cations. A work entitled “ Tables of Ancient Coins,
Weights, and Meafures,” explained and exemplified
in leveral differtations, in a 410 vol. appeared in 1727,
which is the chief of his ferious performances. Al¬
though there are feveral inaccuracies in it which could
'hardly be avoided in fo intricate a fubjeft, it is a work
of great merit, and has ever fince been confidered as
the ftandard authority. A treatife “ On the Nature
and Choice of Aliments,” which w7as publiftied in
1732, and another publiftied in 1733, “ On the Effedls
of Air on Human Bodies,” finifti the lift of his fterling
■works. Both thefe were well received by the facu-
ty, and continue to be ftill efteemed, and are occa-
lionally read and quoted. Refpe&ing his humorous
works, which were the produttions of his leifure
hours, they are fo confounded with thofe of his con¬
temporaries, that it is not eafy to diftinguifh them.
But a piece which, independent of any other, would
raife him to the charafter of the firft humorous wri¬
ter in the Englifti language, entitled the “ Hiftory
of John Bull,” is confidently afcribed to him. This
is conduced with great wit and humour, and all the
circumftances and charadlers are moft admirably adapt¬
ed. Among his feveral avowed ironical pieces are
“ A Treatife concerning the Altercation or Scolding
of the Ancients”, and the “ xWt of political Lying.”
In the year 1751, there was publiflied two fmall vo¬
Arc.
lumes, entitled “ The Mifcellaneous Works of Dr Arbuthnot
Arbuthnot j” but the greateft part of what they con¬
tain is denied by his fon to be of his compofition. As (
it was cuftomary for him, when any comical occur¬
rence took place, which ftruck his fancy, to write
concerning it in a large folio which lay in his parlour ;
it is very probable, that many flight and imperfefl ef-
fays, which had gone out of his remembrance, might
get abroad into the world. Through all his pieces of
this kind there runs a vein of good-natured pleafantry ;
and this tends to confirm the chara£ler given of him
by Swift, to a lady who defired to know his opinion
concerning Dr Arbuthnot, “ He has more wit than
we all have, and his humanity is equal to his wit.”
Although his writings are free from that gall and rart-
cour, too common among party writers, yet they
cannot be faid to be altogether free from a party fpirit.
He, however, cannot be excufed in one inftance, of
allownng his perfonal diftike to overrule his humanity,
viz. in the “ Memorandums of the fix days preceding
the death of a late Right Reverend” (meaning Biftiop
Burnet). The indignation of a virtuous man towards
an infamous charafler, is fufficient to juftify his feve-
rity in his bitter “ Epitaph on Colonel Chartres j” and
this feverity was probably aggravated by party fpirit.
Although he had no proper poetical talent, yet he
made an effort to try his genius in that kind of com¬
pofition. A piece, publifhed in Dodfley’s colleftion,
is valuable for its philofophical fentiment, which is en¬
titled FNS20I 2EATTON, Know thyfelf. He was alfo
Ikilled in mufic \ and Sir J. Hawkins mentions an an¬
them and a burlefque fong, which are afcribed to him.
In thefe occupations he pafled his days, amid all the
pleafures that can render domeftic life happy, in the
affe&ion and eftimation of his friends, beloved and
efteemed by all his literary aflbciates, who have each
taken great pains to celebrate their mutual friendlhip.
Swift in one of his poems fincerely laments that he is
“Far from his kind Arbuthnot’s aid,
Who knows his art, but not his trade.”
Pope has dedicated to him an epiftle, called a “ Pro¬
logue to the Satires.” He w7as full of humility and
relignation in all the difpenfations of Providence. Of
his two fons, he witnefled the death of one ; and the.
other, wuth fome daughters, furvived him. At length,
from an inveterate afthma, he fell into a dropfical dif-
order 5 and, in order to try the effeft of a change of
air, he repaired to Hampftead, but without the leaft
gleam of hope refpefting a recovery, as he afllired his
friends Pope and Swift. Returning to his houfe in
London, he died February 27. 1734-5. His lateft
letters difplay a great ferenity of mind, an exemplary
piety, a contempt of vice, and a glowing delire of vir¬
tue. (Gen. Biog.')
ARBUTUS, the strawberry tree. See Bo¬
tany Index.
ARC, Joan of, generally called the Maid of Or^
leans, one of the moft famed heroines in the annals of
hiftory, w^as born about the beginning of the i ifth
century at Domremy, near Vaucouleurs in Lorrain,
where her father, a peafant, named James d’Arc, re¬
futed. When (he w7as able in the leaft degree to earft
a fuftenance for herfelf, her parents, who w7ere but
poor, put her to fervice at a fmall inn, where ftie per-
3 Y2 formed
ARC [ 540 ] ARC
formed feveral offices, more properly belonging to the
other fex, fuch as riding the horfes to water without a
faddle, and attending them in the fields, and many
other fimilar fervices, which greatly difplayed her maf-
culine habit of body. At the time when Charles VII.
•was reduced to a very low condition, and the greateft
part of his country had been overrun by the Englifii,
Joan, probably then at the age of ay or 29, imagined
that fhe law feveral vifions, and that in one of thefe
Ihe was commanded by St Michael, to go immediately
to the relief of Orleans, at that time clofely befieged
by the Engliih army, and then to procure the confe-
cration of the king at Rheims. In February 1429,
her parents took her to the governor of Vaucouleurs,
named Baudricourt, who at firft held her pretended in-
fpiration to be no more than an idle tale, and treated it
with the contempt fuch a thing would have deferved j
but at laft induced by her entreaties, he fent her to
Chinon, where the king then was, in order that (lie
might be introduced to him. Charles, whether it
proceeded from earned; or not, in order to found her,
determined to prefent her to a company of his nobles,
where no mark of dignity tended to diftinguiffi him
from them ; and, it is aflerted, that fhe immediately
recognized him, and informed him of fecrets which he
had endeavoured to conceal from every perfon. She
boldly engaged to accomplilh the two objefts of her
miffion, and required that they fhould arm her with a
confecrated fword, which lay in the church of St Ca¬
tharine of Fierbois j and although fhe had never feen
it, file accurately defcribed every particular concerning
it. The manner in which flic a£ted infpired many with
confidence ; and certain doftors of the church were ap¬
pointed to infpedl into the nature of her infpiration,
and matrons to give proofs of her virginity. The re¬
port which they gave was very favourable ; but being
next pi'it into the hands of the parliament, they treated
her as frantick, and demanded that fhe lliould fhew
them a miracle. She anfwered, that although file had
not any at that time to prefent, fhe would foon accom-
plifh one at Orleans. At length being fully armed
and mounted, file was fent to Orleans along with the
army deftined for its relief. By difplaying a confe¬
crated banner, ftie foon cleanfed the camp of intempe¬
rance 5 and by her whole deportment, animated the
•foldiers by her exemplary enthufiafm. Entering Or¬
leans, the introduced a convoy, and boldly attacking
the Englifii in their forts, file routed them with great
daughter, and flruck them with fuch a panic, that
they were even obliged to raife the liege with great
precipitation. The dignity of a fuperior mind and a
brave heroifm reigned through all her a£tions. Va¬
rious other fucceffes followed in a fliort time, and the
difmayed Englifii everywhere tied before the hand of
a conquering enemy, whom they had but lately con¬
temned. Joan now thinking it proper to perform her
other promife of crowning the king at Rheims, pro¬
ceeded with him through the kingdom, in order to re¬
ceive fubmiffion of the towns as he marched, which he
did without any oppofition. Arriving at Rheims, the
keys of the city were delivered to him, and, entering
the town, he was anointed and crowned with the holy
oil of Clovis, Joan Handing by his fide in full armour,
and difplaying her confecrated banner. Charles filled
with gratitude for her important fervices, ennobled
her family, and conferred upon it the title of the Sys, Arc.
with a conformable efiate in land. The two objedls of
her miffion being now accomplifiied, Joan prepared to
retire into the country ; but Dunois, the general, be¬
ing fenfible of her importance on account of her pre¬
tended infpiration, endeavoured to perfuade her to re¬
main in arms until the Engliffi fliould be fully driven
from the country ; which by his perfuafions he effect¬
ed. Advifed by him file caff herfelf into Compeigne,
then clofely befieged by the Englifir and the duke of
Burgundy. Having there made a fally upon the ene¬
my, Ihe drove them from their intrenchments j but be¬
ing bafely defertecl by her followers, ftie was takeiv
prifoner. Upon her capture, the Englifii enjoyed a
malignant gratification, and refolved to fiiew her no
mercy, on account of the change ftie had occafionecl
in their affairs. The duke of Bedford, the regent, ha¬
ving ranfomed her from the captors, appointed a cri¬
minal profecution againft her upon the charges of em¬
ploying forcery and magic, and of being impious. He
was joined in the accufation by the clergy, and by the
univerfity of Paris. She was carried in irons before
an ecclefiaftical commiffion at Rouen, where feveral
capricious interrogatories were put to her during a trial
of about four months, to which file anfwered with ftea-
dinefs and gravity. Among feveral other queftions,
(lie was interrogated why Hie had affifted at the coro¬
nation of Charles with her ftandard in her hand.
She boldly replied, “ Becaufe the perfon who fliared
in the danger, had a right to fliare in the glory.”
Her defence was notfo ftrong concerning her pretend¬
ed infpiration and vifions, which were the moil dange¬
rous points of the attack. She appealed to the pope
upon being accufed on thefe grounds of impiety and
herefy 5 but her appeal was not allowed. At length
fhe was condemned of being a blafphemer and force-
refs, and accordingly delivered over to the power of
the civil magiftrate. A view of the dreadful punifli-
ment that awaited her, at laft overpowered her refolu-
tion ; and ftie endeavoured to efcape it, by making a
difavoival of her pretended revelations, and a full re¬
nunciation of her errors. Her fentence was then
changed into perpetual imprifonment, but this punifii-
ment did not affuage the fury of her barbarous ene¬
mies. They craftily laid a man’s drefs in her cham¬
ber, and file, induced by the fight of an apparel in
which file had gained fo much honour, put it on ; and,
upon being difcovered, her enemies condemned her tq
the ftake, interpreting the afrion into a relapfe of he¬
reby. She fuffered her punifiiment in June 1431, at.
the market-place of Rouen, with great firmnefs 5 and
even the Englifti themfelves beheld the fcene with
tears. Her death will for ever call an indelible ftigma
on the charafter of her cruel profecutors. Charles did
nothing towards avenging her caufej but ten years after¬
wards, contented himfelf with procuring the reftora-
tion of her memory by the pope, and a reverfion of
the procefs. She was ftyled in that aft, a “ martyr ta
her religion, her country, and her king.” In their
enthufiailic admiration, her countrymen were not fi»
flow in honouring her memory. Many marvellous fto-
ries were related by them concerning her death. Some
fuppofed that ftie was not aftually dead, and conti¬
nually expefted, that, as formerly, ftie would come,
and at their head lead them on to viftory. A confift-
ent
ARC [54
Arcade ent and uniform judgment refpe&ing the a6Hons and
II . addrefs of this perfonage cannot be made by pofterity,
.Arcangis, ^ -phat die gave herfelf up to the influence of a heated
fancy, and that (he was confident in the idea of her
divine infpiration, and that this notion was fo improved
by certain favourites of Charles, as to excite the emo¬
tions of the public, feems to be the mod probable fup-
pofition. That the appearance of the Maid of Or- ,
leans tended to give a decifive turn to the contefi: be¬
tween the Englifli and the French, has never in the
leait been queflioned.
The praife and exploits of this noble heroine have
formed the fubjedf of various w-orks both in profe and
verfe. In verfe, that of Voltaire is very licentious and
burlefque, and is an injury to her memory; but it
has in a great degree been repaired by that mod Ipi-
rited and fublime poem of Southey, in Engliih, which
reprefents her in the mod lively and driking colours of
heroifm and virtue $ and by that of Chapelain, although
it did not meet with fuch fuccefs. {Gen. Biog.)
ARCADE, in Architecture, is ufed to denote any
opening in the wall of a building formed by an arch.
ARCADI, or Arcadians, the name of a learned
fociety at Rome. See Academy.
ARCADIA, an inland did riel in the heart of Pe-
loponnefus (Strabo). It is mountainous, and fitter for
padure than corn \ and therefore chiefly celebrated by
bucolic or padoral poets, who feign Pan, the god of
fltepherds, to be the guardian of it (Virgil). It has
to the north Achaia, to the ead Argos and Laconia,
Meffenia to the fouth, and Elis to the wed. Accord¬
ing to Pliny, the wine of this country cured barren-
nefs in women, and infpired the men with rage , and
the berries of the yew gathered there were fo drong a
poifon, that whoever flept or took refrefliment under
that tree was fure to die. In Strabo’s time there
were few cities remaining in it, mod of them being
dedroyed in the Grecian wars. Eudathius fays, that
the country was anciently called Pe/afgia, from Pelaf-
gos, who brought the people, from roots, herbs, and
leaves of trees, to feed on acorns, efpecially beech
mad ; as Artemidorus obferves, that the Arcadians
ufually lived on acorns. It was alfo called Lycaonia,
Gigantis, and Parrhajia (Stephanus). The Arcadi¬
ans are greatly commended for their love of, and fkill
in, mufic (Virgil, Polybius). To imitate the Arca¬
dians, is to labour and toil for the benefit of others,
never conquering their own, but the enemies of others
(Hefychius). This probably took its rife from the an¬
cient Arcadians being accudomed to hire themfelves
out as mercenaries to foreign nations. Homer com¬
mends their martial prowefs, their padures, their flieep,
and their country well watered. The gentilitious
name is Arcades ; who boaded of their great antiqui¬
ty, and that they were older than the fun and moon
(Apollonius Rhodius, Nonnius, Plutarch, Ovid, Sta¬
tius). They were the fird w;ho had a year of three
months, and therefore called Proceleni, becaufe their
year wTas prior to that adjuded in Greece to the courfe
of the moon (Cenforinus).
ARCANGIS, in the Turkifh armies, an inferior
kind of infantry, which ferve as enfans perdus, and to
harafs and pillage the enemy’s frontiers. The Arcangis
are an order inferior to the Janizaries ; and wdten any
of them diflinguilh themfelves, are ufually preferred
i ] ARC
into the Janizaries order; They have no pay, but are Arcanum
to fubfifl on their plunder. Arch.
ARCANUM, among Phyficians, any remedy, the i —i
preparation of which is indudrioufly concealed, in or¬
der to enhance its value.
Arcanum, in Ancient Geography, a villa of Ci¬
cero, Tully’s brother, in Latium, (Cicero). Now
Arce, in the Terra di Lavora, in the kingdom of Na¬
ples, on the borders of the Campagna di Roma, on
the river Melpis, between Arpinum and Aquinum.
ARCBOUTANT, in Building, an arched buttrefs.
See Buttress.
ARCES1LAUS, a celebrated Greek philofopher,.
about 300 years before the Chridian era, was born at
Pitane, in Eolis. He founded the fecond academy,
which is called the fecond fchool. He was a man of
great erudition, and well veried in the writings of the
ancients. He was remarkable lor the leverity of his
criticifms j but neverthelefs he knew how to accom¬
modate himfelf to the age, and purfue the allurements-
of pleafure. He had a great number of difciples. His
doftrines were different in feveral refpedts from thofe
of the ancient fchool : and perhaps he was led into this
diverfity of opinions by many capital errors in the an¬
cient fchool, fuch as the incredible arrogance of the
dogmatids, who pretended to affign caufes for all
things 5. the myderrous air they had thrown upon the
dodlrine of ideas ; the entirely difearding the tedimo-
ny of the fenfes 5 the objeftions of the Pyrrhonids, who
now began to broach their opinions 5 the powerful
oppofition of the Stoics and Peripatetics, who difeo-
vered the feeble parts of the Academic philofophy.
Thefe might have given caufe to reform the ancient
fchool, and to found a new one. The middle fchool,
therefore, laid it down as a principle, that we could
know nothing, nor even affure ourfelves of the certain.-
ty of this pofition ; from whence they inferred, that
we fltould affirm nothing, but always fufpend our judge¬
ment. They advanced, that a philofopher was able to
difpute upon every fubjeft, and bring convidlion with
him, even upon contrary fides of the fame quedion y
for ,there are always reafons of equal force both in the
affirmative and negative of every argument. Accord¬
ing to this dodlrine, neither our fenfes, nor even our
reafon, are to have any credit : and therefore, in com¬
mon affairs, we are to conform ourfelves to received
opinions. Arcefilaus was fucceeded by his difciple
Lacydes.
ARCH, in Geometry, any part of the circumfe¬
rence of a circle or curved line, lying from one point
to another, by which the quantity of the whole circkr
or line, or fome other thing fought after, may be ga¬
thered. See Bridge.
Arch, a concave or hollowed piece of building,
condrudled in fuch a manner that the feveral dones of
which it is compofed keep one another in their places.
The terms arch and vault properly differ only in this,
that the arch expreffes a narrower, and the vault a
broader, piece of the fame kind. The principal dif¬
ference in the form of arches is, that fome are circu¬
lar, and others elliptical ; the former having a larger
or fmaller part of a circle, the other of an ellipfis.-
What are called Jlrait arches, are thofe frequently
ufed over doors and windows, the upper and under
edges of which are drait and parallel, and the ends and
joints
t
ARC
Arch joints all pointing toward a centre. The fpace be-
Archangel, two PIers of a bridge ^ called an arch, becaufe
> f- ufualiy arched over.
. triumphal Ar.chks are magnificent entries into ci¬
ties, erefted to adorn a triumph, and perpetuate the
memory of the adion. The arches of Titus and Con-
ftantme make at this time a great figure among the
ruins of old Rome.
Arch, in Compofition, fignifies chief, or of the>7?
clafs 5 as archangel, archbilhop, &c.
ARCH/E US, or Archeus. See Archeus.
ARCHANGEL, an angel occupying the eighth
rank in the celeftial hierarchy. See Axgel and Hie¬
rarchy.
Archangel, a city of Ruffia, in the province of
Dwina, fituated on the eaft fide of the river Dwina,
about fix miles from the White fea, in E. Long. 40!
21. N. Lat. 64. 30. The city extends about three
miles in length and one in breadth. It is rich, popu¬
lous, built in the modern tafte, and is a metropolitan
fee. It rofe from a caftle built on the fpot by Bafilo-
witz II. to proteft the increafing trade brought there
by the difcovery of the White fea by the Englifh, and
took its name from a monaftery built in honour of the
archangel Michael. Before this period the commer¬
cial intercourfe between Ruflia and the northern parts
of Europe had been long carried on by the Hanfeatic
towns 5 which ufually failed to Revel'or Narva, and
from thence paffed through Dorpt to Plefcof and No-'
vogorod, where their fa£!ories were eftablifhed. The
accidental difcovery of Archangel, in 1 553, deprived
the Hanfeatic towns of a great part of this lucrative
commerce, and transferred it to the Englifh, On the
11th of May, in the above-mentioned year, three (hips
failed from Deptford, in order to explore the northern
leas, under the command of Sir Hugh Willoughby.
Two of thefe veffels penetrated as high as the 7 2d de¬
gree of latitude, to the coaft of Spitzbergen ; and be¬
ing afterwards forced by ftrefs of weather into the
bay of the river Arzina in Ruffian Lapland, both their
crews were frozen to death. Richard Chancellor, who
commanded the other fhip, called the Bonaventure,
difcovering the country bordering upon the White fea^
landed near the mouth of the Dwina, in a bay, which
he denominated the Bay of St Nicholas, from a con¬
vent of that name near the prefent port of Archangel,
The czar Iwan Bafilowitz, being informed of his ar¬
rival, invited him to his court, where he was hofpita-
bly entertained, and the czar indulged the Englifh
with a free trade in his dominions : in confequence of
this permiffion, a company of merchants was incorpo¬
rated in London ; and being encouraged by particular
privileges from the czar, fet on foot a confiderable
commerce, to the mutual advantage of both nations.
This traffic the Englifh for fome time enjoyed without
competition. The Dutch, however, and other na-
tions, gradually infinuated themfelves into this com¬
merce ; which they carried on to a very great difadvan-
tage, as not being favoured with thofe privileges which
the czar had granted to the Englifh company. Thefe
were at lafl fuddenly annihilated by Alexis Michaelo-
vitch •, who in 1648 banifhed the Englifh merchants
from all his dominions. The caufe of this expulfion is
generally imputed to the refentment which the czar
conceived againft the Englifh for the execution of
542 ] ARC
Charles I. with whom he was clofely conne£fed by Archangel,
leagues of amity and alliance : but in effect he abolifh- Archbifhop,
ed the company’s privileges in the year before that v~~~‘
event ; and his indignation againft the Englifh for
their rebellion, Mr Coxe affirms, was only a political
pretext; the real motive being derived from the offers
made by the Dutch to pay duties of export and import
to the amount of 15 per cent, if they were indulged
with the liberty of carrying on as free a trade as the
Engliffi throughout his dominions. For not long af¬
terwards,. the czar fuffered William Prideaux, Crom¬
well’s agent, to refide at Archangel j and permitted
the Englifh to renew their commerce in that port up¬
on the fame footing with other foreigners. And upon
this footing alone our merchants ever after continued
to trade.
The commodities chiefly imported into Archangel,
were gold and filver fluffs and laces, gold wore, cochi¬
neal, indigo, and other drugs for dyeing ; wine, bran¬
dy, and other diftilled fpirits. The cultoms arifing to
the czar w*ere computed at 200,000 rubles a-year, and
the number of foreign fliips at 400 annually. But up¬
on the building of Peterfburg, Peter the Great abolifli-
ed the immunities of Archangel, and removed the
commerce of the White fea to the havens of the Bal¬
tic. Still, however, its exports of tar were confider¬
able ; in 1730, to the amount of 40,000 lafts, of 11
barrels each. It fends, during winter, great quanti¬
ties of the rawaga, a fmall fpecies of three-finned cod,
to Peterfburg frozen.
_ In *752 Elizabeth again reftored the ancient immu¬
nities of Archangel; and its prefent trade is not in-
confiderable. It fupplies the government of Archan¬
gel, part of thofe of Nifhnei-Novogorod and Cafan,
with European commodities j''and draws in exchange
from thofe parts corn, flax, hemp, coarfe linen, cor¬
dage, fails, mails, and tallow, which are moftly con¬
veyed by the Dwina : it forms alfo a principal com¬
munication wdth the northern and weftern parts of Si¬
beria, from whence the merchants procure furs, ikins,
and iron.
The houfes of Archangel are generally of wood,
but well contrived ; and every chamber is provided
with a ftove, as a fence againft the cold, which is here
exceffive in the winter. The ftreets are paved with
broken pieces of timber and rubbilh, difpofed fo un-
Ikilfully, that one cannot walk over it without run¬
ning the rifle of falling, except when the ftreets are
rendered fmooth and equal by the fnow that falls and
freezes in the winter. Notwithftanding the feverity
of the cold in this place, there is always plenty of good
provifions ; butchers meat, poultry, wuld fowl, and
fiffi, in a great variety, are fold furprifingly cheap.
The moll remarkable edifice in Archangel is a large
townhoufe, built of fquare ftones in the Italian man¬
ner, and divided into three parts. One of thefe con-
lifts of large commodious apartments, for the accom¬
modation of merchants, ftrangers as well as natives :
here they are permitted to refide with their merchan-
dife till the month of October, when all the foreign
ftiips fet fail for the refpeftive countries to which they
belong. Then the traders are obliged to remove their
quarters from the townhoufe, or palace, w hich hath a
fpacious court, that reaches dowm to the river.
ARCHBISHOP, the name of a church dignitary
oi
ARC, [ 543 ] ARC
Arclibi- of the firfl: clafs. Archbifhops were not known in the
ft°p. eafl. about the year 320; and though there w’ere
fome loon after this who had the title, yet that was
only a perfonal honour, by which the bilhops of confi-
derable cities were diftinguilhed. It was not till of
late that archbilhops became metropolitans, and had
fuffragans under them. Athanafius appears to be the
firft who ufed the title Archbifhop, which he gave oc-
calionally to his predeceffor ; Gregory Nazianzen, in
like manner, gave it to Athanafius •, not that either of
them wrere entitled to any juril’diftion, nor even any
precedence in virtue of it. Among the Latins, Ifi-
dore Hifpalenfis is the firft that fpeaks of archbilhops.
He diftinguifhes four orders or degrees in the ecclefiaf-
tical hierarchy, viz. patriarchs, archbiftiops, metropo¬
litans, and bifhops.
The archbilhop, befide the infpefHon of the bilhops
and inferior clergy in the province over which he pre-
fides, exercifes epifcopal jurifdiftion in his own dio-
cefe. He is guardian of the fpiritualties of any va¬
cant fee in his province, as the king is of the tempo-
ralties 5 and exercifes ecclefiaftical jurifdiftion in it.
•He is entitled to prefent by lapfe to all the ecclefiafti¬
cal livings in the difpofal of his diocefan bilhop, if not
filled within fix months. He has likewife a cuftomary
prerogative, upon confecrating a bilhop, to name a
clerk or chaplain to be provided for by iuch bilhop j
in lieu of which it is now ufual to accept an option.
He is faid to be enthroned when veiled in the arch-
bilhopric ; whereas bilhops are faid to be inftalled.
The ecclefiaftical government of England is divided
into two provinces, viz.. Canterbury and York. Can¬
terbury hath the following fuffragan bilhoprics apper¬
taining to it, St Afaph, Bangor, Bath and Wells, Bri-
ftol, Chichefter, Litchfield and Coventry, St David’s,
Ely, Exeter, Gloucefter, Hereford, LandafF, Lincoln,
London, Norwich, Oxford, Peterborough, Rochefter,
Salilhury, Winchefter, and Worcefter. To York ap¬
pertained! the bilhoprics of Carlille, Chefter, and Dur¬
ham ; to which may be added the bithopric of Sodor
and Man, whofe bilhop is not a lord of parliament.
See Canterbury and York.
The archbilhop of Canterbury had anciently» viz.
till the year 1152, jurifdiftion over Ireland as well as
England, and wTas ftyled a patriarch, and fometimes
alter ms orbis papa, and orbis Britannici pontifex. Mat¬
ters were done and recorded in his name thus, Anno
pontificatus nojlriprimo, &c. The firft archbilhop of
Canterbury was Auftin, appointed by King Ethelbert,
on his converfion to Chriftianity, about the year 598.
He was alfo regains natus. He even enjoyed fome
fpecial marks of royalty ; as, to be patron of a bilhop-
ric, which he wras of Rochefter ; and to make knights,
coin moneys, &c. He is ftill the firft peer of Eng¬
land, and the next to the royal family ; having pre¬
cedence of all dukes and all great officers of the crown.
It is his privilege, by cuftom, to crown the kings and
queens of this kingdom. Lie may retain and qualify
eight chaplains •, whereas a duke is allowed by ftatute
only fix. He has, by common law, the powTer of pro¬
bate of walls and teftaments, and granting letters of
adminiftration. He has alfo a power to grant licenfes
and difpenfations in all cafes formerly fried for in the
court of Rome, and not repugnant to the law of God.
He accordingly ilfues fpecial licenfes to marry, to hold
two livings, &c. and he exercifes the right of confer- Arch hi¬
ring degrees. He alfo holds feveral courts of judica- Ihopric
ture : as, court of arches, court of audience, preroga- ,
tive court, and court of peculiars. ^on651
Hie archbilhop of York has the like rights in his u—-y—.
province as the archbiftiop of Canterbury. He has
precedence of all dukes not of the royal blood ; and of
all officers of ftate, except the lord high chancellor.
He has alfo the rights of a count palatine over Hex-
amlhire. The firft archbilhop of York wTas Paulinus,
appointed by Pope Gregory about the year 622. He
had formerly jurifdiftion over all the bilhops of Scot¬
land ; but in the year 1470, Pope Sextus IV. created
the bifliop of St Andrew’s archbiftiop and metropoli¬
tan of all Scotland.
Scotland, whilft epifcopacy prevailed in that country,
had two archbijhops, of St Andrew’s and Glafgow j of
which the former was accounted the metropolitan j and,
even before it arrived at the dignity of an archbilhop-
ric, refifted with great fpirit all the attempts of the
archbilhops of York in England to become the metro¬
politans of Scotland. The fees of Argyll, Galloway,
and the Hies, were fuffragans to Glafgow j all the others
in the kingdom to St Andrew’s.
Ireland has four archbiftrops j of Armagh, Dublin,
Caftiel, and Tuam •, of whom the former is primate off
all Ireland.
ARCHBISHOPRIC, in EcdeJiaJHcal Geography,
a province fubjeft to the jurifdiflion of an archbi¬
lhop.
ARCHBUTLER, one of the great officers of the
German empire, who prefents the cup to the emperor
on folemn occafions. This office belongs ta the king-
of Bohemia.
ARCHCHAMBERLAIN, an officer of the em¬
pire, much the fame with the great chamberlain ia
England. The eledtor of Brandenburg was appointed.
by the golden bull archchamberlain of the empire.
ARCHCHANCELLOR, a high officer who, in
ancient times, prefided over the fecretaries of the court.
Under the two firft races of the kings of France, when
their territories were divided into Germany, Italy, and
Arles, there were three archchancellors: and hence the
three archchancellors ftill fubfifting in Germany ; the
archbilhop of Mentz being archchancellor of Germa¬
ny, the archbilhop of Coiogn, and the archbilhop of
Treves.
ARCHCHANTOR, the prefident of the chanters
of a church.
ARCHCOUNT, a title formerly given to the earl
of Flanders, on account of his great power and riches.
ARCHDEACON, an ecclefiaftical dignitary or
officer next to a bithop, whofe jurifdidtion extends ei¬
ther over the whole diocefe or only a part of it. Fie
is ufually appointed by the bilhop himfelf; and hath a
kind of epifcopal authority, originally derived from the
bilhop, but now independent and diftinft from his.
He therefore vifits the clergy ; and has his feparate
court for punilhment of offenders by fpiritual cenfures,
and for hearing all other caufes of ecclefiaflical cogni¬
zance. There are 60 archdeacons in England.
Archdeacon',s Court, is the moft inferior court in
the whole ecclefiaftical polity. It is held in the arch¬
deacon’s abfence, before a judge appointed by himfelf
and called his official and its jurildiftion is fometimes
ARC F 544 ] ARC
Archdruid m concurrence with, fometimes in exclufion of, the bi-
flrop’s court of the diocefe. From hence, however, by
■ Archer;” f ftatute 24 Hen. VIII. c. 12. there lies an appeal to
that of the bifhop.
ARCHDRUID, the chief or pontiff of the ancient
druids of a nation. See Druid.
ARCHDUKE, a title peculiar to the houfe of
Auftria ; all the fons of which are archdukes, and the
daughters archducheffes. See Duke.
ARCHELAUS, a celebrated Greek philofopher,
the difciple of Anaxagoras, flouriflied about 440 years
before Chrift. He read le&ures at Athens, and did
not depart much from the opinions of his mailer. He
taught that there was a double principle of all things,
namely, the expanfion and condenfation of the air,
which he regarded as infinite. Heat, according to him,
was in continual motion. Cold was ever at reft. The
earth, which was placed in the midft of the univerfe,
had no motion. It originally refemblcd a wet marlh,
but was afterwards dried up ; and its figure, he faid,
refembled that of an egg. Animals were produced
from the heat of the earth, and even men were formed
in the fame manner. All animals have a foul, which
was born with them : but the capacities of which vary
according to the ftrufture of the organs of the body in
which it refides.—Socrates, the moft illuftrious of his
difciples, was his fucceffor.
Archeuaus, the fon of Herod the Great, was de¬
clared king of Judea the fecond year after the birth of
Chrift. He put to death 3000 perfons before he went
to Rome to be confirmed by Auguftus. However, that
emperor gave him half of what had been poffeffed by
his father *, but at length, on frelh complaints exhibit¬
ed againft him by the Jews, he banilhed him to Vienne
in Gaul, A. D. 6. where he died.
ArChelaus, the fon of Apollonius, one of the
greateft fculptors of antiquity, was a native of Ionia,
and is thought to have lived in the time of the empe¬
ror Claudius. He executed, in marble, the apotheofis
of Homer. This mafterpiece in fculpture was found
in 1568, in a place named Fratocchia, belonging to the
princes of Colonna, where, it is faid, the emperor Clau¬
dius had a pleafure houfe. Father Kircher, Cupert,
Spanheim, and feveral other learned antiquaries, have
given a defcription and explication of this work.
ARCHERS, a kind of militia or foldiery armed
with bows and arrows. The word is formed of arcus,
“ a bow j” whence arcuarius, and even arquis, and ar-
quites, as they are alfo denominated in the corrupt
ftate of the Latin tongue.
Archers were much employed in former times 5 but
they are now laid afide, excepting in Turkey and fome
of the eaftern countries j where there are companies of
archers ftill fubfifting in their armies, and wdth which
they did terrible execution at the battle of Lepanto.—
As an exercife, the pradlice of archery is ftill kept up
in many places. See the article Archery.
In France, the officers who attend the lieutenants de
police and provofts to make captures, feizures, arrefts,
$tc. are called archers ; though their arms be only hal¬
berds or carabines. In this fenfe they fay, the archers
of the grand prevot de Fhotel; of the prevot des mar-
chands ; the city archers ; the archers du guet, or of
the watch, &c.—Small parties of archers, called
alfode marechaujfee, are continually patrolling on
the great roads, to fecure them againft robbers.—The Archery,
carriages of Lyons, &c. 'are always efcorted by a party l>—"v—--J
of archers. To the diligence of thefe archers, or mar-
Ihal’s men, it is is partly owing, that perfons now travel
in all parts of France in the utmoft fecurity j there be¬
ing fewer robberies on the highway in that v hole king¬
dom in a year than about London in a week.
ARCHERY, the art or exercile of fhopting with a
bow and arrow.
In moft nations, the bow was anciently the principal
implement of war j and by the expertnefs of the archers
alone was often decided the fate of battles and of em¬
pires.—In this ifiand archery was greatly encouraged
in former times, and many ftatutes were made for the
regulation thereof; whence it was that the Englifti
archers in particular became the beft in Europe, and
procured them many fignal vidlories.
The Artillery Company of London, though they
have long difufed the weapon, are the remains of the /[rciaDic
ancient fraternity of bow men or archers. Artillery Vol. vii.
(arti/le'rie') is a French term fignifying archery ; as the
king's hovoyer is in that language ftyled artillier du roy :
And from that nation the Englifh feem to have learnt
at leaf! the crofs-bow archery. We therefore find that
William the Conqueror had a confiderable number of
bowmen in his army at the battle of Haftings, when
no mention is made of fuch troops on the fide of Ha¬
rold : And it is fuppofed that thefe Norman archers
(hot with the arbaleft (or crofs-bowr), in which former¬
ly the arrow was placed in a groove, being termed in
French a quadrel, and in Englifti a bolt.
Of the time when {hooting with the long bow firft
began among the Englifti, at which exercife they after¬
wards became fo expert, there appear no certain ac¬
counts. Their chroniclers do not mention the ufe of ar¬
chery as exprefsly applied to the crofs bow, or the long
bow, till the death of Richard I. who wTas killed by an
arrow at the fiege of Limoges in Guienne, wrhich Hem-
mingford mentions to have iffued from a crofs bow.—-
After this, w’hich happened in 1199, there appear not
upon record any notices of archery for nearly 150
years, when an order wras iffued by Edward III. in the
15th year of his reign, to the ftierives of moft of the
Englifli counties for providing 500 white bows and 500
bundles of arrows, for the then intended war againft
France. Similar orders are repeated in the following
years ; with this difference only, that the ftieriff of
Gloucefterftiire is directed to furnifti 500 painted bowTs
as wTell as the fame number of white. The famous
battle of Creffy w?as fought four years afterwards, in
wdiich our chroniclers ftate that we had 2000 archers,
W'ho were oppofed to about the fame number of the
Fx-ench, together with a circumftance which feems to
prove, that by this time we ufed the long bow7, whilft
the French archers ftiot w7ith the arbaleft. The cir-
cumftance alluded to is as follows : Previoufly to the
engagement there fell a very heavy rain, which is faid
to have much damaged the bows of the French, or
perhaps rather the firings of them. Now7 the long
bow (when unftrung) may be moft conveniently cover¬
ed, fo as to prevent the rain’s injuring it; nor is there
fcarcely any addition to the weight from a cafe;
w7hereas the arbaleft is of a rnoft inconvenient form to
be ftreltered from the weather. As therefore, in the
year 1342, orders were iffued to the ftrerives of each
countv
ARC [ 545 ] ARC
Archery, county to provide 500 bows, with a proper proportion
of arrows, it Teems probable that thefe were long bows,
and not the arbaleft.
At the above-mentioned battle, the Englifh afcribed
their victory chiefly to the archers.—The battle of
Poictiers was fought A. D. 1356, and gained by the
fame means.
Sometimes the archers gained great vidtories with¬
out even the leaft aflillance from the men at arms j as
particularly, the decifive vi&ory over the Scots at Ho-
mildon, A. D. 1402. In that bloody battle, the men-
at-arms did not ftrike a ftroke, but were mere fpe£ta-
tors of the valour and viftory of the archers. The
Henry's eari 0f Douglas, who commanded the Scotch army in
Hijl. vol. v. tkat a(5tion, enraged to fee his men falling thick around
^ him by fhowers of arrows, and trufting to the goodnefs
of his armour (which.had been three years in making),
accompanied by about eighty lords, knights, and gen¬
tlemen, in complete armour, ruflied forward, and at¬
tacked the Englifh archers fwerd-in-hand. But he
foon had reafon to repent his rafhnefs. The Englifh
arrows were fo fharp and idrong, and difcharged with
fo much force, that no armour could repel them.
Idle earl of Douglas, after receiving five wounds, was
made prifoner; and all his brave companions were ei¬
ther killed or taken. Philip de Comines acknowledges,
what our own writers affert, that the Englifh archers
excelled thofe of every other nation $ and Sir John
Fortefcue fays again and again,—that the might of
the realme of England ftandyth upon archers.” The
fuperior dexterity of their archers gave the Englifh a
great advantage over their capital enemies the French
and Scots. The French depended chiefly on their
men-at-arms, and the Scots on their pikemen 5 but
the ranks of both were often thinned and thrown into
diforder by flights of arrows before they could reach
their enemies.
James I. of Scotland, who had feen and admired the
dexterity of the Englifh archers, and who was himfelf
an excellent archer, endeavoured to revive the exercife
of archery among his own fubjedts, by whom it had
been too much negledted. With this view’, he ridicu¬
led their awkward manner of handling their bows, in
his humorous poem, of Chrift’s Kirk on the Green $
and procured the following law to be made in his firft
parliament, A. D. 1424, immediately after his return
to Scotland : “ That all men might 'bulk thame to be
archares fra the be 12 years of age j and that ilk ten
punds worth of land thair be made bowr markes, and
fpeciallie near paroche kirks, quhairn upon halie dayis
men may cum, and at the leift fchute thryfe about,
and have ufage of archarie j and whaia ufis not archa-
rie, the laird of the land fal rais of him a w’edder ; and
giff the laird raifis not the faid pane, the king’s fhiref,
or his minifters, fall rais it to the king.” But the un¬
timely death of that excellent prince prevented the ef¬
fectual execution of this law.
There is not found any aft of parliament of Henry
V. in relation to archery, and all the orders in Rymer
till the battle of Agincourt relate to great guns, from
which he feems at firft to have cxpefted more confi-
derable advantage than from the training of bowmen.
It fhould feem, however, that this fort of artillery,
from its unwieldinefs, bad and narrow roads, together
with other defects, was as yet but of little ufe in mili-
Von. II. Part II.
tary operations. In the year 1417 this king therefore Archery,
afcribes his victory at Agincourt to the archers, and
diredts the Iherives of many counties to pluck from
every goofe fix wing-feathers for the purpofe of im¬
proving arrows, which are to be paid for by the
king.
In 1421, though the French had been defeated both Archaoh-
at Creffy, Poi&iers, and Agincourt, by the Englifh^
archers, yet they Itill continued the ufe of the crofs
bow j for wdiich reafon, Henry V. as duke of Nor¬
mandy, confirms the charters and privileges of the ba-
liftarii, who had been long eftablifhed as a fraternity
in his city of Rouen.
In the fifth of Edward IV. an adt paffed, that
every Englifhman, and Irifhman dwelling with Eng-
lifhmen, ihall have an Englifli bow of his own height,
wfliich is diredted to be made of yew, wych, hazel, afh,
or aw'burne, or any other reafonable tree according to
their power. The next chapter alfo diredts that butts
fhali be made in every towmfhip, wdiich the inhabitants
are obliged to fhoot up and dowm every feaft day, un¬
der the penalty of a halfpenny when they {hall omit
this exercife.
In the 14th year, however, of this fame king, it ap¬
pears by Rymer’s Foedera, that 1000 archers were to
be fent to the duke of Burgundy, whole pay is fettled
at fixpence a day, which was a confiderable fum in
thefe times, when the value of money was fo much
higher than it is at prefent. This circumftance feems
to prove, very flrongly, the great eftimation in which
archers wrere ftill held. In the fame year, Edw;ard,
preparing for a war with France, diredls the fherives
to procure bows and arrow's, “ as mod fpecially requi-
fite and neceffary.”
On the w'ar taking place with Scotland, eight years
after this, Edward provides both ordnance and arch¬
ers $ fo that though the ufe of artillery (as we now
term it ) was then gaining ground, yet that of the bow
and arrow wras not negledted.
Richard III. by his attention to archery, wras able
to fend 1000 bowmen to the duke of Bretagne, and
he availed himfelf of the fame troops at the battle of
Bofwmrth.
During the reign of Henry VII. however, there ap¬
pears no order relative to gunpow'der or artillery 5
whilfl on the other hand, in 1488, he direfts a large
levy of archers to be fent to Britanny, and that they
Ihall be review’ed before they embark. In the 19th
year of his reign, this fame king forbids the ufe of the
crofs bowg becaufe “ the long bow had been much
ufed in this realm, whereby honour and victory had
been gotten againft outward enemies, the realm great¬
ly defended, and much more the dread of all Chriftian
princes by reafon of the fame.”
During the reign of Henry VIII. feveral ftatutes
were made for the promotion of archery. The 8th
Eliz. c. 10. regulates the price of bow's, and the 13th
Eliz. c. 14. enacts, that bow ftaveslhall be brought in¬
to the realm from the Hanfe towns and the Eaflward j
fo that archery ftill continued to be an objeft of atten¬
tion in the legifiature.
In Rymer’s Fadera there is neither ftatute or pro¬
clamation of James I. on this head ; but it appears by
Dr Birch’s life of his fon (Prince Henry), that at
eight years of age, he learned to flioot both with the
3 Z bow
ARC [ 545 ]
ARC
Archery, bow and gun, whilft at the fame time this prince had
—--y 1 jn gflabliihment an officer who was ftyled boxy-
bearer. The king granted a i'econd charter to the Ar¬
tillery Company, by wnich the powers they had re¬
ceived from Henry VIII. were confiderably extended.
Charles I. appears, from the dedication of a trea-
tife entitled The Boxvttian's Glory, to have been him-
felf an archer •, and in the eighth year of his reign he
iiTued a cotnmifficjn to the chancellor, lord mayor, and
feveral of the privy council, to prevent the fields near
London being fo enclofed as “ to interrupt the necef-
fary and profitable exercife of [hooting,” as alfo to
lower the mounds where they prevented the view from
one mark to another.
Catharine of Portugal (queen to Charles II.) feems
to have been much pleafed with the fight at leaft of
this exercife ; for in 1676, by the contributions of Sir
Edward Huugerford and others, a filver badge for the
marffial of the fraternity was made, weighing 2 5 oun¬
ces, and reprefenting an archer drawing the long bow
(in the proper manner) to h?s ear, with the followung
infcription : Regince Catherine Sagittarii. The- fup-
porters are twro bowmen, with the arms of England and
Portugal. In 1682 there was a mod magnificent ca¬
valcade and entertainment given by the Finfbury arch¬
ers, when they bellowed the titles of “ duke of Shore¬
ditch,” “ marquis of Iffington,” &c. upon the mod
deferving. Charles II. wms prefent upon this occafion j
but the day being rainy, he was obliged foon to leave
the field.
So lately as the year 1753 targets were erefled in the
Finfbury fields, during the Eader and Whitfun holi¬
days when the bed ffiooter was dyled Captain for the
enfuing year, and the fecond Lieutenant.
Why this military weapon was fo decifive in the
battles of former days, the following reafons may be
fuggeded.
Before the introduction of fire arms the enemy could
only be druck at a didance by flings, the bow ufed by
the ancients, or the crofs bowT 5 to all wffiich the Eng-
iilh long bow was infinitely fuperior. As for flings,
they never have been ufed in the more northern parts
of Europe by armies in the field j nor does their ufe
indeed feem to have been at all convenient or exten-
fively practicable, for two principal reafons : In the
fird place, dingers cannot advance in a compaft body,
on account of the fpace to be occupied by this weapon
in its rotatory motion •, in the next place, the weight
o[ the dones to be carried mud neceffarily impede the
{lingers greatly in their movements. The bow of the
ancients again, as reprefented in all their reliefs, was a
mere toy compared with that of our ancedors 5 it was
therefore chiefly ufed by the Parthians, whofe attacks
(like thofe of the prefent Arabs) were defultory. As
for the crofs bow, it is of a mod inconvenient form for
carriage, even with the modern improvements ; and, in
cafe of rain, could not be eafily fecured from the wea¬
ther. After the fird [hot, moreover, it could not be
recharged under a confiderable time, whild the bolts
were alfo heavy and cumberfome. The Englifli long
bow, on the other hand, together with the quiver of ar¬
rows, was eafily carried by the archer, as eafily fecured
from the rain, and recharged almod indantaneoufly.
It is not therefore extraordinary, that troops, who fole-
iy ufed tills mod effectual weapon, Ihould generally ob¬
tain the victory, even when oppofed to much more nu- Archery,
merous armies. v""—’
It may be urged, that thefe lofles having been ex¬
perienced by our enemies, mud have induced them
to praftife the fame mode of warfare.—But it is
thought that the long bow was not commonly ufed
even in England till the time of Edward III. when
the victory at Crefl’y fufficiently proclaimed the fupe-
riorityox that weapon. It required, however, fo much
training before the archer could be expert, that we
mud not be furprifed if foon afterwards this military
exercife was much neglefted, as appears by the pre¬
ambles of ieveral ancient datutes. Whild the milita¬
ry tenures fubfided, the fovereign could only call upon
Ids' tenants during war, who therefore attended with
the -weapons they had been ufed to, and which requir¬
ed no previous practice. On the other hand, the Eng-
lidi archers were obliged by afts of parliament, even
in time of peace, to ere£t butts in every parilh, and to
Oioot on every Sunday and holiday, after repairing
perhaps to thefe butts from a confiderable didance,
whild the expence of at lead a yew bow is reprefented
as being a charge which they were fcarcely equal to.
The king and parliaments of this country having thus
compelled the inhabitants to Rich training, the Eng-
lidi armies had (it fhould feem) the fame advantage
over their enemies as the exclufive ufe of fire-arms
would give us at prefent.
It appears alfo, by what hath been already dated,
that the long bow continued to be in edimation for
more than two centuries after gunpowder was intro¬
duced, which probably arofe from mulkets being very
cumberfome and unwieldy. It is well known that ra¬
pid movements are generally decifive of the campaign ;
and for fuch the archers were particularly adapted, be-
caufe, as they Could not be annoyed at the fame di¬
dance by the weapons of the enemy, they had fcarcely
any occafion for armour. The dower of ancient ar¬
mies likewife was the cavalry, againd which the long
bow never failed to prevail, as man and horle were too
large objefts to be miffed : and hence the great num¬
ber of French nobility who were priioners at Creffy,
Poi&iers, and Agincourt •, for being difmounted (if
not wounded) whild they were alfo clad in heavy ar¬
mour, they could not make their efcape. The fame
reafon accounts for the Englidi obtaining thefe fignal
viftories with fo inferior numbers for the nobility and
gentry thus becoming prifoners, the other parts of the
French army made little or no refidance. No wonder,
therefore, that in England the greated anxiety was
diown to promote the exercife of this mod important
weapon, and that fo many datutes were made for that
purpofe.
In Scotland, alfo, little lefs attention, though ap¬
parently not wuth equal fuccefs, was ffiown to the en¬
couragement of the art. In both kingdoms, it was
provided, that the importers of merchandife ffiould
be obliged, along with their articles of commerce, to
import a certain proportion of bowrs, bow daves, and
fliafts for arrows. In both, every perfon was enjoin¬
ed to hold himfelf provided in bows and arrow’s, and
wras prefcribed the frequent ufe of archery. In both,
a redraint wras impofed upon the exercife of other
games and fports, led they ffiould interfere with the
life of the bow j for it was intended, that people fhould
bs
ARC [ 547 ] ARC
Archery, be made expert in tire ufe of it as a military weapon,
" v 1 by habituating them to the familiar exercife of it as an
inftrument of amufement. As there was no material
difference between the activity and bodily ftrength of
the two people, it might be fuppofed that the Englifh
and Scots wielded the bow with no unequal vigour
and dexterity : but from undoubted hiftorical monu¬
ments it appears that the former had the fuperiority j
of which one inftance has been already narrated. By
the regulations prefcribed in their ftatute book for the
pra£lice of archery, we find that the Englifh fhot a
very long bow, thofe wTho were arrived at their full
growth and maturity being prohibited from (hooting
at any mark that was not diftant upwards of 220 yards.
In the ufe of the bow, great dexterity as well as
flrength feems to have been requifite. Though we
hear of arrows at Cheviot Chafe which were a yard
long, yet it is by no means to be fuppofed that
the whole band made ufe of fuch, or could draw*
them to the head. The regulation of the Irilh ftatute
of Edward IV. viz. that the bow (hall not exceed the
height of the man, is allowed by archers to have been
well confidered j and as the arrow fhould be half the
length of the bow, this would give an arrow of a yard
in length to thofe only who w-ere fix feet high. A
ftrong man of this fize in the prefent times cannot ea-
fily draw above 27 inches, if the bow is of a proper
ftrength to do execution at a confiderable diftance. At
the fame time it muft be admitted, that as our an-
ceftors w^ere obliged by fome of the old ftatutes to be¬
gin (hooting with the long bow at the age of feven,
they might have acquired a greater flight in this exer¬
cife than their defcendants, though the latter fhould
be allowed to be of equal ftrength.
As the (hooting with the long bow w-as firft intro¬
duced in England, and praftifed almoft exclufively for
nearly two centuries, fo it hath occafioned a peculiar
method of drawing the arrow to the ear and not to
the bread. That this is contrary to the ufage of the
ancients is very clear from their reliefs, and from the
tradition of the Amazons cutting off one of their paps
as it occafioned an impediment to their (hooting. The
Finfbury archer is therefore reprefented in this attitude
t)f drawing to the ear, both in the Boumian',s Glory,
and in the filver badge given by Catharine to the Ar¬
tillery Company. Not many years ago there wTas a
man named Topham, who exhibited furprifing feats
of ftrength, and who happened to be at a public houfe
near Iflington, to which the Finfbury archers reforted
afttr their exercife. Tophaih confidered the long bow
as a plaything, only fit for a child *, upon which one
of the archers laid him a bowl of punch, that he could
not dravr the arrow two-thirds of its length. Topham
accepted this bet with the greateft confidence of win¬
ning *, but bringing the arrow to his bread inftead of
, his ear, he was greatly mortified by paying the wager,
after many fruitlefs efforts.
As to the diftance to which an arrow can be fnot
from a long bow with the beft elevation of 47 de~
_ grees, that muft neceffarily depend much both upon
the ftrength and (light of the archer ; but in general the
dirtance was reckoned from eleven to twelve (core yards.
The butts for exercife, as above noticed, were direft-
ed to be diftant upwards of 220 yards. There is in¬
deed a tradition, that an attorney of Wigan in Lan-
cafhire (named Leigh) (hot a mile in three flights $ Arcl
but the lame tradition dates, that he placed himfelf in »
a very particular attitude, wEich cannot be u(ed com¬
monly in this exercife. According to Neade, an archer
might fhoot fix arrows in the time of charging and
^ difchargiiig one mufket.
The archers confider an arrow of from 20 to 24
drop weight to be the beft for flight or hitting a
mark at a confiderable diftance, and that yew is the
beft material of which they can be made. As to
the feathers, that of a goofe is prefeivred ; it is alio
wifhed, that the bird fhould be two or three years
old, and that the feather may drop of itfelf.' Two
out of three feathers in an arrSw are commonly
white, being plucked from the gander 5 but the third
is generally brown or gray, being taken from the
goofe $ and, from this difference in point of colour,
informs the archer when the arrow is properly placed.
From this molt diftinguilhed part therefore the whole
arrow fometimes receives its name : And this, by-the-
by, affords an explanation of the gray goofe wing in
the ballad of Cheviot Chafe. Arrows were armed
ancieiltly with flint or metal heads, latterly with heads
of iron 5 of thefe there were various forms and deno¬
minations. By an aft of parliament made the 7th of
Henry IV. it was enafted, That for the future all the
heads for arrows and quarrels fhould be well boiled or
brafed, and hardened at the points with fteel; and
that every arrow head or quarfel (hould have the
mark of the maker ; workmen difobeying this order,
wTere to be fined and imprifoned at the king’s will,
ahd the arrow heads or quarrels to be forfeited to the
crown.
Arrows were reckoned by (heaves, a (heaf confiding Gro/c
of 24 arrows. They wrere carried in a quiver, called Ancient
alfo an arrow cafe, wduch ferved for the magazine
arrows for immediate ufe wTere wTorn in the 'girdle.
In ancient times phials of quicklime, or rather com-
buftible matter, for burning houfes or (hips, wrere fixed
on the heads of arrows, and fhot from long bowjs.
This has been alfo praftifed fince the ufe of gun¬
powder. Neade fays, he has known by experience,
that an archer may fhoot an ounce of firework upon
an arrow 12 fcore yards. Arrows wdth wildfire,
and arrows for fireworks, are mentioned among the
ftores at Newhaven and Berwick, in the ill ol Ed¬
ward VI.
The force wuth wTich an arrow ftrikes an objeft at a
moderate diftance, may be conceived from the account
given by King Edward VI. in his journal •, wherein he
fays, that 100 archers of his guard fhot before him two
arrow's each, and afterwards all together; and that they
fhot at an inch board, which fome pierced quite through
and ftruck into the other board-, divers pierced it quite
through with the heads of their arrows, the boards
being wHl-feafoned timber} their diftance from the
mark is not mentioned.
To proteft our archers from the attacks of the enex
my’s horfe, they carried long flakes pointed at both
ends : thefe they planted in the earth, doping before
them. In the id of Edward VI. 350 of thefe were
in the ftores of the town of Berwick, under the article
of archers flakes ; there were alfo at the fame time
eight bundles of archers flakes in Pontcfraft caftle.
To prevent the bowftring from ftriking the left
3 Z 2 arm.
ARC
arm, the arm is covered with a piece of fmooth leather,
faitened on the outfide of the arm ; this is called a
bracer j and to guard the fingers from being cut by
the bowfiring, archers wore Ihooting gloves. Chau¬
cer in his prologue to the Canterbury Tales, thus de-
fcribes an archer of his day.:
And he was clade in cote and hode of grene,
A fiieaf of peacock arwes bright and keen,
Under his belt he bare full thriftily :
Wei coude he drefle his takel yewmanly,
His arwes drouped not with fetheres lowe,
And in his hand he bare a mighty borve,
A not hed hadde he, with broune vifage,
Of wood craft coude he wel all the ufage }
Upon his arms he had a gai bracer,
And by his fide a fwerd and a bokeler,
And on the other fide a gaie daggere
Harneifed wel, and (harp as pointe of fpere :
A crillofre on his breaft of filver (Irene,
A horn he bare, the baudrik was of grene,
A forefier was he fothely as I gefie.
Though archery continued to be encouraged by
the king and legifiature for more than two centu¬
ries after the firlt knowledge of the effetts of gun¬
powder, yet by the latter end of the reign of Hen¬
ry VIII. it feems to have been partly confidered as
a paftime. Arthur, the elder brother of Henry, is
laid to have been fond of this exercife, infomuch that
a good (hooter was (lyled Prince Arthur. We are
alfo informed, that he pitched his tent at Mile End
in order to be prefent at this recreation, and that
Henry his brother alfo attended. When the latter af¬
terwards became king, he gave a prize at Windfor to
thofe who (hould excel in this exercife ; and a capital
(hot having been made, Henry faid to Barlow (one of
his guards), “ If you (fill win, you (hall be duke over
all archers.” Barlow therefore having fucceeded, and
living in Shoreditch, w^as created duke thereof. Upon
another occafion, Henry and the queen wrere met by
200 archers on Shooter’s hill, which probably took its
name from their affembling near it to (hoot at marks.
This king likewife gave the firft charter to the Artil¬
lery Company in the 29th year of his reign, by which
they are permitted to wear dreffes of any colour ex¬
cept purple and fcarlet, to (hoot not only at marks
but birds, if not pheafants or herons, and within tw7o
miles of the royal palaces. They are alfo enjoined by
tile fame charter not to wear furs of a greater price
than thofe of the martin. The mod: material privilege,
however, is, that of indemnification from murder, if
any perion pafimg between the firooter and the mark
is killed, provided the archers have firft called out fajl.
The following defeription of an archer, his bow, and
accoutrements, is given in a MS. wuitten in the time
of Queen Elizabeth. “ Captains and officers (liould be
Ikilful of that moft noble weapon, and to fee that their
foldiers according to their draught aijd ftrength have
good bovres, well nocked, well ftrynged, everie ftrynge
whippe in their nocke, and in the myddes rubbed
wuth wax, brafer and (huting glove, fome fpare ftrynges
trymed as aforefaid, every man one (hefe of arrow's,
w ith. a cafe ot leather defenfible againft the rayne,
and in the fame fow7er and twentie arrowes, whereof
eight of them (hould be lighter than the refidue, to
ARC
gall or aftoyne the enemye with the hailfhot of light Archery,
arrows, before they (hall come within the danger of—v~~
their harquebufs (hot. Let every man have a brigan-
dine, or a little cote of plate, a (kull or hufkyn, a
mawle of leade of five foote in lengthe, and a pike, and
the fame hanging by his girdle, with a hook and a
dagger •, being thus furniftied, teach them by mufters
to marche, (hoote, and retire, keepinge their faces up¬
on the enemy’s. Sumtyme put them into great nowm-
bers, as to battell apparteyneth, and thus ufe them
often times praftifed, till they be perfefte \ (for thofe
men in battell ne (kirmilh can not be fpared. None
other weapone maye compare with the fame noble wea¬
pon.”
The long bowr, as already obferved, maintained its
place in our armies long after the invention of fire
arms. Nor have there been wanting experienced fol¬
diers who w'ere advocates for its continuance, and who
in many cafes even preferred it to the harquebufs or
mulket. King Charles I. twice granted fpecial com-
miflions under the great feal for enforcing the ufe of
the long bow. The firft wras in the 4th year of his
reign : but this was revoked by proclamation four years
afterwards, on account of divers extortions and abufes
committed under fandtion thereof. The fecond, an¬
no 1633, in the 9th year of his reign, to William
Neade and his fon, alfo named William, wherein the
former is ftyled an ancient archer, who had prefented
to the king a warlike invention for uniting the ufe of
the pike and bow, feen and approved by him and his
council of war j wdierefore his majefty had .granted
them a commiflion to teach and exercife his loving fub-
jedls in the faid invention, which he particularly re¬
commended the chief officers of his trained bands to
learn and pradlife 5 and the juftices and other chief
magiftrates throughout England, are therein enjoined
to ufe every means in their power to aftift Neade, his
fon, and all perfons authorized by them in the further¬
ance, propagation, and pradfice of this ufeful inven¬
tion. Both the commiflions and proclamation are
printed at large in Rymer. At the breaking out of
the civil w7ar, the earl of Eflex iffued a precept, dated
in November 1643, ^or Luring up all well affedted
people by benevolence, towards the railing a company
of archers for the fervice of the king and parliament.
Archery with the long bow continues to be ufed as
a manly exercife by the inhabitants of Geneva, and in
many parts of Flanders ; nor is it totally negledled in
Great Britain. There are feveral focieties of archers
in England 5 the chief of which are, the Woodmen of
Arden, and the 7 oxophilite. But the moft noted fociety
of this kind, now exifting, is
The Royal Cotnpany of Archers in Scotland.—The
ancient records of this Company having been deftroyed
by fire about the beginning of the prefent century, no
authentic traces of their inftitution now remain. It is
faid that they owe their origin to the commiffioners
' appointed in the reign of James I. of Scotland for
enforcing and overfeeing the exercife of archery in dif¬
ferent counties. Thofe commiffioners, who were in
general men of rank and power, picking out amongft
the better fort of people under their cognizance the
moft expert archers, formed them into a company, and
upon perilous occafions made a prefent of their fervices
to the king as his chief body guards j in which fitua-
tiem
C 548 1
ARC [ 549 ] ARC
Archery, tion they often diftinguifhed themfelves for their loyal-
r' ~v ' " ty, their courage, and ikill in archery. This rank of
the king’s principal body guards the Royal Company
Hill claim, within feven miles of the metropolis of Scot¬
land.
Certain it is, that by an a£f of the privy council of
Scotland, in 1677, this Company was recognized under
the name and title of “ His Majefty’s Company of
Archers and by the fame aft a piece of plate of
the value of 20I. fterling was ordered to be given to
be (hot for by them at their annual parades, called
M rRApon-/hawings, and to be called The King's Prize.
At this period the Royal Company confided, as it
does at prefent, of the principal nobility and gentry
of Scotland. But their unfortunate attachment to
anti-revolution principles, upon that event’s taking
place, put almod a period to their exidence : Their
public parades or marches were difcontinued, and the
royal prize was withheld.
Upon the accefiion of Queen Anne, their former
fplendour was revived ; and in the year 1703 they ob¬
tained a royal charter, confirming in general terms all
their former rights and privileges, and conferring
others upon them. But their partiality to the family
of Stuart was at various after-periods the caufe of a
temporary profperity and decline.
Thefe unhappy diderences of opinion having totally
fubfided, the Royal Company are now more numerous
and flourifhing than ever, and perhaps even more dex¬
terous archers. His prefent majedy, as a mark of his
royal patronage and approbation, has been pleafed to
revive the royal prize, which for the fird time was
drot for upon the 28th of July 1788 by a numerous
and refpeflable meeting.
The Woodmen of Arden and the Toxophilite have
lately been pleafed to admit the members of the Royal
Company to the freedom of their focieties : thefe grants
have been followed by reciprocal diplomas from the
Royal Company ; fo that the three chief focieties of
archers in Britain may be faid to be now incorporated
into one.
The prizes belonging to this Company, and which
are annually {hot for, are, 1. A filver arrow, given by
the town of Muffelburgh, which appears to have been
diot for as early as the year 1603. The viftor in this,
as in the other prizes, except the king’s prize, has the
cudody of it for a year, then returns it with a medal
appended, on which are engraved any motto and de¬
vice which the gainer’s fancy di&ates. 2. A filver
arrow givep by the town of Peebles, A. D. 1626. 3. A
filver arrow given by the city of Edinburgh, A. D.
I7°9- 4. A filver punch bowl of about the value of
50I. made of Scottiih filver at the expence of the
Company, A. D. 1720. And, 5. The king’s prize
above mentioned, which becomes the abfolute property
of the winner. All thefe prizes are diot for at what
is termed Rovers, the marks being placed at the di¬
dance of 183 yards.
Befides thefe, there is another prize annually con¬
tended for at butt or point-blank didance, called the
Goofe. The ancient manner of {hooting for this prize
was, a living goofe was built in a turf butt, having
the head only expofed to view7 ; and the archer wdio
fird hit the goofe’s head was entitled to the goofe as
his reward. But this cudom, on account of its bar¬
barity, has been long ago laid afide 5 and in place of Archery
the goofe head, a mark of about an inch diameter is II
affixed upon each butt, and the archer who fird hits . ieu '
this mark is captain of the butt diooters for a year.
The affairs of the Company are managed by a prefes
and fix counfellors, who are chofen annually by the
whole members. The council are veded with the
powrer of receiving or rejecting candidates for admif-
fion, and of appointing the Company’s officers civil and
military.
The Royal Company now confids of above 1000
members, among wffiom are mod of the-Scottifh no¬
bility of the fird didinfliom A number of the Com¬
pany meet weekly during the dimmer feafon at Edin¬
burgh, in the Meadow's, where they exercife themfelves
in {hooting at butts or rovers : And in the adjoining
ground they have a handfome building, erefted within
thefe 1 2 years, with fuitable offices, whither they ad¬
journ after their exercife, and wffiere they hold their
elections and other meetings relative to the bufinefs of
the fociety.
The uniform of the Royal Company of Archers is
tartan, lined wuth wffiite, and trimmed writh green and
wffiite fringes 5 a white fadi, with green toffels; and a
blue bonnet, with a St Andrew’s crofs and feathers.
The Company have two dandards. The fird of thefe
bears on one fide Mars and Cupid encircled in a wueath
of thidles 5 with this motto, “ In peace and war.” On
the other, a yew tree, with twTo men dreffed and equip¬
ped as archers, encircled as the former ; motto, Dat
gloria vires. The other dandard difplays, on one fide,
a lion rampant gules, on a field or, encircled with a
wreath ; on the top, a thidle and crowm } motto, Ne~
7no me impune lacejfet. On the other, St Andrew on
the crofs, on a field argent j at the top, a crown ; mot¬
to, Du Ice pro patria periculum.
ARCHES court, in Engliffi ecclefiadical polity,
is a court of appeal, belonging to the archbiffiop of
each province ; wffiereof the judge is called the dean of
the arches, becaufe he anciently held his court in the
church of St Mary le how {S'anBa Maria de arcuhus),
though all the principal fpiritual courts are now holden
at Doftors Commons. His proper jurifdiflion is only
over the 13 peculiar paridies belonging to the archbi-
fiiop in London, but the office of dean of the arches
having been for a long time united with that of the
archbiihop’s principal office, he now, in right of the
lad-mentioned office, receives and determines appeals
from the fentences of all inferior ecclefiadical courts
within the province. And from him there lies an ap¬
peal to the king in chancery (that is, to a court of de¬
legates appointed under the king’s great feal), by da-
tute 29th Hen. VIII. c. 19. as fupreme head of the
Englifh church, in the place of the bilhop of Rome,
who formerly exercifed this junfdiftion; which circum-
dance alone will furnidi the reafon why the Popifh
clergy w'ere fo anxious to feparate the fpiritual court
from the temporal.
ARCHETYPE, the fird model of a work, which
is copied after to make another like it. Among mint-
ers, it is ufed for the dandard weight by which the
others are adjuded. The archetypal world, among
Platonids, means the world as it exided in the idea of
God before the vifible creation.
ARCHEUS, from the principal, chief, or
fird’
ARC
Archil.
Arohiaco- firfi: mover) ; a fort of primum mobile fet up by Hel-
mont, to fuperintend tbe animal economy, and pre-
ferve it. It is akin to Plato’s onima tnundi. Hippo-
j crates ufes the words <pv<ris, to lignify the for¬
mer healthy flate before the attack of the difeafe.
ARCHIACOLYTHUS (from chief, and
uKotellos, minifer), an ancient dignity in cathedral
churches : the minifters whereof were divided into four
orders or degrees, viz. priefts, deacons, fubdeacons, and
acolythi : each of which had their chiefs. The chief
of the acolythi was called archiacolythus.
ARCHIATER, Archiatrus, properly denotes
chief pbylician of a prince who retains feveral. The
word is formed of u.^y/t,principium, “ chief j” and (xtpos,
medicus, a “ phyfician.”
ARCHIDAPIFER, (from and dapifer,
“ fewer,”) or chief fewer, is a great officer of the em¬
pire. The eleftor of Bavaria is archidapifer. The
palatine of the Rhine at one time pretended this office
was annexed to his palatinate } but he has fince de-
fjfted.
ARCHIEROSYNES, in the Grecian Antiquity, a
high prieft veiled with authority over the reft of the
priefts, and appointed to execute the more facred and
myfterious rites of religion.
ARCHIGALLUS, in Antiquity, the high prieft of
■ Cybele, or the chief of the eunuch priefts of that god-
defs, called Galli.
ARCHIGERONTES (from and old),
in Antiquity, the chiefs or mailers of the feveral com¬
panies of artificers at Alexandria. Some have mifta-
ken the archigerontes for the arch-priefts appointed to
take the confeffions of thofe who were condemned to
the mines.
ARCHIGUBERNUS, Archiguberneta, or
Archigubernites, in Antiquity, the commander of
the imperial Ihip, or that which the emperor was
aboard of. Some have confounded the office of archi-
gubernus with that of prcefeSlus clajjis, or admiral, but
the former was under the command of the latter. Pot¬
ter takes the proper office of the archiguberneta to
have been, to manage the marine affairs, to provide
commodious harbours, and order all things relating to
the failing of the fleet, except what related to war.
ARCHIL, Archilla, Rocella, Orsielle, is
a whitilh mofs which grows upon rocks, in the Canary
and Cape de Verd iflands, and yields a rich purple tinc¬
ture, fugitive indeed, but extremely beautiful. This
weed is imported to us as it is gathered. Thofe who
prepare it for the ufe of the dyer, grind it betwixt
Hones, fo as to thoroughly bruife, but not to reduce it
into powder; and then moiften it occafionally with a
llrong fpirit of urine, or urine itfelf mixed with quick¬
lime : in a few days it acquires a purplilh red, and at
length a blue colour. In the firft Hate it is called Ar¬
chil; in the latter, Lacmus or Litmafe.
The dyers rarely employ this drug by itfelf, on ac¬
count of its dearnefs and the perilhablenefs of its beau¬
ty. The chief ufe they make of it is, for giving a
bloom to other colours, as pinks, &c. This is effect¬
ed by pafling the dyed cloth or lilk through hot wa¬
ter lightly impregnated with the archil. The bloom
thus communicated foon decays upon expofure to the
air. Mr Hellot informs us, that by the addition of a
little folution of tin, this drug gives a durable dye ;
[ 5J° ]
ARC
that its colour is at the fame time changed towards a Archil
icarlet j and that it is the more permanent m propor¬
tion as it recedes the more from its natural colour.
Prepared archil very readily gives out its colour to 1
water, to volatile fpirits, and to fpirit of wine ; it is
the fubftance principally made ufe of for colouring the
fpirits of thermometers. As expofure to the air de-
ftroys its colour upon cloth, the exclufion of the air
produces a like effedl in thele hermetically fealed tubes,
the fpirits of large thermometers becoming in the com-
pafs of a few years colourlefs. M. PAbbe Nollet ob-
ferves (in the French Memoirs for the year 1.742),
that the colourlefs fpirit, upon breaking the tube, foon
refumes its colour, and this for a number of times fuc-
ceflively ; that a watery tin£lure of archil, included
in the tubes of thermometers, loft its colour in three
days ; and that, in an open deep veffel, it became co¬
lourlefs at the bottom, while the upper part retained
its colour. See CoiouR-Mahing.
A folution of archil in water, applied on cold mar¬
ble, ftains it of a beautiful violet or purplifti blue colour,
far more durable than the colour which it communi¬
cates to other bodies. M. du Fay fays he has feen
pieces of marble llained with it, which in two years
had fuffered no fenfible change. It finks deep into the
marble, fometimes above an inch ; and at the fame
time fpreads upon the furface, unlefs the edges be
bounded by wax or other like fubftances. It feems to
make the marble fomewhat more brittle.
Linnaeus informs us, in the Swedilh Tranfadlions
for the year 1742, that the true archil mofs is to be
found on the weftern coafts of England.
ARCHILOCHIAN, a term in poetry, applied to
a fort of verfes, of which Archilochus w as the inventor,
confiiling of feven feet 5 the four firft whereof are or¬
dinarily da£lyls, though fometimes fpondees j the three
laft trochees, as in Horace,
Solvitur aerts hyems, grata vice veris et Favoni,
ARCHILOCHUS, a famous Greek poet and mu-
fician, Was, according to Herodotus, cotemporary with
Candaules and Gyges, kings of Lydia, who flqurilhed
about the 14th Olympiad, 724 years before Chrift.
But he is placed much later by modern chronologifts 5
viz. by Blair 686, and by Prieftley 660 years, before
Chrift.
He was born at Paros, one of the Cyclades. His fa¬
ther Teleficles was of fo high a rank, that he was cho-
fen by his countrymen to confult the oracle at Del-
phos concerning the fending a colony to Thafos : a
proof that he wTas of one of the molt diftinguilhed fa¬
milies upon the ifland. However, he is faid to have
fullied his birth by an ignoble marriage with a flave
called Enipo, of which alliance our poet mufician rvas
the fruit.
Though Archilochus ffiow-ed an early genius and at¬
tachment to poetry and mufic, thefe arts did not pre¬
vent his going into the army, like other young men of
his birth 5 but in the firft engagement at which he was
prefent, the young poet, like Horace, and like our own
Suckling, loft his buckler, though he faved his life by
the help, of his heels. It is much eafier, faid he, to get
a new buckler than a new exifence. This pleafantry,
howaver, did not fave his reputation 5 nor could his
poetry or prayers prevail upon Lycambes, the father
of
)
ARC [ 551 1 ARC
Archilo- of his mxrtrefs, to let him marry his daughter, though
, c^us' , fhe had been long promifed to him. After thefe mor¬
tifications, his life feems to have been one continued
tiilue of difgrace and refentment.
Archilochum propria rabies armavit iambo.
Hor. Art. Poet. 79.
Archilochus, with fierce refentment warm’d,
Was with his own fevere iambics arm’d. Francis.
The rage of Archilochus was proverbial in antiquity \
which compared the provoking this fatirifl; to the tread¬
ing upon a ferpent: A comparifon not very fevere, if
it be true that Lycambes, and, as fome fay, his three
daughters, were fo mortified by his fatire, as to be
driven to the confolation of a halter.
In this piece, many adventures are mentioned, full
of defamation, and out of the knowledge of the pu¬
blic.. There were likewife many loofe paflages in it ;
and it is faid to have been on account of this fatire
that the Lacedemonians laid a prohibition on his
•AW.Max.verfes *.
iib. 6. c. 3. However, according to Plutarch, there is no bard of
antiquity by whom the two arts of poetry and mufic
have been fo much advanced as by Archilochus. To
him is attributed particularly the fudden tranfition from
one rhythm to another of a different kind, and the
manner of accompanying thofe irregular meafures upon
the lyre. Heroic poetry, in hexameter verfe, feems to
have been folely in ufe among the more ancient poets
and muficians ; and the tranfition from one rhythm to
another, which lyric poetry required, was unknown to
r them ; fo that if Archilochus was the firft author of
this mixture, he might with propriety be ftyled the
Inventor of Lyric Poetry, which, after his time, became
a ipecies of verfification wholly ditlinft from heroic. 
To him is likewife aferibed the invention of Epodes.
See Epode.
Our poet-mufician is generally ranked among the
firft viftors of the Pythic games : and we learn from
Pindar, that his mufe was not always a termagant ;
for though no mortal efcaped her rage, yet {he was at
times fufficiently tranquil and pious to di&ate hymns
in praife of the gods and heroes. One in particular,
written in honour of Hercules, acquired him the ac¬
clamations of all Greece ; for he fung it in full aflem-
bly at. the Olympic games, and had thefi dsfaftion of
receiving from the judges the crown of victory confe-
crated to real merit. This hymn, or ode, was after¬
wards fung in honour of every vidtor at Olympia, who
had no poet to celebrate his particular exploits.
Archilochus was at laft {lain by one Callondax Co¬
rax, of the ifland of Naxos \ who, though he did it in
fight, according to the laws of war, was driven out1 of
the temple of Delphi, by command of the oracle, for
having deprived of life a man confecrated to the
Mufes.
I he names of Homer and Archilochus were equally
revered and celebrated in Greece, as the two moft ex¬
cellent poets which the nation had ever produced. This
appears from an epigram in the Anthologia •, and from
Cicero, who ranks him with poets of the firif clafs, and
in his Epiftles tells us, that the grammarian Ariftopha-
ues, the molt rigid and {crapulous critic of his time,
ufed to fay, that the longeft poem <5f Archilochus al- Archima-
ways appeared to him the moft excellent. £us
ARCHIMAGUS, the high prieft of the Perfian ^rchime-
Magi or worfhippers of fire. Fie refided in the high- des.
eft fire temple j which ivas had in the fame veneration <—-y—J
with them as the temple of Mecca among the Maho¬
metans. Zoroafter firft fettled it at Balch 5 but after
the Mahometans had overrun Perfia in the 7th cen-
tury, the Archimagus was forced to remove from thence
into Kerman, a province of Perfia, lying on the fouth-
ern ocean, where it hath continued to this day. Da¬
rius Hyftafpes took upon himfelf the dignity of Ar¬
chimagus : for Porphyry tells us, he ordered before
his death, that, among the other titles, it flrould be en¬
graven on his monument, that he had been Mqfler of
the Magi; which plainly implies that he had borne
this office among them, for none but the Archima¬
gus was mafter of the whole fed!. From hence it
ieems to have proceeded, that the kings of Perfia w ere
ever after looked on to be of the facerdotal tribe, and
were always initiated into the facred order of tl*e Ma¬
gi, before they took on them the crown, and were in¬
augurated into the kingdom.
ARCHIMANDRITE, in EcclefwJHcal Hifory,
rvas a name given by the ancient Chriftians to what
we now call an abbot. Father Simon obferves, that
the word mandrite is Syriac, and fignifies a folitary
monk.
ARCHIMEDES, one of the moft eminent of the
ancient mathematicians, was born at Syracufe in Sici¬
ly, about the year 280 before the Chriftian era. Hie-
ro, king of Syracufe, deemed it an honour to have
this philofopher for his relative and friend. Pliftory
does not inform us, to whom he was indebted for the
rudiments of literature, but he flouriffied about 50
years after Euclid. It is reported, that he was in¬
debted to Egypt for much of his knowledge ; but
other accounts indicate, that he conferred more know¬
ledge than he received from that celebrated nation ;
and, in particular, Diodorus mentions, that Egypt
was indebted to him for the invention of the fcrewr-
pump, for drawing oft w’ater. And the lame author
narrates, that he wTas the inventor of feveral other ufe-
ful machines, which conveyed his .fame to every quar¬
ter of the globe. \ he following paflage from Livy,
proves, that he was dexterous both for the inventing
warlike machines, and alfo for his accurate obferva-
tion of the heavenly bodies, “ Unicus fpedlator caeli
fiderumque, mirabilior tamen inventor ac machina-
tor bellicorum tormentorum”, &c. lib. xxiv. It ap¬
pears alfo, that in Cicero’s time, he had become pro¬
verbial for his {kill in lolving problem. In a letter to
Atticus, he informs him, that he is now freed from
a difficulty, which he termed an Archimedian pro¬
blem, lib. xiii. ep. 28.
It may perhaps be impoffible diftimftly to afeertain
the different inventions of this great man ; but from
tiie following paflage, it appears that he formed zglafs
fphere, or fome kind of planetarium, which, with no
{mail degree of accuracy, reprefented the phenomena
of the heavenly bodies. Hence fays Claudian
Jupiter, in parvo cum cerneret athera vitro,
Pi fit, ct ad fit per os talia diB a dedit;
JJacting
ARC [ 5 ‘
Huccine mortalis progrejfa potevlia cures ?
Jam mens in fragile ludetur orbe labor.
Jura poll, rerwnque fidem, legejque deorumy
Ecce Syracojius tranfiuht arti fenex.
Inc Infix variis famulatur /pint us afins,
Et verum certis motibus urget opus.
Percurrit proprium mentitus fgnifer annum,
Et fimulata novo Cynthia menfe redit.
f unique fuum volvens audax indujlria mundum
Gaudet, et humana fdera mente regit.
dfiid faifo infontem tonitru Salmonea miror ?
Emula natures parva reperta tnanus.
“ When in a glafs’s narrow fphere confin’d,
fove faw the fabric of th’ Almighty mind j
He fmil’d, and faid, ‘ Can mortals art alone
Our heav’nly labours mimic with their own ?
The Syracufan’s brittle work contains
Th’ eternal law that through all nature reigns.
Fram’d by his art, fee liars unnumber’d burn,
And in their courfes rolling orbs return $
His fun, through various figns deferibe the year, .
And every mouth his mimic moons appear.
Our rival’s laws his little planets bind,
And rule their motions by a human mind :
Salmoneus could our thunder imitate ;
But Archimedes can a wmrld create.”
In the following lines the fame machine is mention¬
ed by Ovid.
Arte Syracojia fufpenfus in a'ire claufo,
St at globus, immenji parva figura poll.
Ovid, Fall. vi. 277.
Vitruvius mentions a fa£l, which proves Archime¬
des’s knowledge in the do&rine of fpecific gravity.^
Hiero, the king, having given a certain- quantity of
gold wherewith to make a golden crown, and fufpedl-
ing that the workmen had llolen part of the gold and
fubftituted filver in its Head, he applied to Archimedes
to employ his ingenuity in detecting the fraud. Rumi¬
nating upon this fubjedl when he wns bathing bimfelf,
he obferved, that he dillodged a quantity of water,
correfponding to the bulk of his own body •, therefore,
inftantly quitting the bath with all the eagernefs natu¬
ral to an inventive mind upon a new difeovery, he run
into, the llreets naked, crying, 'EvnKct! ! 1 have
found it out! I have found it out! Then taking one mafs
of gold and another of filver, each equal in weight to
the crown •, he carefully obferved the quantity of fluid
which they alternately difplaced, when introduced in
the fame veffel full of water. Next he afeertained how
much water was difplaced by the crown when put into
the fame veffel full of water j and, upon comparing
the three quantities together, he afeertained the exact
proportions of gold and lilver, ot which the crown was
compofed. , , . .
Archimedes was well acquainted with the mechani¬
cal powers. His celebrated faying with regard to the
power of the lever has been often repeated, “ Give
me a place to hand upon, and I will move the earth.”
In order to {hew Hiero the effect of mechanical pow¬
ers, it is faid, that aided by ropes and pulleys, he
drew towards him a galley, which lay on the fhore
manned and loaded : but the difplays of his mechani¬
cal {kill mentioned by Marcellus at the fiege of Syra-
2 ] ~ A R C
cufe, were long deemed almoft incredible •, until the ArcHime-
after improvements in mechanics have demonftrated .
them practicable. He haraffed the veffels of the be-
fiegers, both when they approached and kept at a di-
ftance from the city. When they approached, he
funk them by means of long and huge beams of wood *,
or, by means of grappling hooks placed at the extremi¬
ty of levers, he hoifted up the veffels into the air, and
dallied them to pieces either againft the walls or the
rocks. When the enemy kept at a diftance, he em¬
ployed machines which threw fren: the walls inch ^
quantity of ftones, as {battered and deftroyed their
veffels. In fhort, his mechanical genius fupplied
ftrength and courage to the city, and filled the Ro¬
mans with aftoniflmient and terror. Until Buffon in¬
vented and framed a burning glafs, compofed of about
400 glafs planes, capable of fetting fire to wood at the
diftance of 200 feet, and of melting lead and tin at
the diftance of 120 feet, and filver at the diftance of
50 •, the account of Archimedes’s inftrument for burn¬
ing {hips at a great diftance by means of the rays of the
fun, was deemed fabulous and itnpoflible.
But, however eminent for mechanical invention,
he was ftill more eminent for the inveftigation of ab-
ftraft truths; and the formation of conclufive demon-
ftrations in the branches of pure geometry. Piutarcn
alfo mentions, that Archimedes himfelf efteemed me¬
chanical invention greatly inferior in value to thole
fpeculations which convey irrefiftible conviction to the
mind. His geometrical works afford numerous proofs
of his fuccefs in this field of fcience. It is reported,
that he was often fo deeply engaged in mathematical
fpeculations, as both to neglect his food and the care
of his perfon) and at the bath he would fometimes
draw geometrical figures in the afhes, and fometimes
upon his own body when it was anointed, according
to the cuftom of that time. He valued himfelf fo much
upon the difeovery of the ratio between the fphere
and the containing cylinder, that, indifferent to all
his other inventions, he ordered his friends to engrave
upon his tomb a cylinder containing a fphere, with
an infeription explanatory of its nature and uie.
It muft be extremely painful to every humane mind,
but particularly to every lover of philofophic merit, to
learn, that when Syracuse was taken by ftorm, he,
being ignorant of that fa£, was run through the body,
when engaged in drawing a geometrical figure upon
the fand. As Marcellus had given exprefs orders that
both his perfon and his houfe ftiould be held facred ;
this appears to have happened through ignorance, and
therefore removes a great part ox the odium from the
Roman name. This mournful event happened in the
I42d Olympiad, or 212 years before,the Chriftian era.
Marcellus, in the midft of his triumphal laurels, la¬
mented the death of Archimedes, conferred upon him
an honourable burial, and took his furviving relations
under his protection 5 but greater honour was confer¬
red upon him when the phxlofophsr of Arpmum, 140
years after, went m fearch of Ins long-neglected tomb.
Hence, lavs Cicero, “ I diligently fought to difeover
the fepulchre of Archimedes, which the Syracufans
had totally negleded, and fuffered to be overgrown
with thorns and briars. Recolkaing fome verfes,
faid to be inferibed on the tomb, which mentioned,
that on the top was placed a fphere with a cylinder,
I'xr
A R C II I T
looked round me upon every objedl at the Agrigen-
tine gate, the common receptacle of the dead. At
laft I obferved a little column which juft rofe above
the thorns, upon which was placed the figure of a
fphere and cylinder. ‘ This, faid I to the Syracufan
nobles who were with me, This muft, I think, be
what I am feeking.’ Several perfons wTere immedi¬
ately employed to clear awray the weeds, and lay
open the fpot. As foon as a paffage was opened, wye
drew near, and found on the oppofite bafe the in-
fcription, wdth nearly half the latter part of the verfes
worn away. Thus would this moft famous, and for¬
merly moft learned, city of Greece have remained a
ftranger to the tomb of one of its moft ingenious ci¬
tizens, had it not been difcovered by a man of Arpi-
num.”
Several vrorks of this moft celebrated mathematician
have efcaped the wreck of time. Of abftradt Geome¬
try we have a treatife “ on the Sphere and Cylinder,”
another “ on the Dimenfion of the Circle, or the Pro-
piortion between the Diameter and the Circumference;
on Obtufe Conoids and Sphenoids ; on Spiral Lines ;
and on the Quadrature of the Parabola.” Of his
mechanics Archimedes has left a “ Treatife on Equi¬
ponderants, or Centres of Gravity and in hydrofta-
tics, a “ Treatife concerning Bodies floating on
Fluids ;” and a Geometrical piece, entitled AJJumpta
or Lemmata. His other works are either loft or re¬
main unpubliihed. {Gen. Biog.) >
E C T U R E. 553
AR CfHPELAGO, in Geography, a general term Archipe-
fignifying a fea interrupted with illands ; it is however laS°
more efpecially applied to that lying between Europe ,\rc]^te(q-.
and Afia, which contains the iflands anciently called u—y——»
Cyclades and Sporades. See thefe two words.
ARCHIPHERACITJE, minifters in the Jewifti
fynagogues appointed to read and interpret the Pera-
kim, or titles and heads of the lawr and the prophets.
ARCHPRESBYTER, or arch-priest, a prieft
eftablilhed in fome diocefes wuth a fuperiority over the
reft. He was anciently chofen out of the college of
prelbyters at the pleafure of the bilhop. Thefe arch-
prelbyters wmre of much the fame nature with deans
in the cathedral churches, as the college of prelbyters
anfwers to the chapter. See Presbyter.
ARCH1SYNAGOGUS, the chief of the fyna-
gogue ; the title of an officer among the Jew s, who
prefided in their fynagogues and affemblies. The num¬
ber of thefe officers w^as not fixed, nor the fame in all
places ; there being 70 in fome, and in others only
one. They are fometimes called princes of the fyna-
gogue, and had a powder of excommunicating fuch as
deferved that puniffiment.
ARCHITECT, a .perfon {killed in architefture, or
the art of building ; who forms plans and defigns for
edifices, condutfs the work, and diredts the feveral ar¬
tificers employed in it. The wrord is derived from
princeps, and tiktoiv, fabcr, “ workman 3” q. d.
the principal workman.
A R C H I T
TN the utmoft latitude of the word, fignifies the art
A of building in general; but the term is moft fre¬
quently applied only to the conftrudtion of fuch build¬
ings as are neceflary for the purpofes of civil life, fuch
as houfes, churches, halls, bridges, porticos, &c.
Hiflory of Ar chit eel are.
The origin of this art, like that of moft others, is
totally unknowm. We are allured, however, that it is
as old as Cain : for Mofes tells us that he built a city;
though what were the materials, or how' the buildings
were conftrufted, we are entirely ignorant. It is com¬
monly faid, that the firft materials employed in build¬
ing were branches and twigs of trees, wherewdth men
x conftrudled huts ; fuch as the wigwams in ufe among
Materials American Indians at prefent. This, however, ap-
tirft ufed in pears difputable. The natural fhelter afforded by hol-
buildmg. lows in the fides of mountains or rocks, it may be fup-
pofed, would much more readily fuggeft the idea of
ufing ftones and earth as materials for building houfes.
Indeed, confidering that tents wmre not invented before
the days of Jabal, Tubal Cain’s brother, it is very pro¬
bable that fuch temporary houfes as the Indian wig¬
wams wrere not originally known; otherwife the me¬
thod of covering poles with the fldns of beafts, inftead
of fmall branches or twigs, muft very foon have taken
place. Thefe temporary houfes feem to have come in¬
to ufe only when men began to lead an idle wandering
Vol. II. Part II.
E C T U R E,
life, like the Tartars, and could not be at the trouble
of conftrufting durable habitations in every place where
they were obliged to wander with their cattle ; and }a-
bal perhaps from them took the hint of making port¬
able houfes or tents. Accordingly wTe fee, that no
nations, except thofe who are in a perpetually unfettled
ftate, make ufe of fuch wuetched materials. Even in
America, where the human race has appeared in the
rudeft form, they wmre no fooner collected into great
bodies under the emperors of Mexico and Peru, than
ftone buildings began to be erected.
We are not, therefore, to look for the origin of ar-
chitedture in any fingle nation ; but in every nation,
when the inhabitants began to leave off their favage
way of life, and to become civilized ; and if there is
any nation to be found which hath been always in a ci¬
vilized ftate, w'e may be affured that architedture hath
always had an exiftence there. But whatever may be
in this, the origin of regular buildings hath been de¬
duced from the conftruddion of the meaneft huts in a
very natural and plaufible manner by feveral authors.
“ Anciently (fays Vitruvius) men lived in woods,
and inhabited caves; but in time, taking perhaps ex¬
ample from birds, who with great induftry build their
nefts, they made themfelves huts. At firft they made Primitive
thefe huts, very probably, of a conic figure ; becaufe huts,
that is a figure of the fimpleft ftrudlure ; and, like the Hate
birds, wffiom they imitated, compofed them of branches xxxv***
of trees, fpreading them wide at the bottom, and join- I-
4 A ing
554
Thf’ir im¬
provement
Fig. 2.
Fig- 3-
4
State of ar¬
chitecture
among the
Egyptians.
A R G H I T
ing them in a point at the top •, covering the whole
with reeds, leaves, and clay, to fcreen them from tem¬
pers and rain.
“ But finding the conic figure inconvenient on ac-
' count of its Inclined fides, they changed both the form
and conftruction of their huts, giving them a cubical
figure, and building them in the following manner:'
Having marked out the fpace to be occupied by the
hut, they fixed in the ground fe\reral upright trunks
of trees to form the fides, filling the intervals between
them vrith branches clofely interwoven and covered
with clay. The fides being thus completed, four large
beams were placed on the upright trunks ; wdiich, be¬
ing well joined at the angles, kept the fides firm, and
likewife ferved to fupport the covering or roof of the
building, compofed of many joifts, on which were laid
feveral beds of reeds, leaves, and clay.
“ Infenfibly mankind improved in the art of build¬
ing, and invented methods to make their huts lafting
and handfome as well as convenient. They took off
the bark, and other unevenneffes, from the trunks of
trees that formed the fides; raifed them, probably above
the dirt and humidity, on ftones ; and covered each
of them with a flat ftone or flate, to keep off the rain.
The fpaces between the ends of the joifts were doled
with clay, wrax, or fome other fubftance ; and the ends
of the joifts covered with thin boards cut in the man¬
ner of triglyphs. The pofition of the roof wras like¬
wife altered : for being, on account of its flatnefs, un¬
fit £o throw off the rains that fell in great abundance
during the winter feafon, they raifed it in the middle j
giving it the form of a gable roof, by placing rafters on
the joifts, to fupport the earth and other materials that
compofed the covering.
“ From this Ample conftrudlion the orders of archi-
tedure took their rife. For when buildings of wood
were fet afide, and men began to eredl folid and ftate-
ly edifices of ftone, they imitated the parts which ne-
ceflity had introduced into the primitive huts j info-
much that the upright trees, with the ftones at each
end of them, were the origin of columns, bafes, and ca¬
pitals, and the beams, joifts, rafters, and ftrata of ma¬
terials that formed the covering, gave birth to archi¬
traves, frizes, triglyphs, and cornices, -with the corona,
the mutules, the modillions, and the dentils.
“ The firft buildings were in all likelihood rough
and uncouth j as the men of thofe times had neither
experience nor tools: but wdien, by long experience
and reafoning upon it, the artifts had eftablilhed cer¬
tain rules, had invented many inftruments, and by great
pradlice had acquired a facility in executing their ideas,
they made quick advances towards perfeflion, and at
length difcovered certain manners of building, which
fucceeding ages have regarded with the higheft venera¬
tion.”
Among the ancient Egyptians, Affyrians, and Per-
fians, this art was carried to an incredible length.
The pyramids of Egypt are fuch ftruflures as wmuld
exceed the power of the moft potent monarch on earth
to raife at this day. The largeft of thefe, according
to the account of M. Goguet, is near 500 feet high,
and contains 313,590 folid fathoms. It is compofed
of ftones enormoufly large 5 many of them being 30
feet long, four feet high, and three in breadth j and
all this huge mafs of building was coated over with
E C T U R E. Hiflorjr,
fquare flags of marble.—The ftrufture called the lahy-
rinth, in the fame country, according to Herodotus,
who faw it, excelled every thing which he could have
conceived from the imagination either of himfelf or
others. Within the fame circuit of walls they had en-
clofed 3000 halls, x 2 of which were of a Angular form
and beauty 5 and of thefe, half wTere above, and half
below ground } and the whole was terminated by a py¬
ramid 40 fathoms high. All this prodigious mafs of
building was compofed of white marble, and the wTalls
wrere adorned with engravings.—The obelilks were not
lefs aftoniihing ; the largeft of them being entire pieces
of granite, no lefs than 180 feet high.—Near Andera,
in Upper Egypt are the ruins of a palace of gray
granite, the cielings of which are fupported by columns
of fuch thicknefs, that four men can fcarcely fathom
them. The cielings themfelves are compofed of ftones
of the fame kind, fix or feven feet in breadth and 18
feet in length. The grand hall is 112 feet long, 60
high, and 58 broad. The roof of the whole edifice is
a terrace, on which the Arabs formerly built a very
large village, the ruins of which are ftill vifible. ^
Among the Babylonians and Perfians, too, fuch im- Among the
menfe piles of building have been raifed, as appear ut- Fabyloni-
terly inconceivable and incredible to many modern au-
thors where their former grandeur is not demonftrable
by ruins vifible at this day. The ruins of Perfepolis,
the ancient capital of Perlia, w’ere fo ftupendous in the
time of Avicenna the Arab phyfician, that his coun¬
trymen could not believe fuch ftrudlures poffible to be
eredled but by evil fpirits. Of their extraordinary
magnificence, indeed, we may have fome idea from the
account of the ftaircafes belonging to the palace. The
remains, fome time ago, confifted of 95 fteps of white
marble, fo broad and flat, that 12 horfes might conve¬
niently go up abreaft. g
In thefe vaft ftrudtures, however, the nations of whom Their
we fpeak feem to have regarded the greatnefs, rather kmhfings
than the elegance or ufefulnefs of their works. In the ^rkable
pyramids and obelilks of Egypt this is exceedingly to' grea(>
confpicuous ; but whether it wras fo in the labyrinth or nefs than
in the palace at Thebes above mentioned, it is impof-elegance,
fible to determine, unlefs the buildings were entire, and
we knew1 for wdiat purpofe they had been defigned. If
the kings wdio built the pyramids defigned to immor¬
talize their memories by building, they certainly could
not have fallen upon any thing more proper for this
purpofe 5 though even in this they have fomehow or
other failed, the names of thofe wrho eredled them not
being certainly known even in the time of Herodotus. y
It is certain, however, that neither the ancient Affy-Ignorant of
rians nor Babylonians knew the method of conftruft- t^e^u*Je o!r
ing arches. The roofs of all their halls w’ere flat, andd *
covered with prodigioufly large ftones, fome of them
fo big as to cover a whole room fingly. Their manner
of building was alfo quite deftitute of what is now
called tqj}e; the columns were ill proportioned, and
their capitals executed in the pooreft manner imagin¬
able. This w7as obferved by the Greeks, who im¬
proved upon the proportions formerly ufed, and were
the inventors of three of the five orders ot architefture, g
viz. the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. “Ancientlyandofpro-
(fays Vitruvius) they were ignorant of the art of pro-Pord°n*nK
portioning the various parts of a building : they ufedcoua'n"
columns j but they cut them at hazard, without rules,
without
Hlftory. A R C H I T
without principles, and without having any attention
to the proportions which they ought to give them :
they placed them likewife without any regard to the
other parts of the edifice. Dorus, fon of Helen and
9 grandfon of Deucalion, having caufed a temple to be
Origin of built at Argos in honour of Juno, that edifice was
the Doric f'ouncl by chance to be conftm&ed according to the
order. tafte and proportions of the order which afterwards
they called Doric. The form of this building having
appeared agreeable, they conformed to it for the con-
ftruflion of edifices which they afterwards had to
build.
“ About the fame time, the Athenians fent into A-
fia a colony under the conduit of Ion, nephew of Do¬
rus : this undertaking had very good fuccefs. Ion
leized on Caria, and there founded many cities : thefe
new inhabitants thought to build temples. They pro-
pofed for a model that of Juno at Argos.; but, igno¬
rant of the proportion which they ought to give to the
columns, and in general to the whole edifice, they
fought for rules capable of regulating their operation.
Thefe people wanted, in making their columns fulfi-
ciently llrong to fupport the whole edifice, to render
them at the fame time agreeable to the fight. For this
purpofe, they thought to have given it the fame propor¬
tion that they found between the foot of a man and the
reft of his body. According to their ideas, the foot
made a fixth part of the human height : in confequence,
they gave at firft to a Doric column, taking in its
chapiter, fix of its diameters ; that is to fay, they made
it fix times as high as it was thick : afterwards they
■ jo added to it a feventh diameter.
Ofthelonic. “ This new order of architecture was not long in
giving birth to a fecond : they would immediately go
beyond their firft invention. The lonians tried to
throw' ftill more delicacy and elegance into their edifi¬
ces. They employed the fame method wdiich they had
before put in pradlice for the compofition of the Doric
order : but inftead of taking for a model the body of a
man, the lonians were regulated by that of a wmman,
With a view' to make the columns of this new order
more agreeable and more pleafing, they gave them
eight times as much height as they had diameter.
They alfo made channelings all along the trunk to imi¬
tate the folds of the robes of women : the volutes of
the chapiter repref’ented that part of the hair wdiich
hung in curls on each fide of the face. The lonians
added, laftly, to thefe columns a bafe, which was not
in ufe in the Doric order.” According to Vitruvius,
thefe bafes were made in. the manner of twilled cords,
as a kind of cafe for the columns. This order of ar-
chiteClure wTas called Ionic, from the name of the peo¬
ple who had invented it.
Sudanis the account given by Vitruvius of the origin
of improvements in the proportion of columns. Had
thefe improvements, however, exifted in fuch early
times, Homer, who wTas greatly pofterior to them, wrould
certainly have made mention of fomething of that kind ;
but in all his writings he gives us no account of any
thing like columns of ftone, but ufes a word wdiich
would rather incline us to think that his columns wrere
provement nothing more that bare ports.
probably jt is remarkable, that improvements in archite&ure
SHm on"1 ^ not ta^e P^ace any nati°n tiU after, or about, the
temple. " time that Jerufalem was taken by Nebuchadnezzar.
E • C T U R E. sss
The grandeft buildings erefled among the AiTyrianS
feem to have owed their exiftence to this monarch; and *
it can fcarce be imagined that he would not endeavour
to imitate the architedlure of Solomon’s temple, to
which, by his conqueft of Jerufalem he had full accefs.
It is alfo remarkable, that the dimenfions of the two
pillars, Jachin and Boaz, fet up by Solomon, very nearly
correfpond with thofe of the Doric order, firft invented
by the Greeks, and which originally came from their
colonies fettled in Afia Minor. The height of Solo¬
mon’s pillars, without the chapiter, was 18 cubits;
that of the chapiter itfelf was five cubits ; the circum¬
ference was 12 cubits ; from w;hence, according to the
Scripture language, we may reckon the diameter to
have been exadlly four cubits. Had they been a fingle
cubit higher, they would have been precifely of the
fame height with columns of the original Doric order.
We do not indeed mean to afiert, that this famous tem¬
ple gave a model of architefture to the wdrole world ;
although it is fcarce conceivable but imitations of it, as
far as it could be known, rnuft have taken place among
many nations. I2
Notwithftanding all their defe£!s, however, the E-Egyptian
gyptian buildings undoubtedly had an air of vaft gran- banqueting
deur and magnificence, if we may credit the defeription
given of one their banqueting rooms by Vitruvius.
The ufual fize of one of thefe rooms was from too to
150 feet in length, and its breadth fomewhat more
than half its length. At the upper end, and along the
two fides, they placed rows of pillars tolerably well
proportioned to one another, though not of any regu¬
lar order ; and at the lower part they made a magnifi- .
cent and fpacious entrance : this, with its ornaments,
feems to have taken up one end of the building entire.
We are not told that there were any pillars there;
though perhaps they placed two or more toward the
angles on each fide, for uniformity, the central fpace
being enough for an entrance in the grandeft and moll
auguft manner. Thefe rows of columns were fet at a
diftance from the wall, forming a noble portico along
the two fides and upper end of the building. Upon the
pillars was laid an architrave ; and from this was carried
up a continued wall with three quarter columns, an-
fwering direftly to thofe below, and in proportion one
fourth fmaller in all their parts. Between thefe three
quarter columns were placed the windows for enlighten¬
ing the building. From the tops of the lower pillars to
the wall was laid a floor ; this covered the portico over¬
head within, and make on the outfide a platform, which
was furrounded by a corridor with rails and ballufters.
This was terraced, and ferved as a plain for people to , «
walk on ; and from this they could look through the
windows down into the room. To this terrace there
was no covering required, as the Egyptians were in no
fear of rain. The Egyptians decorated this fort of
building with ftatues; and no kind of ornament could
anfwer it fo well, as the light cannot fall upon ftatues
to fuch advantage in any diredlion, as when it comes
from above, in fuch a regular, proportioned, and unin¬
terrupted manner.
We have already taken notice, that among the an-Ancient af-
cient Egyptians, Perfians, and Babylonians, the vaft chiteAure
ftrength and extent of their buildings feems to have laPer!01 m
been what they chiefly valued; and in this they cer-
tainly as much excelled the Greeks and modern nations,
4 A 2 as
556 A R C H I <T
as the latter excel them in the beautiful proportion
and elegance oi their ftruftures. There are not want-
ing, however, fome modern authors, who endeavour to
deprive the ancients of what is juftly their due, and
will have every thing to be exaggerated which feems be¬
yond the power of modern princes to accomplilh. In
this way M. Goguet remarkably diftinguilhes himfelf}
and that without giving any reafon at all, but merely
that he takes it into his head. Speaking of the won¬
ders of ancient Babylon, “ All thefe works (fays he),
lo marvellous in the judgment of antiquity, appear to
me to have been extremely exaggerated by the authors
who have fpoken of them. How can we conceive, in
eifeft, that the walls of Babylon could have been 318
feet high and 81 in thicknefs, in a compafs of near
ten leagues ?” To this we may eafily reply, that the
pyramids of Egypt, and the immenfe wall wdiich di¬
vides China from Tartary, fhow us, that even fuch a
work as the wall of ancient Babylon is faid to have
been is not altogether incredible. The lowed; com¬
putation of the dimenfions of the Chinefe wall is, that
it extends in length 1200 miles, is 18 feet high at a
medium and as many thick 5 according to which com¬
putation, it mull contain 9,504,000 folid fathoms 5
and yet, if we may credit the Chinefe hiftorians, this
immenfe mafs of building was finifhed in five years. If
therefore wre can fuppofe Nebuchadnezzar, or whoever
fortified the city of Babylon, to have been capable of
employing as many men for 10 years as were employ¬
ed in railing the Chinefe wall, we may fuppofe him
able to have fortified the city of Babylon as fhongly as
it is faid to have been ; for the mafs of building is not
quite double that of the Chinefe wall, though nearly
fo, amounting to 18,189,600 folid fathoms. When
our author afterwards gafconades about the works of
the French king, it is difficult to avoid laughter at
hearing him declare, that “ infinitely more money has
been expended, and much more genius required, as well
as more power, tafte, and time, to finilh Verfailles,
with all its defefts, than to conftru£I a pyramid, or
ereft an obelilk.” The genius, tafte, and time, wre
Ihall not difpute j but as the fame author confeffes that
100,000 men were employed for 30 years together in
the conftruftion of the largeft pyramid, wre think the
power may juftly be doubted. This doubt will appear
ftill the more reafonable, when we confider vffiat time
the above-mentioned number of men would have taken
to accomplifh fome of the works of which M. Goguet
boafts fo much. The canal of Languedoc, he tells us,
extends in length upwards of 70 leagues, and required
the removal of two millions of cubic fathoms of earth.
'This was no doubt a great work; but had 100,000
men been employed upon it at once, thfey muft have
removed this quantity of earth in three weeks, fuppof-
ing each to have removed only a fingle fathom a-day.
Nor can we imagine, that any modern wmrk will at all
Hand in competition with the works of the ancients
as to greatnefs, whatever they may do in other re-
i4 fPefts-
Architec- As to the improvements in archite£Iure, the Greeks
Jure impro-Were undoubtedly the firft European nation wdio began
Creeks^ to diftinguifti themfelves in this way. Whence they
took the firft hint of improvement, we have no means
of knowing ; though, as we have already hinted, it is
fcarce credible but that Solomon’s temple muft have
E C T U R E. Hiftory.
fomewhat contributed thereto ; efpecially as we learn
from Scripture, that the capitals of the columns there
were ornamented in the richeft manner. The origin of
the Doric and Ionic orders we have already given an
account of from Vitruvius ; to which we may add, that
the volutes, which are the peculiar ornament of the Io¬
nic capital, are by fome faid to reprefent the natural
curling down of a piece of bark from the top of a
beam, which is fuppcfed to have been the firft kind of T,
column. The Corinthian order was not invented till origin of
long after the others, and is faid to have taken its rife the Corin-
from the following accident: A balket had been fetdhanorder-
upon the ground, and covered with a fquaretile; there
grew near it a plant of acanthus or bear’s breech; the
leaves Ihot up and covered the outer furface of the
balket; and, as the ftalks rofe up among them, they
foon reached the tile which overhung the edges of the
baiket at the top ; this flopping their courfe upwards,
they curled and twilled themfelves into a kind of vo¬
lutes. In this fituation a fculptor, Callimachus, faw
it ; the twilled part of the ftalk reprefented to him the
volutes of the Ionic capital, which, as they w7ere here
fmaller, and more numerous, appeared in a new7 form :
he faw the beauty of railing them among leaves, and
w7as ftruck with the reprefentation of a noble and lofty
capital; which being afterwards put into execution, has
been univerfally admired. 16
In their private houfes the Greeks had greater conve- ^r^vate
niences, but much lefs magnificence, than the Romans,
as the former referved the ufe of their grandeft archi-
teblure for their temples and public buildings. The en¬
trance to their private houfes, however large they w ere,
w7as always fmall, narrow7, and plain. The whole edi¬
fice ufually confilled of two courts, and feveral ranges
of buildings. The porter’s lodge, if fuch a phrafe may
be allowed, w7as ufually on the right hand of this nar¬
row entrance, and oppofite to this were the Habits.
From this entrance one came into the firft or fmaller
court. This had piazzas on three fides ; and on the
fourth, which was ufually the fouth fide, there w7ere
butments of pilafters, w7hich fupported the more inward
parts of the ceiling. A fpace being thus left between
the one and the other, they had places for the lodgings
of men and maid fervants, and fuch as had the princi¬
pal care of the houfe. Upon the fame floor with thefe
butments they had feveral regular apartments, confift-
ing of an antichamber, a chamber, and clofets ; and
about the piazzas, rooms for eating and other common
purpofes. Oppofite to the entrance was a lobby or
veftibule, through which lay the paffage into the feve¬
ral rooms ; and through this, in front, one entered a
large paffage, wffiich led into the larger or principal
fquare. Round this they had four piazzas, which, in
the common wray of building, were all of one height;
but, in more magnificent houfes, they made that which,
faced the great entrance loftier, and every way nobler,
than the other three. A nobleman of Rhodes added
this to the common method of building ; and it wns
thence called the Rhodian manner. In this more noble
part of the building wrere the apartments of the family.
Thefe w7ere adorned w7ith lofty galleries, and here w7ere
the belt rooms : they wrere called the wen's apartments;
for, in rude times, the Greeks lodged their wives and
female relations in the beft rooms of the firft court,
where they had alio their feparate and detached place.
J
Hiftory. A R C H I T
I'he two Tides of tills larger court were kept for the re¬
ception of vifitors j and fervants were appointed to wait
upon them. The mafter of the houfe entertained his
guefts the firft day in his own apartments j but after
this, how7 long foever they ftaid, they lived without re-
ftraint in one of thofe feparate piazzas, and joined the
family only when they chofe it. Thus was the upper
end and two Tides ®f the great court difpofed of 5 and
its louTer end, being the fame range of building that
was the upper end of the firft court, held the lady of
jy the houfe and her female friends.
Of the Ro- The Romans borrowed their architefture from the
mans. Greeks, but did not imitate them in the modefty of
their private dwellings. They placed the principal
front of their houfe towards the fouth, and on this they
beftowred all the decoration of expenfive ornament. They
had here lofty galleries and fpacious rooms, and every
thing carried an air of greatnefs and fliow7. In their
country houfes, they preferved the fame fituation and
the fame front, but the inner diftribution was different.
At the entrance they placed the meaner and more of-
fenfive offices, after'the manner of the Greeks. The
firft gallery, which received the ftranger at his entrance,
had on one fide a paflage to the kitchen, and on the
other to the flails where they kept cattle, that their
noife or fmell might not be offenfive within, while yet
they wrere in readinefs for all fervices. Thefe flails were
placed to the left, as in the Greek houfes 5 on the
right was the kitchen, wffiich had its light from above,
and its chimney in the middle. Farther within the
building were placed on one fide bathing rooms, and
on the other family conveniences, in the manner of our
butteries and ftore rooms : the bathing rooms w’ere on
the left, and the others on the right. Backwards, arid
full to the north, they placed their cellars, for fear of
the fun, and over thefe were other ftore rooms. From
this part of the ftrufture one came into the court; for
in thefe there generally was only one court : this was
taken up by fervants, and tbofe who had the care of
the cattle •, and on each fide there were flails for the
cattle. In front from the entrance, but very far from
all thefe annoyances, flood the nobler apartments for
t3 the mafter of the family.
Decline of Howr magnificent the Romans were in their temples
the art a- and public buildings, is yet to be feen in what remains
Romans10 t'^eni’ an<^ which are not only models for all modern
architects, but have never been furpafled or even equal¬
led to this day. But though the art of architecture
continued almoft at its higheft pitch among the Ro¬
mans for two centuries, it declined exceedingly as the
empire began to fail. Tacitus relates, that after the
battle of ACtium no men of genius appeared ; and af¬
ter tjre reign of Alexander Severus, a manner of build¬
ing altogether confufed and irregular was introduced,
ip wherein nothing of the true graces and majefly of the
Gothic former was preferved. When the empire wras entire-
manncr of jy overrun by the Goths, the conquerors naturally
introduced their own method of building. Like the
ancient Egyptians, the Goths feern to have been
more ftudious to amaze people with the greatnefs of
their buildings than to pleafe the eye with the re-
^ gularity of their ftruCture, or the propriety of their
ornaments. They correded themfelves, how’ever, a
little by the models of the Roman edifices which they
law before ‘'them ; but thefe models themfelves were
E C T U R E. SS7
faulty j and the Goths being totally deftitute of genius,
neither architecture nor any other art could be impro¬
ved by them.
Moft writers who mention the ancient buildings in
this ifland, particularly the religious ones, notwith-
ftanding the ftriking difference in the ftyles of their
conftruCtion, clafs them all under the common denomi¬
nation of Gothic ; a general appellation by them applied
to buildings not exaftly conformable to feme one of the
five orders of architecture. Our modern antiquaries,
more accurately, divide them into Saxon, Norman,
and Saracenic, or that fpecies vulgarly, though impro¬
perly, called modern Gothic. 20
It fsas been maintained by fome, that the Saxon Of the Sax-
churches, after they began to be built with ftone, con-on aml Nor-
fifted only of upright walls, without pillars or arches,man ^es’
the conftruCtion of which; it is alleged, they were en¬
tirely ignorant of. But this opinion is not only con¬
tradicted by the teftimony of feveral cotemporary or
very ancient writers, who exprefsly mention them both,
but alfo by the remains of fome edifices univerfally al¬
lowed to be of Saxon workmanlhip, one of them the
ancient conventual church at Ely. Indeed, it is high¬
ly improbable that the Saxons could be ignorant of fo
ufeful a contrivance as the arch. Many of them, built
by the Romans, they muft have had before their eyes j
fome of which have reached our days: tw o particular¬
ly are now remaining in Canterbury only ; one in the
caftle yard, the other at Riding gate. And it is not
to be believed, that once knowing them and their con¬
venience, they wmuld negleCl to make ufe of them j
or having ufed, would relinquifti them. Befides, as
it appears from undoubted authorities they procured
w'orkmen from the continent to conftruCl their capital
buildings “ according to the Roman manner,” this
alone wmuld be fufficient to confute that ill-grounded
opinion j and at the fame time proves, that what we
commonly call Saxon, is in reality Roman architec¬
ture.
This was the ftyle of building pradlifed all over Eu¬
rope ; and it continued to be ufed by the Normans,
after their arrival here, till the introduction of what is
called the modern Gothic, which wras not till about the
end of the reign of Henry II. fo that there Teems to
be little or no grounds for a diftindlion between the
Saxon and Norman architedlure. Indeed it is faid,
the buildings of the latter w7ere of larger dimenfions
both in height and area ; and they were conftrudled
with a ftone brought from Caen in Normandy, of
which their workmen were peculiarly fond : but this
was Amply an alteration in the fcale and materials,
and not in the manner of the building. The ancient
parts of moft of our cathedrals are of this early Nor¬
man wmrk.—The charadleriftic marks of this ftyle are
thefe : The wmlls are very thick, generally without
buttreffes; the arches, both within and without, as
W'ell as thofe over the doors and windows, femicircu- .
lar, and fupported by very folid, or rather clumfy, co¬
lumns, with a kind of regular bafe and capital : in
ftrort, plainnefs and folidity conftitute the ftriking fea¬
tures of this method of building. Neverthelefs, the
architedls of thofe days fometimes deviated from this
rule : their capitals w7ere adorned with carvings of fo¬
liage, and even animals ; and their maffive columns
decorated vath fmall half columns united to them, and
their.
A R C H I T
tlieir furfaces ornamented with fpirais, fquare?, lozenge
net-work, and other figures, either engraved or in re¬
lievo. Various inftances of thefe may be feen in the
cathedral of Canterbury, particularly the under croft,
the mopailery at Lindisfarn .01 Holy Illand, the cathe¬
dral at Durham, and the ruined choir at Orfoi'd in
Suffolk. The columns 1, 1, 1, x, (Plate XXXVIII.),
are at the monaftery of Lindisfarn or Holy Illand.
Thofe 2, 2, 2, belong to the ruined chancel at Or~
ford in Suffolk. N° 3 is at Chrift church, Canterbu¬
ry. N° 4, a column with two remarkable projections
like claws, in the fouth aifie of Romfey church, Hamp-
fiuire.
To what country or people the modern Gothic, or
the Ilyle of building with pointed arches fo called,
ow7es its origin, feems by no means fatisfadorily deter¬
mined. Some have imagined it may peffibly have ta¬
ken its rife from thole arcades we fee in the early Nor¬
man or Saxon buildings or walls, where the wide fe-
micircular arches crofs and interfeCt each other, and
form at their interfeCtion a narrow and tharp-pointed
arch : But it is more generally conjeCtured to be of
Arabian extraction, and to have been introduced into
Europe by fome pericns returning from the Crufades
in the Holy Land. Sir Chriltopher Wren was of that
opinion, and it has been fubfcribed to by molt writers
who have treated on this fubjeCt.
“ Modern Gothic, as it is called (fays Rious), is
diftinguilhed by the lightnefs of its work, by the ex-
ceflive boldnefs of its elevations and of its feCtions ;
by the delicacy, profufion, and extravagant fancy of
its ornaments. The pillars of this kind are as {lender
as thofe of the ancient Gothic are malfive; fuch pro¬
ductions, fo airy, cannot admit the heavy Goths for
their author. How can be attributed to them a ftyle
of architecture, which rvas only introduced in the tenth
century of our era, feveral years after the deftruCtion
of all thofe kingdoms which the Goths had raifed
upon the ruins of the Roman empire, and at a time
tvhen the very name of Goth was entirely forgotten ?
From all the marks of the nerv architecture, it can on¬
ly be attributed to the Moors; or, what is the fame
thing, to the Arabians or Saracens, who have expref-
fed, in their architecture, the fame tafte as in their
poetry ; both the one and the other falfely delicate,
crowded with fuperfluous ornaments, and often very
unnatural : the imagination is highly wmrked up in
both ; but it is an extravagant imagination •, and this
has rendered the edifices of the Arabians (we may in¬
clude the other orientals) as extraordinary as their
thoughts. If any one doubts of this aflertion, let us
appeal to any one who has feen the mofques and pa¬
laces of Fez, or fome of the cathedrals in Spain built
by the Moors j one model of this fort is the church at
Burgos •, and even in this ifland there are not wanting
feveral examples of the fame ; fuch buildings have been
vulgarly called modern Gothic, but their true appel¬
lation is Arabic, Saracenic, or Morefque.—This man¬
ner was introduced into Europe through Spain. Learn¬
ing flourilhed among the Arabians all the time that
their dominion was in full power 5 they ftudied philo-
fophy, mathematics, phyfic, and poetry. The love of
learning was at once excited ; in all places that were
not at too great a diftance from Spain, thefe authors
were read : and fuch of the Greek authors as they had
E C T U R E. Hlflor
tranflated into Arabic, were from thence turned into
Latin. The phyfic and philofophy of the Arabians
fpread themfelves in Europe, and with thefe their ar-
chiteClure : many churches were built after the Sara¬
cenic mode ; and others vrith a mixture of heavy and
light proportions, the alteration that the difference of
the climate might require, was little, if at all confi-
dered. In moll fouthern parts of Europe, and in A-
frica, the windows (before the ufe of glafs), made
with narrow apertures, and placed very high in the
walls of the building, cccafioned a fhade and dark-
nefs within fide, and were all contrived to guard
again!! the fierce rays of the iun j yet were ill iuited
to latitudes where .that glorious luminary {hades its
feebler influences, and is rarely feen but through a wa¬
tery cloud.”
Mr Grofe, however, thinks the above opinion is not
fufficiently favoured by the obfervations of ieveral learn¬
ed travellers who have accurately furveyed the ancient
mode of building in thofe parts of the world. _ Thus
Cornelius le Brim, an indefatigable and inquifitive tra¬
veller, has publilhed many views of ealtern buildings,
particularly about the Holy Land : in all thefe, only
one Gothic ruin, the church near Acre, and a few
pointed arches, occur 5 and thofe built by the Chri-
ffians when in poffeflion of the country. Near Ifpa-
han, in Perfia, he gives feveral buildings with pointed
arches: but tbefe are bridges and caravanferas, whofe
age cannot be afcertained *, confequently are as hkely
to have been built after, as before the introduction of
this ttyle into Europe. At Ifpahan itfelf, the iney
doen, ®r grand market-place, is furrounded by divers
magnificent Gothic buildings ; particularly the royal
mofque, and the Talael Ali-kapie, or theatre. I he
magnificent bridge of Alla-werdie-chan, over the river
Zenderoet, 540 paces long and xy broad, having 33
pointed arches, is alfo a Gothic ftruClure } but no
mention is made when or by whom thefe are built.
The Chiaer Baeg, a royal garden, is decorated with
Gothic buildings ; but thefe were, it is faid, built only
in the reign of Schah Abbas, who died anno 1629.
One building indeed, Mr Grofe admits, feems at firft
as if it would corroborate this affertion, and that the
time when it was eredled might be in fome degree fix¬
ed ; it is the tomb of Abdalla, one of the apoftles of
Mahomet, probably him furnamed Abu Beer. “ If this
tomb (fays he) is fuppofed to have been built foon af¬
ter his death, eftimating that even to have happened
according to the common courfe of nature, it will
place its ere&ion about the middle of the feventh cen¬
tury : but this is by far too conjectural to be much
depended on. It alfo feems as if this was not the com¬
mon ffyle of building at that time, from the temple of
Mecca ; where, if any credit is to be given to the
print of it in Sale’s Koran, the arches are femicircu-
lar. The tomb here mentioned has one evidence to
prove its antiquity ; that of being damaged by the in¬
juries of time and weather. Its general appearance
much refembles the eaft end of the chapel belonging
to Ely Houfe, London, except that which is filled up
there by the great window : in the tomb is an open
pointed arch, where alfo the columns or pinnacles on
each fide are higher in proportion.
As to the fuppofition that this kind of architeaure
wras brought into Spain by the Moors (who poileffed
themfelves
S59
Hiffiory. ARC H I T
themfelvcs of a great part of that country the begin¬
ning of the eighth century, which they held till the
latter end of the fifteenth), and that from thence, by
way of France, it was introduced into Britain •, this
at firft feems plaufible : though, according to Mr
Grofe, the only inifance which feems to corroborate
this hypothefis, or at leaf! the only one proved by au¬
thentic drawings, is the mofque at Cordova in Spain ;
where, if we may judge from the views publifhed by
Mr Swinburne, although mort of the arches are circu¬
lar or horfe-fhoe falhion, there are fome pointed archps
formed by the interfetlion of two fegments of a circle.
This mofque was, as it is there faid, begun by Ab-
doulrahman I. who laid the foundation tv/o years be¬
fore his death, and was finifhed by his fon Hiffem or
Ifcan about the year Boo. If thefe arches rvere part
of the original ftrufture, it would be much in favour
of the fuppofition •, but as it is alfo faid that edifice has
been more than once altered and enlarged by the Ma¬
hometans, before any well-grounded conclufion can be
drawn, it is neceffary to afcertain the date of the pre-
fent building.
There are alfo feveral pointed arches in the Moorifh
palace at Granada, called the Alhambra ; but as that
was not built till the year I 273, long after the intro-
duftion of pointed arches into Europe, they are as
likely to be borrowed by the Moors from the Chri-
ftians, as by the Chriflians from the Moors. The
greateft peculiarity in the Moorilh architefture is the
horfe-lhoe arch, which containing more than a femi-
circle, contrafts towrards its bafe, by which it is ren¬
dered unfit to bear any confiderable weight, being
folely calculated for ornament. In Romfey church,
Hampihire, there are feveral arches of this form.
In the drawings of the Moorifh buildings given in Les
Delices de dFJpagne, faid to be faithful reprefentations,
there are no traces of the ftyle called Gothic architec¬
ture ; there, as well as in the Moorifh caftle at Gibral¬
tar, the arches are all reprefented circular. Perhaps a
more general knowledge of thefe buildings would throw
fome light on the fubjefl : poffibly the Moors may,
like us, at different periods have ufed different manners
of building. <
The marks which conftitute the charafter of Go-
• thic, or Saracenical architecture, ai'e its numerous and
prominent buttreffes, its lofty fpires and pinnacles, its
large and ramified windows, its ornamental niches or
canopies, its fculptured faints, the delicate lace-work
of its fretted roofs, and the profufion of ornaments la-
vifhed indifcriminately over the whole building : but
its peculiar diftinguifhing charafteriflics are, the fmall
cluftered pillars and pointed arches formed by the feg¬
ments of two interfering circles; which arches, though
lafl brought into ufe, are evidently of more fimple and
obvious conflruCtion than tire femicircular ones ; two
flat Hones, with their tops inclined to each other, and
touching, form its rudiments; a number of boughs
ftuck into the ground oppofite each other, and tied to¬
gether at the top, in order to form a bower, exaClly
defcribe it : whereas a femicircular arch appears the
refult of deeper contrivance, as confifling of more
parts; and it feems lefs probable chance, from whence
all thefe inventions were firft derived, fhould throw
feveral wedge like ftones between two fet perpendicu¬
lar, fo as exaftly to fit and fill up the interval.
E C T U R E.
Bifhop Warburton, in his notes on Pope’s Epiftles,
in the oCtavo edition, has the following ingenious ob-
fervations on this fubjeCt:—“ Our Gothic anceftors
had jutter and manlier notions of magnificence, on
Greek and Roman ideas, than thefe mimics of tafte,
who profefs to ftudy only claflic elegance ; and be-
caufe the thing does honour to the genius of thofe bar¬
barians, I (hall endeavour to explain it. All our an¬
cient churches are called without diftinCtion Gothic,
but erroneoufty. They are of two forts ; the one built
in the Saxon times, the other in the Norman. Seve¬
ral cathedral and collegiate churches of the firft fort
are yet remaining, either in whole or in part ; of which
this was the original: When the Saxon kings became
Chriftians, their piety (w'hich wTas the piety of the
times), confifted chiefly in building churches at home,
and performing pilgrimages abroad, efpecially to the
Holy Land : and thefe fpiritual exercifes affifted and
fupported one another ; for the moft venerable as ■well
as moft elegant modes of religious edifices were then
in Paleftine. From thefe the Saxon builders took the
whole of their ideas, as may be feen by comparing the
drawings which travellers have given us of the church¬
es yet Handing in that country, with the Saxon re¬
mains of what -we find at home ; and particularly in
that famenefs of ftyle in the latter religious edifices of
the knights temporals (profeffedly built upon the mo¬
del of the church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerufalem),
with the earlier remains of our Saxon edifices. Now
the architefture of the Holy Land was Grecian, but
greatly fallen from its ancient elegance. Our Saxon
performance was indeed a bad copy of it, and as much
inferior to the works of St Helena and Juftinian, as
theirs were to the Grecian models they had followed :
yet ftill the footfteps of ancient art appeared in the cir¬
cular arches, the entire columns, the divifion of the en¬
tablature into a fort of architrave, frize, and cornice,
and a folidity equally diffufed over the whole mafs.
This, by way of diftin&ion, I would call the Saxon
architeflure. But our Norman works had a very dif¬
ferent original. When the Goths had conquered
Spain, and the genial warmth of the climate and the
religion of the old inhabitants had ripened their wits
and inflamed their miftaken piety, both kept in exer-
cife by the neighbourhood of the Saracens, through
emulation of their fervice, and averfion to their fuper-
ftition, they ftruck out a new Ipecies of architecture,
unknown to Greece and Rome, upon original princi¬
ples, and ideas much noblfcr than what had given birth
even to claflical magnificence. For this northern peo¬
ple having been accuftomed, during the gloom of Pa-
ganifm, to vrorlhip the deity in groves (a practice
common to all nations) ; wLen their new religion re¬
quired covered edifices, they ingenioufly projected to
make them referable groves, as nearly as the diftance
of architecture would permit; at once indulging their
old prejudices, and providing for their prefent conve¬
niences, by a cool receptacle in a fultry climate : and
with what {kill and fuccefs they executed the projet
by the affxftance of Saracen architets, wdiofe exotic
ftyle of building very luckily fuited their purpofe, ap¬
pears from hence, that tto attentive obferver ever view¬
ed a regular avenue of well-grown trees intermixing
their branches overhead, but it prefently put him in
mind of the long vifto through the Gothic cathedral
or
$6o ARC H I T
or ever entered one ot the larger and more elegant
edifices of this kind, but it prelented to his imagina¬
tion an avenue of trees *, and this alone is what can be
truly called the Gothic Ityle of building. Under this
idea of fo extraordinary a fpecies of archite&ure, all
the irregular tranfgreflions againlt art, all the mon-
Itrous offences againft nature, difappear •, every thing
has its reafon, every thing is in order, and an harmo¬
nious whole arifes from the ftudious application of
means proper and proportionate to the end. For could
the arches be otherwife than pointed, when the work¬
men were to imitate that curve which branches of two
oppofite trees make by their infertion with one ano¬
ther ? or could the columns be otherwife than fplit in¬
to diftin£l: fhafts, wdren they were to reprefent the ftems
of a clump of trees growing clofe together ? On the
fame principles they formed the fpreading ramification
of the ftone work in the windows, and the flained glafs
in the interftices 5 the one to reprefent the branches,
and the other the leaves of an opening grove, and
both concurred to preferve that gloomy ligitt which
infpires religious reverence and dread. Laftly, We
fee the reafon of their ffudied averfion to apparent fo-
lidity in thefe ftupendous maffes, deemed fo abfurd
by men accuftomed to the apparent as well as real
ilrength of Grecian architecture. Had it been only a
wanton exercife of the artiff’s fkill, to (how he could
give real ftrength without the appearance of any, we
might indeed admire his fuperior fcience, but we muft
needs condemn his ill judgment. But when one con-
fiders, that this furprifing li^htnefs was neceffary to
complete the execution of his idea of a fylvan place of
rvorfhip, one cannot fufficiently admire the ingenuity
of the contrivance. This too will account for the con¬
trary qualities in wdiat I call the Saxon arc^iitefture.
Thefe artifts copied, as has been faid, from the church¬
es in the Holy Land, wdiich wrere built on the models
of the Grecian architecture, but corrupted by prevail¬
ing barbarifm and Hill farther depraved by a religious
idea. The firft places of Chriftian wmrlhip were fe-
pulchres and fubterraneous caverns, lowr and heavy
from neceflity. When Chriftianity became the reli¬
gion of the ftate, and fumptuous temples began to be
ereCted, they yet, in regard to the firft pious ages,
preferved the maffive ftyle, made ftill more venerable
by the church of the Holy Sepulchre j where this
ftyle was, on a double account, followed and aggra-
22 vated.”
Ancient Jn Britain, before the Roman invafion, the natives
n-reft'of ar°" aPPear to ^ave no better lodgings than thickets,
chiteClure dens, and caves. Some of thefe caves, which were
in Britain, their winter habitations, and places of retreat in time
of war, were formed and rendered fecure and warm by
art, like thofe of the ancient Germans, wdiich are thus
deferibed by Tacitus: They are ufed to dig deep
caves in the ground and cover theta with earth, where
they lay up their provifions, and dwell in winter for
the fake of warmth. Into thefe they retire alfo from
their enemies, w7ho plunder the open country, but can¬
not difeover thefe fubtCrranean recdTes.'” Some of
the fubterraneous, or earth houfes, as they are called,
are ftill remaining in the Weftern ifles of Scotland and
in Cornwall. The fummer habitations of the moft an¬
cient Britons were very flight ; and, like thofe of the
Finnians, conlifted only of a few7 flakes driven into the
EOT II R E. Iliftory,
ground, interwoven with wattles, and covered over with
the boughs of trees.
When Julius Caefar invaded Britain, the inhabitants
of Cantium (Kent, and of fome other parts in the
fouth, had learned to build houfes a little more fub-
ftantial and convenient. “ The country (fays Caefar)
abounds in houfes, which very much referable thofe of
Gaul.” The firft ftep towards this improvement feems
to have been that of daubing the wattled w alls of their
houfes with clay, to fill up the chinks and make them
warmer. “ The Germans ufed for this purpofe a kind
of pure refplendent earth of different colours, which
had an appearance of painting at a diftance but the
Gauls and Britons chofe rather to wdiitcwaih the clay *
after it was dry with chalk. Inftead of the boughs of
trees, they thatched thefe houfes with ftraw, as a much
better fecuritt againft the wither. They next pro¬
ceeded to form the w7alls of large beams of wood, in¬
ftead of flakes and wattles. This feems to have been
the mode of building in Britain, when it was firft in¬
vaded by the Romahfe. “ The Britons (fays Diodorus
Siculus, w7ho wTas cotemporary with Crefar) dwell in
wretched cottages, which are conftrucled of wood, co¬
vered with ftraw7.” Thefe wooden houfes of the an¬
cient Gauls and Britons were not fquare but circular,
wfith high tapering roofs, at the top or centre of which
w7as an aperture for the admifiion of light and emiffion
of fmoke. Thofe of Gaul are thus deferibed by Stra¬
bo : “ They build their houfes of wood, in the form
of a circle, with lofty tapering roofs.” The founda¬
tions of fome of the moft magnificent of thefe circular
houfes were of ftone, of wdiich there are fome veftiges
ftill remaining in Anglefey and other places. It was
probably in imitation of thefe w7ooden houfes, that the
moft ancient ftone edifices, of which there are ftill
fome remains in the Weftern iflands of Scotland, were
built circular, and have a large aperture at the top.
When the Britons vrere invaded by the Romans,
they had nothing among them anfwering to our ideas
of a city or towrn, confining of a great number of con¬
tiguous houfes difpofed into regular ftreets, lanes, and
courts. Their dwellings, like thofe of the ancient
Germans, w7ere fcattered about the country, and gene¬
rally fituated on the brink of fome rivulet for the fake
of water, and on the fkirt of fome w7ood or foreft for
the conveniency of hunting and pafture for their cat¬
tle. As thefe inviting circumftances wTere more con-
fpicuous in fome parts of the country than others, the
princes and chiefs made choice of thefe places for their
refidence ; and a number of their friends and follow¬
ers, for various reafons, built their houfes as near to
them as they could wfith conveniency. This naturally
produced an ancient Britifh towm, which is deferibed
by Caefar and Strabo in the following manner : “ From
the Cafli he learnt that the towm of Caffivelaun was at
no great diftance 5 a place defended by woods and
marftres, in w'hich very great numbers of men and cat¬
tle were colledled. For w7hat the Britons call a town
is a traft of w7oody country furrounded by a mound
and ditch, for the fecurity of themfelves and their cat¬
tle againft the incurfions of their enemies.” “ The
forefts of the Britons are their cities ; for when they
have enclofed a very large circuit with felled trees,
they build wfithin it houfes for themfelves and hovels
for their cattle. Thefe buildings are very flight, and
not
1
Hiftory. A R C H I T
not defigned for long duration.” T'he palaces of the
Brkifh princes were probably built of the fame mate¬
rials, and on the fame plan, with the houfes of their
fubjects, and differed from them only in folidity and
magnitude.
Though the communication between this ifland and
the continent was more free and open after the firll:
Roman invafion than it had been before, and fome of
the Britilh princes and chicftans even vifited Rome,
then in its greateft glory 5 it doth not appear that the
people of Britain made any considerable improvements
in their manner of building for at leaf! a hundred years
after that invafion. For when the renowned Carac-
tacus was carried prifoner to Rome, A. D. 52, and ob-
ferved the beauty and magnificence of the buildings in
that proud metropolis of the wrorld, he is faid to have
expreffed great furprife, “ That the Romans, who had
fuch magnificent palaces of their own, Should envy the
wretched cabins of the Britons.”
It muff appear very furprifing that the ancient Bri¬
tons, when they were fo ignorant of architecture, were
capable, of ereCting (if indeed it was ereCted by them)
fo Itupendous a fabric as that of Stonehenge on Salif-
bury plain : A fabric which hath been the admiration
of all fucceeding ages, and hath outlafted all the folid
and noble ftruCtures which were ereCted by the Ro¬
mans in this ifland. See the article Stonehenge.
Of another very extraordinary fpecies of building fe-
veral remains are found in the Highlands of Scotland.
They confift of ruins ; the walls of which, inftead of
being cemented with lime or fome other fimilar fub-
itance, or of being raifed with dry {tones as was the
method before cement came into ufe, are defcribed as
having been vitrified, or the Hones run and compared
together by the force of fire. Concerning the origin,
ufe, &c. of thefe buildings, different opinions have
been formed *, and even the reality of them as works of
contrivance has been called in queftion : of all which
particulars the reader will find an account under the
article Forts {Vitrified^).
But for whatever purpofes, or by whatever means,
the above and other fimilar ftruCtures of a peculiar na¬
ture were ereCted, we have fufficient evidence that the
people of Britain, before they were fubdued and in-
ftruCted by the Romans, had but a rude knowledge of
architecture, and were very meanly lodged. As foon,
however, as the Romans began to form fettlements and
plant colonies in this ifland, a hidden and furprifing
change enfued in the Hate of architecture. For that
wonderful people were as induftrious as they were
brave, and made hafte to adorn every country that
they conquered. The firft Roman colony was planted
at Camelodunum, A. D. 50 ; and when it wras de-
ffroyed by the Britons in their great revolt under Boa-
dicea, only eleven years after, it appears to have been
a large and well built town, adorned with ftatues, tem¬
ples, theatres, and other public edifices.
The Romans not only built a prodigious number of
folid, convenient, and magnificent ftruClures for their
own accommodation, but they exhorted, encouraged,
and inffruCfed the Britons to imitate their example.
This was one of the arts which Agricola, the moft ex¬
cellent of the Roman governors, employed to civilize
the Britons, and reconcile them'to the Roman govern¬
ment. “ The following winter (lavs Tacitus) was
Vou II. Part II.
E C T U R E. 561
fpent by Agricola in very falutary meafarcs. That
the Britons wflao led a roaming and unfettled life, and
were eahly inlligated to war, might contraCf a love
to peace and tranquillity, by being accuftomed to a
more pleafant v7ay of living, he exhorted and affifted
them to build houfes, temples, courts, and market¬
places. By praifing the diligent and reproaching the
indolent, he excited fo great an emulation among the
Britons, that after they had ereCled ail thofe neceffary
edifices in their towns, they proceeded to build others
merely for ornament and pleafure, as porticoes, galle¬
ries, baths, banqueting houfes, &c.” From this time,
which was A. D. 80, to the middle of the fourth cen¬
tury, architefture and all the arts immediately conneft-
ed with it greatly flouriflied in this ifland •, and the
fame tafte for erecting folid, convenient, and beautiful
buildings, which had long prevailed in Italy, was in¬
troduced into Britain. Every Roman colony and free
city (of which there was a great number in this coun¬
try was a little Rome, encompaffed with itrong walls,
adorned with temples, palaces, courts, halls, bafilicks,
baths, markets, aquedufts, and many other fine build-
ings, both for ufe and ornament. The country every¬
where abounded with well-built villages, towns, forts,
and ftations ; and the whole was defended by that high
and ftrong wall, with its many towers and caftles,
which reached from the mouth of the river Tyne on
the eaft to the Solway Frith on the weft. This fpirit
of building, which was introduced and encouraged by
the Romans, fo much improved the tafte and increafed
the number of the Britifh builders, that in the third
century this ifland was famous for the great number
and excellence of its architefts and artificers. When
the emperor Conftantius, father of Conftantine the
Great, rebuilt the city of Autun in Gaul, A. D. 296,
he was chiefly furnilhed with workmen from Britain,
5“ which (fays Eumenius) very much abounded with
the beft artificers.”
Not very long after this period, architeflure and all
the arts connefted wfith it began to decline very fenfi-
bly in Britain, and in all the provinces of the weftern
empire. This was partly owing to the building of
Conftantinople, which drew many of the moft famous
architefts and other artificers into the eaft, and partly
to the irruptions and depredations of the barbarous na¬
tions.
The final departure of the Romans was followed by
the almoft total deftrudfion of architedhire in this ifland.
For the unhappy and unwarlike people whom they left
behind, having neither {kill nor courage to defend the
numerous towns, forts, and cities which they poffeffed,
they were feized by their ferocious invaders, who firft
plundered and then deftroyed them. By this means,
the many noble ftrudlures, with which Provincial Bri¬
tain had been adorned by the art and induftry of the
Romans, were ruined or defaced in a very little time j
and the unfortunate Britons were quite incapable of
repairing them, or of building others in their room.
That long fucceffion of miferies in which they were in¬
volved by the Scots, Pidfs, and Saxons, deprived them
of the many ufeful arts which they had learned from
their former matters, and lodged them once more in
forefts, dens, and caves, like their lavage anceftors.
'[’he moft wanton and extenfive devaftations were
thofe committed by the Anglo-Saxons ; among whom
4 B it
562
Jt-ddli Vita
Wilfridiy
C. S2.
ARCHITECTURE. Hiftory.
it Teems to have been a maxim to deftroy all the towns to have been infpired by the Spirit of God, it would
and caftles which they took from their enemies, initead require a genius much fuperior to mine to deicribe it
of preferving them for their own ufe. properly. How large and llrong Were the fubterra-
It cannot be luppofed, that a people who wantonly neous buildings, conflrufted of the fineft polifhed
demolifhed To many beautiful and ufeful ftru&ures had ftones ! How magnificent the fuperllrufture, with its
any tafte for the arts by which they had been erefted. lofty roof, fupported by many pillars, its long and
The truth is, that the Anglo-Saxons at their arrival in high -walls, its fublime towers, and winding flairs ! In
this ifland were almoft totally ignorant of thefe arts ; one word, there is no church on this fide of the Alps
and, like all the other nations of Germany, had been fo great and beautiful.” This admired edifice, of
accuftomed to live in wretched hovels, built of wood which Tome veftiges are ftill remaining, was built by
or earth, and covered with ftraw or the branches of mafons and other artificers brought from Rome by the
trees : nor did they much improve in the knowledge munificence of its generous founder. Benedict Bifcop
of archite&ure for 200 years after their arrival. Du- was the cotemporary and companion of Wilfrid in fome
ring that period, mafonry was quite unknown and un- of his journeys, and had the fame tafte for the arts,
praftifed in this ifland •, and the walls even of cathe- He made no fewer than fix journeys to Rome, chiefly
dral churches were built of wood. “ There was a time writh a view of collefting books, piblures, flatues, and
(fays venerable Bede) when there was not a ftone other curiofities, and of perfuading artificers of various
church in all the land 5 but the cuftom was to build kinds to come from Italy and France and fettle in
them all of wood. Finan, the fecond bilhop of Lin- England. Having obtained a grant of a confiderable
disfarne, or Holy Ifland, built a church in that ifland, eftate from Egfrid king of Northumberland, near the
A. D. 652, for a cathedral, which yet was not of mouth of the river Were, he there founded a mona-
ftone, but of wood, and covered with reeds 5 and fo it Aery, A. D. 674. “ About a year after the founda- Bed* Hifi.
continued till Eadbert, the fuccelTor of St Cuthbert, tions of this monaftery were laid, Benedift crofled the Abbat.
and feventh bilhop of Lindisfarne, took away the reeds, fea into France, where he colledfed a number of ma-
and covered it all over, both roof and walls, with llieets fons, and brought them over w ith him, on order to
of lead.” The firfl cathedral of York was built of the build the church of his monaftery of ftone after the '
fame materials ; and a church of ftone was efteemed a R oman manner, of which he was a great admirer,
kind of prodigy in thofe times that merited a place in His love to the apoftle Peter, to W'hom he defigned to
hiftory. “ Paulinus, the firfl; bilhop of York, built a dedicate his church, made him urge thefe workmen to
church of ftone in the city of Lincoln, whofe walls labour fo hard, that mafs was celebrated in it about a
(fays Bede^ are ftill Handing, though the roof is fallen year after it was founded. When the work w^as far ad-
down ; and fome healing miracles are wrought in it vanced, he fent agents into France to procure if poflible
every year, for the benefit of thofe who have the faith fome glafs-makers, a kind of artificers quite unknown!
to feek them.” in England, and to bring them over to glaze the win-
There does not feem to have been fo much as one dowrs of his church and monaftery. Thefe agents w ere
church of ftone, nor any artifts wTho could build one, fuccefsful, and brought feveral glafs-makers with them;
in all Scotland, at the beginning of the eighth centu- who not only performed the wTork required by Bene-
ry. For Naitan king of the Pidls, in his famous let- did!, but inftrufled the Englilh in the art of making
ter to Ceolfred abbot of Weremouth, A. D. 710, ear- glafs for windows, lamps, drinking veffels, and other
neftly entreats him to fend him fome mafons to build a ufes.”
church of ftone in his kingdom, in imitation of the But though thefe arts of building edifices of ftone,
Romans ; which he promifes to dedicate to the honour with w indows of glafs and other ornaments, were thus
of the apoftle Peter, tow’hom the abbey of Weremouth introduced byr thefe tw’o prelates in the latter part of
wras dedicated : and we. are told by Bede, who was the feventh century, they do not feem to have flourilh-
then living in that abbey, that the reverend abbot Ce- ed much for feveral centuries. It appears from many
olfred granted this pious requeft, and fent mafons ac- incidental hints in our ancient hiftorians, that ftone
cording to his defire. buildings w^ere ftill very rare in the eighth and ninth
Mafonry wTas reftored, and fome other arts conneft- ages ; and that when any fuch buildings w ere erefted,
ed with it introduced into England, tow*ards the end they wrere the objects of much admiration. When Al-
of the feventh century, by tw’o clergymen, who were fred the Great, towards the end of the ninth century,
great travellers, and had often vifited Rome, where formed the defign of rebuilding his ruined cities,
they had acquired fome tafte for thefe arts. Thefe churches, and monafteries, and cl adorning his domi-
were, the famous Wilfrid biftiop of York, and after- nions wfith more magnificent ftruflures, he was obliged
wards of Hexham, and Benediff Bifcop, founder of to bring many of his artificers from foreign countries,
the abbev of Weremouth. Wilfrid, wTho was one of “ Of thefe (as we are told by his friend and compa-
the moft ifigenious, aflive, and magnificent prelates of nion Aflerius) he had an almoft innumerable multitude,
the feventh century, was a great builder, and eredled colledled from different nations *, many of them the
feveral ftruftures at York, Rippon, and Hexham, moft excellent in their feveral arts.”
which w'ere the admiration of the age in which he In the other parts of this ifland architedlure w as, as
flourifhed. The cathedral of Hexham, wdiich was one might naturally be imagined, in a ftill lefs flourifliing
of thefe ftru&ures, is thus defcribed by his biographer : ftate. It appears indeed to have been almoft entirely loft
“ Having obtained a piece of ground at Hexham from among the pofterity of the ancient Britons after they
Queen Etheldreda, he there founded a moft; magnifi- retired to the mountains of Wales. The chief palace
cent church, which he dedicated to the bleffed apoftle of the kings of Wales, where the nobility and wife men
St Andrew. As the plan of this lacred ftruclure feems affembled for making laws, wTas called the white palace^
becaufe
Hiftory. A R C H I T
becaufe tlie walls of it were woven with white wands
which had the bark peeled off. By the laws of Wales,
whoever burnt or deltroyed the king’s hall or palace
was obliged to pay one pound and eighty pence, be-
iides one hundred and twenty pence for each of the ad¬
jacent buildings, which were eight in number ; viz.
the dormitory, the kitchen, the chapel, the granary,
the bakehoufe, the ftorehouie, the liable, and the dog-
houfe. From hence it appears, that a royal relidence
in \\ ales, with all its offices, when thefe laws were
made, was valued at five pounds and eighty pence of the
money of that age, equal in quantity of filver to fix-
teen pounds of our money, and in efficacy to one hun¬
dred and fixty. This is certainly a fufficient proof of
the meannefs of thofe buildings which were only of
wood. Even the callles in Wales, in this period, that
were built for the fecurity of the country, appear to
have been conltrudted of the fame materials j for the
laws required the king’s vaffals to come to the building
of thefe callles with no‘other tools but an axe.
The arts of building do not feem to have been much
better underllood by the Scots and Pidrts than by the
ancient Britons in the former part of this period.
When Finan, the fecond bilhop of Lindisfarne, built a
church of wmod in that ifland, A. D. 652, he is faid to
have done it viore Scotorum, after the manner of his
countrymen the Scots 5 and it hath been already ob-
ferved, that Naitan king of the Pi£ls wTas obliged to
bring mafons from Northumberland, when he refolved
to build a church of Hone in his dominions, A. D. 710.
After this lalt period, it is probable that the Pidls,
and perhaps the Scots, began to learn and praftife the
art of mafonry ; becaufe there are Hill fome ftone build¬
ings of a very fingular conltruftion, and great antiquity,
to be feen in Scotland. Thefe buildings are all circular j
though of two kinds fo different from each other, that
they leem to be the work of different ages and of dif¬
ferent nations. The largell of thefe llruflures are in
a very extraordinary talle of architedlure 5 and are thus
defcribed by a modern antiquary, wTho viewed them
Gordon s I- with no little attention : “ Having arrived at the bar-
tinerarium rack of Glenelg, I was conduced to the remains of
Scptcntri- thofe ftupendous fabrics, feated about two miles from
t*161106* in a valley called Glenbeg, in wdiich four of
them anciently Hood. Two of thefe are now almolt
quite demolilhed, the third is half fallen down, the
fourth is almoft entire. The firft I met with lies to¬
wards the north fide'of the valley, and is called Cajlle
Chalarnine, or Malcom's Cajile. It Hands upon a con-
fiderable eminence, and affords us a fine profpe£l of
the ifland of Sky and a good part of the fea coafl.
The foundation of this only appears ; as alfo of that
other, on the eaff end of the valley, called Cajlle Cho-
nel. About a quarter of a mile further, upon the
bank of a rivulet which paffes through the middle of
the glen, Hands the third fabric called Cajlle Tellve.
I found it compofed of Hones without cement ; not
laid in regular courfes, after the manner of elegant
buildings, but rudely and without order. Thofe to-
. ward the bale were pretty large, but afcending higher
they were thin and flat, fome of them fcarce exceeding
the thicknefs of an ordinary brick. I was furprifed to
find no windows on the outfide, nor any manner of en¬
trance into the fabric, except a hole towards the w’efl,
at the bafe, fo very low and narrow, that 1 was forced
e c t u R E.
to creep in upon hands and knees, and found that it
carried me down four or five Heps below the furface of
the ground. When I was got within I was environed
betwixt two walls, having a cavity or void fpace
wflrich led me round the wdiole building. Oppofite to
the little entry, on the outfide, was a pretty large
door in the fecond or inner wall, which let me into
the area or inner court. When I was there, I per¬
ceived that one half of the building wras fallen down,
and thereby had the opportunity of feeing a complete
feclion thereof, d he twro w'alls join together at the
top, round about, and have formed a large void fpace
or area in the middle. But to give a more complete
idea of thefe buildings, I fliall defcribe the fourth,
called Cajlle Trodeian, which is by far the mofl entire
of any in that country, and from whence I had a very
clear notion howr thefe fabrics were originally contrived.
On the outfide were no windows, nor were the mate¬
rials of this callle anywflfe different from thofe of the
other already defcribed, only the entry on the outfide
wras fomewhat larger ; but this might be occafioned
by the falling of the Hones from above. The area of
this makes a complete circle j and there are four doors
in the inner wall, which face the four cardinal points
of the compafs. Thefe doors are each eight feet and
a half high, and five feet wide, and lead from the area
into the cavity between the two w?alls, which runs
round the wfliole building. The perpendicular height
of this fabric is exaclly 33 feet; the thicknefs of both
w^alls, including the cavity between, no more than 1 2
feet ^ and the cavity itfelf is hardly wude enough for
tuvo men to walk abreafl ; the external circumference
is 178 feet. The wflrole height of the fabric is divided
into four parts or Hories, feparated from each other by
thin floorings of flat Hones, which knit the twm walls
together, and run quite round the building ; and there
have been winding flairs of the fame flat Hones afcend¬
ing betwixt wall and w-all up to the top. The under-
mofl partition is fomewhat below' the furface of the
ground, and is the widefl 5 the others grow narrower
by degrees till the walls clofe at the top. Over each
door are nine fquare windows, in a dire6t line above
each other, for the admiflion of light •, and between
every row of wdndows are three others in the uppermoff
flory, rifing above a cornice which projefts out from
the inner wrall and runs round the fabric.” From this
defeription of thele fingular edifices, it plainly appears
that they w^ere defigned both for lodging and defence j
and confidering the Hate of the times in which they
w'ere built, they were certainly very wrell contrived for
anfwering both thefe purpofes.
The Hone edifices of the other kind which w^ere
probably erecled in this period, and of which fome few
are Hill to be feen in Scotland, are not fo large as the
former, but more artificial. They are flender, lofty,
circular towers, of cut Hone, laid in regular row?s, be-
tween 40 and 50 feet in external circumference, and
from 70 to 100 feet high, writh one door fome feet
from the ground. They are exaclly fimilar to the
round tower of Ardmore, and feveral others, in Ireland;
and therefore were probably built about the fame time,
which wTas in the tenth century, and for the fame pur-
poles 5 which are believed by fome to have been for
tne confinement of penitents while they were perform¬
ing penance. On tins account thefe towers are alwTays
4 B 2 found
563
ArchiChlo-
gia, vol, i,
F- 307-
Oracrio Vi-
tul. Hijl.
Jlcclcf.
p. 78S.
A R C H I T
found in tlie neiglibournood of churches both in Scot¬
land and Ireland; and are laid to have been ufed in this
manner : “ The penitents were placed in the upper-
moll; ftory of the tower (which commonly confided of
five or fix ftories) ; where having made probation, or
done penance, fuch a limited time, according to the
heinoufnefs of their crimes, they then were permitted
to defeend to the next floor, and fo on by degrees,
until they came to the door, which alrvays faced the
entrance of the church, where they flood to receive
abfolution from the clergy, and the bleflings of the
people. A tedious procefs, to which few penitents
in the prefent age would willingly fubmit. Other
writers are of opinion, that the delign of thefe circular
towrers (of which one is flill remaining at Abernethy
and another at Brechin) was to the places from
whence the people -were called to public worfhip by
the found of a horn or trumpet, before the introduction
of bells.
This art received very great improvements in the
1 2th century ; which indeed may be called the age of
architecture ; when the rage for building wras more vio¬
lent in England than at any other time. The great
and general improvements that were made in the fa¬
brics of houfes and churches in the firfl years of this
century, are thus deferibed by a cotemporary writer.
“ The new cathedrals and innumerable churches that
were built in all parts, together with the many mag¬
nificent cloiflers and monaileries, and other apartments
of monks, that were then erefted, afford a fufficient
proof of the great felicity of England in the reign of
Henry I. The religious of every order, enjoying
peace and profperity, difplayed the moft aftonifhing
ardour in every thing that might increafe the fplendour
of divine worihip. The fervent zeal of the faithful
prompted them to pull down houfes and churches every¬
where, and rebuild them in a better manner. By this
means the ancient edifices that had been raifed in the
days of Edgar, Edward, and other Chriftian kings,
were demolifhed, and others of greater magnitude
and magnificence, and of more elegant workmanfhip,
were ere£led in their room, to the glory of God.”
As the prodigious power of religious zeal, what¬
ever turn it happens to take, when it is thoroughly
heated, is well known, it may not be improper to give
one example of the arts employed by the clergy and
monks of this period, to inflame the pious ardour of
the kings, nobles, and people, for building and adorn¬
ing churches. When foffred abbot of Croyland re-
folved to rebuild the church of his monaftery in a moil
magnificent manner, A. D. 1106, he obtained from
the archbilhops of Canterbury and York, a bull dif-
penfing with the third part of all penances for fin to
ihofe rvho contributed any thing towards the building
of that church. This bull was dire<fled not only to
the king and people of England, but to the kings of
France and Scotland, and to all other kings, earls, ba¬
rons, archbilhops, bifhops, abbots, priors, redlors, pref-
byters, and clerks, and to all true believers in Chrift,
rich and. poor, in all Chriftian kingdoms. To make
the beft ufe of this bull, he fent two of his moft eloquent
monks to proclaim it over all France and Flanders, two
other monks into Scotland, two into Denmark and Nor¬
way, two into Wales, Cornwal, and Ireland, and others
into dilferent parts of England. By this means (fays
E C T U R E. Hiftory.
the hillorian) the-wonderful benefits granted to all the
contributors to the building of this church were pu-
bliihed to the very ends of the earth 5 and great heaps
of treafure and maffes of yellow metal flowed in from
all countries upon the venerable Abbot Joffred, and
encouraged him to lay the foundations of his church.”
Having fpent about four years in collefiing mountains
of different kinds of marble from quarries both at
home and abroad, together with great quantities of
lime, iron, brafs, and other materials for building, he
fixed a day for the great ceremony of laying the foun¬
dation, which he contrived to make a very effeftual
mean of rarfing the fuperftruflure : For on the long-
expeffed day, the feaft of the Holy Virgins Felicitas
and Perpetua, an immenfe multitude of earls, barons,
and knights, with their ladies and families, of abbots,
priors, monks, nuns, clerks, and perfons of all ranks,
arrived at Croyland, to afliil at this ceremony. The
pious Abbot Joffred began by faying certain prayers,
and Ihedding a flood of tears on the foundation. Then
each of the earls, barons, knights, with their ladies,
fons, and daughters, the abbots, clerks, and others,
laid a ftone, and upon it depofited a fum of money, a
grant of lands, tithes, or patronages, or a promife of
itone, lime, wmod, labour, or carriages, for building
the church. After this the abbot entertained the
whole company, amounting to 5000 perfons, at din¬
ner. To this entertainment they were all entitled ; for
the money, and grants of different kinds, which they
had depofited on the foundation ftones, were alone fuf¬
ficient to have raifed a very noble fabric. By fuch
arts as thefe the clergy infpired kings, nobles, and
people of all ranks, with fo ardent a fpirit for thefe
pious works, that in the courfe of this period almoft
all the facred edifices in England w-ere rebuilt, and ma¬
ny hundreds of newT ones raifed from the foundation.
Nor was this fpirit confined to England, but prevailed
as much in Scotland in proportion to its extent and
riches. King David I. alone, befides feveral cathe¬
drals and other churches, built no fewTer than thirteen
abbeys and priories, fome of which were very magni¬
ficent ftrudlures.'
The facred architeflure of the Anglo-Normans in
the beginning of this period did not differ much in its
ftyle and manner from that of the Anglo-Saxons 5
their churches being in general plain, lowq ftrong, and
dark the arches both of the doors and wundows fe-
micircular, with few or no ornaments. By degrees,
through much practice, our architefls, wrho wTere
all monks or clergymen, improved in their tafte and
{kill, and ventured to form plans of more noble, light,
and elevated ftruflures, with a great variety of orna¬
ments 5 which led to that bold magnificent ftyle of build ¬
ing, commonly, though perhaps not very properly, call¬
ed the later Gothic. It is not improbable that our monk-
ifti architefls were aflifted in attaining this ftyle of
building by models, from foreign countries, or by in-
ftrudlions from fuch of their own number as had vifit-
ed Italy, France, Spain, or the Eaft. But the origin
of this ftyle of architefture has been already confi-
dered, and the chara&ers by which it is diilinguifhed
from the ancient Gothic have alfo been deferibed :
(See N° 21.ftpral) Its firft appearance in England
wras towards the latter end of the reign of King Hen¬
ry II. But it was not at once thoroughly adopted ;
Hiftory. A R C H I T
fome fhort folid columns and femicircular arches being
retained and mixed with the pointed ones as for ex¬
ample, in the wed end of the Old Temple church ;
and at York, where under the choir there remains
much of the ancient work, the arches of which are
but jud pointed and rife on ihort round pillars. In the
reign of Henry III. however, this manner of build¬
ing leems to have gained a complete footing ; the cir¬
cular giving place to the pointed arch, and the maf-
five column yielding to the llender pillar. Indeed, like
all novelties, wdien once admitted, the rage of fafliion
•made it become fo prevalent, that many of the ancient
and folid buildings, erected in former ages, were taken
down in order to be re-edified in the new tade, or had
additions patched to them, of this mode of architec¬
ture. The prefent cathedral church of Salifbury w^as
begun early in this reign, and finidied in the year I 258.
It is entirely in the Saracenic dyle ; and, according to
Sir Chridopher Wren, may be judly accounted one of
the bed patterns of archite&ure of the age in which
it was built. Its excellency is undoubtedly in a great
meafure owing to its being condrufted on one plan ;
whence arifes that fymmetry and agreement of parts,
not to be met with in many of our other cathedral
churches ; which have modly been built at different
times, and in a variety of ffyles. From this time till
the reign of Henry VIII. the fafhionable pillars in
churches were of Purbec marble, very {lender and
round, encompaffed with marble drafts a little detached,
having each a capital adorned with foliage, which join¬
ing, formed one elegant capital for the whole pillar.
I he windows were long and narrow, with pointed
arches and painted glafs, which was introduced about
that time, or at lead became more common. In this cen¬
tury alfo they began to delight in lofty deeples, with
Ipires and pinnacles. In the fourteenth century, the
pillars confided of an affemblage of lhafts not detach¬
ed, but united, forming one folid and elegant column j
the windows, efpecially thofe in the ead and wed ends,
were greatly enlarged, divided into feveral lights by
done mullions running into ramifications above, and
forming numerous compartments in various fanciful
drapes. Thofe windows, filled with darned glafs of
the mod lively colours, reprefenting kings, faints, and
martyrs, and their hiltories, made a mod folemn and
glorious appearance. There wrere feveral other varia¬
tions, efpecially in the tade of the carvings and other
ornaments, which are too minute for general hidory.
As to the date of civil archite&ure during the fame
period: 1 he houfes of the common people in the coun¬
ty, and of the lower burgeffes in towns and cities, were
very little improved in their drusdure, that mod nu¬
merous and ufeful order of men being much depreffed
in the times we are now delineating. Even in the ca¬
pital city of London, all the houfes of mechanics and
common burgefies were built of wood, and covered with
iiraw or reeds, towards the end of the twelfth century.
But the palaces, or rather cadles, of the Anglo-Nor¬
man kings, barons, and prelates, were very different
irom the refidences of perfons of the fame rank in the
Anglo-Saxon times. For this we have the teftimony of
a perlbn of undoubted credit, who was well acquainted
with them both. “The Anglo-Saxon nobles (fays
William of Malmlbury) fquandered away their ample
revenues in low and mean houfes 3 but the French and
E c T u R E.
Norman barons are very different from them, living at
Ids expence, but in great and magnificent palaces.”
I he truth is, that the rage of building fortified caftles,
was no lefs violent among the Norman princes, prelates,
and barons, than that of building churches. To this
they were prompted not only by the cuftom of their
native country, but alfo by their dangerous fituation in
this ill and Surrounded by multitudes, whom they
had depreffed and plundered, and by whom they wrere
abhorred, they could not think themfelves fafe with¬
out the proteclion of deep ditches and ftrong walls.
1 he Conqueror himfelf was fenfible, that the want of
fortified places in England had greatly facilitated his
conqueft, and might facilitate his expulfion 3 and there¬
fore he made all poffible hafte to remedy this defeH,
by building very magnificent and ftrong caftles In all
the towns within the royal demefnes. “William (fays
Matthew Paris) excelled all his predeceflors in building
caftles, and greatly haraffed his fubje&s and vaffals with
thefe works.” All his earls, barons, and even prelates,
imitated his example 3 and it was the firft care of every
one who received the grant of an eftate from the crown,
to buila a caftle upon it for his defence and refidence.
The difputes about the fucceflion in the following
reigns, kept up this Ipirit for building great and ftrong
caftles. William Rufus was ftill a greater builder than
his father. “ This William (Tays Henry Knyghton)
was much addidted to building royal caftles and pala¬
ces, as the caftles oi Dover, Windfor, Norwich, Exe¬
ter, the palace of Weftminfter, and many others, tefti-
fy 5 nor was there any king of England before him
that eredled fo many and fuch noble edifices.”
Henry I. was alfo a great builder both of caftles and
monafteries. But this rage for building never prevail¬
ed fo much in any period of the Englifti hiftory as in
the turbulent reign of King Stephen, from A. D.
113 5 to A. D. 1 x 54. “In this reign ("as we are told
by the author of the Saxon Chronicle) every one who
was able built a caftle ; fo that the poor people were
worn out with the toil of thefe buildings, and the
w’hole kingdom was covered with caftles.” This laft
expreflion will hardly appear too ftrong, when we are
informed, that befides all the caftles before that time
in England, no fewer than 1115 were raifed from the
foundation in the fhort fpace of 19 years. See the ar¬
ticle Castle.
The caftles, monafteries, and greater churches of
this period, were generally covered with lead, the
windows glazed 3 and when the walls were not of afti-
ler, they were neatly plaftered and whitewafhed on
both fides. The doors, floors, and roof, were com¬
monly made of oak planks and beams, exa&ly fmooth-
ed and jointed, and frequently carved. It is hardly
neceffary to obferve, that the building one of thefe
great and magnificent caftles, monafteries, or churches,
of which there were many in England, muft have been
a work of prodigious expence and labour 3 and that
the architefts and artificers, by whom that work was
planned and executed, muft have attained confiderable
dexterity in their refipeftive arts. Several of thefe ar-
chite&s have obtained a place in hiftory, and are high¬
ly celebrated for their fuperior fkill. William of Sens,
architect to Archbifhop Lanfranc in building his cathe¬
dral, is faid, by Gervafe of Canterbury, to have been
a xnoft exquifite artift both in ftone and wood. He
made'
566
A R C H I T
made not only a model of the whole cathedral, but of
every particular piece of fculpture and carving, for the
direction of the workmen ; and invented many curious
machines for loading and unloading fhips, and convey¬
ing heavy weights by land, becaufe all the ftoneswere
brought from Normandy. Matthew Paris fpeaks even
in a higher drain of Walter of Coventry, who flourilh-
ed towards the end of this period, when he fays, that
“ fo excellent an architedi had never yet appeared, and
probably never would appear, in the world.” This
encomium was undoubtedly too high ; but it is impof-
fible to view the remains of many magnificent fabrics,
both facred and civil, that were erefted in this period,
without admiring the genius of the architedls by whom
they were planned, and the dexterity of the workmen
by whom they were executed.
In the beginning of the reign of Henry VIII. or ra¬
ther towards the latter end of that of Henry VII. when
brick building became common, a new kind of low
pointed arch grew much in ufe : it wras defcribed from
four centres, was very round at the haunches, and the
angle at the top was very obtufe. This fort of arch is
to be found in every one of Cardinal Wolfey’s build¬
ing’s 5 alfo at Weft Sheen ; an ancient brick gate at
Mile End, called King John's Gate ; and in the great
gate of the palace of Lambeth. From this time Go¬
thic arcite&ure began to decline ; and was foon after
fupplanted by a mixed ftyle, if one may venture to call
it one j wherein the Grecian and Gothic, however dif-
cordant and irreconcilable, are jumbled together. Con¬
cerning this mode of building, Mr Warton, in his ob-
fervations on Spenfer’s Faery Queene, has the follow¬
ing anecdotes and remarks :
“ Although the Roman or Grecian archite&ure did
not begin to prevail in England till the time of Inigo
Jones, yet our communication wfith the Italians, and our
imitation of their manners, produced fome fpecimens of
that ftyle much earlier. Perhaps the earlieft wras Somer-
fet Houfe in the Strand, built about the year 1549,
by the duke of Somerfet, uncle to Edward VI. The
monument of Biftiop Gardiner, in Winchefter cathe¬
dral, made in the reign of Mary, about 1555, is deco¬
rated with Ionic pillars. Thefe verfes of Spenfer,
 Did rife
On ftately pillars, fram’^l after the Doric guife.
E C T U R E. Hiftory.
bear an allufion to fome of the fafhionable improvements
in building, which at this time were growing more and
more into efteem. Thus alfo Biftiop Hall, who wrote
about the fame time, viz. 1598 :
There findeft thou fome ftately Doric frame,
Or neat lonicke work.  
But thefe ornaments wmre often abfurdly introduced
into the old Gothic ftyle : as in the magnificent por¬
tico of the ichools at Oxford, eredled about the year
1613 5 where the builder, in a Gothic edifice, has af-
feftedly difplayed his univerfal Ikill in the modern ar-
chitedlure, by giving us all the five orders together.
However, molt of the great buildings of Queen Eliza¬
beth’s reign have a ftyle peculiar to themfelvds both in
form and finiftiing 5 w here, though much of the old
Gothic is retained, and great part of the new tafte is
adopted, yet neither predominates ; while both, thus
diftinftly blended, compofe a fantaftic fpecics, hardly
reducible to any clafs or name. One of its charafter-
iftics is the affeftation of large and lofty window's :
where, fays Bacon, “ you ftiall have fometimes fair
houies fo full of glafs, that one cannot tell where to
come to be out of the fun.”
To return now to our general hiftory, and to con¬
clude : In the 15th and 16th centuries, when learning
of all kinds began to revive, the chafte architecture of
the Greeks and Romans feemed as it were to be re¬
called into life. The firft improvements in it began
in Italy, and owed their exiftenpe to the many ruins
of the ancient Roman ftrudlures that were to be found
in that country 5 from whence an improved method of
building was gradually brought into the other countries
of Europe : and though the Italians for a long time
retained the fuperiority as architefts over the other
European nations j yet, as men of genius travelled
from all quarters into Italy, where they had an oppor¬
tunity of feeing the originals from whence the Italians
copied, architedls have arifen in other nations equal, if
not fuperior, to any that ever appeared in Italy. Of
this we have a recent inftance in our own country¬
man Mr Mylne, wTho lately gained the prize in archi-
tedlure at Rome, where it would no doubt be dif-
puted by fuch natives of Italy as were beft Ikilied in
that art.
PART I. PRINCIPLES OF ARCHITECTURE.
1\/f ANY ages muft have elapfed before archite£lure
AT came to be confidered as a fine art. Utility was
its original deftination, and ftill continues to be its prin¬
cipal end. Experience, how'ever, has taught us, that
archite&ure is capable of exciting a variety of agreeable
feelings. Of thefe, utility, grandeur, regularity, order,
and proportion, are the chief.
. Architecture, being an ufeful as well as a fine art,
oAml'id100 lea<^s us to diftinguifh buildings, and parts of buildjngs,
lags. into three kinds, viz. what are intended for ufe folely,
what for ornament folely, and what for both. Build¬
ings intended for utility folely, ought in every part to
correfpond precifely to that intention; the leaft devia¬
tion from ufe, though contributing to ornament, will
be difagreeable ; for every work of ufe being confider¬
ed as a mean to an end, its perfection as a mean is the
capital circumftance, and every other beauty in oppo-
fition is negleCted as improper. On the other hand, in
fuch things as are intended folely for ornament, as co¬
lumns, obelilks, triumphal arches, &c. beauty alone
ought to be regarded. The principal difficulty in ar-
chiteClure lies in combining ufe and ornament. In or¬
der to accompliih thefe ends, different and even oppo-
fite means muft be employed ; w hich is the reafon why
they are fo feldom united in perfection ; and hence, in
buildings of this kind, the only practicable method is,
to
Part I.
A R C H I T
,lV!nciPlec-, to prefer utility to ornament according to the charac¬
ter of the building : in palaces, and luch buildings as
admit of a variety of uleful contrivance, regularity
ought to be preferred 5 but in dwelling houfes that are
too fmall for variety of contrivance, utility ought to
prevail, neglefting regularity as far as it Hands in op-
24 petition to convenience.
Intrinfic _ lo confidering attentively the beauty of vifible ob-
and rela- jefls, we difeover two kinds. The firft may be termed
tive beauty, intnnjic beauty, becaufe it is difeovered in a fingle ob-
jeft, without relation to any other. The fecond may be
termed relative beauty, being founded on a combina-
tipn of relative objefts. Archite&ure admits of both
kinds. We lhall fill! give a few examples of relative
beauty.
The proportions of a door are determined by the ufe
to which it is deftined. The door of a dwelling houfe,
which ought to correfpond to the human fize, is confin¬
ed to feven or eight feet in height and three or four
in breadth. The proportions proper for a liable or
coachhoufe are different. The door of a church ought
to be wide, in order to afford an eafy paffage for a
multitude , and its height mull be regulated by its
widenefs, that the proportion may pleafe the eye. The
lize of the windows ought always to be proportioned
to that of the room they are deftined to illuminate 5 for
it the apertures be not large enough to convey light to
every corner, the room mult be unequally" lighted,
which is a great deformity. Steps of flairs Ihould like-
wife be accommodated to the human figure, without
regarding any other proportion ; they are accordingly
the lame in large and in finall buildings, becaufe both
are inhabited by men of the fame fize.
We (hall next confider intrinfic beauty, blended with
that which is relative. A cube itfelf is more agree¬
able than a parallelopipedon ; this conftantly holds in
fmall figures : but a large building in the form of a cube
is lumpilh and heavy ; while a parallelopipedon, fet on
its Imaller bale, is more agreeable on account of its
elevation . Hence the beauty of Gothic towers. But if
this figure were to be ufed in a dwelling houfe, to make
vs ay foi relative beauty, we would immediately per¬
ceive that utility ought chiefly to be regarded ; and
this figure, inconvenient by its height, ought to be fet
on its larger bafe : the loftinefs in this cafe would be
loll •, but that lofs will be more than fufficiently com-
penfated by the additional convenience. Hence the
form of buildings fpread more upon the ground than
. raffed in height, is always preferred for a dwelling
25 houfe. 5
Internal With regard to the internal divifions, utility re-
houlW * °f rUheS thaI the r°0mS be reaanSular, to avoid ufelefs
1 paces. An hexagonal figure leaves no void fpaces;
but it determines the rooms to be all of one fize, which
is both inconvenient and difagreeable for want of va-
nety. I hough a cube be the moll agreeable figure,
and may anfwer for a room of a moderate fize j yet, in
a very large room, utility requires a different figure.
Unconfined motion is the chief convenience of a great
. room ; to obtain this the greateft length that can be
had is neceffary. But a fquare room of large fize is
inconvenient, ft removes chairs, tables, &c. at too
great a diflance from the hand, which, when unem¬
ployed, muft be ranged along the fides of the room.
Utility, therefore, requires a large room to be a paral-
E c r u R E. 567
lelogram. This figure is likewife belt calculated for Principles*
the admiflion of light; becaufe, to avoid crofs lights, f - '1
all the windows ought to be in. one wall j and if the op-
pofite wall be at fuch a diftance as not io be fully light¬
ed, the room muft be'obfeure. The height of a room
exceeding nine or ten feet has little relation to utility ;
therefore proportion is the only rule for determining
the height when above that number of feet. 2(j
Aritifts who deal in the beautiful, love to entertain Utility and
the eye ; palaces and fumptuous buildings, in which in-fieauty0f-
trinlic beauty may be fully difplayed, give them an op-teiV”con:1'
portunity of exerting their tafte. But fuch a propen-
fity is peculiarly unhappy with regard to private dwell¬
ing houfes ; becaufe, in thefe, relative beauty cannot be
difplayed to perfedtion without hurting intrinfic beau¬
ty. There is no opportunity for great variety of form
in a fmall houfe ; and in edifices of this kind, internal
convenience has not hitherto been happily adjufted to
external regularity. Perhaps an accurate coincidence
in tnis refpeft is beyond the reach of art. Architects,
however, conftantly fplit upon this rock 5 for they ne¬
ver can be perfuaded to give over attempting to recon¬
cile thefe tw o incompatibles: how othemife fhould it
happen, that of the endlefs variety of private dwelling
houfes, there fliould not be one found that is generally
agreed upon as a good pattern ? the unw'earied propen-
fity to make a horde regular as well as convenient
obliges the architect, in fome articles, to facrifice con¬
venience to regularity, and, in others, regularity to
convenience ; and accordingly the houfe which turns
out neither regular nor convenient, never fails to dif-
pleafe.
Nothing can be more evident, than that the form of
a dwelling houfe ought to be fuited to the climate j yet
no error is more common than to copy in Britain the
form of Italian houfes, not forgetting even thofe parts
that are purpofely contrived for collecting air, and for
excluding the fun } witnefs our colonnades and logios,
defigned by the Italians to gather cool air, and exclude
the beams of the fun, conveniences which the climate
of this country does not require.
We {hall next view architecture as one of the fine Architec-
arts ; which will lead us to the examination of fuch ture confi-
buildings, and parts of buildings, as are calculated foie-dered as a
ly to pleafe the eye. Variety prevails in the works 0ffineart’
nature ; but art requires to be guided by rule and com-
pafs. Hence it is, that in fuch works of art as imitate
nature, the great art is, to hide every appearance of art;
wdiich is done by avoiding regularity and indulging
variety. But in works of art that are original and not
imitative, fuch as architecture, ftriCt regularity and
uniformity ought to be ftudied, fo far as confiftent with
utility.
Proportion is not lefs agreeable than regularity and Difference
uniformity ; and therefore, in buildings intended to between 6
pleafe the eye, they are all equally effential. It is taken PE°por-
for granted by many writers, that in all the partstionsof
of a building there are certain ftriCt proportions which and^uan
pleafe the eye, in the fame manner as in found there Uty.^111'
are certain ftriCt proportions which pleaie the ear ; and
that, in both, the flighteft deviation is equally difagree¬
able. Others feem to relifh more a comparifon between
proportion . in numbers and proportion in quantity ;
and maintain, that the fame proportions are agreeable
in both. The proportions, for example, of the num¬
bers^
56S
A R C H I T
Principles, bers 16, 2J, and 36, are agreeable; and fo, fay they,
L'"' v are the proportions of a room, vvhofe height is 16 feet,
the breadth 24, and the length 36. But it ought to be
.confidered, that there is no refemblance or relation be¬
tween the objects of different fenfes. What pleafes the
ear in harmony, is not the proportion of the firings of
the inftrument, but of the found which thefe firings pro¬
duce. In architecture, on the contrary, it is the pro¬
portion of different quantities that pleafes the eye, with¬
out the leaft relation to found. The fame thing may
be faid of numbers. Quantity is a real quality of every
body ; number is not a real quality, but merely an idea
that arifesupon viewing a plurality, of things in fuccef-
fion. An arithmetical proportion is agreeable in num¬
bers ; but have we from this any reafon to conclude,
that it mull alfo be agreeable in quantity ; At this rate,
a geometrical proportion, and many others, ought alfo
to be agreeable in both. A certain proportion may
coincide in quantity and number ; and amongfl an end-
lefs variety of proportions, it would be wonderful if
there never fhould be a coincidence. One example is
given of this coincidence in the numbers 16, 24, and
36 ; but to be convinced that it is merely accidental,
we need but reflecl, that the fame proportions are not
applicable to the external figure of a houfe, and far
lefs to a column.
It is ludicrous to obferve writers acknowledging the
neceffity of accurate proportions, and yet differing wide¬
ly about them. Laying afide reafoning and philofophy,
one fad univerfally agreed on ought to have undeceived
them, that the fame proportions which pleafe in a model
are not agreeable in a large building: a room 48 feet
in length, and 24 in breadth and height, is well propor¬
tioned : but a room 1 2 feet wide and high, and 24 long,
29 approaches to a gallery.
Beauty ari- Perrault, in his comparifon of the ancients and mo-
fing from derns, goes to the oppofite extreme ; maintaining, that
proportion, (Jifl'erent proportions ailigned to each order of co¬
lumns are arbitrary, and that the beauty of thefe pro¬
portions is entirely the effefl of cuflom. But he fhould
have confidered, that if thefe proportions had not ori¬
ginally been agreeable, they could never have been
eilaklifhed by cuftom.
For illuflrating this point, we fhall add a few exam¬
ples of the agreeablenefs of different proportions. In a
fumptuous edifice, the capital rooms ought to be large,
otherwife they will not be proportioned to the fize of
the building ; for the fame reafon, a very large room is
improper in a fmall houfe. But in things thus related,
the mind requires not a precife or fingle proportion, re-
jefting all others ; on the contrary, many different pro¬
portions are equally agreeable. It is only when a pro¬
portion becomes loofe and diflant, that the agreeable¬
nefs abates, and at lafl vanifhes. Accordingly, in
buildings, rooms of different proportions are found to
be equally agreeable, even where the proportion is not
jnfiuenced by utility. With regard to the proportion
the height of a room fhould bear to the length and
breadth, it muff be extremely arbitrary, confidering
the uncertainty of the eye as to the height of a room
when it exceeds 16 or 17 feet. In columns, again,
every architedl muff confefs that the proportion of
height and thicknefs varies betwixt eight diameters and
10, and that every proportion between thefe two ex¬
tremes is agreeable. Befides, there mull certainly be
E C T U R E. Parti.
a further variation of proportion, depending on tne fize Principles,
of the column. A row of columns 10 feet high, and
a row twice that height, require different proportions :
The intercolumniations muff alfo differ in proportion
according to the height of the row.
Proportion of parts is not only itfelf a beauty, but is
infeparably connefted with a beauty of the higheit re-
lifh, that of concord and harmony ; which will be plain
from what follows: A room, the parts of which are.all
finely adjufted td each other, flrikes us not only with
the beauty of proportion, but with a pleafure far fupe-
rior. The length, the breadth, the height, the win¬
dows, raife each of them a feparate emotion : I hefe
emotions are fimilar; and, though faint when fepa-
rately felt, they produce in conjundlion the emotion of
concord or harmony, which is very pleafant. On the
other hand, where the length of a room far exceeds
the breadth, the mind, comparing together parts fo in¬
timately connefled, immediately perceives a difagree-
ment or difproportion which dilgulls. Hence a long
gallery, however convenient for exercile, is not an
agreeable figure of a room.
In buildings dellined chiefly or folely to pleafe the
eye, regularity and proportion are effentially neceffary,
becaufe they are the means of producing intrinfic beau- 30
ty. But a fkilful artift will not confine his view to re- Form of
gularity and proportion; he will alfo ftudy congruity,ftruflures
which is perceived when the form and ornaments of a^j^!tye"
flrudlure are fuited to the purpofe for which it is ap-pUrp0fts
pointed. Hence every building ought to have an ex-for which
preffion fuited to its deftination. A palace ought to they are
be fumptuous and grand ; a private dwelling, neat andmteniletJ*
modeft ; a playhoufe, gay and fplendid ; and a monu¬
ment, gloomy and melancholy. A heathen temple has
a double deftination : It is confidered as a houfe dedi¬
cated to fome divinity ; therefore it ought to be grand,
elevated, and magnificent: It is alfo confidered as a
place of worfhip ; and therefore ought to be fomewhat
dark and gloomy, becaufe dimnefs or obfcurity pro¬
duces that tone of mind which is favourable to humi¬
lity and devotion. Columns, befides their chief delli-
nation of being fupports, contribute to that peculiar
expreflion which the deftination of a building requires.
Columns of different proportions ferve to exprefs lofti-
nefs, lightnefs, &c. as well as ftrength. Situation may
alfo contribute to expreffion : Conveniency regulates
the fituation of a private dw'elling-houfe ; and the fitu-
ation of a palace ought to be lofty. Ibis leads to a
queftion, Whether the fituation, where there happens
to be no choice, ought, in any meafure, to regulate
the form of the edifice ? The connexion between a
great houfe and a neighbouring field, though not ex¬
tremely intimate, demands, however, fome congruity.
It would, for example, difpleafe us to find an elegant
building thrown away upon a wild uncultivated coun¬
try : congruity requires a polifhed field for fuch a
building. The old Gothic form of building was well
fuited to the rough uncultivated regions where it was
invented ; but was very ill adapted to the fine plains of
France and Italy. -»
The external llruflure of a houfe leads naturally toj^e^aj
its internal ftrudlure. A large and fpacious room, divifion of
which is the firil that commonly receives us, is a badhoures*
contrivance in feveral refpedls. In the firft place,
when immediately from the open air we ilep into fuch
a
Part I.
ARCHITEC TURE.
Principles, a room, its fize in appearance is diminifhed by con-
traft j it looks little, compared with the great canopy
of the Iky. In the next place, when it recovers its
grandeur, as it foon doth, it gives a diminutive apr
pearance to the reft of the houfe j palling from it, eve¬
ry apartment looks little. In the third place, by its
fituation it ferves only for a waiting room, and a paf-
fage to the principal apartments. Rejecting therefore
this form, a hint may be taken from the climax in wri¬
ting for another that appears more fuitable : A hand-
fome portico, proportioned to the fize and falhion of
the front, leads into a waiting room of a larger lize,
and this to the great room, all by a progreflion of
fmall to great.
Grandeur is the principal emotion that architedlare
is capable of raifmg in the mind : it might therefore
be the chief ftudy of the artift, in great buildings de-
ftined to pleafe the eye. But as grandeur depends
partly on ftze, it is unlucky for architefture that it is
governed by regularity and proportion, which never
deceive the eye by making objefts appear larger than
they are in reality. But though regularity and pro¬
portion contribute nothing to grandeur, fo far as that
emotion depends on fize ; yet they contribute greatly
to it by confining the fize within fuch bounds that it
can be taken in and examined at one view j for when
obje&s are fo large as not to be comprehended but
in parts, they tend rather to diftraft than fatisfy the
mind.
We fhall next pafs to fuch ornaments as contribute
to give buildings a peculiar expreffion. It has been
doubted-, whether a building can regularly admit any
ornament but what is ufeful, or at leaft has that ap¬
pearance. But, confidering the double aim of archi-
te&ure as a fine, as well as an ufeful art, there is no
reafon wdiy ornaments may not be added to pleafe
the eye, without any relation to utility. A private
dwelling houfe, it is true, and other edifices, where
ufe is the chief aim, admit not regularly any ornament
but what has at leaft the appearance of ufe; but
temples, triumphal arches, and other buildings, in¬
tended chiefly or folely for Ihow, may be highly orna¬
mented.
This fuggefts a divifion of ornaments into three
kinds, viz. i. Ornaments that are beautiful without
relation to ufe j fuch as ftatues, vafes, baflb or alto re¬
lievo : 2. Things in themfelves not beautiful, but pof-
fefling the beauty of utility, by impofing on the fpec-
tator, and appearing to be ufeful; fuch as blind win¬
dows : 3. Where things are beautiful in themfelves,
and at the fame time take on the appearance of ufe j
fuch as pilafters.
With regard to the Jitrf, we naturally require that
a ftatue be fo placed, as to be feen in every direftion,
and examined at different diftances. Statues, there¬
fore, are properly introduced to adorn the great flair
that leads to the principal door of a palace, or to lef-
fen the void between pillars. But a niche in the ex¬
ternal front is an improper place for a ftatue. There
is an additional reafon againft placing them upon the
roof or top of the walls : their ticklifti fituation gives
pain, as they have the appearance of being in danger
of tumbling down ; befides, we are inclined to feel
from their being too much expofed to the inclemen¬
cies of the weather. To adorn the top of the wall
Vol. II. Part II. .
5r>9
32
Different
kinds of or¬
naments.
with a row of vafes, is an unhappy conceit, by placing Principles,
a thing, whofe natural deftination is utility, where it r" v
cannot have even the appearance of ufe. As to carv¬
ings upon the external furface of a building, termed
bq/fb relievo when flat, and alto relievo when promi¬
nent, all contradidlory expreflions ought to be avoid¬
ed. Now, firmnefs and folidity being the proper ex¬
preflions ol a pedeftal, and, on the contrary, lightnefs
and delicacy of carved work, the pedeftal, whether of
a column or of a ftatue, ought to be fparingly orna¬
mented. The ancients never ventured any bolder or¬
nament than the baffo relievo.
With refpedt to ornaments of the fecond kind, it is
a great blunder to contrive them fo as to make them
appear ufelefs. A blind window, therefore, when ne-
ceffary for regularity, ought to be fo difguifed as to
appear a real window : when it appears without dif-
guife, it is difguftful, as a vain attempt to fupply the
wTant of invention ; it (hows the irregularity in a ftrong-
-er light, by fignifying that a window ought to be there
in point of regularity, but that the architect had not
Ikill fufficient to conned! external regularity with in¬
ternal convenience.
As to the third, it is an error to fink pilafters fo far
into the w-all, as to remove totally, or moftly, the ap¬
pearance of ule. They fhould always projed! fo much
from the wall, as to have the appearance of fupport-
ing the entablature over them. ^
From ornaments in general, we defcend to a pillar, Colurnnt.
the chief ornament in great buildings. The deftination
of a pillar is to fupport, really, or in appearance, ano¬
ther part, termed the entablature. With regard to
the form of a pillar, it muft be obferved, that a circle
is a more agreeable figure than a fquare, a globe than
a cube, and a cylinder than a parallelopipedon. This
laft, in the language of architedlure, is faying, that a
column is a more agreeable figure than a pilafter j
and for that reafon it ought to be preferred, when all
other circumftances are equal. Another reafon con¬
curs, that a column annexed to a wall, which is a plain
furface, makes a greater variety than a pilafter. Be¬
fides, pilafters at a diflance are apt to be miftaken for
pillars $ and the fpedlator is difappointed, when, on a
nearer approach, he difcovers them to be only pilafters.
As to the parts of a column, a bare uniform cylin¬
der, without a capital, appears naked ; and without a
bafe, appears too tickliftily placed to ftand firm; it
ought therefore to have fome finiftiing at the top and
bottom : Hence the three chief parts of a column, the
ftraft, the bafe, and the capital. Nature undoubtedly
requires proportion among thefe parts, but it admits
of variety of proportion. Vitruvius and fome of the
elder writers feem to think, that the proportions of
columns were derived from the human figure, the ca¬
pital reprefenting the head, the bafe the feet, and the
Ihaft the body. The Tufcan has been accordingly
denominated the Gigantic ; the Doric, the Herculean ;
the Ionic, the Matronal; and the Corinthian, the Vir¬
ginal;—The Compofite is a mixture of the Corinthi¬
an and Ionic. As to the bafe, the principle of utility
interpofes to vary it from the human figure, and to
proportion it fo to the whole, as to give the column the
appearance of liability. 34
Among the Greeks, we find only three orders of^^f^^
columns, the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian, di-can jn_"
4 C ftinguilhed vented.
35
Rules re¬
garding
570 A R C H I T
Principles, ftinguillied from each other by their deftination as
s,*, ■vr~..»w weij as j-jy their ornaments. It has been difputed,
whether any new order can be added to thefe : fome
hold the affirmative, and give for inftances the Tufcan
and Compolite : others maintain, that thefe properly
are not diftinft orders, but ojrly the original orders,
with fome flight variation. The only circumftances
that can ferve to diftinguiffi one order from another,
are the form of the column, and its deftination. To
make the firft a diftinguifhing mark, without regard
• to the other? would multiply orders without end. De¬
ftination is more limited, and it leads us to diftinguiffi
three kinds of orders 5 one plain and ftrong, for the
purpofe of lupporting plain and mafly buildings •, one
delicate and graceful, for fupporting buildings of that
character ; and between thefe, a third, for fupporting
buildings of a mixed nature. So that, if deftination
alone is to be regarded, the Tufcan is of the fame or¬
der with the Doric, and the Compoftte wuth the Corin¬
thian.
The ornaments of thefe three orders ought to be
fuited to the purpofes for which they are intended.
Plain and ruftic ornaments wmuld not be a little dif-
cordant writh the elegance of the Corinthian order, and
fweet and delicate ornaments not lefs with the ftrength
of the Doric.
With refpedf to buildings of every kind, one rule,
diflated by utility, is, that they be firm and liable,
buildings in Another, dictated by beauty, is, that they alfo appear
gi ne a . p0 tQ t|le eye . £or every thing that appears tottering,
and in hazard of tumbling down, produceth in the
fpeclator the painful emotion of fear, inftead of the
pleafing emotion of beauty 5 and accordingly it Ihould
be the great care of the artift, that every part of his
edifice appear to be well fupported. Some have intro¬
duced a kind of conceit in archite<fture, by giving parts
of buildings the appearance of falling ; of this kind is
the church of St Sophia in Conftantinople 5 the round
towers in the uppermoft ftories of Gothic buildings are
in the fame falfe taile.
Tffic moll confiderable ornaments ufed in architeflure
are five orders of columns, pediments, arches, ballufters,
&c. of which in the following chapters.
Chap I. Of the Orders of Architecture.
As order confifts of twro principal members, the
Column and the Entablature ; each of which is
compofed of three principal parts. Thofe of the co¬
lumns are, the Ba/e, the Shaft, and the Capital; and
thofe of the Entablature are, the Architrave, the Prize
and the Cornice. All thefe are fubdivided into many
lelTer parts, whofe number, form, and dimenfions, cha-
ra£lerize each order, and exprefs the degree of ftrength,
^ delicacy, richnefs, or fimplicity peculiar to it.
Parts of an The parts that compofe an order may be diftributed
order divid-into two different claffes. In the firf may be ranged
TiT10 tW°a^ t^at ^ave any analogy to the primitive huts, and
" al <s' reprefent fome part that was neceffary in their con-
llru61ion. Such'are the ffiaft of the column, wuth
the plinth of its bafe, and the abacus of its capital ;
likewife the architrave and triglyphs, the mutules, mo-
dilions, or dentiles, which all of them reprefent the
rafters, or fomc other pieces of timber ufed to fup-
E C T U R E.
Part I.
port the covering ; and the corona, reprefenting the Principles.
beds of materials that compofed the covering. All  v"~—Jl
thefe may properly be diftinguiffied by the name of
effentialmembers. The fubfervient parts, contrived for
the ufe or ornaments of the former, and commonly
called mouldings, may conftitute the fecond clafs.
There are eight regular mouldings in ornamenting
columns: the fillet, liftel, or fquare ; the aftragal, or
bead ; the torus, or tore j the fcotia, mouth, or cafe-
ment; the echinus, ovolo, or quarter-round 5 the in¬
verted cyma, talon, or ogee j the cyma, cyma re£!a,
or cymation ; the cavetto, or hollow. The names
of thefe allude to their forms, and their forms are
adapted to the purpofes for which they are intended.
See Plate XLII.
The ovolo and talon, as they are ftrong at the ex¬
tremities, are fit for fupports j the cyma and cavetto,
though improper for fupports, ferve for coverings to
ffielter other members ; the torus and aftragal, being
fhaped like ropes, are intended to bind and fortify the
parts with which they are connedfed : But the ufe of
the fcotia and fillet is only to feparate and diftinguifti
the other mouldings, to give a graceful turn to the
profile, and to prevent the confufion ^vhich would arife
from joining feveral curved members together.
There are various methods of deferibing the con¬
tours of mouldings ; but the fimpleft and beft is to
form them of quadrants of circles. ^
An affemblage of what are called effential parts and Profile,
mouldings is termed a profile. The moft perfect pro- what,
files are fuch as are compofed of fevr mouldings, varied
in form and fize ; and fo difpofed, that the ftraight
and curved ones fucceed each other alternately. When
ornaments are employed in mouldings, fome of them
ffiould be left plain, in order to give a proper repofe :
For wffien all are ornamented, the figure of the profile
is loft.
38
Columns, in imitation of trees, from which they Dimimi-
drewr their origin, are tapered in their ffiafts. In the tl0ri ofr co¬
antiques the diminution is varioufly performed : begin-iumns*
ning fometimes from the foot of the ffiaft, and at others
from one quarter, or one third of its height 5 the
low7er part being perfectly cylindrical. The former of
thefe wras moft in ufe amongft the ancients, and being
the moft natural and graceful, ought to have the pre¬
ference, though the latter hath been more univerlally
praftifed by modern artifts.
The firft architefts, fays M. Auzoult, probably
made their columns in ftraight lines, in imitation of
trees; fb that their ffiaft was a fruftum of a cone :
but finding this form abrupt and difagreeable, they
made ufe of fome curve, which, fpringing from the
extremities of the fuperior and inferior diameters of
the column, fwelled beyond the fides of the cone,
and by that means gave a more pleafing figure to the
contour.
Vitruvius, in the fecond chapter of his third book,
mentions this praftice, but in fo obfeure and curfory a
manner, that his meaning hath not been underftcod }
and feveral of the modern architeffs, intending to
conform themfelves to his dodrrioe, have made the
diameters of their columns greater in the middle than
at the foot of the ftraft. Leon Baptifta, Alberti, and
others of the Florentine and Roman architefts, have
carried
Part T.
A R C H I T
Principles, carried tills to a very great excefs •, for which they
V”have been juftly blamed, as it is neither natural, rea-
fonable, nor beautiful.
Monfieur Auzoult obferves, that a column, fjppofing
its {hafts to be the fruftum of a cone, may have an ad¬
ditional thicknefs in the middle, without being fwelled
there beyond the bulk of its inferior parts •, and fup-
pofes the addition mentioned by Vitruvius to fignify
nothing but the increafe towards the middle of the co¬
lumn, occafioned by changing the ftraight line, which
at tirft was in ufe, for a curve.
This fuppofition is extremely juft, and founded on
what is obferved in the works of antiquity ; where
there is no inftance of columns thicker in the middle
than at the bottom, though all have the fwelling hint-
. ed at by Vitruvius, all of them being terminated by
curves 5 fome granite columns excepted, which are
bounded by ftraight lines ; a proof, perhaps, of their
antiquity, or of their having been wrought in the
quarries of Egypt by bungling and unikilful work¬
men.
Monfieur Blondel, in his book entitled Refo/ution
des quatre principaux problemes d' ArchiteBure, teaches
various manners of diminiftiing columns; the belt and
fimpleft of which is by means of the inftrument which
Nicomedes invented to defcribe the firft conchoid :
for this, being applied at the bottom of the (haft, per¬
forms at one fweep both the fwelling and the diminu¬
tion ; giving fuch a graceful form to the column, that
it is univerfally allowed to be the moft perfedft practice
hitherto difcovered. The columns in the Pantheon,
accounted the moft beautiful among the antiques, are
made in this manner ; as appears by the exa£l meafures
of one of them to be found in Defgodet’s antiquities of
Rome.
To give an accurate idea of the operation, it will
be neceflary firft to defcribe Vignola’s method of di¬
minution, on which it is grounded. “ As to this
fecond method, fays Vignola, it is a difcovery of my
own , and although it be lefs known than the former,
it will be eafily. comprehended by the figure. Hav¬
ing therefore determined the meafures of your column,
(that is to fay, the height of the ftiaft, and its inferior
and fuperior diameters), draw a line indefinitely from
C through D, perpendicular to the axis of the column:
this done, fet off the diftance CD, which is the inferior
femi-diameter, from A, the extreme point of the fupe¬
rior femi-diameter, to B, a point in the axis; then
from A, through B, draw the line ABE, which will
cut the indefinite line CD in E ; and, from this point
of interfedlion E, draw through the axis of the column
any number of rays, as E b a, on each of which, from
the axis towards the circumference, fetting off the in¬
terval CD, you may find any number of points, a, a, a,
through which if a curve be drawn, it will defcribe the
fwelling and diminution of the column.”
Though this method be fufficiently accurate for
pradlice, efpecially if a corrfiderable number of points
be found, yet ftrictly fpeaking, it is defeflive ; as the
curve muft either be drawn by hand, or by applying
a flexible ruler to all the points ; both of which are
liable to variations. Blondel therefore, to obviate this
objeftion, (after having proved the curve pafling from
A to C through the points a, a, to be of the fame na¬
ture with the firft conchoid of the ancients), employed
39
Vignola’s
melhod.
Plate
XXXVII.
4°
Nicome-
des’s in¬
ftrument.
E C T U R E. 571
the inftrument of Nicomedes to defcribe it ; the con- Principles.
ftru£lion of which is as follows : ■. —
Having determined, as above, the length of the
{haft, with the inferior and fuperior diameters of the
column, and having likewife found the length of the
line CDE, take three rulers, either of wood or metal,
as EG, ID, and AH 5 of which let EG and ID be
faftened together at right angles in G. Cut a dove¬
tail groove in the middle of EG, from top to bottom
and at the point E on the ruler ID (whofe diftance,
from the middle of the groove in EG, is the fame as
that of the point of interfedlion from the axis of the
column) fix a pin } then on the ruler AH fet off the
diftance AB, equal to CD the inferior femi-diameter
of the column, and at the point B fix a button, w'hofe
head muft be exaflly fitted to the groove made in
EG, in which it is to Aide 5 and, at the other extre¬
mity of the ruler AH, cut a flit or canal from H to
K, whofe length muft not be lefs than the difference
of length between EB and ED, and whofe breadth
muft be fufficient to admit the pin fixed at E, which
muft pafs through the flit, that the ruler may Aide
thereon.
The inftrument being thus completed, if the mud¬
dle of the groove, in the ruler EG, be placed ex-
a£lly over the axis of the column, it is evident that
the ruler AH, in moving along the groove, will with
the extremity A defcribe the curve A a a C j which
curve is the fame as that produced by Vignola’s me¬
thod of diminution, fuppofing it done with the utmoft:
accuracy 5 for the interval AB, a b, is always the
fame 5 and the point E is the origin of an infinity of
lines, of which the parts BA, ba, ba, extending from
the axis to the circumference, are equal to each other
and to DC. And if the rulers be of an indefinite
fize, and the pins at E and B be made to move along
their refpedtive rulers, fo that the intervals AB and
DE may be augmented or diminifned at pleafure, it is
likewife evident that the fame inftrument may be thus
applied to columns of any fize.
In the remains of antiquity the quantity of the di- CHiantity of
minution is various; but feldom lefs than one eighth diminution,
of the inferior diameter of the column, nor more than
one fixth of it. The laft of thefe is by Vitruvius
efteemed the moft perfeft.
Of the Tuscan Order. 42
t • • • Piute
This is the moft folid and fimple of all the orders. XXXIX.
It is compofed of few parts, devoid of ornaments, and
fo maffy, that it feems capable of fupporting the hea-
vieft burden. There are no remains of a regular Tuf-
can order among the antiques : the doftrine of Vitru¬
vius concerning it is obfcure 5 and the profiles of Pal¬
ladio, Scamozzi, Serlio, de 1’Orme and Vignola, are all
imperfefl.
The height of the Tufcan column is 14 modules, or
femi-diameters, each confifting of 30 minutes j and
that of the whole entablature 3 ^ modules ; which be¬
ing divided into 10 equal parts, three of them are for
the height of the architrave, three for the frize, and
the remaining four for the cornice. The capital is
one module ; the bafe, including the lower cindture of
the {haft is likewife one module } and the ftiaft, with
its upper cinfture and aftragal, 1 2 modules.
Thefe are the general dimenflons of the order ; the
4 C 2 particular
572 A R C H I T
Principles, particular dimenfions may be learned by infpe&ion of
'“—■V"""*'' the plates.
In the remains of antiquity, the quantity of dimi¬
nution at the top of the Tufcan column is various;
but feldom lefs than one-eighth, nor more than one-
fixth, of the inferior diameter of the column. The
laft oi thefe is generally preferred j and Chalmers and
others make the fame diminution in all columns, with¬
out regard to their order.
43 Of the Doric Order.
Plate XL. This order is next in ftrength to the Tufcan 5 and
being of a grave, robuft, and mafeuline afpeft, is by
Scamozzi called the Herculean. As it is the moll
ancient of all the orders, it retains more of the ftruc-
ture of the primitive huts than any of the reft ; the
triglyphs in its frize reprefenting the ends of the
joifts, and the mutules in its cornice reprel’enting the
rafters.
I he height of the Doric column, including its ca¬
pital and bafe, is 16 modules, and the height pf the
entablature four 5 the latter of which being divided
into eight parts, two of them are for the architrave,
three for the frize, and three for the cornice.
In moft of the antiques, the Doric column is exe¬
cuted without a bafe. Vitruvius likewife makes it
without one ; the bafe, according to him, having been
firft employed- in the Ionic order, in imitation of the
fandal of a woman’s foot. 'Scamozzi blames this prac¬
tice, and moft of the modern architeds are of his opi-
44 nion.
ofThTfrSe.. In the Profi.Ie of the theatre of Marcellus, the frize
' is enriched with hulks and rofes; the architrave con-
fifts only of one fafcia and a fillet 5 the drops are coni¬
cal ; the metope is enriched with a bull’s Ikull, adorn¬
ed with a garland of beads, in imitation of thofe on the
> temple of Jupiter Tonans, at the foot of the Capitol.
In fome antique fragments, and in a great many mo¬
dern buildings, the metopes are alternately adorned
with ox Ikulls and pateras. But they may be filled
with any other ornaments, according to the deftination
ot the building-.
The Ionic Order
45
Plate XLI. Is of a more {lender make than the Doric or Tuf¬
can ; its appearance is Ample, yet graceful and ma-
jeftic ; its ornaments are few : fo that it has been
compared to a fedate matron, in decent, rather than
magnificent, attire.
Among the ancients, the form of the Ionic profile
appears to have been more politively determined than
that of any other order; for in all the antiques at
Rome (the temple of Concord excepted), it is exactly
the fame.
The modern artifts have likewife been unanimous in
their opinions ; all of them, excepting Palladio and
his imitators, having employed the dentil, cornice, and
the other parts cf the profile, nearly as they are found
in the Colifeum, the temple of Fortune, and the theatre
of Marcellus.
The height of the Ionic column is 18 modules, and
that of the entablature 4-*-, or one quarter of the height
of the column, as in the other orders, which is a trifle
lefs than in any of the antique Ionics. In all the an¬
tiques, the bafe is Attic 5 and the ftraft of the column
E C T U R E. Parti.
may either be plain, or fluted with 24 ilutings, or 20 Principles,
only, as in the temple of Fortune. The plan of the *
flutings may be a trifle more than a femicircle, as in
the forum of Nerva, becaufe they then appear more
diftinfr. The fillets, or intervals between them, muft
not be broader than one-third of the breadth of a flu¬
ting, nor narrower than one-fourth. The ornaments
of the capital muft correfpond with the flutings of the
lhaft 5 and there muft be an ove above the middle of
each fluting. The volutes ought to be traced accor¬
ding to Mr Goldman’s method, which is as follows: 45
Plate XLII. fig. 9. Draw the cathetus, FC, whofe Method of
length muft be 15 minutes, or oneMourth of a module: drawing
and from the point C, deferibe the eye of the volute'0 UtC:’'
AEBD, of wdiich the diameter is to be 6-f- minutes j
divide it. into four equal feftors by the diameters AB,
DE. Bifeft the radii CA, CB, in 1 and 45 and on
the line I, 4, conftruft a fquare, 1, 2, 3, 4. From
the centre C, to the angles 2, 3, draw the diagonals
C 2, C 3, and divide the fide of the fquare 1, 4, into
fix equal parts, at 5, 9, C, 12, 8. Then through the
points, 5, 9, 12, 8, draw the lines 5, 6, 9, 10, 12, 11,
8, 7, parallel to the diameter ED, which wall cut the
diagonals in 6, 7, 10, 11, and the points, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, will be the centres of the vo¬
lute. From the firft centre 1, with the diftance 1 F,
deferibe the quadrant FG 5 from the fecond centre 2,
with the diftance 2 G, deferibe the quadrant GH j
and continuing the fame operation from all the 12
centres, the contour of the volute will be completed.
Fig. 10. The centres for deferibing the fillet are
found in this manner. ConftrudI a triangle, of which
the fide AF is equal to the part of the cathetus con¬
tained between AF and the fide FV, equal to C r j
place the diftance FS from F towards A, equal to FS
the breadth of the fillet, and through the point S draw
the line ST, w:hich will be to C 1 in the fame propor¬
tion as AS is to AF; place this line on the diameter
of the eye AB : divide it into three equal parts ; and
through the points of divifion, draw lines parallel to
the diameter ED, which will cut the diagonals C 2,
C 3, and you will have twelve new centres, from
whence the interior contour of the fillet may be de-
feribed in the fame manner as the exterior one was
from the firft centres.
Of the Corinthian Order. ^
The proportions of this order are extremely deli- FHlj
cate. It is divided into a great variety of members, J
and enriched wdth a profufion of ornaments. Scamoz¬
zi calls it the virginal order ; and indeed it has all the
delicacy in its make, and all the delicacy in its drefs,
peculiar to young girls.
The moft perfeft model of the Corinthian order is
generally allowed to be in the three columns in the
Campo Vaccino at Rome, the remains, as it is thought,
of the temple of Jupiter Stator.
The Corinthian column Ihould be 20 modules high,
and the entablature 5 } which proportions are a me¬
dium between thofe of the Pantheon and the three co¬
lumns. The bafe of the column may be either Attic
or Corinthian : They are both beautiful. If the enta¬
blature be enriched, the lhaft may be fluted. The flut¬
ings may be filled, to one-third cf their height, with
cabblings, as in the infide of the Pantheon 5 which will
ftrengthen
A R C H r T
ftrengthen the lower part of the column, and make it
lefs liable to injury.
In moft of the antiques at Rome, the capital of this
order is enriched with olive leaves ; the acanthus be¬
ing feldom employed but in the Compofite. De Cor-
demoy, however, prefers the acanthus.
The divifions of the entablature bear the fame pro¬
portions to each other, as the Tufcan, Ionic, and Com¬
pofite orders.
The Composite
pl it;e Is, ftriftly fpeaking, only a fpecies of the Corinthi-
XLIV. an *, and therefore retains, in a great meafure, the fame
^ character.
Different It does not appear that the ancients affefted any
kinds of or-particular form of entablature to this order. Some-
naments. times the cornice is entirely plain, as in the temple of
Bacchus •, at others, as in the arch of Septimius Seve-
rus, it is enriched with dentils differing very little from
the Ionic •, and in the arch of Titus, there are both
dentils and modilions; the whole form of the profile
being the fame with the Corinthian, as executed in the
antiques at Rome.
The modern architedts have varied more in this than
in any other order, each following the bent of his own
fancy.
The height of the Compofite column, and parts of
the entablature, is the fame with that of the Corin¬
thian. The foot of the leaves of the capital ought
not to projedt beyond the upper part of the (haft.
The different bunches of leaves Ihould be ftrongly
marked; the fprigs which arife between the upper
ones Ihould be kept fiat upon the vafe ; and the orna¬
ments of the volutes muff not projedt beyond the fillets
that enclofe them.
Chap. II. Of Pilafters.
5° These differ from columns only in their plan ;
which is a fquare, as that of columns is round. Their
bafes, capitals and entablatures, have the fame parts,
with the fame heights and projections, as thofe of co¬
lumns : they are alfo difiinguithed in the fame manner,
by the names of Tufcan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and
Compofite.
The column is undoubtedly more perfedl than the
pilafter. However, they may be employed with great
propriety on many occafions. Some authors declaim
againft pilafters, becaufe, according to them, they do
not admit of diminution. But this is a miftakej there
are many inftances in the remains of antiquity, of their
being diminiftied. Scamozzi always gave his pilafters
the fame diminution as his columns : Palladio and Ini¬
go Jones have likewife diminiftied them in many of
51 their buildings.
Pilalters, Pilafters are employed in churches, galleries, halls,
v-liere ufe- ancj ot|ier interior decorations, to fave room ; for,
as they feldom projedl beyond theMolid wrall above
one quarter of their diameter, they do not occupy near
fo much fpace as columns. They are likewife ufed
in exterior decorations j fometimes alone, inftead qf
columns, on account of their being lefs expenfive 5
and fometimes they accompany columns, being placed
behind them to fupport the architraves, whe-e they
enter the building, as in the Pantheon at Rome j or,
Part I.
Principles.
E G T U R E. 573
in the fame line with them, to fortify the angles, as Principles,^
in the portico of Septimius. v ~n
When pilafters are ufed alone, they fhould prqje&
one quarter of their diameter beyond the walls. When
placed behind columns, efpecially if they be very near
them, they need not project above one-eighth of their
diameter. But, when placed on a line with columns,
their projeiftion muft be regulated by that of the co¬
lumns ; and confequently, it can never be lefs than a
femidiameter, even when the columns are engaged as
much as poftible. -
The ftiafts of pilafters are frequently adorned with How orna-
flutings, in the fame manner as thofe of columns 5 the merited,
plan of which may be a trifle more than a femicircle 5
their number muft be feven on each face, which makes
them nearly of the fame fize with thofe of columns.
The intervals, or fillets, muft either be one-third or
one-fourth of the fluting in breadth.
The capitals of pilafters are profiled nearly in the Plate XLV,
fame manner as thofe of columns.
Chap. III. Of Attics.
These very properly follow the pilafters 5 being ^
nothing more than fquare pillars with their cornices.
They had their origin in Athens, where it was for
many ages a rule in building to conceal the roof.
For this purpofe, nothing ferved fo well, as a kind of
low ©r little order ranged in a continued line, fingly,
or with the interruption of ballufters 5 which, riling
above the reft of the work and before the roof, hid
it perfectly, and placed fomething agreeable in view.
The place of Attics, therefore, is at the uppermoft
extremity of a building, to which they ferve as a
crown, or very properly make a finilhing for the
other orders when they have been ufed in the ftruc-
ture. They muft never Hand under any thing except
fuch ornaments as are placed at the very top. Thefe
Attics ftiould never exceed in height one-third of the
height of the order on which they are placed, nor be
lefs than one quarter of it. The bale, dye, and cor¬
nice, of which they are compofed, may bear the fame
proportions to each other as thofe of pedeftals do 5 and
the bafe and cornice may be compofed of the fame
mouldings as thofe pedeftals. Sometimes the Attic is
continued throughout ; at others, it projefts, and forms
a pilafter over each column of the order. The breadth
of this pilafter is feldom made narrower than the up¬
per diameter of the column below it, and never broad¬
er. Its projection may be equal to one quarter of its
breadth.
Chap. IV. Of Pe flans, Caryatides, and Per mini.
Besides columns and pilafters, it is fometimes cu- 54
ftomary to employ reprefentations of the human fi¬
gure, to fupport entablatures in buildings. The male
figures are called Perfans; and the female, Carians,
or Caryatides. ^
The Perfans are fo called from a viCIory gained Origin of
over the Perfians, by Paufanias, who having brought Perfians,
home fpoils and trophies to the Athenians, they fixed
upon Perfian figures for thofe which Ihould fupport
entablatures, and thus kept in mind that there rvere
once Perfian. (laves in Athens. To reprefent thefe con¬
quered
574
A R C H I T
Principles, quered people in the loweft ftate poflible, they loaded
< —them with the heavieft entablature, viz. that of the
Doric order. In procefs of time, however, other fi¬
gures befides thofe of Perfians were introduced, and
other entablatures put over them ; but the name was
$6 ftill retained.
OfCarya- rnle proper Caryatides are women drefied in long
robes, after the Afiatic manner j and the origin of
the device was as follows :—The Carians had been
long at war with the Athenians ; but being at length
totally vanquifhed, their wives were led away cap¬
tives 5 and, to perpetuate the memory of this event,
trophies were erefted, in which figures of w'omen
dreffed in the Caryatic manner, were ufed to fupport
entablatures like the Perfians ; and though other fe¬
male figures were afterwards ufed in the fame manner,
the name of Caryatides was always retained.
The ancients made frequent ufe of Perfians and Ca¬
ryatides, and delighted in diverfifying them a thou-
Jand ways. The modern artifts have followed their
examples ; and there is a great variety of compofitions
of this kind to be met with in dilferent parts of Eu¬
rope.
Indecept attitudes, diftorted features, and all mon-
ftrous prqdu&ions, ought to be avoided, of which there
are manf examples in Gothic buildings. On the con¬
trary, the attitudes fliould be fimple and graceful, the
countenance always pleafing, though varied and ftrong-
ly marked agreeable to the nature of the obieft repre-
S7 fented.
Their pro- The Caryatides, or female figures, (hould never much
portions, exceed the human fize. But the Perfians or male fi¬
gures, may be of any fize ; and the larger the better,
as they will ftrike the beholder with the greater awe
and aftonifhment. Perfians may be ufed with proprie¬
ty in arfenals, galleries of armour, &c. under the fi¬
gures of captives, heroic virtues, &c. Their entabla¬
ture ought to be Doric, and bear the fame proportion
to them as to columns of the fame height. The enta¬
blature for Caryatides ought to be either Ionic or Co¬
rinthian, according as the chara&er of the figures is
more or lefs delicate.
Termini. Termini are fometimes employed, inllead of Perfians
or Caryatides, to fupport the entablatures of monu¬
ments, chimney-pieces, and fuch like compofitions.
Thefe figures owe their origin to the ftones ufed by
the ancients to mark the limits of particular poffef-
fions. Numa Pompilius, to render thefe inviolable,
confecrated the terminus into a deity, and inflituted
feftivals and facrifices to his honour. In a Ihort time,
what were formerly only large upright ftones, were re-
prefented in human fhape ; and afterwards introduced
as ornaments to temples and other buildings. The ter¬
mini are now principally ufed as ornaments for gardens
and fields.
Chap. V. Of Pedejlals.
Most writers confider the PedqJIal as a neceflary
part of the order, without which it is not complete.
It is indeed a matter of little importance whether it
be confidered in that light, or as a diftirnft compofi-
tion : we ftiall therefore treat of a pedeftal as a di-
ftimft body, having no more connexion with the or¬
der than an attic, a bafement, or any other part with
which it may on fome occafions be aflbciated.
E C T U R E. Parti.
A pedeftal confifts of three principal parts: the bafe, Principles.
the dye, and the cornice. The dye is always nearly   '
of the fame figure ; being conftantly either a cube or
a parallelopipedon: but the bafe and cornice are va¬
ried and adorned with more or fewer mouldings, ac¬
cording to the fimplicity or richnefs of the compofition
in which the pedeftal is employed. Hence pedeftals
are, like columns, diftinguifhed by the names of Tuf-
can, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Cornpofite.
Some authors are averfe to pedeftals, and compare a pedeftals
column raifed on a pedeftal to a man mounted on ftilts j where pro-
imagining that they were introduced merely from ne-Per*
ceftity, and for want of columns of a fufficient length.
It is indeed true, that the ancients often made ufe of
artifices to lengthen their columns j as appears by fome
that are in the Baptiftery of Conftantine at Rome ; the
fhafts of which, being too fhort for the building, were
lengthened and joined to their bafes by an undulated
fweep, adorned with acanthus leaves. Neverthelefs,
there are many occafions where pedeftals are evidently
neceffary ; and fome in which the order, were it not
fo railed, would lofe much of its beautiful appearance.
Thus, in the infides .of churches, if the columns that
lupport the vault were placed immediately on the
ground, the feats would hide their bafes and a good
part of their lhafts; and in the theatres of the ancients,
if the columns of the fcene had been placed immediate¬
ly on the ftage, the adtors would have hid a part of
them from the audience. In anterior decorations, a
pedeftal diminiflies the parts of the order, which other-
wife might perhaps appear too clumfy, and hath the
advantage of placing the column in a more favourable
view, by railing its bafe nearer the level of the fpefta-
tor’s eye. In a fecond order of arcades, there is no
avoiding pedeftals; as without them it is impoflible to
give the arches any tolerable proportion. ^
With regard to the proportion that pedeftals ought Their por-
to bear that of the columns they fupport, it is by no portions,
means fixed. Both the ancients and moderns vary
greatly on this head. Vignola’s proportions are gene¬
rally reckoned the beft. He makes his pedeftals in
all the orders of the fame height, viz. one third of the
column ; and as their breadth of courfe increafes or
diminilhes in the fame degree as the diameters of their
refpedlive columns do, the character of the order is al¬
ways preferved, wdiich, according to any other me¬
thod, is impoflible.
As to the divifions of the pedeftals; if the whole
height be divided into nine parts, one of them may
be given to the height of the cornice, two to the bafe,
and the fix remaining to the dye. The breadth of the
dye is alwrays made equal to that of the plinth of the
column. The projection of the cornice may be made
equal to its height $ and tile bafe being divided into
three parts, two of them will be for the height of the
plinth, and one for the mouldings, wdiofe projection
mult be lels than that of the cornice. Thefe meafures
are common to all pedeftals. See Plate XLV.
Chap. VI. Of Intercolumniations.
Columns are either engaged, or infulated ; and, 6*
W'hen infulated, are either very near the wall, or at a
confiderable diftance from it. Engaged columns, or
fuch as are near the walls of a building, are not limited
in
Part T.
A R C H I T
6
Different
interco-
lumnia-
tions ufed
by the an¬
cients.
Principles, in their intercolutmuations, as thefe depend on the
1—"Y breadths of the arches, windows, niches, or other de¬
corations placed between the columns. But columns
that are entirely detached, and perform alone the of¬
fice of fupporting the entablature, as in periftyles,
porches and galleries, muft be near each other, for the
fake both of real and apparent folidity.
The intercolumniations among the ancients were va¬
rious. Thofe ufed in the Ionic and Corinthian orders
were the pycnoftyle, of which the interval was equal
to one diameter and a half of the column ; the fylfyle
whofe interval was equal to two diameters : the eu-
ftyle, to two and a quarter 5 the dialtyle to three, and
the araeoityle to four. In the Doric order, they ufed
other intercolumniations, regulating them by the tri¬
glyphs, one of which was always placed direftly over
the middle of each column ; lo that they were either
fyftyle, xnonotriglyph, of one diameter and a half;
diaftyle, of two diameters>and three quarters 5 or araeo-
ftyle, of four diameters; and the Tufcan intervals
were very wide, fome of them being above feven dia¬
meters, which was very practicable, as the architraves
were of wood.
Among thefe different intercolumniatious, the pyc¬
noftyle and fyftyle are too narrow; for although the
ancients made frequent ufe of them, that ought ra¬
ther to be afcribed to neceflity than choice. For as
the architraves were compofed of fingle ftonesr ex¬
tending from the middle of one column to the middle
of another, it would have been difficult, efpecially in
large buildings, to find blocks of a fufficient length
for diaftyle intervals. With regard to the araeoftyle
and Tufcan intercolumniations, they are by much too
wide, and can only be ufed in ruftic buildings, where
the architraves are of wood •, neither is the diaftyle
fufticiently folid in large compofitions. The euftyle is
a medium between the narrow and broad intervals ;
and being at the fame time both fpacious and folid,
hath been preferred to any of the reft by the ancients
as well as the moderns.
Vignola obferved nearly the fame proportion in all
his intercolumniations ; which praftice, though con¬
demned by feveral writers, is certainly preferable to
any other ; as it preferves the character of each order,
and maintains in all of them an equal degree of real
folidity. Setting afide therefore the pycnoftyle and
fyftyle difpofitions on account of their want of fpace,
and the araeoftyle for its deficiency in point of ftrength,
it may be eftablilhed, that the diaftyle and euftyle in¬
tercolumniations (the latter of which on moft occa-
fions, ought to have the preference) may be employ¬
ed in all the orders without diftinflion, excepting the
Doric ; in which the moft perfect interval is ditri¬
glyph ; neither the monotriglyph, nor the araeoftyle
being to be fuffered but in cafes of neceflity.
Sometimes, on account of the windows, doors, nich¬
es, and other decorations, which correfpond with the
intercolumniations of the periftyle, or gallery, it is
not poflible to make the intervals fo narrow as euftyle,
or even as diaftyle : wherefore the moderns, autho-
rifed by fome few examples of the ancients, where
grouped columns are employed, have invented a man¬
ner of difpofing them, called by Perrault arceojlyle,
which admits of a larger interval, without any detri¬
ment to the apparent folidity of the building. This
64
Ufed by
Vignola.
E C T U R E. 57.J
kind of compofition is ccmpofed of two fyftyle interco- Principles,
lumniations; the column that feparates them being v-—^
approached towards one of thofe at the extremities,
fufficient room only being left between them for the
projedlion of the capitals ; fo that the great fpace is
three diameters and a half wide, and the little one
half a diameter.
In periftyles, galleries, or porticoes, all the intercc-
lumniations muft be equal; but in a logio, or porch,
the middle interval may be broader than the others,
by a triglyph or modilion, or three or four dentils j
unlefs the columns at the angles be coupled or group¬
ed with pilafters; in which cafe, all the intervals Ihould
be of the fame dimenfions.
When buildings are very fmall, as is frequently the
cafe in temples and other inventions ufed for orna¬
menting gardens, the intercolumniations may be broad¬
er, in proportion to the diameter of the columns, than
uiual ; becaufe, when they are nearer each other than
three feet, there is hardly room for a bulky perfon to
pafs between them.
Chap. VII. Of Arches.
Arches are not fo magnificent as colonnades j but Arches,
they are more folid and lefs expenfive. They are pro- where pro¬
per for triumphal entrances, gates of cities, of palaces, Per’
of gardens, and of parks, and, in general, for all
openings that require an extraordinary breadth.
There are various manners of adorning arches. How a-
Sometimes their piers are rufticated j fometimes theydorneck
are adorned with pilafters, termini, or caryatides; and
fometimes they are made fufficiently broad to admit
niches or windows. The circular part of the arch is
either furrounded with ruftic key-ftones, or with an
archivolt enriched with mouldings ; which, in the
middle, is fometimes interrupted by a confole, a malk,
ferving at the fame time as a key to the arch, and as
a fupport to the architrave of the order. The archie
volt is fometimes fupported by an impoft, at the head
of the pier j and at others by columns placed on each
fide of it, with a regular entablature, or architrave
and cornice. There are likewife inftances of arcades
without piers, the arches being turned on fingle co¬
lumns as in the temple of Faunus at Rome, &c. This
prattice, however, ought to be feldom imitated, as it
is neither folid nor handfome.
When arches are large, the key-ftone Ihould never
be omitted, but cut in the form of a confole, and car¬
ried clofe under the foffit of the architrave, which on
account of its extraordinary length, requires a fup¬
port in the middle. The impofts of arches ftiould ne¬
ver be omitted } at leaft, if they be, a platform ought
to fupply their place. If columns are employed with¬
out pedeftals in arcades, they ftiould always be railed
on a plinth. In all arches, the circular part ought
not to fpring immediately from the impoft, but take
its rife at Inch a diftance above it as is neceffary in or¬
der to have the whole curve feen at the proper point
of view. ^
The void or aperture of arches ftiould never be Propor-
higher nor much lower, than double their breadth ; tions.
the breadth of the pier ftiould feldom exceed two-
thirds, nor be lefs than one-third, of the breadth of
the arch j and the angular pier ought to be broader
than,
576 A R C H I T
Principles, than the others, by one-half, one-third, or one-fourth j
'  ' the impoft (hould not be more than one-feventh, nor
lefs than one-ninth of the aperture ; and the archivolt
mull not be more than one-eighth, nor lefs than one-
tenth of it. The breadth of the confole muft, at the
bottom, be equal to that of the archivolt *, and its fides
muft be drawn from the centre of the arch : the length
of it muft not be lefs than one and a half of its fmalleft
breadth, nor more than double. The thicknefs of the
pier depends oh the breadth of the portico 5 for it muft
be ftrong enough to refift the preffure of its vault.
But with regard to the beauty of the building, it
ftiould not be lefs than one quarter of the breadth of
the arch, nor more than one-third. Thefe are the ge¬
neral dimenfions of arches.
Chap. VIII. Of Orders above Orders.
68 When, in a building, two or mote orders are em¬
ployed, one above another, the laws of folidity require
the ftrongeft Ihould be placed lowermoft. Hence the
Tufcan muft fupport the Doric, the Doric the Ionic,
the Ionic the Compofite or Corinthian, and the Com-
pofite the Corinthian.
This rule, however, is not always ftriflly adhered to.
Moft authors place the Compofite above the Corin¬
thian. There are likewife examples where the fame
order is repeated, as in the theatre of Statilius Taurus,
and the Colifeum ; and others, where an intermediate
order is omitted, and the Ionic placed on the Tufcan,
or the Corinthian on the Doric. But none of thefe
practices ought to be imitated.
In placing columns above one another, the axis of
all the columns ought to correfpond, or be in the fame
69 perpendicular line, at leaft in front.
Propor- With regard to the proportions of columns placed
lions of co- above each other, Scamozzi’s rule, That the lower dia¬
led above" meter t^e hipcrior column (hould conftantly be equal
each other, to the upper diameter of the inferior one, is univerfal-
ly efteemed the beft, and gives all the columns the ap¬
pearance of one long tapering tree, cut into feveral
nieces. According to this rule, the Doric column
will be to the Tufcan, as 13! to 14 •, the Ionic to the
Doric, as 15 to i6‘, the Compofite or Corinthian to
the Ionic, as 16y to x 8 •, and the Corinthian to the
Compoftte, as l6y to 20.
In Britain there are few examples of more than
two ftories of columns in the fame afpedft ; and though
in Italy, and other parts of Europe, we frequently
meet with three, and fometimes more ; yet it is a prac¬
tice by no means to be imitated 5 for there is no pofli-
bility of avoiding many ftriking inconfiftencies, or of
preferving the charadler of each order in its interco-
lumnial decorations.
Chap. IX. Of Bafements.
‘jo Instead of employing feveral orders one above the
other in a compofition, the ground floor is fometimes
made in the form of a bafement, on which the order
that decorates the principal ftory is placed. The pro¬
portion of thefe bafements is not fixed, but depends on
the nature of the rooms on the ground floor. In the
palace of the Porti in Vicenza, the height of the bafe-
E C T U R E, Parti.
ment is equal to that of the order. In feme buildings, Principles,
its height exceeds two-thirds of that of the order •, and,'
in others, only half the height of the order. It is not,,
however, advifable to make the bafement higher than
the order it fupports: neither ftiould it be lower than
one half of the order. , * 71
The ufual method of decorating bafements is with Decora-
ruftics of different kinds. The beft, where neatnefs^™^&c.
and finiftiing is aimed at, are fuch as have a fmooth ^en^^'
furface. Their height, including the joint, ftiould ne¬
ver be lefs, nor much more, than half a module of
the order placed on the bafement. Their figure may
be from a fquare to a fefquialtera } and their joints
may be either fquare or chamfered. The fquare ones
ftiould not be broader than one-eighth of the height
of the ruftic, nor narrower than one-tenth *, and their
depth muft be equal to their breadth j thofe that are
chamfered muft form a redlangle ; and the breadth of
the whole joint may be from one-fourth to one-third
of the height of the flat furface of the ruftic.
Chap. X. Of Pediments.
Pediments, among the Romans, were ufed only 72
as coverings to their facred buildings, till Caefar ob¬
tained leave to cover his houfe with a pointed roof,
after the manner of temples. In the remains of anti¬
quity we meet with two kinds of pediments, the tri¬
angular and the circular. The former of thefe are
promifeuoufly applied to cover fmall or large bodies :
But the latter, being of a heavier figure, are never
ufed but as coverings to doors, niches, windows, or
gates.
As a pediment reprefents the roof, it ftiould never
be employed but as a finifhing to the whole compofi-
tion. . . . '
The ancients introduced but few pediments into their
buildings, ufually contenting themfelves with a fingle
one to adorn the middle or principal part. But fome
of the moderns, and particularly the Italians, have been
fo immoderately fond of them,, that their buildings fre¬
quently confift of almoft nothing elfe.
The girder being a neceffary part in the conftruc-
tion of a roof, it is an impropriety to intermit the
horizontal entablature of a pediment, by which it is
reprefented, to make room for a niche, an arch, or a
window. _ 73
In regular archite&ure, no other form of pedi-Forms, &.c.
ments can be admitted, befides the triangular and cij-of pedi¬
cular. Both of them are beautiful •, and when a con-ments'
Adorable number of pediments are introduced, as when
a range of windows are adorned with them, thefe two
figures may be ufed alternately, as in the niches of the
Pantheon, and in thofe of the temple of Diana at Nif-
mes. _ •
The proportion of pediments depends upon their
fize •, for the fame proportions will not do in all cafes.
When the bafe of the pediment is ftiort, its height
muft be increafed •, and when the pediment is long,
the height muft be diminiftied. The beft proportion
for the height is from one-fifth to one-fourth of the ,
bafe, according to the extent of the pediment, and the
charafter of the body it covers. The materials of the
roof muft alfo be attended to 5 for if it be covered with
Part T.
Principles.
ARCHITECTURE.
74
75
Proportion,
&lc. of bal-
iufters.
Doors and
Oates.
tiles, it will be neceffary to raife it more than one
quarter of the bafe, as was the cuftom of the ancients
in their Tufcan temples.
'I he tympan is always on a line with the front of
the frize $ and when large, admits of various orna¬
ments.
Chap. XI. Of Ballujlrades.
Ballustrades are fometimes of real ufe in build¬
ings ; and at other times they are only ornamental.
Such as are intended for ufe, as when they are em¬
ployed in ftaircafes, before windows, or to enclofe ter-
raffes, &c. muft always be nearly of the fame height j
never exceeding three feet and a half, nor ever lefs
than three. But thofe that are principally defigned
for ornament, as when they finilh a building, fhould
be proportioned to the archite&ure they accompany :
and their height ought never to exceed four-fifths of
the height of the entablature on which they are pla¬
ced 5 nor fliould it ever be lefs than two-thirds there¬
of, without counting the zocholo, or plinth, the
height of which muft be fufficient to leave the whole
baliuftrade expofed to view.
The beft proportion for balluftrades is to divide the
whole given height into thirteen equal parts ; eight
of thefe for the height of the ballufter, three for the
bafe, and two for the cornice or rail 5 or into four¬
teen, (if it be required to make the ballufter lei's),
giving eight parts to the ballufter, four to the bafe,
and two to the rail. One of thefe parts may be call¬
ed a module; and being divided into nine minutes,
may ferve to determine the dimenfions of the particu¬
lar members.
In balluftrades, the diftance between two ballufters
fhould not exceed half the diameter of the ballufter
meafured in its thickeft part, nor be lefs than one-third
of it.
The breadth of the pedeftals, when they are placed
tm columns or pilafters, is regulated by them ; the
dye never being made broader than the top of the
fhaft, nor much narrower •, and when there are nei¬
ther columns nor pilafters on the front, the dye fhould
not be much lower than a fquare, and feldom higher.
On flairs, or any other inclined planes, the fame pro¬
portions are to be obferved as on horizontal ones.
Chap. XII. Of Gates, Doors, and Piers.
There are two kinds of entrances, viz. doors and
gates. The former ferve only for the paflage of per-
lons on foot but the latter likewife admit horfemen
and carriages. Doors are ufed as entrances to church¬
es and other public buildings, to common dwelling-
houfes, and apartments : And gates ferve for inlets
to cities, fortrefles, parks, gardens, palaces, &c. The
apertures of gates being always wide, they are gene¬
rally made in the form of an arch, that figure beino-
the ftrongeft. But doyrs, which are generally of fmafl
dimenfions, are commonly parallelograms, and clofed
horizontally.
The general proportion for the apertures, both of
gates and doors, whether arched or fquare, is, that
the height be about double the breadth.
The moft common, and indeed almoft the only or-
Vol. II. Part 11.
naments for gates are the piers by which they are lap-
ported, and which were originally no more than bare
polls into which the hinges of the gate were driven.
.1 hough this, however, is the only proper ufe of piers,
it muft be concealed as much as pofhble, and they muft
feem as if placed there only for ornament. As they
are to be fixed to the wall before the houfe, fo thev
muft.alfo be proportioned to it j and as they are to be
feen in the fame view with the front of the houfe, their
correipondence with it is equally neceffary. They are
to be placed on a plinth, and fomething muft be al¬
lowed by way of ornament and finifhing at the top.
All the luxuriance of fancy may be employed in the
decoration of piers : but it will be proper to obferve
this general rule, that the pier being an inferior build¬
ing, it muft never be richer than the front of the houfe.
If, for inftance, the front of the houfe is ornamented
with columns of the Doric order, the Ionic muft not
be ufed in the piers; and it will be found better to
omit columns altogether, than to make ufe of the Tuf¬
can order for piers in any cafe.' If the Ionic or Co¬
rinthian orders are employed in the front of the houle.
the Doric or Ionic may be ufed with propriety in the
piers. One piece of ornament is almoft univerfal in
piers, namely, a niche with its feat, made as if for
the conveniency of weary travellers. On this account,
it will be proper to raife the columns on pedeftals, be-
caufe the continued moulding from their cap will be a
good ornament under the niche. The bafe of the co¬
lumns ought always to be the Attic.
Infide doors, however fmall the building may bo,
fhould never be narrower than two feet nine inches •
nor fhould they ever, in private houfes, exceed three
feet fix inches in breadth, which is more than fuffi¬
cient to admit the bulkieft perfon. Their height
fhould at leaft be fix feet three or four inches; other-
wdfe a tall perfon cannot pafs without ftooping. In
churches, palaces, &c. where there is a conftant in-
grefs and egrefs of people, the apertures muft be lar¬
ger. The fmalleft breadth thnt can be given to a gate
is eight and a half or nine feet, which is but juft fuffi¬
cient for the paffage of a coach.
Plate XLVI. fig. 1. is a ruftic door, compofed by
the celebrated Vignola, in which the aperture occupies
two-thirds of the whole height, and one-half of the
whole breadth ; the figure of it being a double fquare.
The ruftics maybe either fmooth or hatched j1 their
joints muft form a reftangle, and the breadth of each
joint may be one-third, or two-fevenths, of the verti¬
cal furface of a luftic. I he joints of the claveaux, or
key-ftones, muft be drawn to the fummit of an equila¬
teral triangle, whofe bafe is the top of the aperture.
The architrave furrounding the aperture may be com¬
pofed either of a large ogee and fillet, or of a platband
and fillet. Its whole breadth muft be one-tenth of the
breadth of the aperture ; the remaining part of each
pier being for the ruftics. The entablature is Tufcan 5
the cornice is to be one-fifteenth of the whole height
of the door •, and what remains below^ it being divided
into 21 equal parts, the two uppermoft of them will
be for the fnze and architrave, and the remaining lo
for the ruftics and plinth at the foot of the door.
Fig. 2. is a difpofition of Michael Angelo’s. The
windows of the Capitol at Rome are of this kind ; find
Sir Chnftopher Wren has executed doors of the fame
4 kind
57S
ARCHITECTURE.
Part I.
Principles, kind under the femicircular porches in the flanks
of St Paul’s. The figure of the aperture may be a
double fquare } the architrave one fixth of the breadth
of the aperture *, and the whole entablature one quar¬
ter ol its height. The front of the pilafters or co¬
lumns, on each fide, mult be on a line with the fafeia
of the architrave; and their breadth mull be a femi-
diametcr.
Fig. 3. is likewife a defign of Vignola’s. It is of
the Corinthian order, and executed in the Cancellaria
at Rome. The height is equal to double its breadth
and the whole ornament at the top is equal to one-
third ot the height of the aperture. The architrave
is in breadth one filth of the breadth of the aperture ;
and the pilalters, that fupport the confoles, are half as
broad as the architrave. The whole is well imagined,
but rather heavy j and it will be bell to reduce the
architrave to one-fixth of the aperture, diminilhing
the entablature proportionally.
Fig. 4. is a defign of Serlio’s. The aperture may
be either twice as high as broad, or a trifle lefs. The
diameter of the columns may be equal to one quar¬
ter of the breadth of the aperture } and their height
may be from eight diameters to eight arid a half. The
entablature mull be fomewhat lefs than one quarter of
the height of the columns 5 and the height of the pe¬
diment may be one quarter of its bafe.
Fig. 5. is a door in the faloon of the Farnefe at
Rome, defigned by Vignola. The aperture forms a
double fquare. The entablature is equal to three-
elevenths 6f its height, the architrave being one of
thefe elevenths ; and the whole ornaments on the
iides, confifting of the architrave and pilallers, are
equal to two-fevenths of the breadth of the aperture :
the cornice is Compofite, enriched with mutules and
dentils} and the frize is adorned with a feiloon of
laurel.
Fig. 6. is copied from a door at Florence, faid to
be a defign of Cigoli’s. The height of the aperture is
a trifle more than twice its breadth. It is arched •,
and the impoft is equal to half a diameter. The co¬
lumns are Ionic, fomewhat above nine diameters high j
and their fliafts are garnilhed each with five ruftic
cinctures. The entablature is lefs than one quarter of
the column ; and the breadth of the tablet, in which
there is an infeription, is equal to the breadth of the
aperture.
Plate LVI. fig. 1. is a pier invented by Mr Cham¬
bers. Its diameter may be one quarter of its height,
exclufive of the plinth and vafe ; and the height of
both thefe may be equal to one diameter of the pier,
or a trifle lefs. The nifties may either be plain,
hatched, or vermiculated : the height of each courfe
may be one-eleventh part of the height of the pier,
counting to the top of the entablature } the entabla¬
ture two-elevenths j and the bafe of the pier one-ele¬
venth p&rt.
Fig. 2. is likewife a compofition of Mr Chambers
imitated from M. Angelo Buonaroti’s defign for Car-,
dinal Sermonetti. The height of the aperture is fome¬
what more than twice its breadth ; which breadth oc¬
cupies one-third of the breadth of the whole compofi¬
tion. The order is Compofite ; and the height of the
entablature is equal to one quarter of the height of
the column. He has made a break in it over each
column : but, unlefs the column project confiderably, Principles,
it will be as wrell to carry the entablature on in a y—^
ftraight line. The dimenfions of the particular parts
may be meafured on the defign.
Fig. 3. is alfo a compofition of Mr Chambers, exe¬
cuted at Goodwood, the feat of his grace the duke of
Richmond, in Suffex. The diameter is one quarter
of the height, exclufive of the finifhing, which is equal
to one diameter *, and the height of the pier, from the
top of the entablature downwards, being divided into
eleven and a half parts, one of thefe parts is given to
the bafe, one to each ruftic, and one and a half to the
aftragal, frize, and cornice.
Fig. 4. is a compofition of the late earl of Burling¬
ton’s, that grepit architect and patron of the fine arts,
which is executed at Chifwick, and at Bedford houfe
in Bloomlbury fquare, with fome little difference.
' Fig. 5. is an invention of Mr Chambers.
Fig, 6. is one of Inigo Jones’s j of which kind he
hath executed a couple at Aimftmry in Wiltfiiire, the
feat of his grace the duke of QueenIberry.
Chap. XIII. Of Windows.
7s
The firft confideration with regard to . windows is Proportions
their fize, wTich varies according to the climate, the windows,
deftination of the building, &c. In Britain, the win¬
dows of the fmalleft private houfes are commonly from
3 to 34 feet broad ; and being generally twuce their
breadth in height, or fomewhat more, in the principal
apartments, they generally rife to within a foot or two
of the ceilings of the rooms, which are frequently no
higher than xo feet, and at moft 12 or 13. But, in
more confiderable houfes, the apartments are from 15
to 20 feet high, and fometimes more •, and in thefe
the windows are from 4 to 5 and 54 feet broad, and
high in proportion. Thefe dimenfions are fufficient for
dwelling houfes of any fize in this country 5 when they
are larger, they admit too much of the cold air in win¬
ter. But churches, and other buildings of that kind,
may have larger windows, proportioned to the fize of
the ftruftures.
The proportions of the apertures of windows de¬
pend upon their fituation. Their breadth in all the
ftories mull be the fame •, but the different heights of
the apartments make it neceffary to vary the height
of the windows likewife. In the principal floor, it
may be from 24 of the breadth to 24, according as
the rooms have more or lefs elevation. In the ground
llory, where the apartments are lower, the apertures
of the windows feldom exceed a double fquare, and,
when they are in a ruftic bafement, they are frequent¬
ly made much lower. The height of the windows of
the fecond floor may be from 14 of their breadth to
14 j and Attics and Mezzanines may be either a per-
fedl fquare, or fomewhat lower.
The windows of the principal floor are generally How oma-
moft enriched. The fimpleft method of adorningmente^-
them is, with an architrave furrounding the aperture,
and crowned with a frize and cornice. The window’s
of the ground floor are fometimes left entirely plain,
without any ornament : and at others they are fur-
rounded with ruftics, or a regular architrave ^with a
frize and cornice. Thofe of the fecond floor have ge¬
nerally an architrave carried entirely round the aper¬
ture
Parti. A R C H I T
Principles. j;Ure ; and tlie fame is the method of adorning Attic
^ and Mezzanine windows : but the two laft have feldom
either frize or cornice ; w^hereas the fecond door win¬
dows are often crowned with both.
The breads of all the windows on the fame floor
-ihould be on the fame level, and raifed above the floor
from twTo feet nine inches to three feet fix inches at
the very molt. When the walls are thick, the breads
(hould be reduced under the apertures, for the conve-
niency of looking out. In France, the windows are
frequently carried quite down to the floor. When
the building is furrounded with gardens, or other
beautiful objefts, this method renders the rooms ex¬
ceeding pleafant.
The interval between the apertures of windows de¬
pends in a great meafure on their enrichments. The
breadth of the aperture is the leaf! diftance that can
be between them $ and twice that breadth fhould be
the largell in dwelling houfes j otherwife the rooms
will not be fufficiently lighted. The windows in all
the dories of the fame afpedl mud be placed exaftly
above one'another.
Plate XLVII. fig. i. is a defign of P. Lefcot, ab¬
bot of Clagny, executed in the old Louvre at Paris.
The apertures may be a double fquare, or a trifle
more ; the architrave from one-fixth to one-feventh
of the breadth of the aperture : the pilader is equal
to that breadfh, wdien the architrave is narrow; or
lefs by one quarter, or one-fifth, when it is broad.
The whole entablature fliould not exceed one quarter
of the height of the aperture, nor be much lower.
The confoles may be equal in length to half the
breadth of the aperture at mod, and to one-third of it
at lead.
Fig. 2. is a defign of Palladio’s, executed at the
Chiericato in Vicenza : its proportions are not much
different from the following. The plat-band that
fupports the window is equal to the breadth of the
architrave.
Fig. 3. is likewife a defign of Palladio’s, executed
by him in many of his buildings. The aperture is a
double fquare. The breadth of the architrave is one-
fixth of the breadth of the aperture 5 and the frize
and cornice together are double the height of the ar¬
chitrave. The breadth of the confoles is two-thirds
of the breadth of the architrave.
Fig. 4. is a defign of Ludovico da Cigoli j and ex¬
ecuted in the ground floor of the Ranunchini palace at
Florence.
Fig. 5. is a defign of Inigo Jones, executed at the
Banqueting Houfe. The aperture may be a double
fquare •, the architrave may be one-fixth of its breadth *,
the whole entablature one quarter of its height •, and
the breadth of the confoles two-thirds of the breadth
of the architrave.
Fig. 6. is a defign of M. Angelo Buonaroti, exe¬
cuted at the Farnefe.
Chap. XIV. Of Niches and Statues.
io It has been cuftomary, in all ages, to enrich differ¬
ent parts of buildings with reprefentations of the hu¬
man body. Thus the ancients adorned their temples,
baths, theatres, &c. with ftatues of their deities, heroes,
and legiflators. The moderns ftill preferve the fame
E c T u R E. 579
cuftom, placing in their churches, palaces, &c. ftatues ^Principles,
of illuftrious perfons, and even groups compofed of
various figures, reprefenting occurrences colle£ted trom
hiftory, fables, &c. Sometimes thefe ftatues or groups
are detached raifed on pedeftals, and placed contiguous
to the walls of a building, or in the middle of a room,
court, or public fquare. But they are moft frequently gr
placed in cavities made in the walls, called niches. Of Different
thefe there are two forts ; the one formed like an arch kinds or
in its elevation, and femicircular or femielliptical in itsn^ches;
plan } the other is a parallelogram both in its plan and
elevation.
The proportion of both thefe niches depends on the
charafters of the ftatues, or the general form of the
groups placed in them. The loweft are at leaft a
double fquare in height 5 and the higheft never exceed
of their breadth. 82
With regard to the manner of decorating them,how deco-
when they are alone in a compofition, they are gene-rate^;
rally enclofed in a pannel, formed and proportioned
like the aperture of a window, and adorned in the
fame manner. In this cafe the niche is carried quite
down to the bottom ; but on the fides and at the top,
a fmall fpace is left between the niche and the archi- ,
trave of the pannel. And when niches are intermix¬
ed with windows, they may be adorned in the fame
manner with the windows, provided the ornaments be
of the fame figure and dimenfions wTith thole of the
windows.
The fize of the ftatues depends on the dimenfions of Statues,
the niches. They fliould neither be fo large as to have
the appearance of being rammed into the niches as in
Santa Maria Majora at Rome j nor fo narrow as to
feem loft in them, as in the Pantheon. The diftance
between the outline of the ftatue and fide of the niche
Ihould never be lefs than one-third of a head, nor
more than one half, whether the niche be fquare or
arched : and when.it is fquare, the diftance from the
top of the head to the ceiling of the niche fliould not
be greater than the diftance on the fides. Statues are
generally raifed on a plinth, the height of which may
be from one third to one half of a head $ and fome-
times, where the niches are large, the ftatues may be
raifed on fmall pedeftals.
The chara&er of the flatue fliould always correfpond
with the chara&er of the architecture with which it
is furrounded. Thus, if the order be Doric, Hercules,
Jupiter, Mars, iEfculapius, and all male ftatues, repre¬
fenting beings of a robuft and grave nature, may be
introduced ; if Ionic, then Apollo, Bacchus, &c. j and
if Corinthian, Venus, Flora, and others of a delicate
nature, ihould be employed.
Chap. XV. Of Chimney-pieces.
Among the ancients there are very few examples of 84
of chimney-pieces to be met with. Neither the Italians
nor French have excelled in compofitions of this kind.
Britain, by being pofleffed of many able fculptors at
different times, has furpaffed all other nations, both in
tafte of defign, and workmanftiip. ^
The fize of the chimney muft be regulated by the pr0p0^t;0ns
dimenfions of the room where it is placed. In thean(j fltua,
fmalleft apartments, the breadth of the aperture fliouldtions.
never be lefs than three feet, or three feet fix inches.
4 D 2 In
58° A R C H I T
Principles. In rooms from 20 to 24 feet fquare, or of equal fuper-
ficial dimenfions, it may be from 4 to 4I feet Broad ;
in thofe of 24 to 27, from 44 to 5 ; and in fuch as ex¬
ceed thefe dimenfions, the aperture may even be ex¬
tended to 54 or 6 feet.
The chimney fhould always be fituated fo as to be
immediately feen by thofe who enter the room. The
middle of the partition wall is the moft proper place
in halls, falcons, and other rooms of paflage j but in
drawing-rooms, dreffing-rooms, and the like, the mid¬
dle of the back wall is the beft fituation. In bed¬
rooms, tne chimney is always in the middle of one of
the partition walls j and in clofets and other very fmall
places, to fave room, it is put in a corner. Wherever
two chimneys are ufed in the fame room, they fhould
oe placed either directly facing each other, if in differ¬
ent walls, or at equal diftances from the centre of the
wall in which they both are.
1 he proportion of the apertures of chimney-pieces
of a moderate fize is generally a perfeft fquare ; in
fmall ones, it is a trifle higher j and in large ones, a
trifle lower. Their ornaments confilt in architraves,
frizes, cornices, columns, pilafters, termini, caryati-
- des, confoles, and all kinds of ornaments of fculpture,
reprefenting animals, vegetables, &c. likewife vafes,
chalices, trophies of arms, &c. In defigning them
regard muft be had to the nature of the place where
they are to be employed. Such as are intended for
halls, falcons, guard-rooms, galleries, and other large
places, mull be compofed of large parts, few in num¬
ber, of diftindl and Ample forms, and having a bold
relief j but chimney-pieces for drawing-rooms, drefling-
rooms, &c. may be of a more delicate and complicated
nature.
Chimney-pieces are compofed of wood, ftone, or
marble; the lart of which ought to be preferred,
as figures or profiles are beft reprefented in a pure
white.
Plate XLVIII. exhibits different defigns for chim-
ney-pieces by Palladio and Inigo Jones. Their pro¬
portion may be gathered from the defigns, which are
accurately executed.
Chap. XVI. Of the Proportions of Rooms.
*6 The proportions of rooms depend in a great mea-
fure on their ufe and a&ual dimenfions j but, with
regard to beauty, all figures, from a fquare to a fef-
quilateral, may be employed for the plan.
The height of rooms depends on their figure. Flat
ceiled ones may be lower than thofe that are coved.
If their plan be a fquare, their height fhould not ex¬
ceed five-fixths of the fide, nor be lefs than four-fifths;
and when it is oblong, their height may be equal to
their breadth. But coved rooms, if fquare, mufl: be
as high as broad •, and when oblong, they may have
their height equal to their breadth, more one-fifth,
one quarter, or even one-third of the difference be¬
tween the length and breadth : and galleries fhould at
leaf! be in height one and one-third of their breadth,
87 &2>d at molt one and a half, or one and three-fifths.
High rooms 1 he coldnefs of the Britifh climate is a flrong cb-
miproper injection to high rooms j fo that it is not uncommon to
** am. pee moft magnlficent apartments not above 116,
or at moft 18 feet high) though the extent of the
E C T U R E. Parti.
rooms would require a much more confiderable eleva- Principles,
tion. But where beauty is aimed at, this pradlice —v-—
ought not to be imitated.
When rooms are adorned with an entire order, the
entablature fhould never exceed one-fixth of the whole
height in flat-ceiled rooms, and one-fixth of the up¬
right part in coved .ones ) and Avhen there are neither
columns nor pilafters, but only an entablature, its
height fliould not be above one-feventh of thefe
heights. If the rooms be finifhed with a Ample cor¬
nice, it fhould never exceed one-fourteenth, nor ever
be lefs than one-fifteenth part of the above-mentioned
height.
Chap. XVII. Of Ceilings.
Ceilings are either flat, or coved in different man- gg
ners. The fimplefl of the flat kind are thofe adorned
wfith large compartments, furrounded with one or fe-
veral mouldings, either let into the ceiling, or project¬
ing beyond its furface ) and when the mouldings that
form the compartments are enriched, and fome of the
compartments adorned with w-ell executed ornaments,
fuch ceilings have a good effedf, and are very proper
for common dwelling houfes, and all 1owt apartments.
Their ornaments and mouldings do not require a bold
relief) but, being near the eye, they muif be finifhed
with tafte and neatnefs. For higher rooms, a flat ceil¬
ing which has the appearance of being compofed of
various joifts framed into each other, and forming com¬
partments of various geometrical figures, fhould be em¬
ployed. The fides of the joifts forming the compart¬
ments are generally adorned wfith mouldings, and re-
prefent either a fimple architrave, or an architrave
cornice, according to the fize of the compartments and
the height of the room.
Coved ceilings are more expenfive ; but they are
likewife more beautiful. They are ufed promif'cuoufly
in large and fmall rooms, and occupy from one-fifth
to one-third of the height of the room. If the room
be low’ in proportion to its breadth, the cove muft like¬
wife be low’; and when it is high, the cove muft be fo
likewfife : by which means the excefs of the height
will be rendered lefs perceptible. But, where the ar-
chiteft is at liberty to proportion the height of the
room to its fuperficial dimenfions, the moft eligible
proportion for the cove is one-fourth of the whole
height. In parallelogram-figured rooms, the middle
of the ceiling is generally formed into a large flat pan-
nel. This pannel, with the border that furrounds it,
may occupy from one half to three-fifths of the breadth
of the room. The figure of the cove is commonly
either a quadrant of a circle or of an ellipfe, taking its
rife a little above the cornice, and finilhing at the border
round the great pannel in the centre. The border
proje&s fomewhat beyond the coves on the outfide ;
and, on the fide towards the pannel, it is generally
made of fufficient depth to admit the ornaments of an
architrave, or architrave and cornice.
In Britain circular rooms are not much in ufe ; but
they are very beautiful. Their height muft be the
fame with that of fquare rooms ) their ceilings may be
flat ) but they are handfomer when coved, or of a con¬
cave form.
Arcs dtiublauX) or foftits of arches, when narrow,
are
Part I. ARC H I T
Principles, are ornamented with guillochs, or frets 3 but when
“"v broad, they may be adorned in a different manner.
When the profiles of the room are gilt, the ceilings
ought likewife to be gilt. The ulual method is to
gild all the ornaments, and to leave the grounds white,
pearl colour, light blue, or of any other tint proper
to fet off the gilding to advantage. Painted ceilings,
fo common in France and Italy, are but little uled in
Britain.
Chap. XVII. Of Stairs and St air cafes.
S? There are many kinds of ftaircafes : for, in fome,
the fteps are. made flraight 3 in others winding 3 in
others, mixed of both. Of ftraight flairs, fome fly
dire£lly forward, others are fquare, others triangular.
Others are called French flights; or winding flairs,
(which in general are called fpiral, or cockle flairs');
of which fome are fquare, fome circular or round, and
fome elliptical or oval 3 and thefe again are various,
fome winding about a folid, others about an open
newel. Stairs mixed of flraight and winding fleps
are alfo of various kinds 3 fome are called dog-legged;
fome there are that wind about a folid newTel, and
90 ■ others that fly about a fquare open newel.
Staircafes Great care ought to be taken in placing of the
•wnere o ftaircafe in any building 3 and therefore flaircafes
y ’ ought to be defcribed and accounted for juflly when
the plan of a building is made. For want of this,
fometimes unpardonable errors have been committed :
fuch as having a little blind flaircafe to a large houfe,
or, on the other hand, a large fpacious flaircafe to a
, little one.
Palladio fays, in placing flaircafes, the utmofl care
ought to be taken 3 it being difficult to find a place
Convenient for them, that will not at the fame time
prejudice the reft of the building. But commonly
the flairs are placed in the angle, wing, or middle of
the front.
To every ftaircafe are Required three openings.
Firil, The door leading thereto.
Secondly, The window, or windows, that give light
to it 3
And, Thirdly, The landing.
Firft, The door leading to the ftaircafe fliould be
fo placed, that moll of the building may be feen be¬
fore you come at the flairs, fnd in fuch a manner
that it may be eafy for any perfon to find out.
Secondly, For the windows 3 if there be but one, it
muft be placed in the middle of the ftaircafe, that
thereby the whole maybe enlightened.
Thirdly, The landing of flairs fhould be large and
fpacious for the convenient entering into rooms 3 ih
a word, ftaircafes fhould be fpacious, light, and eafy
in afcent. The height of large fteps muft never be
lefs than fix inches, nor more than feven inches and a
half.
The breadth of fteps ffiould never be lefs than 10
inches, nor more tjian 18 inches ; and the length of
them not lefs three feet, nor more than 12.
fi Plate XLIX. fig. 1. A ftaircafe of two flights 
Si (hows the manner of drawing the ramp, which is
to rife equal to the height of the firft ftep of the next
flight, and as much as its kneeling ; as is fhown by the
ramp interfering the rail of the fecond flight.
E c T u R E.
581
Fig. 2. fliows the ftraight rail interfering a circular Principles*
cap.
Fig. 3. ferion of two different hand rails.
tig. 4. fliows the manner of dove-tailing the rifer
into the ftep.
Plate L. fig. 1. reprefents a dlaircafe, with flights, P2
and its landing rail.
Fig. 2. fhows the folid part of the ftep out of
which the fcroll is formed ; where a reprefents the
overfail of the ftep ; b. The thicknefs of the bracket,
with its mitring to the rifer; and c. The flring-board.
Fig. 4. (hows the fcale for drawing the fcroll of
fig. 3.—To perform which, take the diflance from i
to the centre, in fig. 3. and fet it from 1 to the centre
in fig. 4 3 divide that extent into three parts, then fet
4 fuch parts on the upper fide of the fcale, and draw
the line from 4 to x 3 fet one foot of your compaffes at
4, and ftrike the circular line 3 let that be divided in¬
to 1 2 equal parts, and then draw lines from 4 through
thofe divifions to the upright line.
The fcale being thus made, draw the fcroll of fig. 3.
by it in the following manner.
Set one foot of your compaffes in 1, and deferibe a
ftroke at c; take the fame diftance, and with one'
foot in 2, crofs the ftroke at c; then from c, turm
the part from 1 to 2, and proceed in the fame man¬
ner : for if the diftance were taken in the fcale from
1 to the centre, it would ftrike the circle too flat 3 and
if taken from 2, it would ftrike the circle too quick.
When this is well underftood, there will be little dif¬
ficulty in drawing the fcroll below fig. 2. ; whiclr
throws itfelf out farther in proportion than that in fig.3.3
for this will always be the cafe wffien the upper line
of the fcale, which confifts of four divifions in fig. 4.
is made but with three divifions or lefs 3 whence it
appears, that the upper line of the fcale may be drawm
at what length you pleafe, according as you would
bring in or keep out the fcroll.
Plate LI. fhows the manner of fquaring twfift rails. 9 3
Fig. 2. exhibits the pitch board, to fhow wffiat
part of the ftep the twilled part of the rails contains 3
the three doted lines drawm from the rail to the pitch
board reprefent the width of the rail, which is to be
kept level. The doted lines a and b fhow how much
half the width of the rail turns up from its firft begin¬
ning to 3.
Fig. 3. fhows the fame pitch board with the man¬
ner of the rail’s turning up. If the fides of the twilled
part of the rail be ffiaped by the rail mould, fo that
they dire6l down to its ground plan, that is, the upper
fide of the rail being firft flruck by the mould, then
apply the mould to the under fide, as much back as
the level of the pitch board fhows, by being ftruck on
the fide of the rail, and then fig. 3. being applied to
the outfide of the rail, from its firfl twifting part to 3,
will fhow how much wood is to be taken off.
Fig. 5. exhibits the fquare of the rail, wnth the
raking line of the pitch board drawn through the mid¬
dle on the upper fide 5 then draw the depth of the fide
ot the rail parallel to this, and the dotted lines from
the diagonal of the rail 3 thefe lines ffiow what quanti¬
ty of wood will be wanting on the upper and lower
fides of the rail. Set your compaffes at c, and draw
the circular ftroke from the raking part of the pitch
board to b ; take the diftanee a b and transfer it from
a
A R C H I T
a to b, in fig. 7* The feveral diflances thus found
may be fet at any number of places, ranging with the
ftraight part of the rail; and it then forms the width
of the mould for the twilling part of the rail.
Fig. 7. (hows the iweep of the rail. The rail can¬
not be fixed lefs than one-fourth part from the nqfing
or front of the Hep.
The remaining part of the pitch board may be di¬
vided into any number of parts, as here into four ;
from thefe divifions draw lines acrofs the pitch board
to the raking line $ then take the diftances from the
ground line of the pitch board to the plan of the rail,
end fet them perpendicular from the raking line of the
pitch board and thefe divifions, when the rail is in
its proper pofition, lie dire&ly over the divifions on the
ground plan.
In this figure /, m, and rife as much above o as
the dotted line in fig. 5. does above the width of the
rail: and they fink as much below 0 as the other dot¬
ted' line in fig. 5. falls below the width of the rail 5 the
fame thickneffes mull be glued upon 0, though the
greateft part will come off in fquaring. The reafon
of placing the letters /, my and where they are, is
that they might not obltruft the fmall divifions of the
rail mould.
Fig. 4. (hows how to find the rail when it takes
more than one ftep. The remaining part of the pitch
board is divided into four parts, as before in fig. 7.
and it takes in two fuch parts of the next ftep. Draw
lines from thefe divifions to the diagonal of the pitch
board as in fig. 7. then take the diftance a b, and
fet it from c to r/, and fo proceed with the other divi-
iions.
Another way to find the outfide of the rail mould
■is, to draw all the divifions acrofs the plan of the rail j
then take the diftance from the ground line of the
pitch board to 4, transfer it from the diagonal of the
pitch board to 4 on the rail; and fo proceed with
the other diftances. Now, when the rail is put in its
proper fituation c wall be perpendicular to b, and all
the divifions, as 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. in the rail, will be
perpendicular to 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. in the ground plan.
Fig. 6. {hows the plan of a rail of five fteps.
E C T U R E. Part IT,
To find the rail.—Set five divifions, as from e to h,
which is the height of the five fteps; draw the diago¬
nal h to the plan of the rail; then take the diftance ef
and transfer it to g h, and proceed in the fame manner
with the other fcven diftances.
To find the width of the rail mould.—Draw the lines
acrofs the plan of the rail, as at k; fet that diftance
from the diagonal to i; and fo proceed with the reft,
as ftiown in fig. 4.
Having formed the fides of the rail perpendicular to
its ground plan, and having fquared the lowTer end of
the rail, then take a thin lath, and bend it with the rail,
as is reprefented by m, fig. x.
This is the readieft method of fquaring a folid rail j
but if the rail be bent in the thicknefies, the nofing of
the fteps muft be drawn upon a cylinder, or fome other
folid body of a fufficient width to contain the width of
the rail or firing board.
r Reprefents1 the depth of the rail, touching the
nofe of each ftep. Take a fufficient number of thick¬
neffes of this width, to make the thicknefs of your rail,
glue them altogether upon your cylinder or templet j
confine them till they are dry, and the rail taken off is
ready fquared. Proceed in the fame manner with the
architrave, marked a.
Practice.
Chap. XIX. Of Roofs.
Plate LII. Fig. 1. ftmws the form of a truffed
roof, with three ring pofts, that may carry 70 feet or
upwards.
Tig. 2. exhibits an M roof, capable of carrying as
great an extent as the former. Indeed both thefe de-
figns ai^f capable of carrying almoft any extent.
Fig. 3. reprefents two different forts of truffes.
Fig. 4. ffiows the manner of piecing timber. Some¬
times the joint may be extended as far as a, with ano¬
ther bolt through it. To the right is ffiown a different
fort of joint.
Fig. 5. ffiow'S the manner of truffing a girder. If
the trufles are full long, with the pieces b and c, you
may make them as light as you pleafe.
Fig. 6. reprefents the manner of truffing partitions.
PART II. PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
HAVING thus defcribed and given rules for the moft
generally received proportions of the different
parts of buildings, both of the ufeful and ornamental
kind, we muft next give an account of the method of
■ere&ing different kinds of edifices 5 and here the judge¬
ment of the architeft muft neceffarily be very much
employed, as no fixed rules have been laid down by
which he can be diredfted in all cafes. As a neceffary
preliminary, however, to the conftruftion, we muft
firft confider,
Chap. I. The Situations of Houfes.
\
Though it muft be, in many cafes, impoffible to
choofe fuch a fituation as might be agreeable either to
-the architeft or the proprietor, yet where a choice can
be made, there are certainly a great many circum-
ftances that wfill determine one fituation to be prefer¬
able to another. Thefe circumftances depend entirely
on the perfon wffio is to inhabit the houfe. A farmer,
for inftance, ought to dwell in the moft centrical part
of his farm ; an independent gentleman muft regard
the healthinefs, the neighbours with whom he can con-
verfe, the profpeft from his houfe, and alfo the afpecfc
of the ground near it. To anfwer thefe purpofes of
health and pleafure, an open elevated fituation is the
beft, as the air is there pure, and the profpedt extenfive:
but too elevated a fituation is difagreeable, as being
both difficult of accefs, and expofed to cold and bleak
winds. To build in bottoms between hills is both un¬
healthful and unpleafant, the houfe being in a manner
buried, and the ground near it generally marfhy from
the
Part II.
A R C H I T E C T
Pradlice. t\xe rain water which runs down from the hills, which
"v " renders the air unwholefome. As a garden alfo is a
very neceffary article to a country habitation, the foil
is by no means a matter of indifference 3 and there¬
fore it may be concluded, that an elevated {iteration
on a gravelly loam, near fome running water, is the
bed fituation for a country houfe.
Chap. II. Of the Confruclion of Edifices in general.
The proper fituation of a houfe, or any other build¬
ing, being chofen, according to its intended nature,
the next thing to be confidered is to lay the founda¬
tion in a proper manner. The only fecurity of a houfe,
or any other building whatever, is in having a good
foundation, and no error is fo dangerous as that which
is committed here ; as the Ihrinking of the foundation
96
but the breadth of a flraw may caufe a rent of five or
Qualities of fix inches wide in the fuperftructure. To guard a-
the ground gainft errors of this kind, the qualities of the ground
neceffary to£OJ. a conquerable depth muft be carefully obferved.
e(j> The bed foundation is that which confids of gravel
or done \ but, -in order to know wdiether the inferior
drata are futficient for the lupport of the building, it
wall be advifable- to fink wTells at fome little didance.
By attending to wdrat is throwm up in digging thefe,
the architedl will be acquainted with what lies under
the dony or gravelly bed which on the furface pro-
mifes fo much fecurity, and will knowT what meafures
to take.
Rocky •^u'; though a dony or gravelly bottom is undoubt-
ground edly the mod fure and firm, tvhere all is found beneath,
fometimes there is no kind of ground which may prove more fal-
aangerous. iac}OUSj or occaqon ffich terrible accidents. The rea-
fon of this is, that fuch kind of ground often contains
abfolute vacuities ; nor is rock itfelf, though a founda¬
tion upon a rock is drong even to a proverb, free
from dangers of the fame kind. Caverns are very fre¬
quent in rocky places : and drould a heavy building
be erefted over one of thefe, it might fuddenly fall
down altogether. To guard againd accidents of this
kind, Palladio advifes the throwing dowm great
weights forcibly on the ground, and obferving whe¬
ther it founds hollow, or drakes •, and the beating of a
drum upon it, by the found of which an accudomed
ear will know whether the earth is hollow7 or not.
Where the foundation is gravel, it w’ill be proper to
examine the thicknefs of the dratum, and the qualities
of thofe that lie under it, as they have appeared in
digging. If the bed of gravel is thick, and the under
ilrata of a found and firm kind, there needs no adid-
ance $ if otherwife, we mud have recourfe to various
58 methods in order to fupply the defeiff.
Sandy or The other matters w hich may occur for a founda-
D°g'gy tion are clay, fand, common earth, or rotten boggy
manTged^£rounc^* Clay will often both raife and fink a founda¬
tion 5 yet it has a folidity which, with proper manage¬
ment, is very ufeful. The mar dry, rotten, or boggy
ground is of all others the word } yet even upon this
great buildings may be.raifed uuth perfedl fafety, pro¬
vided proper care be taken. In cafe of boggy earths,
or unfirm fand, piling is one of the mod common me¬
thods of fecuring a foundation 5 and, notwithdanding
the natural difadvantage of the earth, piles, when pro-
U R E. , 583
perly executed, are one of the firmed and mod fecure Practice,
foundations. v
In foundations near the edge of waters, we fhould poun^a_
always be careful to found to the very bottom j astionsnear
many terrible accidents have happened from the ground waters dan-
being undermined by rivers. The fame method is tog610115'
be followed when the ground on which we build has
been dug or wrought before. It ought never to be
truded in the condition in which it is left; but we mud
dig through it into the folid and unmoved ground, and
fome way into that, according to the weight and big- Icc
nefs of the intended edifice. The church of St Peter’s Defedt in
at Rome is an indance of the importance of this lad St Peter’s
obfervation. That church is in great part built upon81-1*-017^'
the old circus of Nero \ and the builders having ne-
glefted to dig through the old foundation, the druc-
ture is confeqnently fo much the weaker. The wTalls
were judged of drength enough to bear two deeples
upon the corners of the frontiipiece 5 but the founda¬
tion was found too weak when it wras impoffible to re¬
medy the defedt perfectly.
Before the architedt, how7ever, begins to lay the
foundation of the building, it will be proper to con-
drudt fuch drains as may be neceffary for carrying off'
the rain, or other' refufe water that would otherwife
be colledled and lodge aboqt the houfe. In making p)ra;ns ^ov/
of drains for carrying off this water, it will be necef- made.
fary to make large allowances for the different quanti¬
ties that may be colledted at different times. It mud
alfo be confidered, that water of this kind is always
loaded with a vad quantity of fediment, which by its
continual falling to the bottom w7ill be very apt to
choke up the drain, efpecially at thofe places where
there happen to be angles or corners in its courfe.
The only method of preventing this is by means of cer¬
tain cavities difpofed at proper didances from one ano¬
ther. Into thefe the fediment will be colledled, and 102
they are for that reafon called fefspools. With regard Sefspools.
to thefe, the only diredlions neceffary are, that they
be placed at proper didances, be fufficiently large, and
placed fo as to be eafily cleaned. It is a good rule to
make a fefspool at each place where the water enters
the drain •, as by this means a confiderable quantity of
fediment will be prevented from entering the channel
at all. Others are to be made at proper didances,
efpecially where there are any angles. They mud be
made fufficiently large 5 the bigger, in moderation,
the better ; and they mud aifo be covered in fuch a
manner as to be eafily got at in order to be cleaned.
But as putrid water is exceedingly noxious, it will be
neceffary to carry up a brick funnel over every fefs¬
pool, in order to prevent the collecdion of the putrid
effluvia, which would otherwife occafion the death of
the perfon who cleaned it. ie,„
All drains ought to be arched over at top, and may proportions
be mod conveniently built of brick. According toofdrains,
their different fizes, the following proportions of height
and thicknefs may be obferved. If the drain is 18
inches wide, the height of the walls may be one foot
and their thicknefs nine inches ; the bottom may be
paved with brick laid fiatwife, and the arch turned
four inches. If the drain is 22 inches wide, the fide
walls are then to be one foot three inches in height,
and the red condrufled as before. If it is 14 inches
wide,.
5S| _ ARC H I T
J'rachce. wide, the height of the walls may be nine inches, and
v fvveep of the arch four, A "drain of a yard wide
fhould have the fame height, and the arch turned over
it ought to be nine inches thick. Upon the fathe prin¬
ciples and proportions may other drains of any lize be
104 confcru&ed.
Fotunc]at,0n I he fewers and drains being conftru&ed in a man-
Lwkid Sner ProP.ortioned to the fize of the intended building,
the architea may next proceed to lay the foundation
of the walls. Here the firft care muft be, that the
floor of the foundation be perfcdly fmooth and level.
1 he Italians begin with laying over it an even cover-
ing of ilrong oak plank j and upon that they lay, with
the moft exadl care, the firft courfe of the' materials.
‘V hether we take this method, or begin upon the na¬
ked floor, all muft be laid with the moft exaft truth
by rule and line. When the board plat is laid, a
courfe of ftone is the beft firft bed, and this is to be
laid without mortar *, for lime would make the wood
decay, which otherwife, in a tolerably good foil, will
laft for ages. After this, all the courfes fhould follow
with the fame perfect evennefs and regularity. If the
materials are brick, they fhould be laid on with an
equal, and not too great quantity of mortar: if ftone,
they ought to be placed regularly, and in the fame fi-
tuation in which they lay in the quarry : for many
ftones which will bear any weight flatwife, and in
their natural pofition, are of fuch a grain, that they
will fplit otherwife. The joinings of the under courfe
muft be covered by the folid of the next courfe all the
way up ; and the utmoft care muft be taken that there
be no vacuity left in the rvall, for the weight will moft
certainly crufh it in. The lefs mortar there is in a
foundation, the better. Its ufe is to cement the bricks
and ftones together; and the evener they are, the lefs
will be required for that purpofe. Where mortar is
ufed to fill up cavities, it becomes part of the wall j
mid not being of equal ftrength with the folid mate¬
rials, it takes from the firmnefs of the building. For
the fame reafon nothing can be more abfurd than to
fill up a foundation with loofe ftones or bricks thrown
in at random ; and where this is done, the ruin of the
building is inevitable. Where the foundation of a
principal wall is laid upon piles, it will be neceffary
alio to pile the foundations of the partitions, though
105 not fo ftrongly.
Thicknefs The thicknefs of foundation walls in general ought
nutiom of t0 ke ^ouble that of the w^alls which they are to fup-
walis, &c. Port* Tlie lo°fer the ground, the thicker the founda¬
tion wall ought to be ; and it will require the fame ad¬
dition alfo in proportion of wTat is to be raifed upon
it. The plane of the ground muft be perfeftly level,
that the w’eight may prefs equally everywhere : for
when it inclines more to one fide than another, the
wall will fplit. The foundations muft diminilh as they
rife, but the perpendicular is to be exa&ly kept in the
upper and lower parts of the wall 4 and this caution
ought to be obferved all the way up with the fame
ftri&nefs. In fome ground, the foundation may be
arched ^ which will fave materials and labour, at the
fame time that the fuperftrudfture has an equal fecurity.
This praftice is peculiarly ferviceable where the foun¬
dation is piled.
As the foundation walls are to diminifh in thicknefs,
fo are thofe which are built upon them. This is ne-
EOT U R ’ E. Part II.
cefiary in order to fave expence, but is not abfolutelv Pradice.
fo to ftrengthen the ivall 5 for this would be no left —v—
ftrong though it was continued all the way to the top jy Ic6,.
or an equal thicknefs, provided the perpendicular wascf tile Ut 0!1
exa&ly kept. In this the ancients were very expert ;thicknefs
for w’e fee, in the remains of their works, walls thus°f walh.
carried up to an exorbitant height. It is to be obfer¬
ved, however, that, befides perfect truth in their per¬
pendiculars, they never grudged iron-work, which
contributed greatly to the ftrength of their buildings.
1 he thicknefs and diminution of walls is in a great
meafure arbitrary. In common heufes built of brick,
the general diminution from the bottom to the top is
one hall the thicknefs at the bottom ; the beginning is
two bricks, then a brick and a half, and laftly one
brick, thicknefs. In larger edifices, the walls muft:
be made proportionally thicker ; but the diminution
is preferved much in the fame manner. Where ftor.es
are ufed regard muft be had to their nature, and the
propriety of their figures for holding one another.
Where the wall is to be compofed of two materials, as
ftone and brick, the heavieft ought always to be placed
undermoft.
There is one farther particular regarding the ftrength AngL°show
of a plain wall, and that is, the fortifying its angles, fortified.
This is beft done with good ftone on each fide, which
gives not only a great deal of ftrength, but a great
deal of beauty. Pilafters properly applied are a great
ftrengthening to walls. Their beft diftance is about
every 20 feet, and they Ihould rife five or fix inches
from the naked of the wall. A much llighter wall of
brick with this afliftance, is ftronger than a heavier
and maflier one built plain. In brick walls of every
kind, it is alfo a great addition to their ftrength to lay
iome chief courfes of a larger and harder matter; for
thefe ferve like finews to keep all the reft firmly toge¬
ther, and are of great ufe where a wall happens to fink ^
more on one fide than another. As the openings in a Windows
wall are all weakenings, and as the corners require to improper
be the ftrongeft parts, there Ihould never be a window near the
very near a corner. Properly, there Ihould always becorners'
the breadth of the opening firm to the corner. In
the moft perfedl way of forming the diminution of
walls, the middle of the thinneft part being direftly
over the middle- of the thickeft, the whole is of a py¬
ramidal form ; but where one fide of the wall muft be
perpendicular and plain, it ought to be the inner, for
the fake of the floors and crofs walls. The diminifh-
ed fide, in this cafe, may be covered with a fafeia or
cornice, which will at once be a ftrength and orna¬
ment.
Along with the conftrutftion of walls, that of the Chimneys,
chimneys muft alfo be confidered ; for errors in the
conilriuftion of thefe, will render the moft elegant
building extremely difagreeable. The common caufes
of fmoking are either that the wind is too much let in
above at the mouth of the ftiaft, or the fmoke is ftifled
below; and fometimes a higher building, or a great
elevation of the ground behind, is the fource of the
mifehief; or laftly, the room in which the chimney is
may be fo fmall or clofe, that there is not a fufficient
current of air to drive up the fmoke. Almoft all that
can be done, while the walls are conftru&ing, to pre¬
vent fmoke, is, to make the chimney vent narrower
at bottom than top; yet this muft not be carried to an
extreme 4
Part If.
A R C H I T
III
Floors,
Practice, extreme} becaufe the fmoke will then linger in the
"'"'v upper part, and all the force of the draught will not
be able to fend it up. As for the methods of curing
fraoky chimneys in houfes already built, fee the article
no Chimney.
Roofs. After the walls are finilhed, the roof is the next
confideration : but concerning it very little can be
faid ; only that its weight muft be proportioned to the
flrength of the walls. It muft alfo be contrived fo as
to prefs equally upon the building ; and the inner
walls muft bear their Ihare of the load as well as the
outer ones. A roof ought neither to be too maffy nor
too light j as being neceflary for keeping the walls to¬
gether by its preffure, which it is incapable of doing
while too light $ and if too heavy, it is in danger of
throwing them down. Of thefe two extremes, how-
:ver, the laft is to be accounted the worft.
With regard to the floors, they are moft commonly
made of wood •, in which cafe, it will be neceffary that
it fhould be wrell feafoned by being kept a confiderable
time before it is ufed. The doors of the fame ftory
ihould be all perfedftly on a level: not even a threfhold
rifing above the reft j and if in any part there is a room
or clofet whofe floor is not perfectly level, it ought not
to be left fo, but raifed to an equality with the reft j
what is wanting of the true floor being fupplied by a
falfe one.
In mean houfes, the floors may be made of clay, ox
blood, and a moderate portion of {harp fand. Thefe
three ingredients, beaten thoroughly together and well
fpread, make a firm good floor, and of a beautiful co¬
lour. In elegant houfes, the floors of this kind are
made of plafter of Paris, beaten and fifted, and mixed
with other ingredients. This may be coloured to any
hue by the addition of proper fubftances ; and, when
well worked and laid, makes a very beautiful floor.
Befides thefe, halls, and fome other ground rooms,
are paved or floored wflth marble or ftone $ and this ei¬
ther plain or dotted, or of a variety of colours ; but
the univerfal prattice of carpeting has, in a great mea-
fure fet afide the beftowung any ornamental workman-
ftiip upon floors. In country buildings, alfo, floors
are frequently made of bricks and tiles. Thefe, ac¬
cording to their Ihapes, may be laid in a variety
of figures } and they are alfo capable of fome variation
in colour, according to the nature of the earth from
which they were made. They may be laid at any
time ; but for thofe of earth or plafter, they are beft
made in the beginning of fummer, for the fake of their
drying.
Chap. III. Of the diflributlon of the Apartments of
HoufeSy •with other conveniences.
As houfes are built only for the fake of their inha¬
bitants, the diftribution of the apartments muft of ne-
1IZ ceflity be directed by the wray of life in which the in-
Plan of a habitants are engaged. In the country, this is com-
farm houfe. monly farming ; and here, befides the houfe for the
family, there is alfo neceffary a barn for the reception
of the produce of the ground, a liable for cattle, a
cart houfe for keeping the utenfils under cover, and
fheds for other ufes.—To accomplifli thefe purpofes,
let a piece of ground be taken of five times the extent
of the front of the houfe, and enciofed in the leaft ex-
Vo L. II. Part II.
E C T U R E. 585
penfive manner. Back in the centre of this let the Pra&ice.
houfe be placed, and in the front of the ground the 1
barn and the liable, with the adjoining iheds. Thefe
are to be fet one on each fide, to the extreme meafure
of the enciofed ground j they will thus fill up a part
of the entrance, and will leave all about the houfe
fome enciofed ground by way of yard. From the barn
to the liable may be extended a fence with a gate in
the middle, and this gate ought to front the door of
the houfe.
This much being fettled, the plan of the houfe and
out buildings may be made as follows. The door may
open into a plain brick paffage, at the end of w-hich
may be carried up a fmall ftaircafe. On one fide of
the paffage may be a common kitchen ; and on the c-
ther fide a better or larger room, which will ferve the
family by way of parlour. Beyond this may Hand on
one fide the pantry, and on the other the dairy room,
the laft being twice the fize of the former. They are
placed on the fame fide vuth the parlour, on account
of the heat of the kitchen, wdfich renders it improper
to be near them. On the kitchen fide, a brewdioufe
may very conveniently be placed. More rooms may
be added on the ground floor as occafion requires; and
the upper ftory is to be divided into bedchambers for
the family, wfith garrets over them for the fervants.—
A houfe of this kind is reprefented Plate LIU. fig. 1.;
and one of a fomewhat better kind, fig. 2. where a
private gentleman who has a fmall family may find
conveniency. Ir^
On Plate LIV. is reprefented a gentleman’s country-of an ele-
feat, built on a more elegant plan. Here the frontgant coun¬
may extend 65 feet in length, the depth in the centretry l£at’
being 40 feet, and in each of the wings 45. The of¬
fices may be difpofed in wings ; the kitchen in the
one, and the ftables in the other; both of which, how¬
ever, may correfpond in their front with the reft of
the building, which they ought alfo to do with one
another. Thefe wungs may have a projeftion of 1 ^
feet from the dwelling houfe, to which they ought to
be conne&ed, not by ftraight lines, but by curves as
reprefented fig. 2.
The beft proportion of thefe offices to a houfe ex¬
tending 65 feet in front, is 35 feet. If they are fmal-
ler, the houfe wall look gigantic ; if larger, they will •
leffen its afpeft. To a front of 35 feet, a depth of 48
is a very good proportion. There ought alfo to be a
covered communication between the dwelling houfe
and offices, which muft not appear only to be a plain
blank wall, but muft be ornamented with gates, as in
the figure. The arch by which the offices are joined
to the dwelling houfe muft be proportioned to the ex¬
tent of the buildings ; and there cannot be a better
proportion than five feet within the angles of the build¬
ings. By this means the wings, which have only a
projection of 13 feet, will appear to have one of 18,
and the light will be agreeably broken.
With regard to the internal diftribution of a 'houfe
of this kind, the under ftory may be conveniently di¬
vided into three rooms. The hall, which is in the
centre wall occupy the whole of the projecting part,
having a room on each fide. The length of the hall
muft be 24 feet and its breadth r2 : the rooms on
each fide of it muft be 16 feet long, and 1 1 wide. Of
thefe two front rooms, that on the right hand may be
4 E conveniently
586
Practice.
114
Another.
1T5
Of the
earl of
Wemyfs’s
hoafe.
A R C H I T
conveniently made a waiting room for perfons of bet¬
ter rank, and that on the left hand a dreffing room for
the mafter of the houfe. Behind the hall may run a
paffage of four feet and a half, leading to the apart¬
ments in the hinder part of the houfe and the ftair-
cafe. Thefe may be difpofed as follows : Direftly
behind the hall and this paffage the fpace may be oc¬
cupied by a faloon, whofe length is 24 feet and its
breadth 17. On the left hand of the paffage, behind
the hall, is to be placed the grand ftaircafe and as
it will not fill the whole depth, a pleafant common
parlour may terminate on that fide of the houfe. On
the other fide, the paffage is to lead to the door of
the great dining parlour, which may occupy the whole
fpace.
A plan of a houfe of the fame kind, but fomewhat
dift’erent in the diftribution, is reprefented below in
the fame plate. The front here extends 68 feet, and
the wings projedl 28 feet •, their depth is 48, and their
breadth 36. The hall may be 26 feet long and 17 broad.
On the left hand of the hall may be a waiting room
16 feet long and 10 broad 5 behind which maybe a
handfome dining room. The paffage into this waiting
room fhould be at the lower end of the hall 5 and it
mult have another opening into the room behind it.
On the right hand of the hall is the place of the great
llaircafe, for which a breadth of 16 feet three inches
is to be allowed. In the centre of the building, be¬
hind the hall, may be a drawing room 26 feet long
and 16 broad 5 and behind the ftaircafe will be room
for a common parlour of 16 feet fquare. The paffage
of communication between the houfe and wings may
be formed into colonnades in a cheap manner behind :
a flight of fteps, raifed with a fweep, occupying the
centre of each, and leading up to a door, and the co¬
vering being no more than a Ihed fupported by the
plained: and cheapeft columns.
The two wings now remain to be difpofed of. That
on the right hand may contain the kitchen, and offices
belonging to it, and the other the ftables. The front
of the right hand wing may be occupied by a kitchen
entirely, which will then be 30 feet long and 164-
wide ; or it may be made fmaller by fetting off a
fmall room to the right. Twenty-two feet by 16 wall
then be a good bignefs. The other room will then
have the fame depth of 16 feet, and the width to the
front may be 74. Beyond the kitchen may Hand the
ftaircafe, for which 74 feet will be a proper allow¬
ance j and to the right of this may be a fcullery 12
feet 10 inches deep from the back front by feven in
breadth. To the left of the ftair may be a fervants
hall 16 feet fquare, and behind that a larder 12 feet
10 by 14 feet 6. In the centre of the other wflng may
be a double coach-houfe : for which there Ihould be
allowed the whole breadth of the wing, with 10 feet
6 inches in the clear ; and on each fide of this may be
the ftables. The external decorations of the front and
wings will be better underftood from the figure than
they can be by any defcription.
Plate LV. fhowrs the plan and elevation of the houfe
of the earl of Wemyfs at Newmills. The propor¬
tions of the rooms are marked in the plan 5 and the
front, being decorated with columns of the Ionic or¬
der, will fufficiently {how in what manner any of the
E C T U R E. Part II.
five orders may be introduced w-ith propriety and ele- Practice,
gance. '“■"■"v
Chap. IV. Of Aquatic Buildings.
1. Of Bridges.
•
These are conftrufted either of w’cod or ftone ; of n(j
which the laft are evidently the ftrongeft and moil du¬
rable, and therefore, in all cafes, to be preferred where
the expence of erefling them can be borne. The pro¬
per fituation for them is eafily known, and requires no
explanation 5 the only thing to be obferved is, to make
them crofs the ftream at right angles, for the fake of
boats that pafs through the arches, with the current of
the river ; and to prevent the continual linking of the
ftream againft the piers, wffiich in a long courfe may
endanger their being damaged and deftroyed in the
end.
Bridges built for a communication of high roads,
ought to be fo ftrong and fubftantial as to be proof
againft all accidents that may happen, to have a free
entrance for carriages, afford an eafy paffage to the
waters, and be properly adapted for navigation, if the
river admits of it. Therefore the bridge ought to be
at leaft as long as the river is wide in the time of its
greateft flood : becaufe the flopping of the w'aters above
may caufe too great a fall, wffiich may prove danger¬
ous to the veffels, and occafion the under gravelling
the foundation of the piers and abutments j or, by re¬
ducing the paffage of the neater too much in time of
a great flood, it might break through the banks of the
river, and overflow" the adjacent country, which would
caufe very great damages ; or if this Ihould not hap¬
pen, the w’ater might rife above the arches, and en¬
danger the bridge to be overfet, as has happened in
many places.
YVhen the length of the bridge is equal to the breadth
of the river, wffiich is commonly the cafe, the current
is leffened by the fpace taken up by the piers \ for
wffiich reafon this thicknefs fhould be no more than is
neceffary to fupport the arches 5 and it depends, as
well as that of the abutments, on the width of the
arches, their thicknefs, and the height of the piers. Ir^
The form of the arch is commonly femicircular; but Properform
when they are of any great wfldth, they are made el-of arches,
liptical, becaufe they would dtherwife become too
high. This has been done at the Pont Royal at Paris,
where the middle arch is 75 feet, and its height would
have been 37.5 feet, inftead of wffiich it is only 24 by
being made elliptical.
Another advantage of much more importance arifes
from the oval figure, wffiich is, that the quantity of ma-
fonry of the arches is reduced in the fame proportion
as the radius of the arch is to its height. That is, if
the radius is 36 feet, and the height of the arch 24,
or three-fourths of the radius, the quantity of mafonry
of the arches is likewdfe reduced to three-fourths;
wffiich muft leffen the expence of the bridge confide-
rably. Notwdthftanding thefe advantages, however,
the lateft experiments have determined fegments of cir¬
cles to be preferable to curves of any other kind } and
of thefe the femicircle is undoubtedly the belt, as pref-
fing moft perpendicularly on the piers.
When
Pan II. ARC H I T
Practice. Wlien the height of the piers Is about fix feet, and
  v ' the arches are circular, experience has (hown lays Mr
Belidor, that it is fufficient to make the thickness ot
the piers the fixth part of the width of the arch, and
two feet more * that is, the thicknefs of the piers of
an arch of 36 feet, ought to be eight feet > thole of
T e an arch of 48 feet, to be 10.
Thicknefs When the arches are of a great width, the thickne s
of tht piers, of the piers may be reduced to the fixtb part ot that
width ; but the oleprefiion of the two feet is not done
at once that is, in an arch of above 48 feet, 3 mches
are taken off for every 6 feet of increafe of the width
of the arch. For inftance, the thicknefs of the piers
fupporting an arch of 72 feet wide, thouid be 14 feet,
according to the preceding rule 5,but by taking oft
3 inches for every 6 feet, above an arch of 48 wide,
the thicknefs of the piers is reduced to 13 feet •, con-
fenuently, by following the fame rule, the thicknefs
of the piers fupporting an arch of 16 fathoms wide,
will be 16 feet $ all the others above that width are
the fixth part of the width.
After this, Mr Belidor gives a rule for finding the
thicknefs of the piers which fupport elliptic arcnes,
and makes them ftronger than the former the abm>
ments he makes one fixth part more than the piers of
the largeft arch. But it is plain that thefe rules are
infufficient, being merely guefs- work, determined from
fome works that have been executed.
’ The thicknefs of the arch-ftones is not to be deter¬
mined by theory, nor do thofe authors who have mit¬
ten on the fubjecf agree amongft themfelves. Mr Gau¬
tier, an experienced engineer, in his works, makes the
length of the arch-ftones, of an arch 24 feet wide, two
feet-, of an arch 45, 60, 75, 90 wide, to be 3, 4, 5,
(5, feet long relpeftively, when they are hard and du¬
rable, and fomething longer when they aie of a loft
nature : on the contrary, Mr Belidor lays, they ought
to be always one twenty-fourth part of the width of the
arch, whether the ftone be bard or loft ^ becaufe, if
they are fbft, they weigh not fo much.
But that the length of the arch-ftones fhould be but
a foot in an arch of 24 w^e» 3> 4> arches of
48, 72, 96 feet, feems incredible ^ becaufe the great
weight of the arches would crulh them to pieces, by
the preffure againft one another'. and therefore Mr
Gautier’s rule appears preferable. As be made the
length of the arch-ftones to increafe in a flower pro¬
portion, from 10 to 4 H feet wide, than in thofe above
that width, we imagine that the latter will be fufti-
dent for all widths, whether they are great or little j
therefore wre (hall fuppofe the length of the arch-ftones
of 30 feet in width to be two feet, and to increafe one
foot in 15 ; that is, 3 feet in an arch of 4 5 feet •, 4, q, 6,
iu an arch of 6®, 75, and 90 feet: and fo the reft in
the lame proportion.
119
Of the arch-
ftones.
E C T U R E.
Tuhle containing the thicinefs of pters of bt idget.
ao
4-574
a5
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
Bo
I5
90
95
5.490
6. .86
15
18
4-918 5.165
5-9I3
6.8x6
7.258
8.404
8.965
9.805
10.640
7.786
8.691
9-579
6.216
7.225
8.200
5-350 | 5-491
6.455 6-645
7-513
7.746
24
5.6x0 5.698
6.801
7-930
7-939
8.102
9.148
10077
10454
xx.245
11.400
12.265
i3“4
14.000
14-747
I5-5I3
16.373
10.987
11.882
8.53a
8.807
9-°37
9-233
9523 ! 9-835 10.101 jio.328
10.489 (10.837 jn.136 ji 1-394
n-435 jii-8i7
12.146 112.434
X2.364 (13-019 13-149 ji3-ax8
t2-7r8
X3.025 ! 13-648
13.281 13-7*3
14.185 ! 14-65 4
13.869
I4-5I7
I4-705
I5-336
15-542
16.328
17.201
16.234
17.041
15.049 15 573
I5-965
16.480
14.109 114.314
15.082 15-433
16.011 16.400
16.940
17-354
16.842
17.381
17.674
17.929
x7.184 17-826 !i8.772
100 17.991 x8.848 ji9-6io
18.578
19.438
20.293
17.864
18.237
19-157
18.298
18.742
19.679
20-036 '20.577
19.1c
20.152
21.06 8
20.908 {21.466 21 976
120
The firft horizontal line expreffes the height of
piers in feet, from fix to 24 feet, each mcreafing by^
three j the firft vertical column, the width of arches
from 20 to 100 feet, for every five feet.
The other columns exprefs the thicknefs of piers m
feet and decimals, according to the refpeaive height
at the head of the column, and the width of the arch
againft it in the firft column. t ,
Thus, for example, let the width of the arch be 00
feet, and the height of the piers x 2 j then the number
12.718, under 12, and againft 60, expreffes the thick¬
nefs of the piers, that is 12 feet and 8.6 inches : vre
muft obferve again, that the length of the key-ftone is
tw7o feet in an arch of 30 feet wide ; 3, 4, 5, 6, in an
arch of 45, 60, 75, 9° ’ tbat of 20 feetv-lde’ °!\e [00}
four inches; and the length of any other width is
found by adding four inches for every five feet in width.
As this table contains the thickneffes of pieis in re~
fp.e£t to arches that are commonly ufed in practice, we
imagined, that to carry it farther would be needle is;
becaufe the difference between the thicknefs oi the
piers of any contiguous arches being but imail, thole
between any two marked here, may be made equa^ to
half the fum of the next below and above it : thus the
thicknefs of the piers of an arch 52 or 53 feet wide is
nearly equal to 10.222, half the fum of the tmekneues
9.085 and 10.64 of the arches 50 and 55 feet wide,
when the height of the piers is fix feet- _
Reftangular piers are feldom ufed but in bridges over Form
fmall rivers. In all others they projeft the bridge1
by a triangular prifm, which prefents an edge to the
flream, in order to divide the water more eafily, and to
TT ^ r*re vent
5S8
architecture.
Part IE
Praftice. prevent the Ice from ftieltering there, as well as vcffels
from running foul againft them : that edge is termi¬
nated by the adjacent iurfaces at right angles to each
other at Weflminfter bridge, and makes an acute angle
at the Pont Royal of about 60 degrees; but of late the
French terminate this angle by two cylindric furfaces,
whofe bafes are arcs of 60 degrees, in all their new
bridges.
122
Slope of the
bridge on
each tide.
When the banks of the rivers are pretty high, the
bridge is made quite level above, and all the arches of
an equal width •, but where they are low, or for the
fake of navigation, a large arch is made in the middle
of the ftream, then the bridge is made higher in the
middle than at the ends: in this cafe, the dope muft
be made eafy and gradual on both lides, fo as to form
above one continued curve line, otherwife it appears
difagreeable to the eye. Mr Belidor will have the
defcent of that dope to be one-twenty-fourth part of
the length 5 but this is undoubtedly too much, as one-
fiftieth part of the length is quite fufficient for the de-
123 fcent.
Width, &c. The width commonly allowed to fmall bridges is 30
feet : but in large ones near great towns, thefe 30 feet
are allowed clear for horfes and carriages, befides a ban¬
quet at each dde for foot padfengers of 6 to 9 feet each,
raifed about a foot above the common road 5 the para¬
pet walls on each fide are about 18 inches thick, and
4 feet high *, they generally projeft the bridge with a
cornice underneath : fometimes balluftrades of done or
iron are placed upon the parapet, as at Wettminfter;
but this is only pradtifed where a bridge of a great
length is made near the capital of a country.
The ends of bridges open from the middle of the two
large arches with two wings, making an angle of 45
degrees with the reft, in order to make their entrance
more free and eafy: thefe wings are fupported by the
fame arches of the bridge next to them, being conti¬
nued in the manner of an arch, of which one pier is
much longer than the other.
How the work is to be earned on.
Methods of As the laying the foundation of the piers is the moft
laying the difficult part of the w-hole work, it is neceffary we
foundation. ^0^44 begin with an eafy cafe, that is, when the depth
of the water does not exceed 6 or 8 feet ; and then
proceed to thofe which may happen in a greater depth
125 of water. i
By batar- Qne of the abutments, with the adjacent piers, is en-
deaus. cl0fed by a dyke called batardeau by the French, of a
fufficient width for the work, and room for the work¬
men. This batardeau is made by driving a double row
of piles, whofe diftance is equal to the depth of water,
and the piles in each row are 3 feet from each other :
they are fattened together on the outfide by bonds of
6 by 4 inches : this being done, frames of about 9
feet wide are placed on the infide to receive the boards
which are to form the enclofure : the two uprights of
thefe frames are twyo boards of an inch and a half thick,
lharpened below to be driven into the ground, and fad¬
ed together by double bonds, one below and the other
above, each feparated by the thicknefs of the uprights;
thefe bonds ferve to Aide the boards between : after
thefe frames have been driven into the ground as hard
as can be, then the boards themfelves are likewife dri¬
ven in till they reach the firm ground underneath.
Between every two piles tie-beams are fattened to Pr»-<ftice. ^
the bonds of the piles, to fallen the infide Vretil to the
outfide one ; thefe tie-beams are let into the bonds and
bolted to the adjacent piles : this being done, the bot¬
tom is cleared from the loofe fand and gravel, by a
machine like thofe ufed by ballaft-heavers ; and then
well prepared clay is rammed into this coffer very tight
and firm, to prevent the water from oozing through.
Sometimes thefe enclofures are made with piles omy
driven clofe to each other j at others, tne piles are
notched or dove-tailed one into the other ; but tne
moft ufual method is to drive piles with grooves in
them, 9 or 6 feet diftant from each other, and boards
are let down between them.
This being done, pumps and other engines are ufed
to draw the water out of the enclofures, fo as to be
quite dry ; then the foundation is dug, and the ftones
are laid with the ufual precautions, obferving to keep
fome of the engines always Handing, in order to draw
out the water that may ooze through the batardeau.
The foundation being cleared, and every thing ready
to begin the work, a courfe of ftones is laid ■, the out¬
fide all round with the largeft ftretchers and headers -
that can be had, and the infide filled with alhlers well
jointed, the whole laid in terrafs mortar : the facings
are crampt together, and fet in lead $ and fome cramps
are alfo ufed to fatten the facings with the infide. The
fame manner is to be obferved throughout all the
courfes to the height of low water mark 5 after which
the facings alone are laid in terrafs mortar, and the in¬
fide with the beft of the common fort. When the
foundation is carried to the height of low water mark,
or to the height where the arches begin, then the ffiaft
or middle wall is to be carried up nearly to the height
of the arches, and there left Handing till all the pieis
are finifhed, in order that the mafonry may be fuffi-
ciently dry and fettled before the arches are begun. i2<j
As the piers end generally with an arch at each end, Proper
it is cuftomary to lay the foundation in the fame man-b0™oithc
nex*: which is not fo well as to continue the bafe left-
angular quite to the ends of the piers, and as high as
low water mark •, both becaufe the foundation becomes
then fo much broader, and alfo becaufe the water vill
not be able to get under it: for when the curient fets
againft a flat furface, it drives the fand and mud againft:
it fo as to cover it entirely 5 whereas if a fliarp edge be
prefented to the ftream, it carries every thing away,
and expofes the foundation to the continual aftion of
the water, which in courfe of time muft deftroy it.
After the intervals between the arches aie idled up
with ftones laid in a regular manner without mortar,
and the gravel is laid over them } two drains or gutters
are to be made lengthwife over the bridge, one on each
fide next to the foot-path, about fix feet wide and a
foot deep ; which being filled with fmall pebble ftones,
ferve to carry off the rain water that falls on the bridge,
and to prevent its filtering through the joints of the
arches, as often happens. „ , . , **7 .
The former method of laying the foundation by Method of
means of batardeaus is very expenfive, and often meets w^h ”|ers>
with great difficulties : for when the depth of 'wat(r 18 aswasprac-
8 feet or more, it is fcarcely poffible to make the ba-tjfe(i at
tardeaus fo tight as to prevent the water from oozing Meftmin-
through them ; and in that cafe the number of engines iter badge.
required, as well as the hands to work them, becomes
2. ' very
Part II. ARC H I T
Praftice. very extenfive j and if part of the batardeau fhould
u.ii. iv i.m / break by forne extraordinary wind or tide, toe work¬
men would be expofed to very great danger.
The next and bell method therefore is to build with
coffers, wdien it is prafticable, fuch as were ufed at
Weftminfter bridge. Here the height of water was 6
feet at a medium wdien lowed, and the tide icfe about
l o fee*- at a medium alfo : fo that the greated depth
of water was about 16 feet. At the place where one
of the piers of the middle or great arch wras to be,
the workmen began to drive piles of about 13 or 14
inches fquare, and 34 feet long, fhod with iron, fo as
to enter into the gravel with more eafe, and hooped
above to prevent their fplitting in driving them : thefe
piles wrere driven as deep as could be done, which wras
13 or 14 feet below' the furface of the bed of the ri¬
ver, and 7 feet diftant from each other, parallel to the
fhort ends of the pier, and at about 30 feet diftant from
them : the number of thefe piles was 34, and their in¬
tent to prevent any veffels or barges from approaching
the work 5 and in order to hinder boats from paffing
betw'een them, booms wTerc placed fo as to rife and fall
with the water.
This being done, the ballaft-men began to dig the
foundation under the w'ater of about 6 feet deep, and
5 w'ider all round than the intended coffer w'as to be,
w'ith an eafy {lope to prevent the ground from falling
in : in order to prevent the current from wTa(hing the
fand into the pit, ftrort grooved piles were driven be¬
fore the two ends and part of the Tides, not above 4
feet higher than low water mark, and about 15 feet
diftant from the coffer: between thefe piles rows of
boards were let into the grooves dowm to the bed of the
river, and fixed there.
The bottom of the coffer w'as made of a ftrong grate,
confifting of two row’s of large timbers, the one long-
wTays, and the other croffways, bolted together with
W'ooden trunnels ten feet wider than the intended foun¬
dation. The fides of the coffer w'ere made wdth fir tim¬
bers laid horizontally clofe one over another, pinned
with oaken trunnels, and framed together at the cor¬
ners, excepting at the two faliant angles, w'here they
were (ecured wdth proper irons, fo that the one half
might be loofened from the other if it fliould be thought
neceflary ; thefe fides were lined on the infide as w’ell
as on the outfide with three inch planks placed verti¬
cally j the thicknefs of thofe fides was 18 inches at the
bottom, reduced to 15 above, and they wxre 16 feet
high 5 befides, knee timbers were bolted at the angles,
in order to fecure them in the ftrongeft manner. The
fides w'ere faftened to the bottom by 28 pieces of tim¬
ber on the outfide, and 18 w'ithin, called about
8 inches broad, and 3 or 4 inches thick, reaching and
lapping over the ends of the fides : the low'er part of
thefe ftraps had one fide cut dove-tail faflrion, in order
to fit the mortifes made near the edge of the bottom
to receive them, and were kept in their places by iron
wedges 5 which being drawn out when the fides w'ere
to be taken away, gave liberty to clear the ftraps from
the mortifes.
Before the coffer was launched, the foundation w'as
examined, in order to know’ wdrether it w'as level ; for
vhich purpofe feveral gauges were made, each of which
c<ofifted of a ftone of about 15 inches fquare and three
♦-hip. wdh a wooden pole in the middle of about 18
ji c T u R E.
589
feet long. The foundation being levelled and the cof¬
fer fixed direftly over the place with cables faftened to
the adjacent piles, the mafons laid the firft courfe. of
the ftones for the foundation w’ithin itw’hich being
finiftied, a fluice made in the fide wTas opened near the
time of low water; on which the coffer funk to the
bottom ; and if it did not fet level, the fluice was {hut,
and the water pumped out, fo as to make it float till
fuch time as the foundation was levelled : then the ma-
Pracftice.
fons crampt the ftones of the firft courfe, and laid a ie-
cond y which being likewile crampt, a third courfe wTas
laid : then the fluice being opened again, proper care
w'as taken that the coffer fhould fettle in its due place.
The ftone work being thus raifed to within two feet of
the common low water mark, about two hours beroie
low water the fluke W'as (hut, and the water pumped
out fo far as that the mafons could lay the next courfe
of ftone, which they continued to do till the water was
rilen fo high as to make it unfafe to proceed any fur¬
ther : then they let off the w’ork, and opened the fluice
to let in the water. Thus they continued to w'ork
night and day at low water till they had carried their
work fome feet higher than the low w’ater mark : af¬
ter this, the fides of the coffer were loofened from the
bottom, w’hich made them float j and then w'ere car¬
ried aftiore to be fixed to another bottom, in order to
ferve for the next pier.
It muft be obferved, that the coffer being no higher
than 16 feet, which is equal to the greateft depth of
w’ater, and the foundation being 6 feet under the bed
of the river 5 the coffer was therefore 6 feet under wa¬
ter w'hen the tide was in ; but being loaded with three
courfes of ftones, and well fecured with ropes faftened
to the piles, it could not move from its place. By ma¬
king it no higher, much labour and expence were fav-
ed ; yet it anfwered the intent full as well as ii it had
been high enough to reach above the higheft flood.
The pier being thus carried on above low water
mark, the mafons finifhed the reft of it during the in¬
tervals of the tides in the ufual way 5 and after all the
piers and abutments w'ere finiftied in a like manner, the
arches were begun and completed as mentioned be¬
fore : the whole bridge was built in about feven years,
W’ithout any accidents happening either in the work or
to the workmen, which is feldom the cafe in works of
this nature. _ I2§
It may be obferved, that all the piers were built Materials
with folid Portland ftone, fome of which weighed four employed,
tons. The arch ftones were likewife of the fame fort:
but the reft of the mafonry was finiftied with Kentifln
rag-Jiones; and the paths for foot paffengers were pa¬
ved with purbec, which is the hardeft ftone to be had
in England, excepting Plymouth marble. I29
This method of building bridges is certainly the ea- This me-
fieft and cheapeft that can be thought of, but cannot thod fome-
be ufed in many cafes: when the foundation is fo bad tlr"1^si,I™Jlc
as not to be depended upon without being piled, or thepr‘1'" Ka ie'
depth of water is very great, with a ftrong current and
no tide, it cannot then be pradlifed. For if piles are
to be ufed, it will be next to impoflible to cut them oft'
in the fame level five or fix feet below the bed of the
river, notwithftanding that faws have been invented for
that purpofe : becaufe if they are cut off feparately, it~
will be a hard matter to do it fo nicely that the one
{hall not exceed the other in height j and if this is not
done,
\
i
SQO A R C H I T
Pnuft’-ee. done, tKp grating or bottom of the coffer will not be
equally fupported, whereby the foundation becomes
precarious: neither can they be cut off altogether j
for piles are to be driven as far as the bottom of the
coffer extends, which at Weftminder bridge was 27
feet; the law mult have three feet play, wdiich makes
the total length of the faw 30 feet; now, if either the
water is deeper than it is there, or the arches are wi¬
der, the faw muff ftill be longer, fo that this method is
impracticable in any fuch cafes.
In a great depth of wrater that has a ftrong current
and no tide, the coffers mult reach above the water,
which makes them very expenlive, and unwieldy to
manage, as well as very difficult to be fecured in their
places, and kept Heady j f© that there is no probabili-
130 ty of uling them in fuch a cafe.
Ruffian me- In fome cafes, where there is a great depth of water,
ihotl. ancj the bed of the river is tolerably level, or where it
can be made fo by any contrivance, a very ftrong frame
of timber, about four times as large as the bafe of the
piers may be let down with Hones upon it round the
edges to make it fink : after fixing it level, piles muff
be driven about it to keep it in its place ; and then the
foundation may be laid in coffers as before, which are
to be kept Heady by means of ropes tied to the piles.
This method has frequently been ufed in Ruffia j
and though the bed of the river is not very folid, yet
ffich a grate, when once^ell fettled vdth the weight of
the pier upon it, wull be as firm as if piles had been
driven under the foundation ; but to prevent the water
from gulling under the foundation, and to fecure it
againlt all accidents, a row of dove-tail piles muft be
driven quite round the grating : this precaution being
taken, the foundation will be as fecure as any that can
j 31 be made,
French me- The French engineers make ufe of another method
thod. jn raifing the foundations of mafonry under water;
which is, to drive a row of piles round the intended
place, nearer to, or farther from, each other, accord¬
ing as the wrater is more deep or {hallow : thefe piles
being ftrongly bound together in feveral places with
horizontal tie-beams, ferve to fupport a row of dove¬
tail piles driven within them : when this is done, and
all well fecured according to the nature of the fitua-
tion and circumftances, they dig the foundation by
means of a machine with fcoops, invented for that
purpofe, until they come to a folid bed of gravel or
clay ; or if the bed of the river is of a foft confidence
to a great depth, it is dug only to about fix feet, and a
grate of timber is laid upon it, which is well fecured
with piles driven into the oppoiite corners of each
fquare, not minding whether they exceed the upper
furface of the grate much or little.
When the foundation is thus prepared, they make
a kind of mortar called beten, which confifts of twelve
parts of pozolano or Dutch terrafs, fix of good fand,
nine of unflaked lime, the beft that can be had, thir¬
teen of ftone fplinters not exceeding the bignefs of an
egg, and three parts of tile dull, or cinders, or elfe
feales of iron out of a forge : this being well worked
together muft be left Handing for about 24 hours, or
till it becomes fo hard as not to be feparated without a
pick-axe.
This mortar being thus prepared, they throw into
the coffer a bed of ruble ftone, not very large, and
E C T U R E. • Part II,
fpread them all over the bottom as nearly level as they PraeTce.
can j they then fink a box full of this hard mortar,
broken into pieces, till it come within a little of the
bottom; the box is fb contrived as to be overfet or
turned upfide down at any depth j which being done,
the pieces of mortar foften, and fo fill up the vacant
fpaces between the ftones $ by thefe means they fink
as much of it as will form a bed of about 12 inches
deep all over ; then they throw in another bed of ftone,
and continue alternately to throw one of mortar and
one of ftone till the work approaches near the furface
of the water where it is levelled, and then the reft is
finiftied with ftoues in the ufual manner,
Mr Belidor fays, in the fecond part of his Hydrau¬
lics, vol, ii. p, 188, that Mr Millet de Montvillc hav¬
ing idled a cofter containing 27 cubic feet, with mafon¬
ry made of this mortar, and funk it into the fea, it was
there left Handing for two months, and when it was
taken out again it was harder than ftone itfelf. 5,
We have hitherto mentioned fuch fituations only Impoffibili.
where the ground is of foft nature : but where it is ty of build-
rocky and uneven, all the former methods prove inef-ln£ km,£es
feftual; nor indeed has there yet been any one propof-”1,^.^6
ed which can be always ufed upon fuch occafions,
efpecially in a great depth of water. When the water
is not fo deep but that the unevennefs of the rock can
be perceived by the eye, piles ftrongly fliod with iron
may be raifed and let fall down, by means of a machine,
upon the higher parts, fo as to break them off piece
by piece, till the foundation is tolerably even, efpecial¬
ly when the rock is not very hard j which being done
either this or any other way that can be thought of,
a coffer is made without any bottom, which is let
down and well fecured, fo as not to move from its
place : to make it fink, heavy ftones {liquid be fixed on
the outfide j then ftrong mortar and ftones muft be
thrown into it; and if the foundation is once brought
to a level, large hewn ftones may be let down fo as to
lie flat and even : by thefe means the work may be
carried on quite up to the furface of-the water. But
when the watter is fo deep, or the rock fo hard as not
to be levelled, the foundation muft be founded, fo as to
get nearly the rifings and fallings; then the lower part
of the coffer muft: be cut nearly in the fame manner,
and the reft finiftied as before. It muft however be ob-
ferved, that we fuppofe a poffibility of finking a cof¬
fer t but where this cannot be done, no method that
%ve know of will anfwer. t - 3
Among the aquatic buildings of the ancients none Trajan’s
appears to have been more magnificent than Trajan's bridge over
bridge, Dion Caffius gives the following account of
it: “ Trajan built a bridge over the Danube, whichtn'u u‘
in truth one cannot fufficiently admire j for though all
the wtprks of Trajan are very magnificent, yet this far
exceeds all the others: the piers were 20 in number,
of fquare ftone : each of them ijo feet high above the -
foundation, 60 feet in breadth, and diftant from one
another 170 feet, Though the expence of this work
muft have been exceeding great, yet it becomes more
extraordinary by the river’s being very rapid, and its
bottom of a foft nature : where the bridge was built,
was the narrowed part of the river thereabout, for in
moft others it is double or treble this breadth j and al¬
though on this account it became fo much the deepn'
and the more rapid, yet no other place was fo fuitahe
/or
Part II. A R C H I 1
Praftice. for this undertaking. The arches were afterwards
1— v broken dowrn by Adrian } but the piers are ilill re¬
maining, which feem as it were to teiiity that there
is nothing which human ingenuity is not able to el-
fea.” The whole length then of this bridge was
1590 yards } fome authors add, that it was built in
one fummer, and that Apollodorus of Damafcus was
the architect, who left behind him a defcription of this
' 134 great work.
Wooden Where Itone bridges cannot be erected on account
bridges. of the expenc?, very ftrong and durable ones may be
conftru£ted of wood : in which cafe they ought to be
fo framed, as that all the parts may prefs upon one
another, like the arch of a done bridge •, and thus, in-
ftead of being weakened by great weights paffing over
them, they will become the ftronger. How this is to
be accomplilhed, will be better underftood from the fi¬
gure at bottom of Plate LIV. which reprefents a wooden
bridge conftru&ed after this manner, than it can be by
any defcription.
2. Of Harbours.
Situation fn thefe, the firlt thing to be confidered is the fitu-
proper for ation , which may be fome large creek or bafon of wa-
harbours. ter, in or near the place where the harbour is intended
to be made, or at the entrance of a large river, or near
the fea : for a harbour Ihould never be dug entirely out
of dry land, unlefs upon fome extraordinary occafions,
where it is impoffible to do otherwife, and yet a har¬
bour is abfolutely neceflary. When a proper place is
found, before it is fixed upon, it mud be confidered
whether drips can lie there fafe in dormy weather, efpe-
cially when thofe winds blow which are mod danger¬
ous upon that coad ; whether there be any hills, rifing
ground, or high buildings, that will cover it } in thefe
cafes, the fituation is very proper : but if there be no¬
thing already that will cover the drips, it mud be
obferved whether any covering can be made at a mode¬
rate expence, otherwife it would be ufelefs to build a
harbour there.
The next thing to be confidered is, whether there
be a fufficient depth of water for large drips to enter
with fafety, and lie there without touching the ground 5
and if not, whether the entrance and infide might not
be made deeper at a moderate expence: or, in cafe a
fufircient depth of water is not to be had for large
flaps, whether the harbour would not be ufeful for
fmall merchantmen ; for fuch a one is often of great
advantage, when fituated upon a coad pruch frequent¬
ed by fmall coading veflels.
The form of the harbour mud be determined in fuch
a manner, that the flaps which come in when it is
dormy weather may lie fafe, and fo as there may be
fuflicient room for as many as pafs that way: the
depths of water where the piers are to be built mud
be taken at every 10, 15, or 20 feet didance, and
marked upon piles driven here and there, in order
that the workmen may be diiedled in laying the
foundation.
Materials. This being done, it mud be confidered what kind of
materials are to ufed, whether done, brick, or wood.
When dones are to be had at a moderate price, they
ought to be preferred, becaufe the work will be much
• dronger, more lading, and need fewer repairs, than if
made with, any other materials; but when dones are
E C T U R E. . 591
fcarce, and the expence becomes greater than what is Fra dike. ^
allowed for building the harbour, the foundation may
be made of done as high as low water mark, and the
red finidied with brick. If this manner of building
Ihould dill be too expenfive, wood mud be ufed ; that
is, piles are driven as clofe as is thought neceffary 5
which being fadened together by crols bars, and co¬
vered with drong oaken planks, form a kind of coder,
which is filled with all kinds of dones, chalk, and
fliingles. _ # _ 137
The manner of laying the foundation in different French me-
depths of water, and in various foils, requires particu-thod of
lar methods to be followed. When the water is VerybuikUuS’
deep, the French throw in a great quantity of dones at
random, fo as to form a much larger bale than would
be required upon dry land 5 this they continue to w tth-
in 3 or 4 feet of the furface of the water, where they
lay the dones in a regular manner, till the foundation
is raifed above the water : they then lay a great weight
of dones upon it, and let it Aand during the winter to
fettle ; as likewife to fee whether it is firm, and refills
the force of the waves and winds : after that, they fi-
nilh the fuperdrudlure with large dones in the ufual
manner. _ 138
As this method requires a great quantity of dones, A. prefer-
it can be pradlifed only in places where Hones are inab^e 01-e°
plenty j and therefore the following one is much pre¬
ferable. A coffer is made with dove-tail piles, of about
30 yards long, and as wide as the thicknels of the
foundation is to be 5 then the ground is dug and level¬
led, and the wall is built writh the bed mortar.
As foon as the mortar is tolerably dry, thofe piles
at the end of the wall are drawn out, the fide row's are
continued to about 30 yards farther, and the ena en-
clofed then the foundation is cleared, and the dones
laid as before. But it mud be obferved, that the end
of the foundation finiflied is led rough, in order that
the part next to it may incorporate with it in a proper
manner j but if it is not very dry, it will incline that
way of itfelf, and bind with the mortar that is thrown
in next to it: this method is continued till the whole
pier is entirely finiflied.
It mud likewife be obferved, that the piers are not
made of one continued folid wall } becaufe in deep wa¬
ter it would be too expenfive : for which reafon, two
walls are built parallel to each other? and the interval
betw'een them is filled up with fhingle, chalk, and done.
As thefe walls are in danger of being thrud out or
overfet by the corps in the middle, together with the
great wreight laid at times on the pier, they are tied
or bound together by crois walls at every 30 or 40
yards didance, by which they fupport each other in a
firm and drong manner.
In a country where there is great plenty of flones,
piles may be driven in as deep as they w'ill go, at about
tw'O or three feet didance *, and when the foundation is
funk and levelled, large dones may be let down, which
will bed themfelves : but care mud be taken to lay
them clofe, and fo as to have no two joints over each
other; and when the wall is come within reach, the
dones mud be crampt together. 139
Another method pradlifed is to build in coders much Another
after the fame manner as has been done in building the
piers of Wedminder bridge ; but as in this cafe the
ends of the coffers are left in the wall, and prevent their
joining
/
59*
A R C H I T
Pra<5lice.
140
Ruffian me
tfiod.
141
Thicknefs
of piers.
joining fo well as to be water tight, the water that pe¬
netrates through and enters into the corps may occa-
lion the rvall to burft and to tumble down. Another
inconvenlency ariling from this manner of building is,
that as there are but few places without worms, which
will deftroy wood wherever they can find it; by their
means the water is let into the pier, and confequently
makes the work liable to the fame accident as has been
mentioned above.
To prevent thefe inconveniencies, the bell method is
to take the wmod away, and joggle the ends of the wralls
together with large ftones, pouring terrafs mortar into
the joints 5 when this is done, the water between the
two w’alls may be pumped out, and the void Ipace filled
up with lloue and Ihingle as ufual; or if thefe joggles
cannot be made w'ater tight, fome dove-tail piles mull
be driven at each end as clofe to the wall as can be
done, and a ftrong fail cloth put on the outfide of them,
which, when the water is pumped out, wall itick fo clofe
to the piles and wrall, that no w’ater can come in. This
method is commonly ufed in Ruffia.
The thicknefs of a pier depends on two confidera-
tions : it ought to be both fuch as may be able to refill
the Ihock of the waves in llormy weather j and alfo to
be of a fufficient breadth above, that Ihips may be la¬
den or unladen whenever it is thought neceiTary. Now,
becaufe the fpecific gravity of fea water is about one
half that of brick, and as 2 to 5 in comparifon of
Rone j and fince the preffure of Ragnated w^ater againR
any furface is equal to the weight of a prifm of water
whofe altitude is the length of that furface, and wThofe
bafe is a right-angled ifofceles triangle, each of the
equal fides being equal to the depth of the water j
therefore a pier built with bricks, whofe thicknefs is
equal to the depth of the water, will weigh about four
times as much as the preffure of the water againR it;
and one of Rone of the fame breadth, about fix times
and a quarter as much. Now this is not the force to
be confidered, fince this preffure is the fame within as
without the pier: but it is that force with w’hich the
waves Rrike againR the piers, and that depends on the
weight and velocity of the waves, which can hardly
be determined ; becaufe they vary according to the
different depths of water, the diRance from the
Ihore, and according to the tides, winds, and other
caufes. Confequently the proper thicknefs of the
E C T U R E. Partir.
piers cannot be determined by any other means than Practice,
by experience. v ~ "l"‘>
Pra&itioncrs fuppofe, that if the thicknefs of a pier
is equal to the depth of the water, it is fufficient j but
for a greater fecurity they allow 2, 3, or 4 feet more.
This might probably do, if piers were built with folid
Rones crampt together j but as this is hardily ever the
cafe, and on the contrary, as the infide is filled up with
Ihingle, chalk, or other loofe materials, their rule is
not to be depended upon •, befides it makes the fpace
above too narrow for lading and unlading the ffiips,
unlefs in a great depth of water; fo that it does not
appear that their method can be followed, excepting in a
very few cafes where the water has but very little motion.
When Rone can be had, no other materials fliould
be ufed, becaufe they being of a larger bulk than brick,
will better refiR the waves by their own weight, till
fuch time as the mortar is grown hard j for after this
is effedled, brick will refiR better againR the a&ion of
fea water than foft Rones.
The wall mufl be built with terrafs mortar from the
bottom to the height of low water mark, and the reR
finiffied with cinder or tile-dufl mortar, which has been
found fufficiently good in thofe places where the wall
is ■wet and dry alternately. The upper part of the
pier fliould be paved with flat hewn Rones laid in Rrong
mortar, in order to prevent any water from penetrat¬
ing into it: iron rings ought alfo to be fixed here and
there at proper difiances, to faflen the ffiips, and pre¬
vent them from Rriking againR the pier when agitated
by the vraves.
Wooden fenders or piles fliould be driven at the in¬
fide clofe to the wall, and crampt to it with iron, to
prevent the ffiips from touching them, and from being
worn by the continual motion. Where the fea breaks
againR the piers with great violence, breakers ffiould
be made at proper diflances ; that is, two rows of piles
are driven nearly at right angles to the piers for the
length of about 1 2 or 15 feet, and at about 8 or 10
feet diflant from each other; and then another to join
the two former : thefe piles being covered with planks,
and the infide being filled with ffiingles and ruble Rones,
then the top is paved with Rones of about a foot in
length, let longwife to prevent the ivaves from tearing
them up. This precaution is abfolutely neceffary where
the water ruflies in very ffrongly.
ARC
Architec- Military j^rchitecturr, the fame with what is other-
ture wife called fortification. See Fortification.
11. . Naval Architecture, the art of building Riips.
Architn- gee ^Aiding.
r C “1U"' . ARCHITRAVE, in ArchiteBure, that part of a
column which lies immediately upon the capital, being
the loweR member of the entablature. See Plate
XXXIX.
Over a chimney, this member is called the man¬
tle-pieceand over doors or windows, the hyper-
thyron.
ARCHITRICLINUS, in Antiquity, the mafter or
diredor of a feaR, charged with the order and eco-
A R C
nomy of it, the covering and uncovering of the tables, Archivault.
the command of the fervants, and the like. v—-y—w
The architriclinus was fometimes called fervus tnch-
niarcha, and by the Greeks i. e. prcegijlalor,
ox foretafier. Potter alfo takes the architriclinus for
the fame with the fympofiarcha.
ARCHIVAULT, in ArchiteBure, implies the in¬
ner contour of an arch, or a band adorned with mould¬
ings, running over the faces of the arch Rones, and
bearing upon the impofls. It has only a fingle face in
the Tufcan order, two faces crowned in the Doric and
Ionic, and the fame mouldings as the architrave in the
Corinthian and Compofite.
ARCHIVE,
Plate XXXV11
'<77 y«"
'7' 7'/<//'
'7/7 Vi
///?*// frt/r?
//r<> r> /<e/
S/rur/icriA
r i'U :y
///2r//i'Av/t.//tJr /.l Jrtr/jfiSfrrfrr//
S'' s</ '-
'S/tc /f/v/ Jo/S fy
An c ii j Tn c't r u n
7
<>//'/'////<//'/'/
ARCHITE C T VRE.
Plate XSX\rm.
tioiff Heights.
Ak c n I T E C T 17 a E.
Plate XXXIX.
*
timis. Jit s
Doric Order
Z7WV\A
fit1 • /////ff/s.
/'///.
\
Plate XLI.
. - • 'r.
t ioii.« Heights
A J!C n i t !•; c' t r i< .
I'late XL III
. ■ .
I'rujt'e
tuini*.
QS
Vlt c HITE C T tTIE.
riateXLlV
. ''ft, <
Ware XL V.
ARC HITE CT CUE .
of Lriitet; CApxtaLi h
Pi’Ojert”" H
Z^g
*5
'0%
1%
v«
Zl£
Z
2/1
L
PEDE g TAX S
Tr ojecCX y
/A VM.
J
E^JXLV'
froject!* IT
z/
€? , ^
'<?}////,
1
X
so
2-^
%
1
>
zs
S
4/i
P4^
x5^
K-
-
'
Air chite c ttlrx .
Hate XLIX.
.
jL-— 
I’ lat
1,1.
J
Ak C HI T E C T T t R E . via t e L II.
•i
Plate
LI II
A h C T1 I T E C T IT H E .
Ah c hit e c t i k k .
1WLV.
'
A K C BITE C TUKE .
<jf /h)A ‘hJir?:).
'9flU/ //>„■„ fftf. 'I,,//,
ARC [ 593 J ARC
Archive ARCHIVE, or Archives, a chamber or apart-
U ment wherein the records, charters, and other papers
, , and evidences, of a ftate, houfe, or community, are
preferved, to be confulted occafionally.
We fay, the archives of a college, of a monaftery,
&c. The archives of ancient Rome were in the tem¬
ple of Saturn *, the archives of the court of chancery
are in the rolls office.
ARCHIVIST, Archivista, a keeper of an ar¬
chive.
Under the emperors, the archivift was an officer of
great dignity, held equal to the proconfuls, veiled with
the quality of a count, ftyled clarijjirnus, and exempted
from all public offices and taxes. Among the ancient
Greeks and Perlians, the trull was committed to none
but men of the firll rank j among the Franks, the
clergy being the only men of letters, kept the office
among themfelves. Since the eredlion of the elefloral
college, the archbiffiop of Mentz has had the direc¬
tion of the archives of the empire.
ARCHMARSHAL, the grand marffial of the
empire, a dignity belonging to the eledlor of
Saxony.
ARCHONS, in Grecian Antiquity, were magillrates
* See the appointed after the death of Codrus *. They were cho-
article^m-fen from the moll illuftrious families till the time of
Arillides, who got a law palled, by which it was en¬
abled, that, in electing thefe magillrates, lefs regard
Ihould be paid to birth than to merit.
The tribunal of the archons was compofed of nine
officers. The firll was properly the archon; by whofe
name the year of his adminillration was diltinguilhed.
The title of the fecond was king; that of the third,
polemarchus: to thefe were added fix thefmothetce.
Thefe magillrates, elefted by the ferutiny of beans,
were obliged to prove, before their refpedlive tribes,
that they had fprung, both in their father’s and their
mother’s fide, for three defeents, from citizens of
Athens. They were likewife to prove that they were
attached to the worlhip of Apollo, the tutelary god of
their country j that they had in their houfe an altar
confecrated to Apollo; and that they had been re-
fpeflfully obedient to their parents j an important and
facred part of their charatter, which promifed that they
would be faithful fervants to their country. They were
likewife to prove, that they had ferved in a military
capacity the number of years wffiich the republic re¬
quired of every citizen : and this qualification gave
the Hate experienced officers ; for they were not al¬
lowed to quit the army till they were 40 years old.
Their fortune too, of which they were to inform thofe
before whom they were examined, was a warrant for
their fidelity.
After the commiffioners, who tvere appointed to in¬
quire into their charafler and other requifites, had
made a report of them, they were then to fwear that
they would maintain the laws ; which obligation if they
Aegle&ed, they engaged to fend to Delphi a llatue of
the weight of their bodies. According to a law of So-
lom if an archon got drunk, he was condemned to pay
a h^avy fine, and fometimes even punilhed with death.
Such magillrates as the Athenian archons were well
entitled to refpeft. Hence it was eternal infamy to
infult them ; and hence Demollhenes obferved, that
Vox,. II. Part IL
to treat the thefmotlietae with difrefpecl, was to fiiow Archon
difrefpebl to the republic. II . .
Another qualification indifpenfably required of the A^chpne.i -
fecond officer of this tribunal, who was called the king,
wras that he had married the daughter of an Athenian
citizen, and that he had efpoufed her a virgin. This
was exadled of him, fays Demollhenes, becaufe part of
his duty wras to facrifice to the gods jointly with his
wife, who inltead of appealing, would have irritated
them, if Ihe had not polfeffed both thefe honours.
The inquiry into the private title of the nine archons
was very fevere 5 and this attention was the more ne-
ceffary, as they had a right to take a feat in the Are¬
opagus, after they had quitted their office, and given
an account of their adminillration.
When any obfeurity occurred in the laws relative to
religion and the worlhip of the gods, the interpretation
wTas fubmitted to the tribunal of the archons.
Arillotle obferves, that Solon, whofe aim was to make
his people happy, and who found their government in
his time arillocratical, by the ele£lion of the nine ar¬
chons, who were annual magiilrates, tempered their
power, by ellablifhing the privilege of appealing from
them to the people, called by lot to give their fuffrage,
after having taken the oath of the Heliallee, in a place
near the Panathenaeum, where Hilfus had formerly
calmed a fedition of the people, and bound them to
peace by an oath.
The archons were the principal officers, not only in
civil, but likewife in facred matters, and efpecially in
the mylleries of Bacchus. The archons, however,
who were furnamed eponymi, were chiefly emploved in
civil affairs; yet they prefided at the great fealls, and
held the firft rank there. Hence they are fometimes
ftyled priejls.
Archon is alfo applied by fome authors to divers
officers, both civil and religious, under the eallern or
Greek empire. Thus bilhops are fometimes called
archontes; and the fame may be faid of the lords of
the emperor’s court. We alfo read of the archons of
the antimenjia, archon of archons, grand archon, ar¬
chon of churches, archon of the gofpel, archon of the
walls, <b'c.
ARCHONTICI, in Church Hi/lory, a branch of
Valentinians, who maintained that the world was not
created by God, but by angels called Archontes.
ARCHPRIEST, Archpresbyter, a priefl or
prefbyter eflabliffied in fome diocefes, with a pre-emi¬
nence over the reft. Anciently the archprieft was the
firft perfon after the biffiop: he was feated in the
church next after the biffiop $ and even abled as his
vicar, in his abfence, as to all fpiritual concerns. In
the fixth century, there were found feveral archpriefts
in the fame diocefe; from which time fome will Have
them to have been called deans. In the ninth century,
they diftinguiffied two kinds of cures or parifhes : the
fmaller governed by Ample priefts ; and the baptifmal
churches by archpriefts; who, befides the immediate
concern of the cure, had the infpedlion of the other in¬
ferior priefts, and gave an account of them to the bi¬
ffiop, who governed the chief or cathedral church, in
perfon. There are archpreffiyteries dill fubfifting in the
Greek church; veiled with moll of the funflions and
privileges of chorepifeopi or rural deans.
4 F ARCHTREASURER,
Aft-litrea-
furer
II
Archytas.
ARC [ 5
ARCHTREASURER, the great treafurer of the
German empire. This office was created with the
eighth ele&orate, in favour of the eleftor Palatine,
1 who had loft his former ele&orate, which was given
to the duke of Bavaria, by the emperor Ferdinand II.
who took it away from Frederic V. eledtor Palatine,
after the battle of Prague, where he was defeated in
maintaining his eledtion to the crown of Bohemia. The
dignity of archtreafurer was contefted between the
eledlor of Brunfwick, who claimed it in virtue of
his defcent from the eledtor Frederic, and the eledlor
Palatine.
ARCHILUTE, Arcileuto, a long and large
lute, having its bafs firings lengthened after the man¬
ner of the theorbo, and each row doubled, either with
a little odlave or an unifon. It is ufed by the Italians
for playing a thorough bafs.
ARCHYTAS of Tarentum, was a Pythagorean
philofopher, and alfo wTell {killed in mathematics and
geography. lie lived in the time of Plato, and ac¬
cording to report, interpofed his influence with Diony-
fius the tyrant, in order to fave the life pf that renown¬
ed philofopher. According to this date, it would ap¬
pear that Jamblichus is miftaken wffien he afferts, that
he was a hearer of Pythagoras ; and the teftimony of
a writer mentioned by Photius, would feem more
worthy of credit, that he was the eighth fucceffiye pre¬
ceptor of the Pythagorean fchool. But his fame wras not
confined to the circle of literature} for fo eminent were
his military talents, that, in oppofition to an exprefs
law of his country, that no man ffiould be chofen more
than once the general of its armies, he was elevated to
that important ftation no .lefs than feven times. He
adopted the fentiments of Pythagoras in his differta-
tions on fpeculative philofophy. He taught in mora¬
lity, that there is nothing fo deftrudtive to man as plea-
fure ; that in every condition of fociety, virtue is to be
purfued for its owm merit, and that every extreme is
incompatible wuth virtue. Ariftotle was indebted to
Archytas for his general heads of arrangement, en¬
titled his “ Ten Categories,” and very probably for
that principal idea in his Ethics, that virtue confifts in
avoiding excefles. By difcovering the duplication of
the cube by means of the conic feclions ; and the me¬
thod of finding twro mean proportionals between tveo
given lines, he difplayed his great knowledge in ma¬
thematics. He is reported to have invented feveral
curious hydraulic machines, and to have made a kind
of winged automaton 5 and his genius is likewufe hon¬
oured with the invention of the fcrew and crane. In
a beautiful ode, Florace records his fad fate, in being
call upon the Apulian fhore, an unburied corpfe ; and
mentions him as an excellent aftronomer and geogra¬
pher. »
Te maris et tern? tiumeroque carentis arence
Menforetn cohibent, Archyta,
Pulveres exigui prope litus parva Matinum
Munera : nec quidquam tibi prodeji
Aerias tentajfe domos, animoque rotundum
Percurri/Je polurn, morituro.
Archytas, what avails thy nice furvey
Of ocean’s countlefs fands, of earth, and fea ?
in vain thy mighty fpirit once could foar
To orbs celeftial, and their coyrfe explore.
94 ] ARC
If here, upon the tempeft-beaten ftrand,
You lie confin’d, till fome more lib’ral hand
Shall ftrew the pious dull in funeral rite,
And wing thee to the boundlefs realms of light.
Francis.
A Angular modefty, and a firm command of his
paffions, were the leading features in his moral charac¬
ter. In his anger he never chaftifed any of his Aer-
vants. Pie faid one day to a certain dependant who
had difobliged him, “ What ffiould I have done to
you if I had not been angry ?” He maintained a uni¬
form decency not often obferved in ancient writings.
A lmall treatife, entitled xh Howtos tyvnas, “ On
the Univerfe,” and/fome other fmall fragments, “ On
W'ifdom,” and “ On the Good and Happy Man,”
are the only pieces afcribed to this philofopher that are
{fill extant.
ARCIS-SUR-AUBE, a fmall town of France, in
Champagne, nowT the department of Aube, feated on
the river Aube. E. Long. 4. 15. N. Lat. 48. 40.
ARCO, a ftrong town and caftle in the Trentin, *
belonging to the houfe of Auftria. It was taken by
the French in 1703, and abandoned foon after. It
{lands on the river Sarca, near the north extremity of
the lake Garda. E. Long. 9. 55. N. Lat. 45. 52.
ARCONA, a ftrong town fituated on the ifland of
Rugen in the Baltic. It flood on a high promontory,
with the eaft, north, and fouth fides defended by fteep
and lofty precipices, and the weft by a wall 50 feet
high, proportionably thick, and fecured by a deep and
broad ditch. It wras, howrever, taken and ruined, in
1x68, by Valdemar king of Denmark. One of the
conditions impofed by the conqueror w7as, that the in¬
habitants ffiould deftroy a temple they had erefted to
St Vitus, and deliver up the vaft treafure belonging
to this tutelary faint. Another was, that they ftiould
pay 40 filver yokes for oxen, by way of tribute, and
enter as foldiers in the Daniffi fervice when called upon.
ARCOS, a ftrong city of Andalufia, in Spain, feat¬
ed on a high craggy rock, at the bottom of which runs
the Guadeleto. Its {Length lies not only in its fitua-
tion, but in the works erected for its defence, and it is
inacceffible on every fide but one. The governor re-
fides in an old caftle, from xvhence there is a delight¬
ful profpeft, which extends very far into the neigh¬
bouring country. W. Long. 2. 10. N. Lat. 36. 40.
ARCTIC, in AJIronomy, an epithet given to the
north pole, or the pole raifed above our horizon. It
is called the arBic po/e, on occafion of the conftellation
of the little bear, in Greek called c/gy-ros; the laft ftar
in the tail wffiereof nearly points out the north pole.
Arctic Circle is a lefler circle of the fphere, parallel
to the equator, and 23® 30' diftant from the north
pole ; from whence its name. This, and its oppofite,
the antarBic, are called the two polar circles ; and may
be conceived to be defcribed by the motion of the poles
of the ecliptic, round the poles of the equator, or of
the world.
ARCTIUM, Burdock. See Botany Index.
ARTOPHYLAX, (From bear, and
1 guard), in AJlronomy, a conftellation, otherwife call¬
ed Bootes.
ARCTOPUS. See Botany Index.
ARCTOTIS. See Botany Index.
ARCTURUS,
Arcis-fur-
Aube
II
A r<ftoris.
Axchirus
u .
Ardebil.
A R D [ 595 ] A R D
ARCTURUS, In AJlronomy, a fixed ftar, of the
firft magnitude, in the confiellation Ardtophylax, or
Bootes. The word is formed of bear, and agas,
tail, q. d. bear's tail, as being very near it. 1 his
flar was known to the ancients, as in the following
verfe of Virgil:
ArBurum, pluviafque Hyades, geminafque Trioties.
See alfo Job ix. 9. xxxviii 32.
ARCUATION, in Gardening, the method of raif-
ing trees by layers, which is done in the following
manner :
Strong mother plants or flools muft be planted in a
clear border, and in a ftraight line, about fix feet
afunder. When thefe have fhot five or fix main
branches from the roots, and as many collateral
branches, the former muft be bent to the ground, and
there faftened. The fmall branches muft be covered
three inches deep upon the joints, and have a large
bafon of earth made round them to hold the water.
About the middle of September they may be open¬
ed, and if they have taken root, may be immediately
removed into the nurfery ; but if they have not fuffi-
ciently extended their roots, they muft be fuffered to
remain till the fpring, and then tranfplanted.
ARCUCCIO, Arcutio, a machine made of a
board, covered wdth pieces of hoops, like the tilt of a
waggon \ ufed in Italy to prevent children from being
overlaid and fmothered by nurfes or others. Every
uurfe in Florence is obliged to lay her child in an ar¬
cutio, under pain of excommunication.
ARDAMON, or Ardama, in Antiquity, a veffel
of water placed at the door of a perfon deceafed, till
the time of burial, as a token that the family was in
mourning, and to ferve to fprinkle and purify perfons
as vthey came out of the houfe.
ARDASSES, In Commerce, the coarfeft of all the
ixlks of Perfia \ and as it were the refufe of each kind.
In this fenfe, they fay, the legis, the houfets, the choufs,
and the payas ardajfes, to lignify the worft of thole
four forts of Perfian filks.
ARDASSINES, in Commerce, called in France
ablaquet; a very fine fort of Perfian filks, little inferi¬
or in finenefs to the fourbaftis, or rather cherbaffis,
and yet it is little ufed in the filk manufaftures of
Lyons and Tours, becaufe that kind of filk will not
bear hot water in the winding.
ARDEA, the crane. See Ornithology Index.
Ardea, in Ancient Geography, a town of Latium,
the royal refidence of Turnus king of the Rutuli,
( Livy) •, fo called, either from the augury of the heron,
I Hyginus) 5 or from the exceffive heat of the country,
(Martial). It was in amarfliy,'fickly fituation, (Stra¬
bo, Seneca). It was built by Danac, the mother of
Perfeus, (Virgil)1, above five miles diftant from the
fea, and 20 from Rome : now a hamlet. It was a
Roman colony, (Livy); the inhabitants called Arde-
ates. E. Long. 17. 49. N. Lat. 41. 30.
ARDEBIL, or Ardevil, a town of Perfia in the
province of Aderbijan. It was taken and burnt by
Jenghiz Khan in 1222, when moft of the inhabitants
were deftroyed : but it has been fince rebuilt; and is
ftill ranked for dignity among the beft cities of the
kingdom, on account of its having been the refidence
and burying-place of foxne of the Perfian kings ; par¬
ticularly the fepulchre of Sheik Sell is at this place,
to which the people refort in pilgrimage. He founded
a place, which they call his kitchen, with a revenue
fufficient to maintain toco poor people, and to feed
them three times a-day. Three or four of the largeft
principal ftreets have {hops, and are planted on each
fide with elms and linden trees, to keep off the excef¬
five heat of the' fun ; but the houfes are poorly built,
with bricks dried in the fun : yet moft of them, that
are not in the bazars or market places, have the plea-
fure and conveniency of a garden full of trees bearing
fruit ; and there are large fpots in the out parts of the
town, ’where the houfes are at a diftance from each
other, and the fpaces between planted with trees, which
render the city of a large extent. The meidan, or
great fquare, is 300 paces long, and 150 broad, having
ibops all round ; which, when this place was in a
flourilhing condition, were ftored with all manner of
valuable commodities.
Through the city there pafs two branches of a rivu¬
let, wdrich are fometimes enlarged by the melting of
the fnow on the mountains, fo that they have been
forced to make canals to divert the ftream. In the
reign of Shah Abbas, it broke down the dikes, and
carried away a great number of houfes. The city is
without walls, and is feated in the midft of a large
plain encompaffed with mountains, the higheft of wdrich
lies wefhvard, and is always covered with fnow. Thefe
render the air fometimes extremely hot, and at others
intolerably cold, which occafions epidemical diftempers,
that carry off great numbers of people. The foil pro¬
duces no fruit near the city but apples, pears, and
peaches ; and yet is good both for corn and pafture.
The iheep are fo numerous, that 100,coo have paffed
over the city bridge in a day. There are here feveral
forts of mineral waters, which ferve both for common
bathing, and for the cure of various difeafes ; one of
thefe is a fulphureous fpring, whofe exhalations render
the circumambient air extremely difagreeable. There
are three fprings which produce water as hot as if it
was boiling ; and from which, waters are conveyed to
the public baths in the city. About half a league
from the city, on the right hand of the public road,
there is a pool of Handing water, which is covered all
over with fait like ice. E. Long. 47. 30. N. Lat.
37- 55- . «
ARDECHE, a department of France, which de- f
rives its name from a river, and comprehends part of
Dauphiny
ARDEN, the common name of forefts among the
Celtae, from the widely extenfive one which ranged for
500 miles acrofs the country of Gaul, or that which
covered more than half the county of Warwick in Bri¬
tain, and the fites of which ftill retain the appellation
of Arden, to the much fmaller one of the ancient Man-
cenion, that covered and furrounded the fite of the
prefent Manchefter. It is written Arduen by Ceefar and
Tacitus in fpeaking of the foreft in Gaul, and Ardven
by Offian in mentioning the woods of Caledonia. It
cannot (fays Mr Whkaker) be compounded of ar the
prepofitive article in Celtic, and the fubftantive den, as
Baxter and Camden affert it to be ; but is formed of
ard an adjeclive, and ven the fame as den. The mean¬
ing of the name therefore is not, as Mr Baxter renders
it, fimply the hills, or even, as the ingenious' tranflator
4 F 2 of
Ardebil
Arden.
A R D [ 596 ] ARE
Arden- of OiTiaa interprets it, the high hill. Ard ligniHes ei-
b"rS ther high or great, and ven or den either a hill or
Ard rah. 'lV00^- Arduen, Ardvcn, or Arden, then, means a con-
—v——; fiderable wood. Hence, only, the name became ap¬
plicable to fuch very different lites, as the plaim of
Warwickfhire and the hills of Scotland : and it was
given, not only to the moft extenfive foreffs, to that
which was the greatefl in Gaul, or fo confiderable in
Britain j but to many that were important only with¬
in their own contracted diltriCts, as the wood of Man-
cenion above mentioned, and others.
ARDENBURG, a town of the Netherlands, in
Dutch Flanders, and formerly the moft confiderable in
that country j but it has been difmantled by the Dutch.
E. Long. 3. 30. N. Lat. 51. 16.
ARDENNE, a foreft in France, formerly of vaft
extent 5 but the trees are in many places grubbed up,
and where they ftood are built cities, towns and ab¬
beys. At prevent it extends from Thionville, near the
country of Liege, to Donchery and Sedan, on the con¬
fines of Champagne. The roads are fo narrow in fome
places, that two waggons cannot pafs each other 5 and
therefore the waggoners are obliged to provide them-
felves with bells or horns to give one another notice to
flop in time.
ARDENNES, a department of France, which com¬
prehends part of Champagne, and takes its name from
the foreft.
ARDENTES, in middle-age writers, an appella¬
tion given to thofe affliCled with the ignis facer, or
eryfipelas. They were thus called, as feeming to be
fcorched or burned with the difeafe. Hence alfo the
abbey of St Genevieve at Paris is called Domus Arden-
trum, by reafon, as it is faid, that great numbers were
cured of that diftemper at the ftirine of this faint, in
the reign of Lewis VI.
ARDES, a town of France, in Lower Auvergne,
and the principal place of the duchy of Mercoeur. It
ierves as a mart for the commodities and trade between
Upper and Lower Auvergne. E. Long. 3. 10. N.
Lat. 45. 22.
ARDFERT, a town of Ireland, w-as the ancient
capital of Kerry, with an univerfity, which was held in
the higheft efteem. It is a bifhop’s fee, and borough
by ancient prefeription, and has been held in commen-
dam with the bifhopric of Limerick ever fince the Re-
lloration. The bilhops were anciently called Bilhops
of Kerry. St Brandon, to whom the cathedral is de¬
dicated, had his firft education in this county, under
Bilhop Ert j but he finilhed his ftudies in Connaught,
St Jarlath bilhop of Tuam being his preceptor. The
ruins here are very extenfive. Near the cathedral wras
an anchorite tower, the loftieft and fineft in the king¬
dom, being 120 feet high : it fell fuddenly in 1771.
In the ruined churches there are feveral inferiptions
round the mouldings of the tomb ftones ; and over an
arch, behind Lord Glandore’s houfe, is an infeription
in relief done in a mafterly manner, but the characters
unknown.
ARDR AH, a fmall territory or kingdom of Africa,
in Guinea properly fo called. It lies at the bottom
of the gulf of St Thomas, and has a town called Ar-
dres, ^uppofed to be the capital. The inhabitants are
very licentious, and have neither temple nor any place
for religious wforlhip. However they are very courage¬
ous j and their king was abfolute till lately that the Arrires
king of Dahomy made war upon this and the neigh- I!
bouring territories, brought them under fubjeftion, and . Areiate-
burnt the rowns, particularly Ardres. The air is very
unwholefome to Europeans : yet the natives live to a
great age 5 but the fmallpox makes great deftruclion
among them. This country is fertile in Indian corn,
palm wine, plants, and fruits, which laft all the year j
and they make a great deal of fait.
ARDRES, a town of France, in Lower Picardy,
now the department of the Straits of Calais. Here was
an interview between Francis I. and Henry VIII.
king of England in 1520. It is feated in the midft of
a morafs eight miles ibuth of Calais. E. Long. 2. o.
N. Lat. 50. 35.
ARDS, Barony ov, in the county of Down in Ire¬
land : it is a narrow flip of land, in fome places three
and in none above fix miles broad ; but the foil is for
the moft part tolerably good. It lies between the lake
of Strangford and the lea, and in the fouth part it is
oppofite to Lecale. Sir Thomas Smith obtained a pa¬
tent for this barony from Queen Elizabeth, and fent
his natural fon with a colony to poffefs it 5 but he was
intercepted and flain by an Irilhman. After Sir Tho¬
mas’s death, Ards was granted by James I. to fome of
the Scots nobility.
ARDUBA, an ancient city of the Pannonians. It
was taken by Germanicus about the 7th year of the
Chriftian ajra : but its reduction wras more owing to the
difagreement that reigned among the inhabitants than
to the valour of the Romans. The greater part of the
citizens were for fubmitting ; but the women more fond
of their ancient laws and liberties than the men, join¬
ed fome Roman deferters, and falling upon their huf-
bands, killed a great number of them : but being at
laft overcome by the men, who then fubmitted to the
Romans, the women either threw themfelves head¬
long from the tops of the walls, or, fetting fire to
their houfes burnt themfelves and their children to
death.
AREA, in general, denotes any plain furface, where¬
on we walk, &c. The word is Latin, importing more
properly a threlhing floor j and is derived from arere,
“ to be dry.”
Area, in ArchiteBure, denotes the fpace or fite of
ground on which an edifice Hands. It is alfo ufed for
inner courts and thofe portions of ground.
Area, in Geometry, denotes the fuperficialcontent
of any figure. Thus, if a figure, e. g. a field, be in
form of a fquare, and its fide be 40 feet long, its area
is faid to be 1600 fquare feet j or it contains 1600
little fquares, each a foot every w-ay.
AREB, a kind of imaginary money ufed in the do¬
minions of the Great Mogul. Four arebs are equal to
one crou, or 100 lacs ; one lac to 100,000 roupees.
AREBO, or Arebon, a town on the Slave coaft of
Guinea, in Africa, feated at the mouth of the river
Formofa. The Englifh had once a fadlory there, as
the Dutch have ftill. It is a large oblong place, indif¬
ferently wrell peopled, and furnilhed with houfes built
of reeds and leaves. E. Long. 5. 5. N. Lat. 5. o.
ARECA, the Fausel-nut. See Botany Index.
ARELATE, or Arelatum, is a town of Gallia
Narbonenfis, fituated on the Rhone, denoting a town
on, or beyond, a xnarlh, according to the particular
iituatioa
T
ARE [ 597 ] ARE
Arembcrg fituation of the fpeaker ; called Arelate Sextanorum,
Areo^ao-us C^ny> ^ela> Coin), becaufe it .had a colony of the
■ ^ ° S'» fixth legion. Writers of the lower age call it Arelas,
-atis, (Prudentius, Aufonius). There was a double
Arelas, one on each fide of the river, and joined by a
bridge, (Aufonius) j that on the left fide is thought
to have been built by Conftantine. Tiberius’s father
was fcnt by Julius Caefar at the head of the colonv,
(Suetonius) j and hence the appellation
na, as appears from an infcription. It was a favou¬
rite place of the Romans, and greatly ornamented ;
and hence called Gallula Roma, (Aufonius). It is now
called Arles. E. Long. 5. 5. N. Lat. 43. 40.
AREMBERG, a imall town of Germany, in the
circle of Weltphalia, defended by a caftle. It is the
capital of a county of the fame name, and was ere&ed
into a principality by the emperor Maximilian II. in
favour of John de Ligne, lord of Barbazon, who took
the name of Aremberg. It is feated on the river Aer,
E. Long. 7. 3. N. Lat.‘50. 27.
AREMORICA, or Armorica, apart of Gaul be¬
tween the Sequana and Ligeris, (Ctefar, Hirtius) ; de¬
noting a country on, or beyond the fea, ar moer, or are
rnoer, Celtic. Pliny indeed fays, that Aquitania was
formerly called Aremorica ; but in this he Hands alone.
In the lower age, the term Armorica was confined to
Bretagne in France.
ARENA, in Roman Antiquity, a place where the
gladiators fought-, fo called from its being always
ftrewed with fand, to conceal from the view of the
people the blood ipilt in the combat. Nero is faid to
have ftrewed the arena with gold duft.
ARENARIA, or Sandwort, See Botany In¬
dex.
ARENACUMj or Arenacus, one of the four
towns or larger villages in the illand of the Batavi,
(Tacitus). Now Arnbeim, in Guelderland. E. Long.
5. 20. N. Lat. 52. 2.
ARENARII, in Antiquity, gladiators who combat¬
ed- with beafts in the arena or amphitheatre. The
arenarii were ilaves of the loweft rank ; fo that, though
manumitted, they w-ere not capable of being Roman
citizens. They were the fame wdth what wrere other-
wife called Bejiiarii.
ARENARIUM, in Ecclefiajlical Winters, denotes
a cemetery or burying ground. The arenaria w^ere
properly a kind of pits, or holes, under ground, where¬
in the ancient Chriftians not only buried their dead,
but held their religious afiemblies in times of perfecu-
tion.
ARENSBERG, a fmall town of Germany, in the
circle of Weftphalia, upon the river Roer. E. Long.
8. 20. N. Lat. 51. 25.
ARENSBURG, an epifcopal and maritime town
of Livonia in Sweden, feated in the ifle of Ofel, in the
Baltic fea. E. Long. 22. 40. N. Lat. 58. 15.
AREOLA, among Anatomifls, the coloured circle
furrounding the nipple of the breafi.
AREOPAGUS, a fovereign tribunal at Athens,
famous for the juftice and impartiality of its decrees,
to which the gods themfelves are faid to have fubmit-
ted their differences. It was in the town, on a rock
or hill oppofite to the citadel. The word fignifies
fir icily, rock of Mars.
Plutarch attributes the effablifliment of the Axeo-
pagus to Solon. Other authors think differently : and Areopagus*
wdth good reafon 5 for it appears undeniable, that this r
tribunal w^as inftituted before Solon. But the bell au¬
thorities allow him the honour of its reftoration. The
city of Athens, governed till this time by tribunals of
a circumlcribed jurifdidlion, which w-ere multiplied by
the moll trifling accidents and circumlfances, took no
fixed political or civil form, howrever clofely united
the members of thofe tribunals were by their general
views towards the public good, and by the common
love of their country. As each of thole tribunals could
only a61 in proportion to the pow er delegated to it,
it was impoffible that fo many different and unequal
imprefiions Ihould give to the great machine of the
Hate that uniform and regular movement which, by
an impulfe always the fame, would keep each part in
the fituation it ihould maintain with relation to the
whole.
To effe6t this univerfal and harmonious pow-er, it;
was neceffary to unite the different channels of public
authority, which, by being too much dillributed, loft
its force. This authority Solon colledled, and placed
it all in the court of Areopagus, which confequently
became the main fpring of the government. The
judges of this court, who, under Draco, decided only
in cafes of murder, now took cognizance of crimes of
every kind ; and the fame tribunal w-hich inflidled ca¬
pital punilhment on murder, poifoning, burning of
houfes, theft, &c. itruck at the roots of thofe crimes,
by arraigning idlenefs, luxury, and debauchery. Equal¬
ly attentive to ftimulate the indolence of the young,
and the languor of the old, thefe fage judges roufed in
the one the laudable ambition to ferve the Hate, and re-
llored to the others their former a61ivity. Satisfied
that extremes produce the fame effedls, they thought
the republic had as much to fear from the excefs of
wealth as from the gripe of poverty. Hence they ex-
a61ed a minute account of the effe61s of every indivi¬
dual. Hence their great feverity to thofe idle citizens,
w-ho, inilead of being ufeful members in a Hate, are its
bane and its dilhonour. Ifocrates drawrs a moll beauti¬
ful and linking pi61ure of thofe venerable and alio-
nilhing men, and of the order and harmony which
llourilhed in Athens by their wife adminiftration.
The judges of the Areopagus, fays that author,
were more indultrious to prevent crimes, by reprefent-
ing them in an odious light, than to elfablilh modes of
punilhment. It wjas their opinion, that the enemies of
the Hate w^ere the inftruments deftined by the gods to
punilh the wicked ; but that it was their province to
corredl and reform public and private manners. They
were vigilantly attentive to the condu6t of all the citi¬
zens, but particularly to that of the youth. They
well knew that the impetuofity of juvenile paflion gave
the moll violent Ihocks to health and growing virtue ;
that it wras the duty of infpe61ors of education to fof-
ten the aufterity of moral difcipline with innocent plea-
fure ; and that no recreations were more eligible than
bodily exerciles, which enable a young man to give a
good education its full play, which improve health,
give a plealurable and agreeable vivacity, and even for¬
tify the mind. The fortunes of the Athenians were
too unequal to admit the fame mode of education; and
therefore the youth were trained in a manner fuitable
to the rank and circumflances of their refpe61ive fami¬
lies, .
ARE [ 598 ] ARE
Areopagus. lies. Thofe o£ the inferior claffes were taught agricul-
^ v—-1 ture and commerce j from this principle, that idlenefs
is followed by indigence, and that indigence excites
to the moft daring and atrocious crimes. Having thus
endeavoured, by wife precautions, to preclude the en¬
trance of moral evil, they thought they had little to
fear.
Exercifes of the body, fuch as horfemanfliip and
hunting, were objedts of education to the youth of li¬
beral fortune. In this fage diftribution, their great
aim was to prevent the poor from committing crimes,
and to facilitate to the rich the acquiiition of virtue.
Not fatisfied with having eftablilhed good laws, they
were extremely careful to fee that they were obferved.
With this view they had divided the city into quar¬
ters, and the country into cantons. Thus every thing
palled under their eyes ; nothing efcaped them \ they
were acquainted with the private condudl of every ci¬
tizen. Thofe who had been guilty of any irregula-
^ rity were cited before the magiftrates, and were re¬
prehended, or punilhed in proportion to their mifde-
meanour.
The fame Areopagites obliged the rich to relieve
the poor. They repreffed the intemperance of the
youth by a fevere difcipline. Corruption in magillrates
was fuppreffed by the punilhments denounced againll
it ; and the old men, at the light of the employments
of the young, felt themfelves animated with a degree of
juvenile vigour and aflivity.
Religion came likewife under the cognizance of the
Areopagites. Plato durft never, as We are told by Ju-
llin Martyr, divulge his private opinion concerning the
Deity. He had learned from the Egyptians the doc¬
trine of Mofes. It appeared to him the bell, and he
embraced it with ardour. But his dread of the Areo¬
pagites, who were attached to the prevailing fyftem,
would not permit him even to name the author of Jpn-
timents which oppofed the common tradition.
The public edifices, the cleannefs of the ftreets, the
pay of the foldiers, the diftribution of the public mo¬
ney ; in a word, whatever interefted the republic, was
under the direftion of the Areopagus. The people
themfelves, jealous as they were of their power, did
nothing without confulting this affembly, and fullered
it without a murmur, to amend their precipitate de¬
crees. Yet this authority, however great it may feem,
was fubjedl to the laws by them rewards and punilh¬
ments were determined ; and thofe refpeftable judges
gave an account of the exercife of their trull to public
cenfors, who were placed betwixt them and the people,
to prevent the ariftocracy from growing too powerful.
The moft important qualifications were required in
thofe who entered into the Areopagus. Solon made a
law, by which they who had not been archons for a
year Ihould not be admitted members of the Areopa¬
gus. To give more force to his law, he fubjefted him-
felf to it, and was only admitted on that title. This
was but the firft ftep ; thofe annual magiftrates, after
having given law to the republic, were interrogated on
their adminiftration. If their conduft was found irre¬
proachable, they were admitted Areopagites with eu-
logium *, but the fmallert mifcondudl excluded them
from that honour for ever. What adminiftration was
not to be expedfted from a tribunal lb well compofed !
what veneration was not due to men of fuch rare ta¬
lents and virtue ! Such refpeft was paid them, that
people prefumed not to laugh in their prefence j and
lb well eftablilhed was their reputation for equity, that
thofe whom they condemned, or diimifled without
granting their petition, never complained that they had
been unjuftly treated.
The edifice of the Areopagus was extremely fimple j
and its roof, which was at firft of the moft common
materials, remained in that ftate till the time of Au-
guftus. • This we learn from Vitruvius. Oreftes w7as
the firft who thought of embellilhing it. He railed in
it an altar to Minerva. He likewife adorned it with
two feats of Iblid filver •, on one of which the accufer
fat, and the accufed on the other. The one feat was
confecrated to Injury, and the other to Impudence.
This religious Iketch was brought to perfection by E-
pimenides, who ereCted altars to thofe allegorical dei¬
ties, and foon after a temple, which Cicero mentions
in his fecond book of laws. This temple conefponded
with that which Oreftes had built to the Furies, who
brought him to Athens, and procured him the protec¬
tion of Minerva. Epimenides dedicated it a fecond
time to the Furies, or fevere Goddeffes, as they were
termed by the Athenians. A man was thought loft
without refource, and a victim to every human ill, if
he enforced a perjury by invoking the iacred name of
thofe tremendous divinities,
Thofe who employed their thoughts in folving the
myfteries of Paganifm, imagined that the Eumenides
had their temple fo near the court of Areopagus, that
they might enlighten the judges by their inlpiration,
and, by their continual afiiftar.ee, prevent them from
committing thofe errors to which human weaknefs is
liable. To propitiate thofe terrible deities, and to pro¬
cure their favour for the Areopagus, they were wor-
fhipped with great punctuality and devotion $ and the
fenate itfelf appointed their priefts. Demofthenes had
been nominated to prefide over their facrifices ; and he
thought it very extraordinary, that he, to whom the
republic had confided fo important an office, Ihould be
publicly impeached.
It was natural to affociate with the Eumenides the
other deities who fnared with them the fovereign em¬
pire over the dead. Epimenides placed in their
temples the ftatues of Pluto, of Mercury, and of Tel-
lus. They were all, according to Paufanias, of an agree¬
able form. Each of them was placed upon an altar,
on which the citizens, or ftrangers, who, had been ac-'
quitted by the Areopagus, made their grateful offerings.
But it was not to gratitude alone that thefe feveral
deities owed all the incenfe that fmoked upon their
altars. They who had been accufed before the fenate,
haraffed with fuperftition, and uncertain how thefe
deities would be affeCted towards them, were lavifli of
facrifices to obtain their clemency, by which they hoped
their judges would likewife be influenced.
The tomb of Oedipus was another of the ornaments
of the Areopagus. It was in the outward court of the
Areopagus, where a barge was likewife placed, which
made a part of the pomp at the public games.
Whatever homage and implicit obedience the court
of Areopagus might derive from all this religious
parade, the public good was always dearer to them
than
A Pv E , [ 599 ] ARE
us- than any lower advantages they might have drawn
from the altars and temples with which they were Inr-
rounded.
The lenate aiTembled in a hall built on the futnmit
of a hill, which was afcended with difficulty by the old
men bent with age. However; as for fome time they
only aflfembled on the three laft days of each month,
they bore with patience this inconvenient fituation.
But public affairs multiplied to fuch a degree, that
they were obliged to add to the three former fittings
a fourth, which was held on the feventh day of the
month, and which was foon fucceeded by an affembly
every day. Their meetings wrere fo regular, that they
were not interrupted by the moft folemn feftivals, till
Cephifodorus was archon, who, in the third year of
the io *Tth Olympiad, made a decree, which obliged
the Areopagites to celebrate, after the example of the
other courts, the Apaturian feaffs, which lafted five
days.
This affiduous and painful exercife of their office
made the Areopagites feel all the inconvenience of the
fituation of their tribunal, and determined them to re¬
move it to a parti of the city called the Royal Portico.
It was a fquare, expofed to all the inclemencies of the
weather. When the judges, who affembled there in
profound filence, had taken their places, they were
enclofed by a thread, or rather a cord, drawn around
them.
They held their affemblies in the night, that their
attention to public affairs might not be diverted by ex¬
ternal obje&s,—and (adds Lucian) that they might
only be influenced by the arguments, and not by the
prefence and aftion, of the fpeakers. This circum-
ftance explains a paffage in Athenasus, who tells us,
that'none knew the numbers nor faces of the Areopa¬
gites. The cuftom of adminiftering juftice in the open
air was not peculiar to them. It was followed by all
the other tribunals when they tried for murder: for
two reafons :—iff, That the judges, the fworn protec¬
tors of innocence, might not be hurt by being under
cover with criminals, whofe hands were polluted with
blood. 2dly, That the accufer and the accufed might
not be under the fame roof.
When all the members of the fenate were conven¬
ed, a herald enjoined filence, and ordered the people
to retire. As foon as they had departed, the affem¬
bly proceeded to bufinefs ; and as they deemed the
leaft preference a flagrant injuftice, the caufes which
they were to determine were drawn by a kind of
lottery *, and the fame chance which brought them up,
diftributed them to different numbers of judges, fmall
or great, according to the importance of the feveral
caufes.
In early times, the parties themfelves ftated their
caufe in a fimple manner. The eloquence of advo¬
cates was thought a dangerous talent, fit only to var-
nifh crimes. But afterwards the Areopagus, on this
point, relaxed from their feverity; at firft the accufed,
and foon after the accufers, were permitted to engage
thofe to make the attack and the defence, whofe pro-
feffion it was to exert the art of fpeaking for others,
with accuracy and elegance.
Sextus Empiricus feenrs not to have fufficiently dx-
ftinguiflied times, where he fays, that the court of A-
reopagus did not fuffer thofe who are to be tried at
their bar to avail themfelves of the abilities of others. Areopagus.
What undoubtedly led him into that miftake, was '
an inviolable cuflom of that tribunal, which prohibit¬
ed, in pleadings, all thatjivarm and pifturefque ora¬
tory which feduces the judgment and inflames the
paffions. When the fuffrages were collected, each
perion gave his in filence. They voted with a fmall
flint, which they held betwixt the thumb and the two
next fingers, and which they put into one of the two
urns that flood in a corner of the hall. One flood be¬
fore the other. The firft was called the urn of death ;
the fecond, the urn of compafjion. That of death was
of brafs, and -was termed proper ; that of compaffion
was of wood, and was termed improper. The judges
commonly brought their flint to the affembly, and put
it into the urn 5 but, that all the fuftrages might be
colledded, the her&ld took the two urns, and prefented
them, one after another, to every fenator, commanding
him, in the name of the republic, no longer to defer his
acqiuttal or condemnation.
From this method of giving fentence, which was
called x^vQtiv facpeg, becaufe it kept the vote of each
perfon undifcovered, the Thirty Tyrants, to make
themfelves mafters of the decifions of the Areopagus,
fubftituted another, by means of which they knew ex-
adtly the opinion of each of the judges j for they obli¬
ged them to bring their flints publicly, and lay them
upon two tables placed before them, the fituation of
which was quite oppofite to that of the urns; for the
firft of thofe tables was that of life, and the fecond that
of death.
The firft fubftances with which they gave their fuf¬
frages were not fmall pieces of the bones of a hog, as
fome authors affert, but fea (hells, for which pieces of
brafs, of the fame form, termed fpondyla, were after¬
wards fubftituted. The fubftances with which they
voted were diftinguiftied by their form and colour.
Thofe which condemned were black, and perforated
in the middle ; the others wTere white, and not per¬
forated. The precaution of piercing the black ones
tends to prove, what wre have already obferved, that
the court of Areopagus fat in the night; for what end
did it ferve to pierce the black (hells, or flints, if the
judges could have feen them and the white ones, and
confequently have diftinguiftied their colours by the
affiftance of the light ? But as they paffed fentence in
the dark, it is evident that a difference befides that of
colour wTas neceffary, to know the black ones from the
white. The judges were likewife permitted to multi¬
ply at pleafure the diftinftions between figns, which ef-
fentially diftinguiftied the fates of men.
After the fuffrages were colledled, they were taken
out of the txvo urns, and put into a third vafe of ■
brafs. They were then counted ; and as the number
of white or of black flints wras higher or inferior, one
of the judges drew with his nail a (horter or a longer
line on a tablet with a waxen furface, on which the re-
fult of each caufe was marked. The (hort line expref-
fed acquittal ; the long, condemnation.
With regard to the emoluments of the judges, they
were as moderate as thofe of the advocates. The
length of the procefs did not enhance its expence ; and
when the decifion of a caufe was poftponed till the next
day, the committee wei’e only paid an obolus on that
day. Hence Mercury, in Lucian, is furprifed that fuch
fenfible
ARE [ 600 ]
Areopagus, fenfible old men as the fenators of Areopagus were xte child.
Ihould fell at lb low a price the trouble of afceiiding
fo high.
As to the number of the judges which compofed
the Areopagus, fome authors, attentive only to a part
of Solon’s regulations, by which he enacted, that for
the future, none but the nine archons fhould be ad¬
mitted members of the Areopagus, have imagined,
that this tribunal was filled anew every year, and that
it never confifted of more than nine magiftrates. This
opinion, and iome others, are refuted by the circum-
ftantial account which Diogenes Laertius gives us of
the condemnation of Socrates. This great man had
wilhed to fubftitute a rational hypothefis for the fa¬
bulous and extravagant fyllem of religion which pre¬
vailed in his time. His project, however laudable,
appeared impious in the eye of fuperftition. Informa¬
tion was laid againft him before the Areopagus, and
he had as many accufers as fellow citizens. After the
charges and the anfwers were heard, they proceeded
to fuffrages. The opinions were divided, but not equal¬
ly, for the number of thofe who condemned him ex¬
ceeded by 281 the number of thofe who declared him
innocent. He made an ironical reply to this iniqui¬
tous fentence, by telling his judges, that he took it
for granted, they would admit him to a maintenance
in the Prytaneum. On this farcafm, 80 of thofe who
had voted in his favour forfook him, w^ent over to the
oppofite party, and condemned him to die. Here then
we have 361 judges wTho condemn j to whom if we
add thofe who perfift in acquitting him, the number
muft be very confiderable.
Of all the judgments of the Areopagus, the moft
famous one, excepting that of Mars, w?as the fentence
which they palled on Oreftes. His trial, which hap¬
pened under Demophoon the 12th king of Athens, in
375 of the Attic era, owed all its fame to a remark¬
able circumftance, that gave rife to a cuftom which
wras obferved ever afterwards. Oreftes had killed his
mother. He was accufed before the Areopagus, and
cited to appear in that court. He would have loft his
life in confequence of the equal divifion of the votes,
had not Minerva, moved with his misfortunes, declared
herfelf for thofe who had abfolved him, and joined her
fuffrage to theirs. Thus Oreftes was faved. In ve¬
neration to this miracle, the Areopagites, whenever
the fuffrages were equally divided, decided in favour
of the accufed, by granting him what they termed the
/hell of Minerva. Cephalus and Daedalus were con¬
demned by the Areopagus long before the time of
Oreftes.
We find in ancient authors fome decifions of this
tribunal, which bear the ftrongeft marks of juftice,
though their objetts are not interefting. We fhall
here quote an anecdote from Aulus Gellius, and Va¬
lerius Maximus, of a woman, who was accufed of hav-
ing poifoned her hufband and her fon. She was ta¬
ken and brought before Dolabella, who was then pro-
conful of Alia. She was no fooner in his prefence
than ftie owned the fa£l ; and added, that Are had very
good reafons for putting her hulband and her fon to
death—“ I had (faid Ihe) to my firft hufband a
ion whom I tenderly loved, and wrhofe virtues render¬
ed him worthy of my affeftion. My fecond hufband,
,«nd the fon whom I bare to him, murdered my favour-
A R E
I thought it would have been unjuft to Areopagns,
have fuffered thofe two monfters of barbarity to live. Arequibs
If you think, Sir, that I have committed a crime, it is v"~ "' '
your province to punifh it : I certainly fhall never re¬
pent of it.” This affair embarraffed Dolabella. She
was afterwards fent to the Areopagus ; and that court,
when they had examined her a long time, ordered her
and her accufer to appear before them again a hundred
years after, from the firft day of her trial.
We muft not, however, fuppofe that the Areopagus
always preferved its old reputation 5 for fuch is the con-
ftitution of human affairs, that perfection, with regard
to them, is a violent, and confequently a tranfitory,
ftate. Pericles, who lived about IOO years after So¬
lon, to flatter the people and win them to his party,
ufed his utmoft efforts to weaken the authority of the
Areopagus, which was then difliked by the multitude.
He took from it the cognizance of many affairs which
had before come under its juriidiftion ; and to forward
his defign of humbling it, employed the eloquence of
Ephialtes, whofe talents were formidable, and who
was an avowed enemy to the great men of Athens.
The Areopagus itfelf feemed to fecond the endea¬
vours of a man who projeCled its ruin, and by its mif-
conduCl haftened its fall. 1’he old rules of the court,
by which none were admitted its members but thofe
wdrofe unexceptionable conduCt would fupport its ma-
jefty, feemed too fevere. They grew lefs delicate in
their choice *, and prefuming that the faults with which
they difpenfed, would foon be reformed in the fociety
of fo many good examples, vice imperceptibly crept
among them : corruption, at firft fecret and timid,
grew infenfibly open and daring, and made fuch pro-
grefs, that the moft ftiameful crimes were foon exhibit¬
ed on the ftage j and they wrere not copied from the
low and abandoned multitude, but from thefe fenators,
once the venerable and auftere cenfors of idlenefs and
of vice. Demetrius, the comic poet, wrote a piece
which he entitled 'The Areopagite, where he ftrips the
malk off thofe hypocritical legiflators, who were now
equally apt to be feduced by wealth and by beauty. So
much had the Athenian fenate degenerated in the days
of Ifocrates, cir. 340 years before the Chriftian era.
Before this tribunal St Paul was called to give an
account of his dodlrine, and converted Dionyfius one
of their number.
The end of this court of judicature is as obfcure as
its origin, which was derived from very remote anti*
quity. It exifted, with the other magiftracies, in the
time of Paufanias, i. e. in the 2d century. The term
of its fubfequent duration is not afcertained 5 but a
writer, who lived under the emperors Theodofius the
Elder and Younger, in the 5th century, mentions it as
extimff.
AREQUIBA, a city of Peru in South America,
fituated in W. Long. 730. S. Lat. 170. It is one of
the moft beautiful cities in all Peru, being delightfully
fituated in the valley of Quilca, 100 leagues from Li¬
ma, and 20 from the fea, with which it communicates
by a fine river. The entrance into the harbour is ra¬
ther fhallow for ftiips of great burden but when once
they are entered, they may ride fecurely in 18 fathoms
water. This city was founded in 1539, by order of
Don Francifco Pizarro, in a place known likewife by
the name of Arequiba; but its fituation being found
disadvantageous,
Ares
II
Arethufa.
ARE [ 60
disadvantageous, the inhabitants obtained leave to re¬
move to the place where the city now hands. 1 he
, houfcs are built with hone, and vaulted 5 and, contra¬
ry to what is ufual in warm countries, they are lotty,
neatly furnilhed within, and finely decorated on the
outfide. The inhabitants alfo are exempt from many
difeafes common in other parts of Peru; which per¬
haps is owing to their keeping the ifreets clean by
means of canals which extend to the river. 1 he tem¬
perature of the air is extremely good ; and though
fometimes a flight froft is perceivable, the cold is never
exceflive, nor the heat troublefome, fo that the iur-
rounding fields are clothed with perpetual verdure.
Thefe natural advantages, however, are confiderably
allayed by its being very fubjedt to earthquakes, by
which it has already been five times laid in ruins ; not-
withftanding which, it is populous, and has among its
inhabitants fome of the nobleil families in America.
ARES, a word of Paracelfus’s, by which he would
exprefs that power of nature m the whole material
world, by which fpecies are divided into individuals.
ARETiEUS of Cappadocia, a Greek phyfician of
the fed of the Pneumatifls, lived in the reign of Au-
guftus, according to fome ; according to others, under
Trajan or Adrian. He wrote feveral treatifes in the
Ionian dialea, on acute diieafes, and other medicinal
fubjeas ; fome of which are flill extant. . 1 he bell edi¬
tion of his works is that of Boerhaave, in Greek and
Latin, with notes, printed in 1731: that of Wigan,
printed at Oxford in 1723, in folio, is alfo much
cfteemed.
ARETHUSA, in Fabulous Hi/lory, thfc daughter
of Nereus and Doris, and the companion of Diana,
who changed her into a fountain to deliver her from
the purfuit of her lover Alpheus. ' .
Arethusa, a celebrated fountain neai the city or
Syracufe in Sicily, famous for the quantity of its wa¬
ters, and the number of fiflies it contained. Many fa¬
bles were invented by the ancients concerning this
fountain. They had alfo a notion that the river A l-
pheus ran under or through the waters of the lea,
without mixing with them, from Peloponnelus to Si¬
cily. Mr Brydone informs us, that it Hill continues
to fend forth an immenfe quantity of water, rifing at
once to the fize of a river, but is entirely abandoned
by the fifires it formerly contained in fuch plenty. At
fome diftance from Arethufa is a fountain of frelh wa¬
ter which boils up very ftrongly in the fea, infomuch
that, after piercing the fait water, it may be fome-
times taken up very little affeaed by it. This foun¬
tain Mr Brydone thinks the ancients were ignorant of,
or they would not have failed to ule it as an argument
for the fubmarine journey of Alpheus.
Mr Swinburne defcribes this once famous fountain as
a large pool of water near the quay, defended from the
fea by a wall, and almofl hidden by houfes on every
other fide. The water is not fait, but brackifh, and
fit for no purpofe but walhing linen. “ I his (fays he)
is the celebrated fountain of Arethufa, whofe loft poe¬
tical name is known to every reader. The fable of the
nymph and her conftant lover Alpheus, the excellency
of the fpring, and the charms of its fituation, are themes
on which ancient and modern poets have indulged then
fancy, and exercifed their pens. Alas, how altered !
rubbilh chokes up its wholefome fources 3 the waves
Yql. II. Part II.
i ] ARE
have found a paffage through the rocks, which repeat¬
ed earthquakes have fplit; and not a fiih is to be feen
in it. Sometimes, after an earthquake, it has been left
dry ; and, at other times, the whole mafs of its wTaters
has been tainted by fubterraneous effluvia. Its foun¬
tain head probably lies among the neighbouring hills.”
, Arethusa. See Botany///rtEr.
ARETIA. See Botany Index.
ARETIN, Guido, famous for his mufical improve¬
ments, lived in the 13th century. He was a native of
Arezzo, a city in Tufcany ; and having been taught
the pradlice of mufic in his youth, and probably re¬
tained as a chorifter in the fervice of the Benediftine
monaftery founded in that city, he became a monk
profefled, and a brother of the order of St Benedift.
In this retirement he feems to have devoted himfelf
to the ftudy of mufic, particularly the fyltem of the an¬
cients, and, above all, to reform their method of nota¬
tion. The difficulties that attended the inftrudtion of
youth in the church offices were fo great, that, as he
himfelf fays, ten years were generally confumed barely
in acquiring the knowledge of the plain fong ; and this
confideration induced him to labour after fome amend¬
ment, fome method that might facilitate inffrudion,
and enable thofe employed in the choral office to per¬
form the duties of it in a corred and decent manner.
If we may credit thofe legendary accounts that are ex¬
tant in old monkifh manufcripts, we fliould believe he
was affifled in his pious intention by immediate com¬
munications from heaven : fome fpeak of the invention
of the fyllables as the effed of infpiration ; and Guido
himfeif feems to have been of the fame opinion, by his
faying it was revealed to him by the Lord ; or, as
fome interpret his words, in a dream : but graver hi-
florians fay, that being at vefpers in the chapel of his
monaftery, it happened that one of the offices appoint¬
ed for that day was the hymn * to St John.
UT queant laxis
Mira gejlorum
SOLve pollutis
REfotwre fibris
FAmuli tuorum
LAbiis rcatum,
Sancie 'Joannes.
* Compo-k
fed by Rauf,
a deacon of
tbe church
of A quileia
about the
year 770.
During the performance of the hymn, he remarked
the iteration of the words, and the frequent returns of
ut, re, mi, FA, sol, la : he obferved likewnfe a dif-
fimilarity bettveen the clofenefs of the fyllable mi and
the broad open found of fa, which he thought could
not fail to imprefs upon the mind a latting idea of their
congruity ; and immediately conceived a thought of
applying thefe fix fyllables to perfed an improvement
either then adually made by him, or under confider¬
ation, viz. that of converting the ancient tetrachords
into hexachords.
Struck with the difcovery, he retired to his ftudy,
and having perfeded his fyftem, began to introduce it
into pradice ; the perfons to whom he communicated
it wTere the brethren of his own monaftery, from whom
it met with but a cold reception, which in the epi-
ftle to his friend, he afcribes undoubtedly to its true
caufe, envy : however his intereft with the abbot, and
his employment in the chapel, gave him an opportu¬
nity of trying the efficacy of his method on the boys
who were training up for the choral fervice, and it ex¬
ceeded the moil fanguine expedation. “ To the ad¬
miration of all (fays Cardinal Earonius) a boy there-
4 G by .
Aret in.
are
^ by learnt, in a few months, what no man, uiougn
ot great ingenuity, could before that attain in feveral
years.”
The fame of Guido’s invention foon fpread abroad
and his method of inftru&ion was adopted bv the clergy
of other countries. We are told by Kircher, that Her-
mannus, bdhop of Hamburgh, and Elviricus bifhop of
na xirg, made ufe of it, and by the authors of the
Hijtoire Litteraire de la France, that it was received
in that country, and taught in all the monafteries in
the kingdom. It is certain that the reputation of his
great fkill m mafic had excited in the pope a defire to
lee and converfe with him ; of which, and of his going
to. , me ^or t^at purpofe, and the reception he met
with from the pontiff, he himfelf has given a circum-
rantial account in the epiftle hereafter mentioned.
T. he particulars of this relation are very curious •
and as we have his own authority, there is no room to
doubt the truth of it. It feems that John XX. or as
oine writers compute, the 19th pope of that name,
having heard of the fame of Guido’s fchool, and con¬
ceiving a defire to fee him, fent three melfengers to in¬
vite him to Rome ; upon their arrival, it was refolved
by the brethren of the monaftery, that he Ihould go
thither attended by Grimaldo the abbot, and Peter the
chief of the canons of the church of Arezzo. Arriv-
mg at Rome, he was prefented to the holy father, and
by him received with great kindnefs. The pope had
- i uc pope naa
leveral conventions with him, in all which he interro¬
gated him as^ to his knowledge in mufic ; and upon
light ot an antiphonary which Guido had brought with
him, marked with the fyllables agreeable to his new
invention, the pope looked on it as a kind of prodigy •
and ruminating on the do&rines delivered by Guido*
would not fhr from his feat till he had learned perfe6T
-v to lmg off a verfe : upon which he declared, that he
could not have believed the efficacy of the method, if
he had not been convinced by the experiment he had
himielf made of it. The pope would have detained
him at Rome j but labouring under a bodily difor-
der and fearing an injury to his health from the air
0 1 le place> and the heats of the fummer, which was
tuen approaching, Guido left that city upon a promife
to reyifit it, and explain to his holinefs the principles
ot his new fyftem. On his return homewards, he
made a vifit to the abbot of Pompofa, a town in the
duchy of Ferrara, who was very earneft to have Guido
lettle m the monaftery of that place ; to which invi¬
tation it feems he yielded, being, as he fays, defirous
•ft rendering fo great a monaftery ftill more famous by
his ttudies there.
• iHfrL5t W,aS that he comPofed a trad on mufic, en¬
titled Micrologus, i. e. “ a fhort difeourfe which he
dedicated to Theodald billiop of Arezzo ; and finifti-
<>d, as he himfelf at the end of it tells us, under the
pontificate of John XX. and in the 34th year of his
age. \ oflius fpeaks alio of another mufical treatife
written by him, and dedicated to the fame perfon.
Moft of the authors who have taken occafion to
mention Guido, fpeak of the Micrologus as containing
the iurn of his do&rine : but it is in a fmall traft, en¬
titled Argumentum novi Cantus inveniendi, that his de
claration of his ufe of the fyllables, with their feveral
mutations, and in fhort his whole dodftrine of folmi-
fation, is to be found, This traa makes part of an
[ 602 ] ARE
though epiftle to a very dear and intimate friend of Guido
whom he addreffes thus, “ Beatiffimo atque dulciflimo'
fratn Michaeliat whofe requelt the trad itfelf feems
to have been compofed.
Whether Guido was the author of any other trails
is not eafy to determine. It nowhere appears that any
of his works were ever printed, except that Baronins,
in his Annales Ecclejiajlici, tom. xi. p. 73. has given
at length the epiftle from him to his friend Michael of
Pompofa, and that to Theodald bifhop of Arezzo, pre¬
fixed to the Micrologus : and yet the writers on mufic
fpeak of the Micrologus as of a book in the hands of
every one. Martini cites feveral manuferipts of Gui¬
do ; namely, twro in the Ambrofian library at Milan
the one written about the twelfth century, the other
lefs ancient *, another among the archives of the chap-
ter of Piftoja, a city in Tufcany; and a third in the
Mediceo-Laurenziano library at Florence, of the 1 cth
century : thefe are clearly the Micrologus. Of the
epiftle to Michael of Pompofa, together with the Ar¬
gumentum novi Cantus inveniendi, he mentions only
one, which he fays is fomewhere at Ratifbon. Of the
feveral tradts above mentioned, the laft excepted, a
mariufeript is extant in the library of Baliol-college’in
Oxford. Several fragments of the two firft, in one
volume, are^ alfo among the Harleian manuferipts now
m the Britifh Mufeum, N° 3199 ; but fo very much
mutilated, that they afford but fmall fatisfadfion to a
Are tin.
curious inquirer.
Aretin, Leonard, one of the moft learned men of
the 15th century, was fecretary to the republic of
Florence, and tranflated from the Greek into Latin
feme of the Lives of Plutarch, and Ariftotle’s Ethics :
he alfo compofed three books of the Punic war, that
may ferve as a fupplement to thofe wanting in Livy •
the hillory of the tranfadfions in Italy during his time ;
that of ancient Greece ; that of the Goths 5 that of
the republic of Florence ; and many other books. He
died in 1443, aged 74.
Aretin, Francis, a man of great reading, and well
acquainted with the Greek language. He tranflated
into Latin the Commentaries of St Chryfoftom upon
St John, and about 20 Homilies of the fame father :
he alfo tranflated the Letters of Phalaris into Latin]
and wrote a treatife De balneis Puteolanis. He ftudied
at Sienna, about the year 1443 j and afterwards taught
law there with fuch reputation, that they called him
the Prince of Subtleties, and his wit became a proverb.
He difplayed his talents chiefly in difputes, in which
nobody could withftand him. He gave his opinions
in law with fo much confidence, as to allure thofe who
confulted him that they Ihould carry their caufe : nor
did_ experience contradidl him ; for it was a common
faying at the bar, fuch a caufe has been condemned
by Aretin, it muft therefore be loft. He taught alfo
in the univerfity of Pifa, and in that of Ferrara. He
was at Rome under the pontificate of Sixtus IV. but
did not ftay here long j for he foon perceived that the
great hopes which he had built upon his reputation
would come to nothing. This pope, however, de¬
clared he would have given him a cardinal’s hat, had
lie not thought he ftiould have done a public injury by
depriving the youth of fuch an excellent profeffor.
When old age wmuld not permit him to go through
the duties of his oflice, they difpenfed with his reading
of
ARE
[ ]
ARC
Aretin, of lectures, and his falary was continued. He conti-
ArctologL however, fometiraes to mount the chair } and
' ^ v although his leisures had now hut little fpirit in them,
yet he had ftill many hearers on account of his reputa¬
tion. One day when the ftudents were gone to fome
public fhows, there wrere but 40 perfons in his audi¬
tory ; which fo mortified him, that he threw away his
book j and crying out, “ Aretin lliall never explain
law to a few perfons,” retired in a paffion, and would
teach no more. He wras fevere in his temper, and
never kept a fervant longer than a month or two ; for
it was a maxim of his, “ that new-hired fervants al¬
ways ferve belk” He was honoured with the title of
knight, and fpent all his life in celibacy ; and his way
of living was fo parfimonious, that he was thereby en¬
abled to amafs a great deal of wealth. He had de-
iigned this wealth for the maintenance of a college ’,
but he altered his refolution, and left it to his rela¬
tions.
Aretin, Peter, a native of Arezzo, tvho lived in
the 16th century. He was famous for his fatirical
writings *, and was fo bold as to carry his inve&ives
even againft fovereigns, and from thence got the title
of the Scourge of Princes. Francis I. the emperor
Charles V. moll of the princes of Italy, feyeral cardi¬
nals, and many noblemen, courted his friendlhip by
prefents, either becaufe they liked his compofitions, or
perhaps from an apprehenfion of falling under the lalh
of his fatire. Aretin became thereupon fo infolent,
that he is faid to have got a medal llruck, on one fide
of which he is reprefented with thefe wTords, il divino
aretino } and on the reverfe, fitting upon a throne,
receiving the prefents of princes, with thefe words,
I P R INC I? I TRI BUT ATI OA POPOLI, TRIBUTANO IL
servido loro. Some imagine that he gave himfelf
the title of Divine, fignifying thereby that he perform¬
ed the functions of a god upon earth, by the thunder¬
bolts with which he llruck the heads, of the highell
perfonages. He ufed to boall, that his lampoons did
more fervice to the world than fermons; and it was
faid of him, that he had fubje&ed more princes by his
pen than the greatell had ever done by their arms.
Aretin wrote many irreligious and obfcene pieces *, fuch
are his dialogues, w’hich wore called Ragionamentu
There is likewife imputed to him another very obfcene
performance, De omnibus Veneris fchevtotibus. It
* Origin dc was about the year 1525 (^ays Chevillier *).that
V imprimeric Julio Romano, the moll famous painter of Italy, infti-
de Fern, gated by the enemy of the falvation of mankind, in-
P- 22-*’ vented drawings to engrave 20plates: the fubjefls are
fo immodell that 1 dare only name them. Peter Are¬
tin compofed fonnets for each figure. George \ alari,
who relates this in his Lives of the Painters,, fays,, he
does not know which would be the greatell impurity,
to call one’s eyes upon the drawings of Julio, or to
dip into the verfes of Aretin.” Some fay that Aretin
changed his libertine principles ; but however this may
be, it is certain that he compofed feveral pieces, of de-
votion. He wrote a paraphrale on the penitential
pfalms, and another on Genelis; he wrote alfo the
Life of the Virgin Mary, and that of St Catharine of
Sienna, and of St Thomas Aquinas. He was.author
likewife of fome comedies. He died in the year 1556,
at the age of 65. ^ . . ... r
ARETOLQGI, in Antiquity, a fort of philoio-
phers, chietly of the Cynic or Stoic tribe, who having
no fchool or difciples of their own, haunted the tables
of great men, and entertained them in their banquets _
wuth difputations on virtue, vice, and other papular
topics. Thefe are fbmetimes alfo denominated Circula-
tores Philofophi. In this fenfe, the word is derived
from the Greek virtue, and A«yo?, difeourfe. Some
authors choofe to derive the word from grains,
“ agreeableand define Aretologi, by perfons who
llrive to divert and entertain their audience wdth jokes
and pleafant tales j which latter feems the more natu¬
ral explication.
AREZZO, a city of Italy, in Tufcany, feated in
the territory of Florence, on the declivity of a hill that
overlooks the neighbouring plain, between the Citta di
Callelli and Florence. It is an ancient city and a bi-
fliop’s fee j and was famous for a kind of earthen w^are
much efteemed by the Romans. It was greatly fallen
to decay when Cofmo de Medicis took it under his
proteflion ; fince which it has been recovering gradu¬
ally. It is famed for being the birthplace of Mecte-
nas. E. Long. 12. 2. N. Lat. 43. 27.
ARGEA, or Arise 1, in Roman Antiquity, thirty
human figures, made of rufhes, thrown annually by the
priefts or veftals into the Tiber, on the day of the ides
of May.—Plutarch, in his Roman Queftions, inquires
wdiy they were called Argea. There are two reafons
affigned. The firft, that the barbarous nations w’ho
firfl inhabited thefe parts call all the Greeks they could
meet with into the Tiber : for Argians was a common
name for all Grecians : but that Hercules perfuaded
them to quit fo inhuman a pradilice, and to purge
themfelves of the crime by inftituting this folemnity.
The fecond, that Evander, an Arcadian, and a fworn
enemy of the Argians, to perpetuate that enmity to
his pollerity, ordered the figures of Argians to be thus
call into the river.
ARGEIA, or Argolis, a diftricl of Peloponnefus,
fituated between Arcadia to the weft, the. Egean fea
to the eaft, Laconia and the Sinus Argolicus to the
fouth, and to the north the territory of Corinth and
the Sinus Saronicus (Livy, Ptolemy) ; fo called from
Argos, the capital: Now Romania di Morea.
By the Greeks the people were called Argeii, from
Argi or Argos; by the Romans, Argivi, Argives.
They were a colony who migrated, it is faid, from
Egypt, under the command of Inachus. Polemon
and Ptolemy Mendefius, ancient Greek writers, in¬
form us, that Inachus w’as contemporary wdth Amofis,
who demoliftied Avaris, and expelled the (hepherds
out of Egypt. If, with fome learned chronologers,
we fuppofe Inachus to have begun to reform the Ar¬
gives B. C. 1856, and to have died B. C. 1808, he
muft have been coeval with Amofis, who reigned in
Upper Egypt 15 years before the expulfion of the
ftiepherds, and 10 years after that event, which hap¬
pened B. C. 1806. Inachus was ftyled the Son of the
Ocean, becaufe his origin was not known, or becaufe
he had come by fea into Greece. Before his arrival
the inhabitants wrere rude and barbarous. Thefe he
united and civilized, and inftru&ed in various arts.
His fon Phoroneus inftituted the laws of government;
and, on that account, has been called the frf king in
Argos, theyfry? of men, and the father of mortals. The
family of Inachus, after having kept poffeffion of the
4 G 2 throne
Arezzo
Argeia.
A R G
t
Argemofle throne 347 years, were expelled by Danaus, who ar-
Argentaria. “VeC* 15°9 with a colony from Canaan. Acri-
»   >' fius, the laft king of Argos, died B. C. 1313 ; and
wras fucceeded by Perfeus, his grandfon, who transfer¬
red the feat of government to Mycense, 544 years
from .the firit year of Inachus, in the reign of Cecrops
II. king of Athens, and about the time ivhen Pelops
the fon of I antalus king of Phrygia, having been
compelled by Ilus to leave his native country, came
into Greece with great wealth, and acquired fupreme
power in the region afterwards called by his name.
In the 37th year of Euryftheus, grandfon of Perfeus,
the Argonautic expedition happened, i. e. B. C. 1224.
This unjuft and tyrannical prince had affigned to Her¬
cules his talks 5 and, after the death of that hero, he
banilhed all his children. Thefe were the Heraclidge
•who fled to Athens for proteftion, and who returned
to Peloponnefus 40 years after the deftrudtion of Troy.
In the reign of Agamemnon, the Trojan war com¬
menced, and it was carried on with vigour during the
fpace of ten years. In the year B. C. 1184, Troy was
taken, and the rvar was concluded. Scarcely had the
Grecians fettled in their own country after their return
from this dangerous expedition, when the pofterity of
Hercules invaded Peloponnefus, took poffeffion of it,
and divided it among themfelves. Here the kingdom
of Mycenae ended, and that of Sparta was eftabiilhed
on its ruins. See Sparta.
ARGEMONE, Prickly poppy. See Botany
Index.
ARGENCES, a town of France, in Lower Nor¬
mandy, now the department of Calvados, on the river
Meance. W. Long. o. 10. N. Lat. 49. 15.
ARGENT, the common French word for fiber,
of which metal all white fields or charges are fuppofed
to confift. Argent of itfelf is ufed in heraldry to fig-
nify purity, innocence, beauty, and gentlenefs ; and,
according to G. Leigh, if it is compounded with
v „ Gul. "j „ fboldnefs;
Azu. I tij I courtefy j
Ver- ^ virtue ;
Pur. ^ j favour ;
Sab. J religion.
ARGENT AC, a town of France, in the Limofin,
on the river Dordogne. E. Long. 2. 3. N. Lat.
45- 5*
ARGENTAN, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of Orne, and in the diocefe of the Seez. It is
feated on an eminence, in the middle of a fertile plain,
on the banks of the river Orne, and has a confiderable
trade in lace. E. Long. o. 5. N. Lat. 48. 154.
ARGEN FARIA, a town of ancient Gaul, thought
to Hand in the place where the city Colmar now Hands.
It is remarkable for a great victory gained by the em¬
peror Gratian over the Lentienfes, in the month of
May, A. D. 378. The Romans being but few in
number, were at firft overpowered, and obliged to give
ground ; but foon returning to the charge, they gain¬
ed in the end a complete vidory. Thirty thoufand of
the barbarians, and among the reft their king Triari-
us, were killed on the fpot ; and all the reft, except
5C00, taken prifoners.
Argentaria Creta, pure white earth, found in
Pruflia, and much efteemcd for cleaning plate.
604 ] A R G
ARGENTARIUS is frequently ufed in Roman
writers for a money changer or banker. The argen-
tarii were monied people, who made a profit either by
the changing, or lending of money at intereft. Thefe
had their taberrce, or offices, in the forum Romanum,
built there as early as the reign of L. Tarquinius
Prifcus. The argentarii and foeneratores were much
hated on account of their covetoufnefs and extor¬
tion.
ARGENTATI milites, in Antiquity. Livy,
lib. vi. fpeaks of argentati nulites, as diftinguiftied from
aurati. Aquinas fuppofes thefe to have been fimilar
to the argyrafpides and chryfafpides ; but the defcrip-
tions do not quadrate. Livy only reprefents the ar¬
gentati as clothed in white linen coats.
ARGENTEUIL, a town of the Ifle of France,
feated on the river Seine, five miles north-weft of Pa¬
ris. It is a very beautiful place, with fine vineyards.
In the environs are quarries of ftucco. In the Bene-
diftine priory they pretend to have the feamlefs coat of
Chrift. E. Long. 2. 28. N. Lat. 48. 52.
ARGENTIERE, a fmall ifland in the Archipela¬
go, near Milo. It is about 18 miles in compafs; and
is full of barren mountains, producing nothing but bar¬
ley, cotton, and a feiv grapes fit only for eating. The
barley and cotton are fown round the only village there
is in the ifland. The ladies are handfome enough, have
no other employment "but making cotton ftockings,
and take up with the failors who put into the port.
1 he men all ufe the fea, and in time become good pi¬
lots. They have very little religion, are very igno¬
rant, and of very bad morals. Juftice is adminiftered
by an itinerant cadi, who is fometimes the only Muf-
fulman in the whole ifland. The only article relating
to natural hiftory is the terra Cimolia fo highly efteem-
ed by the ancients ; it is a kind of white chalk, which
is very heavy, without tafte, and crumbles eafily :
they ufe it in waffling linen. E. Long. 23. 10. N.
Lat. 36. 50.
ARGENTINA. See Ichthyology Index.
ARGENTINUS, a deity worffiipped by the an¬
cients, as the god of filver coin 5 as ALfculanus, whom
they made his father, was the god of brafs money,
which was in ufe before filver.
ARGENTON, a town and county of France, in
the department of Indre, divided into two by the ri¬
ver Creufe. Here was formerly a caftle; but it was
demoliffied by Lewis XIV. E. Long. 1. 38. N. Lat.
4° 3°'
ARGENTORA, Argentina, (Notitiae) ; Argento-
ratum, (Ptolemy) j Argentoratus, (Ammian); a city
of the Tribocci ; one of the fifty forts built by Drufus
on the Rhine, (Florus) : an appellation formed by
the Romans from the German, Argen StraJJen, or Stra-
ten, f unfafe roads for travellers,” from the marauding
parties of the garrifons that infefted the roads. Now
Strafburg, in Lower Alface, on the rivulet 111, near
the Rhine. E. Long. 7. 35. N. Lat. 48. 38.
ARGENTUM album, in our old cuftoms, filver
coin, or pieces of bullion that anciently pafled for mo-
ney. By Doomfday tenure, fome rents to the king
were paid in argento albo, common filver pieces of mo¬
ney 5 other rents in libns urfs et penfatis, in metal of
full weight and purity : in the next age, that rent
which was paid in money, was called blanch f arm,
and
Argenta-
rius
II
Argentum.
/
A R G
6°S ]
A R G
Argentum and afterwards white n?«/;'and what was paid in pro-
vifions, was termed black mail.
Argentum Dei, God's penny, anciently fignified
earneft money, or money given to bind a bargain •, in
fome places called erles, or arles, and by the civilians
and canonifls, arrhce. Et cepit de precdiBo Henrico
tres denarios de arqenti Dei pr<£ manibits.
Argentum Mujivum is a mafs confiding of fllver-
like flakes, ufed for the colouring. of plafler figures,
and for other purpofes, as pigment. It confifts of an
amalgam of equal parts of tin, bifmuth, and mercury.
It is to be mixed with white of eggs, or fpirit varnifh,
and then applied to the intended work, which is after¬
wards to be burnilhed.
Argentum Vivum, Mercury, or Ehuckjifaer. See
Mercury and Chemistry Index.
ARGESTES, is ufed by Vitruvius for the wind
which blows from that quarter of the horizon, which
is 75° from the fouth and weft ward. Ricciolus ufes
the term to denote the wind which blows at 22° 30'
from the weft towards the north, coinciding with that
which is otherwife called wejl-north-wejl.
ARGIL, in Ornithology, a fpecies of ardea. See
A&dea, Ornithology Index.
ARGILLA, clay, in Natural Hijlory. See Clay.
ARGIVI, or Argeii, the people of Argeia or
Argolis. See Argeia.
ARGO, in Antiquity, a (hip or veflel celebrated
among the poets) being that wherein the Argonauts,
of whom jafon was the chief, made their expedition in
queft of the golden fleece. Jafon having happily ac-
complifhed his enterprife, confecrated the fhip Argo
to Neptune ; or, as others fay, to Minerva, in the
ifthmus of Corinth •, where, they add, it did not re¬
main long before it was tranflated into heaven, and
made a conftellation. The generality of authors re-
prefent the fhip Argo as of a long make, refembling
the modern galleys ; and furnifhed with thirty benches
of rowers. It could not, however, be of any great
bulk, fince the Argonauts were able to carry it on
their "backs from the Danube to the Adriatic fea.
Argo Navis, the Ship Argo, in AJlronomy, is a
conftellation in the fouthern hemifphere, wftiofe ftars,
in Ptolemy’s catalogue, are 45 ; in Tycho’s 11 j in
the Britannic catalogue, and Sharp’s Appendix, 64.
ARGOB, in Ancient Geography, a canton lying
beyond Jordan, in the half tribe of Manaffeh, and in
the country of Bafhan, one pf the moft fruitful on the
other fide of Jordan. In the region of Argob there
were fixty cities, called BaJJsan-havoth-jair, which had
very high wTalls and ftrong gates, without reckoning
many villages and hamlets which wrere not enclofed,
Deut. iii. 4. 14. and 1 Kings iv. 13. But Argob was
more particularly the name of the capital city of the
region of Argob, which Eufebius fays was 15 miles
tveft from Gerafa.
ARGONAUTA. See Conchology Index.
ARGONAUTIC, fomething belonging to the Ar¬
gonauts.
The Argonautic expedition is one of the greateft
epochas or periods of hiftory which Sir Ifaac Newton
endeavours to fettle, and from thence to reftify the
ancient chronology. This he fhows, by feveral au¬
thorities, to have been one generation or about 30
years earlier than the taking of Troy, and 43 years
later than the death of Solomon. See Chronology.
Dr Bryant, however, rejefts the hiftory of the Ar¬
gonautic expedition as a Grecian fable, founded in¬
deed on a tradition derived from Egypt, and ultimate¬
ly referring to Noah’s prefervation, &c. in the ark.
But although wre are not to believe all the roman¬
tic ftories which poets, and even fome grave hiftorians,
have told us of thofe famous adventurers, yet it feems
unreafonable to difcredit entirely the Argonautic ex¬
pedition. See Argonauts.
ARGONAUTICA, in Literary Hijlory, denotes
poems on the fubjeft and expeditions of the Argonauts.
We have the Argonautics of Orpheus in epic verfe,
publilhed by H. Stephens; the Argonauticon of Vale¬
rius Flaccus, in eight books of Latin heroics, in imi¬
tation of Apollonius, with refpeft to which Burman
obferves that the imitator has often furpafled the ori¬
ginal 5 the Argonautics of Apollonius Rhodius, an he¬
roic poem, confifting of four books, opus, as Quinti¬
lian calls it, non contemnendutn.
ARGONAUTS, in Antiquity, a company of illuf-
trious Greeks, who embarked along with Jafon, in
the (hip Argo, from Colchis, with a defign £0 obtain
the golden fleece.
The occafion of this expedition is thus reprefented
by Greek waiters. Phryxus, flying with his lifter
Helle from the rage of their ftepmother Ino, the
daughter of Cadmus, went on board a {hip, whofe en-
fign was a golden ram, and failed to Colchis, (now
Mingrelia, part of Georgia). Helle was drowned by
the wray, in that fea wThich from her was called the
Hellefpont, now the Dardanelles. This, according to
fome, was the ground of the poetical fable, that a ram
with a golden fleece fwam away with them to Colchis j
and that the Argonauts undertook their famed expe¬
dition, in order to find that fleece. But Strabo and
Arrian inform us, that it was a pradlice of the Col-
chians to colle<ft gold on Mount Caucafus by extend¬
ing fleeces acrofs the beds of the torrents 5 and as the
■water palfed, the metallic particles remained entang¬
led in the wool : hence, according to thofe hiftorians,
the adventure was named the expedition of the golden
fleece. Sir Ifaac Newton thinks that this expedition
was really an embafly fent by the Greeks, during the
inteftine divifions of Egypt in the reign of Amenophis,
to perfuade the nations upon the coafts of the Euxine
and Mediterranean feas, to take that opportunity of
{baking off the yoke of Egypt, which Sefoftris had
laid upon them \ and that fetching the golden fleece,
was only a pretence to cover their true defign.
But the moft judicious and fatisfaftory account of
the Argonautic expedition feems to be that given by
Dr Gillies in his hiftory of Greece. “ The northern
diftridfs of Theffaly being peculiarly expofed to the
dangerous fury of invaders, the petty princes of that
province entered into a confederacy for their mutual
defence. They aflembled in fpring and autumn at
Thermopyla2, a place afterwards fo illuftrious, and
then governed by Amphidtyon, a defcendant of Deu¬
calion, whofe name is immortalized in the Amphidly-
onic council. The advantages which the confederates
derived from this meafure, were foon perceived by
their neighbours. The central ftates gradually acced¬
ed
Argonau-
tica,
Argonauts.
/
A R G [ 606 J A R G
Argonauts, ed to their alliance j and about the middle of the 14th
"1 century before Chrift, Acriiius king of Argos, and
other princes of the Peloponnefus, were allowed to
Ihare the benefits and fecurity of this ufeful aflbcia-
tion. See Amphictyons.
“ After this event, the Amphiftyons appear to have
long confined themfelves to the original purpofe of
their inlfitutioru The Hates, whofe meafures were di-
refled by this affembly found fufficient occupation in
defending their own territories ; and near a century
elapfed, before they undertook, by common confent,
any diitant expedition. But it was not to be expefted
that their reiflefs aclivity could be always exhauiled in
defenfive war. The eftablilhment of the Amphicfyons
brought together the chiefs moft diftinguiihed by birth
•and bravery. Glory and emulation prompted them to
arms, and revenge dire£led thole arms againft the bar¬
barians. Jafon, Admetus, and other chieftans of Thef-
faly, having equipped a fmall fieet in the neighbouring
harbour of lolcus, and particularly the fhip Argo of
1'uperior fize and conftrudtion to any before known,
were animated with a defire to vifit foreign lands, to
plant colonies in thofe parts of them that appeared
moft delightful, and to retort on their inhabitants the
injuries which Greece had fuffered from ftrangers. The
princes of the north having proclaimed this fpirited
defign over the central and fouthern provinces, the
ftandard of enterprife and glory was fpeedily furround-
ed by the flower of the Grecian youth, who eagerly
embraced this honourable opportunity to fignalize their
manly valour. Peleus, Tydeus, Telamon, and in ge¬
neral the fathers of thofe heroic chiefs who in the fuc-
ceeding age (hone with diftinguiihed luftre in the plains
of Troy, are numbered among the leaders of the Ar¬
gonauts. They wTere accompanied by the chofen war¬
riors, and by the venerable prophets, of their refpec-
tive tribes 5 by an Efculapius, the admired father of
the healing art j and by the divine Orpheus, w'hole
fublinie genius was worthy to celebrate the amazing
leries of their adventures.
“ Thefe adventures, however, have been too much
adorned by the graces of poetry, to be the proper fub-
je<ft of hiftorical compofition. The defigns of the Ar¬
gonauts are veiled under the allegorical, or at leaft
doubtful, phrafe, of carrying off the golden fleece ; which,
though eafily explained, if we admit the report that
the inhabitants of the eaftern banks of the Euxine ex¬
tended fleeces of wrool, in order to collecl the golden
particles wdfich were carried down by the torrents from
Mount Caucafus, is yet deferibed in fuch various lan¬
guage by ancient waiters, that almoft every modern
■who examines the fubjeft, thinks himfelf entitled to
offer, by way of explanation, fome new conje&ure of
his own. But in oppofition to the moft approved of
thefe conje£tures, wre may venture to affirm, that the
voyage to Colchis was not undertaken with a view to
eftablilh extenfive plans of commerce, or to fearch for
mines of gold, far lefs to learn the imaginary art of
converting other fubftances into that precious metal ;
all fuch motives fuppofing a degree of fpeculation and
refinement unknown in that age to the gallant but un-
inftrufted youth of Theffaly. The real object of the
expedition may be dilhovered by its confequences.
The Argonauts fought, conquered, and plundered ;
they fettled a colony on the fliores of the Euxine j
Argos.
and carried into Greece a daughter of the king of Col- Argonauts
chis, the celebrated Medea, a princefs of Egyptian
extraction, whofe crimes and enchantments are con- ^
demned to eternal infamy in the immortal lines of Eu¬
ripides.”
Argonauts of St Nicholas, wras the name of a mi¬
litary order inftituted by Charles III. king of Naples,
in the year 1382, for the advancement of navigation,
or, as fome fay, merely for preferving amity among
the nobles. They wore a collar of ihells, enclofed in
a filver crefcent, whence hung a fliip with this device,
Non credo tetnpori, “ I do not truft time.” Hence
thefe Argonaut knights came to be called knights of
the fhell. They received the order of St Bafil, arch-
biftiop of Naples; and held their affemblies in the
church of St Nicholas, their patron.
ARGOPHYLLUM, White leaf {Torfl. Nov.
Gen.): A genus of the monogynia order, belonging
to the pentandria clafs of plants. The capfule is tri-
locular 5 the neftarium is pyramidal, pentagonous, and
the length of the corolla. There is but one fpecies,
the nitidum or gloffy, a native of New Caledonia,
This genus has great affinity with the ivy 5 but differs
in the neftarium, and perhaps in the fruit.
ARGOS, an ancient name of Peloponnefus j from
Argos, one of the kings, (Homer, Strabo).
Argos, the capital, and an inland town, of Argo-
lis or Argeia. It had different furnames; as Achai-
cum, from the country, or an ancient people, (Homer) j
Hippiutn, from its breed of horfes j and Inachium,
from the river Inachus, which runs by, or from Ina-
chus the founder of the kingdom, whofe name was al¬
io given to the river. The Argives, related, that this
was one of the river gods who adjudged the country
to [uno, when Ihe contended for it with Neptune,
which deity in return made their water to vanifh j the
reafon why the Inachus flowed only after rain, and
was dry in fummer. The fource was a fpring, not co¬
pious, on a mountain in Arcadia, and the river ferved
there as a boundary between the Argives and Manti-
neans.
Ancient Argos flood chiefly on a flat. The fprings
were near the furface \ and it abounded in wells, which
were faid to have been invented by the daughters of
Danaus. This early perfonage lived in the acropolis
or citadel, which was named Lanffa, and accounted
moderately ftrong. On the afeent was a temple of
Apollo on the ridge, which in the fecond century con¬
tinued the feat of an oracle. The woman who pro-
phefied was debarred from commerce with the male
fex. A lamb was facrificed in the night monthly ;
when, on tailing of the blood, Ihe became poffeffed
with the divinity. Farther on was a ftadium, where
the Argives celebrated games in honour of Nemean
Jupiter and of Juno. On the top was a temple of Ju¬
piter, without a roof, the ftatue off the pedellal. In
the temple of Minerva there, among other curious ar¬
ticles, was a wooden Jupiter, with an eye more than
common, having one in the forehead. This llatue, it
was faid, w’as once placed in a court of the palace of
Priam, who fled as a fuppliant to the altar before it,
when Troy was facked. In this city was alio the bra¬
zen tow'er in which Danae, being confined there by
her father, w’as deflowered by Jupiter.
Argos retains its original name and fituation, Hand¬
ing
ARC [ 607 1 A R G
Argos, Ing near the mountains which are the boundary of the
Argmm. , piaJn? with Napoli and the fea in view before it. The
ftiining houfes are whitened with lime or plaller.
Churches, mud-built cottages and walls, with gardens
and open areas, are interfperfed, and the town is of
connderable extent. Above the other buildings towers
a very handfome mofque (haded with folemu cyprefles j
and behind is a lofty hill, brown and naked, of a co¬
nical form, the fummit crowned with a negledled
caftle. The devaluations of time and war have effaced
the old city. We look in vain (fays Mr Chandler) for
veftiges of its numerous edifices, the theatre, the gym-
nafium, the temples, and monuments, which it once
boaited, contending even with Athens in antiquity and
in favours conferred by the gods.
Argos Atnphilochicum, (Thucydides), a city of A-
carnania, (Scylax, Pliny) 5 its territory Amphilochia :
fituated on the call fide of the Sinus Arnbracius, (Thu¬
cydides) •, diftant an hundred and eighty ftadia to the
fouth-ealt of Ambracia, (Polybius). Alfo called
gta Amphilochis, (Mela) j Arnphiloci and jimphilochici
the people, (Stephanus). The name is from Amphi-
lochus, fon of Amphiaraus; and from Argos, the name
of his country, in Peloponnefus, (Thucydides).
Argos Hippium. See Argos in Peloponnefus,y^-
pra.
Argos Hippium, the ancient name of Arpi; but
Lampe is a (fill more ancient ; afterwards called Ar-
gyrippa, and Argippa ; built by, and the refidence of,
Diomedes, on the Cerbalus, (Virgil) ; aftenvards a
large and populous city, (Livy) : A town of Apulia j
now in ruins, and the place called Arpi.
Argos Pe/afgicurn, (Homer) ; an appellation de¬
noting The(faly } fo called from the Pelafgi.
Akgos Portus, a port-of Tufcany, (Strabo): now
Porto Ferraro, in the north of the ifland Elba. E.
Long. 11. 30. N. Lat. 42. 35.
ARGUIM, an illand on the coaft of Africa, about
fixteen miles diftant from Cape Blanco, fituated in W.
Long. 16. 30. N. Lat. 20. 20. It is fcarce tivo miles
in length ; notwithftanding which, it was a bone of
contention for 87 years between the Portuguefe,
Dutch, Englifti, and French j and, after a variety of
fortune, has at laft been totally abandoned.
This illand was firft difeovered by the Portuguefe in
1444, when a fleet bound to the call touched at Ar-
guim, and from fome little trade carried on with the
natives, it was imagined that a fettlement there might
be of fome advantage to Portugal. In confequence of
this opinion, a fort was erefled on the ifland, and the
Portuguefe enjoyed the peaceable pofleftion of it till
1638. At this time, the Dutch having received a
minute account of the condition of the illand, refolved
to attack it; and accordingly landed without molefta-
tion from the garrifon, which was too weak to oppofe
them. The Portuguefe, however, defended them-
felves with great intrepidity, and at laft furrendered
upon honourable terms. The Dutch immediately fet
about repairing the fortifications, and fecuring it in
the beft manner they could : however, in 1665, the
fort ivas reduced almoft to a heap of rubbilh by an
Englilh fquadron ; but as the fortifications were total¬
ly deftroyed, and only a fmall garrifon left there, it
was ealily retaken by the Dutch the next year. They
now redoubled their diligence in ftrengthening the
illand, entering into alliance with Moorifli chiefs, pro¬
curing a number of families to fettle under protetlion
of the fort, and giving extravagant prices for gums,
in order to monopolize the gum trade. By this means
the gum trade of the French Senegal Company was
almoft entirely deftroyed ; upon which they fitted out
a fquadron, difpoflefled the Dutch, and had the ifland
finally ceded to them by the treaty of Nimeguen.
Though the Dutch now feemed to be finally expel¬
led, they refolved not to part fo eafily with fuch a va¬
luable fettlement. Under pretence of being fubjefts
of the eleftor of Brandenburg, therefore, they erefled
one of the forts w’hich had been demoliihed, and there
maintained themfelves in fpite of the utmoft endea¬
vours of the French Company to difpoffefs them. Num-
berlefs w’ere the memorials, protefts, referipts, &c.
which wrere publilhed on this occafion, till a new wrar
in 1701 put an end to them. In 1717, however, the
French Company having found all their remonftrances
ineffectual, fitted out a new fquadron ; but this arma¬
ment did not arrive at Arguim before Feb. 26. 1721^
The Dutch defended themfelves with fuch intrepidity
and conduct as had almolt baffled the utmoft efforts of
the French ; but the latter having found means to
draw off a Moorifli chief from his allegiance, the Dutch
were obliged to evacuate Arguim, and retire to Por-
tendic, wfflere they fortified themfelves, determining
to watch a favourable opportunity for recovering their
fettlement at Arguim. This wms not long wanting,
by means of the W’eaknefs of the garrifon and the im¬
prudence of Duval the French direCVor ; who having
quarrelled with the Moors, was furprifed, defeated,
and killed by them ; in confequence of which, the
fettlement fell again into the hands of the Dutch on
the nth of January 1722. In 1723, the Dutch were
attacked by another French fquadron under the com¬
mand of the Sieur Riguadiere. This gentleman boaft-
ed that the fort could not hold out one day ; but
though he prevailed fo far as to get poffeffion of the
cifterns wfliich contained the wrater of the befieged, he
was at laft fliamefully repulfed, and forced to raife the
fiege with precipitation. The Dutch, how’ever, did
not long enjoy the poffeflion which they had fo brave¬
ly defended 5 for, in 1725, their fort was entirely de-
moliflied by the French under Du Caffe, and has ne¬
ver fince been rebuilt by any European nation.
ARGUMENT, in Rhetoric, and Logic, an infe¬
rence drawn from premifes, the truth of which is indif-
putable, or at lead highly probable. See Logic.
Argument, in Matters of Literature, denotes alfo
the abridgment or heads of a book, hiftory, comedy,
chapter, &c. See Syllabus.
ARGUMENTATION, the a£t of inventing, or
framing arguments, of making inductions, and draw¬
ing concluftons. See Induction, &c.
Argumentation, according to Cicero, is the deliver¬
ing or unfolding of an argument.—The matter of ar¬
gumentations is propofitions; the form, their due dif~
pofition, with regard to one another, fo as a conclu-
iion may be drawm from them. See Enthymeme,
Proposition, Ratiocination, Sorites, Syllo¬
gism, &c.
Arguim
II
ARGUS, in Fabulous Hi/fory, was the fon of Arif-
tor, and had 100 eyes, 5© of which were always open.
Juno made choice of him to guard lo, whom Jupiter
had
A R G
Argus-fliell had transformed into a white heifer, but Jupiter, pity-
ing lo for being fo clofely confined, fent Mercury, who,
fhfre." with his flute, charmed Argus to fleep, fealed up his
-y——' eyes with his caduceus, and then cut off his head ;
when Juno, to reward his fidelity, turned him into a
peacock, and placed his eyes in his tail.
^RGus-Jhe/l, a fpecies of porcelain (hell, beautifully
variegated with fpots, refembling in fome meafuie thole
in a peacock’s tail.
ARGUTI^E, witty and acute fayings, wdiich com¬
monly fignify fomething further than what their mere
words at firfl: fight feem to import. Writers on rhe¬
toric fpeak of divers fpecies of argutiae, viz.
AnGurim ab alieno, wThen fomething is faid, which
feetfis repugnant either to the nature and property of
a thing, or to common cufiom, the laws, &c. which
yet in reality is confiftent therewith ; or when fome¬
thing is given as a reafon of another, which yet is not
the reafon of it. For inftance, Si Caius nihil didicijjet,
errajfet minus; again, Aureum hoc faculum eft, quia
plurimus jam auro honos venit.
Argutice ab allufione, thofe wherein allufion is made
to fome hiftory, fable, fentence, proverb, or the like;
e. g. Multi utnbram captant et carnem amittunt.
Argutic a comparatis, when two things are com¬
pared together, wdiich yet at firfl: fight appear very
different from each other, but fo as to make a pretty
kind of fimile or difimile ; e. g. Par ejl pauper nil cu-
piens principi omnia habenti.
Argutice a repugnantibus, when two things meet in
a fubjeft, which yet regularly cannot be therein j or
when two things are oppofed to each other, yet the
epithet of the one is attributed to the other, e. g. Dum
tacent clamant.
ARGYLL, Dukes of, See Campbell.
ARGYLLSHIRE, one of the counties of Scot¬
land, fuppofed to have formed the principal part of the
Caledonian kingdom, wdien the eaftern provinces of
Scotland fubmitted to the irrefiftible power of the Ro¬
man empire. It is bounded on the eafl; by the fhires
of Perth and Dunbarton j on the north by Invernefs j
on the weft and louth by the Irifh fea and the frith of
Clyde, which enter into various bays, founds, and
inlets, round the coaft, and form both in the main
land and the iflands, many fpacious and commodi¬
ous harbours. This county is fubdivided into the
diftrifls of Kintyre, Knapdale, Argyll Proper, Cow'al,
and Lorn. Within the fame divifion are alfo com¬
prehended feveral Hebudian iflands, of which two or
three are of confiderable extent. Its length from
fouth to north, between the mull of Kintyre and the
point of Ardnamurchan, where it joins the fhire of
Invernefs, is about 114 miles, and its breadth, in fe¬
veral places, including the ifles, is 70. The inland
part of the county is, in fome meafure, irregular, with
an appendent triangle.
Similar to the other parts of the Highlands of Scot¬
land, this county prefents a very wild and horrid pro-
fpe£l of hills, rocks, and huge mountains, piled upon
each other in a ftupendous and dreadful diforder, bare,
bleak, and barren to the view j or, at beft covered
with fhaggy heath, which appears black and difmal to
the eye, except in the fummer, when it is variegated
with an agreeable bloom of a purple colour. Hence
Jpfty mountains, deep glens, inlets of the fea entering
A r G
far into the land, form the moft ftriking features in Argyll-
the general afpecl of this country. Cruacha-Ben in ^‘‘rc’
this country is one of the loftieft mountains in Scotland, v
and where this county meets the confines of Perth and
Dunbarton, the mountains contiguous to Ben-Lomond
are but little inferior in height to that moun¬
tain. The Loch Fine, Loch Etive, Linnhe Loch,
are inlets of the fea. The diftridl of Kintyre enters
into the north channel, and is almoft divided from
the main land at the narrow ifthmus of Tarbat.
The diftridt of Cowal is alfo nearly peninfulated by
Loch Long on one fide and Loch Fine on the other.
The interior parts of the county are interfperfed with
a great number of fmall frefti water lakes. A bar-
rennefs of foil and fcanty vegetation prevail chiefly
on the fummits of the great mountains, which exhi¬
bit great mafles of ftratified rocks or groups in a
columnar form. Even a number of the glens are bar¬
ren, and afford little pafturage, and are covered in fe¬
veral places with large fragments, which have been
feparated and precipitated from the impending rocks.
On the declivities of the hills and the banks of the
lakes there are, however, numerous woods interfperfed,
which unite with the lofty mountains to form a molt
romantic Icene. In a run of feveral miles, fertility,
verdure, and cultivation, reign through the valley of
Glenurchay. Remains of ancient forefts are ftill very
extenfive in various places, and thefe confift chiefly of
oaks, allies, pines, and birches. The level of the coun¬
try, towards the fouthern parts, defeends the neareft to
an equality with that of the fea. The elevation of the
country is higheft towards the interior parts of the
counties of Perth and Invernefs.
The mountains and forefts abound with fallow’-deer,
roes, flags, and all kind of wild game ; and all over
the fea coaft the moors, the heaths, and on the lakes
the wild fowl are numerous. The mountains feed an
innumerable quantity of black cattle, which run wild
among the hills in winter as well as fummer. The
circumambient fea, with its lochs, bays, and harbours,
pours forth myriads of fifli j and in feveral places
of the country iron, copper, lead, and other metals
and minerals have been dug out. Yet, notwith-
ftanding thefe numerous local advantages, Argyll-
fhire, as well as the other parts of the Highlands,
ftruggles with many great obftacles in the way of
improvement. The want of long leafes is one of
the moft material. What inducement can a perfon
have to manure or cultivate a piece of land which he
may have taken, when his firft work is to ereft a hut
for himfelf; and after all the difagreeable inconveni-
encies attending it, he holds his farm, year by year,
dependant on the will of his landlord ? When he
alio refleffs, that by cultivating his ground in fuch a
manner, the rent which he was this year fcarcely able
to pay, may be nearly doubled the next year, how
can he be able to defray the expence neceffarily at¬
tending fuch an improvement, when he is uncertain '
of a competent return for his labour ? It is hoped
that proprietors will at length fee the manifeft advan¬
tage that will arife from granting long leafes, both to
themfelves and their tenants j and, by fo doing, either
to encourage the tenants to build houfes, by paying
any expence that may remain unpaid at the end of the
leafe, or build houfes for the tenants themfelves j and.
[ 608 ]
A'gyll-
fture.
A R G [
by tbefe means, they would have furer payment of their
rents, which would be augmented 5 their grounds would
be greatly improved, and their vaflfals would enjoy
comfort and eafe. Another great obftacle to the ge¬
neral improvement is the rugged face of this county,
which renders the great roads few in number, and the
interfecled roads for the purpofe of conveying manure
to the grounds being ftill in their natural rudenels.
The chief branch of hulbandry followed over the
greateft part of this country is the management of fheep,
black cattle, and goats. In former times, the ordina¬
ry animal ftock confided moflly of black cattle : but
within thefe laft 20 years a more fkilful method of
managing flocks of (beep than was formerly praclifed,
having been introduced by the farmers Oi the low
country j thefe have been multiplied with gicat at¬
tention and afliduity. Cows and oxen now form
only the fecond confiderable branch of the animal
dock.
Barley, oats, and potatoes, are the principal articles
of crop and, in fome places, the proper manner of
tillage has been made ufe of, excellent manures have
been laid upon the ground, and the mod fuitable ro¬
tation of crops has been adopted. In years of ordina¬
ry plenty it would appear, that befides affording a con¬
fiderable furplus to the breweries and didilleries, the
grain commonly produced in this county is a fuffici-
ent fudenance for its inhabitants. Befides the great
profits arifing from the iron works and the falmon
filheries, the cutting down of woods has brought much
money into Argyll, and dill continues to be equally
beneficial to the labourer and the landlord.
When the projefted canal * fliall be completed,
and fome villages and harbours eredled, the popu-
canal, ivhuh jous county Qf Argyle (Mr Knox affirms) will be¬
come one of the mod valuable provinces of the Bri-
tiflr empire. Waflied on both fides by the fea; deep¬
ly indented by navigable lakes and bays j having an
eafy communication with the fifliing grounds on the
north Highlands, with Glafgow and the trading
towns on the Clyde, with Ireland, Wales, White¬
haven, Liverpool, Bridol, and other marts on the
wed coad of England } we may eafily conceive, that
the period is at no great didance when Argylllhire
will become a great commercial county. To cor¬
roborate this opinion he obferves, that after a veffel
gets under fail from this coad, die enters at once in¬
to the Atlantic, where die meets with no interruption
till die makes the coad of America or the Wed Indies.
The line, therefore, which nature points out for the
inhabitants is that of falt-making, fidiing, (hip-build¬
ing, freight, or the carrying trade \ foap and glafs-
making, by means of the kelp upon their (hores, and
fand found upon the iflands of Jura and Gigha, which
is adapted for the latter.
In this difiridt the deeds of the celebrated Fingal,
whofe invincible arm gave a check to the progrefs of
the conquerors of the world, -were modly achieved.
Many of the fcenes of the battles of that illudrious hero
and his gallant followers, which are fo beautifully
defcribed by Oflian, are dill pointed out, and many
very ancient monuments dill difplay the warlike fpirit
of its former inhabitants. In the courfe of the eighth
and ninth centuries, Argyll, along with the neigh-
Vol. II. Part II.
609 ] A R G
bouring ides, was conquered by the Danes and Nor¬
wegians. For five or fix centuries it continued under
Argyll-
fliire.
’This is
the Crinan
ts nozu na-
inaable.
the dominion of Norway, and during that period was
under the direft adminidration of feudal chieftains,
generally of Norwegian extraclion, who each main¬
tained an almod independent government. Along
with the Hebudean ides, all the wedern parts of Ar¬
gyll became the conqued of the Scotifli monarchs in
the fourteenth century. Some time after, Macdonald,
the reprefentative of this region, obtained leave from
the Scotiflr crown to hold his poffeflions as a feudatory
to that kingdom j but the turbulent fpirit of him and
his family could not remain in quietude, and therefore
their rebellions were punidred with forfeiture. I heir
edates and titles were bedowed on the Campbells; and
thele have ever fince retained them in peace and loy¬
alty, beloved and honoured by their country. I he
county of Argyll gives the title of duhe and earl to
the chief of this family. He likewife enjoys feveral
other important pods under the crown, and is the chief
of the Scotifli nobility. * His vaffals are fo numerous,
that in former times he could on occafion bring 3000
or 4000 fighting men into the field. Argyllfliire is
generally peopled by this clan, and affords a great
number of cafiles and feats belonging to gentlemen who
hold of the duke, and boad themfelves defcended from
his family. Argyllfliire fends one member to parlia¬
ment : it is alfo the feat of a provincial fynod. It con¬
tains 2 royal boroughs and 49 paridies j the popula¬
tion of which is as follows.
10
15
20
25
Parijh.
Ardchattan
Ardnamurchan
Campbelltoun
Craignifti
Dunoon
Glaffary
Glenorchy
Inverary
Inverchaolin
Kilbrandon
Kilcalmonell
Kilchrenan
Kilfinan
Killean
Kilmadan
Kilmartin
Kilmore
Kilninver
Knapdale, North
Knapdale, South
Lifmore
Lochgoylhead
Morven
Saddel
Southend
Strachur
Population
'» 1755-
2195
cooo
4597
769
I757
2751
1654
2751
944
1492
1925
1030
1793
2391
806
1150
1200
1045
1369
1292
2812
1505
1223
1369
I391
IJt93
Islands.
TTorofay 1012
Mull < Kilfinichen 1685
(. Kilninian 2590
4H
Population in
jypC 1798.
2400
4542
87OO
77°
1683
2568
1869
1832
5°4
2060
2448
1x24
14x7
191 r
351
I537
1886
1178
1009
1524
3526
1012
1764
I34I
I30°
xo6x
1733
3002
3281
30 Iflay
A R I
Argyrai'-
pides
II
Aria.
f Kilarow ~i
30 Iflay < Kilchoraan C
(. Kildalton j
Jura and Colonfay, &c
Coll and Tiry
Gigba and Cara
35 Small ifles
Population
tn I755*
5344
■
2702
5i4
943
Total, 63,291
f 6
Population in
119G—179%‘
95OO
1858
3457
614
I339
76,101
63,291
Increafe, 12,810
ARGYRASPIDE.S, or Argyroasp ides, in An¬
tiquity, perfons armed with filver bucklers, or bucklers
filvered.
The argyrafpides, according to Quintus Curtius,
made the lecond corps of Alexander’s army j the firft
was the phalanx.—According to Juftin’s account, lib.
xii. cap. 7. Alexander having penetrated into India,
and extended his empire as far as the ocean ; for a mo¬
nument of his glory, ordered the armour of his foldiers,
and the houfings of his horfes, to be adorned with fil¬
ver. And hence commanded them to be called argy¬
rafpides, from the Greek agyagoj, fiver, and «er5r<$,
buckler.
By this author it Ihould feem, that Alexander’s w'hole
army were called argyrafpides.—After that prince’s
death, the argyrafpides defpifed all other chiefs of the
army, difdaining to obey any other, having borne arms
under Alexander.
ARGYRIP/E. See Argos Hippium.
ARGYRUNTUM, a maritime town of Illyria
(Ptolemy, Pliny). Nor Novigrad, a town of Dalma¬
tia. E. Long. 17. 30. N. Lat. 44. 30.
ARHUSEN, a diocefe of North Jutland in Den¬
mark, to the fouth of Wilburg, about 60 miles in
length and 30 in breadth. It contains two capital ci¬
ties, called Arhufen and Rander; befides feveral mar¬
ket towns of leis note, and upwards of 300 villages.
Arhufen, one of the capitals, is advantageoufly fitua-
ted on the coaft of the Baltic fea, at the mouth of the
river Guda, which runs through it j and it is furround-
ed with forelts full of game. E. Long. 10. o. N. Lat.
56. 10.
ARIA, one of the ancient names of Thrace, (Ste-
phanus)j that is martial, from the charafter of the
people, whofe country Euripides calls the refidence of
Mars, and Sophocles his place of nativity.
Aria, and Ariana, in Ancient Geography, whether
the fame or diftinfl countries authors are not agreed.
Ptolemy has only Aria, and knows nothing about Ari¬
ana. Pliny mentions only Ariana, and fays nothing
about Aria j but diftinguifhes between the Arii and
Ariani: Parthia, he fays, has the Arii to the eaft,
Caramania and the Ariani to the fouth ; from which it
is conjectured, the Ariani extended farther than the
Arii, and comprifed the Gedrofii and the Drangee.
Arrian has only Aria and Arii, and is lilent about A-
riana. But Strabo gives more extenfive bounds to A-
riana than to Aria, without particularly defining them $
only in general he fays, that Ariana begins from India,
and quotes Eratofthenes j according to whom, Ariana
10 ] a r 1
is bounded by the Indus on the eaft ; on the fouth by
the Great fea ; by Paropamifus on the north, and by
the mountains, quite to Portae Cafpiae ; on the weft by
the fame boundaries by which Parthia is feparated
from Media, Caramania from Paraetacene and Perfia :
and. thus Ariana is extremely extenfive.—Aria has its
limits thus defcribed by Ptolemy : On the north, fome
parts of Margiana and Baftriana ; on the eaft, the
Paropamifidae j on the fouth the Drangiana : and Stra¬
bo fays, the Arii adjoin to the Paropamifidae on the
weft.
Aria, called Ariapolis, (Strabo) : Now Herat, in
Chorafan, fet down in an ancient map as fituated on
the river Arias, which probably gave name to the
country Aria.. Arrian calls the river Areios ; Pliny,
Anus ,* Ammian, Anas : now Heri, which runs by
Alexandria, alfo called Alexandria Arion or Ariorutn.
ARIADNiEA, in Grecian Antiquity, two feftivals
at Naxos, in honour of two women named Ariadne,
One of them being the daughter of King Minos, they
had, in the folemnity dedicated to her, a fhow of forrow
and mourning j and, in memory of her being left by
Thefeus near the time of child-birth, it was ufual for a
young man to lie down and counterfeit all the agonies
of a woman in labour. I his feftival is faid to have been
firft inftituted by Thefeus, to atone for his ingratitude
to that princefs.—-4 he other Ariadne was thought to
be of a gay and fprightly temper j and therefore her
feftival was obferved with mufic and other expreflions
of mirth and joy.
ARIADNE, daughter of Minos king of Crete.
Thefeus being fent to deftroy the Minotaur, Ariadne
was fo taken with him, that, as a teftimony of her
love, ftie gave Thefeus a clue of thread to guide him
out of the labyrinth. Thefeus, having killed the Mi¬
notaur, carried off the Athenians he had relieved, toge¬
ther with Ariadne j whom, however, he afterward
forfook.
ARIADNIA, in Antiquity. See Ariadnjea.
ARIANA, in Ancient Geography, an extenfive
country, comprifing Paropamifus, Arachofia, Dran¬
giana, and Gedrofia, if we fuppofe it to reach to the fea.
See Aria.
ARIANNA, a fmall village fix miles north-eaft
from the city of 4 unis. Here is a beautiful range of
the ancient Carthaginian aqueduft, 74 feet high, fup-
ported by columns 16 feet fquare, and which ftill in-
creafed in grandeur the nearer it approached Carthage.
The ftones are all diamond cut. Near this fpot feve¬
ral ancient mattamones, or fubterraneous magazines for
corn, have been difcovered within thefe few years,
capable of containing 100 bufhels, ftrongly arched
with large fquare ftones. The Moors have already
begun to demolilh them, it being their cuftom to do fo
with every thing beautiful as foon as it comes to light.
ARIANO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, in the Ulterior Principality, with a biftiop’s
fee. Mr Swinburne defcribes it as an ugly city, built
upon the uneven lummit of a mountain, with an ex¬
tenfive look-out on all fides, but expofed to every
blaft that blows. It does not appear to be fo old as
the time of the Romans 5 therefore may be fuppofed
to owe its rife to the demolition of fome neighbouring
town, and to the advantages its fituation afforded for
difcovery and defence. It is but a poor place, with¬
out
A R I [ 61
Arlans, out trade or manufaftures ; having declined ever fince
—v ~“—1 the defolation caufed by an earthquake in 1456. It
reckons about 14,000 inhabitants, and no lefs than 20
parilhes and convents, befides an ill-endowed cathedral.
The wine made here is pale, like red Champagne,
which it alfo refembles in a certain tartnefs, exceed¬
ingly refrefhing in hot weather. I he foil lies upon a
foft argillaceous done. At a fmall diftance to the eaft
is a bank confiding of layers of volcanical earths, in-
terfperfed with thick drata of oyder (hells.
Below the town is a convent of Dominicans, whofe
houfe, within thefe lad hundred years, has been thrice
rebuilt, having been as often thrown to the ground by
earthquakes. The lad and mod dedruftive happened
in 1732, fatal to all the country that lies along the
eadern t'erge of the Apennines. In order to fecure a
retreat in cafe of future accidents, which from their li-
tuation they have every reafon to expeft, thefe fathers
have condructed a fmall building of wood, the parts
of which being joined together with drong iron chains,
are contrived fo as to have a proper play, and by yield¬
ing to the ofcillatory motion of the earth, return
eafily to their equilibrium. E. Long. 15. 19. N. Lat.
41. 8.
ARIANS, followers of Arius, a prefbyter of the
church of Alexandria about the year 315 j wh° main¬
tained, that the Son of God was totally and effentially
didinft from the Father ; that he was the fird and
nobled of thofe beings whom God had created, the
indrument by whofe fubordinate operation he formed
the univerfe ; and therefore inferior to the Father both
in nature and dignity : alfo, that the Holy Ghod was
not God, but created by the power of the Son.
The Arians owned that the Son was the Word, but
denied that Word to have been eternal. They held,
that Chrid had nothing of man in him but the dedi,
to which the A»y«5 or Word was joined, which was the
’ fame as the foul in us. See Lardner's Credibility, &c.
vol. ix. book 1. c. 69.
The Arians were fird condemned and anathematized
by a council at Alexandria in 320, under Alexander,
bidiop of that city j who accufed Arius of impiety,
and caufed him to be expelled from the communion of
the church ; and afterwards by 380 fathers in the ge¬
neral council of Nice, aflembled by Condantine in the
year 325. But, notwithdanding that, it was not ex-
tinguidred ; on the contrary, it became the reigning
religion, efpecially in the ead, where it obtained much
more than in the wed. Arius was recalled from ba-
nilhment by the emperor Condantine in two or three
years after the council of Nice, and the laws that had
been enafted againd him were repealed. In the year
335, Athanafius, his zealous opponent, was depofed
and banilhed into Gaul, and Arius and his followers
were reindated in their privileges, and received into
the communion of the church. In little more than a
year after this, he fell a vi£lim to the refentment of
his enemies, and died a tragical death, occafioned pro¬
bably by poifon, or fome other violence. T he Arian
party found a prote&or in Condantius, who fucceeded
his father in the empire of the ead ; and the zeal with
which he abetted them produced many animofities and
tumults to the time of his death in the year 362. They
underwent various revolutions, perfecuting and oppref-
fed, under fucceeding emperors, according to the de-
i ] A R I
gree of intereft they had in the civil power, till at Arlans,
length Theodofius the Great exerted every podible ef- ,v“"
fort to fupprefs and difpeife them.
The Arians were divided into various fefts, of
which ancient writers give an account under the names
of Semi-Arians, Eufebeans, Actions, Eunomians, Aca-
cians, Pfathyrians, and others. But they have been
commonly didributed into three claffes, viz. the Ge¬
nuine Arians, Semi-Arians, and Eunomians.
Arianifm wTas carried in the fifth century into Afri¬
ca under the Vandals 5 and into Afia under the Goths.
Italy, the Gauls, and Spain, were alfo deeply infe&ed
with it; and towards the commencement of the fixth
century, it wTas triumphant in many parts of Afia,
Africa, and Europe. But it funk almod all at once,
when the Vandals were driven out of Africa, and the
Goths out of Italy, by the arms of Judinian. How¬
ever, it revived again in Italy under the proteftion of
the Lombards in the feventh century.
Erafmus fcems to have aimed in fome meafure to
redore Arianifm at the beginning of the fixteenth cen¬
tury, in his Commentaries on the Newr I edament.
Accordingly, he was reproached by his adverfaries with
Arian interpretations and gloffes, Arian tenets, &e.
To which he made little anfwer, fave that there was
no herefy more thoroughly extinft than that of the
Arians: Nulla herejis magis cxtinlia quam Arianorum,
But the face of things was foon changed. Servetus,
a Spaniard by nation, publidied in 1531 a little trea-
tife againd the Trinity, which once more revived the
opinions of the Arians in the wred. Indeed he rather
(howTed himfelf a Photinian than an Arian 5 only that
he made ufe of the fame palfages of Scripture, and
the fame arguments againd the divinity of our Saviour,
with the proper Arians.
It is true, Servetus had not, properly fpeaking, any
difciples j but he gave occafion after his death to the
forming of a new fydem of Arianifm in Geneva, much
more fubtle and artful than his own, and which did
not a little perplex Calvin. From Geneva the new
Arians removed to Poland, wdtere they gained confi-
derable ground \ but at length became Socinians.
The appellation Arian has been indifcriminately ap¬
plied in more modern times, to all thofe who confider
Jefus Chrid as inferior and fubordinate to the lather $
and whofe fentiments cannot be fuppofed to coincide
exaftly with thofe of the ancient Arians. Mr Vv hidon
wras one of the fird divines wdio revived this controver-
fy, in the beginning of the 18th century. He was
followed by Dr Clarke, who publidied his famous
book, entitled “ The Scripture Doftrine of the Tri¬
nity,” &c. In confequence of which, he was re¬
proached with the title of Semi-Arian. He was alio
threatened by the convocation, and combated by argu¬
ment. Dr Waterland, who has been charged with
verging towards Tritheifm, was one of his principal
adverfaries. The hidory of this controverfy during
the prefent century, may be found in a pamphlet, en¬
titled, “ An Account of all the confiderable Books
and Pamphlets that have been wrote on either Side,
in the Controverfy concerning the Trinity, from the
Year 17125 which is alfo contained an Account of
the Pamphlets written this lad Year, on each fide, by
the Diffenters, to the End of the Year 1719.” Pu¬
blidied at London 1720.
4 H 2 ARICINA,
A R I [ 612 ] A R I
Aricina ARICINA, in Mythology, a furname of Diana;
Anilus un(^er whicf* appellation Hie was honoured in the forell
' 1 Aricine, fo called from Aricia a princefs of the blood
royal of Athens. Hippolytus, to whom this princefs
was married, is faid to have erefted a temple to Dia¬
na in this foreft, where he was concealed after his re-
furreftion by Efculapius, and to have eftablilhed a
prieft and fellivals.
ARIUS MONT ANUS, a learned Spanifli divine,
employed by Philip II. of Spain to publilh another
edition of the Bible, after that of Cardinal Ximenes j
xvhich he finilhed with applaufe, and died at Seville
in 1598.
ARICA, a port town of South America, in the
province of Los Charcas, in Peru. It wTas formerly a
conliderable place, but the earthquakes, which are fre¬
quent here, have almoft entirely ruined it; for there
are no more than 150 families, which are moft of them
blacks, mulattoes, and Indians. Moft of the houfes
are made with canes or reeds, fet upright, and bound
together with cords or thongs ; and as it never rains
here, they are covered only with mats, which makes
the place look at a diftance like a heap of ruins.
The vale of Arica is about a league wide, and ftx
leagues long, next the fea, and is all a barren country,
except the fpot where the old town flood, which is di¬
vided into little meadows of clover grafs, and plots for
fugar canes, with a few olive and cotton trees inter¬
mixed. This vale grows narrower as it runs eaftward:
and a league up there is a village, where they begin
to cultivate pimento or Jamaica pepper, which is
planted throughout all the reft of the vale j and there
are feveral farms, which produce nothing elfe, that
bring in the value of 80,000 crowns yearly. The
Spaniards of Peru are fo ufed to this pepper, that
they drefs no provifions without it. W. Long. 70. 15.
S. Lat. 18. 26.
ARiCONIUM, a town of the Silures, (Antonine);
now Hereford, (Camden). W. Long. 2. 42. Lat. 52. 6.
ARIDAS, a kind of taffety, manufaftured in the
Eaft Indies from a Ihining thread which is got from
certain herbs, whence they are ftyled aridas of herbs.
ARIDULLAM, in Natural Hi/lory, a kind of zar-
■ nich found in the Eaft Indies. See Zarnich.
ARIES, in Zoology. See Ovis.
Aries, the battering ram. See Battering Ram.
Aries, in AJlronomy, a conftellation of fixed ftars,
drawn on the globe, in the figure of a ram. It is the
firft of the twelve figns of the zodiac, from which a
twelfth part of the ecliptic takes its denomination.
ARILLUS, an improper term invented by Lin¬
naeus, and defined to be the proper exterior coat or
covering of the feed which falls off fpontaneoufly.
All feeds are not furnilhed with an arillus 5 in many,
a dry covering, or fcarf fldn, fupplies its place. In
jafmine ; hound’s tongue, cynoglojfum; cucumber j
fraxinella, di&arnnus; ftaff tree, celafrus ; fpindle tree,
euonymus ; African fpiraea, dioftna ; and the coffee tree,
coffea ; it is very confpicuous.
In the genus hound’s tongue, four of thefe arilli or
proper coats, each enfolding a Angle feed, are affix¬
ed to the ftylus; and in this circumftance, fays Lin¬
naeus, does the effence of the genus confift. In
fxaxinella, the arillus is common to two feeds. The
ftaff tree has its feeds only half involved with this AriHus,
cover, Arimanius,
The arillus is either baccatus, fucculent, and of the t”"'"v
nature of a berry ; as in the fpindle tree, euonymus.
Cartilagineus, cartilaginous, or griftly; as in the Af¬
rican fpiraea, diofma. Coloratus, coloured 5 as in the
ftaff tree. Elajlicus, endued with elafticity, for dif.
perfing the feeds; as is remarkable in the African fpi¬
raea, diofma, and fraxinella. Scaber, rough and knot¬
ty ; as in hound’s tongue.
Athough covered with an arillus or other dry coat,
feeds are faid to be naked (femina nuda) when they
are not enclofed in any fpecies of pericarpium or fruit
veffel 5 as in the graffes, and the labiati or lipped flow¬
ers of Tournefort, which correfpond to the didynamia
gymnofperrnia of Linnaeus. Seeds are faid to be co¬
vered (femina tebla) when they are contained in a fruit
veffel, whether capiiile, pod, or pulpy pericarpium, of
the apple, berry, or cherry kind: (See Semem). This
exterior coat of the feed is, by fome former writers,
ftyled calyptra. See Calyptra.
The different fldns or coverings of the feed, are
adapted, fay naturalifts, for receiving the nutritive
juices, and tranfmitting them within.
ARIMANIUS, the evil god of the ancient Per-
fians. The Perfian Magi held twTo principles ; a good
demon, or god, and an evil one : the firft the author
of all good, and the other of all evil: the former they
fuppofed to be reprefented by light, and the latter by
darknefs, as their trueft fymbols. The good principle
they named Ye%ad or ITefdan, and Ormond or Hormi%-
da, which the Greeks wrote Oromafdes ; and the evil
demon t?!ey called Elhriman, and the Greeks Arima¬
nius. Some of the Magians held both thefe principles
to have been from all eternity; but this fe£t was reput¬
ed heterodox : the original doilrine being, that the
good principle only was eternal, and the other created.
—Plutarch (Zh? Ifde et Ofride, p. 369.) gives the
following account of the Magian traditions in relation
to thefe gods, and the introduction of evil into the
world, viz. That Oromazes confifted of the moft pure
light, and Arimanius of darknefs j and that they were
at war with each other : that Oromazes created fix
gods 5 the firft, the author of benevolence ) the fecond,
of truth the third, of juftice, riches, and the plea-
fure which attends good aftions; and that Arimanius
made as many, who were the authors of the oppofite
evils or vices : that then Oromazes, triplicating him-
felf, removed as far from the fun as the fun is from the
earth, and adorned the heaven with ftars, appointing
the dog ftar for their guardian and leader : that he al-
fo created 24 other gods, and enclofed them in an egg ;
but Arimanius having alfo made an equal number, thefe
laft perforated die egg, by which means evil and good
became mixed together. However, the fatal time will
come, when Arimanius, the introducer of plagues and
famine, muft be of neceffity utterly deftroyed by the
former, and annihilated ; then the earth being made
plain and even, mankind ftiall live in a happy ftate, in
the fame manner, in the fame political fociety, and
ufing one and the fame language. Theopompus writes,
that, according to the Magians, the faid two gods,
during the fpace of 3000 years, alternately conquer,
and are conquered; that for other 3000 years, they
will
A R I [ 613 ] A R I
Arimafpi will wage mutual war, fight, and deftroy the works of
Anon CaC^ ot^er’ ^ at Hades (or the evil fpirit) fhall
* ■ ' 1 perifh, and men become perfe&ly happy, their bodies
needing no food, nor calling any lhadow, i. e. being
perfe£lly tranfparent.
ARIMASPI, (Pliny), a people of Sarmatia Euro¬
pea, to the fouth of the Montes Riphaei, faid by Me¬
la to have but one eye; a fable broached by Arilleas
Proconnefius, according to Herodotus.
ARIMATHEA, a town of Judea, (Evangelilts) *,
thought to be the fame with Ramatha, 1 Sam. i. and
thus in the tribe* of Ephraim, (Wells).—This place
is now called Ramla ; and is in a very ruinous Hate,
containing nothing but rubbilh within its boundaries.
The aga of Gaza refides here in a Serai, the floors
and walls of which are tumbling down. He maintains
about one hundred horfemen, and as many Barbary
foldiers, who (fays Mr Volney) are lodged in an old
Chriftian church, the nave of which is ufed as a liable,
and in an ancient khan, which is difputed with them by
the Icorpions. The adjacent country is planted with
lofty olive trees, difpofed in quincunces. The greatell
part of them are as large as the walnut trees of France;
but they are daily perilhing through age, the ravages
of contending fa6tions, and even from fecret mifchief:
for, in thefe countries, when a peafant would revenge
himfelf of his enemy, he comes by night, and faws or
cut his trees clofe to the ground, and the wound,
which he takes care to cover, draining off the fap like
an ifiue, the olive tree languilhes and dies. Amid
thefe plantations, we meet, at every Hep, with dry
wells, cillerns fallen in, and vail vaulted refervoirs,
which prove that, in ancient times, this town mull
have been upwards of a league and a half in circumfe¬
rence. At prefent it fcarcely contains two hundred
families. The little land which is cultivated, by a few
of them, belongs to the mufti, and two or three per-
fons related to him. The reft content themfelves with
fpinning cotton, which is chiefly purchafed by two
French houfes eftablilhed there. The only remarkable
antiquity at Ramla is the minoret of a ruined mofque
on the road to Yafa, which is very lofty 5 and by an
Arabic infcription appears to have been built by the
fultan Saladin.
ARIMINUM, a town of Umbria, or Romagna, at
the mouth of the Ariminus, on the gulf of Venice.
The feizing on it by Caefar gave rife to the civil war.
Now called Rimini. E. Long. 13. 30. Lat. 44. 8.
ARIOLI, in Antiquity, a kind of prophets, or reli¬
gious conjurers, who by abominable prayers, and hor¬
rible facrifices at the altars of idols, procured anfwers
to their queftions concerning future events. IJid. Orig.
lib. viii. cap. 9. Thefe are alfo called harioli, and
the operation hariolation. Sometimes they were deno¬
minated arufpices or harufpices. The arioli were’diftin-
guhhed by a flovenly drefs, diforderly and matted
beards, hair, &c.
ARION, an excellent mufician and poet, inventor
of dithyrambxcs. Periander entertained him at his
court, where getting an eftate, and returning to Co¬
rinth, the failors, for lucre of his money, threw him
into the fea •, when, according to the poets, a dolphin,
charmed with his mufic, took him on her back and
carried him fafe to ftiore.
Arion, an admirable horfe, much more famous in
poetic hiftory than Bucephalus in that of Alexander. Anon,
Authors fpeak varioufly of his origin, though ^they , Ar^fto' ,
agree in giving him a divine one. His production is
moft commonly afcribed to Neptune. This god, ac¬
cording to fome, raifed him out of the ground by a
ftroke of his trident: according to others, he begot him
upon the body of the fury Erinnys $ according to
others, upon that of Ceres, whom he raviftied in the
form of a horfe, ftie having previoufly aflumed the form
of a mare to elude his purfuit. This horfe was nurfed
by the Nereids j and being fometimes yoked with the
fea horfes of Neptune to the chariot of this god, he
drew him with incredible fwiftnefs through the fea.
He had this Angularity in him, that his right feet re-
fembled thofe of a man, Neptune gave him to Capreus
king of Haliartus. Capreus made a prefent of him to
Hercules j who mounted him when he took the city
of Elis, gained the prize with him in the race againft
Cygnus the fon of Mars near Traecena, and at laft
made a prefent of him to Adraftus. It is under this
laft mafter that Arion has fignalized himfelf the moft :
he won the prize for racing at the Nemean games,
which the princes who went to befiege Thebes inftitu-
ted in the honour of Archemorus 5 and was the caufe
that Adraftus did not perifti in this famous expedition,
as all the other chiefs did.
ARIOSTO Lodovico, the famous Italian poet,
and author of Orlando Furiofo, wras born at the caftle
of Reggit) in Lombardy in 1474. His father, who
was major domo to Duke Hercules, lived to the ex¬
tent of his fortune, fo left but little at his death. A-
riofto, from his childhood, Ihowed great marks of ge¬
nius, efpecially in poetry j and wrote a comedy in verfe
on the ftory of Pyramus and Thifbe, which his brothers
and fitters played. His father being utterly unlearned,
and rather regarding profit than his fon’s inclination,
compelled him to ftudy the civil law, in which ha¬
ving plodded fome years to no purpofe, he quitted it
for more pleafing ftudies j yet often lamented, as Ovid
and Petrarch did before him, and our own Milton
fince*, that his father baniftied him from the Mufes. * See his'
At the age of 24, Ariofto loft his father, and found Latin poem,
himfelf perplexed with family affairs. However, m. Ad Pattern.
about fix years he was, for his good parts, taken into
the fervice of Don Hippolito, cardinal of Efte. At
this time he had written nothing but a few fonnets $
but now he refolved to make a poem, and chofe Bay-
ardo’s Orlando Inamorato for a groundwork. How¬
ever, he w7as prevented writing for a great many years,
and was chofen as a fit perfon to go on an embaffy to
Pope Julio II. wThere he gave fuch fatisfaftion, that
he was fent again, underwent many dangers and diffi¬
culties, and at his return was highly favoured. Then,
at his leifure, he again applied himfelf to his poem :
but, foon after, he incurred the cardinal’s difpleafure
for refufing to accompany him into Hungary j by
which he was fo difcouraged, that he deferred writing
for 14 years, even till the cardinal’s death After that,
he finiffied by degrees, in great perfe£lion, that which
he began with great expedlation. Duke Aftolfo of¬
fered him great promotions if he would ferve him 5 but
preferring liberty to grandeur, he refufed this and
other great offers from princes and cardinals, particu¬
larly from Leo X. from all wffiom he received not-
withftanding great prefents. The duke of Ferrara
t delighted-
A R I [ 614 ] A R I
Arlofto. delighted fo much in his comedies, of which he wrote
that he built a flage on purpofe to have them
played in his court, and enabled our poet to build him.
felf a houfe in Ferrara, with a pleafant garden, where
he ufed to compofe his poems, which were highly
efteemed by all the princes in Italy, who fent him many
prefentsj but he faid, “ he would not fell his liberty for
the bell cardinal’s hat in Rome.” It was but a fmall,
though convenient houfe : being afked, why - he had
not built it in a more magnificent manner, fince he had
given fuch noble defcriptions of fumptuous palaces,
beautiful porticos, and pleafant fountains, in his Or¬
lando Furiofo ? he replied, That words were cheaper
laid together than ftones. Upon the door was the
following infcription :
Parva, fed apt a mihi,fed nulli obnoxiayfed non
Sordida, parta meo fed tamen cere, domus.
Which Mr Harrington thus tranflates :
This houfe is fmall, but fit for me, but hurtful unto none;
But yet not fluttilh, as you fee, yet paid for with mine
own.
In his diet he was temperate, and fo carelefs of dain¬
ties, that he was fit to have lived in the world when
they fed upon acorns. Whether he was ever married,
is uncertain. He kept company with one Alexandria,
to whom, it was reported, he was married privately,
and a lady Genevera, whom he flily mentions in the
2 4th book, of his Orlando, as poets are apt to intermix
with their fiftions fome real amours of their own. He
was urged to go ambaflador to Pope Clement, but
would by no means accept this embafly. He tranfiated
the Menecmi of Plautus: and all his own comedies
were fo efteemed, that they were frequently afted by
perfons of the firft quality ; and wrhen his Lena was
firft reprefented, Ferdinand of Efte, afterwards mar¬
quis of Mafia, fo far honoured the piece as to fpeak the
prologue. He began one of his comedies in his fa¬
ther’s lifetime, when the following incident flrowrs the
remarkable talent he had for poetry. His father one
day rebuked him lharply, charging him with fome
great fault $ but all the wdiile he returned him no an-
fwer. Soon after, his brother began on the fame fub-
jeft : but he eafily refuted him, and, with ftrong argu¬
ments juftified his own behaviour. “ Why then (faid
his brother) did you not fatisfy my father ?” “ In
truth (faid Lodovico) I wTas thinking of a part in my
comedy j and methought my father’s fpeech to me was
fo fuited to the part of an old man’s chiding his fon,
that I forgot I was concerned in it myfelf, and confi-
dered it only to make it a part of my play.” It is alfo
reported of Ariofto, that coming by a potter’s {hop,
he heard him finging a Have out of his Orlando, with
fo bad a grace, that, out of all patience, he broke
with his flick feveral of his pots. The potter, in a pi¬
tiful tone, a Iking what he meant by wronging a poor
man than had never injured him ? “You rafcal (die
replied), I have not done thee half the wrong thou
haft done me : for I have broken but two or three pots
of thine, not worth fo many halfpence ; whereas thou
haft broken and mangled a ftanza of mine worth a
mark of gold.”
Ariofto was tall, of a melancholy complexion, and fo
•abforbed in ftudy and meditation, that he often forgot
himfelf. His picture was drawn by Titian in a mafterly
manner. He was honoured with the laurel by the Ariogo
hands of* the emperor Charles V, He was naturally . I!
affable, always afluming lefs than was his due, yet never , *r‘!V ’:r‘,
putting up a known injury, even from his fuperiors.
He was fo fearful on the water, that, whenever he went
out of a ftiip, he w^ould fee others go before himj and,
on land, he would alight from his horfe on the leaft
apprehenfion of danger. He wras of an amorous difpo-
fition, and left two natural fons. He enjoyed the
friendfhip of the moft eminent men of learning of his
time, moft of whom he mentions with great refpeft in
the laft canto of his Orlando Furiofo. His conftitution
was but weakly, fo that he was obliged to have re-
courfe to phyficians the greateft part of his life. He
bore his laft ficknefs wdth great refolution and ferenity j
and died at Ferrara the 8th of July 1533, according to
Sir John Harrington, being then 59 years of age. He
was interred in the church of the Benedidline monks,
who, contrary to their quftom, attended his funeral.
He had a buft erected to him, and the following epi¬
taph, written by himfelf, infcribed upon his tomb :
Ludovici Ariofti humantur ofla
Sub hoc marmore, feu fub hac humo, feu
Sub quidquid voluit benignus haeres,
Sive haerede benignior comes, feu
Opportunius incidens viator:
Nam fcire baud potuit futura : fed nec
Tanti erat, vacuam fibi cadaver
Ut urnam cuperet parare.
Vivens ifta tamen fibi paravit,
Quae fcribi voluit fuo fepulchro,
Olim fi quod haberet id fepulchrum :
Ne cum fpiritus hoc brevi perafto
Prefcripto fpatio mifellos artus,
Quos aegre ante reliquerat, repofcet,
Hac et hac cinerem hue et hue revellem
Dum nofeat proprium, diu vagetur.
ARIPO, a town on the w'eftern coaft of the ifland
of Ceylon, at the mouth of the river Sarunda. To
the eaft of this town is a bank, where they fifti for
pearls. E. Long. 80. 25. N. Lat. 8. 42.
ARISBA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
ifland of Lefhos (Herodot.)—Another of Troas on the
continent, in the territory and to the fouth-eaft of A-
bydos (Polyb.) : the rendezvous of Alexander’s army
after the paffage of the Hellefpont (Arrian) $ a colo¬
ny of the Mitylenians (Stephanus) $ taken and plun¬
dered by Achilles (Virgil). The refidence of Axy-
lus, celebrated by Homer for his hofpitality, which
gained him the character of Friend of Mankind.
ARISH, a Perfian long meafure, containing about
38 Englifti inches.
ARISI, the Indian name for the plant which pro¬
duces the rice. See Oryza, Botany Index.
ARISTA, or Awn, a.mox\gBotaniJis, a long needle¬
like beard, which ftands out from the hulk of a grain
of corn, grafs, &c.
ARISTALUS, fon of Apollo and Cyrene, whom,
for the many fervices he had rendered to mankind by
his knowledge of all profitable arts, the gods placed
amongft the ftars j fo that he is the Aquarius in the
zodiac. The refemblance of his hiftory to that of
Mofes has been curioufly difeufled by Huetius.
ARISTANDER, a famous foothfayer under A-
lexander the Great, over w’hom he gained a wonder¬
ful
A R I [6
Ariftar- ful influence by the good fuccefs of his art. He had
chus, already had the fame employment at the court of King
Arifhdes. ^ p^-j^p . anj wa$ eXplained better than his
brethren the dream that this prince had after having
married Olympias.
ARISTARCHUS, a Grecian philofopher of Sa¬
mos, one of the firfl: that maintained that the earth
turns upon its own centre. We are not fure of the age
in which he lived j and have none of his works but a
Treatife of the greatnefs and di/lance of the Sun and
Moon, tranflated into Latin by Frederic Commandine,
and publifhed with Pappus’s explanations in 1572.
Aristarchus, a celebrated grammarian, much
efteemed by Ptolemy Philometor, xvho committed to
him the education of his fon. He applied himfelf
chiefly to criticifm, and made a revifal of Homer’s
poems, but in too magifterial a way 5 for fuch verfes
as he did not like he treated as fpurious. He com¬
mented on other poets. Cicero and Horace made ufe
of his name to exprefs a very rigid critic.
ARISTIDA. See Botany Index.
ARISTIDES, furnamed the Juft, one of the moft
celebrated charafters of his age for purity and integri¬
ty, and cotemporary wdth Themiftocles, was the fon of
Lyflmachus, a man of middle rank, and born at Athens.
His difpofitions and temper from his youth all conjoin¬
ed in anticipating that greatnefs to which he afterwards
arofe. To a firm, refolute, and placid temper, he like-
wife added a great contempt of diflimulation, and an
utter abhorrence of every thing dilhonourable. He
began very early to meditate on fubje&s of govern¬
ment, and applied to his ftudies with the greateft afli-
duity. He imbibed a ftrong predilection for oligar¬
chy upon becoming acquainted with the laws of Ly-
curgus, which excited his admiration, and gave him a
diltafte of the unlimited democracy then eftablilhed in
his native city. On the other hand, Themiftocles fa¬
voured democracy 5 and even when at fchool, he is
faid to have been his conflant antagonifl on that point.
A perpetual oppofition to one another in all political
points, whether juft or unjuft, was the confequence
of this difference of opinion when their abilities raifed
them to feveral important ftations in the ftate. Al¬
though it was deemed abfolutely neceffary at that time
for a party leader to oppofe all the afts of his antago-
nift whatfoever with the greateft vehemence, yet A-
riftides did not follow this praftice without felf-re-
proach. It is related, that one day having firmly op-
pofed a propofal of Themiftocles in the affembly, which
in his own confcience he knew to be right, on coming
out he exclaimed, “ The affairs of the Athenians will
never profper, till they throw both of us into the bara-
thrumf (the dungeon for condemned criminals). A-
riftides maintained a ftridl obfervance of juftice, and
when in his own opinion a friend was guilty, he would
never fcreen him from the punifhment due to his of¬
fence. Neither defirous of profit nor honour, he ferved
his country from the pureft principles of duty j and
his charadler was fo univerfally known, that once,
when thefe verfes of AtfcbHus, defcribing Amphiaraus,
were recited in the theatre,
“To be, and not to feem, is this man’s maxim }
“ His mind repofes on its confcious worth,
“ And wants no other praife.”
5 ] A R I
the eyes of the whole affembly wTere immediately di- Ariilide?'.
reCled towards Ariftides, as the true pifture of the
idea the poet wifhed to delineate. When in the office
of public treafurer, by convifling Themiftocles and fe¬
veral others of making free with the public property,
he raifed up a party againft himfelf; and when he gave
in his own account, they, to retaliate the affront, ac-
cufed him of embezzling the public ftores ; and it was
only by the interpofition of the court of Areopagus
that he got himfelf cleared. He was, however, again
defied to that office, and then, although he kept a fe-
cret account againft thofe people concerned with him,
he permitted them to plunder without reprehenfiom
It confequently fell out that he w?as univerfally praifed,
his acquaintance cultivated with the greateft avidity,
and intereft made on all fides to continue him in office :
But when the people were about to proceed to elect
him again to that truft, he feverely chided them, and
faid, “ that while he had ferved them with fidelity he
was treated with calumny, and incurred their difplea-
fure j now that he had really violated his truft, he met
with general applaufe, and was reckoned an excellent
citizen.” He then exhibited their deceits, and made
all parties affiamed of the part they had afled.
Ariftides vras prefent at the battle of Marathon,
fought B. C. 490, and w;as next in command among
ths Athenians to Miltiades; and there, upon that ge¬
neral’s propofing to come to battle as foon as poffible,
he feconded his motion with the utmoft vigour. In
the field he diftinguiffied himfelf with intrepidity, va¬
lour, and generofity 5 and being left after the battle to
fecure the fpoils, he executed his truft with honour and
fidelity, bringing all to the public account, referving
nothing for himfelf. He was defied to the important
office of chief magiftrate the year following ; but by
the art of Themiftocles, the high authority he had at¬
tained by his merits was at length converted into an
accufation againft him ; and he was accordingly banifh-
ed by the oftracifm, although a mild, often an unjuft,,
meafure in the policy of the Athenian ftate, for get¬
ting a temporary relief from the prefence of any poli¬
tical influence by which they thought their indepen¬
dence might be injured. A circumftance which oc¬
curred on this occafion gives a very high idea of his-
charafler. A ruftic citizen coming up to vote againft
him, although not perfonally acquainted with Ariftides,
and being himfelf unable to wnite, ordered the firft
perfon whom he met, who accidentally happened to
be Ariftides himfelf, to inferibe his name upon the
Ihell, fignifying his acquiefcence in the fentence of the
ftate. The patriot faid, “ Did Ariftides ever injure
you r” The ruftic replied, “ I do not fo much as
know him, but I am tired with everywhere hearing
him called the Juf”—Ariftides, taking the (hell, wrote
his own name upon it, and returned it in filence to the
voter. Lifting up his hands to heaven, he fupplicated
that the Athenians might never behold the day which
ffiould induce them to remember Ariftides} and then
quitted the city.
As the Perfians were meditating a new invafion of
Greece, he employed himfelf in his exile in encoura¬
ging the Greeks to defend their liberties againft the
invaders. The Athenians immediately, upon the ap¬
proach of Xerxes, recalled Ariftides, wflrofe abfence
they began fincerely to regret, along with their other-
xiles,
I
A R I [ 6;
Arlilkles. exiles. • At this critical moment, upon his return,'1 he
-“"'v f l ' fufpended all political animofities j and upon under-
ftanding that it was the delign of Themiftocles to fight
the Perfian navy in the ftraits of Salamis, he waited on
him in private, propofed an oblivion of all part circum-
itances, extolled his intentions, and gave him his fin-
cere promife to do the utmoft in his power towards ef-
fedling his defigns. Themiftocles, fome time after the
battle of Salamis, acquainted the Athenians that he had
formed a fcheme which, although it was of fuch a na¬
ture as forbade his public avowal of it to them, was of
ineftimable advantage to the ftate. They immediately
ordered that he ftiould communicate it to Ariftides.
It was a projedl: for confirming the whole confederate
fleet of Greece by fire, except their own fhips •, and
thus the entire fway of the fea would be left to the A-
thenian navy. Ariftides reported that nothing could
be more unjuft, and at the fame time nothing more ad¬
vantageous than the fcheme of Themiftocles. Upon
this report, the people immediately determined to drop
any further thought of it. It was equally to the ho¬
nour of the Athenians that they made fuch a determi¬
nation, and to Ariftides that he was made the referree
on this occafion. Ariftides, before the battle of Pla-
taea, was of confiderable fervice in perfuading his coun¬
trymen, who were elevated with their former fucceffes,
to fubmit to the fuperior power of the Spartans, and in
•preferving peace and amity between the confederate
forces. He acquitted himfelf with great valour and
•refolution in the engagement, and was appointed after
■the victory to determine a very dangerous difpute con¬
cerning the honour of the day, which he conferred
upon the Plataeans, giving up the claim of the Athe¬
nians, the Lacedemonians following his example. U-
pon the rebuilding of Athens, he was the firft perfon
-to promote a law which divided the adminiftration
among the citizens at large, and enjoined that the
archons, or chief magiftrates, fhould be elefted out of
the whole body of the people, who had fo defervedly
merited the favour of the ftate.
Ariftides, upon the continuation of the war with the
Perfians, was fent along with Cimon, the fon of Mil-
tiades, to take the command of the Athenian forces in
the confederate army. Their humility and meeknefs,
compared with the haughty domineering temper of
Paufanias, fo engaged the reft of the allies, that the fu-
periority of rank was conferred upon Athens, with the
joint concurrence of the other ftates. The nomination
of Ariftides to lay an equal afleffment upon all the
ftates for the purpofe of defraying the expence of the
war, was a fignal proof of the high idea all Greece had
of his integrity and juftice. The wifdom and impar¬
tiality with which he performed this commiflion gave
unxverfal fatisfaclion. He obliged all the confederates,
after this affair was terminated, folemnly to fwear to
all the articles of affociation. The advice which he
afterwards gave the Athenians to extend their own
territories beyond their proper limits muft certainly
have proceeded from fome very prefling neceflity, when
he thus drew down the confequences of the perjury
' upon his own head. Ariftides, on Themiftocles’s fall¬
ing under the difpleafure of the ruling party, would
-not concur in a capital profecution of him •, and in-
ftead of triumphing over an old enemy, he always fpoke
x>f him after his banilhment with the higheft refpeft.
6 ] A R i
In that age it was common for men who had borne Ariftidm.
the higheft public offices to make no increafe to their1—
private fortunes, but no man ever carried this difinte-
reftednefs to fo high a pitch as Ariftides. Hd was in¬
deed fo remarkably poor, that when a profecution was
railed againft Callias, a rich relation of his, the orator
pleading againft him, in order to excite the indigna¬
tion of his audience, made fome remarks upon his abi¬
lity to affift Ariftides, and at the fame time upon the
extreme indigence in which he permitted him and his
family to live. Callias, in his vindication, was forced
to call Ariftides to teftify that he had frequently of¬
fered him confiderable firms, wffiich he would not ac¬
cept, faying, “ that it better became Ariftides to glory
in bis poverty than Callias in his riches,” which ap¬
pear to have been acquired not very honourably.
This great man died about 407 years B. C. accor¬
ding to fome at Athens, at an advanced age; others
fay at Pontus, where he was tranfafling public bufinefs.
He wyas buried at the public expence, and his daugh¬
ters received portions out of the public treafury 5 and
a penfion and an eftate in land w^as beftowed on his
fon Lyfimachus, in gratitude for the fignal fervices
Ariftides had done his country. [Gen. Bwg.')
Aristides of Miletus, a famous Greek author,
often cited by the ancients.
Aristides, a very eloquent Athenian orator, who
became a convert to the Chriftian religion, and about
the year 124 prefented to the emperor Adrian an apo-
logy for the Chriftlans.
Aristides, JElius, a celebrated orator, born in
Myfia, about 129 years before the Chriftian era. The
beft edition of his works is that of Oxford, printed in
Greek and Latin, in two volumes quarto.
Aristides, a painter cotemporary wdth Apelles,
flouriftied at Thebes about the 12 2d Olympiad. He
was the firft, according to Pliny, who expreffed cha-
radler and paflion, the human mind, and its feveral
emotions ; but he w-as not remarkable for foftnefs of
colouring. “ His moft celebrated picture was of an
infant (on the taking of a towm) at the mother’s breaft,
who is wounded and expiring. The fenfations of the
mother were clearly marked, and her fear left the
child, upon failure of the milk, ftiould fuck her blood.”
“ Alexander the Great (continues the fame author)
took this pi&ure wdth him to Pella,.”
Junius (in his Treatife de Pi&ura Veterum) conjec¬
tures that the following beautiful epigram of iEmili-
anus was written on this exquifite picture :
EA*£, rxXcoi, Trct^ct firir^o? «v vx. iri eqttsAlh/j
EA^utroy tiff-remei' vetpet, writ
H yet^ Aittotvoo; ctXhct T<t
<t><ATg0S xou uv ctiori TraidoKOftiiv
Elegantly tranflated thus :
Suck, little wretch, while yet thy mother lives,
Suck the laft drop her fainting bofom gives !
She dies! her tendernefs furvivefe her breath,
And her fond love is provident in death.
Webb's Inquiry, Dial. VII. p. 161.
ARISTIPPUS, the founder of the Cyrenaic fe£t of
philofophy, was the fon of Aretades, and born at Gy¬
rene in Libya. He flouriffied about the 96th Olym¬
piad. The great reputation of Socrates induced him
to
/
A R I [ 61
Ariftippus. to leave his own country, and remove to Alliens, that
1“—‘ he might have the fatisfaclion of hearing his difcourfes.
He was chietiy delighted with thofe difcourfes of So¬
crates that related the moil to pleafure : which he af-
feited to be the ultimate end in which all happinefs
confifts. His manner of life was agreeable to his opi¬
nion ; for he indulged himfelf extremely in all the lu¬
xuries of drefs, wine, andyvomen. 1 hough he had a
good ellate, and three country feats, yet he was the
only one of the difciples of Socrates who took money
for teaching ; which being obferved by the philofopher,
he a iked Ariilippus, How he came to have fo much ?
Who in reply alked him, How he came to have fo lit¬
tle ? Upon his leaving Socrates, he wrent to ALgina,
as Athenasus informs us, where he lived with more free¬
dom and luxury than before. Socrates fent frequent
exhortations to him, in order to reclaim him } but all
in vain } and with the fame view he publilhed that dif-
courfe which wTe find in Xenophon. Here Ariilippus
became acquainted with Lais, the famous courtezan
of Corinth ; for whole fake he took a voyage to that
city. He continued at iEgina till the death of So¬
crates, as appears from Plato’s Phado, and the epillle
which he wrote upon that occafion. He returned at
lalt into his own country Cyrene, where he profeffed
philofophy, and inllituted a fed! which, as we obferved
above, was called the Cyrenaic, from the place, and by
fome writers the Hedonic or voluptuous, from its doc¬
trines. During the height of the grandeur of Diony-
fius the Sicilian tyrant, a great many philofophers re-
forted to him ; and among the reft Ariftippus, who
was tempted thither by the magnificence of that court.
Dionyfius alking him the reafon of his coming, he re¬
plied, “ That it was in order to give what he had,
and to receive what he had notor, as others repre-
fent it, “ That when he wanted wifdom, he went to
Socrates ; but now as he wanted money, he was come
to him.’'’ He very foon infinuated himfelf into the
favour of Dionyfius ; for being a man of a foft eafy
temper, he conformed himfelf exadlly to every place,
time, and perfon, and was a complete mailer of the
molt refined complaifance.
We have feveral remarkable paffages concerning him
during his refidence at that court mentioned by Dio¬
genes Laertius. Dionyfius, at a feaft, commanded that
all Ihould put on women’s purple habits, and dance in
them. But Plato refufed, repeating thefe lines :
I cannot in this gay effeminate drefs
Difgrace my manhood or my fex betray.
But Ariftippus readily fubmitted to the command, and
made this reply immediately :
 At feafts, where mirth is free,
A fober mind can never be corrupted.
At another time, interceding with Dionyfius in behalf
of a friend, but not prevailing, he call himfelf at his
feet: being reproved by one for that excefs of humility,
he replied, “ That it was not he who was the caufe of
that fubmiffion j but Dionyfius, whofe ears were in his
feet.” Dionyfius Ihowed him three beautiful courte¬
zans, and ordered him to take his choice. Upon which
he took them all three away with him, alleging that
Paris was punilhed jbr preferring one to the other two:
but when he had brought them to his door, he difmif-
Vol. II. Part II.
7 ] A R I
fed them, iu order to Ihow that he could either enjoy Anftippas-
or rejeft with the fame indifference. Having defired —y~“"“
money of Dionyfius, the latter obferved to him, that
he had affured him a wife man wanted nothing. “ Give
me (fays he) what I alk, and we will talk of that af¬
terwards.” When Dionyfius had given it him, “ Now
(fays he), you fee I do not want.” By his complai¬
fance he gained fo much upon Dionyfius, that he had a
greater regard for him than for all the reft of the philo¬
fophers, though he fometimes fpoke with fuch freedom
to that king, that he incurred his difpleafure. When
Dionyfius alked, Why philofophers haunted the gates
of rich men, but not rich men thofe of philofophers ;
he replied, “ Becaufe the latter know what they want,
and the others not,” Another time, Dionyfius re
peating (out of Sophocles, as Plutarch affirms, who
aferibes this to Zeno) thefe veries,
He that with tyrants feeks for bare fupport,
Enflaves himfelf, though free he came to court j
he immediately anfwered,
He is no flave, if he be free to come.
Diocles, as Laertius informs us, related this in his
Lives of the Philofophers ,• though others aferibe this
faying to Plato. Ariftippus had a conteft with Antil-
thenes the Cynic philofopher ; notwithftanding which,
he was very ready to employ his intereft at court for
fome friends of Antifthenes, to preferve them from
death, as we find by a letter of his to that philofopher.
Diogenes followed the example of his mafter Antif¬
thenes in ridiculing Ariftippus, and called him the court
fpaniel.
We have many apophthegms of his preferved.
To one who alked him what his fon would be the
better for being a fcholar ? “ If for nothing elfe
(faid he), yet for this alone, that when he comes in¬
to the theatre, one ftone will not fit upon another.”
When a certain perfon recommended his fon to
him, he demanded 500 drachmas ; and upen the fa¬
ther’s replying, that he could buy a Have for that fum,
“ Do fo (faid he), and then you wall be mafter of a
couple.” Being reproached, becaufe, having a fuit of
law depending, he fee’d a lawyer to plead for him,
“ Juft fo (faid he), when I have a great fupper to
make, I always hire a cook.” Being alked what was
the difference hetwreen a wife man and a fool, he re¬
plied, “ Send both of them together naked to thole
wffio are acquainted with neither of them, and then
you will known” Being reproved by a certain per¬
fon (wffio, according to Mr Stanley, wras Plato) for his
coftly and voluptuous feafts, “ I warrant you (faid he),
that you would not have bellowed three farthings upon
fuch a dinnerwhich the other confeffing, “ Why,
then (faid he), I find myfelf lefs indulgent to my pa¬
late than you are to your covetous humour or, as it
is otherwife reprefented, “ I find, that I love my belly,
and you love your money.” When Simus, treafurer
to Dionyfius, Ihowed him his houfe magnificently fur-
nilhed, and paved with coftly marble, (for he was a
Phrygian, and confequently profufe) ; Ariitippus fpit
in his face : upon which the other growing angry,
“ Why, truly (faid he), I could not find a fitter place.”
Hi? fervant carrying after him a great rveight of mo-
nev, and being ready to fink upon the road under his
4 I burden,
A R I [6
ppus. burden, he bid him throw away all that was too much
' 1'' for him to carry. Horace mentions this fa£l in hi(s
third fatire of the fecond book :
■ -5W//Jitnile ifti
Greecus Ariflippus ? quifcrvos projicere aurum
In media juffit Libya, quia tardius irent
Propter onus fegnes.
Being aiked, what things were mofl proper for children
to be inftruiEled in ? he anfwered, “ Thofe which might
prove of the greateil advantage to them wdien they
came to be men.” Being reproached for going from
Socrates to Dionyfius, he replied, “ That he went to
Socrates when he wanted ferious inftruftion, and to
Dionyfius for diverfion.” Having received money of
Dionyfius at the fame time that Plato accepted a book
only, and being reproached for it, “ The reafon is
plain (fays he), I want money, and Plato wants books.”
Having loft a confiderable farm, he faid to one who
feemed exceffively to compaflionate his lofs, “ You
have but one field ; I have three left : why fliould not
I rather grieve for you ?” Plutarch, who relates this
in his book, De Pranquilhtate Ammi, obferves upon it,
that it is very abfurd to lament for what is loft, and
not to rejoice for what is left. When a perfon told
him, “ That the land for his fake rvas loft,” he replied
“ That it was better fo, than that he fhould be loft
for the land.” Being call by fhipwreck afhore on the
ifland of Rhodes, and perceiving mathematical fchemes
and diagrams drawn upon the ground, he faid, “ Cou¬
rage, friends •, for I fee the footfteps of men.”
After he had lived a long time wuth Dionyfius, his
daughter Arete fent to him, to defire his prefence at
Cyrene, in order to take care of her affairs, fince ftie
was in danger of being oppreffed by the magiftrates.
But he fell fick in his return home, and died at Lipa-
ra, an Eolian ifland. With regard to his principal opi¬
nions, like Socrates, he rejected the fciences as they
were then taught, and pretended that logic alone w7as
lufficient to teach truth and fix its bounds. He affert-
ed, that pleafure and pain -were the criterions by which
we were to be determined *, that thefe alone made up
all our paflions j that the firft produced all the foft
emotions, and the latter all the violent ones. The af-
femblage of all pleafure, he afferted, made true happi-
nefs, and that the beft rvay to attain this was to enjoy
the prefent moments. He wrote a great many books:
particularly the hiftory of Libya, dedicated to Diony¬
fius ; feveral Dialogues j and four books of the Lux¬
ury of the ancients. There are four epiftles of his
extant in the Socratic colleftion publifhed by Leo
Allatius.
Befides Arete his daughter, whom he educated in
philofophy, Ariftippus had alfo a fon, w’hom he difin-
herited for his ftupidity. Arete had a fon who was
named Arijlippus from his grandfather, and had the
furname of from his mother’s inftrudling
him in philofophy. Among his auditors, befides his
daughter Arete, we have an account of Aithiops of
Ptolemais, and Antipater of Cyrene. Arete commu¬
nicated the philofophy which fbe received from her fa¬
ther to her fon Ariftippus, who tranfmitted it to Theo-
dosus the Aiheijl, who inftituted the feiff called Pheo-
dorean. Antipater communicated the philofophy of
Ariftippus to Epitimedes his difciple j Epitimedes to
18 ] A R I
Arifto-
phanes.
Paraebates ; Paraebates to Hegefias and Anniceris: Ariflocracy
and thefe two laft improving it by fome additions of
their own, obtained the honour each of them of giving
a name to the Hegejiac and Annicerian feft. l
ARISTO, a Stoic philofopher, the difciple of Zeno
the chief of the Stoics, flourifhed about 290 years be¬
fore the Chriftian era. He differed but little from his
mafter Zeno. He rejefted logic as of no ufe, and na¬
tural philofophy as being above the reach of the hu¬
man underftanding. It is faid, that being bald, the
fun burnt his head •, and that this caufed his death.—
There is a faying of his recorded, which might render
the doftrine of Ariftippus lefs odious than it ordinarily
is-, (fee Aristippus). He ufed to fay, “That a
philofopher might do thofe of his hearers a prejudice
who put a wrong interpretation upon good meanings 5
as for example that the fchool of Ariftippus might
fend out debauchees, and that of Zeno Cynics
which leems to imply, that the doftrine of this philo¬
fopher never produced this effeft but when it was mif-
underftood. He fhould alfo have added, that every
teacher is therefore obliged to forbear laying downi
ambiguous maxims, or to prevent falfe gloffes being-
put upon them.
ARISTOCRACY, a form of government where
the fupreme pow-er is veiled in the principal perfons
of the ftate. The wTord is derived from optimas,
and ygctTw, inipero, “ I govern.” The ancient writers
of politics prefer the ariftocratical form of government
to all others. The republic of Venice is an ariftocra-
cy. Ariftocracy feems to coincide with oligarchy j-
w-hich, how-ever, is more ordinarily ufed to fignify a
corruption of an ariftocratical ftate, where the admini-
ftration is in the hands of too few-, or -where fome one
or two ufurp the whole power.
ARISTOGITON, a famous Athenian, who, with
Harmodius, killed Hipparchus tyrant of Athens, about
513 years before the Chriftian era. The Athenians
eredted a ftatue to him.
ARISTOLOCHIik, birthwort. See Botany
Index.
ARISTOMENES, a general of the Meffenians, re-
nowmed for his valour and virtue. See Messenia.
ARISTOPHANES, a celebrated comic poet of
Athens. He was cotemporary with Plato, Socrates,
and Euripides ; and molt of his plays were written
during the Peloponnefian war. His imagination was
warm and lively, and his genius particularly turned to
raillery. He had alfo great fpirit and refolution 5 and
w7as a declared enemy to flavery, and to all thofe wrho
wanted to opprefs their country. The Athenians fut-
fered themfelves in his time to be governed by men
who had no other views than to make themfelves ma¬
ilers of the commonwealth. Ariftophanes expofed the
defigns of thefe men, with great wit and feverity, upon
the ftage. Cleon was the firft whom he attacked, in
his comedy of the Equites; and as there was not one
of the comedians wrho would venture to perfonate a
man of his great authority, Ariftophanes played the
charaifter himfelf, and with fo much fuccefs, that the
Athenians obliged Cleon to pay a fine of five talents,
which were given to the poet. He deferibed the af¬
fairs of the Athenians in fo exaft a manner, that his
comedies are a faithful hiftory of. that people. For
this reafen., when Dionyfius king-of Syracufe defired
A R' I ’ [ 61
Arifto- to learn tire ftate and language of Atliens, Plato fent
^ him the comedies of Ariftophanes, telling him, thefe
were the heft reprefentations thereof. He wr.ote above
50 comedies ; but there are only 1 x extant which are
perfect: thefe are, Plutus, the Clouds, the Frogs, E-
quites, the Acharnenfes, the Wafps, Peace, the Birds,
the Ecclefiazufae or Female Orators, the I hefmopho-
fiazufe or Priefteffes of Ceres, and Lyfiftrata. The
* See the Clouds, which he wrote in ridicule of Socrates *, is
article the moil; celebrated of all his comedies. Madame Da-
Socratet. cier teiis us? (he was fo much charmed with this per¬
formance, that after Hie had tranflated it, and read it
over 200 times, it did not become the lead tedious to
her, which (lie could not fay of any other piece ; and
that the pleafure which (lie received from it was fo ex-
quifite, that fixe forgot all the contempt and indigna¬
tion which Ariftophanes deierved for employing his
wit to ruin a man, who was wifdom itfelf, aixd the
greateft ornament of the city of Athens. Ariftophanes
having conceived fome averfion to the poet Euripides,
fatirizes him in feveral of his plays, particularly in his
Frogs and his Thefmophofiazufse. He wrote his Peace
in the 10th year of the Peloponnelian vrar, when a
treaty for 50 years was concluded between the Athe¬
nians and the Lacedemonians, though it continued but
feven years. The Acharnenfes was written after the
death of Pericles and the lofs of the battle in Sicily,
in order to diffuade the people from intruding the fafe-
ty of the commonwealth to fuch imprudent generals as
Lamachus. Soon after, he reprefented his Aves or
Birds j by which he admoniftied the Athenians to for¬
tify Decelaea, which he calls by a fidlitious name Ne-
phelococcygia. The Vefpaj, or Wafps, was written af¬
ter after another lofs in Sicily, which the Athenians
differed from the mifconduft of Chares. He wrote the
Lyfiftrata when all Greece was involved in a wrar j in
which comedy the women are introduced debating up-
the affairs of the commoiwealth j wdien they come to
a refolution, not to go to bed whth their hulhands till
a peace ftiould be concluded. His Plutus, and other
comedies of that kind, were written after the magi-
ftrates had given orders that no perfon fliould be ex-
pofed by name upon the ftage. He invented a pecu¬
liar kind of verfe, wdiich was called by his name, and
is mentioned by Cicero in his Brutus j and Suidas fays,
that he alfo was the inventor of the tetrameter and oc¬
tameter verfe. ,
Ariftophanes was greatly admired among the an¬
cients, efpecially for the true Attic elegance of his
ftyle. The time of his death is unknown ; but it is
certain he was living after the expulfion of the tyrants
by Thrafybulus, wdiom he mentions in his Plutus and
other comedies. There have been feveral editions and
tranflations of this poet. Nicodemus Frifchin, a Ger¬
man, famous for his claflical knowdedge, in the 16th
century, tranflated Plutus, the Clouds, the Frogs, the
Equites, and the Acharnenfes, into Latin verfe. Quin¬
tus Septimus Florens, rendered into Latin verfe the
Wafps, the Peace, and Lyfiftrata; but his tranflation
is full of obfolete words and phrafes. Madame Dacier
publilhed at Paris in 1692, a French verfion of Plutus
and the Clouds, with critical notes, and an examina¬
tion of them according to the rules of the theatre.
Mr Lewis Theobald likewife tranflated thefe two co¬
medies into Euglifti, and publilhed them with remarks.
9 ] A R I
The mod noble edition of this author is that publilhed Ariftotelia
by Ludolphus Kufter, at Amfterdam, in folio, in 1710, Arj|otje
and dedicated to Charles Montague earl of Halifax. ■'  /
ARISTOTELIA, in Antiquity, annual feafts ce¬
lebrated by the citizens of Stagyra, in honour of Ari-
ftotle, who was born there 5 and in gratitude for his
having procured from Alexander the rebuilding and
re peopling of that city, which had been demoliftred by
King Philip.
ARISTOTELIAN, fomething that relates to the
philofopher Ariftotle.
Aristotelian Philofophy, the philofophy taught
by Ariftotle, and maintained by his followers. The
Ariftotelian is otherwife called the Peripatetic Philofo¬
phy. See Peripatetics.
ARISTOTELI ANS, afedft of philofophers, other-
wife called Peripatetics.
The Ariftotelians and their dogmata prevailed for a
long while in the fchools and univerfities ■, even in fpite
of all the efforts of the Cartefians, Newtonians, and
other corpufcularians. But the fyftems of the latter
have at length gained the pre-eminence *, and the New¬
tonian philofophy in particular is now very generally
received. The principles of Ariftotle’s philofophy,
the learned agree, are chiefly laid down in the four
books de Ccelo ; the eight books of Phyfical Aufculta-
tion, Qve-iKYis a.x.Z'Oacius, belonging rather to logic, or
metaphyfics, than to phyfics. Inftead of the more an¬
cient fyftems, he introduced matter, form, and priva¬
tion, as the principles of all things; but he does not
feem to have derived much benefit from them in natu¬
ral philofophy. His doftrines are, for the moft part,
fo obfeurely exprefled, that it has not yet been fatis-
faftorily afcertEjined what were, his fentiments on fome
of the moft important fubjefts. He attempted to re¬
fute the Pythagorean do&rine concerning the twofold
motion of the earth ; and pretended to demonftrate,
that the matter of the heavens is ungenerated, incor¬
ruptible, and fubjeft to no alteration : and he fuppofed
that the ftars were carried round the earth in folid
orbs. The reader will find a diftinft account of the
logical part of his philofophy, by Dr Reid profeffor of
moral philofophy in the univerfity of Glafgow, and in
the fecond volume of Lord Karnes’s Sketches of the
Hiftory of Man. Mr Harris has publiftied a commen¬
tary on his Categories, under the title of Philofophical
Arrangements.
ARISTOTLE, the chief of the Peripatetic philo¬
fophers, born at Stagyra, a fmall city in Macedon, in
the 99th Olympiad, about 384 years before the birth
of Chrift. He was the fon of Nicomachus, phyfician
to Amyntas the grandfather of Alexander the Great.
He loft his parents in his infancy •, and Proxenes, a
friend of his father’s, who had the care of his educa¬
tion, taking but little notice of him, he quitted his
ftudies, and gave himfelf up to the follies of youth.
After he had fpent moft of his patrimony, he entered
into the army : but not fucceeding in this profeflion, he
went to Delphos to confult the oracle what courfe of
life he ftiould follow^ ; when he was advifed to go to
Athens and ftudy philofophy. He accordingly went
thither about 18 years of age, and ftudied under Plato
till he was 37. By this time he had fpent his whole
fortune j and we are told that he got his living by
felling powders, and fome receipts in pharmacy. He
4 I 2 followed
A R I [ 620 ] A R I
Arutotle. followed his ftudies with mod extraordinary diligence,
" fo that he foon furpaffed all in Plato’s fchool. He ate
little, and flept lefs j and that he might not overlleep
himfelf, Diogenes Laertius tells us, that he lay always
with one hand out of the bed, having a ball of brafs in
it, which, by its falling into a bafon of the fame me¬
tal, awaked him. We are told, that Ariftotle had fe-
veral conferences with a learned Jew at Athens, and
that by this means he inftrufted himfelf in the fciences
and religion of the Egyptians, and thereby faved
himfelf the trouble of travelling into Egypt. When
he had dudied about 15 years under Plato, he began
to form different tenets from thofe of his mader, who
became highly piqued at his behaviour. Upon the
death of Plato, he quitted Athens ; and retired to A-
tarnya, a little city of Myfia, where his old friend Her-
mias reigned. Plere he married Pythias, the fider of
this prince, whom he is faid to have loved fo padlon-
ately, that he offered facrifice to her. Some time after,
Hermias having been taken prifoner by Meranon the
king of Perfta’s general, Aridotle went to Mitylene
the capital of Lefbos, where he remained till Philip
king of Macedon having heard of his great reputation,
lent for him to be tutor to his fon Alexander, then
about 14 years of age : Aridotle accepted the offer ;
and in eight years taught him rhetoric, natural philo-
fophy, ethics, politics, and a certain fort of philofo-
phy, according to Plutarch, which he taught nobody
elfe. Philip erefted datues in honour of Aridotle j
and for his fake rebuilt Stagyra, which had been al-
mod ruined by the wars.
The lad fourteen years of his life he fpent modly at
Athens, furrounded writh every affidance which men
and books could afford him for profecuting his philo-
fophical inquiries. The glory of Alexander’s name,
which then filled the wrorld, enfured tranquillity and
refpedl to the man whom he didinguifhed as his friend :
but after the premature death of that illudrious pro¬
tector, the invidious jealoufy of prieds and fophids in¬
flamed the malignant and fuperditious fury of the A-
thenian populace ; and the fame odious pallions which
proved fatal to the offenfive virtue of Socrates, fierce¬
ly affailed the fame and merit of Aridotle. To avoid
the cruelty of perfecution, he fecretly withdrew himfelf
to Chalcis in Euboea. This meafure was fufficiently
judified by a prudent regard to his perfonal fafety; but
led his condudt fliould appear unmanly, when contrad-
ed with the firmnefs of Socrates in a fimilar fituation,
he condefcended to apologize for his flight, by faying,
that he was unwilling to afford the Athenians a fecond
opportunity “ to fin againfl philofophy.” He feems to
have furvived his retreat from Athens only a few
months ; vexation and regret probably ended his days.
Befides his treatifes on philofophy, he wrote alfo on
poetry, rhetoric, law, &c. to the number of 400 trea¬
tifes, according to Diogenes Laertius 5 or more, ac¬
cording to Francis Patricius of Venice. An account
of fuch as are extant, and of thofe faid to be lofl, may
be feen in Fabricius’s Bibliotheca Greeca. He left his
^writings with Theophradus, his beloved difciple and
fucceffor in the Lycseum ; and forbade that they fliould
ever be publiflied. Theophradus, at his death, truded
•them to Neleus, his good friend and difciple ; whofe
htirs buried them in the ground at Scepfis, a towrn of
Troas, to fecure them from the king of Pergamus,
who made great fearch everywhere for books to adorn Aridotle,
his library. Here they lay concealed 160 years, until, Anftoxe-
being almod fpoiled, they were fold to one Apellicon, . nus'
a rich citizen of Athens. Sylla found them at this
man’s houie, and ordered them to be carried to Rome.
They were fome time after purchafed by Tyrannion
a grammarian : and Andronicus of Rhodes having
bought them of his heirs, was in a manner the fird re-
dorer of the works of this great philofopher ; for he
not only repaired what had been decayed by time and
ill keeping, but alfo put them in a better order, and
got them copied. There were many who followed
the doftrine of Aridotle in the reigns of the 12 Cm-
fars, and their numbers increafed much under Adrian
and Antoninus: Alexander Aphrodinus -was the fird
profeffor of the Peripatetic philofophy at Rome, being
appointed by the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lu¬
cius Verus ; and in fucceeding ages the dodtrine of
Aridotle prevailed among almod all men of letters,
and many commentaries were written upon his
works.
The fird doftors of the church difapproved of the
doftrine of Aridotle, as allowing too much to reafon
and lenfe $ but Anatolius bifliop of Laodicea, Didy-
mus of Alexandria, St Jerome, St Auguflin, and fe~
veral others, at length wrote and fpoke in favour of it.
In the fixth age, Boethius made him known in the
wed, and tranfiated fome of his pieces into Latin. But
from the time of Boethius to the eighth age, Joannes
Damafcenus was the only man who made an abridg¬
ment of his philofophy, or wrrote any thing concerning
him. The Grecians, who took great pains to redore'
learning in the 1 ith and following ages, applied much
to the wmrks of this philofopher, and many learned
men -wrote commentaries on his writings : amongd
thefe were Alfarabius, Algazel, Avicenna, and Aver-
roes. They taught his do£trine in Africa, and after¬
wards at Cordova in Spain. The Spaniards introduced
his doftrine into France, with the commentaries of A-
verroes and Avicenna ; and it was taught in the uni-
verfity of Paris, until Amauri having fupported fome
particular tenets on the principles of this philofopher,
was condemned of herefy, in a council held there in
1210, when all the works of Aridotle that could be
found were burnt, and the reading of them forbidden
under pain of excommunication. This prohibition rvas-
confirmed, as to the phyfics and metaphyfics, in 1215,
by the pope’s legate ; though at the fame time he gave
leave for his logic to be read, indead of St Augufiin’s
ufed at that time in the univerfity. In the year 1265.,
Simon, cardinal of St Cecil, and legate from the holy
fee, prohibited the reading of the phyfics and meta¬
phyfics of Aridotle. All thefe prohibitions, however,
were taken off in 1366 } for the cardinals of St Mark
and St Martin, who were deputed by Pope Urban V.
to reform the univerfity of Paris, permitted the read¬
ing of thofe books which had been prohibited : and
in the year 1448, Pope Stephen approved of all his
wmrks, and took care to have a new tranflation of
them into Latin.
ARISTOXENUS, one of the mod ancient mu-
fical writers, was born at Tarentum, a city in Mag-
na Gracia, now Calabria. He was the fon of a mu-
fician, and it appears that he lived about the time of
Alexander the Great and his firfl fucceffors. His Har¬
monics
Hiftory. A R I I H
An’ftox-e monies in ttiree books, all that are come clown to us,
nus- together with Ptolemy’s Harmonics, were firft publilh-
ed by Gogavinus, but not very corredtly, at Venice,
1562, in 4to, with a Latin verfion. John Meurfius
next tranilated the three books of Ariftoxenus into La¬
tin, from the MS. of Jof. Scaliger -, but according to
Meibomius, very negligently. With thefe he.printed
at Leyden, 1616, 4to, Nicomachus and Alypius, two
other Greek writers on mufic. After this, Meibomi¬
us colle&ed thefe mufical writers together ; to which
he added Euclid, Bacchius fenior, Ariftides Quintxh-
anus j and publidred the whole with a Latin verfion
and notes, from the elegant prefs of Elzevir, Amft,
A R I T H
IS a fcience which explains the properties of num¬
bers, and (hows the method or art of computing
by them.
Hijlory of Arithmetic.
At what time this fcience -was firft introduced into
the world, wre can by no means determine. That
fome part of it, however, was coeval with the human
race is abfolutely certain. We cannot conceive how
any man endowed wuth reafon can be without fome
knowledge of numbers. We are indeed. t°kl of na¬
tions in America who have no word in their language
to exprefs a greater number than three •, and this they
call pcetarraronncouroac : but that fuch nations fliould
have no idea of a greater number than this, is abfo¬
lutely incredible. Perhaps they may compute by
threes, as wm compute by tens •, and this may have oc-
cafioned the notion that they have no greater number
than three.
But though we cannot fuppofe any nation, or indeed
any fingle perfon, ever to have been without fome
knowledge of the difference between greater and
(mailer numbers, it is poflible that mankind may have
fubfifted for a confiderable time without bringing this
fcience to any perfe&ion, or computing by any regu¬
lar fcale, as 10, 60, &c. That this, however, was
very early introduced into the world, even before the
flood, wTe may gather from the following expreffion in
Enoch’s prophecy, as mentioned by the apoftle Jude.:
“ Behold, the Lord cometh with ten thoufands of his
faints.” This (hows, that even at that time men had
ideas of numbers as high as we have at this day, and
computed them alfo in the fame manner, namely by
tens. The direftions alfo given to Noah concerning
the dimenfions of the ark, leave us no room to doubt
that he had a knowledge of numbers, and ot meafures
likewife. When Rebekah was fent away to Ifaac,
Abraham’s fon, her relations wiftied (he might be the
mother of thoufands of millions ; and if they were to¬
tally unacquainted with the rule of multiplication, it
i-s difficult to fee how* fuch a wifti could have been
formed.
It is probable, therefore, that the four fundamental
rules of Arithmetic have always been known to fome
nation or other. No doubt, as fome nations, like the
Europeans formerly, and tfte Africans and Americans
M E TIC. 02
1652. The learned editor dedicates thefe ancient mu-
deal treatifes to Chriftina queen of Sweden. Ariftoxc- ,  ^—
nus is faid by Suidas to have written 452 different
works, among which thofe on mufic were the mol.
eftcemed j yet his writings on other fubjefts are very
frequently quoted by ancient authors, notwithftandxng
Cicero and iome others fay that he was a bad philofo-
pher, and had nothing in his head but mufic. The
titles of feveral of the loft works of Ariftoxenus, quoted
by Athenceus and others, have been collected by Meur¬
fius in his notes upon this author, by Tonfius and yviC-
nage, all which Fabricius has digefted into alphabetic
cal order.
M E T I C
now, have been immerfed in the moft abjeft and de¬
plorable ftate of ignorance, they might remain for
fotne time unacquainted with numbers, except fuch as
they had immediate occafion for 5 and, when they came
afterwards to improve, either from their own induftry,
or hints given by others, might fancy that they them-
felves, or thofe from whom they got the hints, had
invented what w^as known long before. The Greeks
rvere the firft European nation among whom arithme¬
tic arrived at any degree of perfeftion. M. Goguet
is of opinion, that they firft ufed pebbles in their cal¬
culations : a proof of which he imagines is, that the
word which comes from a little ft.one,
or flint, among other things, fignifies to calculate. The
fame, he thinks, is probable of the Romans 5 and de-
rive/the word calculation from the ufe of little ftones
{calculi) in their firft arithmetical operations.
If this method, however, w’as at all made ufe of, it
muft have been but for a fhort time, fince w^e find the
Greeks very early made ufe of the letters of the alpha¬
bet to reprefent their numbers. The 24 letters ot
their alphabet taken according to their order, at firft
denoted the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20,
30, 40, ^o, 60, 70, 80, IOO, 200, 3GO, 400, 500, 6co,
700, and 800 •, to which they added the three follow¬
ing,’ r, 7, D, to reprefent 6, 90, and 900. The diffi¬
culty of performing arithmetical operations by fuch
marks as thefe may eafily be imagined, and is very
confpicuous from Archimedes’s treatiie concerning the
dimenfions of a circle.
The Romans followed a like method ; and befides
characters for each rank of claffes, they introduced
others for five, fifty, and five hundred. Their method
is ftill ufed for diftinguiftiing the chapters of books,
and fome other purpofes. Their numeral letters and
values are the follov’ing :
I V X L c D M
One, five, ten, fifty, one hundred, five hundred, one thoufand.
Any number, however great, may be reprefented
by repeating and combining thefe according to the
following rules :
1 ft, When the faihe letter is repeated twice, or of-
tener, its value is reprefented as often. Thus II fig¬
nifies two *, XXX thirty, CC two hundred.
2d. When a numeral letter of leffer value is placed,
after one of greater, their values are added : thus.XI
fig ruffes-
6l 2
4
Sexagefi-
jnal Arith¬
metic.
'Indian Cha-
radlers,
when
brought
into ufe.
A R I T H
Signifies eleven, LXV fixty-fivc, MDCXXVIII one
thoufand fix hundred and twenty-eight.
3d, When a numeral letter of leffer value is placed
before one of greater, the value of the leffer is taken
from that of the greater: thus IV fignifies four, XL
forty, XC ninety, CD four hundred.
Sometimes ID is ufed inftead of D for 500, and the
value is increafed ten times by annexing D to the
right hand.
Thus ID fignifies 500. Alfo CID is ufed for 1000
TDD 5000 CCIDD for 10000
IDDD 50000 CCCIDDD for 100000
Sometimes thoufands are reprefented by drawing a
fine over the top of the numeral, V being ufed for
five thoufand, L for fifty thoufand, CC, two hundred
thoufand.
About the year of Chrift 200, a new kind of arith¬
metic, called fexagefimal, was invented, as is fuppofed,
by Claudius Ptolemaeus. The defign of it was to re¬
medy the difficulties of the common method, efpecially
with regard to fractions. In this kind of arithmetic,
every unit was fuppofed to be divided into 60 parts,
and each of thefe into 60 others, and fo on : hence any
number of fuch parts were called fexagefimalfraBions ;
and to make the computation in whole numbers more
eafy, he made the progreffion in thefe alfo fexagefimal.
I bus from one to 59 %vere marked in the common
way ; then 60 was called a fexagefima prima, or firft
fexagefimal integer, and had one fmgle daffi over it; fo
60 was exprefled thus T; and fo on to 59 times 60, or
3540, which was thus expreffed LIX'. He now pro¬
ceeded to 60 times 60, which he called Kfexagefirnafe-
cunda, and was thus expreffed I". In like manner,
twice 60 times 60, or 7200, was exprefled by II"; and
fo on till he came to 60 times 3600, which was a third
fexagefimal, and expreffed thus, V". If any number
lefs then 60 was joined with thefe fexagefimals, it was
added in its proper charadters without any dafli; thus
I'XV reprefented 60 and 15, or 75 ; I'VXXV is four
times 6<o and 25, or 265; X'TI'XV, is ten times
3600, twice 60 and 15, or 36, 135, &c. Sexagefimal
fractions were marked by putting the daffi at the foot,
or on the left hand of the letter: thus ln or T de¬
noted do i I//5 or 7 T’ffo'O
The moll perfeft method of notation, which we
now ufe, came into Europe from the Arabians, by
the way of Spain. The Arabs, however, do not pre¬
tend to be the inventors of them, but acknowledge
that they received them from the Indians. Some
there are indeed, who contend that neither the Arabs
nor the Indians wTere the inventors, but that they were
found out by the Greeks. But this is by no means
probable ; as Maximus Planudes, who lived towards
the clofe of the 13th century, is the firft Greek wffio
makes ufe of them : and he is plainly not the inventor ;
for Dr Wallis mentions an infcription on a chimney
in the parfonage houfe of Helendon in Northampton-
ffiire, wffiere the date is exprefled by M° 133, inftead
of 1133. Mr Luffkin furnifhes a ftill earlier inftance
of their ufe, in the window of a houfe, part of which
is a Roman wall, near the market place in Colchefter;
w’here betwreen two carved lions ftands an efcutcheon
with the figures 1090. Dr Wallis is of opinion that
M E T I C. Hiftory.
thefe chara6Iers mull have been ufed in England at leaf!
as long ago as the year 1050, if not inordinary affairs,
at leaft in mathematical ones, and in aftronomical tables.
How thefe charadters came to be originally invented by
the Indians we are entirely ignorant.
The introduction of the Arabian characters in no¬
tation did not immediately put an end to the fexage¬
fimal arithmetic, i^s this had been ufed in all the
aftronomical tables, it was for their fakes retained for
a conflderable time. The fexagefimal integers w'ent
firft out, but the fractions continued till the invention
of decimals. 6-
The oldeft treatifes extant, upon the theory of arith-Treatii'eson
metic, are the feventh, eighth, and ninth books of Eu-Arithmehc.
clid s Elements, wffiere he treats of proportion and of
prime and compofite numbers; both of which have
received improvements fince his time, efpecially the
former. The next, of whom we know any thing, is
Nicomachus the Pythagorean, wffio wrote a ti-eatife of
the theory of arithmetic, confifting chiefly of the di-
ftinftions and divifions of numbers into clafles, as plain,
folid, triangular, quadrangular, and the reft of the fi-
gurate numbers as they are called, numbers odd and
even, &c. with fome of the more general properties of
the feveral kinds. This author is, by fome, faid to have
lived before the time of Euclid ; by others, not long
after. His arithmetic was publilhed at Paris in 1538.
The next remarkable writer on this fubjeCI is Boethius,
wffio lived at Rome in the time of Theodoric the Goth.
He is fuppofed to have copied moft of his works from
Nicomachus.
From this time no remarkable writer on arithme¬
tic appeared till about the year 1200, when Jordanus
of Namur wrote a treatife on this fubjeCI, which was
publiiffied and demonftrated by Joannes Faber Stapu-
lenfis in the 15th century, foon after the invention of
printing. The fame author alfo wrote upon the new
art of computation by the Arabic figures, and called
this book Algorifmus Demonftratus. Dr Wallis fays,
this manufeript is in the Savillian library at Oxford,
but it hath never yet been printed. As learning ad¬
vanced in Europe, fo did the knowledge of numbers;
and the writers on arithmetic foon became innumer¬
able. About the year 1464, Regiomontanus, in his
triangular tables, divided the radius into io,oco
parts, inftead of 60,000 ; and thus tacitly expelled the
fexagefimal arithmetic. Part of it, however, ftill re¬
mains in the divifion of time, as of an hour into 60
minutes, a minute into 60 feconds, &c. Ramus in
his arithmetic, written about the year 1550, and pu-
bliffied by Lazarus Schonerus in 1586, ufed decimal
periods in carrying on the fquare and cube roots to
fraClions. The fame had been done before by our
countrymen Buckley and Record ; but the firrt who
publiftied an exprefs treatife on decimals was Simon
Stevinius, about the year 1582. As to the circulating
decimals, Dr Wallis is the firft who took much no¬
tice of them. He is alfo the author of the arithmetic
of infnttes, which has been very ufefully applied to
geometry. The greateft improvement, however, which
the art of computation ever received, is the invention
of logarithms. The honour of this invention is un-
queftionably due to Baron Napier of Merchifton in
Scotland, about the end of the 16th or beginning of
the
Chap. I. A R I T H
Notation the I "yth century. By thefe means arithmetic has ad-
and Nume- vanced to a degree of perfeftion which the ancients
ration. couy never have imagined podible, much lefs hoped
V., --v, att;a;n . an(j we believe it may now be reckoned
one of thofe ferv fciences which have arrived at their
utmoft height, and which is in its nature capable of
little further improvement.
Chap. I. NOTATION AND NUMERATION.
7
The firft elements of arithmetic are acquired dur-
ing our infancy. The idea of one, though the fim-
pleft of any, and fuggefted by every fingle objecf, is
perhaps rather of the negative kind, and confifts part¬
ly in the exclufion of plurality, and is not attended to
till that of number be acquired. Two is formed by
placing one objeff near another $ three, four, and
every higher number, by adding one continually to
the former colle&ion. As we thus advance from
lower numbers to higher, we foon perceive that there
is no limit to this increafmg operation j and that,
whatever number of objedls be colledted together,
more may be added, at lead, in imagination •, fo that
we can never reach the higheft poffible number, nor
approach near it. As we are led to underhand and
add numbers by colle&ing obje&s, fo we learn to di-
minith them by removing the obje&s collefted j and
if we remove them one by one, the number decreaies
through all the fteps by which it advanced, till only
one remain, or none at all. When a child gathers as
many ftones together as fuits his fancy, and then throws
them away, he acquires the firft elements of the two
capital operations in arithmetic. The idea of numbers,
which is firft acquired by the obfervation of fenfible
objects, is afterwards extended to meafures of fpace
and time, affedtions of the mind, and other immaterial
qualities.
Small numbers are mod eafily apprehended : a child
foon knows what two and what three is j but has
not any didindt notion of feventeen. Experience re¬
moves this difficulty in fome degree } as we become
accudomed to handle larger colledtions, we apprehend
clearly the number of a dozen or a fcore ; but per¬
haps could hardly advance to an hundred without the
aid of claffical arrangement, which is the art of form¬
ing fo many units into a clafs, and fo many of thefe
claffes into one of a higher kind, and thus advancing
through as many ranks of clafles as occafion requires.
If a boy arrange an hundred dones in one row, he
would be tired before he could reckon them 5 but if
he placed them in ten rows of ten dones each, he will
reckon an hundred with eafe ; and if he colleft ten
fuch parcels, he wall reckon a thoufand. In this cafe,
ten is the lowed clafs, a hundred is a clafs of the fe-
cond rank, and a thoufand is a clafs of the third
rank.
There does not feem to be any number naturally
adapted for condituting a clafs of the lowed, or any
higher rank, to the exclufion of others. However, as
ten has been univerfally ufed for this purpofe by the
Hebrews, Greeks, Romans, and Arabians, and by all
nations who have cultivated this fcience, it is proba¬
bly the mod convenient for general ufe. Other fcales,
however, may be affumed, perhaps on fome occa-
M E T I c. ' 62^
fions, with fuperior advantage 5 and the principles of Nua.cra-
arithmetic will appear in their full extent, if the du-, ’^n' .
dent can adapt them to any fcale whatever : thus, if
eight wTere the fcale, 6 times 3 would be twro claffies,
and two units, and the number 18 would then be re-
prefented by 22. If 1 2 were the fcale, 5 times 9 would
be three dalles and nine units, and 45 would be repre-
fented by 39, &c.
It is proper, wffiatever number of units conditutes
a clafs of the lower rank, that the fame number oT
each clafs fhould make one of the next higher. This
is obferved in our arithmetic, ten being the univerfal
fcale : but it is not regarded in the various kinds of
monies, wreights, and the like, which do not advance
by any univerfal meafure ; and much of the difficulty
in the practice of arithmetic arifes from that irregu¬
larity.
As higher numbers are fomewhat difficult to appre¬
hend, we naturally fall on contrivances to fix them in
our minds, and render then familiar : but notwith-
flanding all the expedients we can fall upon, our ideas
of high numbers are Hill imperfeft, and generally far
firort of the reality j and though wre can perform any
computation with exaftnefs, the anfwer we obtain is
often incompletely apprehended.
It may not be amils to illuilrate, by a few exam¬
ples, the extent of humbers which are frequently
named without being attended to. If a perlon em¬
ployed in telling money reckon an hundred pieces in
a minute, and continue at work ten hours each day,
he will take feventeen days to reckon a million ; a
thoufand men would take 45 years to reckon a bil¬
lion. If we fuppofed the wffiole earth to be as well
peopled as Britain, and to have been io from the
creation, and that the whole race of mankind had
conftantly fpent their time in telling from a heap
confifting of a quadrillion of pieces, they would hard¬
ly have yet reckoned the thoufandth part of that
quantity.
All numbers are reprefented by the ten following
charadlers.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 _8 9 o
One,two,three, four, five, fix, feven, eight, nine, cypher.
The nine firft are called Jignificant figures, or digits ;
and fometimes reprefent units, fometimes tens, hun¬
dreds, or higher claffes. When placed fingly, they
denote the fimple numbers fubjoined to the charac¬
ters. When feveral are placed together, the firft or
right-hand figure only is to be taken for its fimple
value : the fecond fignifies fo many tens, the third fo
many hundreds, and the others fo many higher
claffes, according to the order they ftand in. And
as it may fometimes be required to exprefs a num¬
ber confifting of tens, hundreds, or higher claffes,
without any units or claffes of a lower rank annexed •,
and as this can only be done by figures ftanding in
the fecond, third, or higher place, while there are
none to fill up the lower ones j therefore an additional
chara&er or cypher (o) is neceffary, which has no fig-
nification when placed by itfelf, but ferves to fupply the
vacant places, and bring the figures to their proper
ftation.
The following table {hows the names and divifions
of the claffes.
8.
A R I T H
i. 4.3.7.9.8. 2. j. 6 4 7.3.8. 9.7. *.«. 4- 5-
V) CD '^5 C/5 CD CD cr CD
n^rT3"aMOp:.,y
- - - - - ^ ^ o o o p g c v v a
^2 v2 h a
00000
la 'ja Iq j3 ‘-o
'esses
C-4-H C-+H t3 »— s
OOCWO^OO
-o T)
^JJoS 2 J J §|
all mI|h
no C2 ^ o
(U ro u 3
ra t-1 -3 H
§ g
S 3 2 £
O O o 3
-c hM
■*-> *-- H-« ^
The nr ft fix figures from the right hand are called
the unit period, the next fix the million period, after
which the trillion, quadrillion, quintilhon, fextilhon,
feptillion, a tilllion, and nonillion periods follow in their
order.
It is proper to divide any number, before we reckon
it, into periods and half periods, by different marks.
We then begin at the left hand, and read the figures
in their order, with the names of their places, from the
table. It writing any number, we muft be careful to
mark the figures in their proper places, and fupply the
vacant places with cyphers.
As there are no poflible -ways of changing numbers,
except by enlarging or diminiftiing them according to
fome given rule, it follows, that the whole ait of
•arithmetic is comprehended in two operations, Addition
and Subtraction. However, as it is frequently required
to add feveral equal numbers together,^ or to iubtraft
feveral equal ones from a greater, till it be exhaufted,
proper methods have been invented for facilitating
the operation in thefe cafes, and diftinguifiied by the
names of Multiplication and Divifion ; and thefe four
rules are the foundation of all arithmetical operations
whatever. _ _ , r
As the idea of number is acquired by obiervmg ie-
veral objefts colkaed, fo is that of fractions by obferv-
ing an objeft divided into feveral parts. As we fome-
jimes meet with obje&s broken into twm, three, or more
parts, wre may confider any or all of thefe divifions
promifcuoufly, which is done in the do&rine of vulgar
fraftions, for which a chapter will be allotted. How¬
ever, fince the praftice of colle£ting units into par¬
cels of tens has prevailed univerfally, ft has been found
convenient to follow a like method in the conlideia-
tion of fraftions, by dividing each unit into ten equal
parts, and each of thefe into ten fmaller parts •, and fo
on. ’Numbers divided in this manner are called Deci¬
mal FraBions.
Chap. II. ADDITION.
Addition is that operation by which we find the
amount of two or more numbers. The method of do-
ing this in fimple cafes is obvious, as foon as the mean¬
ing of number is known, and admits of no illuftia-
tion. A young learner will begin at one of the num¬
bers, and reckon up as many units feparately as there
are in the other, and praftice will enable him to do it
at once. It is impoffible, ftriftly fpeaking, to add
more than two numbers at a time. We muft firft
find the fum of the firft and fecond ) then we add the
third to that number; and fo on. However, as the
M E T I c. Chap. I
feveral fums obtained are eafily retained in the memo- Addition,
ry, it is neither necefiary nor ufual to mark them ’ e~~~>
down. When the numbers confift of more figures
than one, we add the units together, the tens toge¬
ther, and fo on. But if the fum of the units exceed
ten, or contain ten feveral times, we add the number
of tens it contains to the _ next column, and only fet
down the number of units that are over. In like
manner we carry the tens of every column to the
next higher. And the reafon of this, is obvious from
the value of the places j lince an unit, in any higher
place, fignifies the fame thing as ten in the place im¬
mediately lower.
Example.
Rule. “ Write the numbers diftinftly, 546863
“ units under units, tens under tens j and 876734
“ fo on. Then reckon the amount of the 123467
“ right-hand column. If it be under ten, 3«42I3
“ mark it down. If it exceed ten, mark 7123x6
“ the units only, and carry the tens to the 43^9^7
“ next place. In like manner, carry the 279654
“ tens of each column to the next, and mark — ■
ii down the full ium of the left-hand co- 3092234
“ lumn.” 24433
As it is of great confequence in bufinefs to perform
addition readily and exaftly, the learner ought to
praftice ft till ft become quite familiar. If the learn¬
er can readily add any two digits, he will foon add a
digit to a higher number with equal eafe. T is
to add the unit place of that number to the digit j
and, if it exceed ten, it raifes the amount accordingly.
Thus, becaufe 8 and 6 is 14, 48 and 6 is 54. It will
be proper to mark down under the fums oi each co*
lumn, in a fmall hand, the figure that is carried to the
next column. This prevents^ the trouble of going
over the whole operation again, in cafe of interrup¬
tion or miftake. If you want to keep the account
clean, mark down the fum and figure you carry on a
feparate paper, and, after revifing them, tranlcrioe the
fum only. After fome praftice, we ought to acquire
the habit of adding two or more figures at one glance.
This is particularly ufelul when two figures which
amount to 10, as 6 and 4, or 7 and 3, ft and together in
the column.
Every operation in arithmetic ought to be reviled,
to prevent miftakes j and as one is apt to fall into the
fame miftake, if he revife it in the fame manner he per¬
formed it, it is proper either to alter the order, or eke
to trace back the fteps by which the operation advan¬
ced, which will lead us at laft to the number we began
with. Every method of proving accounts may be re¬
ferred to one or other of thefe heads.
ift, Addition may be proven by any of the follow¬
ing methods: Repeat the operation, beginning at the
top of the column, if you began at the loot when you
wrought it. jj u /
ad, Divide the account into feveral parts; add thele
feparately, and then add the iums together. If their
amount correfpond with the fum of the account, when
added at once, it may be prefumed right. 1 his roeJ,hod
is particularly proper when you want to know the ium->
of the parts, as well as that of the whole.
3d, Subtraft the numbers fucceffively from the ium ;
if the account be right, you will exhauft it exaftly,
and find no remainder.
When
Chap. II. A R I T H
Addition. When the given number confifts of articles of dif-
w-"V-.—< ferent value, as pounds, (hillings, and pence, or the
like, which are called different denominations, the ope¬
rations in arithmetic muft be regulated by the value
of the articles. We (hall give here a few of the moft
ufeful tables for the learner’s information.
I. Sterling Money.
4 Farthingsm penny,
marked d.
12 Pencerr I (hilling, s.
20 Shillings=x pound, L.
Alfo, 6s. 8d.—i noble
los.m angel
13s. 4d. or two thirds
of a pounds 1 merk.
II. Avoirdupois Weight.
16 Dramsrri ounce, oz.
16 Ouncesm pound, lb.
28 Poundm quarter, qr.
4 Quart.m hun. wgh1, C.
20 Hun. weight=i ton, T,
Scots money is divided in the fame manner as fter-
ling, and has one twelfth of its value. A pound Scots
is equal to is. 8d. fterling, a (hilling Scots to a pen¬
ny (lerling, and a penny Scots to a twelfth part of a
penny (lerling j a mark Scots is two thirds of a
pound Scots, or 13^ (lerling.
III. Troy Weight. IV. Apothecaries Weight.
20 Mites—1 grain, gr. 20 Grainsm fcruple, ^
24 Grains—1 pen. w1, dw1. 3 Scruplesm dram, 3
20 Penny wts—1 ounce, oz. 8 Drams—1 ounce, §
12 Ouncesmi pound, lib. 12 Ouncesm pound, it>
V. Englijh Dry Meafure.
2 Pints—1 quart
4 Quarts—1 gallon
2 Gallons—1 peck
4 Pecks—1 buftiel
8 Bulhelsm quarter
VII. Etiglijh Land Mea¬
fure.
30^ Square yardsm pole
or perch
40 Polesm rood
4 Roods—1 acre
IX. Long Meafure.
I 2 Inchesrr I foot
3 Feetm yard
54 Yards—1 pole
40 Polesm furlong
8 Furlongs^ri mile
3 Milesr=:i league
VI. Scots Dry Meafure.
4 Lippiesm peck
4 Pecksmi firlot
4 Firlotsm boll
16 Bollsm chalder
VIII. Scots Land Mea-
fure.
36 Square ellsm fall
40 Falls=ri rood
4 Roodsim acre
X. Time.
60 Seconds—! minutes
60 Minutesm hour
24 Hoursm day
7 Days—1 week
365 Dayszri year
5 2 Weeks & 1 day m year
Rule for compound Addition. “Arrange like quan-
“ tities under like, and carry according to the value
“ of the higher place.”
Note 1. When you add a denomination, which con¬
tains more columns than one, and from which you car¬
ry to the higher by 20, 30, or any even number of tens,
firft add the units of that column, and mark down their
fum, carrying the tens to the next column 5 then add
the tens, and carry to the higher denomination, by the
number of tens that it contains of the lower. For ex¬
ample, in adding drillings, carry by 10 from the units
to the tens, and by 2 from the tens to the pounds.
Note 2. If you do not carry by an even number of
tens, firft find the complete fum of the lower denomi¬
nation, then inquire how many of the higher that fum
contains, and carry accordingly, and mark the remain-
Vol. II. Part II.
M E T I C. 625
der, if any, under the column. For example, if the Addition.^
fum of a column of pence bet43, which is three (hil-
lings and feven pence, mark 7 under the pence column,
and carry 3 to that of the (hillings.
Note 3. Some add the lower denominations after
the following method : wThen they have reckoned as
many as amounts to one of the higher denomination,
or upwards, they mark a dot, and begin again with
the excefs of the number reckoned above the value of
the denomination. The number of dots (howrs how
many are carried, and the la(l reckoned number is
placed under the column.
Examples in Sterling Money.
L. 145
215
172 18
7
2
645
737
35 3
9 "
1764 12
780 -
99 9
150 10
844 ^
L. 16
n4
169 16 10
9i
6
36 12
54 7
30 - 1
7 !9 6
707 19 11
14 14
84 18
3
125
16 16
62 c
4
8i
7
H
T.
1
C.
*9
14
18
1
1
17
JS
6
6
4
5
In Avoirdupois Weight.
T. C.
3
6 3
lb.
26
16
16
27
10
24
18
5
9
4
5
7
2
3
18
1
3
4
6
1
qr. lb.
2 22
- 19
26
IO
12
I
7
9
5
4
When one page will not contain the whole account,
w^e add the articles it contains, and write againll their
fum Carried forward; and we begin the next page
with the fum ©f the foregoing, writing againft it,
Brought forward.
When the articles fill feveral pages, and their whole
fum is known, which is the cafe in tranfcribing ac¬
counts, it is bed to proceed in the following manner ;
Add the pages, placing the firms on a feparate paper;
then add the firms, and if the amount of the whole be
right, it only remains to find what number (liould
be placed at the foot and top of the pages. For this
purpofe, repeat the fum of the firft page on the fame
line ; add the firms of the firft and fecond, placing
the amount in a line with the fecond ; to this add
the firm of the third, .placing the amount in a line
with the third. Proceed in the like manner with the
others \ and if the lad firm correfponds with the amount
of the page, it is right. Thefe firms are tranfcribed
at the foot of the refpeflive pages, and tops of the
following ones.
4 K Examples.
ARITHMETIC.
L.124 6 8
42 3 9
175 4 9
42 5 7
163 7 4
148 5 8
73 2 3
170
66
73 8
45 3
78 7
12 -
Examples.
L.
5 4
9 8
6
L.
70 4
18 6
12 13
3
17 5
18 6
*5
12
7
8
9 6
5 10
L.
L.
L.
Ist Page, L.778 16 —
445 J4
151 19
43 6
5
9
11
L.
L. 778 16 -
1224 10 5
1376 10 2
14*9 J7 1
L.1419 17 1
Then we tranferibe 778I. 16s. at the foot of the firft
and top of the fecond pages, 1224I. 10s. 5d. at the
foot of the fecond and top of third 3 and fo on.
Chap. III. SUBTRACTION.
Subtraction is the operation by which we take a
leiTer number from a greater, and find their difference.
It is exactly oppofite to addition, and is performed by
learners in a like manner, beginning at the greater,
and reckoning dowmvards the units of the lefier. The
greater is called the minuend^ and the lelfer the fubtra-
hend.
If any figure of the fubtrahend be greater than the
correfponding figure of the minuend, wre add ten to
that of the minuend, and having found and marked
the difference, we add one to the next place of the fub¬
trahend. This is called borrowing ten. The reafon
will appear, if we confider that, when two numbers
are equally increafed by adding the fame to both, their
difference will not be altered. When we proceed as
directed above, we add ten to the minuend, and w^e
likewife add one to the higher place of the fubtrahend,
which is equal to ten of the lower place.
Rule. “ Subtraft units from units, tens from tens,
“ and fo on. If any figure of the fubtrahend be
“ greater than the correfponding one of the minuend,
borrow ten.”
Example. Minuend 173694 738641
Subtrahend 21453 379235
Remainder- 152241 3594°6
To prove fubtraftion, add the fubtrahend and re¬
mainder together-, if their fum be equal to the mi¬
nuend, the account is right. _ >
Or fubtraft the remainder from the minuend. If
the difference be equal to the fubtrahend, the account
is right.
Rule for compoundJubtraElion. “ Place like deno-
“ minations under like; and borrow, when neceffary,
“ according to the value of the higher place.”
Examples.
C. qr. lib. j4. R. F. E.
L.I46 33 12 3 19 15 2 24 l8
58 7 6 4 3 24 12 2 36 7
L. 87 15 9 7 3 23 _ 2 ^ 3 28 II
Note 1. The reafon for borrowing is the fame as
in fimple fubtra&ion. Thus, in fubtracling pence, we
Chap. Ill*
add 12 pence when neceffary to the minuend, and at Subtrac-
the next ftep, we add one fhilling to the fubtrahend. , n°n-
Note 2. When there are two places in the fame de-^ ^
nomination, if the next higher contain exadly fo many
tens, it is belt to fubtradt the units firft, borrowing
ten rvhen neceffary ; and then fubtrac! the tens, bor¬
rowing, if there is occafion, according to the number
of tens in the higher denomination.
Note 3. If the value of the higher denomination be
not an even number of tens, fubtradl the units and
tens at once, borrowing according to the value of the
higher denomination.
Note 4. Some choofe to fubtradf. the place in the fub¬
trahend, when it exceeds that of the minuend, from
the value of the higher denomination, and add the mi¬
nuend to the difference. This is only a different order
of proceeding, and gives the fame anfwer.
Note 5. As cuftom has eftablifhed the method of .
placing the fubtrahend under the minuend, we follow
it when there is no reafon for doing otherwife j but
the minuend may be placed under the fubtrahend with
equal propriety j and the learner fliould be able to
work it either way, with equal readinefs, as this laft
is fometimes more convenient j of which inftances will
occur afterwards.
Note 6. The learner fhould alfo acquire the habit
when twd numbers are marked dowm, of placing fuch
a number under the leffer, that, when added together,
the fum may be equal to the. greater. The operation
is the fame as fubtraftion, though conceived in a dif¬
ferent manner, and is ufeful in balancing accounts,
and on other occafions.
It is often neceffary to place the fums in different co¬
lumns, in order to exhibit a clear view of what is re¬
quired. For inftance, if the values of feveral parcels
of goods are to be added, and each parcel confifts of
feveral articles, the particular articles fhould be placed
in an inner column, and the fum of each parcel extend¬
ed to the outer column, and the total added there.
If any perfon be owing an account, and has made
fome partial payments, the payments muft be placed in
an inner column, and their fum extended under that of
the account m the outer column, and fubtrafted there.
An example or two wdll make this plain.
1 ft.] 30 yards linen at 2s. L.3
45 ditto at is. 6d. 3 7 6
 L. 6 7 6
120 lb thread at 4s. L.24*
40 ditto
30 ditto
at 3s.
at 2S. 6d.
6
3 U
33 *5
L. 40
2d.] 1773.
Jan. 15. Lent James Smith L.50
2 2. Lent him further '7 o
L. 120
Feb. 3. Received in part
5. Received further
In gold L.io 10
In filver 13
L.62
23
10
85 10
Balance due me L.34 10
ChA2.
A R I T H
Chap. IV. MULTIPLICATION.
io In multiplication, two numbers*are given, and it is
required to find howr much the firft amounts to, when
reckoned as many times as there are units in the fe-
cond. Thus, 8 multiplied by 5, or 5 times 8, is 40.
The given numbers (8 and 5) are called faEiors; the
firft (8) the multiplicand; the fecond (5) the multiplieri
and the amount (40) the produEl.
This operation is nothing elfe than addition of the
fame number feveral times repeated. If we mark 8
five times under each other, and add them, the fum
is 40: But, as this kind of addition is of frequent and
extenfive ufe, in order to ftiorten the operation, we
mark dowrn the number only once, and conceive it to
be repeated as often as there are units in the multiplier.
For this purpofe, the learner muft be thoroughly ac¬
quainted with the following multiplication table, which
is compofed by adding each digit twelve times.
Chap. IV.
Multipli¬
cation.
Twice
1 is 2
2 4
6
8
10
12
Thrice (Four times
1 is 3
2 6
3
4
5
6
7 14
8 16
9 18
10 20
11 22
12 24
Eighttimes
1 is 8
2 16
3 24
4 32
5 40
6 48
7 56
8 64
9 72
10 80
11 88
12 96
3 9
4 12
5 15
6 18
7 21
8 24
9 27
10 30
11
33
1 is 4
2 * 8
12
16
20
24
28
8 32
9 3<5
10 40
11 44
12 36J12 48
Five
I
* 2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
times
is 5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
Six times
1 is 6
2 12
18
24
3°
36
42
8 48
9 54
10 60
11 66
12 72
Seven times
1 is 7
2 14
21
28
35
42
49
8 56
9 63
10 70
11 77
12 84
Nine times
I is 9
18
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
27
36
45
54
63
72
81
90
99
12 108
Ten times
1 is 10
2 20
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 9°
10 100
11 110
12 120
3°
40
50
60
70
80
Eleven times
1 is li
2 22
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
33
44
55
66
77
88
99
110
121
12 132
Twelve times
i is 12^
24
36
48
60
72
7 84
8 96
9 108
10 120
11 132
12 144
If both fa&ors be under 12, the table exhibits the
produft at once. If the multiplier only be under 12,
we begin at the unit place, and multiply the figures
in their order, carrying the tens to the higher place,
as in addition.
Ex. 76859 multiplied by 4, or 76859 added 4 times.
4 76859
  76859
307436 76859
, . . 307436
If the multiplier be 10, w^e annex a cypher to the
multiplicand. If the multiplier be 100, wTe annex two
cyphers j and fo on. The reafon is obvious, from the
life of cyphers in notation.
If the multiplier be any digit, with one or more
cyphers on the right hand, we multiply by the figure,
M E T I
C.
62
and annex an equal number of cyphers to the produft.
Thus, if it be required to multiply by 50, w7e firft
multiply by 5, and then annex a cypher. It is the
fame thing as to add the multiplicand 50 times 3 and
this might be done by working the account at large, di¬
viding the column into 10 parts of 5 lines, finding the
fum of each part, and adding thefe ten fums together.
If the multiplier confift of feveral fignificant figures,
we multiply feparately by each, and add the produfts.
It is the fame as if we divided a long account of ad¬
dition into parts correfponding to the figures of the
multiplier.
Multipl
cation.
Example. To multiply 7329 by 365.
7329 7329 7329 36645=: 5 times.
5 60 300 439740=: 60 times.
    2198700=2300 times.
36645 439740 2198700  _
2675085=365 times.
It is obvious that 5 times the multiplicand added to
60 times, and to 300 times, the fame muft amount to
the produft required. In praftice, we place the pro-
dudts at once under each other 3 and as the cyphers
arifing from the higher places of the multiplier, are
loft in the addition, wTe omit them. Hence may be
inferred the following
Rule. “ PHce the multiplier under the multipli-
“ cand, and multiply the latter fucceflively by the
“ fignificant figures of the former 3 placing the right-
“ hand figure of each produft under the figure of the
“ multiplier from wrhich it arifes 3 then add the pro-
“ dua.”
Ex. 7329 42785
365 9<
36645 42785
43974 385065
21987  
  3893435
2675085
37846 93956
235 8704
189230 375824
ii3538 657692
75692 751648
8893810 817793024
A number w'hich cannot be produced by the mul¬
tiplication of two others is called a prime number; as
3, 5, 7, 11, and many others.
A number which may -be produced by the multi¬
plication of two or more fmaller ones, is called a com-
pqfite nutnber. For example, 27, which arifes from the
multiplication of 9 by 3 3 and thefe numbers (9 and 3)
are called the component parts of 27.
ContraBions and Varieties in Multiplication.
Firft, If the multiplier be a compofite number, we
may multiply fucceflively by the component parts.
Ex. 7638 by 45 or 5 times 9 7638 ift,
45 9 2d,
•3d,
38190
3°552
343710
5492by 72
I3759by 56
56417 by144
73048 by 84
68742 4th,
5 5th, 166549by 125
6th, 3789i4by 54
343710 7lb, 520813 by 63
Becaufe the fecond produa is equal to five times the
firft, and the firft is equal to nine times the multi-
4 K 2 plicand,
r'-si
628
A R I T H
Multipli- plica id, it is obvious tbat the fecond produdt muft be
, five times nine, or forty-five times as great as the
multiplicand.
Secondly, If the multiplier be 5, which is the half
of to, we may annex a cypher and divide by 2. If
it be 25, which is the fourth part of too, we may
annex twro cyphers, and divide by 4. Other coa-
traftions of the like kind will readily occur to the
learner.
Thirdly, To multiply by 9, which is one lefs than
10, wre may annex a cypher 5 and fubtraft the multi¬
plicand from the number it compofes. To multiply
by 99,999, or any number of 9’s, annex as many cy¬
phers, and fubtradl the multiplicand. The reafon is
obvious and a like rule may be found, though the
unit place be different from 9.
Fourthly, Sometimes a line of the produft is more
eafily obtained from a former line of the fame than
from the multiplicand.
Ex. iff.] 1372 2d.] 1348
84 36
5488
10976
115248
8088
4044
48528
In. the firft example, inflead of multiplying by 5, w7e
may multiply 5480 by 2 ; and, in the fecond, inltead
of multiplying by 3, we may divide 8088 by 2.
Fifthly, Sometimes the produft of twTo or more fi¬
gures may be obtained at once, from the produfl of a
figure already found.
Ex. iff.] 14356 2d.] 3462321
648 96484
114848 13849284
918784 166191408
   332382816
9302688  
334058579364
In the fecond example, we multiply firft by 4 ; then,
becaufe 12 times 4 is 48, we multiply the firft line
of the produft by 12, inftead of multiplying feparately
by 8 and 4 ; laftly, Becaufe twice 48 is 96, we multi¬
ply the fecond line of the product by 2, inftead of mul¬
tiplying feparately by 6 and 9.
When v7e follow this method, we muft be careful to
place the right-hand ^figure of each product under the
right-hand figure of that part of the multiplier wdiich
it is derived from.
It would anfwer equally w'ell in all cafes, to begin
the work at the higheft place of the multiplier 5 and
contractions are fometimes obtained by following that
order.
Ex. ift.] 3125 or 3125 2d.] 32452
642 642 52575
18750
12500
6250
3006250
18750 162260
131250 811300
  2433900
200625c   —
X706163900
MET! C. Chap. IV.
It is a matter of indifference wdiich of the faflors Multipli-
be ufed as the multiplier; for 4 multiplied by 3 gives, cat^on- ,
the fame produft as 3 multiplied by 4; and the like
holds univerfally true. To illuftrate this, we may
mark three row7s of points, four in each ....
row, placing the rows under each other •,....
and wre ihall alfo have four rows, con- ....
taining three points each, if we reckon the row's down¬
wards.
Multiplication is proven by repeating the opera¬
tion, ufing the multiplier for the multiplicand, and the
multiplicand for the multiplier. It may alfo be proven
by divifion, or by cafting out the q’s j of w'hich after¬
wards ; and an account, wrought by any contradlion,
may be proven by performing the operation at large,
or by a different contraftion.
Compound Multiplication.
Rule I. “If the multiplier do not exceed 12, the
“ operation is performed at once, beginning at the
“ lowreft place, and carrying according to the value of
“ the higher place.”
[Examples.^ Cwt. qr. lb. A. R. P. Lb. oz.dii't,
L. 13 6 7 12 2 8 13 3 18 7 5 9
95 6 12
L.119 19 3 62 3 12 83 — 28 89 5 8
Rule II. “ If the multiplier be a compofite num-
“ ber, w'hofe component parts do not exceed 12, mul-
“ tiply firft by one of thefe parts, then multiply the
“ produfl by the other. Proceed in the fame manner
* if there be more than two.”
Ex. 1 ft.] L. 15 3 S by 32 = 8 X4
8
L.121 9 4=8 times.
4
L.485 17 4 =32 times.
2d.] L. 17 3 8 by 75 = 5X5X3
3
L. 51 11 - — 3 times.
5
L. 257 15 -=15 times.
5
L.1288 15 -= 75 times.
Note I. Although the component parts will an¬
fwer in any order, it is beft, when it can be done, to
take them in fuch order as may clear off fome of the
lower places at the firft multiplication, as is done in
Ex. 2d.
Note 2. The operation may be proved, by taking
the component parts in a different order, or dividing
the multiplier in a different manner.
Rule III. “ If the multiplier be a prime number,
“ multiply firft by the compofite number next lower,
“ then by the difference, and add the products.”
Chap. IV. A R I T H
Multipli- L. 35 17 9 by 67=64-1-3 Here becaufe 8 times 8
cation. - g 64= 8 X 8 is 64, we multiply twice
v  by 8, which gives 2296I.
L. 287 2-= 8 times. 16s. equal to 64 times the
8 multiplicand; then we find
  the amount of 3 times the
L. 2296 16 - = 64 times, multiplicand, which is
107 13 3= 3 times. 107I. 13s. 3d.; and it is
> . —   evident that thefe added,
L.2404 9 3 =67 times. amount to 67, the multi¬
plicand.
Rule IV. “ If there be a compofite number a lit-
“ tie above the multiplier, we may multiply by that
“ number, and by the difference, und fubtradf the
“ fecond produdl from the firll.”
L. 17 4 5 by 106=108— 2 Here we multiply
1 2 108= 9 X 12 by 1 2 and 9, the com-
  ponent parts of 108,
L. 206 13 — and obtain a product
9 of 1860I. 6s. equal to
 _ 108 times the multi-
L.1859 17 —=108 times. plicand ; and, as this
34 8 10= 2 times. is twice oftener than
   was required, we fub-
L. 18 25 8 2=206 times. trafl the multiplicand
doubled, and the re¬
mainder is the num¬
ber fought.
Example. 34I. 8s. 2Id. by 3466.
Rule V. “ If the multiplier be large, multiply by
“ 10, and multiply the product again by 10 ; by
“ which means you obtain an hundred times the given
“ number. If the multiplier exceed 1000, multiply
“ by 10 again; and continue it farther, if the multi-
“ plier require it; then multiply the given number
“ by the unit-place of the multiplier ; the firft produdt
“ by the ten-place, the fecond produft by the hun-
“ dred-place ; and fo on. Add the produdts thus ob-
“ tained together.”
L. 34 8 2a by 5= L- 172 1 of = 5 times
10
10 timesL. 344 2' 1 by 6 == 2064 12 6 = (Jo times
10
100 times L. 3441 —10 by 4 = 13764 34= 400 times
10
1000 timesL.34410 8 4by3=i0323i 5— 3000times
M E T I C.
This computation, for changing any fum of money,
weight, or meafure, into a different kind, is called
Reduction. When the quantity given is expreffed
in different denominations, we reduce the higheft to
the next lower, and add thereto the given number of
that denomination ; and proceed in like manner till
we have reduced it to the loweft denomination.
Example. To reduce 46I. 13s. 8|d. to farthings.
L. 46
20 Or thus :
920 {hillings in L.46 L.46 13 8|
13 20
933 {hillings in L.46 13 933
12 12
11196 pence in L.46 13 11204
11204 pence in ^ L.46 13 8 44819
4
44186 farthings in L.46 13 8
3
44819 farthings in L.46 13 8|-
It is eafy to take in or add the higher denomina¬
tion at the fame time we multiply the lower.
Chap. V. DIVISION.
In divifion, two numbers are given; and it is re¬
quired to find how often the former contains the lat¬
ter. Thus, it may be alked how often 21 contains 7,
and the anfwer is, exa&ly 3 times. The former given
number (21 ) is called the Dividend; the latter (7) the
Divifor ; and the number required ( 3 ) the Quotient. It
frequently happens that the divifion cannot be comple¬
ted exactly without fra&ions. Thus it may be alk¬
ed, how often 8 is contained in 19 ? the anfwer is
twice, and the remainder of 3.
This operation confifts in fubtrafting the divifor
from the dividend, and again from the remainder, as
often as it can be done, and reckoning the number
of fubtradlions; as,
21 19
7 firft fubtradlion 8 firft fubtradlion
L. 119232 9 1 of=3465 times
The ufe of multiplication is to compute the amount
of any number of equal articles, either in refpecft of
meafure, weight, value, or any other confideration.
The multiplicand expreffes how much is to be reck¬
oned for each article ; and the multiplier expreffes
how many times that is to be reckoned. As the
multiplier points out the number of articles to be
added, it is always an abftraft number, and has no
reference to any value or meafure whatever. It is
therefore quite improper to attempt the multiplica¬
tion of {hillings by {hillings, or to confider the multi¬
plier as expreflive of any denomination. The moft
common inftances in which the praftice of this ope¬
ration is required, are, to find the amount of any
number of parcels, to find the value of any number of
articles, to find the weight or meafure of a number of
articles, See.
14 11
7 fecond • fubtraftion 8 fecond fubtra&ion
7 3 remainder.
7 third fubtraeftion.
o
As this operation, performed at large, would be
very tedious, when the quotient is a high number, it
is proper to Ihorten it by every convenient method ;
and, for this purpofe, we may multiply the divifor
by any. number whofe produdft is not greater than
the dividend, and fo fubtraeft it twice or thrice, or
oftener, at the fame time. The beft way is to mul¬
tiply it by the greateft number, that does not raife
the product too high, and that number is alfo the
quotient. For example, to divide 45 by 7, we in¬
quire what is the greateft multiplier for 7, that does
not
/
ARITHMETIC.
not give a product above 45 ; and we (hall find that
it is 6 ; and 6 times 7 is 42, which, fubtrafted from
45, leaves a remainder of 3. Therefore 7 may be
fubtra&ed 6 times from 45 ; or, which is the fame
thing, 45, divided by 7, gives a quotient of 6, and a
remainder of 3.
If the divifor do not exceed 12, we readily find the
higheft multiplier that can be ufed from the multipli¬
cation table. If it exceed 1 2, we may try any multi¬
plier that we think will anfwer. If the produfl be
greater than the dividend, the multiplier is too great;
and if the remainder, after the produfl is fubtrafted
from the dividend, be greater than the divifor,
the multiplier is too fmall. In either of thefe cafes,
we muft try another. But the attentive learner, after
fome pra&ice, will generally hit on the right multiplier
at fir ft.
If the divifor be contained oftener than ten times in
the dividend, the operation requires as many fteps as
there are figures in the quotient. For inftance, if the
quotient be greater than 100, but lefs than loco, it
requires 3 fteps. We firft inquire how many hundred
times the divifor is contained in the dividend, and fub-
traft the amount of thefe hundreds. Then we in¬
quire how often it is contained ten times in the remain¬
der, and fubtraft the amount of thefe tens. Laftly,
We inquire how many fingle times it is contained in
the remainder. The method of proceeding will ap¬
pear from the following example :
To divide 5936 by 8.
From 5936
Take 5600=700 times 8
Rem. 336
From which take 320=40 times 8
Rem.
From which take
16
16=2 times 8
o 742 times 8 in all.
It is obvious, that as often as 8 is contained in 59,
fo many hundred times it will be contained in 5900,
or in 5936 ; and, as often as it is contained in 33, fo
many ten times it will be contained in 330, or in
3365 and thus the higher places of the quotient will
be obtained with equal eafe as the lower. The ope¬
ration might be performed by fubtrafting 8 conti¬
nually from the dividend, which will lead to the fame
conclufion by a very tedious procefs. After 700 fub-
tradlions, the remainder would be 336 } after 40 more,
it would be 16; and after 2 more, the dividend would
be entirely exhaufted. In pra&ice, wTe omit the cy¬
phers, and proceed by the following
Rules, ift, “ Affume as many figures on the left
“ hand of the multiplier as contain the divifor once
“ or oftener : find how many times they contain it,
“ and place the anfwer as the higheft figure of the
“ quotient.
2d, “ Multiply the divifor by the figure you have
“ found, and place the product under the part of the
■ ‘ divident from which it is obtained.
3d, “ Subtract the produft from the figures above it.
4th, “ Bring down the next figure of the dividend
“ to the remainder, and divide the number it makes
up, as before.”
Examples.] ift. 8)5936(742
56'..
Chap. V,
2d. 63)301 14(478 Divifion.
252..
33
32
16
16
3d. 365)974932(267!TVr
73°...
2 449
2190
2593
2555
Remainder 17
The numbers which we divide, as 59, 33, and 16,
in the firft example, are called dividuals.
It is ufual to mark a point under the figures of the
dividend, as they are brought down, to prevent mif-
takes.
If there be a remainder, the divifion is completed
by a vulgar fra&ion, whofe numerator is the remainder,
and its denominator the divifor. Thus, in Ex. 3. the
quotient is 2671, and the remainder 17 5 and the quo¬
tient completed is 2671
A number which divides another withput a remain¬
der is faid to meafure it \ and the feveral numbers
which meafure another, are called its aliquot parts.
Thus 2, 4, 6, 8, and 12, are aliquot parts of 24.
As it is often ufeful to difcover numbers which mea¬
fure others, we may obferve,
ift, Every number ending with an even figure, that
is, with 2, 4, 6, 8, or o, is meafured by 2.
2d, Every number ending with 5, or o, is meafur
ed by 5.
3d, Every number, whofe figures, when added, a-
mount to an even number of 3’s or 9’s, is meafured by
3 or 9, refpeftively.
ContraBions and Varieties in Divijion.
Firft, When the divifor does not exceed 12, the whole
computation may be performed without fetting down
any figures except the quotient.
Ex. 7)35868(5124 or 7)35868
5124
Secondly, When the divifor is a compofite number,
and one of the component parts alfo meafures the di¬
vidend, we may divide fucceflively by the component
parts.
Ex. ift.] 30114 by 63 2d.] 975 by 105=5 X 7 X 3
9)3°I14 5)975
7) 3346 3)I95
Quotient 478 7) 65
Quotient 9*
This method might be alfo ufed, although the com¬
ponent parts of the divifor do not meafure the divi¬
dend j but the learner will not underhand how to
manage
ap. V.
ARITHMETIC.
'fion- manage the remainder till he be acquainted with the
^ ' doctrine of vulgar fraflions.
I hirdly, When there are cyphers annexed to the
divifor, cut them oft', and cut off an equal number of
figures from the dividend ; annex thefe figures to the
remainder. Ex. To divide 378643 by 5200.
52)00)3786143(72^4.
364-
146
104
4243
1 he reafon will appear by performing the operation
at large, and comparing the Heps.
To divide by 10, 100, 1000, or the like. Cut off
as many figures on the right hand of the dividend as
there are cyphers in the divifor. The figures wThich
remain on the left hand compofe the quotient, and
the figures cut off compofe the remainder.
Fourthly, When the divifor confifts of feveral fi¬
gures we may try them feparately, by inquiring how
often the firft figure of the divifor is contained in the
firft figure of the dividend, and then confidering whe¬
ther the fecond and following figures of the divifor be
contained as often in the correfponding ones of the di¬
vidend wdth the remainder (if any) prefixed. If not,
we muft begin again, and make trial of a lower num¬
ber. When the remainder is nine, or upwards, we
may be fure the divifion will hold through the lower
places ; and it is neceffary to continue the trial far¬
ther.
Fifthly, We may make a table of the produ&s of
the divifor, multiplied by the nine digits, in order to
difeover more readily how often it is contained in each
dividual. I his is convenient when the dividend is
very long, or when it is required to divide frequently
by the fame diviff-
73 by 2 —
3 =
4 =
5 =
6 =
7 =
8 =
9 =
716
657
599
584
J54
146
Rem. 8
Sixthly, Fo divide by 9, 99, 999, or any number
of g’s, tranferibe under the dividend part of the
fame, ftiifting the higheft figure as many places to
the right hand as there are 9’s in the divifor. Tran¬
feribe it again, with the like change of place, as often
as the length of the dividend admits; add thefe to¬
gether, and cut off as many figures from the right
hand of the fum as there are p’s in the divifor. The
J46 73)53872694(737982
219 511 
292  
365 • 277
438 219
511  
584 582
657 51*
figures which remain on the left hand compofe the
quotient, and thofe cut off the remainder.
If there be any carriage to the unit place of the quo¬
tient, add the number carried likewife to the remain¬
der, as in Ex. 2.5 and if the figures cut off be all g’s,
add 1 to the quotient, and there is no remainder.
Examples. iff.)99)324123 2d.] 99)547825
3241 5478
32 54
^ . 3273 96 5533157
Quotient 3273 and rem. 96. 1
Quotient 5333.38 rem,
3d.] 999)476523
476
476)999
Quotient 477
To explain the reafon of this, we muft recollect,
that whatever number of hundreds any dividend con¬
tains, it contains an equal number of 99’s, together
with an equal number of units. In Ex. 1. the divi¬
dend contains 3241 hundreds, and a remainder of 23.
It therefore contains 3241 times 99, and alfo 3241,
befides the remainder already mentioned.—Again,
3241 contains 32 hundreds, and a remainder of 51 : it
therefore contains 32 99’s, and alfo 32, befides the re¬
mainder of 41. Confequently the dividend contains
99, alt@gether, 3241 times, and 32 times, that is 3273
times, and the remainder confifts of 23, 41, and 32,
added, which makes 96.
As multiplication fupplies the place of frequent ad¬
ditions, and divifion of frequent fubtradlions, they are
only repetitions and contraftions of the fimple rules,
and when compared together, their tendency is ex-
adfly oppofite. As numbers, increafed by addition,
are diminiftied and brought back to their original quan¬
tity by fubtraddon j in like manner, numbers com¬
pounded by multiplication are reduced by divifion to
the parts from wrhich they wrere compounded. The
multiplier ftiows how many additions are neceffary to
produce the number j and the quotient fhows how
many fubtradions are neceflary to exhauft it. It
follows, that the produd, divided by the multipli¬
cand, will quote the multiplier ; and becaufe either
fadoj: may be affumed for the multiplicand, therefore
the produd divided by either fador, quotes the other.
It follows, alfo, that the dividend is equal to the pro¬
dud of the divifor and quotient multiplied together j
and hence thefe operations mutually prove each
other.
To prove multiplication. Divide the produd by
either fador. If the operation be right, the quotient
is the other fador, and there is no remainder.
To prove divifion. Multiply the divifor and quo¬
tient together ; to the produd add the remainder, if
any ; and, if the operation be right, it makes up the
dividend. Othemife divide the dividend (after fub-
trading the remainder, if any) by the quotient. If
the operation be right, it wnll quote the divifor. The
reafon of all thefe rules may be colleded from the laft
paragraph. r
Compound
<>3 2
Divifion.
12
ARI THMETIC.
Chap. V.
Compound Division.
Rule I. “ When the dividend only confifls of dif-
“ ferent denominations, divide the higher denomina-
“ tion, and reduce the remainder to the next lower,
“ taking in (p. 629. Rule V.) the given number of
“ that denomination, and continue the divifion.”
Examples.
Divide L.465 : 12 : 8
by 72
L. s. d. L. s. d.
72)465 12 8 (6 9 4
432 • > •
33
20
Divide 345 cwt. iq. 81b.
by 22
Cwt. q. lb. Cwt. q. lb.
22)34-5 * 8 (15 2 21
22 • • •
125
no
when the other fadtor is given ; and therefore is of Divifion.
two kinds, fince either the multiplier or the multipli-1 1 y——
cand may be given. If the former be given, it difco-
vers what that number is which is contained fo many
times in another. If the latter be given, it difcovers
how many times one number is contained in another.
Thus, it anfwers the queftions of an oppofite kind to
thofe mentioned under Rule IV. p. 629. as, To find
the quantity of a fingle parcel or (hare ; to find the
value, weight, or meafure, of a fingle article 5 to find
how much work is done, provifions confumed, intereft
incurred, or the like, in a fingle day, &c.
The lafi: ufe of divifion is a kind of redudlion ex-
adtly oppofite to that defcribed under Rule V. p. 629.
The manner of condufting and arranging it, when
there are feveral denominations in the queftion, will
appear from the following examples.
72)672
648
24
12
72)296
288
15
4
22)61
44
17
28
8 Rem. 144
34
Or we might divide by 22)484
the component parts of 44
72, (as explained under —
thirdly, p. 631). 44
' 44
Rule II. “ When the divifor is in different deno-
“ minations, reduce both divifor and dividend to the
“ loweft denomination, and proceed as in fimple divi-
“ fion. The quotient is an abftradl number.”
To divide 38I. 13s.
by 3I. 4s. jd.
L* 3 4
20
64
L.38
20
773
12
13
To divide 96 cwt. iq. 2olb.
by 3cwt. 2q. 81b.
Cwt. q. lb. Cwt. q. lb.
3 2 8 ) 96 I 20
4 4
14
28
773 )9276( 12 quote. 120
773 28
3100
770
4|oo) io8|oo(27 quote.
o
It is beft not to reduce the terms lowrer than is ne-
ceffary to render them equal. For inftance, if each of
them confifts of an even number of fixpences, four-
pences, or the like, we reduce them to fixpences, or
fourpences, but not to pence.
The ufe of divifion is to find either of the faftors
by whofe multiplication a given number is produced,
I. To reduce 15783 pence
to pounds, fh. and pence.
20
i2)»5783(i3I5(65
12 ’ • * I 20’
37 115
36 100
18 15
12
63
60
Anfwer, 65I. 15s. 3d.
2.To reduce 174865 grs. to
lb. oz. and dwt. Troy.
20 12
24)174865(7286(364(30
168* 6o*• 36 •
68 128 04
48 120
206 86
192 80
145 6
144
1
Anf. 301b. 40Z. 6dwt. igr.
In the firft example, we reduce 15783 pence to flfil-
lings, by dividing by 12, and obtain 1315 killings,
and a remainder of 3 pence. Then we reduce 1315
{hillings to pounds, by dividing by 20, and obtain 65
pounds and a remainder of 15 {hillings. The divifions
might have been contrafted.
In the practice of arithmetic, queftions often occur
which require both multiplication and divifion to re-
folve. This happens in reduction, wThen the higher
denomination does not contain an exafl number of the
lower.
Rule for mixed rediiRion. “ Reduce the given de-
“ nomination by multiplication to fome low er one,
“ which is an aliquot part of both ; then reduce that
“ by divifion to the denomination required.”
Ex. Reduce 31742I. to guineas
3I742
20
21)634840(30230
63 * ‘ *
048
42
Here w^e multiply by
20, which reduces the
pounds to {hillings ; and
divide the produdl by 21,
which reduces the {hillings
to guineas.
64
63
10 Anfwer, 30230 guineas and 10 {hillings.
As
i
Hiap. V, A R I T H
Divifton. As Portuguefe money frequently paffes here in pay-
’ ments, we lhall give a table of the pieces, and their
A moidore ~L. i 7 ->
A half moidore
A quarter moidore =r
A double Joannes
M E T I C,
6
value.
13
6
A Joannes
A half ditto
A quarter ditto
An eighth ditto
12
16
18
9
4
Note 1. Guineas may be reduced to pounds, by add¬
ing one-twentieth part of the number.
2. Pounds may be reduced to merks by adding one
half.
3. Merks may be reduced to pounds by fubtra&ing
one-third.
4. Four moidores are equal to three Joannes : where¬
fore moidores may be reduced to Joannes, by fubtrafl-
ing one-fourth 5 and Joannes to moidores, by adding
one-third.
5. Five Joannes are equal to 9I. Hence it is eafy
to reduce Portuguefe money to iterling.
Another cafe, which requires both multiplication
and divifion, is, when the value, weight, meafure, or
duration of any quantity is given, and the value, &c.
of a different quantity required, we firft find the value,
&c. of a Angle article by divifion, and then the value,
&.c. of the quantity required, by multiplication.
Ex. If 3 yards coll 15s. qd. what will 7 yards coft,
at the fame rate?
s. d.
3) 15 9 Price of 3 yards.
5 3 Price of 1 yard, by Rule IV. p. 629.
7
the multipliers into one produfl, and the divifors into Diviii _
another ; or, we colleft them into parcels, or uie
them fingly, and that in any order. Still we lhall obtain
the proper anfwer, if none of the terms be neglected.
When both multiplication and divifion are neceffaty
to obtain the anfwer of a queltion, it is generally belt
to begin with the multiplication, as this order keeps the
account as clear as poflible from fradtions. The exam ¬
ple laft given may be wrought accordingly as follows j
s. d.
15 9
7
L. 1 16 9 Price of 7 yards (by par. ult. p. 632.
col. 1.)
Many other inftances might be adduced, where the
operation, and the reafon of it are equally obvious.
Thefe are generally, though unneceffarily, referred to
the rule of Proportion.
We lhall now offer a general obfervation on all the
operations in arithmetic. When a computation re¬
quires feveral Heps, we obtain a juft anfwer, whatever
order we follow. Some arrangements may be prefera¬
ble to others in point of eafe, but all of them lead to
the fame conclufion. In addition, or fubtradKon, we
may take the articles in any order, as is evident from
the idea of number j or, we may colledl them into fe¬
veral fums, and add or fubtradl thefe, either feparately
or together. When both the fimple operations are re¬
quired to be repeated, we may either complete one of
them firft, or may introduce them promifcuoufly, and
the compound operations admit of the fame variety.
When feveral numbers are to be multiplied together,
we may take the fadlors in any order, or we may ar¬
range them into feveral clafies, find the produdt of each
clafs, and then multiply the produdts together. When
a number is to be divided by feveral others, we may
take the divifors in any order, or we may multiply them
into each other, and divide by the produdt •, or we may
multiply them into feveral parcels, and divide by the
produdts fucceflively. Laftly, When multiplication and
divifion are both required, we may begin with either^
and when both are repeatedly neceffary, we may colled!
Vol. II. Part II.
3)5 10 3
1 16 9
Some accountants prove the operations of arithme¬
tic by a method which they call calling out the 9’s,
depending on the following principles :
Firft, If feveral numbers be divided by any divifor :
(the remainders being always added to the next num¬
ber), the fum of the quotients, and the laft remainder,
will be the fame as thofe obtained wThen the fum of
the numbers is divided by the fame divifor. Thus,
19, 15, and 23, contain, together, as many y’s, as ma¬
ny 7’s, 8dc. as their fum 57 does, and the remainders
are the fame j and, in this way, addition may be pro¬
ven by divifion. It is from the correfpondence of the
remainders, that the proof, by carting out the 9’s, is
deduced.
Secondly, If any figure wuth cyphers annexed, be
divided by 9, the quotient confifts entirely of that fi¬
gure 5 and the remainder is alfo the fame. Thus, 40,
divided by 9, quotes 4, remainder 4 ; and 400 divided
by 9, quotes 44, remainder 4. The fame holds with
all the digits ; and the reafon will be eafily under-
ftood *, every digit, with a cypher annexed, contains
exaftly fo many tens j it muft therefore contain an
equal number of 9’$, befides a remainder of an equal
number of units.
Thirdly, If any number be divided by 9, the re¬
mainder is equal to the fum of the figures of the num¬
ber, or to the remainder obtained, when that fum is
divided by 9. For inftance, 3765, divided by 9,
leave a remainder of 3, and the fum of 3, 7, 6, and
5, is 21 } which divided by 9, leaves a remainder of
3. The reafon of this will appear from the following
illuftration :
3000 divided by 9 quotes 333 J
700 quotes 77 ;
60 quotes 7 5
5 quotes o j
remainder
remainder
remainder
remainder
3765 416 Sum of rem. 21
Again : 21 divided by 9 quotes 2 ; remainder 3
wrherefore, 3765 divid. by 9 quotes 418 ; remainder 3;
for the reafon given. Hence we may collect the fol¬
lowing rules for praftice.
To call the 9’s out of any number, or to find what
remainder will be left when any number is divided by
9 : Add the figures ; and when the fum exceeds 9,
add the figures which would exprefs it. Pafs by the
9’s •, and, when the fum comes exadlly to 9, neglebb
-it, and begin anew. For example, if it be required
to call the j’s out of 3573294, wre reckon thus: 3 and
4 L ~ 5 is
2 O-*
A R I T H
5 is 8, and 7 is 15 ; 1 and 5 is 6, and 3 is 9, which
we negleft j 2 and (paffing by 9) 4 is 6 ; which is the
remainder or Result. If the article out of which the
9,s are to be call contains more denominations than
one, we caft the g's out of the higher, and multiply the
refult by the value of the lower, and carry on the pro-
clu£t (calling out the 9’s, if neceffary), to the lower.
To prove addition, call the 9’s out of the feveral ar¬
ticles, carrying the refults to the following articles;
caft them alfo out of the fum. If the operation be
right, the refults will agree.
To prove fubtraftion, caft the 9’s out of the minu¬
end 5 caft them alfo out of the fubtrahend and remain¬
der together j and if you obtain the fame refult, the
operation is prefumed right.
To prove multiplication, caft the 9’s out of the mul¬
tiplicand, and alfo out of the multiplier, if above 9.
Multiply the refults together, and caft the 9’s, if ne-
ceffary, out of their produft. Then caft the 9’s out of
the produft, and obferve if this refult correfpond with
the former.
Ex. ift.] 9276 ref. 6x8=48 ref. 3.
8
74208 ref. 3.
2d.] 7898 ref. 5 X3—1-5 6.
48 ref. 3.
63184
3l592
379104 ref. 6.
The reafon of this will be evident, if we conftder
multiplication under the view of repeated addition.
In the firft example it is obvioufly the fame. In the
fecond, we may fuppofe the multiplicand repeated 48
times. If this be done, and the 9’$ caft out, the re¬
fult, at the end of the 9th line, will be o; for any
number, repeated 9 times, and divided by 9, leaves
no remainder. The fame muft happen at the end of
the 18th, 27th, 36th, and 45th lines j and the laft re¬
fult will be the fame as if the multiplicand had only
been repeated 3 times. This is the reafon for calling
out the 9’s from the multiplier as well as the multi¬
plicand.
To prove divilion, caft the 9’s out of the divifor,
and alfo out of the quotient 5 multiply the refults, and
caft the 9’s out of the produfl. If there be any re¬
mainder, add to it the refult, calling out the 9’s, if
necefiary. If the account be right, the laft refult will
agree with that obtained from the dividend.
Ex. 42) 2490 (59 ref. 5x6=30 ref. 3.
ref. 6 z 1 o
390
378
Rem. 12 - - ref. 3.
And the refult of the dividend is 6
This depends on the fame reafon as the laft ; for the
dividend is equal to the produdt of the divifor and
quotient added to the remainder.
M E T I C. Chap. VL
We cannot recommend this method, as it lies under Proportion,
the following difadvantages. ■'
Firft, If an error of 9, or any of its multiples, be
committed, the refults will neverthelefs agree j and fo
the error will remain undifcovered. And this will al¬
ways be the cafe, when a figure is placed or reckoned
in a wrong column j which is one of the moll frequent
caufes of error.
Secondly, When it appears by the difagreement of
the refults, that an error has been committed, the par¬
ticular figure or figures in which the error lies are not
pointed out j and, confequently, it is not eafily cor-
refted.
Chap. VI. RULE OF PROPORTION.
Sect. I. Simple Proportion.
Quantities are reckoned proportional to each I5
other, when they are conne£ted in fuch a manner, that
if one of them be increafed or diminiftied, the other
increafes or diminiftres at the fame time ; and the de¬
gree of the alteration on each is a like part of its ori¬
ginal meafure} thus four numbers are in the fame
proportion, the firft to the fecond as the third to the
fourth, when the firft contains the fecond, or any part
of it, as often as the third contains the fourth, or the
like part of it. In either of thefe cafes, the quotient
of the firft, divided by the fecond, is equal to that of
the third divided by the fourth j and this quotient may
be called the meafure of the proportion.
Proportionals are marked down in the following
manner:
6 : 3 :: 8 : 4
12 : 36 :: 9 : 27
9 : 6 :: 24 : 18
16 : 24 :: 10 : 15
The rule of Proportion directs us, when three num¬
bers are given, how to find a fourth, to which the third
may have the fame proportion that the firft has to the
fecond. It is fometimes called the Rule of Three, from
the three numbers given j and fometimes the Golden
Rule, from its various and extenfive utility.
Rule. “ Multiply the fecond and third terms to-
“ gether, and divide the produft by the firft.”
Ex. To find a fourth proportional to 18, 27, and 34.
18 : 27 :: 34 : 51
34
108
81
18)910(51
90
18
18
o
To explain the reafon of this, we rtuift obferve,
that if two or more numbers be multiplied or divided
alike, the products or quotients will have the fame pro¬
portion.
18 : 27
Multiplied by 34, 312 : 918
Divided by 18, 34; 51
The
Chap. VI. A R I T H
Proportion.
The produ&s 612, 918, and the quotients 34, 51,
have therefore the fame proportion to each other that
18 has to 27. In the courfe of this operation, the
products of the firft and third term are divided by the
firft ; therefore the quotient is equal to the third.
The firft and fecond terms muft always be of the
fame kind j that is, either both monies, weights, mea-
fures, both abftraft numbers, or the like. The fourth,
or number fought, is of the fame kind as the third.
When any of the terms is in more denominations
than one,' we may reduce them all to the loweft. But
this is not always neceffary. The firft and fecond
ftiould not be reduced lower than directed p. 632,
col. 1. par. penult.; and, when either the fecond or
third is a fimple number, the other, though in differ¬
ent denominations, may be multiplied without re-
dudftion.
L. s. d.
Ex. 5 : 7 :: 25 11 3
7
■ ■    L. s. d.
5) 178 18 9 (35 t9 9
The accountant muft confider the nature of every
-queftion, and obferve the circumftance which the pro¬
portion depends on j and common fenfe will diredt him
to this if the terms of the queftion be underftood. It
is evident that the value, weight, and meafure of any
commodity is proportioned to its quantity j that the
amount of wrork or confumption is proportioned to the
time ; that gain, lofs, or intereft, when the rate and
time are fixed, is proportioned to the capital fum from
which it arifes ; and that the effedt produced by any
caufe is proportioned to the extent of the caufe. In
thefe, and many other cafes, the proportion is diredl,
and the number fought increafes or diminilhes along
with the term from which it is derived.
In fome queftions, the number fought becomes lefs,
when the circumftances from which it is derived be¬
come greater. Thus, when the price of goods in¬
creafes, the quantity which may be bought for a giyen
fum is fmaller. When the number of men employed
at work is increafed, the time in which they may com¬
plete it becomes fhorter ; and, when the adlivity of any
caule is increafed, the quantity neceffary to produce a
given effedt is diminiftied. In thefe, and the like, the
proportion is faid to be inverfe.
M E T r C, - 635
maintained on the fame fum when the price of hay 1 ifes Proportion.
to 8d.  *
d. d. H.
8 : 5 :: 40
Here, becaufe a number of horfes is fought, we
make the given number of horfes, 40, the third term j
and, becaufe fewer will be maintained for the fame
money, wThen the price of hay is dearer, we make the
greater price, 8d. the firft term j and the leffer price
5d. the fecond term.
7 he firft of thefe examples is diredl, the fecond in¬
verfe. Every queftion confifts of a fuppofition and de¬
mand. In the firft, the fuppofition is, that 30 horfes
plough 12 acres, and the demand, houo many 42 will
plough? and the firft term of the proportion, 30, is
found in the fuppofition, in this and every other di¬
redl queftion. In the fecond, the fuppofition is, that
40 horfes are maintained on hay at ^d. and the demand,
how many will he maintained on hay at 8^. ? and the
firft term ol the proportion, 8, is found in the demand,
in this and every other inverfe queftion.
When an account is ftated, if the firft and fecond
term, or firft and third, be meafured by the fame num¬
ber, we may divide them by that meafure, and ufe the
quotients in their ftead.
Ex. If 36 yards coft 42 fhillings, what will 27 coft ?
Y. Y. fh. Here 36 and 27 are berth
36 : 27 :: 42 meafured by 9, and we work
4 : 3-42 with the quotients 4 and 3.
  s. d.
4)126(31 6
Sect. II. Compound Proportion.
Sometimes the proportion depends upon feveral cir¬
cumftances. Thus, it may be afked, if 18 men con-
fume 6 bolls corn in 28 days, how much will 24 men
confume in 56 days ? Here the quantity required de¬
pends partly on the number of men, partly on the time,
and the queftion may be refolved into the two follow¬
ing ones :
ill, If 18 men confume 6 bolls in a certain time,
how many will 24 men confume in the fame time ?
M. M. B. B.
18 : 24 : 6:8 Anfwer, 24 men will confume
6 8 bolls in the fame time.
General Rule for fating all queflions, whether di-
or inverfe. “ Place that number for the third
“ term which fignifies the fame kind of thing with
“ what is fought, and confider whether the number
“ fought will be greater or lefs. If greater, place the
“ lead of the other terms for the firft 5 but, if lefs,
“ place the greateft for the firft.”
Ex. 1 ft.] If 3© horfes plough 12 acres, how many
will 42 plough in the fame time ?
H. H. A.
30 : 42 :: 12
Here, becaufe the thing fought is a number of acres,
we place 1 2, the given number of acres, for the third
term ; and, becaufe 42 horfes will plough more than
12, we make the lefler number 30, the firft term, and
the greater number, 42, the fecond term.
Ex. 2d.] If 40 horfes be maintained for a certain
fum on hay, at fd. per ftone, how many will be
i8)444(8
2d, If a certain number of men confume 8 bolls in
28 days, how many will they confume in 56 days ?
D. D. B. B.
28 56 :: 8 : 16 Anf. The fame number of men
8 will confume 16 bolls in 56 days.
28)448(16
In the courfe of this operation, the original number
of bolls, 6, is firft multiplied into 24, then divided by
18, then multiplied into 8, then divided by 28. It
wmuld anfwer the fame purpofe to collect the multipli¬
ers into one produdt, and the divifors into another;
and then to multiply the given number of bolls by the
former, and divide the produdt by the latter, p. 633.
col. 1. par. ult.
The above queftion may therefore be ftated and
wrought as follows :
4 L 2 Men
636
Proportion. Men 18 : 24
Days 28 : 56
144 144
36 120
J°4 I344
6
A R I T H
6 bolls Here we multiply 18 into
28 for a divifor, and 6 into
the produft of 24 by 56, for
a dividend.
5C4)8o64(16
“ In general, flate the feveral particulars on which
‘‘ the queftion depends, as fo many limple proportions,
“ attending to the fenfe of the queftion to difcover
“ whether the proportions (hould be ftated dire&ly or
“ inverfely j then multiply all the terms in the firil
“ rank together, and all thofe in the fecond rank to-
“ gether ; and work with the produfts as direfted in
“ the fimple rule (Se£l. 1. p. 634.)”
Example. If 100 men make 3 miles of road in 27
days, in how many days will 150 men make 5 miles ?
Men 1510 : 100 : : 27 days Here the firft ftat-
Miles 3 5 ing is inverfe, becaufe
  more men will do it in
450 500 fewer days;-but the fe-
27 cond is direft, becaufe
   more miles will re-
450) 135°o( 3° days, anf, quire more days.
The following contraction is often ufeful. After
ftating the proportion, if the fame number occurs in
both ranks, dafh it out from both ; or, if any term in
the firlt rank, and another in the fecond rank are mea-
fured by the fame numbers, dalh out the original terms,
and ufe the quotients in their ftead.
Ex. If 18 men confume 30I. value of corn in 9
months, when the price is 16s. per boll, how many
will confume 54I. value in 6 months, when the price
is 12s. per boll ? In this queltion, the proportion de¬
pends upon three particulars, the value of com, the time
and the price. The firft of which is direCI, becaufe the
more the value of provifions is, the more time is requir¬
ed to confume them $ but the fecond and third are
inverfe, for the greater the time and price is, fewer
men will confume an equal value.
Value 30 : £4 : : 18 men.
Months ($ : ft Here we obferve 6 in the
Price tt : I'd firft rank meafures 54 in the fe-
.10 9 cond : fo wre dalh them out, and
£ 3- place the quotient 9 in the fecond
4 rank. Next, becaufe 30 and 9 are
    bothmeafured by 3, wedalhthem
36 out, and place down the quotients
18 10 and 3 ; then, becaufe 12 and
   J 6 are both meafured by 4, we
288 dafti them out, and place down
36 the quotients 3 and 4. Laftly,
   Becaufe there is now 3 in both
10)648(64x0 columns, we dafti them out, and
work with the remaining terms,
according to the rule.
The moni«s, weights and meafures, of different
countries, may be reduced from the proportion which
they bear to each other.
Ex. If 112 lb. avoirdupois make 1041b. of Holland,
and loo lb. of Holland make 89 of Geneva, and no
M E T I C. Chap. VIT,
of Geneva make 117 of Seville, how many lbs. o£ Se-Proportion,
ville will make 100 lb. avoirdupois. * y—
11 2 : 104 :: 100
100 : 89
110 : 117
If it be required, how many lb. avoirdupois will
make 100 of Seville, the terms would have been pla¬
ced in the different columns thus :
104 : 112 :: 100
89 : 100
117 : 110
Sect. III. Distributive Proportion.
If it be required to divide a number into parts,,
wftiich have the fame proportion to each other, that
feveral other given numbers have, we add thefe num¬
bers together, and ftate the following propofitioR : As
the fum is to the particular numbers, fo is the num¬
ber required to be divided to the feveral parts fought.
Ex. iff.] Four partners engage to trade in company;
A’s ftock is 150I. B’s 320I. C’s 350I. D’s 500I. ;
and they gain 730I. : Required how much belongs
to each, if the gain be divided among them in propor¬
tion to their ftocks ?
Rem.
A’s ftock L.150 1320 : 150 :: 730: L. 82 19 1 — 120
B’s 320 1320 : 320 :: 730 : 176 tp 4.— 960
C’s 350 1320 : 350 :: 730 : 193 11 2 — 72a
D’s 500 1320 i 500 730 : *76 10 3 — 840
Wholeftockt320 Proof L. 730
This account is proved by adding the gains of the
partners •, the fum of which will be equal to the whole
gain, if the operation be right ; but, if there be re¬
mainders, they muft be added, their fum divided by
the common divifor, and the quotient carried to the
loweft place.
Ex. 2d.] A bankrupt owres A 146k B 170I. C 45I.
D 480I. and E 72I. j his whole effefls are only 342L
7s. 6d. How much fhould each have ?
A’s debt L. 146 913 : 146 :: L. 342 7 6 : L. 54 15 A’s ftiare.
B’s 170913:170:: 342 7 6 63 J5 B’s
C’s 45 923 : 45 :: 342 76 16 17 6 C’s
D’s 480 913 : 480 342 76 180 D’s
E’s 72 913 : 7.2 :: 342 76 z^ E’s
L. 913 b.342. 7 6
This might alfo be calculated, by finding whatcom-
pofition the bankrupt wTas able to pay per pound ;
which is obtained by dividing the amount of his ef-
fe£Is by the amount of his debts ; and comes to 7s.
6d. and then finding by the rules of praftice, how
much each debt came to at that rate.
Chap. VII. RULES FOR PRACTICE.
The operations explained in the foregoing chapters
comprehend the wrhole fyftem of arithmetic, and are
fufficient for every computation. In many cafes, how¬
ever, the work may be contrafted, by adverting to
the particular circumftances of the queftion. We fhall
explain, in this chapter, the moft ufeful methods wftiich
praftice has fuggefted for rendering mercantile compu¬
tations eafy j in wftiich, the four elementary rules of
arithmetic are fometimes jointly, fometimes feparately
employed.
Sect. I. Computation of Prices.
The value of any number of articles, at a pound, a
Hulling,
Chap. VII. A R I T H
Frmflice. {hilling; or a penny, is an equal number of pounds,
' {hillings, or pence ; and thefe two laft are eahly redu¬
ced to pounds. The value, at any other rate, may be
calculated by eafy methods, depending on fome con-
tiadHon already explained, er on one or more of the
following principles.
i ft, if the rate be an aliquot part of a pound, a
{lulling, or a penny, then an exa£l number of articles
may be bought for a pound, a {billing, or a penny ;
and the value is found by dividing the given number
accordingly. Thus, to find the price of io many yards
at 2s. 6d. which is the eighth part of a pound, we
divide the quantity by eight, becaufe every eight
yards coft L. I.
2d, If the rate be equal to the fum of two other
rates which are eafily calculated, the value may be
found by computing thefe feparately, and adding the
fums obtained. Thus, the price of fo many yards, at
9d. is found, by adding their prices, at 6d. and 3d.
together.
3d, If the rate be equal to the difference of two
eafy rates, they may be calculated feparately, and the
lefl’er fubtradled from the greater. Thus, the value of
fo many articles at nd. is found, by fubtracljng their
value at a penny from their value at a {hilling. We
may fuppofe that a fhilling was paid for each article,
and then a penny returned on each.
4th, If the rate be a compofite number, the value
may be found by calculating what it comes to at one
of the component parts, and multiplying the fame by
the other.
Case I. “ When the rate is an’ aliquot part of a
“ pound, divide the quantity by the number which
“ may be bought for a pound.”
Table of the aliquot parts c/ L. 1.
ro {hillings rr: 4 of L.i. is. qd. — Vr
8d. — \ is. 3d. = V*
of L. 1.
6s.
5s-
4s..
3s-
2S.
2S.
IS.
4d.
6d.
— -5
— 1
— ?
8d. =
IS.   -j-g-
8d. = TV
6d. —
4^- — To
3d. — -g-g
2d. ~ T-J-o
2d.] What is the value
of 1773 yards, at 3d.?
810)17713
L.22 3 3
Ex. 1 ft.] What is the value
of 7463 yards, at 4s. ?
5)7463
L.I492 I 2S.
In the firft example we divide by 5 becaufe 4s. is
of a pound; the quotient 1492 {hows how many
pounds they amount to; befides which there remain
three yards at 4s. and thefe come to 1 2s. In the fe-
cond example, wTe divide by 80, as direifted, and the
quotient gives L. 22, and the remainder 13 yards,
which at 3d. comes to 3s. 3d.
This method can only be ufed in calculating for
the particular prices fpecified in the table. The fol¬
lowing 6 cafes comprehend all poflible rates, and will
therefore exhibit different methods of folving the
foregoing queftions.
Case II. “ When the rate confifts of {hillings only,
“ multiply the quantity by the number of {hillings,
“ and divide the produft by 20 : Or, if the number
” of {hillings be even, multiply by half the number,
“ and divide the produft by 10.”
M E T I
Ex. ift.] 4573 at 13s.
*3
c.
2cI-] 7543 at MS.
7
637
Practice.
M719
4573
10)52801
L. 5280 2S,
20)59449
L. 2972 9s.
The learner will eafily perceive, that the method in
wThich the fecond example is wrought, muft give the
fame anfwer as if the quantity had been multiplied by
14, and divided by 20; and, as the divifion by 10
doubles the laft figure for {hillings, and continues all
the reft unchanged for pounds, we may obtain the an¬
fwer at once, by doubling the right-hand figure of the
produdl before we fet it down.
If the rate be the fum of twT0 or more aliquot parts
of a pound, we may calculate thefe as directed in Cafe
I. and add them. If it be any odd number of {hil¬
lings, we may calculate for the even number next
lower, and add thereto the value at a {hilling. If it
be 19s. may fubtraft the value at a {hilling, from
the value at a pound.
Case III. “ When the rate confifts of pence only.”
Method I. If the rate be an aliquot part of a {hil¬
ling, divide the quantity accordingly, which^gives the
anfwer in {hillings ; if not, it may be divided into two
or more aliquot parts : calculate thefe feparately, and
add the values ; reduce the anfwer to pounds.
I penny is g-j- of a {lulling.
2d. £ of ditto.
3d. ^ of ditto.
qd. y of ditto.
6d. 4 of ditto.
jd. is the fum of qd. and id. or of 2d. and 3d.
yd. is the fum of qd. and 3d. or of 6d. and id.
8d. is the fum of 6d. and 2d. or the double of qd.
9d. is the fum of 6d. and 3d.
lod. is the fum of 6d. and qd.
1 id. is the fum of 6d. 3d. and 2d.
Here, becaufe qd. is one
Ex. ift.] 7423 at qd.
3)7423
20)2474 4
L.123 14 4
2d.] 9786 at 9d.
At 6d.=4of is.4893
At 3d.=4 of 6d.24q6
At9d.
third of a fhilling, we di¬
vide by 3, which gives the
price in {hills, and reduce
thefe by divifions to pounds.
Here we fuppofe, that
firft 6d. and then 3d. is
paid for each article ; half
the quantity is the num¬
ber of {hillings which they
would coft at 6d. each.
Half of that is the coft at
At6*d.=4ofis. 2428
At 3d .=4of 6d. 1214
At2d.z=yof6d. 809
1 id.
7339 6
L. 366 19 6
3d.] 4856at 1 id. 3d. and thefe added and re¬
duced give the anfwer.
Here wre calculate what
the articles would coft at
6d. at 3d. and at 2d, and
■ add the values.
4451 4
L.222 II 4
It is fometimes eafier to calculate at two rates, whofe
difference is the rate required, and fubtraft the leffer
value from the greater. Thus, the laft example may
be wrought by fubtracting the value at a penny from
the value at a {hilling, The remainder muft be the
value
S> CO
A R I T H
ice.
value at lid.
At is.
At I d. — Y~T
4856s.
404
8
lod. may be wrought as
the difference of is. and
2d.; and feveral other
rates in like manner.
At 1 id. 4451 4
L. 222 11 4
Meth. 2. Multiply the quantity by the number of pence,
the produB is the anfwer in pence. Reduce it to pounds.
Meth. 3. Find the value at a penny by divifion, and
multiply the fame by the number of pence.
Case IV. “When the rate confifts of farthings on-
“ ly, find the value in pence, and reduce it by divi-
“ fion to pounds.”
Ex. iff. 37843 at 1 farthing.
4)37843 farth.
,12) 9460!-pence
788 4i
L.39 8 4!
3d. 72564 at ^d.
3
2d. 23754 at id.
2)23754 halfpence
12)11877 pence
989 9
L. 49 9 9
Or, 72564
  At 4d. 3682 d.
4)217692 farth. At-Jd. 18141 d.
1) 54423 pence 
4535 3 *2)54423 d.
L- 226 *5 3 4535 3
, , L.226 15 3
We may alfo find the amount in twopences, three¬
pences, fourpences, or fixpences, by one divifion, and
reduce thefe as directed in Cafe I.
Case V. “ When the rate confifts of pence and
“ farthings, find the value of the pence, as directed
“ in Cafe III. and that of the farthings from the pro-
“ portion which they bear to the pounds^ Add thefe
“ together, and reduce.”
Ex. ift] 3287 at 5^d.
\
At 4d.=y of is. 1095 8 -
At id.rr^ of 4d. 273 11 *
At if.=:| of id. 68 5^-
^ Si *438 i
L.71 18 |
. 2d0 4573 at 2^d.
At 2d.=-§-of is. 762 2
At -id.rr^ of 2d. 190 64
At |d.= i of id. 85 3^
At 2^ I037 IIi
L.51 17 ii|
3d.] 2842 at 3^
At 3d.—^ of is. 710 6
At 3f.=i of 3d. 176 74
At 34d. 887 14
L.44 8 14
4th.] 3572 at 74d.
At 6 d.=4°f 1386
At lid.=4of 6d. 346 6
At 74 1732 6
L. 87 12 6
It is fometimes beft to join fome of the pence with the
farthings in the calculation. Thus, in Ex. 4. we reckon
M E T I C. Chap. VII
the value at 6d. and at 3 halfpence, which makes 7id.
If the rate be i4d. which is an eighth part of a Hul¬
ling, the value is found in {hillings, by dividing the
quantity by 8.
Case VI. “ When the rate confifts of {hillings and
“ lower denominations.”
Method 1. Multiply the quantity by the Jhillings, and
find the value of the pence and farthings, if any, from the
proportion which they bear to the fhillings. Add and reduce.
Ex. ift.] 4258 at 17s. 3d.
*7
Practice,
17s.
3d.=4 of Is*
29806
4258
72386
1064 6
178.3d. 73450 6
L.3672 10 6
2d.] 5482 at 12s. 44d.
12
I 2S.
3d.c=4 °f Is*
l4d.=4 of 3d.
65784
1370 6
685 3
12s. 44d. 67839 9
L. 3391 19 9
Method 2. Divide the rate into aliquot parts of a
pound; calculate the values correfponding to thefe, as di-
reBed in Cafe I. and add them.
s. d. s. d.
Ex. ift.] 3894 at 17 6 2d.] 1765 at 9 2 •
10s. =4 L. 1947 6s. 8d.=4 588 6 8
c =i 973 10 26 =4- 220 12 6
2 6d.=i 486 15   
     9s. 2d. 808 19 2
17s. 6d. . L. 3407 5
Sometimes part of the value is more readily obtained
from a part already found j and fometimes it is eafieft
to calculate at a higher rate, and fubtraft the value at
the difference. s. d. s. d.
3d.] 63790 at 5 4 4th.] 3664 at 14 9
4s. =f L. 12758 ios.=4 L. 1832
1s.4d.rzfof4s.4252 13 4 5s.=fofios.916
js.4d. L. 17010 13 4 15s. 2748
gd.rrAjof 5S*45 16
14s. qd. L. 2702 4
Method 3. If the price contain a compofte number
of pence, we may multiply the value at a penny by the
component parts.
Ex. 5628 at 2s. 1 id. or 33d.
12)5628
20) 469
L. 23 9
5
L.117 5
7
L.820 15
Case
Chap. VII.
Pratftice.
A R I T H
Case VII. u Wb«a tlie rate confifts of pounds and
“ lower denominations.”
Method i. Multiply by the pounds, andJind the va¬
lue of the other denominations from the proportion which
they bear to the pounds.
Ex. ift.J 3592 at L.3 : 12 : 8.
3
12s. of L. 3
Sd-zr^Y of I2S.
L. 3 12 8
10776
2155 4
119 14 8
L.13050 18 8
2d.] 543 at L.2 : 5 : 10I
2
L.2
5S.
of L. i
lod. of 5s.
•|d. =do of xod.
L.X245 xo i-l
Method 2. Reduce the pounds to Jhillings, and pro¬
ceed as in Cafe VI.
AV.ift.] 3592 at L.3 : 12 : 8 2d.] 3683 at L. 2 : 4 : ri
72 20 45
72
184x5
24732
At 45s. 165735
At id.—-As* 307 11
7184
25144
258624
4d.=r|s. 1197 4
4d.=|s. 1197 4   
—    44s. 1 id. 165427 1
8d. 261018 8 L.8271 7 1
L. 13050 18 8
The learner Ihould at firft try every calculation
more ways than one ; which wall not only ferve the
purpofe of proving the operation, but will render him
expert at difcovering the belt method for folving each
queftion, and will lead him to invent other methods;
for we have not exhaufted the fubjeft.
Thus, if the number of articles be 20, each (hilling
of the rate makes a pound of the amount. If it be 12,
each penny of the rate makes a (hilling of the amount.
If 240, each penny of the rate makes a pound of the
amount. If 480, each halfpenny makes a pound.
If 960, each farthing makes a pound. If the number
of articles be a multiple, or an aliquot part of any of
thefe, the amount is eafily calculated. And if it be
near to any fuch number, we may calculate for that
number, and add or fubtraft for the difference.
We have hitherto explained the various methods of
computation, when the quantity is a whole number, and
in one denomination. It remains to give the proper
directions when the quantity contains a fraftion, or is
expreffed in feveral denominations.
When the quantity contains a fraction, work for the
integers by the preceding rules, and for the fraction take
proportional parts.
When the quantity is expre/fed by feveral denomina¬
tions, and the rate given for the higher ; calculate the
higher, confider the lower ones as fractions, and work by
the lafl rule.
When the rate is given for the lower denomination, re¬
duce the higher denomination to the lower, and calculate
accordingly.
M E T I C.
Note 1 ft, 7 lb. 14 lb. and 21 lb. are aliquot parts
of 1 qr. : and 1 6 lb. is 4 of 1 cwt. j and are therefore
eafily calculated.
2d, If the price of a dozen be fo many (hillings,
that of an article is as many pence ; and if the price
of a grofs be 10 many (hillings, that of a dozen is as
many pence.
3d, If the price of a ton or fcore be fo many pounds,
that of 1 cwt. or a fingle article, is as many (hillings.
4th> Though a fradtion lefs than a farthing is of
no confequence, and may be rejedted, the learner mud
be careful left he lofe more than a farthing, by reject¬
ing feveral remainders in the fame calculation.*
Sect. II. Deductions on Weights, &c.
The full weight of any merchandife, together with
that of the ca(k, box, or other package, in which it is
contained, is called the grofs weight. From this we
muft make proper deductions, in order to difcover the
quantity, for which price or duty (liould be charged,
which is called the nett weight.
Tare is the allowance for the weight of the package;
and this (hould be afcertained by weighing it before
the goods are packed. Sometimes, however, particu¬
larly in payment of duty, it is cuftomary to allow fo
much per C. or fo much per 100 lb. in place of tare.
I ret is an allowance of 41b. on 104 granted on cur¬
rants, and other goods on which there is wafte, in order
that the weight may anfwer when the goods are retailed.
Cloff, or Draught, is a further allowance granted
on fome goods in London, of 2 lb. on every 3 C. to
turn the fcale in favour of the purchafer. The me¬
thod of calculating thefe and the like will appear from
the following examples.
Ex. 1 ft, What is the nett weight of 17 C. 2 q. 141b.
tare 18 lb. per cwt.
C. q. lb.
17 2 14 grofs.
C. q.
or 17 2
161b.=40. 2 2
zlb.rz:^. of i61b. 1
lb.
14
6
105
181b.
2 3 94 tare.
3 ~
3
 317 1
143 44nett. 28)31741b. C y./£.
4) 11 94 (2 3 94tare‘
In the firft method, we add the tare at 16 lb. which
is 4 of the grofs weight, to the tare, at 2 lb. which is •!-
of the former. In the fecond, we multiply the grofs
weight by 18 ; the tare is 1 lb. for each cwt. of the
produCt, and is reduced by divifion to higher denomi¬
nations.
2d.] What is tret of 158 C. 2 q. 241b. ?
C. q. lb. C. q. lb.
26) 158 2 26 ( 6 - II Tret.
156
4 Becaufe tret is always 4 lb. in 104, or
  1 lb. in 26, it is obtained by dividing-
10 by 26.
28
286
286
18
640
Practice.
A R I T
«d.l Wliat is the doff on 28 C. 2 q, ?
q.
28 2
2
H
3) 57 (i9lb<
This allowance being 2 lb. on every 3 C. might be
found by taking 4 of the number of C’s and multiply¬
ing it by 2. It is better to begin with multiplication,
for the reafon given, p. 633. col. 2. par. 1.
Sect. IIL Commission, &c.
It is frequently required to calculate allowances on
fums of money, at the rate of fo many per look Of
this kind is Commission, or the allowance due to a
faftor for buying or felling goods, or tranfafting any
other bufi^efs j Premium of Insurance, or allowance
given for* engaging to repay one’s Ioffes at lea, or o-
therwife •, Exchange, or the allowance neceffary to be
added or lubtra&ed for reducing the money of one place
to that of another j Premiums oh Stock, or the al¬
lowance given for any {hare of a public {lock above the
original value. All thefe and others of a like kind are
calculated by the following
Rule. “ Multiply the fum by the rate, and divide
** the piodufl by 100. If the rate contain a fraction,
4‘ take proportional parts.”
Ex. What is the commiffion on 728I. at 2-} per cent P
728
2
2 per cent. 1456
4 364
4 182
j|00)2Gj02
20
40
12
4)80 -
4 Anfw. L. 20 — 44
3|2°
When the rate is given in guineas, which is common
in cafes of infurance, you may add a twentieth part to
the fum before you calculate. Or you may calculate
at an equal number of pounds, and add a twentieth
part to the anfwer.
When the given fum is an exa£l number of 10
pounds, the calculation may be done without felting
down any figures. Every 10I. at 4 per eent. is a {hiL-
ling •, and at other rates in proportion. Thus, 170I.
at 4 Per cent‘ 15 J7S‘ > and> at i per cent. 8s. 6d.
Sect.IV. Interest.
Intereft is the allowance given for the ufe of money
by the borrower to the lender. *1 his is computed at
fo many pounds for each hundred lent for a year, and
a like proportion for a greater or a lefs time. The
higheft rate is limited by our laws to 5 per cent, which
is called the legal interejl; and is due on all debts con-
Ilituted by bond or bill, which are not paid at the pro¬
per term, and is always underftood when no other rate
is mentioned.
M E T I C. Chap. VIT.
The intereft of any fum for a year, at any rate, is Plaice,
found by the method explained in the laft fetlion.
The intereft of any number of pounds for a year, at
5 per cent, is one twentieth part, or an equal number of
{hillings. Thus, the intereft of 34675!. for a year is
34675 {hillings, .
The intereft for a day is obtained by dividing the m-
tereft for a vear, by the number of days m a year. T hus,
the intereft of 34675I. for a day is found by dividing
34675 {hillings by 365, and comes to 95 {hillings.
The intereft for any number of days is obtained by
multiplying the daily intereft by the number of days.
Thus the intereft of 34675^ ^or J7 days, is 17 times
95 {hillings, or 1615 {hillings •, and this divided by 20,
in order to reduce it, comes to Sol. 15s.
It would have ferved the fame purpofe, and been
eafier to multiply at firft by 17, the number of days ;
and, inftead of dividing feparately by 365, and by 20,
to divide at once by 7300, the product of 365 multi¬
plied by 20 j and this divifion may be facilitated by
the table inferted p. 631. col. 1.
The following praftical rules may be inferred from
the foregoing obfervations.
I. To calculate interejl at 5 per cent. “ Multiply the
“ principal by the number of days, and divide the pro-
“ du£! by 7300.”
II. To calculate interejl at any other rate. “ Find
« what it comes to at 5 per cent, and take a proper pro-
“ portion of the fame for the rate required.”
Ex. I ft. Intereft on 34675k for 17 days, at 5 percent?
34675
17
242725
34^75
   L. s.
73|oo)5894|75(8o 15
584
5475
20
1095(00
73
365
365
o
Ex. 2d. Intereft on 304I. 3s. 4d. for 8 days,at4/>erO'n/.
L- 3°4 3 4
8
   s. d.
73l00)2433 6 8(6 8
20
486(66
438
4866
12
584(00
584
0 * Int.
Chap. VII.
Practice.
Int. at 5 per cent.
Deduce j-
A
L. — 6
R
8
4
I T H
Int. at 4 per cent. L. — 5 4 .
When partial payments are made, we proceed in the
following manner : Let us fuppofe a bill of 170I. was
due 12th Augult, that 54I. was paid on the 18th Sep¬
tember, 56I. on the 17th Oftober, and the balance on
the 14th "November ; and let it be required to find how
much intereft is due.
Days.
Aug. 12. L. 170 37
Sept. 18. pd. 54
29
28
1190
510
1044
232
6290
3364
1680
Nov. 14. pd.
— 7300)1 i334(l* 1:11
Here we fubtraft the feveral payments from the ori¬
ginal fum in their order, placing the dates in the mar¬
gin ; and from this it appears that there is intereft due
on 170I. from 12th Auguft to 18th September, on
liol. from 18th September to 17th Oftober, and on
60I. from 17th Odlober to 14th November. We next
compute the number of days in each of thefe periods,
and mark it againft the refpedtive fum. Then we mul¬
tiply each fum by the number of days •, referving a co¬
lumn, when necefl'ary, for the products of the feveral
figures in the multiplier. Laftly, We add thefe pro¬
ducts, and divide their fum by 7300.
Intereft on current accounts is calculated nearly in
the fame manner. For example, let the intereft due
on the following account be required to 31ft July, at
4 per cent.
Dr. Mr A. Baird, his account current with W. Neil, Cr.
^775-
Mar. 22. By cafli L. 50
May 16. By ditto 2>1
1775-
Jan. 15. To cafh L. 160
Mar. ia. To ditto 36
June 23. To ditto 1346
July 19. To ditto 26 13 4
June 15.
28.
By ditto
By ditto
25
32
*775-
Jan. 15.
Mar. 12.
May 16.
Juue 15.
23-
28.
July 19.
31-
Dr.
Dr.
Dr.
Cr.
Dr.
Cr.
Dr.
Cr.
Dr.
Dr.
Dr.
Cr.
Dr.
Dr.
L.
160
36
196
5°
146
37
109
25
P1
Days
56
55
3°
197
960
800
730
73°
64
1287
7300
Jan. 16
Feb. 28
Mar. 31
Apr. 30
May 31
June 30
July 31
Days 197
Deduce f part
8960
i960
8030
3270
667
483
i35i
1092
25813 (L- 3 10 E£ at
M 4
Vol. II. Part II.
Intereft at 4 per cent. L. 2 16 7
M E T I C.
Here the fums on either fide of the account are in¬
troduced according to the order of their dates. I hofe
on the Dr. fide are added to the former balance, and
thofe on the Cr. fide fubtrafted. Before we calculate
the days, we try if the laft fum 91I. be equal to the
balance of the account, which proves the additions and
fubtra&ions; and, before multiplying, we try if the
fum of the column of days be equal to the number ol
days, from 15th January to 31ft of July.
In the 5th and 6th multiplications, we begin at the
pence column, and take in the carriage. In the 7th,
inftead of multiplying the 6s. 8d. by 21, we add the
third part 21 to the produft, becaufe 6s. 8d. is the
third of a pound. This is done by marking down the
fecond line 1287, inftead of 1280. As the computa¬
tion on the odd ihiliings and pence is troublefome, and
makes a very fmall increafe of the intereft, fome negleft
them altogether •, others add one to the pound, when the
fhillings exceed 10, and negleft them wThen below it.
2d.] Required intereft on the following account to
jtft December, allowing 5 per cent, when the balance
is due to J. T. and 4 per cent when due to N. W.
Dr. Mr. J. T. his account current with N. W. Cr.
Dec. 31. To balance L. 150 April 9. By cafti L. 70
Mar. [ 2. To cafti
June 17. To cafti
Sept. 24. To cafti
Oft. 9. To cafti
1775-
Dec. 31.
1776.
Mar. 12.
Dr.
12 6
5 4
April 9.
May 12.
June 3.
17-
Aug. 2.
Sept. 24.
Oft. 9.
Dec. 31.
Dr,
Dr.
Cr.
Dr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Dr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Dr.
Dr.
Dr.
Dr.
L.
150
120
270
70
200
300
100
240
340
165
175
10
185
242
57
178
235
120
165
242
178
Days
7i
May 12. By cafti
June 3. By cafti
2. By cafti
Aug.
300
240
10
28
33
22
14
46
53
15
83
365
15°
1050
2160
540
1360
340
1050
700
555
925
285
57
705
1880
10650
7560
6600
855
I95°5
2200
4760
8050
9805
7300 43170124815
Intereft due to N. W. at 5 per cent. L. 6 8 9
Deduce j- - - 1 5 5
Due to N. W. at 4 per cent.
Due to J. T. at 5 per cent.
Balance due to N. W.
4M
L- 5
3
3 4
7
L.tjj 4I
In
A R I T H
^ In tins account, tHc balance is loroetimes due to tbe
r one party, fometimes to the other. At the beginning,
there is a balance due to N. W.; and, on the’ 9th of
April there is 200I. due him. On the 12th of May,
J. T. pays him 300I. which difeharges what he owed,
and leaves a balance of 1 ool. due him. The balance
continues in J. 7 .’s favour till the 24th of September,
when N. W. pays 242I. Thefe changes are diftinguilh-
ed lay the marks Dr. and Cr. The produfts are extend¬
ed in different columns, and divided feparately.
When payments are made on conftituted debts, at
confiderable diffances of time, it is ufual to calculate
the intereft to the date of each payment, and add it
to the principal, and then fubtradl the payment from
the amount.
Ex. A bond for 540I. was due the j 8th Aug. 17725
and there was paid 19th March 1773 50I. 5 and iqth
December 1773 25I.5 and 23d September 1774 25I.;
and 18th Auguft 1775 nol. Required the intereft
and balance due on the nth November 1775 ?
642
Intereft.
A bond due 13th Auguft 1772
Intereft to 19th March 1773, 21S days L. 16
Paid 19th March 1773
Balance due 16th March 1773
Intereft to 19th December 1773, 272 days 19
Paid 19th December 1773
Balance due 19th December 1773
Intereft to 23d September 1774, 278 days 19
Paid 23d September 1774
Balance due 23d September 1774
lutereft to jgth Auguft; 1775, 329 days 22
Paid 18th Auguft 1775
L. 540
26 16 z 6
L. 556 2 6
5°
L. 505 2 6
1 ,5 19 1 2
L.525 3 8
25
L.500 3 8
09 19 o 9
L-5r9 4 5
25
L.494 4 5
S3 • 22 5 3
L.516 9 8
no*
Balance due iSth Auguft 1775 L. 406 9 8
lutereft to nth November 1775, 85 days 4 14 6 4 14 6
Balance due nth November 1775 L. 411 4 2
Amount of the intereft: L. 8r 4 2
Chap. VIII. VULGAR FRACTIONS.
In order to underftand the nature of vulgar fraftions,
we muft fuppofe unity (or the number 1) divided into
feverai equal parts. One or more of tbefe parts is call¬
ed a fraction, and is reprefented by placing one number
in a fmall charafter above a line, and another under it:
For example, two-fifth parts is written thus, The
number under the line (5) fhows how many parts unity
is divided into, and is called the denominator. The num¬
ber above the line (2) (hows bow many of thefe parts
are reprefented, and is called the numerator.
It follows from the manner of reprefenting fraftions,
that, when the numerator is increafed, the value of the
fraction becomes greater 5 but, when the denominator
is increafed, the value becomes lefs. Hence we may
infer, that, if the numerator and denominator be both
Increafed, or both diminiftied, in the fame proportion,
the value is not altered 5 and therefore, if we multiply
M E T I C. Chap. VIII.
both by any number whatever, or divide them by any Vulgar
number which meafures both, we fhall obtain other Damons-
fractions of equal value. Thus, every fra&ion may be '
expreffed in a variety of forms, which have all the fame
fignification.
A fradlion annexed to an integer, or v'hole number,
makes a mixed number. For example, five and two
third-parts, or 5-f. A fraction whole numerator is
greater than its denominator is called an improper frac¬
tion. For example, feventeen third-parts, or f. Frac¬
tions of this kind are greater than unity. Mixed num¬
bers may be reprefented in the form of improper frac¬
tions, and improper fraftions may be reduced to mixed
numbers, and fometimes to integers. As fraftions
whether proper or improper may be reprefented in dif¬
ferent forms, we muft explain the method of reducing
them from one form to another, before we confider the
other operations.
Problem I. “To reduce mixed numbers to improper
“ fractions 5 Multiply the integer by the denominator
“ of the fraftion, and to the produdf add the numerator.
“ The fum is the numerator of the improper fra&ion
“ fought, and is placed above the given denominator.’*
Ex. 5f=y
5 integer.
3 denominator.
15 produft.
2 numerator given.
17 numerator fought.
Becaufe one is equal to twm halves, or 3 third-parts,
or 4 quarters, and every integer is equal to twice as
many halves, or four times as many quarters, and fo on 5
therefore, every integer may be expreffed in the form
of an improper fraftion, having any afligned denomina¬
tor : The numerator is obtained by multiplying the in¬
teger into the denominator. Hence the reafon of the
foregoing rule is evident. 5, reduced to an improper
fraction, whofe denominator is 3, makes IT , and this
added to y, amounts to XT7.
Problem II. “To reduce improper fractions to
“ whole or mixed numbers: Divide the numerator by
“ the denominator.”
Ex. yy=6^
17)112(64$
102
5 1 48
To
3 4 1
TT
7 5 3 5
TV
1 5 7 64
TT?
3 6 S
TT
7 3 94
TT
8641
VT
4362
TT-g-
This problem is the converfe of the former, and the
reafon may be illuftrated in the fame manner.
Problem III. “To reduce fraftions to lower terms :
“ Divide both numerator and denominator by any num-
“ ber which meafures both, and place the quotients in
“ the form of a fraction.”
, Example. 444 = $4 = |
Here we obferve that 135 and 360 are both mea-
fured by 5, and the quotients form 44, wdiich is a frac¬
tion of the fame value as 444 in lowxr terms. Again,
27 and 72 are both meafured by 9, and the quotients
form which is ftill of equal value, and in lower terms.
It is generally fufficient, in practice, to divide by fuch
meafures as are found to anfwer on infpedtion, or by the
rules given p. 629. col. 2. But, if it be required to re¬
duce a fradion to the loweft poflible terms, we muft di¬
vide
Chap. VIII.
A R* I T H
Vulgar
Frartions.
vide the numerator and denominator by the greateft
number which meafures both. What number this is
may not be obvious, but will always be found by the
following rule.
To find the greateft common meafure of two num¬
bers, divide the greater by the leffer, and the divifor
by the remainder continually, till nothing remain j the
laft divifor is the greateft common meafure.
Example. Required the greateft number which mea¬
fures 475 and 589 ?
475)589(1 Here we divide 589 by 475,
475 and the remainder is 114 j then
  we divide 475 by 114, and
114)475(4 the remainder is 195 then we
456 divide 114 by 19, and there is
  no remainder : from which we
19^114(6 infer, that 19, the laft divifor,
114 is the greateft common mea-
  fure.
o
To explain the reafon of this, wTe muft obferve, that
any number which meafures two others, will alfo mea¬
fure their fum, and their difference, and will meafure
any multiple of either. In the foregoing example, any
number which meafures 589, and 475, will meafure
their difference 114, and will meafure 456, which is a
multiple of 114; and any number which meafures 475,
and 456, will alfo meafure their difference 19. Con-
fequently, no number greater than 19 can meafure 589
and 475. Again, 19 will meafure them both, for it
meafures 114, and therefore meafures 456, which is a
multiple of 114, and 475, which is juft 19 more than
456; and, becaufe it meafures 475 and 114, it will
meafure their fum 589. To reduce to the loweft
poffible terms, we divide both by numbers 19, and it
comes to
If there be no common meafure greater than 1, the
fra£lion is already in the loweft terms.
If the greateft common meafure of 3 numbers be re¬
quired, we find the greateft meafure of the two firft,
and then the greateft meafure of that number, and the
third. If there be more numbers, we proceed in the
fame manner.
Problem IV. “ To reduce fra&ions to others of
equal value that have the fame denominator: ill,
“ Multiply the numerator of each fraftion by all the
“ denominators except its own. The products are
“ numerators to the refpeftive fraftions fought.”
“ 2d, Multiply all the denominators into each other 5
u the produft is the common denominator.”
Ex. £ and £ and and -f4§ and
4 X 9 X SrraSS firft numerator.
7 X 5 X 8—280 fec'ond numerator.
3 X 5 X 9=l3S third numerator.
5 X 9 X 8=360 common denominator.
Here wre multiply 4, the numerator of the firft frac¬
tion, by 9 and 3 the denominators of the two others4
and the produft 288 is the numerator of the fraction
fought, equivalent to the firft. The other numerators
are found in like manner, and the common denomina¬
tor 360, is obtained by multiplying the given denomi¬
nators 5, 9, 8, into each other. In the courfe of the
whole operation, the numerators and denominators of
each fraction are multiplied by the fame number, and
therefore their value is not altered.
M E T I C. 643
The fractions thus obtained may be reduced to lower ^ ulgar
terms, if the feveral numerators and denominators have ,^ra>^oni,
a common meafure greater than unity. Or, after ar¬
ranging the number for multiplication, as is done
above, if the fame number occur in each rank, we may
dafh them out and neglefl them ; and, if numbers
which have a common meafure occur in each, we may
dalh them out and ufe the quotients in their ftead j or
any number which is a multiple of all the given deno¬
minators, may be ufed as a common denominator.
Sometimes a number of this kind will occur on infpec-
tion, and the new numerators are found by multiply¬
ing the given ones by the common denominator, and
dividing the produfts by the refpeflive given denomi¬
nators.
If the articles given for any operation be mixed num¬
bers, they are reduced to improper fractions by Pro¬
blem I. If the anfwer obtained be an improper frac¬
tion, it is reduced to a mixed number by Problem II.
And, it is convenient to reduce fraftions to lower
terms, when it can be done, by Problem III. which
makes their value better apprehended, and facilitates
any following operation. The redudlion of fractions to
the fame denominator by Problem IV. is neceffary to
prepare them for addition or fubtradlion, but not for
multiplication or divifion.
I. Addition c/'Vulgar. Fractions.
Rule. “ Reduce them, if neceffary, to a common
“ denominator j add the numerators, and place the
“ fum above the denominator.”
Ex. ift.]f+l=if+i:f by Problem IV.=}£
T * J_8 I 9  45 0 1 5So 1 S<57 IJ 7 7 4fO
20.J T"T 9 + To — ffTo "T ■JTo'-r-ffTo— ^To 560
By Problem II.=3^ 44
The numerators of fraftions that have the fame de¬
nominator fignify like parts; and the reafon for add¬
ing them is equally obvious, as that for adding {hil¬
lings or any other inferior denomination.
Mixed numbers may be added, by annexing the fum
of the fradftions to the fum of the integers., If the
former be a mixed number, its integer is added to the
other integers.
2. Subtraction o/'Vulgar Fractions. 23
Rule. “ Reduce the fractions to a common deno-
“ minator j fubtrac! the numerator of the fubtrahend
“ from the numerator of the minuend, and place the
u remainder above the denominator.”
remainder ££.
from 35
take 24
rem. 11. ■*
To fubtraft a fraflion from an integer : fubtraft the
numerator from the denominator, and place the re¬
mainder above the denominator; prefix to this the in¬
teger diminillied by unity.
Ex. Subtraft £ from 12. remainder 11£.
To fubtraft mixed numbers, proceed with the frac¬
tions by the foregoing rule, and with the integers in
the common method. If the numerator of the frac¬
tion in the fubtrahend exceed that in the minuend,
borrow the value of the denominator, and repay it by
adding 1 to the unit place ot the fubtrahend.
4 M 2 - Ex.
Ex. Subtract i from -A
j 3 5 7
TT 1T4 (
i _ 1 4 f
T 1*4 y
by Prob. IV.
644
Vulgar
Fractions.
A R I T ' H
3 — » 7 l
r—tt (
2—3 5 I
9 —4T J
Xr. Subtratfl 145^ from 248)-
, ’4T-
by Prob. IV. 145 If
248;
17
4 *
TT
3 S
7T
Here, becaufe 2y the numerator of the frafHori in
the minuend is lefs than 35, the numerator of the
fuotrahend, we borrow 45 the denominator j 27 and
45 make 72, from which we fubtraft 35, and obtain
37 for the numerator of the fraftion in the remain¬
der, and we repay what was borrowed, by adding x
to 5 in the unit place of the fubtrahend.
Pne reafon of the operations in adding or fubtraft-
ing fractions will be lully underftood, if we place the
numerators of the fractions in a column like a lower
denomination, and add or fubtradl them as integers,
carrying or borrowing according to the value of the
higher denomination.
a4 3. Multiplication of Vulgar Fractions.
Rule. “ Multiply the numerators of the factors
“ together for the numerator of the product, and the
denominators together for the denominator of the
“ produft.”
Ex. xft.] 4x4=44 2d.]8f x7t=,4§* X65^
2 X 5=10 num. 8f=V by Prob. I.
3 X 7=21 den. 74—y by ditto.
' 42x31 = 1302
5 X 4= 20
To multiply 4 by f is the fame, as to find what two
third parts of 4 comes to 5 if one-third part only had
been required, it would have been obtained by mul-
tiplying. the denominator 7 by 3, becaufe the value
of fraftions is lelfened when their denominators are
increafed ; and this comes to T5r; and, becaufe two
thirds were required, we mult double that fra&ion,
which is done by multiplying the numerator by 2]
and comes to 4°- Hence we infer, that fra&ions of
fractions, or compound fractions, fuch as 4 of f are
reduced to Ample ones by multiplication. The fame
method is followed when the compound fraction is
expreifed in three parts or more.
If a number be multiplied by any integer, its va¬
lue is increafed : If it be multiplied by 1, or taken
one time, it undergoes no alteration. If it be multi¬
plied by a proper fra£tion, or taken for one half, two
thirds, or the like, its value is diminilhed, and the
produdl is lefs than the number multiplied.
The foregoing rule extends to every cafe, when there
are fra&ions in either fa&or. For mixed numbers may
be reduced to improper fraftions, as is done in Ex. 2d.}
and integers may be written, or underftood to be writ¬
ten in the form of fradlions whofe numerator is 1. It
will be convenient, however, to give fome further di¬
rections for proceeding, when one of the factors is an
integer, or when one or both are mixed numbers.
I ft, To multiply an integer by a fraction, multiply
it by the numerator, and divide the produd by the
denominator. Ex. $756 X r~225$j-
3
5)11268(22534
2:!, To multiply an integer by a mixed numbei
we multiply it firft by the integer, and then by th
fraftion, and add the produCis-
M E T I C.
Ex- JS8 X 54=7934
13^X S-
138X i
3
Chap. VIII.
:69c)
V ulgar
Fractions.
4)4H( 1034
, _ . . 7934
3d, To multiply a mixed number by a fraction *
we may multiply the integer by the fraCtion, and the
two fractions together, and add the produCts.
Ex. i54x|=3tt
15 x|=3 4
3 v 1— 6
-y A -9— TT
Ij 4*
— 3tt
4th, When both faCtors are mixed numbers, we may
multiply each part of the multiplicand firft by the in¬
teger of the multiplier, and then by the fraCtion, and
add the four produCts.
Ex. 8f by 74
8X7= 56
8 X 4=V4= 6 by Prob II.
r X 7 =V4=2f- 24#
2 v 3  6
J - tu
produCt 65as before.
4. Division o/’Vulgar Fractions. 25
Rule I. “ Multiply the numerator of the divi-
“ dend by the denominator of the divifor. The pro-
“ duCt is the numerator of the quotient.”
II. “ Multiply the denominator of the dividend by
“ the numerator of the divilbr. The produCt is the
“ denominator of the quotient.”
Ex. Divide 4 by 4 Quotient 4f
2 x 9 = l8
^ 5 X 7 = 35
To explain the reafon of this operation, let us fup-
pofe it required to divide 4 by 7, or to take one fe- -
venth part of that fraClion. This is obtained by
multiplying the denominator by 7 } for the value of
fraClions is diminilhed by increafing their denomina¬
tors, and comes to -3^-. Again, Becaufe 4 is nine
times lefs than feven, the quotient of any number di¬
vided by 4 will be nine times greater than the quo¬
tient of the lame number divided by 7. Therefore
we multiply 44 by 9, and obtain 44.
If the divifor and dividend have the fame denomina¬
tor, it is fufficient to divide the numerators.
Ex. 44 divided by TV quotes 4.
The quotient of any number divided by a proper
fraClion is greater than the dividend. It is obvious,
that any integer contains more halves, more third
parts, and the like, than it contains units} and, if an
integer and fraClion be divided alike, the quotients
will have the lame proportion to the numbers divi¬
ded } but the value of an integer is increafed when
the divifor is a proper fraClion } therefore, the value
of a fraClion in the like cafe is increafed alfo.
T he foregoing rule may be extended to every cafe,
by reducing integers and mixed numbers to the form
of improper fractions. We ihall add fome directions
for fhortening the operation wrhen integers and mixed
numbers are concerned.
jit, When the dividend is an integer, multiply it
by
Chap. VI ir. . A R I T H
Vulgar by the denominator of the divifor, and divide the
fractions, product by the numerator.
' ' v Ex. Divide 368 by 4
7
5)2576 (515-f quotient.
2d, When the divifor is an integer, and the divi¬
dend a fraction, multiply the denominator by the divi¬
for, and place the product under the numerator.
Ex. Divide 4 by 5 quotient ^
8x5 = 4°
3d, When the divifor is an integer, and the divi¬
dend a mixed number, divide the integer, and annex
the fraction to the remainder 5 then reduce the mixed
number, thus formed, to an improper fraction, and
multiply its denominator by the divifor.
Ex. To divide by 7 quotient 8244
Here we divide 576 by 7,
the quotient is 82, and the
remainder 2, to which we an¬
nex the fraction t4i- j and re¬
duce 2-fr to an improper
fraction and multiply its
denominator by 7, which
7)
576 (82
—
16
II X 7 = 77
gives 44.
Hitherto we have confidered the fraftions as abftract
numbers, and laid down the neceffary rules according¬
ly. We now proceed to apply thefe to pradlice.
Shillings and pence may be conlidered as fradtions of
pounds, and lower denominations of any kind as frac¬
tions of higher j and any operation, where different
denomination^ occur, may be wrought by exprefling
the lower ones in the form of vulgar fractions, and
proceeding by the foregoing rules. For this purpofe
the two following problems are necelfary.
Problem V. “To reduce lower denominations to
“ fradlions of higher, place the given number for the
“ numerator, and the value of the higher for the de-
“ nominator.” Examples. '
1. Reduce 7d. to the fraction of a Ihilling. Anf. 44*
2. Reduce 7d. to a fradlion of a pound. Anf. T4o-
3. Reduce 15s. 7d. to a fradlion of a pound. Anf. 444*
Pr.oblem VI. “ To value fradlions of higher deno-
“ minations, multiply the numerator by the value of
“ the given denomination, and divide the produdl by
“ the denominator ; if there be a remainder, multi-
“ ply it by the value of the next denomination, and
“ continue the divifion.”
Ex. 1 ft.] Required the value
of pi.
1 7
01 TTo
17
20
2d.] Required the value
of of 1 cwt.
6o)34o(
3°°
8
8
4
 <?rs.
9)32( 3
27
li.
1 Si
40
12
60)480
480
M E T I C. 645
In the firft example, we multiply the numerator 17 Decimal
by 20, the number of (hillings in a pound, and divide Fnuqkms.
the produdt 340 by 60, the denominator of the frac-' ¥
tion, and obtain a quotient of 5 (hillings; then we
multiply the remainder 40 by 12, the number of
pence in a (hilling, which produces 480, which divid¬
ed by 60 quotes 8d. without a remainder. In the
fecond example we proceed in the fame manner ; but
as there is a remainder, the quotient is completed by
a fra«ftion.
Sometimes the value of the fra&ion does not amount
to an unit of the low^eft denomination j but it may be
reduced to a fra&ion of that or any other denomina¬
tion, by multiplying the numerator according to the
value of the places. Thus a pound is equal
to T44g- of a (lulling, or of a penny, VttV °f a
farthing.
Chap. IX. DECIMAL FRACTIONS,
Sect. I. Notation Reduction. aS"
The arithmetic of vulgar fraftions is tedious* and
even intricate to beginners. The difficulty arifes
chiefly from the variety of denominators j for when
numbers are divided into different kinds of parts?
they cannot be ealily compared. This confideration
gave rife to the invention of decimal fra&ions, where
the units are divided into like parts, and the divifions
and fubdivifions are regulated by the fame fcale which
is ufed in the arithmetic of integers. The firft figure
of a decimal fradlion fignifies tenth parts, the next
hundredth parts, the next thoufandth parts, and fo on :
and the columns may be titled accordingly. Decimals
are diftinguiftied by a point, which feparates them from
integers, if any be prefixed.
The ufe of cyphers in deciir '.ls, as well as in inte¬
gers, is to bring the fignificant figures to their pro¬
per places, on which their value depends. As cy¬
phers, when placed on the left hand of an integer,
have no fignification, but when placed on the right
hand, increafe the value ten times each ; fo cyphers,
when placed on the right hand of a decimal, have no
fignification ; but when placed on the left hand di-
minifti the value ten times each.
The notation and numeration of decimals will be
obvious from the following examples.
4.7 fignifies Four, and feven tenth parts.
.47 Four tenth parts, and feven hundredth
parts, or 47 hundredth parts.
.047 Four hundredth parts, and feven thou¬
fandth parts, or 47 thoufandth parts.
.407 Four tenth parts, and feven thoufandth
parts, or 407 thoufandth parts.
4.07 Four, and feven hundredth parts.
4.007 Four, and feven thoufandth parts.
The column next the decimal point is fometimes
called decimal primes, the next decimal feconds ; and
fo on.
To reduce vulgar fradlions to decimal ones : “Annex-
“ a cypher to the numerator, and divide it by the de-
“ nominator, annexing a cypher continually to the re-
“ mainder,”
Ex , ■
5
646
Decimal Ex. lft]i|=r.l6
Fradlions. y^)i20(l6
‘ ' ' 4 75
4th.] 1-833
6)50(83
48
*20
• 18
20
18
20
A R
2d.] ^=.078125
64)500(078125
48
160
128
I T H
3d.] '=.666.
3)20(666
18
*20
18
20
18
20
320
320
5^-] A—259
27)70(259
54
6th.]
^=.3,18,18,
22)70(318x8
66
*40
22
180
176
^40
22
M E T I C. Chap. IX.
as Ex. 3d and 5th. If otherwife, as Ex. 4th and Decimal
6th, they are mixed repeaters or circulates, and the Iradlions.
figures prefixed to thofe in regular fucceflron are called v’“’—
the Jim'te part. Repeating figures are generally diftin-
guiihed by a dafh, and circulates by a comma, or other
mark, at the beginning and end of the circle j and the
beginning of a repeater or circulate is pointed out in
the divifion by an afterifk.
Lower denominations may be confidered as fractions
of higher ones, and reduced to decimals accordingly.
We may proceed by the following rule, which is the
fame, in efteft, as the former.
To reduce lower denominations to decimals of higher:
“ Annex a cypher to the lower denomination, and
“ divide it by the value of the higher. When there
“ are feveral denominations begin at the lowed, and
“ reduce them in their order.”
Ex. To reduce 5 cwt. 2 qr. 21 lb. to a decimal of a
ton ?
28)2io(.75
196
140
140
4)2.75(.6875
24
35
32
30
28
20)5.6874(.284375
40
180
The reafon of this operation will be evident, if we
confider that the numerator of a vulgar fraflion is
underflood to be divided by the denominator; and
this divifion is aftually performed when it is reduced
to a decimal.
In like manner, when there is a remainder left in
divifion, we may extend the quotient to a decimal, in-
ftead of completing it by a vulgar fraflion, as in the
following example.
25)646(2511 or 25.84.
50
146
125
Rem. 21.0
200
100
100
o
From the foregoing examples, we may diftinguifh
the feveral kinds of decimals. Some vulgar fradlions
may be reduced exadlly to decimals, as Ex. xft and
2d, and are called terminate or finite decimals. Others'
cannot be exadlly reduced, becaufe the divifion al¬
ways leaves a remainder j but, by continuing the di¬
vifion, we will perceive how the decimal may be ex¬
tended to any length whatever. Thefe are called infi¬
nite decimals. If the fame figure continually returns,
as in Ex. 3d and 4th, they are called repeaters. If two
or more figures return in their order, they are called
circulates. If this regular fucceffion go on from the
beginning, they are called pure repeaters, or circulates,
20 75
20 60
o 150
140
100
100
o
Here, in order to reduce 2ilb. to a decimal of 1 qr.
we annex a cypher, and divide by 28, the value of
1 qr. This gives .75. Then we reduce 2.75 qrs. to
a decimal of I cwt. by dividing by 4, the value of
I cwt. and it comes to .6875. Laftly, 5.6875 cwt. is
reduced to a decimal of a ton by dividing by 20, and
comes to .284375.
To value a decimal fraclion : “ Multiply it by the
“ value of the denomination, and cut off as many de-
“ cimal places from the prod-udl as there are in the
“ multiplicand. The reft are integers of the lower
“ denomination.”
Example. What is the value of .425 of L.i ?
•425
20
fin 8.500
6
d. 3.000
Sect. II. Arithmetic 0/’Terminate Decimals.
The value of decimal places decreafes like that of in¬
tegers, ten of the lower place in either being equal to
one of the next higher •, and the fame holds in pafling
from decimals to integers. Therefore, all the opera¬
tions are performed in the fame way with decimals,
wK*tlier
Chap. IX. ' A R I T H
Decimal whetner placed by tbemfelves or annexed to integers,
.Fr.l^i°i‘s'i as with pure integers. The only peculiarity lies in
the arrangement and pointing of the decimals.
In addition andfubtraBion, “ Arrange units under
“ units, tenth parts under tenth parts, and proceed as
“ in integers.”
32.035 from 13.348 and 12.248
xi6-374 take 92.993 10.6752
160.63   
I2'3645 4.0487 - 1.5728
M E T I c.
fwer as when we divide by 2, and every integer has a
correfpondent decimal, which may be called its reci¬
procal. Multiplication by that decimal fupplies the
place of divifion by the integer, and divifion fupplies
the place of multiplication.
Jo find the reciprocal of any number, divide 1 with
cyphers annexed by that number.
Ex. Required the reciprocal of 625.
625)i.ooo(.ooi6
625
32I;4°35
In multiplication, “ Allow as many decimal places
in the product as there are in both faftors. If the
product has not lo many places, fupply them by
“ prefixing cyphers on the left hand.”
£*. 111.] 1.37 2d.] 43.75 3d.] .1572
t.8 .48 .12
io9^ 35000 .01864
*37 17500
2.466 21.0000
The reafon of this rule may be explained, by obferv-
ing, that the value of the produdl depends on the
value of the faftors ; and fince each decimal place in
either faftor diminiihes its value ten times, it muft
equally diminilh the value of the product.
.To multiply decimals by 10, move the decimal
point one place to the right j to multiply by 100,
1000, or the like, move it as many places to the right
as there are cyphers in the multiplier.
In divifion, “ Point the quotient fo that there may
“ be an equal number of decimal places in the divi¬
dend as in the divifor and quotient together.”
1 herefore, if there be the lame of decimal places in
the divifor and dividend, there will be as many in the
quotient.
If there be more in the dividend, the quotient will
have as many as the dividend has more than the di¬
vifor.
If there be more in the divifor, we mull annex (or
fuppofe annexed) as many cyphers to the dividend as
may complete the number in the divifor, and all the
figures of the quotient are integers.
If the divifion leave a remainder, the quotient may
be extended to more decimal places j but thefe are
not regarded in fixing the decimal point.
The reafon for fixing the decimal point, as diredfed
may be inferred from the rule followed in multiplica¬
tion. The. quotient multiplied by the divifor produ¬
ces the dividend ; and therefore the number of deci¬
mal places in the dividend is equal to thofe in the di¬
vifor and quotient together.
The firlt figure of the quotient is always at the fame
diftance from the decimal point, and on the fame fide
as the figure of the dividend, which Hands above the
unit place of the hrif product. 1 his alio takes place
in integers ; and the reafon is the fame in both.
. It was formerly obferved, that numbers were dimi-
mihed when multiplied by proper fractions, and increaf-
ed when divided by the fame. Thus, multiplication by
fractions correfponds with divifion by integers ; and
divifion by fradlions with multiplication by integers j
when we multiply by i or .5, we obtain the fame an-
37 So
3750
The product of any number multiplied by .0016 h
the fame as the quotient divided by 625. Example.
625)9375(x5 9375
625 .0016
56250
9375
. . 15.0000
Becaufe .0016 is of unity, any number multi¬
plied by that fraction will be diminiflied 625 times.
For a like reafon, the quotient of any number divided
by .0016, will be equal to the produft of the fame
multiplied by 625. Example.
.1016)516.0000(322500 516
48  625
36
S2
40
32
2580
1032
3096
322500
80
80
Sect. III. Approximate Decimals.
It has been fliown that fome decimals, though ex¬
tended to any length, are never complete; and others,
which terminate at lait, fometimes confilt of fo many
places, that it would be difficult in pradlice to extend
them fully. In thefe cafes, we may extend the decimal
to three, four, or more places, according to the nature
of the articles, and the degree of accuracy required
and rejeft the reft of it as inconfiderable. In this man¬
ner we may perform any operation with eafe by the
common rules, and the anfvvers -we obtain are fufficient-
ly exaft for any purpofe in bufinefs. Decimals thus
reftrifted are called approximates.
Shillings, pence, and farthings, may be eafily redu¬
ced to decimals of three places, by the following rule.
Take half the (hillings for the firft decimal place, and
the number of farthings increafed by one, if it amount
to 24 or upwards ; by two, if it amount to 48 or up¬
wards } and by three, if it amount to 72 or upwards,
for the two next places.
The reafon of this is, that 20 (hillings make a pound,
two (hillings is the tenth part of a pound 3 and there¬
fore
647
Decimal
Fractions,
648
'Decimal
Fradtions.
A R I T H
fore half the number of (hillings makes the firlt deci¬
mal place. If there were 50 farthings in a (hilling,
or 1000 in a pound, the units of the farthings in the
remainder would be thoufandth parts, and the tens
wrould be hundredth parts, and fo would give the two
next decimal places •, but becaufe there are only 48
farthings in a (lulling, or 960 in a pound, every far¬
thing is a little more than the thoufandth part of a
pound; and fince 24 farthings make 25 thoufandth
parts, allowance is made for that excefs by adding 1
for every 24 farthings, as direfted.
If the number ol farthings be 24, 48, or 72> anc^
ronfequently the fecond and third decimal places 25*
50, and 75, they are exadfly right; otherwife they are
not quite complete, fince there (liould be an allowance
ofnot only for 24, 48, and 72 farthings, but for
every other (ingle farthing. I hey may be complet¬
ed by the following rule : Multiply the feqond and
third decimal places, or their excefs above 25, 50, 75,
by 4. If the produft amount to 24 or upwards,
add x ; if 48, add 2 ; if 7 2, add 35. By this ope¬
ration we obtain two decimal places more; and by
continuing the fame operation, we may extend the
decimal till it terminate in 25, 50, 75, or in a re¬
peater.
Decimals of fterling money of three places may ea-
fily be reduced to (hillings, pence, and' farthings, by
the following rule : Double the firtl decimal place, and
if the fecond be $ or upwards, add 1 thereto for (hil¬
lings. Then divide the fecond and third decimal places,
or their excefs above 50, by 4, firft deducing 1, if it
amount to 25, or upwards; the quotient is pence, and
the remainder farthings.
As this rule is the converfe of the former one, the
reafon of the one may be inferred from that of the other.
The value obtained by it, unlefs the decimal terminate
in 25, 50, or 75, is a little more than the true value ;
for there (liould be a dedudtion, not only of 1 for 25,
but a little dedu&ion of Ty on the remaining figures of
thefe places.
We proceed to give fome examples of the arithme¬
tic of approximates, and fubjoin any neceflary obferva-
tions.
Addition.
Cwt. qrs. lb.
3 2 14 = 3.625
2 3 22 = 2.94642
3 3 i9 = 3-9I964
4 1 25 = 4.47321
Subtraction.
Cwt. qrs. lb.
32 2 = 3.5I785
I 1 19 1.41964
2 — 9 2.09821
14 3 24 14.96427
If we value the fum of the approximates, it will fall
a little (hort of the fum of the articles, becaufe the de¬
cimals are not complete.
Some add 1 to the lad decimal place of the approxi¬
mate, when the following figure would have been 5,
or upwards. Thus the full decimal of 3qrs. 2 2lb. is
.946,428571, and therefore .94643 is nearer to it than
.946,42. Approximates, thus regulated, will in gene¬
ral give exa£ler anfwers, and fometimes above the true
one, fometimes below it.
The mark -}- fignifies that the approximate is lefs
than the exaft decimal, or requires fomething to be
added. The mark — fignifies that it is greater, or re¬
quires fomething to be fubtrafted.
M E T I c.
8278 +
2153+
24834
4i390
8278
16556
Multiplication.
Meth. 2d] 0278
2153’
Chap. IX.
Decimal
Meth. 3] 8278 Fmftions.
35X2 V
16556
827
4X3
24
8
90
834
16556
827
4I3
24
1782I2534 178212534 # 1782
Here the four laft places are quite uncertain. 4 he
right-hand figure of each particular product is obtained
by multiplying 8 into the figures of the multiplier;
but if the multiplicand had been extended, the carriage
from the right-hand place would have been taken in ;
confequently the right-hand place of each particular
produdl, and the four places of the total produft, which
depend on thefe,-are quite uncertain. Since part of the
operation therefore is ufelefs, we may omit it; and, for
this purpofe, it will be convenient to begin (as in p. 629.
col. 1 .ffth variety) at the kigheft place of the multiplier.
We may perceive that all the figures on the right hand
of the line in Meth. 2. ferve no purpofe, and may be
left out, if we only multiply the figures of the multi¬
plicand, whofe produdls are placed on the right hand
of the line. This is readily done by inverting the mul¬
tiplier in Meth. 3. and beginning each produft with
the multiplication of that figure which (lands above the
figure of the multiplier that produces it, and including
the carriage from the right-hand place.
If both faftors be approximates, there are as many
uncertain places, at lead in the product, as in the long¬
ed faftor. If only one be an approximate, there are
as many uncertain places as there are figures in that
faftor, and fometimes a place or two more, which
might be affedled by the carriage. Hence w^e may in¬
fer, how far it is neceflary to extend the approximates,
in order to obtain the requifite number of certain places
in the produft.
Division.
.3724—)798 64327-K-^ or 3^4)79864327(2144
7448
53
37
84
24
602
896
7063
4892
7448
*538
372
166
148
18
>4
2171 4
Here all the figures on the right-hand of the line
are uncertain ; for the right-hand figure of the firll pro¬
duct 7448 might be altered by the carriage, if the divi-
for were extended ; and all the remarnders and dividu-
als that follow are thereby rendered uncertain. We
may omit thefe ufelefs figures ; for which purpofe, we
da(h a figure on the right hand of the divifor at each
dep, and negleft it when we multiply by the figure of
the quotient next obtained; but we include the car¬
riage. The operation, and the reafon of it, will appear
clear, by comparing the operation at large, and con-
tradled, in the above example.
Chap.
Chap. X.
Interrrli-
nate
Decimals.
A R I T H
Chap. X. EXTERMINATE DECIMALS.
Sect.L
Reduction of Interminate Decimals.
As the arithmetic of interminate decimals, other-
wife called the arithmetic of infinites, is facilitated by
comparing them with vulgar fraftions, it will be pro¬
per to inquire wdiat vulgar fractions produce the feve-
ral kinds of decimals, terminate or interminate, re¬
peaters or circulates, pure or mixed. And, firft, wre may
obferve, that vulgar fraftions, which have the fame
denominator, produce decimals of the fame kind. If
the decimals correfponding to the numerator i be
known, all -others are obtained by multiplying thefe in¬
to any given numerator, and always retain the fame
form, providing the vulgar fra&ion be in its low^eil:
terms.
Thus, the decimal equal to ^ is .142857,
which multiplied by 3
produces the decimal equal to •428571,
Secondly, If there be cyphers annexed to the figni-
Scant figures of the denominator, there will be an
equal number of additional cyphers prefixed to the de¬
cimal. The reafon of this will be evident, if we reduce
thefe vulgar fra&ions to decimals, or if we confider that
each cypher annexed to the denominator diminifhes the
value of the vulgar fraction ten times, and each cypher
prefixed has a like effedt on the value of the decimal.
Thus, 4=.142857, At=-28 ^=*0,45,
To .0,142857, 2 j 00 “.0028 Tj/oo- — • OOO , 4 5»
We may therefore confine our attention to vulgar frac¬
tions, whofe numerator is 1, and which have no cy¬
phers annexed to the fignificant figures of the denomi¬
nator.
Thirdly, Vulgar fra&ions, whofe denominators are
2 or 5, or any of their powers, produce terminate de¬
cimals ; for if any power of 2 be multiplied by the
fame power of 5, the product is an equal power of 10,
as appears from the following table :
2 X 5 =10
22 or 4 X 5* or 25 zr 100 or 10s
23 or 8 X 53 or 125= icoo or 103
24 or 16 X 54 or 625 = 10000 or 104
2s or 32 X 5J or 3125 rr 100000 or 10s
And the reafon is eafily pointed out 5 for 23 X 53 —2 x 2
X2X5X5X5; or, becaufe the faftors may be taken
in any order, =2x5. X2X5X2X5; and this, if we
multiply the faftors by pairs, becomes 10x10x10, or
to3. The like may be lliown of any other power.
And we may infer, that if any power of 10 be divided
by a like power of 2 or 5, the quotient will be an equal
power of 5 or 2 refpedlively, and will come out exadf,
without a remainder; and, fince the vulgar fradlions
above mentioned are reduced to decimals by fome fuch
divifion, it follows that the equivalent decimals are ter¬
minate.
The number of places in the decimal is pointed out
by the exponent of the powder ; for the dividend mull
be a like powder of 10, or mull have ^n equal number
of cyphers annexed to 1, and each cypher of the di¬
vidend gives a place of the quotient.
Vol. II. Part. II.
M E T I C. 649
Ex. y.j—:.c>3125, a decimal of 5 places, and Intermi-
32)1.ooooo(.03125
96 . . .
40
32
80
6.4
160
160
Again, No denominators except 2, 5, or their powers,
produce terminate decimals. It is obvious from p. 631.
col. 2. par. 4. that, if any denominator which produces a
terminate decimal be multiplied thereby, the produdl
will confift of 1, with cyphers annexed; and conlequent-
ly the lowell places of the fadlors, multiplied into each
other, mull amount to 10, 20, or the like, in order to
fupply a cypher for the loweft place of the produdl;
bbt none of the digits give a product of this kind, ex¬
cept 5 multiplied by the even numbers ; therefore one
of the faftors mull terminate in 5, and the other in an
even number. The former is meafured by 5, and the
latter by 2, as was obferved p. 630. col. 2. par. 7. Let
them be divided accordingly, and let the quotients be
multiplied. This lall product will be exadlly one-tenth
part of the former : and therefore will coniift of 1, with
cyphers annexed, and the factors which produce it are
meafured by 5 and 2, as was (hewn before. This ope¬
ration may be repeated } and one of the factors may
be divided by 5, and the other by 2, till they be ex-
haufted ) confequently they are powers of 5 and 2.
Fourthly, Vulgar fractions, wLofe denominators are
3 or 9, produce pure repeating decimals.
Thus, i — .11 z 1 = 552
Jr = .222 J- or J- =z 66(i
J- or J- ~ .333: J = 77^
4 =-44* 4 = 88?
The repeating figure is always the fame as the nu¬
merator. Hence we infer, that repeating figures fig-
nify ninth parts ; a repeating 3 fignifies J-; a repeat¬
ing 6 fignifies J ; and a repeating 9 fignifies J, or 1.
The value of repeating decimals may alfo be illuf-
trated by collefting the values of the different places :
for example, let the value of 11* be required 5 the firfi:
decimal place fignifies -yV, the next -y-Jg-, the next toto'*
Tbe fum of the tw® firil places is 1%%-, of the three
places LVcTo i and fo on. If we fubtracl thefe values
fucceflively from J-, the firft remainder is the fecond
-g-5-0, the third -g-oVo. Thus, when the value of the
fucceflive figures is reckoned, the amount of them ap¬
proaches nearer and nearer to J, and the difference be¬
comes 10 times lefs for each figure affumed 5 and,
fince the decimal may be extended to any length, the
difference will at laft become fo fmall, that it need not
be regarded. This may give a notion of a decreafing
feries, whofe fum may be exactly afcertained, though
the number of terms be unlimited.
Fifthly, Vulgar fractions, whofe denominators are
a product of 3 or 9 multiplied by 2, 5, or any of their
powers, produce mixed repeaters. The reafon of this
will be evident, if, in forming the decimal, we divide
the numerator fucceflively by the component parts oF
the denominator, as directed p. 630. col. 1. par. ult.
4 N &c.
naie
Decimals.
A R I T H
&c. The firft divifor is 2, 5, or Tome of their powers,
and confequently gives a finite quotient by p. 649. col.
1 • Par* 3- &c- The fecond divifor is 3 or 9 j and there¬
fore, when the figures of the dividend are exhaufted,
and figures annexed to the remainder, the quotient will
repeat, by p. 649. col. 2. par. 2.
Ex> xi? 144=16 x 9-
9
144)1.000(00694
864
1360
1296
* 640
576
or i6)i.oo(.o625
96.00694
40
32
80
80
640 o
In order to illuflrate this fubjecl further, we Ihall ex¬
plain the operation of calling out the threes, which re-
iembles that for calling out the nines, formerly laid down,
P- 633.col. 2. par. 4.—p. 634. col. 2.par. 3. and depends
on the fame principles, being a method of finding the re¬
mainder of a number divided by 3. If the fame number
be divided by 3 and by 9, the remainders will either a-
gree, or the fecond remainder will exceed the firll by 3 or
by 6. The reafon of this will be obvious, if we fuppofe
a colletftion of articles afforted into parcels of 3, and
afterwards into parcels of 9, by joining three of the
former together. If the leffer parcels be all taken up
in compofing the greater ones, the remainder will be
the fame at the end of the fecond affortment as before j
but if one of thefe lefler parcels be left over, the re¬
mainder will be more, and if two of them be left over,
the remainder will be 6 more. Therefore, when the
nines are call out from any number, and the refult di¬
vided by 3, the remainder is the fame as when the num¬
ber is divided by 3: Thus, the refults on calling out
the 3’s may be derived fromthofe obtained by calling
out the 9’s ; and the fame correfpondence which was
pointed out wuth refpedl to the latter, for proving the
operations of arithmetic, applies alfo to the former.
1 o call out the 3’s from any number, add the figures,
neglefling 3, 6, or 9 ; and, wdren the fum amounts
to 3, 6, or 9, rejedl them, and carry on the computa¬
tion wuth the excefs only. For example, take 286754 •
in calling out the 3’s we compute thus; 2 and 8 is 10,
which is three times 3, and 1 over; 1 and (palling by
6) 7 is 8, which is twnce 3 and 2 over; 2 and 5 is 7,
which is twice 3 and I over ; lajlly, 1 and 4 is 5, which
contains 3 once, and 2 over, fo the refult is 2.
If the 3’s be call out from 21 or 4, the refult is 1 ;
from 23 or 8, the refult is 2 ; from 24 or 16, the refult
is 1 ; and univerfally the odd powers of 2 give a refult
of 2, and the even powders give a refult of i* As
every higher pow'er is produced -by multiplying the
next lower by 2, the refult of the producl may be
found by multiplying the refult of the lower power
by 2, and calling out the 3’s if necefifary. There¬
fore, if the refuit of any powder be x, that.of the next
higher is 2, and that of the next higher (4 with the 3’s
caft out, or) x. Thus the refults of the powers of 2 are 1
and 2 by turns ; alfo, becaufe the refult of 5, when the
3’s are call out, is 2, its powers will have the. fame re¬
fults as the correfponding powers of 2.
M E T I C. Chap. X.
If the denominator be a produfl of an even power Intermi-
of 2 or 5, multiplied by 3, the repeating figure of the n.ate
Correfponding decimal is 3 ; but, if it be the product lDeclinaIs,t
of an odd power, the repeating figure is 6. For, in v
forming the decimal, we may divide by the component
parts of the denominator, and the firll divifor is a
power of 2 or 5 ; therefore the firll quotient is a like
power of 4 or 2 (p. 649. col. 1. par. 3. &c.) and this
power is again divided by 3. If it be an even power, the
remainder or rcfult is 1, as was demonllrated above ;
and if cyphers be annexed to the remainder, and the
divifion continued, it quotes a repeating 3 ; but if it be
an odd power, the remainder is 2, and the quotient con¬
tinued by annexing cyphers is a repeating 6.
If the denominator be 9, multiplied by 2, or any of
its powers, the repeating figure may. be found by call¬
ing out the 9’s from the correfponding power, by 5 ;
and if it be multiplied by 5, or any of its powers, by
calling out the 9’s from the correfponding power of 2.
For if the decimal be formed by two divifions, the firll
quotes the correfponding power; and the fecond, be¬
caufe the divifor is 9, repeats the refulting figure after
the dividend is exhaulled.
If any mixed repeater be multiplied by 9, the produfl
is a terminate decimal, and may be reduced (p. 649.
col. 1. par. 3. &c.) to a vulgar fra&ion, whole deno¬
minator is 2, 5, or fome of their potvers ; therefore all
mixed repeaters are derived from vulgar fractions, whofe
denominators are produfts of 2, 5, or their powers,
multiplied by 3 or 9.
Sixthly, All denominators, except 2, 5, 3, o, the
powers of 2 and 5, and the produdls of thefe powers,
multiplied by 3 or 9, produce circulating decimals.
We have already Ihown, that all terminate decimals are
derived from 2, 5, or their powers; all pure repeaters,
from 3 or 9 ; and all mixed repeaters, from the pro-
dudls of the former multiplied by the latter. The num¬
ber of places in the circle is never greater than the
denominator diminilhed by unity. Thus 4 produces
.142857 a decimal of 6 places; and T*T produces
.0588235294117647, a decimal of 16 places. The
reafon of this limit may be inferred from the divifion ;
for whenever a remainder which has recurred before, re¬
turns again, the decimal mull circulate, and the great-
eft number of poflible remainder is one lefs than the
divifor: But frequently the circle is much fhorter.
Thus ~=.09, a circle of 2 places.
When a vulgar fradtion, whofe numerator is 1, pro¬
duces a pure circulate, the produft of the circle multi¬
plied by the denominator will confift of as many q’s
as there are places in the circle. Thus 4=. 1428 <;7,
which multiplied by 7 produces 999999. The like
holds in every decimal of the fame kind ; for they are
formed by dividing 10, or 100, or 1000, or fome like
number, by the denominator, and the remainder is x,
when the decimal begins to circulate ; for the divifion
muft be then exadlly in the fame ftate as at the begin¬
ning : Therefore, if the dividend had been lefs by 1, or
had confifted entirely of 9’s, the divifion would have
come out without a remainder ; and fince the quotient
multiplied by the divifor, produces the dividend, as w as
fhown p. 631. col. 2. par. 3. it follows, that the circu¬
lating figures, multiplied by the denominator, produce
an equal number of 9’s.
Every vulgar fraftion, which produces a pure circu¬
late,
Chap. X. A R I T H
Inter-mi- late, is equal to one whofe numerator is the circulating
n,}te ( hgures, and its denominator a hhe number of g’s. If
.p.-cim ' S ^ numerator be i, the vulgar fraction is reduced to
that form by multiplying both terms into the circle of
the decimal; and if the numerator be more than i,
the equivalent decimal is found by multiplying that
which correfpcnds to the numerator i into any other
numerator.
Thus 4— • 142857?— aand tV~027.=-^-V
4=. 285 714,=14-9-4^4 tt—•o54*—
?  A  4^8 .5 71 a   r,* £ 1 6
T 4255/1J—99T9 9Sr -J-T—.210 -gryg-
Hence we may infer, that pure circulates are equal in
Value to vulgar fra&ions whofe numerators confiil of the
circulating figures, and denominators of as many p’s as
there are places in the circle. To place this in another
. point of view, we fhall reduce a vulgar fradlion, whofe
numerator confifts entirely of p’s, to a decimal.
444 999)375000(*375>
2pp7 • •
75JO
6993
5370
4995
*375
The remainder is now the fame as the dividend, and
therefore the quotient mult circulate, and, in general,
fince any number with 3 cyphers annexed, may be di¬
vided by 1000, without a remainder, and quotes the
lignificant figures j therefore, when divided by ppp, it
muft quote the fame figures, and leave an equal remain¬
der. This alfo applies to every divifbr which coniifls
entirely of p’s. Circles of two places, therefore, fignify
ninety-ninth parts; circles of 3 places, fignify nine hun¬
dred and ninety-ninth parts ; and fo on.
The value of circulating decimals may alfo be illu-
ftrated by adding the values of the places. Thus, if
two figures circulate, the firft circle fignifieth hun¬
dredth parts, and every following circle fignifies one
hundred times lefs than the preceding ; and their va¬
lues added, as in p. bqp. col. 2. par. 3. will approach
nearer to ninety-ninth parts than any affigned difference,
but will never exaftly complete it.
All denominators which are powers of 3, except p,
produce pure circulates $ and the number of places in
the circle is equal to the quotient of the denominator
divided by p.
Thus,-2-IT=r.037, a circle of 3 places, and 27 divided
by P—3
■ffV:=-oi234567p, a circle of p places, and 81
divided by pzrp.
Thefe decimals may be formed, by dividing the nu¬
merator by the component parts of the denominator.
In the firft example, the component parts of the nume¬
rator are p and 3. The divifion by p quotes a pure
circulate, and the circulating figure is not 3, 6, or p,
if the vulgar fra&ion be in its loweft terms. And any
other repeating figure divided by 3, quotes a pure cir¬
culate of 3 places j for the firft dividual muft leave a
M E T I C. 651
remainder of 1 or 2. If the firft remainder be I, the Inteimi-
fecond remainder is 2, ( ecaufe, if 1 be prefixed to
the repeating dgure, and the 3’s be caft out, the refuit    r
is 2 ;) and, for a like reafon, the third dividual clears
off without a remainder. If the firft remainder be 2,
the fecond is (twice 2 or 4, with the 3’s caft out, or)
l, and the third o ; fo the circle is always complete
at 3 places, and the divifion begins anew. The fum
of inch a circle cannot be a multiple of 3 } for fince
the repeating figure is not 3, nor any of its multiples,
the fum of 3 places is not a multiple of p, and there¬
fore cannot be divided by p, nor twice by 3, without
a remainder.
Again, If the decimal equal to be divided by 3,
we fhall obtain the decimal equal to -$-r. The dividend
as we have fhown already, is a pure circulate of 3
places, whofe fum is not a multiple of 3. Therefore,
when divided by 3, the firft circle leaves a remainder
of 1 or 2, which being prefixed to the fecond, and the
divifion continued, the remainder, at the end of the
fecond circle is 2 or 1, and, at the end of the third
circle, there is no remainder; all which may be illu-
ftrated by cafting out the 3’s. The divifion being com¬
pleted at p places, finifhes the circle j and it may be
fhown, as before, that the firm of thefe places is not a ,
multiple of 3. The learner will apprehend all this if
he reduce thefe, or the like vulgar fractions, to deci¬
mals, by fucceflive divifions.
27 = 9X3, and p)i.o(.inf, and 3).! 1 rx(.037,
81 = 27 x 3, and 3)037,037,o37(.oi234567p.
For the fame reafon, if any circulating decimal, not
a multiple of 3, be divided by 3, the quotient will cir¬
culate thrice as many places as the dividend ; and if
any circulate obtained by fuch divifion be multiplied
by 3, the circle of the produdt will be reftrifted to one-
third of the places in the multiplicand.
All vulgar fraftions, whofe denominators are multi¬
ples of 2, 5, or their powers, except thofe already con-
fidered, produce mixed circulates $ for they may be re¬
duced by dividing by the component parts of the deno¬
minator. The firft divifor is 2, 5, or fome of their
powers, and therefore gives a finite quotient. The fe¬
cond divifor is none of the numbers enumerated p. 650
col. 2. par. 2. and therefore gives a circulating quotient
when the fignificant figures of the dividend are ex^*
haufted, and cyphers annexed to the remainder.
Ex. ^ 216=27x8,
216)1.ooo(.004,62p, or 8)1.000
864 27) .i25(.004,62p,
*1360
I2p6
640
432
2080
1944
*1360
All mixed circulates are derived from vulgar frat*
4 N 2 tions
I08
*170
162
80
54
260
243
17
652 A R I T H
Intermi- tions o£ this kind, whofe denominators are multiples
Decimals. °f 2’. 5’ °r their Powers 5 and therefore all other de-
* — - t : nominators, except 3 find p, prouuce pure circulates.
The reader will eafily perceive, that when a decimal is
formed fiom a vulgar fraftion, whole numerator is 1,
when the remainder 1 occurs in the divifion, the deci-,
mal is a pure cnculate j but if any other remainder oc¬
curs twice, the decimal is a mixed circulate. We are
to fhow that this laft will never happen, unlefs the di-
vifor be a multiple of 2, 5, or their powers. If two
numbers be prime to each other, their produft will be
pnme to both j and ir two numbers be propofed,
■u hereof the firlf does not meafure the fecond, it will
not meafure any product of the fecond, if the multiplier
be prime to the firft. Thus, becaufe 7 does not mea-
lure 12, it will not meafure any produdt of 12 by a
multiplier prime to 7. For inftance, it will not mea¬
fure 12x3, or 36. Otherwife, the quotient of 12 di¬
vided by 7, or 14 multiplied by 3, would be a whole
number, and 5X3 would be meafured by 7, which it
cannot be, fince 5 and 3 are both prime to 7.
Now, if we infpeft the foregoing operation, we fhall
perceive that the product of 136, the remainder where
the decimal begins to circulate, multiplied by 999, is
meafured by the denominator 216. But 999 is not
meafured by the denominator, otherwufe the decimal
would have been a pure circulate j therefore 126 and
136 are not prime to each other, but have a common
meafure, and that meafure muft apply to 864, a mul¬
tiple of 126, and to 1000, the fum of 136 and 864 ;
lee p. 642, col. 2. par. ult. &c. But it was proven,
p. 649, col. 1. par. 1. that no numbers, except the
powers of 5 and 2, meafure a number confifting of 1
with cyphers annexed 5 confequently the denominator
mull be meafured by a power of 2 or 5. The reader will
perceive, that the exponent of the power muft be the
lame as the number of cyphers annexed to 1, or as
the number of figures in the finite part of the deci-
„ mal.
We ftiall now recapitulate the fubftance of what has
been laid with refpeift to the formation of decimals. 2,
5, and their powers, produce finite decimals, by p. 649.
col. 1. par. 3. &c. and the number of places is mea¬
fured by the exponent of the power, 3 and 9 produce
pure repeaters (p. 649. col. 2. par. 2.) The produfts
°* 2> St and their powers, by 3 or 9, produce mixed re¬
peaters by p. 649. col. 2. par. a//.; their produ£ls by
other multipliers, produce mixed circulates by p. 649.
col. 2. par. a//.; and all numbers of which 2 and 5 are
r.ot aliquot parts, except 3 and 9, produce pure circu¬
lates. T o find the form of a decimal correfponding to
any denominator, divide by 2, 5, and 10, as often as can
be done without a remainder ; the number of divifions
fhows how many finite places there are in the decimal,
by p. 651. col. 2. par. 3. If the dividend be not exhauft-
ed by thefe divifions, divide a competent number of 9’s
by the laft quotient, till the divifion be completed with¬
out a remainder : the number of 9’s required ftiow how
many places there are in the circle 5 and the reafon
may be inferred from p. 650. col. 2. par. 5.
We fhall conclude this fubjedl by marking down the
decimals peoduced by vulgar fradlions, whofe nume¬
rator is 1, and denominators 30 ; and under that the
reader may obferve their connexion with the denomi¬
nators.
MET
t—•338'
{ = .2J
X = >2
i=.i666
4=.142857,
¥—•125
i=.iix
tt=.o9,o9,
-^-.08333
TT—-079623,
Tit—0,714285
-ils-=.o,66&
Rules for reducing inter minute decimals to vulgar
fractions.
I. “ If the decimal be a pure repeater, place the
“ repeating figure for the numerator, and 9 for the
“ denominator.”
II. “ If the decimal be a pure circulate, place the
“ circulating figures for the numerator, and as many
“ 9’s as there are places in the circle for the denomi-
“ nator.”
III. “ If there be cyphers prefixed to the repeating
“ or circulating figures, annex a like number to the
“ 9’s in the denominator.”
IV. “ If the decimal be mixed, fubtradl the finite
“ part from the whole decimal. The remainder is the
“ numerator ; and the denominator confifts of as many
“ 9’s as there are places in the circle, together with
“ as many cyphers as there are finite places before the
“ circle.”
Thus 22 c — 2 3 3 7z
-l iius, ^339^5—ygo^oo*
From the whole decimal 23 ^62
We fubtradl the finite part 235
I c.
•SIT—-062 5
-/-= .0588235294117647
>f=-o55Z
xV=r.o 5 2 631578947368421,
'BO' *05
fj=z.04.7619,
w—-0,45,45,
■5IT=-04347826o8695652i739i3,
■—5:= .041660
•5%-.04
-^=•0,384615,
-.rT“'037,
-5Hr=-°3>J7t428
Tg = *03448z75S6aotfSpdj51724137931,
To —•
Chap. X. *•
and the remainder 23327 is the numerator.
The reafon may be illuftrated by dividing the deci¬
mal into two parts, whereof one is finite, and the other
a pure repeater or circulate, with cyphers prefixed.
I ire fum of the vulgar fradlions correfponding to thefe
will be the value of the decimal fought.
.235,62, may be divided into .235 =To3o^ by Rule I.
and .000,62—-g-jpjA—. by Rules II. III.
In order to add thefe vulgar fraftions, we reduce
them to a common denominator •, and, for that pur-
pofe, we multiply both terms of the former by 99
which gives ; then we add the numerators.
235 or by method explained p. 628. col. 1. par. 3.
99
   Sum of numerators.
2115 2350° 23265 or 23562-
2x15 235 62 235
23265 23265 23327 23327.
'Flie value of circulating decimals is not altered,
though one or more places be feparated from the cir¬
cle, and confidered as a finite part, providing the cir¬
cle be completed. For example, .27 may be writ¬
ten .2,72, which is reduced by the laft of the foregoing
rules to -pfg-, or -J-2, which is alfo the value of .2J1.
And if two or more circles be joined, the value of the
decimal is ftill the fame. Thus, 2727,-4444.' which
is deduced by dividing the terms by 101 to 44*
All
Chap. X.
A R I T H
30
All cifculating decimals may be reduced to a fimilar
form, having a like number both of finite and circu¬
lating places. For this purpofe, we extend the finite
part of each as far as the longeft, and then extend all
the circles to fo many places as may be a multiple of
the number of places in each.
Ex. .34,725, extended, .34,725725725725,
1,4562, 14,562456245624.
Here the finite part of both is extended to two pla¬
ces, and the circle to 12 places, wdiich is the leaf! mul¬
tiple for circles of 3 and 4 places.
Sect. II. Addition and Subtraction of Inter-
minate Decimals.
To add repeating Decimals. “ Extend the repeating
“ figures one place beyond the longeft finite ones, and
“ when you add the right-hand column, carry to the
next by 9.”
Ex. .37s24
.8
•643
•73
or 37524
643
73333'
.29$
.42
•7548
•3*
11
zr
11
w
%
TS
264046
To fubtraB repeating decimals. “ Extend them as
“ dire&ed for addition, and borrow at the right-hand
“ place, if neceflary, by 9.”
.93566 .646 .735$ .738?! .469.
•8473$ -534^ -62563 .6$ .3#
.0872^ .11172!
The reafon of thefe rules will be obvious, if we re¬
coiled!: that repeating figures fignify ninth parts. If
the right-hand figure of the fum or remainder be o, the
decimal obtained is finite \ otherwife it is a repeater.
To add circulating Decimals. “ Extend them till they
“ become fimilar (p. 652. col. 1. par. ult. &c.)j and
44 when you add the right-hand column, include the fi-
44 gure which wTould have been carried if the circle had
44 been extended further.”
Ex. 1 ft.]
•574.
.2,698,
.428
•37>983>
Extended.
•574.574.
.266,869,
.428
•379.839.
Ex. 2d.]
•874.
.146.3
•1.58,
12,
•0^>
Extended.
.874,874,874,
•H6,333333,
.158,585858,
.323,232323,
1.652,284, _ ■ 1.503,026390,
Note I. Repeaters mixed with circulates are ex¬
tended and added as circulates.
Note 2. Sometimes it is neceflary to infpedl txvo or
more columns for afcertaining the carriage ; becaufe
the carriage from a low7er column will fometimes raife
the fum of the higher, fo as to alter the carriage from
it to a new circle. This occurs in Ex. 2.
Note 3. The fum of the circles muft be confidered as
a fimilar circle. If it confift entirely of cyphers, the
amount is terminate. If all the figures be the fame,
the amount is a repeater. If they can be divided into
parts exactly alike, the amount is a circle of few^er pla¬
ces ; but, for the moft part, the circle of the fum is fi¬
milar to the extended circles.
.3,868, .0842, \ .368
•4,375, •o8,42 t -57,
•853492, •0,842 A -895
.62, .0842 -yf -742
.OO3C94.
•765,
.76,
•765
5
Tr,
• •)
zr
TT
3
M E T I C. 653
To fubtraEl circulating Decimals. 44 Extend them till Intermi-
44 they become fimilar ; and when you fubtraft the natr^j>eC1-
44 right-hand figure, confider vdiether 1 would have .
44 been borrowed if the circles had been extended fur-
44 ther, and make allowance accordingly.
•5,72, -974, °r -974974, -8,135, or •8,i35I35,
.4,86, .86, .868686, .452907 or .4,529074,
.0,85, .106288, .3,606060,
or 3,60
Sect. III. Multiplication of Interminate De- 3s
CIMALS.
Case I. 44 When the multiplier is finite, and the
44 multiplicand repeats, carry by 9 wdien you multiply
44 the repeating figure : The right-hand figure of each
44 line of the produft is a repeater j and they muft be
44 extended and added accordingly.”
Ex. .13494
•367
9446T
809666
4-4833.?
.04952464
If the fum of the right-hand column be an even
number of 9’s, the product is finite ; ©therwife, it is a-
repeater.
Case II. 44 When the multiplier is finite, and the
44 multiplicand circulates, add to each produft of the
44 right-hand figure the carriage which would have
44 been brought to it if the circle had been extended^
44 Each line of the produft is a circle fimilar to the
44 multiplicand, and therefore they muft be extended
44 and added accordingly.”
The product is commonly a circulate fimilar to the
multiplicand ; fometimes it circulates fewer places,
repeats, or becomes finite $ it never circulates more
places.
Bx. .37,46,X-235
235,
187,32,
1123,93,
7492,92,
1. .674, x.78
2. .37, X .86
3. .625, x.42
4- -4793, X4-8
5- -3,75, Xi.24
6. .2,963, x.36
.08804,19,
Case III. 44 When the multiplier repeats or cir-
44 culates, find the produtft as in finite multipliers, and
44 place under it the products which would have arifen
44 from the repeating or circulating figures, if extend-
ed.’
Ex. xft.]
.958 x.8
8
2d.] .784X.36,
36
7664
766*4
76|64
7;664
I7664
•8512
4704
2352
28224!
282 24.
2|8224
.284,09,
3d-3
A R I T H
3d.]
•71428;,XS4,
54
2859142
35714285
38,571428
3857H
3S57
38
571428
285714
142857
571428
3857i4
3857
38
571428,
2857i4>
142 85 7,
571428,
28 ^714,
142875,
571428,
3857
3857,
38,
38.961038,961038,961038,
It is evident, that if a repeating multiplier be ex¬
tended to any length, the produdl arifing from each fi¬
gure will be the fame as the firft, and each will Hand
one place to the right hand of the former. In like
manner, if a circulating multiplier be extended, the
product arifing from each circle will be alike, and will
ftand as many places to the right hand of the former
as there are figures in the circle. In the foregoing
examples, there are as many of thefe products re¬
peated as is neceffary for finding the total produdl.
If we place down more, or extend them further, it
will only give a continuation of the repeaters or cir¬
culates.
This is obvious in Ex. ill and 2d. As the learner
may not apprehend it fo readily in Ex. 3d, when the
multiplicand is a circulate, and confequently each line
of the produdl is alfo a circulate, we have divided it in¬
to columns, whole fums exhibit the fucceflive circles.
The fum of the firft column is 38,961037, and there
is a carriage of 1 from the right-hand column, which
completes 38,961038. This one is fupplied from the
three firft lines of the fecond column, the fum of which
is 999999, and being increafed by 1, in confequence
of the carriage from the third column, amounts to
1,000000, and therefore carries 1 to the firft column,
arid does not affedt the fum of the remaining lines,
which are the fame as thofe of the firft column. The
third column contains two fets of thefe lines, which
amount to 999999, befides the line which compofe the
circle. Each of thefe fets would be completed into
1,000000 by the carriage from the 4th column, if ex¬
tended, and each would carry 1 to the fecond column.
One of thefe would complete the fum of the three firft
lines, and the other would complete the fum of the
circle. In like manner, if the circles be extended ever
fo far, the increafing carriages will exactly anfwer for
the increafing deficiencies, and the fum wdll be always
a continuation of the circle : but the produdt could
not circulate, unlefs the fum of the lines marked off in
the fecond column had confifted entirely of 9’s ; or had
been fome multiple of a number of 9’s 5 and the circles
muft be extended till this take place, in order to find
the complete prcdufb
M E T I C. Chap. X.
The multiplication of intermediate decimals may be
often facilitated, by reducing the multiplier to a vul¬
gar fraction, and proceeding as dire&ed p. 643. col. 1.
par. 6.
Thus,
4th.] .3824X$k=r
7
5 th.] •384 X • 23’—•'Is'
23 2
Intermi-
nate
Decimals.
9)2.6768
•9742
1152 23
768
9°)8.832
.0981,3
Therefore, in order to multiply by we take one-
third part of the multiplier 5 and, to multiply by
we take two-thirds of the fame. Thus,
6th.] .784=.5Xt 7th0 •8761x^=1-
. 2
3).784 — 
.26^ 3)1.7522
.58406
As the denominator of the vulgar fractions always
confifts of 9,s, or of 9’s with cyphers annexed, we may
ufe the contraction explained p. 631. col. 1. par. u/t.
&c. ; and this will lead us exactly to the fame opera¬
tion which was explained p. 653. col. 2. par. ult. &c.
on the principles of decimal arithmetic.
8th.] .735 X -3,26,—^1-
323 3
2205 323
1470
2205
99l0)2374°5
2374,05
23,74
,23
9tk.] .278 X 365,—Trl
365
1390
1668
834
999)IOI47°,
iox,
.101,571,
.239803,
When the multiplier is a mixed repeater or circu¬
late, w'e may proceed as in Ex. 5th and 8th ; or we
may divide the multiplier into two parts, of which the
firft is finite, and the fecond a pure repeater or circu¬
late, with cyphers prefixed, and multiply feparately by
thefe, and add the produCls.
Thus, .384 X-2# or by .2 =1.0768 or thus, .384
and by .05 =:.0213,3 .25
.098x3 9)1920
2132
768
09813
In the follovving examples, the multiplicand is a re¬
peater j and therefore the multiplication by the nume¬
rator of the vulgar fraftion is performed as direfted
p. 653. col. 2. par. 2.
10th.]
Chap. X.
Interim- JOth.] .68^ X .£|
5
9)3-410(-37»9^2>
27
A R I T H
nth.] .6zx.2,w,—^
•237 2
443' 237
189^
1266a
99)i5oio(.i5,i6,
99
511
495
* 160
99
* 86
610
594
In the following examples the multiplicand is a cir¬
culate, and therefore the multiplication by the nume¬
rator is performed as direded p. 653. col. 2. par. 4.
12th.] .3,81,X53-48
48
3054 4S
15272
9 0
9!°) * 83,27,(.203,63,
18
032
27
57
54
*
i 2
*3^.] .i2,X03,=5V
3
99)36,36(-036730945S2i854912764,
606
723
306
93^
453
576
813
216
183
846
543
486
903
126 /
273
756
633
396
* 036
M e t 1 a
In Ex. 13th, tve have omitted the products of the tntermi-
divifor, and only marked down the remainders. Thefe nate
are found, by adding the left-hand figure of the divi- ,Dedmals\
dual to the remaining figures of the fame. Thus, 363 v ^
is the firft dividual, and 3 the left-hand figure, added
to 63, the remaining figures, gives 66 for the firft re¬
mainder ; and the fecohd dividual, 666, is completed
by annexing the circulating figure 6. The reafon of
which may be explained as follows. The higheft place
of each dividual fhows, in this example, how many
hundreds it contains j and as it mult contain an equal
number of ninety-nines, and alfo an equal number of
units, it follows, that thefe units, added to the lower
places, muft fhow how far the dividual exceeds that
number of ninety-nines. The figure of the quotient is
generally the fame as the firft place of the dividual,
fometimes one more. This happens in the laft ftep of
the foregoing example, and is difcovered when the re¬
mainder found, as here directed, would amount to 99,
or upwards j and the excefs above 99 only, muft in that
cafe be taken to complete the next dividual.
14th.].oi, x .01,—g-- »
99)'Oi,(000102030405060708091011121314151617181920
(6162636465666768697071727374757677787980
(Si 828384858687888990919293949596979899
The number of places in the circle of the product
is fometimes very great, though there be few places in
the faftors : but it never exceeds the product of the
denominator of the multiplier, multiplied by the num¬
ber of places in the circle of the multiplicand. There¬
fore, if the multiplier be 3- or 6, the produdf may cir¬
culate three times as many places as the multiplicand 5
if the multiplier be any other repeater, nine times as
many ; if the multiplier be a circulate of two places,
ninety-nine times as many ; thus, in the laft example’
.01, a circulate of twro places, multiplied by .10, a cir¬
culate of two places, produces a circulate of twice 99
or 198 places. And the reafon of this limit may be ini
ferred from the nature of the operation ; for the greateft
poflible mimber of remainders, including o, is equal to
the. divifor 99 • and each remainder may afford two
dmduals, if both the circulating figures, 3 and 6, oc¬
cur to be annexed to it. If the multiplier circulate
three places, the circle of the produft, for a like rea-
on, may extend nine hundred and ninety-nine times
as far as that of the multiplicand. Eut the number of
places is often much lefs.
The multiplication of interminate decimals may be
proven, by altering the order of the faftors, (p. 628^
col. 2. par. 2.) or by reducing them both to vulgar
fractions m tneir loweft terms, multiplying thefe as di¬
rected p. 643. col. 2. par 3. and reducing the produft
to a decimal.
Sect. IV. Division of Interminate Decimals.
« CASE ?* “ When the dividend only is interminate,
tl Proceed as in common arithmetic ; but, when the fi-
(i gure.s the dividend are exhaufted, annex the re-
(( Peatl.ng %ure, or the circulating figures in their or-
ocr, inftead of cyphers, to the remainder.”
Ex,
.83
6j6
Interim- Ex. ift.] Divide -537^ 7
nateDeei- .^.^^6,0952^,
49
R I T H
2d.] Divide .84^ by 5.
•5)843'(-168^
5
42
42
34
3°
M E T I C. Chap. X.
The foregoing method is the only one which pro- Extraflion
perly depends on the principles of decimal arithmetic ; ^ oots\
but it is generally fhorter to proceed by the following “
rU“ R_educe the divifor to a vulgar fra&ion, multiply
il the dividend by the denominator, and divide the
“ produdf by the numerator.”
43
40
*33
3°
33
3d.] Divide .6532$ by 8.
8).6352$(.c8i66;.
56
56
*066
In thefe accounts the quotient is never finite. It
may repeat if the dividend repeats; or, if the dividend
circulate, it may circulate an equal number of places,
often more, and never fewer. The greateft poflible
extent of the circle is found by multiplying the divifor
into the number of places in the circle of the dividend.
Thus, a circulate of 3 places, divided by 3, quotes a
circulate of 3 times 3 or 9 places.
Case II. “ When the divifor is interminate, the mul-
a tiplications and fubtradlions muft be performed ac-
“ cording to the direftions given for repeating and
“ circulating decimals.”
Ex. ift.] Divide .37845 by #.
0)-37845(-68121
. ssmz
4511#
44444
672
552
11$
in
*066
63
36
35
16
14
Ex. 1 ft.] Divide .37845 by 4
9
5)3.4o6o5(.68i2i
2d.] Divide .3784# by Qzz\
3
2)I-I353^(-56768a
Note 1. Divifion by 3 triples the dividend, and di-
vifion by $ increafes the dividend one-half.
Note 2. When the divifor circulates, the denomina¬
tor of the vulgar fraftion confifts of q’s, and the mul¬
tiplication is fooner performed by the contraction ex¬
plained p. 628. col. 1. par. 1. It may be wrought in
the fame way, when the divifor repeats, and the deno¬
minator, of confequence, is 9.
Note 3. If a repeating dividend be divided by a re¬
peating or circulating divifor j or, if a circulating di¬
vidend be divided by a fimilar circulating dividend j
or, if the number of places in the circle of the divifor
be a multiple of the number in the dividend •, then the
produdt of the dividend multiplied by the denominator
of the divifor will be terminate, fince like figures are
fubtrafted from like in the contrafted multiplication,
and confequently no remainder left. The form of the
quotient depends on the divifors as explained at large,
p. 649. col. 1. par. I.—p. 651. col. 2. par. 3.
Note 4. In other cafes, the original and multiplied
dividend are' fimilar, and the form of the quotient is
the fame as in the cafe of a finite divifor. See p. 655.
col. 2. par. ult. &.c.
Note 5. If the terms be fimilar, or extended till
they become fo, the quotient is the fame as it they
were finite, and the operation may be conduced ac¬
cordingly 5 for the quotient of vulgar fraftions that
have the fame denominator is equal to the quotient 01
their numerators.
B
o
2d.] Divide .245892 by 2.18,
.2,18,).24589 2(1.127005
218181,81,
27710.18,
21818.18,
5892,00,
43^3^3>
1528,36,
t527>27>
1090,90
1090,90
Chap. XI. OF THE EXTRACTION OF
ROOTS.
The origin of powers by involution has already been
explained under the article Algebra. There now
remains therefore only to give the moft expeditious
methods of extracting the fquare and cube roots ; the
reafons of which will readily appear from what is laid
under that article. As for all powers above the cube,
unlefs fuch as are multiples of either the fquare and
cube, the extraction of their roots admits of no devi¬
ation from the algebraic canon which muft be ahvavs
conftruCted on purpofe for them.
If the root of any power not exceeding the feventh
power be a fingle digit, it may be obtained by infpec-
ticn, from the following table of powers.
ift, To
o
Chap. XL
£ ~
2 °
cw o
A R I T H
QJ <U
k ^
5 3
T)
cs
x6
25
36
49
64
81
CO
64
125
216
343
512
729
> 'X3
o g
t3 ^3
'4-
1
16
81
256
625
1296
{X,
-c '■
Z 3
i)
-O
-S U ^
VO
I
S2
243
IO24
3I25
7776
2401 16807
4096*32768
6561:59049
1
64
729
1
128
2187
4096
15625
46656
16384
78125
279936
1x7649! 823543
2621442097152
53144l|47829iS9
M E T I C.
2 div. 725) 3625 refolvend.
3625 product.
657
Extradtion
133225 proof. ,ot Roots-
2d.] Required the fquare root of 7 2, to eight de-
cimal places.
72.00000000
64
164(800
656
1688)14400
I35°4
16965)89600
84825
169702)477500
After getting half of the
decimal places, work bycon-
trafted divifion for the other
half; and obtain them with
the fame accuracy as if the
work had been at large.
-34
Sect. I. Extraction of the Square Root.
Rule I. “ Divide the given number into periods
“ of two figures, beginning at the right hand in inte-
“ gers, and pointing toward the left. But in deci-
“ mals, begin at the place of hundreds, and point to-
“ ward the right. Every period will give one figure
“ in the root.”
II. “ Find by the table of powers, or by trial, the
** neareft leffer root of the left-hand period j place the
“ figure fo found in the quot 5 fubtraft its fquare from
“ the faid period, and to the remainder bring down
“ the next period for a dividual or refolvend.”
III. “ Double the quot for the firft part of the
,£ divifor 5 inquire how often this firft part is contained
44 in the whole refolvend, excluding the units place j
“ and place the figure denoting the anfwer both in
“ the quot and on the right of the firft part j and you
** have the divifor complete.”
IV. “ Multiply the divifor thus completed by the
u figure put in the quot, fubtraft the produft from
“ the refolvend, and to the remainder bring down the
“ following period for a new refolvend, and then pro-
“ ceed as before.”
Note 1 ft. If the firft part of the divifor, with unity
fuppofed to be annexed to it, happen to be greater than
•the refolvend, in this cafe place o in the quot, and alfo
on the right of the partial divifor j to the refolvend
bring down another period; and proceed to divide as
before.
Note 2. If the produft of the quotient figure into
the divifor happen to be greater than the refolvend,
you muft go back, and give a leffer figure to the quot.
Note 3. If, after every period of the given number
is brought down, there happen at laft to be a remain¬
der, you may continue the operation, by annexing pe¬
riods or pairs of cyphers, till there be no remainder,
or till the decimal part of the quot repeat or circulate,
or till you think proper to limit it.
Ex. Ift. Required the fquare root of 133225.
Square number 133225(365 root
9
365
365
1 div. 66) 432 refolvend.
396 product.
Vol. II. Part II.
1825
2190
1095
339404
169704)138096
  135763
2333
1697
636
509
127
118
3d.] Required the fquare root of .2916.
.29i6(.54 root.
25
104 416
416
If the fquare root of a vulgar fra£lion be required,
find the root of the given numerator for a new nume¬
rator, and find the root of the given denominator for a
new denominator. Thus the fquare root of £ is y,
and the root of if is ^ j and thus the root of y (=:6f)
IS 4"-—2-j-.
But if the root of either the numerator or denomi¬
nator cannot be extrafted without a remainder, reduce
the vulgar fra&ion to a decimal, and then extracl the
root, as in Ex. 3d. above.
Sect. II. Extraction of the Cube Root.
Rule I. “ Divide the given number into periods
“ of three figures, beginning at the right hand in in-
“ tegers, and pointing toward the left. But in deci-
“ mals, begin at the place of thoufands, and point to-
“ ward the right. The number of periods ftxows the
“ number of figures in the root.”
II. “ Find by the table of powers, or by trial, the
“ neareft leffer root of the left-hand period j place the
“ figure fo found in the quot j fubtraft its cube from
“ the faid period ; and to the remainder bring down
“ the next period for a dividual or refolvend.”
The divifor confifts of three parts, which may be
found as follows.
4 O III.
35
6SS A R I T H
Extra<ftion HI. u The flrfl part of the divifor is found thus :
of Roots. ^ u Multiply the fquare of the quot by 3, and to the pro-
’ “ duff annex two cyphers; then inquire how often this
“ firft part of the divifor is contained in the refolvend,
“ and place the figure denoting the anfwer in the quot.”
IV. “ Multiply the former quot by 3, and the pro-
“ du6t by the figure now put in the quot; to this laft
“ produff annex a cypher and you have the fecond
“ part of the divifor. Again, Square the figure now
“ put in the quot for the third part of the divifor;
“ place thefe three parts under one another, as in addi-
“ tion; and their fum will be the divifor complete.”
V. “ Multiply the divifor, thus completed, by the
“ figure laft put in the quot, fubtraft the produdl from
“ the refolvend, and to the remainder bring down the
u following period for a new refolvend, and then pro-
“ ceed as before.”
Note 1. If the firft part of the divifor happen to be
equal to or greater than the refolvend, in this cafe,
place o in the quot, annex two cyphers to the faid firft;
part of the divifor, to the refolvend bring down another
period, and proceed to divide as before.
Note 2. If the produdl of the quotient figure into
the divifor'happen to be greater than the refolvend, you
muft go back, and give a lelfer figure to the quot.
Note 3. If, after every period of the given number is
brought down, there happen at laft to be a remainder,
you may continue the operation by annexing periods
of three cyphers till there be no remainder, or till you
have as many decimal places in the root as you judge
neceflary.
Ex. 1 ft. Required the cube root of X2812904.
Cube number 12812904(234 root.
8 
rft part 1200*1 )48i2 refolvend.
2d part 180 >
3d Par^ 9 J
T divifor 1389 X 3=4r67 product.
1 ft part 158700'! 3645904 refolvend.
2d part 2760 >
3d part 16 j
2 divifor 161476X4=645904 produft*
M E T I
234
234
^936
702
468
c.
Proof.
Square 54756
234
219024
164268
109512
Square 54756 Cube 12812904
2d.] Required the cube root of 28^.
270000”!
5400 J-
363
28.750000(3.06 root,
27
31750000 refolv.
Chap. XT.
Extraction
of Roots.
JDiv. 275436 X 6 rr 1652616 prod.
97384 rem.
Proof.
Sq. 9.3636
3.06
561816
280908
28.652616
97384 rem.
28.750000 cube.
If the cube root of a vulgar fra&ion be required,,
find the cube root of the given numerator for a new
numerator, and the cube root of the given denomina¬
tor for a new denominator. Thus, the cube root of
is y, and the cube root of is ^ ; and thus the
cube root of 'y5 ( — 154) is 4= 2y.
But if the root of either the numerator or denomi¬
nator cannot be extradled without a remainder, reduce
the vulgar fraftion to a decimal, and then extraft the
root.
3.06
3.06
1836
918
Sq. 9.3636
A R I
ARIUS, a divine of the fourth century, the head
and founder of the Arians, a fefl which denied the
eternal divinity and fubftantiality of the Word. He
was born in Libya, near Egypt. Eufebius, bilhop of
Nicomedia, a great favourite of Conftantia, lifter of the
emperor Conftantine, and wife of Licinius, became a
zealous promoter of Arianifm. He took Arius under
his protection, and introduced him to Conftantia; fo
that the feCl increafed, and feveral bilhops embraced it
openly. There arofe, however, fuch difputes in the
cities, that the emperor, in order to remedy thefe dif-
orders, w7as obliged to aflemble the council of Nice,
where, in the year 325, the doftrine of Arius wras
condemned. Arius was baniftied by the emperor, all
his books were ordered to be burnt, and capital pu-
niihment was denounced againft whoever dared to keep
them. After five years banifliment, he was recalled to
ART
Conftantinople, where he prefented the emperor with
a confeffion of his faith, drawn up fo artfully, that it
fully fatisfied him. Notwithftanding which, Athana-
fius, now7 advanced to the fee of Alexandria, refufed to
admit him and his followers to communion. This fo
enraged them, that, by their intereft at court, they
procured that prelate to be depofed and banilhed. But
the church of Alexandria ftill tefufing to admit Arius
into their communion, the emperor fent for him to
Conftantinople 5 where, upon delivering in a frelh con-
feftion of his faith in terms lefs offenfive, the emperor
commanded Alexander, the bilhop of that church, to
receive him the next day into his communion : but that
very evening Arius died. The manner of his death
was very extraordinary : as his friends wrere condufting
him in triumph to the great church of Conftantinople,
Adus, preffed by a natural necefiity, ftepped afide to eafe
himfelf 5
/
ARK [ <>59 j ARK
Ark. himfelf j but expired on the fpot, his bowels guflung
' r—' out.
But the herefy did not die with the herefiarch : his
party continued ftill in great credit at court. Athanafius,
indeed, was foon recalled from banilhment, and as foon
removed again j the Arlans being countenanced by the
government, and making and depofing biftiops as it
belt lerved their purpofes. In fnort, this fe£t conti¬
nued with great luftre above 300 years : it was the
reigning religion of Spain for above two centuries; it
was on the throne both in the eafl: and weft $ it prevail¬
ed in Italy, France, Pannonia, and Africa ; and was
not extirpated till about the end of the 8th century.
This herefy was again fet on foot in the weft by
Servetus, who, in 1531, wrote a little treatife againft
the myftery of the Trinity. After his death Arianifm
got footing in Geneva 5 from whence it removed into
Poland 5 but at length degenerated, in a great mea-
fure, into Socinianil'm. Erafmus feems to have aimed
at reviving Arianifm, in his Commentaries on the New
Teftament j and the learned Grotius feems to lean a
little that way.
With regard to the ftate of Arianifm in England, it
may be fufficient to obferve, that from the numerous
publications of that call which are daily making their
appearance, it feems to be rather a growing, than ex¬
ploded, dodlrine there.
Plate ARK, or Noah's Ark, a floating veffel built by
LVII. Noah, for the prefervation of his family, and the feve-
'%• I* ral fpecies of animals, during the deluge.
The ark has afforded feveral points of curious inqui¬
ry among the critics and naturalifts, relating to its
form, capacity, materials, &c.
The wood whereof th^ ark ivas built is called in
the Hebrew Gopher wood, and in the Septuagint fquare
timbers. Some tranflate the original cedar, others pine,
others box, &c. Pelletier prefers cedar on account of
its incorruptibility, and the great plenty of it in Afia j
whence Herodotus and Theophraftus relate, that the
kings of Egypt and Syria built whole fleets thereof,
inftead of deal.
The learned Mr Fuller, in his Mifeellanies, has ob-
ferved, that the wood whereof the ark was built was
nothing but that which the Greeks call or
the cyprefs tree ; for, taking away the termination, ku-
par and gopher differ very little in found. This ob-
fervation the great Bochart has confirmed, and fhown
very plainly that no country abounds fo much with
this wood as that part of Affyria which lies about Ba¬
bylon.
In what place Noah built and finilhed his ark is no
lefs made a matter of difputation. But the moft pro¬
bable opinion is, that it was built in Chaldea, in the
territories of Babylon, w'here there wTas fo great a quan¬
tity of cyprefs in the groves and gardens in Alexander’s
time, that that prince built a whole fleet out of it for
W’ant of timber. And this conjefture is confirmed by
the Chaldean tradition, which makes Xifuthrus (ano¬
ther name for Noah) fet fail from that country.
The dimenfions of the ark, as given by Mofes, are
300 cubits in length, 50 in breadth, and 30 in height j
which fome have thought too fcanty, confidering the
number of things it was to contain *, and hence an ar¬
gument has been drawn againft the authority of the
relation. To folve this difficulty many of the ancient
fathers and the modern critics, have been put to very
miferable fhifts : But Buteo and Kircher have proved
geometrically, that taking the common cubit of a foot
and a half, the ark was abundantly fufficient for all the
animals fuppofed to be lodged in it. Snellius com¬
putes the ark to have been above half an acre in area.
Father Lamy fliows, that it was no feet longer than
the church of St Mary at Paris, and 64 feet narrower:
and if fo, it muft have been longer than St Paul’s
church in London, from weft to eaft, and broader
than that church is high in the infide, and 54 feet of
our meafure in height j and Dr Arbuthnot computes
it to have been 81062 tons.
The things contained in it were, befides eight per-
fons of Noah’s family, one pair of every fpecies of un¬
clean animals, and feven pair of every fpecies of clean
animals, wdth provifions for them all during the w’hole
year. The former appears, at firft view, almoft infi¬
nite ; but if wre come to a calculation, the number of
fpecies of animals will be found much lefs than is ge¬
nerally imagined ; out of which, in this cafe, are ex¬
cepted fuch animals as can live in the water 5 and Bi-
fliop Wilkins fliows that only 72 of the quadruped kind
needed a place in the ark. ,
By the defcription Mofes gives of the ark, it ap¬
pears to have been divided into three ftories, each ten
cubits or 15 feet high ; and it is agreed on, as moft
probable, that the loweft ftory was for the beafts, the
middle for the food, and the upper for the birds, with
Noah and his family •, each ftory being fubdivided in¬
to different apartments, flails, &.c. though Jofephus,
Philo, and other commentators, add a kind of fourth
ftory under all the reft being, as it wTere, the hold of
the veffel, to contain the ballaft and receive the filth
and feces of fo many animals: but F. Calmet thinks,
that w'hat is here reckoned a ftory, was no more than
what is called the keel of fhips, and ferved only for a
confervatory of freftr water. Drexelius makes 300
apartments 5 F. Fournier, 333 ; the anonymous author
of the queftions on Genelis, 400 •, Buteo, Tempora-
rius, Arias Montanus, Hoftus, Wilkins, Lamy, and
others, fuppofe as many partitions as there w'ere differ¬
ent forts of animals. Pelletier makes only 72, viz.
36 for the birds, and as many for the beafts. His rea-
fon is, that if we fuppofe a greater number, as 333 or
400, each of the eight perfons in the ark muft have
had 37, 41, or 50 flails to attend and cleanfe daily,
which he thinks impoflible to have been done. But
it is obferved, that there is not much in this : to di-
minilh the number of flails without the diminution of
animals is in vain ; it being perhaps more difficult to
take care of 300 animals in 72 flails than in 300. As
to the number of animals contained in the ark, Buteo
computes that it could not be equal to 500 horfes ; he
even reduces the wffiole to the dimenfions of 56 pair of
oxen. F. Lamy enlarges it to 64 pair of oxen, or
128 oxen $ fo that, fuppofing one ox equal to twro hor¬
fes, if the ark had room for 256 horfes, there muft
have been room for all the animals. But the fame au¬
thor demonftrates, that one floor of it wmuld fuffice for
500 horfes, allowing nine fquare feet to a horfe.
As to the food in the fecond ftory, it is obferved by
Buteo from Columella, that 30 or 40 pounds of hay
ordinarily fuffices for an ox a-day •, and that a folid
cubit of hay, as ufually preffed down in our hay ricks,
4 O 2 WG:ghs
Ark.
ARK [ 660 ] ARK
weighs about 40 pounds ; fo that a fquare cubit of hay
is more than enough for one ox in one day. Now, it
appears, that the fecond ftory contained 150,000 folid
cubits •, which divided between 206 oxen, will afford
each more hay, by two-thirds, than he can eat in a
year. Bifhop Wilkins computes all the carnivorous
animals equivalent, as to the bulk of their bodies, and
their foods, to 17 wolves, and all the reft to 280 beeves.
For the former he allows 1825 (beep; and for the
latter, 109,500 cubits of hay : all which will be eafily
contained in the two firfl dories, and a deal of room
to fpare. As to the third ftory, nobody doubts of its
being fufficient for the fowls ; with Noah, his fons,
and daughters. Upon the whole, the learned bifliop
remarks, that of the two, it appears much more diffi¬
cult to affign a number and bulk of necefiary things to
anfwer the capacity of the ark, than to find fufficient
room for the feveral fpecies of animals already known
to have been there. This he attributes to the imper-
fe£tion of our lift of animals, efpecially thofe of the un-
known parts of the earth j adding, that the moft ex¬
pert mathematician at this day could not affign the pro¬
portion of a veffel better accommodated to the purpofe
than is here done : and hence he finally concludes, that
the capacity of the ark, which had been made an objec¬
tion againft'Scripture, ought to be efteemed a confir¬
mation of its divine authority 5 fince, in thofe ruder
ages, men, being lefs verfed in arts and philofophy,
were more obnoxious to vulgar prejudices than now; fo
that, had it been a human invention, it would have
been contrived, according to thofe wild apprehenfions
which arife from a confufed and general view of things,
as much too big as it had been reprefented too little.
But it muft be -obferved, that, befides the places re-
quifite for the beafts and birds, and their provifions,
there rvas room required for Noah to lock up houfe-
hold utenfils, the inftruments of hufbandry, grains, and
feeds to low the earth with after the deluge ; for which
purpofe it is thought that he might fpare room in the
third ftory for 36 cabbins, befides a kitchen, a hall,
four chambers, and a fpace about 48 cubits in length to
walk in.
Ark o/the Covenant, a fmall cheft or coffer, three
feet nine inches in length, tw7o feet three inches in
breadth, and two feet three inches in height, in which
were contained the golden pot that held manna, and
Aaron’s rod, and the tables of the covenant. This
coffer was made of fhittim wood, and covered with
a lid, which was made of folid gold. The ark was
repofited in the holieft place of the tabernacle. It
was taken by the Philiftines, and detained 20, fome
fay 40 years, at Kirjath-jearim ; but the people be¬
ing afflifted wdth emerods on account of it, returned
it with divers prefents. It was afterwards placed in
the temple.
The lid or covering of the ark was called Cat propi¬
tiatory or mercy-feat; over w’hich were two figures
placed called Cherubims, with expanded wings of a pe¬
culiar form. Here the Schechinah refted both in the
tabernacle and temple in a vifible cloud : hence wrere
ilTued the Divine oracles by an audible voice ; and the
high prieft appeared before this mercy-feat once every
year on the great day of expiation ; and the Jews,
wherever they wrorfhipped, turned their faces towards
the place where the ark flood.
In the fecond temple there was alfo an ark, made Ark
of the farrfj ffiape and dimenfions with the firft, and il
put in the fame place, but without any of its contents Avkwriglit.
and peculiar honours. It was ufed as a reprefentative
of the former on the day of expiation, and a repofitory
of the original copy of the holy Scriptures, colledled
by Ez-ra and the men of the great fynagogue, after the
captivity. And in imitation of this, the Jews to this
day have a kind of ark in their fynagogues, wherein
their facred books are repofited. This they call aron.
Leo of Modena gives a defcription thereof in his Ac¬
count of the Cuftoms and Ceremonies of thofe of his
Nation. “ The jews (fays he), in the eaftern fide of
their fynagogues, have an ark, or armory, called aron,
in memory of the ark of the covenant. In this are
preferved the five books of Mofes, written on vellum,
with ink made on purpofe,” &c. Some have fuppofed
that the figure of this ark, is ftill remaining on the tri¬
umphal, arch of Titus at Rome; though Villalpandus
and others, with greater reafon, are of opinion1, that
it is the table of fhew’ bread. Prideaux’s Con. vol. i.
p. 209. Tertullian calls this ark Armarium Judai-
cum ; whence the phrafe, to be in the armory of the fy¬
nagogue, q. d. in the number of canonical writings.
A cheft or coffer, very nearly refembling the Jewifh
ark, and called the houfe of the God, was found in Hua-
heine, one of the iflands in the fouthern fea. Mr Banks
could obtain no other information concerning it than
what the name imports. Havohefvoorth''s Account, &c.
vol. ii. p. 252.
ARKLOW, a fea-port town of Ireland, in the
county of Wicklow, and province of Leinfter. W.
Long. 6. 15. N. Lat. 52. 55.
ARKWRIGHT, Sir Richard, celebrated for his
invention of machinery in fpinning and carding cotton,
was originally a country barber in poor circumftances,
but acquired by his inventions a very great fortune.
About the year 1767, when he had quitted the profef-
fion of a barber, and w7ent up and dowTn the country
buying hair, he came to Warrington. At that time
it is faid, he had fome mechanical projeft in view, of
the nature of a perpetual motion. One John Kay, a
clockmaker of that place becoming acquainted with
him, endeavoured to diffuade him from this fcheme,
but faid that much money might be made by fpinning
cotton, which he promifed to defcribe to him. Ark¬
wright urged as an objection, that that fcheme had
been the ruin of many ; but he came to Kay’s bedfide
next morning, and afked him if he could make a fmall
engine at a moderate expence, as this Kay had been
employed to make a cotton fpinning engine for a Mr
Hayes, who likewife employed himfelf in making cy¬
lindrical carding engines, and wffio was brought as a
witnefs on the trial in which Arkwright’s patent w7as
fet afide in 1785.*]^ Hayes proved, that he had invent¬
ed an engine of a fimilar conftruffion to Arkwright’s,
but had not brought it to perfeflion. Arkwuight and
Kay made application to Peter Atherton, Efq. now
of Liverpool, to make fuch an engine ; but he refufed
to undertake it, from the external poverty of the former,
although on the evening of the fame day he under¬
took to give Kay the ufe of a fmith, and watch-tool
maker, to make the heavier parts of the engine ; and
Kay agreed to inftru6t the workmen, and to make
the clockmakers lhare of it. In this manner Ark-
ARK of tke COVENANT
ARK [661] ARM
Arkwright, wright’s firft engine was made, for which he after-
■1. y—— war(js took out a patent. Mr Arkwright went into
partnerdiip foon after with a Mr Smally of Prefton in
Lancafhire, but being at a lofs for money, they went
to Nottingham, and there, by the affiftance of fome
rich individuals, eredled a conliderable cotton mill,
which was turned by horfes.
The report generally circulated through the manu¬
facturing towns is, that he borrowed the,fe inventions,
and that he enriched himfelf at other men’s expence
and ingenuity. From all accounts, however, it ap¬
pears, that the cotton fpinning was no new attempt at
the time Mr Arkwright engaged in it, but an objeCt
which had been the lubjeft of much attention ; but as
it had not fucceeded, it would accordingly happen,
that more diihculties were to be overcome, and fub-
jeCls of fubordinajte inventions to be digefted, and
brought to maturity and effeCl:. Although the carding
and fpinning of cotton before Mr Arkwright engaged
in it was hardly any thing, yet it became a great
national manufafture through his means. He Hates
in his cafe, as drawn by himfelf, that one Paul and
others of London, about 40 or 50 years previous to
his time, having invented an engine for fpinning cot¬
ton, obtained a patent for it, after which they repair¬
ed to Nottingham •, and there, after having been af-
fifted by feveral perfons, and much money had been
expended on the undertaking, many families had been
ruined by the failure of their fcheme;—that various
engines had been conftrudled by different perfons, for
fpinning cotton, flax, wool, &c. into feveral threads
at once, about 20 or 30 years back, but that no real
advantage had been derived from them ; and that an
engine was conftrufted in 1767, by one Hargrave of
Blackrvell in Lancafhire, which would at once fpin
20 or 30 threads of cotton into yarn for the fuftian
manufacture, but that after his engine had been de-
firoyed by popular tumults in Lancafhire, he removed
to Nottingham, where for a while he praClifed under
a patent; but an affociation being formed againft him,
his patent was rendered null, and at length he died in
obfcurity and diffrefs ; that he, Arkwright, had in¬
vented certain engines for fpinning and carding, which
had taken about five years in bringing them to perfec¬
tion j and after i2,oool. had been expended upon
them, they had neither produced advantage or profit
either to him or his partners. As it muff be allowed,
that he did not think to make his fcheme to bear all
at once, he muff certainly be conlidered as the perfon,
who after many others had been unfuccefsful, engaged
in a national undertaking, did difplay fo much fkill,
perfeverance, and aClivity, as to make it not only pro-
duClive of value to himfelf, but likewife to the nation
at large.
It appears, from thefe various accounts, that the
objed in which Sir Richard Arkwright was engaged,
is of the greateft national value ; that from his various
exertions, he is deferving both of the refpeCt and ad¬
miration of the world ; and, that although his family
is enriched, the benefits which the nation have re¬
ceived are ineflimably greater.
On the 2 2d of December, 1786, upon prefenting
an addrefs from the high fheriff and hundred of Wirkf-
worth, he was knighted by his prefent majefly, and
died Augufl 3. 1793, at his works at Crumford, in
Derbyfhire. {Cjen. Biog.')
ARLES, a city of France, in the department of the
Mouths of the Rhone, formerly Provence, feated on
the eafl fide of the Rhone, on a hill, whofe declivity
is towards the north. It is an archbifhop’s fee; and
is celebrated for its antiquities both wuthin and -without
the city. Thofe of which any remains are now to be
feen at the amphitheatre, the obelifk, theelyfian fields,
the fepulchres, columns with their capitals, buffs, pe-
deftals, aquedudls, with fome remains of the capitol,
and the temples of their gods. The other ancient mo¬
numents are entirely deftroyed. Under the amphi¬
theatre, in 1651, they found the ffatue of Venus,
which was worlhipped by this city 5 and has been fince
carried to the caftle of Verfailles. It is a mafterpiece
which will always be admired by connoiffeurs.
The amphitheatre is one of the mcft remarkable
pieces of antiquity. It was built by the Romans, but
the time is unknown, though fome fay by Julius Cte-
far. It is of an oval form, and about 400 yards in
circumference, and the front is 34 yards in height.
The middle, called the arena, is 142 yards wide and
104 broad. The porticoes or piazzas are three ftories,
built with ftones of a prodigious fize. Each of them
confifts of 60 arches, wdiich Hill remain j and the walls
are of furprifing thicknefs, but gone to decay.
The obelifk is the only one of this kind to be feen
in France. It feems to be one of the forty brought
from Egypt to Rome, becaufe it is of the fame orien¬
tal granite with them. They are generally full of hie-
roglyphic chara&ers j but this is quite fmootfi. In
1675, it wras found in a private garden near the walls
of the city, not far from the Rhone. It confirts of
one piece j and is 52 feet high, and 7 in diameter at
the Safe. It is now fupported with four lions made of
bronze ; and on the top a blue ball is placed, writh the
arms of France, and over that a fun.
The Pagans burying place called the JElyJian Yields,
is without the city, upon an agreeable hill, divided in¬
to two parts. The firft, called Mou/aires, has very
few tombs, they having been broken to build the walls
of gardens, which are made in that place. The fe-
cond, called Elifcamp, contains a great number. Thofe
of the Pagans have the letters D. M. which fignify
Diis Mambus. Thofe of the Chriftians have a crofs.
Pieces of coin of gold, filver, and bronze, are found
here; as alfo urns, lamps, and cups, without number.
Here is a royal academy of fciences, confifting of
thirty members, who muff be natives, gentlemen, and
inhabitants of the city. It enjoys the fame privileges
as that at Paris. Arles is furrounded with marlhy land,
which renders the air full of vapours, and makes it not
very wholefome. E. Long. 4. 48. N. Lat. 43. 40.
ARLEUX, an ancient town of the Netherlands, in-
Cambrefis, with a caftle. It was taken by the French
in 1645, and retaken by the Allies in 1711 ; but the
French got poffefiion again the fame month. E. Long.
3. 16. N. Lat. 59. 17.
ARLON, an ancient town of the Netherlands, for¬
merly a ftrong place, but now difmantled. It belongs
to the houfe of Auftria. E. Long. 15. 50. Lat. 49. 4.
ARM, a part of the human body, terminating at
one end in the ftroulder, and at the. other in the hand.
Arm,
Arles
II
Arm.
1
Arm
ARM [ 662 ] ARM
Armada.
Arm, among Sftortfmen, is applied to a lioife, when
by preffing down his head, he endeavours to defend
himfelf againft the bit, to prevent his being checked by
it. The remedy is, to have a wooden ball covered
with velvet, or other matter, put on his chaul, which
will fo prefs him between the jaw bones as to prevent
his bringing his head fo near his bread.
Arm, in Geography, is ufed for the branch of a fea
or river. Italy and Sicily are only parted by an arm
.of the fea. St George’s arm in the Mediterranean is
the Thracian Bofphorus.
Arm is alfo tiled figuratively for power, The fecu-
lar arm is the lay or temporal authority of a fecular
judge ; to which recoarfe is had for the execution of
the fentences palled by ecclefialtical judges.
The church Iheds no blood : even the judges of the
inquifition, after they have found the perfon guilty, fur-
render him to the fecular arm. The council of An¬
tioch, held in 341, decrees, that recourfe be had to
the fecular arm to reprefs thofe who refufe obedience
to the church ; for fecular arm, they here ufe exterior
power.
Arm, in refpedl of the magnet. A loaddone is faid
to be armed, when it is capped, cafed, or fet in iron
or deel, in order to make it take up the greater
weight, and alfo to diftinguilh readily its poles. See
Magnetism.
ARMACALES, a river of Babylon (Abydenus) j
called FoJ/a Regia, the Royal Trench or Cut (Polybius);
the Royal River (Ptolemy); Almarchur (Pliny);
Naarnwlcha (Ammian) ; a faftitious channel or cut,
made by Nabuchadonofor, and a horn or branch of the
Euphrates, (Abydenus). The Euphrates naturally di¬
vides into two channels, one pading through Babylon,
the other through Seleucia, and then falls into the
Tigris; the factitious channel between thefe two is
the Royal River ; which mixes with the Tigris, a
great deal lower down than Seleucia, at Apamea,
( Ptolemy).
ARMADA, a Spanidi term, fignifying a fleet of
men of war. The armada, which attempted to invade
England in the time of Queen Elizabeth, is famous in
hidory.
This armada, to which the Spaniards, in confidence
of fuccefs, gave the name of Invincible, confided of 150
fhips, mod of which were greatly fuperior in drength
and fize to any that had been feen before. It had on
board near 20,000 foldiers* and 8000 failors, befides
2000 volunteers of the mod didinguiihed families in
Spain. It carried 2650 great guns, was victualled for
half a year, and contained fuch a quantity of military
ftores, as only the Spaniih monarch, enriched by the
treafures of the Indies and America, could fupply.
The troops on board were to be joined by 34,000 more
which the duke of Parma had affembled in the neigh¬
bourhood of Nieuport and Dunkirk. For tranfport-
ing thefe, he had, with incredible labour, provided a
great number of flat-bottomed veffels, and had brought
failors to navigate them from the towns in the Baltic.
Mod of thefe veffels had been built at Antwerp ; and
as he durd not venture to bring them from thence by
fea to Nieuport, led they fliould have been intercepted
by the Dutch, he wras obliged to fend them along the
Scheld to Ghent, from Ghent to Bruges by the canal
which joins thefe towns, and from Bruges to Nieupcrt
by a new canal which he dug on the prefent occafion.
This laborious undertaking, in which feveral thoufand
workmen had been employed, was already finiflied,
and the duke now waited for the arrival of the Spanidi
fleet; hoping, that as foon as it fliould approach, the
Dutch and Englifli (hips which cruifed upon the coaft
would retire into their harbours.
When the news reached England that this mighty
fleet was preparing to fail, terror and conflernation
univerfally feized the inhabitants. A fleet of not above
30 fliips of wmr, and thofe very (mail in comparifon,
wms all that was to oppofe it by fea. All the com¬
mercial towns of England, however, were required to
furnifh fliips for reinforcing this fmall navy. The citi¬
zens of London, inftead of fifteen veffels, which they
were commanded to equip, voluntarily fitted out dou¬
ble the number ; and the gentry and nobility equipped
43 fliips at their own charge. Lord Howard of Ef¬
fingham was admiral; and under him ferved Drake,
Hawkins, and Frobiflier, all of them renowned as fea-
men of courage and capacity. The principal fleet was
ftationed at Plymouth. A fmaller fquadron, confift-
ing of 40 veffels, Englifli and Flemifli, was command¬
ed by Lord Seymour fecond fon of prote&or Somerfet,
and lay off Dunkirk in order to intercept the duke of
Parma.
The land forces of England were more numerous
than thofe of the enemy, but inferior in difcipline and
experience. An army of 20,000 men was difpofed in
different bodies along the fouth coaft, with orders to
retire backwards and wafte the country, if they could
not prevent the Spaniards from landing ; 22,000 foot
and 1000 horie, under the command of the earl of
Leicefter, were ftationed at Tilbury, in order to de¬
fend the capital; and the principal army confifting of
34,000 foot and 2000 horfe, commanded by Lord
Hunfdon, was referved for guarding the queen’s per¬
fon, and appointed to march whitherfoever the enemy
fliould appear. Thefe armies, though all the Spanifli
forces had been able to land, would poflibly have been
fufficient to protedl the liberties of their country. But
as the fate of England, in that event, muff depend on
the iffue of a Angle battle, all men of ferious refleftion
entertained the moft awful apprehenfions of the ftiock
of at leaft 50,000 veterans, commanded by experien¬
ced officers, under fo confummate a general as the duke
of Parma. The queen alone was undaunted. She if-
fued all her orders with tranquillity, animated her peo¬
ple to a fteady reliftance, and employed every refource
which either her domeftic fituation or her foreign alli¬
ances could afford her. She even appeared on horfe-
back in the camp at Tilbury ; and riding though the
lines, difeovered a cheerful and animated countenance,
exhorted the foldiers to remember their duty to their
country and their religion, and profeffed her intention,
though a woman, to lead them herfelf into the field
againft the enemy, and rather perifh in battle than fur-
vive the ruin and flavery of her people. “ I know'
(faid fhe, intrepidly) I have but the weak and feeble
arm of a woman ; but I have the heart of a king, and
of a king of England too !” The heroic fpirit of Eliza¬
beth communicated itfelf to the army, and every man
refolved to die rather than defert his ftation.
The Spanifti armada was ready in the beginning of
May; but its failing was retarded by the death of the
marquis
Armada.
Armada.
ARM [ 663 ]
marquis of Santa Croce the admiral, and that alfo of troops.
the vice admiral the duke of Paliano. The command
of the expedition was therefore given to the duke of
Medina Sidonia, a man entirely unexperienced in fea
affairs. This promotion, in fome meafure, ferved to
frudrate the defign, which was alfo rendered lefs fuc-
cefsful by fome other accidents. Upon leaving the
port of Lifbon, the armada nekt day met with a vio¬
lent temped, which funk fome of the fmalled of their
(hipping, and obliged the fleet to put back into the
harbour. After fome time fpent in refitting they put
again to fea. Being defcried by Fleming, a Scotilh
pirate, who veas roving in thofe feas, he immediately
failed towards the Engliih fleet, and'informed the ad¬
miral of their approach. Effingham had juft time to
get out of port when he faw the Spanidi armada com¬
ing full fail towards him, difpofed in the form of a
crefcent, and ftretching the diftance of feven miles
from the extremity of one divifion to that of the other.
1 he Englidi admiral conlidering that the Spaniards
would probably be much fuperior to him in clofe fight,
by reafon of the fize of their Ihips and the number of
their troops, wifely refolved to content himfelf with
haraffing them in their voyage, and with watching at¬
tentively all the advantages ivhich might be derived
from ftorms, crofs winds, and fuch like fortuitous ac¬
cidents. It was not long before he difcerned a favour¬
able opportunity of attacking the vice-admiral Recal-
do. This he did in perfon; and on that occafion dif-
played fo much dexterity in working his fliip, and in
loading and firing his guns, as greatly alarmed the
Spaniards for the fate of the vice-admiral. From that
time they kept much clofer to one another; notwith-
ftanding which, the Englilh on the fame day attacked
one of the largert galeaffes. Other Spaniffi fhips came
up in time to her relief; but in their hurry one of the
princial galleons, which had a great part of the trea-
fure on board, ran foul of another fhip, and had one of
her mafts broken. In confequence of this misfortune
fell behind, and wras taken by Sir Francis Drake ;
who on the fame day took another capital fhip, which
had been accidentally fet on fire.
Several other rencounters happened, and in all of
them the Engliffi proved viftorious, through the great
advantage which they derived from the lightnefs of
their Ihips, and the dexterity of the failors. The Spa¬
niards in that age did not fufficiently underftand nau¬
tical mechanics, to be able to avail themfelves of the
unufual magnitude of their Ihips. The Engliffi fail¬
ed round them, approached or retired, wuth a ve¬
locity that filled them with amazement, and did in¬
finitely greater execution with their cannon ; for while
ever (hot of theirs proved effe&ual, their ffiips fuf-
fered very little damage from the enemy, whofe guns
were planted too high, and generally fpent their force
in air.
The Spaniards, however, ftill continued to advance
till they came oppofite to Calais ; there the duke de
Medina having ordered them to caft anchor, he lent
information to the duke of Parma of his arrival, and
entreated him to haften the embarkation of his forces.
Farnefe accordingly began to put his troops on board.
But at the fame time he informed Medina, that agree¬
ably to the king’s inftrudtions, the veffels wffiich he
had prepared were proper only for tranfporting the
ARM
. . were utterly unfit for fighting; and for Armada,
this reafon, till the armada were brought ftill nearer, v
and the coaft cleared of the Dutch ffiips which had
blocked up the harbours of Nieuport and Dunkirk, he
could not flir from his prefent ftation, without expof-
ing. his army to certain ruin, the confeouence of
which would probably be the entire lofs of the Ne¬
therlands.
in compliance with this requeft, the armada was
ordered to advance ; and it had arrived within fight of
Dunkirk, between the Engliffi fleet on the one hand,
and the Dutch on the other, when a fudden calm put
a flop to all its motions. In this fituation the three
fleets remained for one whole* day. About the mid¬
dle of the night a breeze fprung up; and Lord
Howard had recourfe to an expedient which had been
happily devtfed on the day before. Having filled
eight ffiips with pitch, fulphur, and other combufti-
ble materials, he let fire to them, and fent them be¬
fore the wind againft the different divifions of the Spa-
niflr fleet.
When the Spaniards beheld thefe fliips in flames ap¬
proaching towards them, it brought to their remem¬
brance the havock which had been made by the fire
ffiips employed againft the duke of Parma’s bridge at
the fiege of Antwerp. The darknefs of the night in-
creafed the terror with which their imaginations wrere
overwffielmed, and the panic flew from one end of the
fleet to the other. Each crewq anxious only for their
own prefervation, thought of nothing but how to efcape
from the prefent danger. Some of them took time to
weigh their anchors, but others cut their cables, and
fuffered their ffiips to drive with blind precipitation,
without confidering whether they did not thereby ex-
pofe themfelves to a greater danger than that wffiich
they were fo felicitous to avoid. In this confufion the
fliips ran foul of one another: the fliock was dreadful,
and feveral of them received fo much damage as to be
rendered unfit for future ufe.
When day light returned, Lord Howard had the
fatisfa&ion to perceive that his ftratagem had fully
produced the defired effieft. The enemy were ftill in
extreme diforder, and their fliips widely feparated and
diiperfed. PIis fleet had lately received a great aim-
mentation by the ffiips fitted out by the nobility and
gentry, and by thofe under Lord Seymour, who had
left Juftin de Naflau as alone fufficicnt to guard the
coaft of Flanders. Being bravely feconded by Sir
hrancis Drake and all the other officers, he made hafte
to improve the advantage which was now prefented to
him, and attacked the enemy in different quarters at
the fame time with the utmoft impetuofity and ardour.
The engagement began at four in the morning and
lafted till fix at night. The Spaniards difplayed in
every rencounter the moft intrepid bravery 5 but, from
the caufes already mentioned, they did very little exe¬
cution againft the Engliffi; while many of their own
fliips were greatly damaged, and twelve of the largeft
wane either run aground, or funk, or compelled to fur-
render.
It was* now evident that the purpofe of the armada
was utterly fruftrated. The Spaniffi admiral, after
many unfuccefsful rencounters, prepared therefore to
make his wray home ; but as the winds were contrary
to his return through the Channel, he refolved to take
the
ARM [ 664 ] A R M
Armadiila the circuit of the ifland. The Eiv^’fh fleet foliowed
A- Ju-h ^°r ^0me ^me ’ anc^ kac* not their ammunition
» ’ fallen (hort, through the negligence of the public offi¬
ces in fupplying them, they had obliged the armada to
furrender at difcretion. Such a conclufion of that
vain-glorious enterprife would have been truly illuftri-
ous to the Englifli, but the event was fcarcely lefs fatal
to the Spaniards. The armada was attacked by a
violent ftorm in palling the Orkneys j and the ffiips,
having already loft their anchors, were obliged to keep
at fea, while the mariners, unaccuftomed to hardlhips,
and unable to manage fuch unwieldy veflels, allowed
them to drive on the Weftern illes of Scotland, or on
the coaft of Ireland, where they were miferably wreck¬
ed. Not one half of the fleet returned to Spain, and
a ftill fmaller proportion of the foldiers' and feamen j
yet, Philip, whofe command of temper was equal to his
ambition, received with an air of tranquillity the news
of fo humbling a difafter. “ I fent my fleet (faid he)
to combat the Englifh, not the elements. God be
praifed that the calamity is not greater !” This ca¬
lamity, however, was fenfibly felt all over Spain, and
there was fcarcely a Angle family of rank in the king¬
dom that did not go into mourning for the death of
fome near relation 5 infomuch that Philip, dreading the
effefl which this univerfal face of forrow might pro¬
duce upon the minds of the people, imitated the con-
du£l of the Roman fenate after the battle of Cannae,
and publiffied an edi£! to abridge the time of public
mourning.
ARMADILLA, in Spanifh America, denotes a
fquadron of men of war, to the number of fix or
eight from twenty-four to fifty pieces of cannon, which
the king maintains, to prevent foreigners from trading
with the Spaniards and the Indians, both in time of
war and peace.
The veflels of this armadilla are thofe that have been
fo much talked of, under the name of guarda cojlas.
They have even power to take all Spaniftr merchant
Ihips they meet with on the coaft that have not licenfes
from the king.
The South fea has its armadilla as well as the North
fea. The ordinary abode of the former are at Calao,
a port of Lima *, that of the latter at Carthagena.
ARMADILLO, in Zoology, a fynonyme of the da-
jfypus. See Dasypus.
ARMAGEDDON, a place fpoken of in the Re¬
velation (xvi. 16.), which literally fignifies the moun¬
tain of Mageddon or Megiddo, a city fituated in the
great plain at the foot of Mount Carmel, where King
Jofiah received his mortal wound in the battle againft
Necho king of Egypt. At Armageddon, the three
unclean fpirits, coming out of the dragon’s mouth,
lhall gather together the kings of the earth to the bat¬
tle of the great day of God Almighty (Rev. xvi. 13,14.)
The wmrd armageddon, according to Mr Poole, does
not fignify any particular place, but is here an allufion,
as fome think, to that of Megiddo, mentioned Judges
v. 19. where Barak overcame Sifera with his great
army, and where Jofiah was flain (2 Kings xxiii. 30.)
Others tranflate this word, the mountain of the gofpel,
and others, the mountain of apples or fruits.
ARMAGH, a county of Ireland, bounded by
Louth on the fouth ; Lough-Neagh, on the north 5
Tyrone and Monaghan, on the weft; and Down, in
part, on the eaft, from which it is feparated by the Armagh
river Newry. It is in length 32 miles, in breadth 17 j II
and is divided into five baronies, containing about Arm‘‘rii‘ri:;ty
170,620 acres. Both the air and foil are good,
efpecially the latter, which is faid to be the richeft in
Ireland ; only there is a certain tratt in it called the
Fewes, that is, hilly and barren. The members it fends
to parliament are fix, viz. two for the city of Armagh,
two for the county, and two for the borough of Charle-
mont.
Armagh, Handing near the river Kalin, gives name
to the county, and is the fee of the primate of all Ire¬
land. It is faid to have been founded by St Patrick
in the fifth century: and in 1142, it was conftituted
an archbiftiOprick, together with Dublin, Calhel, and
Tuam, by Cardinal Papyreo, with the confent of the
king, dukes, bifliops, abbots, and ftates of Ireland.
This Papyreo was fent into Ireland by Pope Eugenius,
to reform the abuf^s that had crept into the church
difeipline of that country. Here wTas anciently a fa¬
mous monafterv built by St Columbo, or Columbanus,
about the year 6ro. The cathedral was often burnt,
but as often rebuilt and enlarged, and particularly by-
Patrick Scanlain, about 1262. His fucceflbr Nicho¬
las, fon of MoliflTa, befides books, rich ecclefiaftical veft-
ments, and other things, beftowred on it an annual pen-
fion of twenty marks. He appropriated alfo to his fee
the manor of Dromylkin. He died the 10th of May,
1303. This tow-n w-as firft fubjefted to the Englifli
by John de Courcy, but afterwards entirely deftroyed
by Tir Oen, or O’Neal, in Queen Elizabeth’s time.
However, it was afterwards recovered, rebuilt, and
garrifoned by the Engliffi.
The fee of Armagh is valued in the king’s books,
by an extent taken anno 30th Henry VIII. at 183I.
17s. yj-d. Irifti money per annum, w-hich amounts to
137I. 18s. c>|d. the difference between Iriffi and Ster¬
ling money being at that time one-fourth). But by
an extent returned in the 15th of James I. it is valued
at 400I. fterling per annum, and pays fo much firft
fruits to this day. It is reputed to be worth annually
8000I. The chapter of Armagh is compofed of five
dignitaries and four prebendaries, who have voices in
every capitular aft. The dignitaries are thus ranked,
viz. a dean, chanter, chancellor, treafurer, and arch¬
deacon. There are alfo eight vicars choral, and an or-
ganift, attendant on the fervice of the cathedral. The
vicars choral were anciently few-er $ and of the number
only one prieft. Primate Marfli added another prieft,
but without increafing the number of vicars. In the
year 1720, Primate Lindfay obtained a new- charter
for enlarging the number of the faid vicars to eight,
and laid out upwards of 4000I. on a purchafe, in
augmentation of the eftate of the choir.
ARMAGNAC, formerly a province of Guienne in
France, which with Gafcony now forms the depart¬
ment of Gers, is 55 miles in length and 40 in breadth j
bounded on the eaft by the river Garonne, on the fouth
by Bigorre and Bearn, on the weft by Gafcony, and
on the north by Condomois and Agenois : Audi is the
capital town. It is fertile in corn and wine, and car¬
ries on a confiderable trade in brandy, wool, and
bonchretin pears, which are excellent.
ARM AM A XI, in Antiquity, a kind of Scythian
chariots or carriages, compofed of two wheels, vari-
oufiy
Armenia.
ARM £ fi(jr 1
Armament ou,,y .darned „ith crowns, Melds, breaftpk«es, and t, determined
1 “ her fpotls carried in proceffion after the images of P ' ““"ed.
u ^ 16 g°ds and great men.
ARMAMENT, a large body of forces, raifed and
feTfervfce"1^ thC furniture of war’ either for ^nd or
x,rvf’K'RI^TUR1A’ -n a general fenfe» is the fame
witn what we otherwife call armour.
Armatura is more particularly ufed in the ancient
nn itary art, for a kind of exercife, performed with
mil ive weapons, as darts, fpears, arrows, and the like,
in this feme, armatura Hands contradiftinguilhed from
palana; the latter being the exercife of the heavy¬
armed, the former of the light-armed.
Tne armatura was praftifed with great diligence
among the Romans ; they had their campidoaorfs on
purpofe to inftruft the tyrones or young foldiers in it
Under it were includpd thp  c ,i r
Under it were included the throwing'of thTfpear or ihl d * Blfrofus makes one Sytha
javelin, Hiooting with bows and arrows &c. ri firft f°nnder of this monarchy, whofe fucceffor Bar-
a to r.ir~   n * GaneSj nc lays, was driven rmt- Ktr u .■  r at
ARM
  ^ ^le ^reeks iuppofe it to be fo call- Armenia.
■ tro™ one Armenus, who attended Jafon in the Ar- '   
gonautic expedition, and afterwards fettled in this coun-
ry. _ Others, transforming Armenia into Aramia de-
rT Aram the fon of Shem> or from one
o the kings of Armenia bearing that name. Bochart
imagines it to be a contraaion or compound of Aar,
a Hebrew^ word fignifymg a “ mountain,” and Mini
fignifymg metal,” and which was the name of a pro¬
vince of Armenia mentioned by the prophet Jeremiah.
Herodotus derives the ancient Armenians from the
1 hrygians, by reafon that feveral Phrygian words were
crept into the ancient Armenian language. But Strabo
reckons them to have been originally Syrians, which
Bochart looks upon to be the moll probable opinion.
Armenia is faid to have been very early advanced to
In6 r°n?Ur °f a kl??dom- Berofus makes one Sytha
#    mi uwiny or u
javelin, Ihooting with bow^s and arrows, &c.
Armatura is alfo an appellation given to the fol-
diers who were light armed. 8 J
an“ irL^rTjl^T’Thc^Jm °f, ,cf0“r,< f be fac'rificed'in‘Sdr’flead;
mandcr ,v.s entitled tribune armatuvarum f T/'. lat he thereb>' “"VM with the
is fiRto hD’ ^ ihe 1“ A -fs bat Hurt °,aCle- EUt M'efaIC“S H;H ""f f”:' -    '
is laid to be armed, when feme rope yam or the like
through thV(l!ot!he e"d °f 'he !r°n bar> ",hich runs
different colour from the reft of their body 7
frrlTof 3 VCirel oc.cafionally taken into the
Bivice of the government in time of war and em
ployed to guard fome particular coall, or attend on a
loea's like 1 m-her ffore armed and quipped in all re-
pects like a fhip of war, and commanded by an offi
ma'nder Anth”''0 rank °f fflall“ a"d com¬
ment of thf k/1 T/ th'S, h0" are “Pon ‘hi edablilh-
Per. ^Tc 0°PS’ ^ ■”a«"-
ARMENE, or Armina, anciently a hamlet of Pa.
ft wlhnaawallt0bemyf Jht inhabitants encompaffed
• -h.a wal1’ becaufe of the coldnefs of the place
imagining by that means to render it warmer Bui
this proving ineffectual, gave rife to the provmb ^
uen muro cinhere, nffd U c. r___ _ F ^ero sirmc-
"enTa ’ Ufed ^ eXprefS Ssed Acm d° ar?t th;enlargement ^
int^irS M’io”?!1?/:”/Afia> countries ' th^m* "# 1’
AR ATFXTr A ^aFIcis lome egregious folly,
inm A I countlT of Afia, anciently divided
into Armenia Major and Minor. Armenia Major ac-
TJ-S t0i'•'r'e0’ WaS bounded °n the fouth by Mount
^PsThem LtrrottTefl^r/tS
cs were Artaxata, figranocerta, and Thedofiopolic
4=: ™n“hrer„^bnydtr„t*T.bvY
ieparated it from Cilieia ; on the weft and n„«h,"by a
Kr Jj r °i m0Untains called in different places Mans
difcu^ Amanus, and Antitaurus, by which it was
ieparated from Cappadocia. 7 WaS
Whence this traft received the namP ^ ^
Vol II. Part H. name of Armenia is
 vvnoie lucceilor JBar-
anes, he fays, was driven out by Ninus king of Af-
lyna.. Plutarch mentions one Araxes king of Armenia
who m a war with the Perfians, being affured of fuC-
cels by an oracle, provided he facrificed his two daugh¬
ters, caufed the two daughters of one Miefalcus, a no-
fl!trman °fnh,r f/T’ ? be facrificed in their Head,
attermg bmfelf that he thereby complied with the
made. But Miefalcus did not fail to revenge the deatli
of his own daughters by putting the king’s two daugh¬
ters to death, and purfued himfelf fo clofelv, that'he
was drowned m attempting to fwim acrofs the Araxes
which was then called Helmus. ’
the1]^^rmriail! Werv t pr0Cefs of tJme frbdned by
the Medes to whom Aftyages made them tributaries7
but allowed them to be governed by their own kings •
but on the diffolution of the Median empire by Cyrus’
the kingdom was reduced to the form of a province’
and they were governed by Perfian prefefts or lieute-
nants. On the deftruftion of the Perfian empire by
ift! th-C Great’ ALrTnenia fdl into the hands of
t e Macedonians.; to whom it continued fubiedl till
the beginning of the reign of Antiochus the Great
J S,pnnCf havmg appointed two prefefts, called Za‘-
and 'frtaxias, to govern Armenia, they exci-
ed the people to a revolt, and caufed themfelves to be
proclaimed kings of the provinces over which they Pre-
1 6 *, ^fft'nchus being then very young, they w*ere
attended with iuccefs beyond their expeftation : which
encouraged them to attempt the enlargement of their
territories. Accord n.rFr -r • ,, 1
counu-ies, they took from the MeL ,L'pfov ““rof
Cafptana, Phaunttia, and Baforopida ; from the Ibe-
rtans Chorzena and Gogorena on the other fide of the
Cyrus ; from the Chalybcs and MoiTynaici, the pro
Srmlil Alh,r “ ^ Her“ena’ " hkh b rdere^ on
th thJS 0c.cafl0"’ the above-mentioned divifion of
the kingdom into Armenia Major and Minor fftft took
p ace. Artaxias became king of Armenia Major and
fill e"<tmd:rM!nor; and this &b-
By whom Artaxias was fucceeded is not knowm •
neither have we any account of the tranfaftions of his’
lugn, arther than that Antiochus led a powerful ar
my againft him and Zadriades, but without being able'
to recover a Angle province. Upon this he concluded
peace, defigning to fall upon them at a proper op-
4 h* portunityj
ARM
[
Armenia, portunity j but they having entered into alliance with
  v  the Romans, by that means fecured themfelves in the
poffeflion of their kingdom. After this, Artaxias was
defeated and taken prifoner by Antiochus Epiphanes 5
but fomehow or other, feems to have been reftored to
his kingdom.
From this time we meet with a chafm in the Arme¬
nian hiftofy for 70 years; during which all we know
is, that Tigranes, the king’s fon, was delivered up as
an hoftage to the Partisans j from whence it is plain,
that the Armenians had been carrying on an unfuc-
eefsful war with that nation. On the news of his
father’s death, however, the Parthians fet the young
king at liberty, having firft obliged him to give up a
confiderable part of his kingdom by way of ranfom..
Tigranes being thus reftored to his father’s king¬
dom, was prevailed upon in the beginning of his reign
to enter into an alliance with IVlithridates Eupator
ao-ainft the Romans, whofe power began to give jea-
loufy to all the princes of Alia. One of the articles of
this treaty wras, that Mithridates fhould have the cities
and conquered countries, and Tigranes the captives
and plunder. In confequence of this, Tigranes was
to invade Cappadocia, which he had lately been obli¬
ged, by a decree of the fenate of Rome, to give up to
Ariobarzanes. But before either of the princes took
the field, a marriage was folemnized with all pofiible
magnificence between I igranes and Cleopatra the
daughter of Mithridates.
Immediately after the nuptials, Tigranes fet out on
his intended expedition j and Ariobarzanes, on the fiift
news of his march, abandoned his kingdom and fled to
Rome. Thus Tigranes, without fighting a ftroke, en¬
riched himfelf with the booty, and then proclaimed
Ariarathes, Mithridates’s fon, king of Cappadocia, to
the univerfal fatisfaftion of the people.
In the mean time, the Syrians being harafled vith
a long and inteftine war of the Seleucidae, invited Ti¬
granes to come and take pofleflion of their country 5
which he accordingly did, and kept it for 18 ycais,
till he was driven out by Pompey, and Syria reduced
to the form of a Roman province. _ Encouraged by
this fuccefs, he next invaded Armenia Minor : defeat¬
ed and killed King Artanes, who oppofed him vyith a
confiderable army j and in one campaign made himfelf
mafter of the whole kingdom. From Armenia Minor
he marched againft the Afiatic Greeks, the Adiabe-
xftans, the Affyrians, and the Gordians, carrying all be¬
fore him, and obliging the people wherever he came
to acknowledge him fovereign. From this lecond ex¬
pedition he returned home loaded with booty, which
he foon after increafed by the fpoils of Cappadocia, in¬
vading that kingdom a fecond time at the inftance of
Mithridates, who had been obliged by the Romans to
withdraw his forces from thence. From Cappadocia
Tmranes, befides other booty, brought back into iVr-
menia no fewer than 300,000 captives, having fur-
rounded the country with his numerous forces in fuch
a manner that none could efcape. I hefe, togethei
with the prifoners he had taken in his two firft expe¬
ditions, he employed in building the city of Tigrano-
eerta, which they afterwards peopled.
In the mean time Mithridates, who had concluded a
peace with the Romans for no other end than to gain
time, fent a folemn embaffy to Figranes, inviting him
666 ] ARM
to enter into a fecond alliance againft the common ene-
mv. This he at firft declined; but in the end was
prevailed upon by his wife Cleopatia to lend him con¬
fiderable fupplies, though he never came heartily into
the war, not caring to provoke the Romans, who on
their part kept fair w7ith him, taking no notice foi the
prefent of the fupplies he had fent Mithridates. That
unfortunate prince being foon after defeated by Lu-
cullus, wTas forced to fly for {belter into Aimenia,
wdiere he met with a very cold reception from his ion-
in-law, who would neither fee him, treat with him,
nor own him as his relation ; how'ever, he promifed to
proteft his perfon, and allowed him in one of his
cattles a princely retinue, and a table luitable to his
former condition.
Though this total overthrow of Mithridates might
have opened the eyes of I igranes, and made him op-
pofe with all his might the growmg power of the Ro¬
mans, he foolifhly left them to finilh their conqueft of
Pontus, while he marched at the head of a very nume¬
rous army againft the Parthians, with a delign to re¬
cover from them the dominions they had foimerly ex¬
torted from him before they fet him at liberty. I hefe
he eafily retook ; and not iatisfied w ith w’hat formerly
belonged to him, he added to them all Mefopotamia,
the countries that lay about Ninus and Arbela and the
fruitful province of Mygdonia ; the Parthians, though
at that time a mighty people, flying everywhere be¬
fore him. From Mefopotamia Tigranes marched into
Syria to quell a rebellion w'hich had been raifeo by Gle-
opatra, furnamed Selene; who, after the death of hei
hufband Antiochus Pius, reigned jointly with her fons
in that part of Syria which Tigranes had not feized
on. The malcontents were quickly reduced ; and the
queen herfelf was taken prifoner, and confined to the
caftle of Seleucia, where fhe was foon after put to
death by the king’s orders. From Syria Tigranes paf-
fed into Phoenicia, which he fubdued either entirely or
in great part, fpreading far and wide the terror of his
arms, infomuch that all the princes of Afia, _ except
thofe w!ho were in alliance w:ith the Romans, either m
perfon or by their deputies, fubmitted and paid ho¬
mage to the conqueror.
* The king, having now fubdued all Syria to the bor¬
ders of Egypt, and being elated woth a long courfe of
viftories and profperous events, began to look upon
himfelf as far above the level of other crowned heads.
He affumed the title of King of kings, and had many
kings waiting upon him as menial fervants. He never
appeared on horfeback without the attendance of .oui
kings drefled in livery, who run by his horfe ; and
when he gave anfwers to the nations that applied to
him the ambaffadors flood on either fide the throne
with their hands clafped together, that attitude being
of all others then accounted among the orientals the
greateft acknowledgment of vaffalage and fervitude.
In the mid ft of all this haughtinefs, however, he was
unexpeftedly vifited by an ambaffador from Lucullus
the Roman general, who, without any ceremony, told
him, that he came to demand Mithridates king ox
Pontus, who had taken refuge in his dominions, and,
m cafe of his refufal, to declare war againft him. Not-
withftanding his high opinion of himfelf, I igranes re¬
turned a mild anfwer to this meflage : in which, how>-
ever, he refufed to deliver up his father-in-law ; and
5 being
Armenia.
ARM [ 667 ] ARM
Armenia, being highly provoked at Lucullus for not giving him
-~v—' the title of King of kings in his letter, he did not fo
much as bellow upon him the title of general in his
anfwer. In the mean time, being informed that Zar-
bienus king of the Gordians had entered into a private
alliance with the Romans, he put him, his wife, and
children to death ; and then, returning into Armenia,
received wuth the greateft pomp imaginable his father-
in-law Mithridates, w^hom till that time he had not ad¬
mitted into his prefence, though he had refided a year
and eight months in his dominions. They had feveral
private conferences 5 and at laft Mithridates was fent
back to Pontus with 10,000 horfe, to raife there what
dillurbances he could.
Luculius, on the other hand, hearing the king’s re-
folution to protedl Mithridates, immediately began his
march for Armenia, at the head of only two legions
of foot and 3000 horfe, having left 6000 men in Pon¬
tus to keep that country quiet. Having palled the Eu¬
phrates without oppofition, he detached two parties ;
one to beftege a city where he heard that Tigranes’s
treafure and Qoncubines were kept; and the other un¬
der Sextilius, to block up Tigranocerta, in order to
draw' the king to a battle. But Tigranes, after having
put to death the fcout that brought him the firll intel¬
ligence of the approach of the Romans, made towards
Mount Taurus, which he had appointed far the place
of the general rendezvous. The Roman general then
defpatched Murrena in purfuit of the king ; who, having
overtaken him in a narrow pafs, defeated Tim, and,
belides all the baggage, carried off a great many pri-
foners, the king himfelf having ded in the beginning of
the Ikirmilh. After this, he fent out feveral parties to
fcour the country, in order to prevent the innumerable
forces of Tigranes from joining into one body. This,
however, he was not able to effedl j Tigranes was join¬
ed by fuch numbers of Gordians, Medes, Adiabenians,
Albanians, Iberians, &c. that, before he left Mount
Taurus, his army confilled, .according to Plutarch, of
150 coo, foot armed cap-a-pee, 35,000 pioneers, 20,000
archers and {lingers, and 55,000 horfe.
Lucullus was fo far from being difmayed at this
formidable army, that the only fear he had wTas leff
the king (hould follow the advice of Mithridates, which
o ;
was, not to engage the Romans, but, by ravaging the
country, diftrefs them for want of provifions. In or¬
der to draw him to a battle, therefore, he formed the
fiege of Tigranocerta, imagining that Tigranes wmuld
never fuffer that fine city to be taken without making
an attempt to relieve it. The event fully anfwered his
expedlations : Tigranes having called a council of war,
it was unanimoufly refolved to attack the Romans ; and
Taxilis, whom Mithridates fent to diffuade the king
from venturing a battle, wTas in danger of lofing his
head on account of the advice he gave. The Roman
general, finding Tigranes difpofed to come to an en¬
gagement, left Mursena wuth 6000 men to carry on
the fiege, while he himfelf marched againft the king’s
vaft army with only 10,000 men, according to fome,
and the highefl computations make them no more than
18,000. The Romans were at firfl greatly diflieart-
ened ; but being encouraged by Lucullus, they imme¬
diately broke the Armenian army, who betook them-
felves to flight almofl at the firft outfet. The Romans
purfued them till night, making a moft terrible {laugh¬
ter. Plutarch informs us, that of the Armenians Armenia.
100,000 foot were killed, and that very few of the ca- r~v
valry eicaped ; whereas of the Romans only five men
were killed and xoo wounded. Antiochus the philofo-
pher mentioning this battle, fays, that the fun never
beheld the like : and Livy, that the Romans never
fought to fuch a difadvantage 5 the conquerors not
amounting to a twentieth part of the conquered. Ti¬
granes in his flight having met with his Ion in as for¬
lorn a condition as himfelf, refigned to him his royal
robes and diadem, defiring him to fhift for himfeli and
fave thofe royal enfigns. The young prince delivered
them to a trufty friend, who, being taken by the Ro¬
mans, configned them to Lucullus.
While the king was making his efcape after this ter¬
rible overthrow, he was met by Mithridates, who was
marching to his afliilance at the head of a confiderable
army. The king of Pontus cheered up his fon-in-law
as wHl as he could, and encouraged him to continue
the war : advifing him, inllead of fruitlefsly bewailing
the prefent difafter, to rally his troops, raife new fup-
plies, and renew the war, not queftioning but that in
another campaign he might repair all the Ioffes he had
fuftained : but while the two kings were confulting up¬
on thefe matters, Lucullus made himfelf mailer of Ti¬
granocerta. From this city he marched into the fmall
kingdom of Gordyene, where he celebrated, with the
utmoft pomp, the obfequies of King Zarbienus, whom
Tigranes had put to death, lighting the funeral pile
with his own hands. In this kingdom, befides im-
menfe fums of gold and filver, he met with fuch {lore
of provifions as enabled him to carry on the war with¬
out putting the republic to any charge.
The two kings, having levied new forces, appointed
their troops to rendezvous in the fpacious plains on the
other fide of Mount Taurus •, whereupon Lucullus,
leaving Gordyene, and paffing by Mount Taurus, en¬
camped clofe by the enemy. Several {kirmifiies hap¬
pened for fome time between the two armies without
any confiderable advantage 5 but Lucullus conld by
no means draw them to a general engagement. Upon
this he decamped, as if he defigned to march to Ar-
taxata and lay fiege to that place, where Tigranes
had left his wife and children, with great part of his
treafures. He had fcarce formed his camp when the
enemy appeared, and fat down clofe by him. Lu¬
cullus did not allow- them to fortify their camp, but
immediately attacked them, and having put them to
flight after a faint refiftance, purfued them all night
with great {laughter, took moll of the chief ofli-
cers prifoners, and returned the next day loaded with
booty.
The Roman foldiers now, finding the cold very fe-
vere,' though it was no later in the year than the; au¬
tumnal equinox, requefted their general to allow them
to retire into winter quarters. This requeft he reject¬
ed with indignation j upon which they mutinied. Lu¬
cullus did all he could to perfuade them to continue in
their duty ; and prevailed fo far that they confented to
lay fiege to Nifibis in hopes of booty. This place
they took ; and Lucullus, to the great fatisfaclion of
his troops, took up his winter quarters there. The
next year, however, his forces again mutinied, accul-
ing him of amafling immenfe wealth for himfelf 5 and
throwing their empty purfes at his feet, told him, that
4 P 2 as
ARM
■ as he enriched himfelf alone, he might carry on the
^ war by himlelf. He endeavoured to appeafe them as
much as poffible 5 but the fedition being fomented by
a party who favoured Pompey the Great, at that time
afpiring to the command of Lucullus’s army, the latter
found himfelf obliged to fit ftill and fee Mithridates
and Tigranes overrun Cappadocia, and recover all Ar¬
menia and great part of Pontus. They would have
gained much greater advantages, had not a fon of Ti¬
granes taken arms againft his father, and obliged him
to divide his troops. 1 he father and fon coming to a
pitched battle, the latter wTas defeated, and forced to
lave himfelf in Parthia, where he perfuaded Phraates,
king of that country, to aflift him with a numerous ar¬
my againft his father. Phraates having laid fiege to
Artaxata, Tigranes the elder wTas obliged to hide him¬
felf in the mountainous parts of his kingdom; up¬
on which the king of Parthia returned home. Of this
Tigranes the father being apprized, he immediately
abandoned the faftneffes of the mountains; and falling
upon his fon at Artaxata, difperfed the rebels with
great daughter ; and entered his metropolis in triumph.
Tigranes the fon firft fled to Mithridates 5 but finding
him reduced to great ftraits, having been overcome a
few days before, wfith the lofs of 40,000 men, by
Pompey, he went over to the Romans, and led them
into Armenia againft his father as an ally of Mithri¬
dates.
Tigranes, being nowT quite difpirited, and unable to
make head againft the Romans, refolved at once to
fubmit. Accordingly he waited on Pompey in his
camp, and having delivered his fword to twm lifters,
proftrated himfelf before him, and laid his diadem at
his feet. Pompey, however, gave him a gracious re¬
ception, reftored him the kingdom of Armenia, but
fined him of 6000 talents for making war on the Ro¬
man people without caufe. As the king had appealed
to the Roman general for juftice againft his fon, Pom¬
pey heard both parties the next day, and made the fon
governor of Gordyene and Sophene 5 but the treafures
that were kept in the latter he adjudged to his father,
becaufe without them he could not pay the fine. The
fon, being thus difappoiuted, endeavoured firft to make
his eicape, and afterwards, by private meflengers, foli-
cited the inhabitants not to deliver up the treafures to
his father. This being taken very much amifs by
Pompey, he caufed him to be kept in irons ; and even
then he found means to ftir up Phraates king of Par¬
thia, whole daughter he had married, againft the Ro¬
mans, and to form a eonfpiracy againft his father’s life;
whereupon Pompey fent him in chains to Rome, where
he was kept prifoner in the houfe of L. Flavius a fena-
tor, till the tribunefhip of P. Clodius, who, being
bribed with a large fum of money, fet him at liberty
in fpite of Pompey and the fenate.
_ Tigranes being now thoroughly humbled, willingly
yielded to the Romans, Cappadocia, Syria, Cilicia, and
that part of Phoenicia which he poflefled, contenting
himfelf with his paternal kingdom ; and not only paid
the fine laid upon him, but made large prefents to
Pompey, and all the officers of his army, which pro¬
cured him the title of the friend and ally of the Roman
people. He afterwards entered into a war with Phra¬
ates king of Parthia, by whom he was dvercome, and
would have been driven out of his kingdom, had not a
[ 668 ]
ARM
peace been brought about by the mediation of Pom- Armenia.
pey. He ever after cultivated a ftrift friendlhip with 
the Romans; infomuch that he not only refufed to re¬
ceive Mithridates, who fled to him after he had been
routed by Pompey near Mount Stella, but even ofl'ered
a reward of 100 talents to any one that would put him
to death. His fecond fon alfo, by name Sariafter,
took up arms againft him •, but by the affiftance of the
Romans, that rebellion was foon quelled. He died in
the 85th year of his age ; and was fucceeded by his
fon Artuafdes, called by Jofephus udrtabazes, by Oro-
fius Artabanes, and by others Artoadifes.
From this time to the time of Trajan, Armenia was
governed by its own kings ; but as they were plainly
vaffals to the Romans, though they did not take that
title till the reign of the emperor Nero, their hiftory
falls to be confidered under that of the Romans.
By Trajan the kingdom of Armenia Major was re¬
duced to the form of a Roman province ; but it foon
recovered its liberty, aijd was again governed by its
own kings in the reigns of Conftantine the Great, and
his fucceffbr, to whom the kings of Armenia were feu¬
datories. In the reign of Juftin II. the Saracens fub-
dued and held it till the irruption of the Turks, who
pofiefied themfelves of this kingdom and gave it the
name of Turcomania. The Turks, after the reduftion
of Armenia, invaded Perfia, and other countries fub-
jeft to the emperors of the eaft j which gave the Ar¬
menians an opportunity of ftiaking off the Turkilh
yoke, and fetting up kings of their own, by whom
they were governed till the country was again fubdued
by Occadan, or, as fome ftyle him Heccata, the fon
of Cingis, and firft: ebam of the Tartars. Neither was
the conqueft of Armenia by the Tartars fo abfolute as
to extirpate the race of their kings; feeing we read of
Haithon, furnamed the Armenian, reigning fome time
after, and going in perfon to treat with Mungo, the
great cham of Tartary, of the concerns of his king¬
dom ; and in our chronicles we find mention made of
Leo king of Armenia, who, in the reign of Richard II.
came into England to fue for aid againft the Turks,
by whom he had been driven from his kingdom. In the
year 1472 of the Chriftian era, Uffan Caffanes king of
Armenia fucceeding to the crown of Perfia, made Ar¬
menia a province of that empire j in which ftate it con¬
tinued till the year 1522, when it was fubdued by Se¬
lim II. and made a province of the Turkiffi empire.
Some fay that Selim I. reduced it on his return from
Perfia, where he had gained a complete viftory over
the great Sophi Ifmael. But Sanfovin affures us, that
in the reign of Selim I. who died in 1520, both the
Leffer and Greater Armenia had their own kings ^ and
adds, that Selim caufed the head of the king of the
Leffer Armenia to be cut off and fent to Venice as a
mark of his viftory. We read nowhere elfe of any
kings of Armenia after it became a province of Perfia.
Be that as it will, the Turkilh annals cited by Calvi-
fius inform us, that Selim II. conquered Armenia in
1522, fince which time it has ever continued fubjeft to
the Turks, except the eaftern part, which the Perfians
are mailers of to this day.
Concerning Armenia Minor, we find very little re¬
corded, except what has been already mentioned, and
what falls under the Roman hiftory. It was made a
Roman province by Vefpafian, continued fo till the
divifioR
ARM
divifion of the empire, when it was fubje&ed to the
emperors of the eaft $ and, on the decline of their
power, was fubdued firft by the Perlians, and after¬
wards by the Turks, who gave it the name of Genech,
and have kept it ever fince.
This country is dill divided into the Great and Small.
Great Armenia comprehends what is now called Tur¬
comans. It has Georgia on the north, from which it
is feparated by high mountains ; the river Euphrates
on the weft ; Diarbeker, Curdiftan, and Aderbijan,
on the fouth $ and Shirvan on the eaft. The chief
towns in that part of Armenia belonging to Turkey are
Arzum the capital, near the fprings of the Euphrates,
a large city and a great thoroughfare for the caravans
between Turkey and Perfia •, Kara, a ftrong city, head
of the government of the fame name •, Bayazid, a re¬
public of Curds, near Mount Ararat: Baha, another
republic of the fame ) and Van or Wan, on the lake
Van, the head of a government of the fame name $
with other towns of lefs note. That part of Armenia
fubipdl to Perfia is chiefly contained in the province of
Aran, in which are feveral fine towns j as, Erivan or
Rivan, the capital of the whole j Ganjals, one of the
fineft cities in Perfia, in the north of the province,
near the Kur ; Kapan, on the fouth fide, near the A-
ras ; befides Nakfivah, Aftabad Julfa, Ordabad, Bay-
lakan or Pilkan, on the Arasj Berdah and Shilkah on
the Kur.
The country in general is full of mountains and val¬
leys, lakes, and rivers $ particularly the country about
the Three Churches, near Erivan, is admirably fine, be¬
ing full of rivulets, which render it extremely fruitful.
Befides great quantities of all forts of grain, here are
fields of a prodigious extent covered with tobacco :
but it is not a native of the place, though fuppofed
by fotne to be the terreftrial paradife $ for it all came
originally from America. The reft of the country pro¬
duces rice, cotton, flax, melons, and grapes : in fliort,
there is nothing wanting but olives j which is by fome
thought to prove that the ark could not reft on Mount
Ararat, becaufe the dove brought an olive branch in
her mouth, and this tree never leaves a place where it
once grew. It feems, however, to have been otherwife
anciently j for Strabo tells us, that the olive grew in
Gogarene, a province of Armenia. They get oil to
burn from the ricinus, and ufe linfeed oil in the kitchen.
The water melons are as cool as ice in the hotteft day,
and melt in the mouth j the beft are produced in the
fait lands, near the Three Churches and the river Ar-
as. After rain, the fea fait lies in cryftals upon the
fields, and even crackles under the feet. About ten
miles from the Three Churches, in the road to Tef-
lis, there are pits or quarries of foffil fait, which yield
enough to fupply all Perfia, without being exhaufted :
they cut it into large pieces like ftone, and each buf¬
falo carries two of them j the mountain from whence
it is dug is nothing but a mafs of fait, which appears
like a rock of filver when the fun fliines on the places
not covered with earth.
This country has been remarkable for its extreme
cold from the remoteft antiquity •, Sir John Chardin
tells us, that he found ice in the rivulets in the morn¬
ings even of the month of July. In many places, alfo,
if they had not the convenience of watering their
grounds, they would be almoft entirely barren..
ARM
The Armenians are an honeft, civil, polite people, A
fcarce troubling themfelves about any thing elfe but
trade, which they carry on in moft parts of the world,
by which means they have fpread themfelves over the
eaft, and alfo a great part of Europe; and wherever
they come, commerce is carried on with fpirit and ad¬
vantage.
The religion of the Armenians is the Chriftian, of
the Eutychian fe£t : that is, they own but one nature
in Jefus Chrift 5 and when they fpeak of the hypoftati-
cal union, that he is perfeft God and perfeft man with¬
out mixture. They have a high efteem for a book they
call the Little Gojpel, which treats of the infancy of
Jefus, and fays that the Virgin Mary being pregnant,
her After Salome accufed her of having proftituted her-
felf j to which the Virgin anfwered, that ftie needed
only to lay her hand on her belly, and Ihe would know
how (he came to be with child : this Salome accord¬
ingly did, and fire came out of her belly, which con-
fumed the half of her arm j upon which (he acknow¬
ledged her fault, and drew it back ; after which it was
healed by putting it to the fame place.
The Armenian clergy confift of patriarchs, arch-
bifhops, doftors, fecular priefts, and monks. The fe-
cular priefts are not allowed to marry a fecond time *,
and therefore they take care to choofe young heal¬
thy wives : they maintain themfelves and families by
following fome occupation, infomuch that they have
hardly time to perform their ecclefiaftical functions :
they lie in the churches on the vigils of thofe days they
are obliged to officiate.
The Armenian monks are of the order of St Bafil j
and every Wednefday and Friday they eat neither fifh,
nor eggs, nor oil, nor any thing made of milk, and
during Lent they live upon nothing but roots 5 they
are allowed wine only on the Saturday in the Holy
Week, and meat on the Eafter Sunday. Befides the
great Lent they have four others of eight days each,
which are inftituted to prepare for the four great fefti-
vals of the Nativity, the Afcenfion, the Annunciation,
and of St George ; in which times they muft not fo
much as fpeak of eggs* fifh, oil, or butter.
The Armenians have feven facraments; baptifm,
confirmation, penance, the eucharift, extreme un&ion,
orders, and matrimony. In baptifm, the child is plunged
three times into the water, and the fame form of words
that is ufed with us is repeated every time ; the prieft
then- puts a fmall cord made with filk and cotton on
the neck of the infant, and anoints his forehead, chin,
ftomach, arm pits, hands, and feet, making the fign
of the crofs on each part. When the child is baptized,
he is carried home by the godfather with the found of
drums and trumpets. The women do not go to church
till 40 days after their delivery; and they obferve
many Jewifh cuftoms.
At the communion, to which infants of two or three
months old are admitted, the priefts give a piece of tfib
confecrated hoft foaked in the confecrated wine. The
elements are covered with a great veil, and placed in a
cupboard near the altar, on the fide of the gofpels.
When the prieft takes the chalice and pattin, he is fol¬
lowed by his deacons and fubdeacons, with flambeaux
and plates of copper furniftied with bells: in this man¬
ner, with a cenfer before him, he goes in proceffion
round -the lan&uaryj he then fets them on the altar,
pronounces
[ 669 ]
ARM
[
67
Armeniaca pronounces the words ot confecration, and turns him-
II felf to the people, who fall down, kifs the earth, and
Armiilary. beat breads : then, after taking it himfelf, he
diftributes the holt foaked in wine to the people.
The Armenians feem to place the chief part of their
religion in fallings and abftinences : and among the
clergy, the higher the degree the lower they mull live 5
infomuch that it is faid the archbilhops live on nothing
but pulfe. They confecrate holy -water but once
a-year •, at which time every one fills a pot and carries
it "home, which brings in a confiderable revenue to the
church.
ARMENIACA. See Prunus.
ARMENIAN, fomething belonging to or produced
iir Armenia : thus we fay, Armenian boh?, Armenian
/tone, &c. See Bole, and Armenus Lapis.
ARMENTIERS, a fmall handfome town of the
Netherlands, in the county of Flanders, and dillriol
of Ypres. It was taken by Lewis XIV. in 1667, who
difmantled rt} and it now belongs to the French. It
is feated on the river Lis. E. Long. 3. 3. N. Lat.
5°. 40.
ARMENUS Lapis, Armenian Jione, in Natural
Hi/lory, a mineral fubftance, which is but improperly
called a Jione; being no other than an ochresus earth,
and properly called blue ochre. It is a very valuable
fubftance in painting, being a bright and lively blue.
It was in fo high efteem as a paint among the ancients,
that counterfeits were continually attempted to ferve
•in its place. Theophraftus has recorded it as a thing
judged worthy a place in the Egyptian annals, which
of their kings had the honour of inventing the fafli-
tious kind 5 and he tells us the genuine native fub¬
ftance was a thing of that value, that prefents were
made of it to great perfons, and that the Phoenicians
paid their tribute in it.—It is a very beautiful earth,
of an even and regular texture ; and of a fine blue,
fometimes deeper, fometimes paler, and frequently mix¬
ed with green. It is foft, tender, and light; of an
even, but fomewhat dufty furface : it adheres firmly
to the tongue, and is dry, but not harftr to the touch.
It eafrly breaks between the fingers, and does not ftain
the hands. It is of a brackiftr difagreeable tafte, and
does not ferment with acids. It is a very fcarce foffiT,
but is found very pure, though but in fmall quantities,
in the mines at Goffelaer in Saxony. It is frequently
found fpotted with green, and fometimes with black;
and very often is mixed among the green ochre, called
her^ruen by the Germans, which has thence been er-
roneoufly called by its name. See further the article
Bice.
ARMIERS, a town of Hainault, in the French Ne¬
therlands, feated on the river Sambre. E. Long. 3. 45.
N. Lat. 50. 15.
ARMIGER, a title of dignity, belonging to fuch
gentlemen as bear arms j and thefe are either by cour-
tefy, as fons of noblemen, eldeft fons of knights, &c. j
or by creation, fuch as the king’s fervants, &c. See
Esquire.
ARMILLARY, in a general fenfe, fomething con-
fifting of rings or circles.
Arm ill art Sphere, an artificial fphere compofed of
a number of circles of the mundane fphere, put toge¬
ther in their natural order, to eafe and aftift the ima-
0 ] A R M
gination in conceiving the conftitution Oa the heavens, Amulufln-
and the motions of the celeftial bodies. The avmillaiy
fphere revolves upon its axis within a filvered honzon, 1 —^ .
which is divided into degrees, and moveable every way
upon a brafs fupporter. The other parts are the equi-
no&ial, zodiac, meridian, the two tropics, and the two
polar circles. See Geography.
ARMILUSTRIUM, in Roman Antiquity, a feaft
held among the Romans, in which they facrificed, arm¬
ed, to the found of trumpets.
ARMINIANS, a religious fea, or party, which a-
rofe in Holland, by a feparation from the Calvinifts.
They followed the do&rine of Arminius (fee the next
article); who, thinking the doftrine of Calvin, with
regard to free-will, predeftination, and giace, too fe-
vere, began to exprefs his doubts concerning them in
the year'' 1591; and upon further inquiry adopted fen-
timents more nearly refembling thofe of the Lutherans
than of the Calvinifts. After his appointment to the
theological chair at Leyden, he thought it his duty to
avow and vindicate the principles which he had^em-
braced ; and the freedom with which he publiihed and
defended them expofed him to the reientment of thole
that adhered to the theological fyftem of Geneva, which
then prevailed in Holland ; but his principal opponent
was Gomar, his colleague. The controverfy which
was thus begun, became more general after the death
of Arminius, in the year 1609, and threatened to in¬
volve the United Provinces in civil diicord.. The Ar-
minian tenets gained ground under the mild and fa¬
vourable treatment of the magiftrates of Holland, and
were adopted by feveral perfons of merit and diftindlion.
The Calvinifts, or Gomarifts, as they were now called,
appealed to a national fynod : accordingly the fynod
of Dort was convened by order of the States General,
in 1618, and was compofed of ecclefiaftical deputies
from the United Provinces, as well as from the retorm-
ed churches of England, Heflia, Bremen, Switzerland,
and the Palatinate. The principal advocate m favour
of the Arminians was Epifcopius, who, at that time,
was profeffor of divinity at Leyden. It was {nft pxo-
pofed to difeuis the principal fubjeds in dilpute, and
that the Arminians ftiould be allowed to ftate and vin¬
dicate the grounds on which their opinions were found¬
ed : but feme difference arifmg as to the proper mode
of conducting the debate, the Arminians weie exclud¬
ed from the affembly; their cafe was tried^ in their
abfence ; and they were pronounced guilty of peftilen-
tial errors, and condemned as corrupters of the true
religion. In confequence of this decifion, they were
treated with great feverity ; they were deprived of all
their polls and employments ; their miniilers v\ ere fi-
lenced, and their congregations were fuppreffed. How¬
ever, after the death of Prince Maurice, who had been
a violent partizan in favour ot the Gomarihs, in the
year 1625, the Arminian exiles were reftored to their
former reputation and tranquillity; and under the to¬
leration of the ftate, they eredted churches and found¬
ed a college at Amfterdam, appointing Epifcopius to
be the firft theological profeffor. 1 he Arminian fyftern
has very much prevailed in England fince the time of
Archbiihop Laud, and its votaries in other countiies
are very numerous.
The diftinguilhing tenets of the Arminians may be
cemprifed
ARM [ 671 ] A R M
Arminians. comprifed in the following five articles j relating to
  v——' predeftination, univerfal redemption, the corruption of
man, converfion, and perfeverance.
1. With refpe£t to the firft, they maintained, “ That
God, from all eternity, determined to bellow ialvation
on thole who he forefaw would perfevere unto the end
in their faith in Chrift. Jefus; and to mflift everlafting
punilhments on thofe who Ihould continue in their un¬
belief, and refill unto the end his divine fuccours : fo
that eledlion was conditional, and reprobation in like
manner the refult of forefeen infidelity and perfevering
wickednefs.”
2. On the fecond point the Arminians taught, “That
Jeliis Chrift, by his fufferings and death, made an a-
tonement for the fins of all mankind in general, and
of every individual in particular ; that, however, none
but thofe who believe in him can be partakers of their
divine benefit.”
3. On the third article, they held, “ That true faith
cannot proceed from the exercife of our natural facul¬
ties and powers, nor from the force and operation of
free will ; fince man, in confequence of his natural
corruption, is incapable either of thinking or doing
any good thing j and that therefore it is neceflary,
in order to his converfion and falvation, that he be
regenerated and renewed by the operation of the
Holy Ghoft, which is the gift of God through Jefus
Chrift.”
4. “ That this divine grace, or energy of the Holy
Ghoft, begins and perfects every thing that can be call¬
ed good in man, and confequently all good works are
to be attributed to God alone •, that, neverthelefs, this
grace is offered to all, and does not force men to a£l
againft their inclination, but may be refifted and ren¬
dered ineffedlual by the perverfe will of the impenitent
finner.” Some modern Arminians interpret this and
the laft article with a greater latitude.
5. “ That God gives to the truly faithful, who are
regenerated by his grace, the means of preferving
themfelves in this ftate and though the firft Armi¬
nians made fome doubt with refpedl to the clofing part
of this article, their followers uniformly maintain, “that
the regenerate may lofe true juftifying faith, forfeit
their ftate of grace, and die in their fins.”
The modern fyftem of Arminianifm likewife, found¬
ed on a comprehenfive plan projected by Arminius him-
felf, as appears from a paffage in his laft will, extends
the limits of the Chriftian church, and relaxes the bonds
of fraternal communion in fuch a manner, that Chri-
ftians of all fedls and denominations, whatever their
fentiments and opinions may be, Papifts excepted, may
be formed into one religious body, and live together
in brotherly love and concord. But, in order to avoid
the reproach of being altogether unconnefted by any
common principles, Epifcopius drew up a confeffion
of faith, expreffed for the moft part in words and
phrafes of Holy Scripture, which the Arminians have
generally adopted, though not enjoined upon them by
any authoritative obligation. The Arminians are alfo
called RemonJIrantSy from an humble petition, entitled
their Re?nonJ}ranee, which, in the year 1610, they ad-
dreffed to the States of Holland. Their principal
writers are Arminius, Epifcopius, Vorftius, Grotius,
Curcellaeus, Limborch, Le Clerc, and Wetftein ; not
to mention many others of more modern date.
ARMINIUS, James, rvhofe real name in Low Arminius
Dutch was James Harmanni, a famous Proteftant di- Arn|(Jj^ri
vine, from rvhom the modern fe£t of Arminians (fee j
the preceding article) take their name, was born at
Oude water, in Holland, in 1560. He was ordained
minifter at Amfterdam on the 11th of Auguft *588}
where he foon diftinguiflhed himfelf by his fermons,
which were remarkable for their folidity and learning,
and gained him univerfal applaufe : but Martin Lydias,
profeffor of divinity at Franeker, judging him a fit per-
fon to refute a writing in which Beza’s dodlrine of
predeftination had been attacked by fome minifters of
Delft, Arminius at his entreaties undertook the talk ;
but upon thoroughly examining the reafons on both
fides, he came into the opinions he propofed to deftroy,
and afterwards went ftill farther than the minifters of
Delft had done. In 1600, he oppoied thofe who main¬
tained that minifters fhould fubferibe the confeffion and
catechifm every year. In 1602, a peftilential difeafe
raged at Amfterdam, during which he afted with the
greateft refolution and courage, in affifting the poor,
and comforting the fick ; and Lucas Trelcatius and
Francis Junius dying of that difeai’e at Leyden, the cu¬
rators of that univerfity chofe Arminius profeffor of
divinity there, and he was afterwards made dodlor of
divinity. Difputes upon grace wrere foon after kindled
in that univerfity ; and he was at length engaged in a
new7 conteft, occafioned by a deputation of his con¬
cerning the divinity of the Son. Thefe contefts, his
continual labour, and the concern of feeing his repu¬
tation blafted by a multitude of Handers in relation to
his opinions, impaired his health, and threw7 him into
a fit of ficknefs, of wffiich he died on the 19th of Oc¬
tober 1609. Arminius was efteemed an excellent preach¬
er : his voice w7as low7-, but very agreeable ; and his
pronunciation admirable : he wras eafy and affable to
perfons of all ranks, and facetious in his converfatiorr
amongft his friends. His great defire w?as, that Chri-
ftians would bear with one another in all controverfies
which did not affedl the fundamentals of their religion j
and when they perfecuted each other for points of in¬
difference, it gave him the utmoft diffatisfadlion. The
curators of the univerfity of Leyden had fo great a
regard for him, that they fettled a penfion upon his
wife and children. He left feveral works, viz. 1. Dif-
putationes de diverfis Chriftianae religionis capitibus.
2. Orationes, itemque traftatus infigniores aliquot.
3. Examen modefti libelli Gulielmi Perkinfi de prsede-
ftinationis modo et ordine, itemque de amplitudine
gratiae divina?. 4. Analyfis capitis noni ad Romanos.
5. Differtatio de vero et genuine fenfu capitis feptimi
epiftolse ad Romanos. 6. Arnica collatio cum D. Fran-
eifeo Junio de prEedeftinatione per literas habita. 7. E-
piftola ad Hippolytum a collibus.”
ARMIRO, a town of Macedonia, in European Tur¬
key ; feated on the gulf of Velo. E. Long. 23. 40.-
N. Lat. 38. 34.
ARMISTICE, in Military M[fairs, a temporary
truce or ceffation of arms for a very ftiort fpace of time.
The word is Latin, armijlitium; and compounded of
arma, arms,” and/A? “ to ftand, or flop.”
ARMOISIN, a filk fluff, or kind of taffety, ma¬
nure flured in the Eart Indies, at Lyons, in France,
and at Lucca in Italy. That of the Indies is fiighteF
than thofe made in Europe.
ARMONIAC,
ARM [ 672 ] A R M
Armoniac ARMONIAC. See Ammoniac,ChemistRy^Wa?.
N ARMONICA. See Harmonica.
/ 't‘ ^llie_r‘ ARMORIAL, fomething relating to arms or coats
of arms. See Arms and Heraldry.
ARMORIC, or Aremoric, fomething that be¬
longs to the province of Bretagne, or Britanny, in
France. The name Armorica was anciently given to
all the northern and weftern coaft of Gaul, from the
Pyrenees to the Rhine ; under which name it was
known even in Caefar’s time. The word is of Bas Bre¬
ton origin, and denotes as much as maritime; com¬
pounded, according to M. Menage, of #r, “ upon,”
and more, “ fea.”
ARMOR 1ST, a perfon {killed in the knowledge of
armour.
ARMORUM concussio, the clafliing of arms
pradlifed by the Roman armies previous to an engage¬
ment, and intended to ftrike a panic into their enemies;
It always followed the claflicum and the barritus. See
Classicum and Barritus.
ARMOUR, a defenfive habit, wherewith to cover
and fecure the body from the attacks of an enemy.
In ancient itatutes this is frequently called harnefs.—
Parts of armour are, the buckler, cuirafs, helmet, coat
of mail, gauntlet, &c.
A complete armour anciently conMed of a cafque
or helm, a gorget, cuirafs, gauntlets, taffes, braffets,
cuifhes, and covers for the legs, to which the fpurs
were faftened. This they called armour cap-a-pie;
and was the wear of the cavaliers and men at arms.—
The infantry had only part of it ; viz. a pot or head-
piece, a cuirafs, and talfes ; but all light. Laftly, The
horfes themfelves had their armour, wherewith to co¬
ver the head and neck. Of all this furniture of war,
fcarce any thing is now retained except the cuirafs ;
the gorget, or neck-piece, worn by officers, being at
prefent only a badge of honour, and of no defence.
The gallantry of going to the battle naked, without
any defenfive armour, prevailed fo far, that the French,
during the reign of Louis XIV. were obliged to be
continually iffuing ordonnances to reftrain it ; in con-
fequence of which the general officers, and thofe of the
cavalry, were obliged to refume the cuirafs, which yet
has been but ill obferved.
Armour, Coat, is the efcutcheon of any perfon, or
family, with its feveral charges, and other furniture j
as mantling, creft, fupporters, motto, &c. Thus we
fay, a gentleman of coat armour; meaning one who
bears arms.
ARMOURER, a maker of arms, or armour.—
The Roman armourers were difpofed in certain places
in the empire, it being forbid either to fell, or buy, or
make arms elfewhere. They were exempt from all
offices and taxes, and received afalary from the public.
When once they had taken the employment on
themfelves, neither they, nor their children, were al¬
lowed to quit it. To prevent this, they had a kind of
note, or ftigma, impreifed on the arm, whereby they
might be known. If any of them tied, or fecreted
their ware, the reft were obliged to anfwer for him 5
on account of which, the effedls of fuch as died with¬
out a legal heir went to the college. There were 15
armamentaries, or repofitories of arms, in the Eaftern
empire, placed near the frontiers, and 19 in the Weft-
£rn.
A rmourer of a Jhip, a perfon whole office is to take Armoury
care that the arms be in a condition fit for fervice. II
ARMOURY, a ftorehoufe of arms, or a place , Arms-
wherein military habiliments are kept, to be ready for v
ufe. There are armouries in the Tower, and in all
arfenals, citadels, caftles, &c.
Armoury is alfo ufed for a branch of heraldry:
being the knowledge of coat armours, as to their bla¬
zons, and various intendments.
ARMOZA, orHARMOziA, a town in Caramania,
at the mouth of the Anamis, wffiich falls into the Per-
fian gulf (Arrian) j Armu-za, (Ptolemy); and from
this the neighbouring ifiand, and a fmall kingdom,
take the modern name of Ormus. E. Long. y6. 17.
N. Lat. 27. 20.
ARMS, arma, in a general fenfe, includes all kinds
of w7eapons, whether for defence or offence. Nicod de¬
rives the word from the Latin phrafe quod operiant ar-
mos, becaufe they cover the ffioulders or fides; but
Varro derives arma, ab arcendo, eo quod arceant hofes.
It is fuppofed that the firft artificial arms were of wood,
and were only employed againft beafts ; and that Be-
lus, the fon of Nimrod, w'as the firft that w7aged war :
whence, according to fome, came the appellation hel¬
ium. Diodorus Siculus takes Belus to be the fame
with Mars, who firft trained foldiers up to battle.—
Arms of ftone, and even of brafs, appear to have been
ufed before they came to iron and fteel. Jofephus af-
fures us, that the patriarch Jofeph firft taught the ufe
of iron arms in Egypt, arming the troops of Pharaoh
with a cafque and buckler.
What contributed moft to render the Romans ma¬
ilers of the wmrld, was, that having fucceffively war-
red againft all nations, they conftantly renounced their
own methods, arms, &c. wffienever they met with bet¬
ter. Thus Romulus during his war with the Sabines,
a bold and warlike nation, adopted their broad buckler
in lieu of the fmall Argian buckler, which he had ufed
till that time.
The principal arms of the ancient Britons were hat¬
chets, fcythes, lances, fwords, and bucklers : the Sax¬
ons, &c. brought in the halbard, bow, arrow’s, arba-
lifts, &c. By the ancient laws of England, every man
W’as obliged to bear arms, except the judges and clergy.
Under Henry VIII. it was exprefsly enjoined on all
perfons to be vegularly inftrufted, even from their
tender years, in the exercife of the arms then in ufe ;
viz. the long bow and arrows : and to be provided
with a certain number of them. 33 Hen. VIII.
Arms, Arma, in Law, are extended to any thing
which a man takes in his hand in his wrath, to caft at,
or ftrike another.
By the common lawr, it is an offence for perfons to
go or ride armed wfith dangerous weapons : but gentle¬
men may wear common armour, according to their
quality, &c. 3d Inft. The king may prohibit force of
arms, and puniftr offenders according to law7 ; and here¬
in every fubjecl is bound to be aiding. Stat. 7. Edw. I.
None ffiall come with force and arms before the king’s
juftices, nor ride armed in affray of the peace, on pain
to forfeit their armour, and to fuller imprifonment,
&.c. 2d Edwr. III. c. 3.
I he importation of arms and ammunition are pro¬
hibited by 1 Jac. II. c. 8. and by 1 W. and M. flat. 2.
c. 2. Proteftant fubjefts may have arms for their de¬
fence.
Arms.
ARM [ 673 ]
fence. So likewife arms, &c. flapped after prohibi- heirs,
tion, are forfeited by 29 Geo. I. c. 16. fee. 2.
Arms of offence in ufe among us at prefent are, the
fword, piitol, mufket, bayonet, pike, &c.
The arms of the Highlanders are, the broad fword,
target, poniard, and whinyar or durk, &c. There are
fe\Tral adls of parliament for difarming the Highland-
fee 1 Geo. I. c. 54. j 11 Geo. I. c. 26. j 19 Geo.
II. c. 39.; 21 Geo. H. c. 34. j 26 Geo. 11. c. 22.
and 29.
Fire Arms are thofe charged with powder and ball:
fuch are cannon, mortars, and other ordnance 5 muf-
kets, carabines, piftols, and even bombs, grenadoes,
carcaffes, &c. In the Hiftory of the Royal Academy
for the year 1707, w^e have an account of fome experi¬
ments made with fire arms, differently loaded, by M.
Caflini. Among other things he obferves, that by
loading the piece with a ball which is fomewhat lefs
than the calibre, and only laying a little gunpowder
below the ball and a good deal above it, it will yield
a vehement noife, but have no fenfible effeft or impulfe
on the ball. This he takes to have been all the fecret
of thofe people who pretended to fell the art of render¬
ing one’s fell' invulnerable, or Ihot proof.
Arms, pafs of, was a kind of combat in ufe among
the ancient cavaliers.
Aims,Jland of. A Hand of arms fignifies a mulket
a bayonet, a fword, belt, and cartridge-box.
Arms of parade or court efy, were thofe ufed in the
ancient juffs and tournaments ; which were commonly
unlhod lances, fwords without edge or point, wooden
fwords, and even canes.
Arms denote the natural weapons, or parts of de¬
fence, of beafts : as claws, teeth, tufles of elephants
beaks of birds, &c. ’
Arms, are alfo ufed figuratively for the profeflion
ot a foldier. Thus we fay, He was bred to arms.
Arms, or Armories, are alfo ufed in heraldry for
marks ot dignity and honour, regularly compofed of
certain figures and colours, given or authorized by fo-
vereigns, and borne on banners, fhields, coats, &c. for
the diftin&ion of perfons, families, and ftates j and paf-
fmg by defeent to pofterity. They are called arms,
m. regard they are borne principally on the buckW,
cuirafs, banners, and other apparatus of war. They are
alfo called coats of arms, coat armour, &c. becaufe an¬
ciently embroidered on furcoats, &c. See Herald¬
ry. Some will have the name to have been firft oc-
cafioned by the ancient, knights, who in their jufts and
tournaments bore certain marks (which were frequent¬
ly their rmiirefs’s favours) in their armour, i. e. their
helmets or ihields, to diftinguilh them from each other.
.Arms at prefent follow the nature of titles, which
being made hereditary, thefe are alfo become fo, being
the leveral marks for diftinguilhing of families and
kindreds, as names are of perfons and individuals.
Arms are varioufly diftinguiflied by the Heralds.
Arms oj Alliance, are thole rvhich families or private
perfons join to their own, to denote the alliances which
they have contracted by marriage.
Anns ajfumptive, are fuch as a man has a right to
affume of himfelf,. in virtue of fome gallant adion.
As, if a man who is no gentleman of blood, nor has
coat armour, takes a gentleman, lord, or prince, pri-
ioner in any lawful war 5 he becomes entitled to bear
the fliield of fuch prifoner, and enjoy it to him and his
V ol. II. Part II.
ARM
The foundation hereof is that principle in mi¬
litary Imv, that the dominion of things taken in lawful'
war paffes to the conqueror.
Artns, canting, are thofe wherein the figures bear
an alluhon to the name of the family. Such are thofe
of the family of La Tour in Auvergne, who bear a
tower; that of the family of Prado in Spain, whofe
field is a meadow. Moft authors hold thefe the molt
noble and regular, as is fhown by an infinity of initan-
ces produced by Father Varrenne and Menetrier.—
I hey are much debaled when they come to partake of
the Rebus.
Arms, charged, are fuch as retain their ancient inte¬
grity and value, with the addition of lome new ho¬
nourable charge or bearing, in confideration of fome
noble adlion.
Arms of community, are thofe of biihoprics, cities,
univerfities, and other bodies corporate.
. Arms of concejfon, or augmentation of honour, are
either entire arms, or elle one or more figures given
by princes, as a reward for fome extraordinary fer-
vice.
Arms of dominion, are thofe which emperors, kings,
and fovereign ftates bear ; being annexed to the terri¬
tories which they poffefs. Thus the three lions are
the arms of England ; the fleurs de lys thofe of France,
&c.
Antis of family, or paternal arms, are fuch as be¬
long to. a particular family, and which no other perfon.
has a right to affume.
. Arms, full, or entire, are fuch as retain their primi¬
tive purity, integrity, or value j without any altera¬
tions, diminutions, abatements, or the like. It is a
rule, that the fimpler and lels diverfified the arms, the
more noble and ancient they are. For this reafon Gar¬
cias Ximenes, firft king of Navarre, and his fucceffors
for feveral ages, bore only gules, without any figure
at all. &
The arms of princes of the blood, of all younger
fons, and junior families, are not pure and full j but
diftinguiflied and diminithed by proper differences, &c.
Ai ms of patronage, are thofe which governors of pro¬
vinces, lords of manors, &c. add to their family arms, in
token of their peculiar fuperiority and jurifdidlion.
Arms of pretenfon, are thofe of luch kingdoms or
territories to which a prince or lord has fome claim,
and which, he adds to his own, though the kingdoms
or territories be poffeffed by a foreign prince or other
lord, Fhus the kings of England have quartered the
arms of France with their own, ever fince the claim of
Edward III. to that kingdom, in 1330.
Arms offuccejjion, are aflumed by thofe who inherit
eftates, manors, &c. by will, entail, or donation, and
which they either impale or quarter with their own
arms. v
Arms are alfo faid to be parted, couped, quartered,
&c.
. Arms, are .faid to he fa Ife and irregular, when there
is fomething in them contrary to the eftablifhed rules of
heraldry. As, when metal is put on metal, or colour
on colour, &c.
1 he laws, and other affairs of arms, with the cogni¬
zance of offences committed therein, belong, among
us, to the earl marflial and college of arms.
Ar.ms, in Falconry, denote the legs of a hawk, from
tne thigh to the foot. See Falconry.
4 ARMSTRONG,
Arms.
ARM [ 674
Armftrong. ARMSTRONG, Dr John, an eminent phylician,
''~x" v'*—-'1 poet, and mifcellaneous writer, was born in Caftleton
parifh, Roxburghflnre, where his father and brother
were minifters j completed his education in the univer-
fity of Edinburgh, where he took his degree in phy-
fic, Feb. 4. 1732, with much reputation j and publifh-
ed his thelis, as the forms of that univerfity require j
the fubject was De take purulenta. In 1735 he pub¬
lished a little humorous fugitive pamphlet in 8vo, en¬
titled, “ An EiTay for abridging the Study of Phy-
fic 5 to which is added a Dialogue betwixt Hygeia,
Mercury, and Pluto, relating to the practice of phy-
fic, as it is managed by a certain illuftrious Society.
As alfo an Epiftle from Ufbek the Perfian to Jofhua
Ward, Efq.” This piece contains much fun and
drollery ; in the dialogue, he has caught the very Spi¬
rit of Lucian. In 1737 he publilhed a Synopfis of
the Hiflory and Cure of the Venereal Difeafe, 8vo.
This was foon followed by the Economy of Love ; a
poem which has much merit; but, it mull be confef-
ied, is too ftrongly tinftured with the licentioufnefs of
Ovid. It is laid, however, that his maturer judgment
expunged many of the luxuriances of youthful fancy,
in an edition “ revifed and corrected by the author” in
1768. It appears by one of the cafes on literary pro¬
perty, that Mr Millar paid 50 guineas for the copy¬
right of this poem, which was intended as a burlefque
on fome didaftic writers. It has been obferved of Dr
Armftrong, that his works have great inequalities,
fome ot them being poffeffed of every requilite to be
fought after in the moft perfect compofition, while
others can hardly be confidered as Superior to the pro¬
ductions of mediocrity. The Art of preferving Health,
his bell performance, which was publilhed in 1744,
will tranfmit his name to pofterity as one of the firft
Englilh writers, has been honoured with the following
testimony of a refpe£table critic. On this work we
lhall allb tranfcribe a beautiful eulogium from an emi-
* Mac- nent phyfician : “ Of all the poetical performances
kenzir's Hi- on this fubjeft that have come to my hands, Dr Arm-
]
A R M
ftcry °f
Health.
Strong’s Art of preferving Health is by far the belt.
To quote every charming defeription and beautiful
pallage of this poem, one mult tranfcribe the wrhole.
We cannot, however, expect new rules, where the
principal defign vras to raife and wrarm the heart into
a compliance rvith the folid precepts of the ancients,
which he has enforced with great Strength and ele¬
gance. And, upon the whole, he has convinced us,
by his own example, that we ought not to blame anti¬
quity for acknowledging
One power of phyfic, melody, and fong.”
In 1746 Dr Armstrong was appointed one of the
phylicians to the Hofpital for Lame and Sick Soldiers
behind Buckingham houfe. In 1751 he published his
poem on Benevolence, in folio *, and in I753> Tafte,
an EpiStle to a young Critic.” In 1758 appeared,
“ Sketches or Effays on various fubjefts, by Launce-
lot Temple, ESq. in tvm parts.” In this production,
which poSTeSies much humour and knowledge of the
world, and which had a remarkably rapid fale, he is
fuppofed to have been affiited by Mr Wilkes. In 1760
he had the honour of being appointed phyfician to the
army in Germany, where in 1671 he wrote a poem
called “ Day, an Epiltle to John Wilkes of Aylelbu-
ry, Efq:.” In this poem, which is not collected in his
wrorks, he wantonly hazarded a reflection on Church- Arrmiyflen,
ill, which drew on him the ferpent-toothed vengeance
of that fevereft of fatiriSts, whofe embalming or corro-' v
five pen could deify or lampoon any man, according
as he acquiefced with, or diSTented from his political
principles. In 1770 Dr Armstrong published a col¬
lection of “ Mifcellanies, in 2 vols. *, containing, 1. The
Art of preferving Health. 2. Of Benevolence, an
EpiStle to Eumenes. 3. Tafte, an EpiStle to a young
Critic, 1753. 4. Imitations of Shakefpeare and Spen-
fer. 5. The Univerfal Almanack, by Noureddin Ali.
6. The Forced Marriage, a tragedy. 7. Sketches.”
In 1771 he publilhed “ A Short Ramble through fome
parts of France and Italy, by Launcelot Temple ;”
and in 1773, in his own name, a quarto pamphlet, un¬
der the title of “ Medical ESTays j” towards the con¬
clusion of which, he accounts for his not having fuch
extenfive pra&ice as fome of his brethren, from his
not being qualified to employ the ufual means, from a
ticklish State of fpirits, and a distempered excefs of fen-
fibility. He complains much of the behaviour of fome
of his brethren, of the herd of critics, and particularly
of the reviewers. He died in Sept. 1779 ; and to the
no Small furprife of his friends, left behind him more
than 300I. faved out of a very moderate income, arifing
principally from his half-pay.
ARMUYDEN, a fea port town of the United Pro¬
vinces, in the ifland of Walcherin, formerly very flou¬
rishing ; but now inconfiderable, the lea having Stopped
up the harbour. The fait works are its chief refource.
E. Long. 3. 40. N. Lat. 51. 30.
ARMY, a large number of foldiers, confiSting of
horfe and foot, completely armed, and provided with
artillery, ammunition, provisions, &c. under the com¬
mand of one general, having lieutenant-generals, ma¬
jor-generals, brigadiers, and other officers under him.
An army is compofed of fquadrons and battalions 5 and
is ufually divided into three corps, and formed into
three lines : the firit line is called the van-guard, the
fecond the main-body, and the third the rear-guard or
body of referve. The middle of each line is poSTeffed
by the foot ; the cavalry form the right and left wing
of each line ; and Sometimes they place Squadrons of
l^rfe in the intervals between the battalions. When
the army is drawn up in order of battle, the horfe are
placed at five feet distance from each other, and the
foot at three. In each line the battalions are diflant
from each other 180 feet, which is nearly equal to the
extent of their front 5 and the Lame holds of the fqua¬
drons, which are about 300 feet diftant, the extent of
their own front. Thefe intervals are left for the fqua¬
drons and battalions of the fecond line to range them-
felves againft the intervals of the firft, that both may
more readily march through thefe fpaces to the enemy:
the firft line is ufually 300 feet diftant from the fecond,
and the fecond from the third, that there may be fuffi-
cient room to rally when the Squadrons and battalions
are broken. See the article War.
This is to be underftood of a land army only. A
naval or fea army is a number of Ships of war, equip¬
ped and manned with failors and marines, under the
command of an admiral, with other inferior officers
under him. See Naval Tactics.
It has been obferved, that in Europe a prince with
a million of fubjedls cannot keep an army ot above
10,000 men,, without ruining himfelf. It was other-
wifa
Army.
ARM ■ t 675 ] ARM
wife m the ancient republics : the proportion of fol-
diers to the reft of the people, which is now as about
one to too, might then be as about one to eight.
The reafon leems owing to that equal partition of
lands which the ancient founders of commonwealths
made among their fubjecfts ; fo that every man had a
confiderable property to defend, and means to defend
it with : whereas, among us, the lands and riches of
a nation being (hared among a few, the reft have no
way of fubfifting but by trades, arts, and the like •,
and have neither any free property to defend, nor
means to enable them to go to war in defence of it,
without ftarving their families. A large part of our
people are either artifans or fervants, and fo only mi-
nifter to the luxury and effeminacy of the great. While
the equality of lands fubfifted, Rome, though only a
little ftate, being refufed the fuccours which the La¬
tins were obliged to furniflr after the taking of the city
in the confulate of Caraillus, prefently raifed ten le¬
gions within its own walls *, which was more, Livy af-
fures us, than they were able to do in his time, though
mafters of the greateft part of the world. A full proof,
adds the hiftorian, that wre are not grown ftronger j
and that what fwells our city is only luxury, and the
means and effedts of it.
Our armies anciently were a fort of militia, com-
pofed chiefly of the vaffals and tenants of the lords.
When each company had ferved the number of days
or months enjoined by their tenure, or the cuftoms of
the fees they held, they returned home. The armies
of the empire confift of divers bodies of troops furnifh-
ed by the feveral circles. The grofs of the French ar¬
mies under the Merovingian race, confifted of infantry.
Under Pepin and Charlemagne, the armies confifted
almoft equally of cavalry and foot : but fince the de-
clenfion of the Carlovingian line, the fees being be¬
come hereditary, the national armies, fays Le Gendre,
are chiefly cavalry.
A wrell regulated (landing army is greatly fuperior
to a militia *, although a militia, it is to be obferved,
after ferving two or three campaigns, may .become
equal to a (landing army, and in every refpedt a match
for veteran troops. See Militia.
One of the firft (landing armies of which we have
a diftin<51 account, in any well authenticated hiftory,
is that of Philip of Macedon. His frequent wars with
the Thracians, Illyrians, Theffalians, and fome of the
Greek cities in the neighbourhood of Macedon, gra¬
dually formed his troops, which in the beginning wrere
probably militia, to the exadl difcipline of a (landing
army. When he was at peace, wdiich was very feldom,
and never for any long time together, he was careful
not to dilband that army. It vanquifhed and fubdued,
after a long and violent druggie, indeed, the gallant
and well exercifed militias of the principal republics of
ancient Greece $ and afterwrards, wuth very little drug¬
gie, the effeminate and ill exercifed militia of the great
Perfian empire. The fall of the Greek republics and
of the Perfian empire, was the effedl of the irrefidible
fuperiority which a (landing army has over every fort
of militia. It is the firft great revolution in the affairs
of mankind of wThich hiftory has preferved any diftindl
or circumftantial account.
The fall of Carthage, and the confequent elevation
of Rome, is the fecond. All the varieties in the for¬
tune of thofe two famous republics may very ^tvell be
accounted for from the fame caule.
From the end of the firft to the beginning of the
fecond Carthaginian war, the armies of Carthage were
continually in the field, and employed under three
great generals, who fucceeded one another in the
command ; Hamilcar, his fon-in-law Afdrubal, and his
fon Hannibal •, firft in chaftifing their own rebellious
(laves, aftenvards in fubduing the revolted nations of
Africa ; and, laftly, in conquering the great kingdom
of Spain. The army which Hannibal led from Spain
into Italy muft neceffarily, in thofe different w7ars,
have been gradually formed to the exa£l difcipline of
a (landing army. The Romans, in the mean time,
though they had not been altogether at peace, yet
they had not during this period, been engaged in any
war of very great confequence ) and their military dii-
cipline, it is generally faid, w^as a good deal relaxed.
The Roman armies which Hannibal encountered at,
Trebia, Thrafymenus, and Cannae, wTere militia op-
pofed to a (landing army. This circumftance, it is
probable, contributed more than any other to deter¬
mine the fate of thofe battles.
The (landing army which Hannibal left behind him
in Spain, had the like fuperiorit^ over the militia,
which the Romans fent to oppofe it, and in a few
years, under the command of his brother the younger
Afdrubal, expelled them almoft entirely from that
country.
Hannibal was ill fupplied from home. The Roman
militia, being continually in the field, became in the
progrefs of the war a well difciplined and well exercifed
(landing army $ and the fuperiority of Hannibal grew
every day lefs and lefs. Afdrubal judged it neceffary
to lead the whole, or almoft the whole, of the (land¬
ing army which he commanded in Spain, to the aflift-
ance of his brother in Italy. In this march he is faid
to have been milled by his guides j and in a country
which he did not know, was furprifed and attacked by
another (landing army, in every refpeft equal or fupe¬
rior to his own, and was entirely defeated.
When Afdrubal had left Spain, the great Scipio
found nothing to oppofe him but a militia inferior to
his own. He conquered and fubdued that militia j
and in the courfe of the war, his own militia neceffa¬
rily became a well difciplined and well exercifed (land¬
ing army. That (landing army was afterwards car¬
ried to Africa, where it found nothing but a militia to
oppofe it. In order to defend Carthage, it became ne¬
ceffary to recal the (landing army of Hannibal. The
difheartened and frequently defeated African militia
joined it, and at the battle of Zama compofed the
greater part of the troops of Hannibal. The event
of that day determined the fate of the two rival re¬
publics.
From the end of the fecond Carthaginian war till
the fall of the Roman republic, the armies of Rome
were in every refpe£l (landing armies. The (landing
army of Macedon made fome refiftance to their armss
In the height of their grandeur it coft them two great
wars and three great battles, to fubdue that little king¬
dom 3 of which the conqueft wTould probably have been
Hill more difficult, had it not been for the cowardice
of its laft king. The militias of all the civilized na¬
tions of the ancient world, of Greece, ©f Syria, and
4 Qj2
Army.
ARM
Army.
Egypt, made but a feeble refinance to the Handing
armies of Rome, The militias of fome barbarous na¬
tions defended themfelves much better. The Scythian
or Tartar militia, which Mithridates drew from the
countries north oi the Euxine and Cafpian feas, were
the moll formidable enemies whom the Romans had to
encounter after the lecond Carthaginian war. The
Parthian and German militias too were always refpec-
table, and upon feveral occalions gained very conli-
derable advantages over the Roman armies. In gene-
lal, however, and when the Roman armies were well
commanded, they appear to have been very much fu-
perior.
j Many different caufes contributed to relax the dif-
cipline of the Roman armies. Its extreme feverity
was, perhaps, one of thofe caufes. In the days of their
grandeur, when no enemy appeared capable of op-
poling them, their heavy armour was laid afide as unne-
ceilarily burdenfome, their laborious exercifes were ne¬
glected as unnecelfarily toilfome. Under the Roman
emperors, befides, the Handing armies of Rome, thofe
particularly which guarded the German and Pannoni-
an frontiers, became dangerous to their maflers, againH
whom they ufed frequently to fet up their oum gene¬
rals. In order to render them lefs formidable, accord¬
ing to fome authors Dioclefian, according to others
Conflantine, firit wuthdreiv them from the frontiers,
where they had always before been encamped in great
bodies, generally of two or three legions each, and
difperfed them in fmall bodies through the different
provincial towns, from whence they wTere fcarce ever
removed, but when it became neceffary to repel an
invalion. Small bodies of foldiers quartered in trading
and manufacturing towns, and feldom removed from
thofe quarters, became themfelves tradefmen, artificers,
and manufacturers. The civil came to predominate
over the military character; and the Handing armies
of Rome gradually degenerated into a corrupt, ne-
gleCied, and undifeiplined militia, incapable of refiff-
ing tne attack of tluT German and Scythian militias,
which loon afterwards invaded the weflern empire. It
was only by hiring the militia of fome of thofe nations
to oppole to that of others, that the emperors w^ere for
fome time able to defend themfelves. The fall of the
we Hern empire is the third great revolution in the af¬
fairs of mankind, of which ancient hiffory has prefer-
ved any diltinCt or circumflantial account. It w’as
brought about by the irrefiltible fuperiority wdrich the
militia of a barbarous has over that of a civilized na¬
tion ; which the militia of a nation of fliepherds has
over that of a nation of hulbandmen, artificers, and
manufacturers. The victories which have been gained
by militias have generally been not over Handing ar¬
mies, but over other militias in exercife and difeipline
inferior to themfelves. Such were the victories which
the Greek militia gained over that of the Perfian em-
pirey and fuch too were thofe which in later times the
Swifs militia gained over that of the Auffrians and
Burgundians.
The military force of the German and Scythian na¬
tions, who efiablilhed themfelves upon the ruins of the
weflern empire, continued for fome* time to be of the
fame kind in their new fettlements as it had been in
their original country. It was a militia of fliepherds
and hufbandiaen, which in time of wax took the field
[ 676 ]
arm
under the command of the fame chieftans whom it was
accuflomed to obey in peace. It w as therefore toler-v
ably well exercifed and tolerably well difeiplined. As
arts and induflry advanced, however, the authority of
the chieftans gradually decayed, and the great body
of the people had lefs time to fpare for militarv exer¬
cifes. Both the difeipline and the exercife of the feu¬
dal militia, therefore, went gradually to ruin, and
Handing armies were gradually introduced to fupply
the place of it. When the expedient of a Handing
army, befides, had once been adopted by one civilized
nation, it became neceffary that all its neighbours
fhould follow the example. They foon found that their
jafety depended upon their doing fo, and that their
own militia was altogether incapable of refilling the
attack of luch an army.
I he foldiers of a Handing army, though they may
never have leen an enemy, yet have frequently appear¬
ed to poffefs all the courage of veteran troops, and the
very moment that they took the field, to have been fit
to face the hardiefl and mofl experienced veterans. In
a long peace the generals perhaps may fometimes for¬
get their Ikill j but where a w7ell regulated Handing
army has been kept up, the foldiers feem never to for¬
get their valour.
W hen a civilized nation depends for its defence up¬
on a militia, it is at all times expofed to be conquered
by any barbarous nation which happens to be in its
neighbourhood. The frequent conquefls of all the ci¬
vilized countries in Afia by the Tartars, fufficiently
demonflrates the natural fuperiority wdiich the militia
of a barbarous has over that of a civilized nation. A
well regulated Handing army is fuperior to every mili¬
tia. Such an army, as it can belt be maintained by
an opulent and civilized nation, fo it can alone defend
fuch a nation againfl the invaflon of a poor and barba¬
rous neighbour. It is only by means of a Handing
army, therefore, that the civilizStion of any country
can be perpetuated, or even preferved for any confi-
derable time.
As it is only by means of a w7ell regulated Handing
army that a civilized country can be defended, fo it is
only by means of it that a barbarous country can be
fuddenly and tolerably civilized. A Handing army
eflablifhes, with an irrefiflible force, the law of the fo-
vereign through the remotefl provinces of the empire,
and maintains fome degree of regular government in
countries which could not otherwife admit of any.
Whoever examines with attention the improvements
W'hich Peter the Great introduced into the Ruffian em¬
pire, will find that they almofl all refolve themfelves
into the eflabliffiment of a wrell regulated Handing ar¬
my. It is the inflrument which executes and main¬
tains all his other regulations. That degree of order
and internal peace wdiich that empire has ever fince
enjoyed, is altogether owing to the influence of that
army.
Men of republican principles have been jealous of a
Handing army as dangerous to liberty. It certainly is
fo, wherever the interefl of the general and that of the
principal officers are not neceffarily connefted with the
fupport of the conftitution of the Hate. The Handing
army of Caefar deflroyed the Roman republic ; the
Handing army of Crormvell turned the long parliament
out of doors. But where the fovereign is himfelf the
general,.
Army,
A R N [ 677 ] A R N
Am?.II general, and the principal nobility and gentry of the
A maud country t^ie chief officers of the army ; where the mi-
1 J , htary force is placed under the command of thofe wffio
have the greateft intereft in the fupport of the civil
authority, becaufe they have themfelves the greateft
(hare of that authority j a handing army can never be
dangerous to liberty : on the contrary it may, in fome
cafes, be favourable to liberty. The fecurity which
it gives to the fovereign renders unneceffary that trou-
blefome jealoufy which in fome modern republics feems
to watch over the minuteft aftions, and to be at all
times ready to difturb the peace of every citizen.
Where the fecurity of the magiftrate, though fupport-
ed by the principal people of the country, is endanger¬
ed by every popular difcontent 5 where a fmall tumult
is capable of bringing about in a few hours a great re¬
volution ; the whole authority of government muft: be
employed to fupprefs and puniffi every murmur and
complaint againft it. To a fovereign, on the contra¬
ry, who feels himfelf fupported not only by the natu¬
ral ariltocracy of the country, but by a well regu¬
lated Handing army, the rudeft, the moft groundlefs,
and the moft licentious remonftrances, can give little
dilturbance. He can fafely pardon or negledt them,
and his confcioufnefs of his own fuperiority naturally
difpofes him to do fo. That degree of liberty which
approaches to licentioufnefs can be tolerated only in
countries where the fovereign is fecured by a well re¬
gulated Handing army. It is in fuch countries only
that the public fafety does not require that the fove¬
reign ffiould be trufled with any difcretionary power
for fuppreffing even the impertinent wantonnefs of this
licentious liberty.
ARNALL, W1 ll 1Am, a noted political writer in
defence of Sir Robert Whlpole, wras originally an at¬
torney’s clerk 5 but being recommended to Walpole,
he employed him for a courfe of years in writing the
free Briton and other papers in defence of his admini-
ration. By the report of the fecret committee, he ap¬
pears to have received, in the fpace of four years, no
lefs than 10,997!. 6s. 8d. out of the treafury for his
writings ! but fpending his money as fafl as it came,
and his fupplies Hopping on Sir Robert’s refignation*
he died broken-hearted and in debt, in the 26th year
of his age. His invention was fo quick, that his ho¬
nourable employer ufed to fay, no man in England
could write a pamphlet in fo little time as Arnall.
ARNAUD de Meyrveilh, or Mereuil, a poet
of Provence, who lived at the beginning of the 13th
century. He wrote a book entitled Las recajlenas de
fa contejfe, and a collection of poems and fonnets. He
died in the year 1220. Petrarch mentions him in his
Triumph of Love.
Arnaud de Villa Nova, a famous phyfician, who
lived about the end of the 13th and beginning of the
14th century. He Hudied at‘Paris and Montpelier, and
travelled through Italy and Spain. He was well ac¬
quainted with languages, and particularly with the
Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic. He was at great pains
| to gratify his ardent defire after knowledge ; but this
paffion carried him rather too far in his refoirches : he
endeavoured to difcover future events by aflrology,
imagining this fcience to be infallible; and upon this
foundation he publiffied a prediction, that the world
would, come to an end in the middle of the 14th cen¬
tury. He praftifed phyfic at Paris for fome time ; but Arnaud,
having advanced fome new doCtrines, he drew upon Arnay-le-
himfelf the refentment of the univerfity ; and his friends,, c^c'
fearing he might be arrefled, perfuaded him to re¬
tire from that city. Upon his leaving France, he re¬
tired to Sicily, where he was received by King Fre¬
derick of Arragon with the greateH marks of kindnefs
and efleem. Some time afterwards, this prince fent
him to b ranee, to attend Pope Clement in an illnefs;
and he was ffiipwrecked on the coaH of Genoa, about
the year 1313. The works of Arnaud, with his life
prefixed, were printed in one volume in folio, at Lyons,
in 1520; and at Bafil in 1585, with the notes of Ni¬
cholas Tolerus.
Arnaud d’Andilly, Robert, tfrfc fon of a cele¬
brated advocate of the parliament of Paris, -was born
in 1588? and being introduced young at court, was
employed in many confiderable offices, all which he dif-
charged with great integrity and reputation. In 1644
he quitted bufinefs, and retired into the convent of
Port Royal des Champs, wffiere he paffed the remain¬
der of his days in a continued application to works of
piety and devotion ; and enriched the French language
with many excellent tranflations of different writers,
as wrell as with religious compofitions of his own.
He died in 167-4, and his works are printed in 8 vols.
folio.
Arnaud, Antony, brother of the preceding, and
a doftor of the Sorbonne, was born in 1612. He pu-
bliffied, in 1643, A Treatife on frequent Communion,
which highly difpleafed the Jefuits; and the difputes
upon grace, which broke out about this time in the uni¬
verfity of Paris, and in which he took a zealous part
with the JanfeniHs, helped to increafe the animofity be¬
tween him and the Jefuits. But nothing raifed fo great
a clamour againfl him as the two letters he wrote on
Abfolution; in the fecond of which the faculty of di¬
vinity found two propofitions which they condemned^
and M. Arnaud was expelled the fociety. Upon this
he retired ; and during a retreat which lafled near 2 5
years, he compofed that great variety of works which
are extant of his, on grammar, geometry, logic, me-
taphyfics, and theology. In 1679, he withdrew from
France, living in oblcurity in the Netherlands, and
died in 1694. His heart, at his own requeff, was fent
to be depofited in the Port Royal. Arnaud had a re¬
markable Hrength of genius, memory, and command of
his pen ; nor did thefe decay even to the laff year of
his life. Mr Bayle fays, he had been told by perfons
who had been admitted into his familiar converfation,
that he was a man very fimple in his manners ; and that
unlefs any one propofed fome queflion to him, or de-
fired fome information, he faid nothing that was be¬
yond common conveifation, or that might make one
take him for a man of great abilities ; but when he fet
himfelf to give an anfwer to fuch as propofed a point
of learning, he feemed as it were transformed unto an¬
other man : he would then deliver a multitude of fine
things with great perfpicuity and learning, and had a
particular talent at making himfelf intelligible to per¬
fons not of the greatefl penetration.
ARNAY-LE-DUC, a town of France, in the duchy
of Burgundy, which carries on a pretty good trade.
It is feated on the Aiixois, in a valley near the river
Aroux. E. Long. 4. 26."N. Lat. 47. 7.
ARNDT,
A R N [ 678 ] A R N
Arndt ARNDT, John, a famous Proteftant divine of Ger-
II t many, born at Rallenftad, in the duchy of Anhalt, in
the year 1555. At firft he applied himfelf to the ftudy
of phylic : but falling into a dangerous ficknefs, he
made a vow to change his profeflion for that of divini¬
ty, if he fhould be reltored to health ; which he accord¬
ingly did upon his recovery. He was minifter firft at
Quedlinburg and then at Brunfwick. He met with
great oppolition in this laft city : his fuccefs as a preach¬
er raifed the enmity of his brethren, who became his
bitter enemies. In order to ruin his charadler, they
aicribed a variety of errors to him ^ and perfecuted
him to fuch a degree, that he was obliged to leave
Brunfwick, and retire to Ifleb, where he was minifter
for three years. In 161 x, George duke of Lunenburgh,
■who had a high opinion of his integrity and fandlity,
gave him the church of Zell, and appointed him fu-
perintendant of all the churches in the duchy of Lu¬
nenburg ; which office he difcharged for 11 years, and
died in 1621. It is reported that he foretold his death,
having faid to his wife, upon his return home after his
laft fermon, that now he had preached his funeral fer-
inon. He wrote in High Dutch si T.'reatife on true
Chrijlianity, which has been tranllated into feveral lan¬
guages.
ARNE, Dr Thomas Augustine, diftinguifhed by
his Ikill in muftc, was the Ion of Mr Arne an uphol-
ilerer in Covent Garden, whom Addifon is fuppofed
to have charafterized in N° 155 and N° 160 of The
Tatlfer j and brother of Mrs Cibber the player. He
was early devoted to mufic, and foon became eminent
in his profeffion. July 6. 1759, he had the degree of
doftor of mufic conferred on him at Oxford. His com-
pofitions are univerfally applauded, and he was alfo _
particularly Ikilful in inftruiling vocal performers. He
died March 5. 1778, having written the following
pieces: Artaxerxes, 1762; The Guardian outwitted^
1764 ; The Rofe, 1778 j all of them operas.
ARNHEIM, a town of the Low Countries, in the
province of Guelderland, capital of Veluive. It is
adorned with feveral fine churches, particularly that of
St Walburg and of St Eufebius j which laft has a very
high tower. The town has five gates, and feveral
fine ramparts, part of which are waffied by the Rhine
and the other parts have wide and deep ditches before
them. There is a canal made between this place and
Nimeguen, at the expence of both towns, on which
boats pafs backwards and forwards to carry on a trade
between them. The air is very healthful ; on which
account it is inhabited by perfons of diftinclion.
E. Long. 5. 55. N. Lat. 52. o.
ARNICA, leopards bane. See Botany Index.
ARNISiEUS, Henningus, aphilofopher and phy-
fician of great reputation, about the beginning of the
1 yth century. He was bom at Halberftadt in Ger¬
many, and was profeffor of phyfic in the univerfity of
Helmftadt. His political works are much efteemed.
The mort remarkable of them is his book De authon-
tate principum in populum femper inviolabrii, printed at
Erancfort in 1612. In this he maintains that the
authority of princes ought not to be violated. He
wrote alfo upon the fame doftrine his three books, De
jure MajeJIatis, printed at the fame place in 1610; and
his Rejletliones Politic#, printed at Francfort in 1615.
Having received an invitation to go to Denmark, he Arnobuu,
went thither, and was made counfellor and phyfician Arn°te.
to the king. He travelled into France and England, v
and died in November 1635. Befides the pieces al¬
ready mentioned, he wrote feveral philoiophical, me¬
dicinal, and political treatifes.
ARNOBIUS, profeffor of rhetoric at Sicca, in
Numidia, towards the end of the third century. It
was owfing to certain dreams which he had that he
became defirous of embracing Chriftianity. For this
purpofe he applied to the biffiops to be admitted into
the church. But they, rem'embering the violence wfith
wffiioh he had always oppofed the true faith, had feme
diftruft of him j and before they would admit him, in¬
filled on fome proofs of his fincerity. In compliance
with this demand, he wrote againrt the Gentiles j
wherein he has refuted the abfurdities of their religion,
and ridiculed their falfe gods. In this treatife he has
employed all the flowers of rhetoric, and difplayed great
learning : but from an impatience to be admitted into
the body of the faithful, he is thought to have been in
too great a hurry in compofing his work, and thence
it is that there does not appear in this piece fuch an
exaft order and difpofition as could be wiftied ; and
not having a perfedt and exadt knowledge of the Chrif-
tian faith, he publiffied fome very dangerous errors.
Mr Bayle remarks, that his notions about the origin of
the foul, and the caufe of natural evil, and feveral other
important points, are highly pernicious. St Jerome, in
his epiftle to Paulinus, is of opinion that his ftyle is
unequal and too diffufe, and that his book is written
without any method *, but Dr Cave thinks this judge¬
ment too fevere, and that Arnobius wants neither ele¬
gance nor order in his compofition. Voffius ftyles him
the Varro of the ecclefiafical writers. Du Pin obferves
that his wmrk is written in a manner worthy of a pro¬
feffor of rhetoric : the turn of his fentiments is very-
oratorical ; but his ftyle is a little African, his expref-
fions being harlh and inelegant. We have feveral edi¬
tions of this wrork of Arnobius againft the Gentiles,
one publiffied at Rome in 1542, at Bafil in 1546 and
1560, at Paris in 1570, at Antwerp in 1582, and one
at Hamburgh in 1610, wfith notes by Gebhard El-
menhoftius, befides many others. He wrote alfo a piece
entitled De Rhetorics Infitutione; but this is not ex¬
tant.
ARNOLD, of Brefcia, in Italy, diftinguiffied him¬
felf by being the founder of a fedft which oppofed the
wrealth and power of the Romifh clergy. He went in¬
to France, where he ftudied under the celebrated Peter
Abelard. Upon his return to Italy, he put on the
habit of a monk, and opened his invedlives in the ftreets
of Brefcia. The people crowded round him. Fie
told them he was tent to reform abutes, to pull dowm
the proud and to exalt the humble. He then pointed
his declamation againft the biffiops, againft the clergy,
againft the monks, and finally againft the Roman pon¬
tiff himtelf: to the laity only he was indulgent.
Churchmen, faid he, who hold benefices, bilhops who
have domains, and monks that have poffeffions, will all
be damned. His hearers ffiouted approbation. I hefe
things, continued he, belong to the prince \ he may
give them to whom he pleafes, but he muft give them
to the laity. It is on their tithes, and the voluntary
contributions
A R N
Arnold, contributions of the people, that thofe fons of God
muft live : they muft be frugal, continent^ and mor¬
tified.
The church of Brefcia was foon thrown into the
greateft confufion, and the people, already prejudiced
againll their minifters, threatened to overturn their al¬
tars. The facred writings he urged in fupport of his
•affertions, and from them he denounced the vengeance
of heaven againft the violators of the law. Indeed,
nothing could be more glaringly offenfive than the
oftentatious parade of the bilhops and great ab¬
bots, and the foft and licentious lives of the monks
and clergy.
In 1139 was celebrated a grand council at Rome.
Arnold was cited to appear before it. His accufers
were the bilhop of Brefcia, and many others, whom
he had ridiculed and infulted. Nor from his judges
could he look for much indulgence. He was found
guilty, and fentenced to perpetual filence. Upon this
he left Italy, crofted the Alps, and found a refuge in
Zurich.
Though Arnold had quitted Italy, yet had his opi¬
nions taken deep root, and Rome itfelf was infefted
by them. Irritated by the condudl of their matter
Innocent II. the Roman people afiembled in the capi-
tol. It was propofed that the power of the pontiff,
which they called exorbitant, Ihould be reftrained:
this was carried : then fuddenly, infpired as it were
by the genius of the place, they moved that the fe-
nate which for years had been abolifhed, ftiould be re-
ftored. The propofition was received with the loudett
acclamations. Innocent in vain oppefed the bold de-
fign ; there was a magic in it which fpread irrefiftibly,
and for a moment feemed to rouie the fallen fpirit of
the nation. The pope viewed with horror the reverfe
of fortune which threatened the tiara ; to be fhorn of
his mighty power, and to become the mere fhepherd
of the Chrittian people, was a thought too afflidling :
he fell fick and died.
Under his two immediate fucceflbrs Celeftin and Lu¬
cius, whole reigns were but of a few months, the Ro¬
mans purfued their darling objedt. They waited on
the latter, and, in an imperious tone, demanded the
reftitution of all the honours and civil rights which
had been ufurped from the people. The prince of the
fenate, faid they, whom we have chofen, will beft ad-
minitter the important truft : the tithes and offerings
of the faithful will f'ufficiently anfwer all the exigencies
of your holinefs : It was thus that our ancient bifhops
lived. Lucius iurvived this event but a few days. His
fucceflbr was Eugenius III. the friend and difciple of
the renowned Bernard. The night before his confe-
cration the fenators aflembled, and it was agreed, that
either he ftiould folemnly confirm all their proceedings,
or they would annul his election. This refolution was
notified to him. He called together his friends ; and
ft was their advice, that he fhould neither accede to
the extravagant demand, nor expofe himfelf, by a re-
fufal, to the fury of the populace. He therefore fi-
lently withdrew from Rome, and retired to a neigh¬
bouring fortrefs. Here the ceremony of his confecra-
tion was performed.
Arnold, who in banifhment had contemplated the '
cffecft of his admonitions on the minds of the Romans,
and the fuccefs which feemed to follow their exertions,
[ 679 ]
A R N
was now informed that the pope had retired, and that
the gates of the capital were open to receive him : it
was likewife fuggetted to him, that his prefence was
more than ever neceftary, to give energy to their re-
folves, form to their plans, and liability to their under¬
takings. Arnold took fire at the news 5 an unufual
fwell of enthufiafm filled his breart 5 and he fancied
that, like Junius Brutus, he was called at once to give
liberty to Rome. At his appearance a new ftream of
vigour animated the citizens j they called him their
friend and deliverer. The Brefcian walked amongfl
them ; his deportment was humble, his countenance
emaciated, his addrefs affable, and he fpoke to them
of moderation, of fubmiflion, of obedience. With the
nobles and new fenators he held another language;
though to them alfo he was mild and diffident, fpeak-
ing much of virtue and of refpedf for religion and the
laws. But no fooner was he fenfible of his own real
influence, and faw the lengths to which the revolters
had already carried their defigns, than he threw afide
the mafk, and appeared in his own charafter, daring,
impetuous, felf-fufficient, vain. He harangued the
people ; he talked of their forefathers the ancient Ro¬
mans, who, by the wifdom of their fenate and the va¬
lour of their armies, had conquered nations and fub-
dued the earth. He dwelt on the names and the
achievements of the Bruti, the Gracchi, and the Sci-
pios; and of thefe men, faid he, are you not the chil¬
dren ? He advifed, that the capitol he inftantly repair¬
ed ; that the equettrian order be rettored ; that the
people have their tribunes ; that dignity attend the fe¬
nate ; that the laws, which had been filent and ne¬
glected, be revived in all their vigour. He fpoke of
the pope as of a depofed and banifhed tyrant : “ But
fhould you again be difpofed (continued he) to admit
him within thefe walls ; firft fix your own rights and
determine his. He is but your bifhop : let him there¬
fore have his fpiritual jurifdidtion. The government
of Rome, its civil eftablifhments, and its territories, be¬
long to you. Thefe you will keep if you have the
fpirit of men and the hearts of Romans.” Fired by
this harangue, the people, headed by the moft difaf-
fefted of the nobles, publicly attacked the few cardi¬
nals and churchmen who remained in the city ; they
fet fire to the palaces; and they compelled the citizens
to fwear obedience to the new government. Moderate
men, who faw the folly of the attempt, were fhocked
at thefe excefles of popular phrenzy ; but it was in vain
to oppofe the torrent: they fubmitted, looking forward
with fome curiofity to the termination of an event
which had begun in extravagance, and mutt end in dif-
appointment.
Eugenius till now had viewed, with fome concern,
the wild derangement of his people: but when it feem¬
ed that their eyes opened to their own exceffes, he
could be inactive no longer. He excommunicated the
ringleaders of the fa&ion ; and at the head of his
troops, who were chiefly compofed of Tiburtini, a
people always hoftile to the Romans,, he marched
againft the enemy. His friends within the walls, who
were numerous, co-operated with his defigns, and in
a few days overtures for peace were made to the pon-
thT. He atceaed to them, but on condition that they
fliould annul the arrangements they had made, and if •
they would have fenators, that they fhould acknowledge
alii
Arnold.
A R N r 63o ] A R N
Arnold all their power was from him. The people were fatif-
Arnoklus ^e<^’ an<^ t^rew °Pen ^ gates, through which
i - ^ Eugenius entered, amid the acclamations of’ a fawn¬
ing and inconftant multitude. Before this event Ar¬
nold had retired j but he left behind him many friends
llrongly attached to his perfon and principles. Of him-
felf we hear little more till the reign of Adrian our
countryman ; when, on account of frefh tumults, he
and his adherents were excommunicated, and Rome
wras threatened with an interdift unlefs they expelled
the whole party from their walls. This they did. The
Arnoldiils retired with their champion into Tufcany,
wrhere he wTas received as a prophet and honoured as a
faint. His enemies, however, prevailed j he was made
prifoner, and conduced under a ftrong efcort to
Rome. In vain was great intereft made to fave his
life ; he wras condemned and executed, and his afhes
thrown into the Tiber, left the people fhould colledl
his remains and venerate them as the relicks of a faint¬
ed martyr.
“ Such was Arnold of Brefcia; a man (fays Mr
%Hijl.cf Berington *), whofe character, whofe principles, and
the Lives of whofe viewrs, we perhaps ihould be difpofed to admire,
Abelard and^fr ys ufe been recorded by unprejudiced hiftorians,
£ olJa’ ancj not brought down to us drawm in the blacked: co¬
lours W'hich party, bigotted zeal, and enthufiafm, could
lay on. He wns ralh, misjudging, and intemperate,
or never wmuld he have engaged in fo unequal a con-
teft. ■ The view of fuch a phenomenon in the 12th
century excites a pleafing admiration. To attack the
Roman pontiff and his clergy in the very centre of
their power, required a more than common fhare of
fortitude : to adopt a fettled fcheme of reftoring to
its priftine glory the republic of Rome, demanded a
ftretch of thought comprehenftve and enterprifing 5
and to forego the eafe and indulgence of a diffipated
age, for the reformation of manners and the fuppref-
fion of what he thought ufurped dominion, argued a
charafter of mind difinterefted, generous, and benevo¬
lent. But Arnold, like other reformers, went too far j
and paflion foon vitiated undertakings which wrere be¬
gun perhaps with motives the moft laudable.—The
readinefs with which the Roman people embraced this
plan of lowering the jurifdiftion of the pontiff, and re-
ftraining it within thofe bounds which the true fpirit
of Chriftianity had fixed, at once fhows that they could
reafon juftly, and that they confidered the unbounded
fway of the triple crown, to which reluftantly they
fubmitted, as an affumed prerogative, to which violence
or mifconltruftion, and not Chriftian right, had given
efficacy.”
ARNOLDISTS, in Church Hiftory, a fe<ft fo called
from their leader Arnold of Brefcia. See the preced¬
ing article.
ARNOLDUS, Gothofredus, paftor and infpeftor
of the churches of Perleberg, and hiftoriographer to
the king of Pruffia, wras born at Annaburg in the
mountains of Mifnia in 1666. He was a zealous defend¬
er of the Pietifts, a feft among the German Proteftants,
and compofed a great number of religious works } par¬
ticularly an Ecclefiq/Hcal Hi/I ary, w'hich expofed him to
the refentment of the divines •, and another giving an
account of the doclrines and manners from the firft
ages, in which he frequently animadverts upon Cave’s
Primitive Chriftianity. lie died in 1714. Various are
the opinions concerning Arnoldus in Germany; fome of Arnoa
his own countrymen and profeffion extolling him to the II
Ikies as a faint of the laft century, and fetting an inef-, Ari^<'’3y'
timable value upon his works ; while others pronounce
damnation upon him as an arch-heretic, and condemn
his writings as heterodox.
ARNON, in Ancient Geography, a brook running
between the borders of the Moabites and Ammonites
on the other fide Jordan (Mofes, Joftiua) : Jofephus
calls it a river riling on the borders of Arabia, and at
length falling into the Dead fea. It is alfo called the
river of Gad, as appears 2 Sam. xxv. 5. compared with
2 Kings x. 33.
ARNOT. See Bunium, Botany Index.
ARNOTTO, the fame with Anotta. See Anot-
ta and Bixa, Botany Index.
ARNSTADE, a town of Germany, in Thuringia,
on the river Gera. E. Long. it. 3. N. Lat. 50. 54.
ARNULPH, or Ernulph, bilhop of Rochefter in
the reign of Henry I. He rvas born in France, where
he v'as fome time a monk of St Lucian de Beauvais.
The monks led moft irregular lives in this monaftery j
for which reafon he refolved to quit it, but firft took
the advice of Lanfranc archbilhop of Canterbury, under
whom he had ftudied in the abbey of Bee, w hen Lan¬
franc wras prior of that monaftery. This prelate invit¬
ed him over to England, and placed him in the mona¬
ftery of Canterbury, where he lived a private monk till
Lanfranc’s death. When Anfelm came to the archi-
epifcopal fee, Arnulph was made prior of the mona¬
ftery of Canterbury, and afterwards abbot of Peterbo¬
rough. In 1115, he was confecrated bifliop of Ro¬
chefter, which fee he held nine years, and died in
March 1124, aged 84.
Arnulph w'rote, 1. A piece in Latin concerning the
foundation, endowment, charters, law's, and other things
relating to the church of Rochefter : it is generally
known by the title of Textus Roffenjis, and is preferved
in the archives of the cathedral church of Rochefter.
2. An Epiftle in Anfwer to fome Queftions of Lam¬
bert abbot of Munfter ; and, 3. An Epiftle on inceftu-
ous Marriage.
ARNUS, now Arno, a very rapid river of Tufcany,
which it divides, and in its courfe walhes Florence and
Pifa $ riling in the Apennines, to the eaft of Florence,
near a village called S. Maria della Gratie, on the bor¬
ders of Romagna, ] 5 miles to the w eft of the fources
of the Tiber j and then turning fouthwards towards
Arretium, it is there increafed by the lakes of the Cla-
nis 5 after which it runs weftw'ard, dividing Florence
into tw'O parts, and at length wafning Pifa, falls eight
miles below it into the Tufcan fea.
ARNWAY, John, a clergyman diftinguilhed by
his benevolence and loyalty to King Charles I. wTas de-
feended from a very good family in the country of Sa¬
lop, from which he inherited a confiderable eftate. He
W'as educated at Oxford ; and, having received holy or¬
ders,'obtained the reftories of Hodnet and Ightfield,
where he diftinguithed himfelf by his piety and exem¬
plary charity : for it was his cuftom to clothe annually
12 poor people, and every Sunday to entertain as many
at his table, not only plentifully, but with intimacy
and refpeft. The civil war breaking out, he preached
againft rebellion, and railed and clothed eight troopers
for the fervjce of King Charles I. upon which his houfe
was
]
A R R
A R ? [ 681
Arobc was plundered by the parliament’s army. He then
li . went to Oxford to ferve the king in perfon, which fub-
je£ted him to a new train of misfortunes: for his eftate
was foon after fequeftered, and himfelf imprifoned
till the king’s death ; after which he went to the
Hague, where he publiftied, t. The Tablet, or the
Moderation of Charles I. the Martyr •, and, 2. An
Alarm to the Subje&s of England. He at laft went
to Virginia, where he died in 1653.
AROBE. See Arrobas.
AROLEO, an American weight, equal to 25 of
our pounds.
AROMA philosophorum, denotes either faffron,
or the aroph of Paraceltus ; as aroma germanicum, de¬
notes elecampane. See Aroph.
AROMATA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Lydia, famous for its generous wines ; and hence the ap¬
pellation, (Strabo.) Alfo the name of a trading town,
and promontory of Ethiopia, at the termination of the
"Sinus Avalites of the Red fea, (Arrian).
AROMATIC, an appellation given to fuch plants
as yield a brifk fragrant fmell, and a warm tafte 5 as
all kinds of fpices, &c. See Materia Medica.
ARON A, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Milan,
with a ftrong caftle. It Hands on the lake Maggiore.
E. Long. 8. 25. N. Lat. 45. 41.
ARONCHES, a town of Portugal, in Alentejo,
on the confines of Spain, feated on the river Caro. It
is well fortified, and has about 500 inhabitants. W.
Long. 5. 16. N. Lat. 14. 39.
AROOL, a town of the empire of Ruflia, in the
Ukrain, feated on the river Occa. E. Long. 38. 15.
N. Lat. 51. 48.
AROPH, a contraction of aroma philofophorum ; a
name given to faffron.
Aroph Parace/Ji, a name given to a kind of chemi¬
cal flowers, probably of the fame nature with the Ens
Veneris, elegantly prepared by fublimation from equal
quantities of lapis haematitis and fal ammoniac.
Aro ph is alfo a term ufed frequently by Paracelfus
in a fenfe fynonymous with lithontriptic.
AROSBAY, a town of the Eaft Indies, on the
coaft of the ifland of Madura, near Java. E. Long.
14. 30. N. Lat. 9. 30.
AROURA, a Grecian meafure of 50 feet. It was
more frequently ufed for a fquare meafure of half the
plethron. The Egyptian aroura was the fquare of 100
feet.
ARPAD, in Ancient Geography, is thought to have
been a city of Syria. It was always placed with Ha¬
math, (2 Kings xviii. 34. xix. 13. Ifaiah x. 9. xxxvi.
19. xxxvii. 13. Jerem. xlix. 23.) Sennacherib boafts
of having reduced Arpad and Hamath, or of having
deftroyed the gods of thefe two places. Hamath is
known to be the fame with Emefa ; and it is thought
that Arpad is the fame with Arad or Arvad, as it is
iometimes called in Hebrew. See Arad.
ARPAGIUS, or Harp agios, among the ancients,
a perfon who died in the cradle, at leaft in early youth.
The word is formed from the Greek I fnatch.
The Romans made no funerals for their arpagii. They
neither burnt their bodies, nor made tombs, monu¬
ments, or epitaphs for them j which occafioned Juve¬
nal to fay,
Vol II. Part II.
 Terra clauditur infans ^
Et minor igne rogi. Arragon.
In after times it became the cuftom to burn fuch as had
lived to the age of 40 days, and had cut any teeth 5 and
thefe they called or A^Trctypivti, q. d. rapti,
ravijhed. The ufage feems to have been borrowed
from the Greeks 5 among whom, Euftathius allures
us, it was the cuftom never to bury their children either
by night or full day, but at the firft appearance of the
morning ; and that they did not call their departure by
the name of death, but by a fofter appellation, Ifyteg*?
«§7rceyji, importing that they were ravilhed by Aurora,
or taken away to her embraces.
ARPENT, fignifies an acre or furlong of ground j
and according to the old French account in Doomfday-
book, 100 perches make an arpent. The moft ordi¬
nary acre, called Parpent de France, is 100 perches
fquare : but fome account it but half an acre.
ARPHAXAD, the fon of Shem and father of Sa-
lah. Arphaxad was born in the year of the world
1658, a year after the deluge, and died in the year of
the world 2096, at the age of 438 years, (Gen. xi. 12,
Sec.)
ARPI. See Argos Hippium.
ARPINAS, or Arpino, Joseph Caesar, a famous
painter, born in the year 1560, at the caftle of Arpi-
nas, in the kingdom of Naples. He lived in great in¬
timacy with Pope Clement VIII. who conferred upon
him the honour of knighthood, and bellowed on him
many other marks of his friendfhip. In the year i6co,
he went to Paris with Cardinal Aldobrandin, who was
fent legate to the French court on the marriage of
Henry IV. with Mary of Medicis. His Chriftian ma-
jefty gave Arpinas many confiderable prefents, and
created him a knight of St Michael. The colouring of
this painter is thought to be cold and inanimate 5 yet
there is fpirit in his deligns, and his compofitions have
fomewhat of fire and elevation. The touches of his
pencil being free and bold, give therefore pleafure to
connoiffeurs in painting *, but they are generally incor-
re6l. What he painted of the Roman hiftory is the
moft efteemed of all his works. The following pieces
of this mailer were in the late royal collection of France,
viz. the Nativity of our Saviour, Diana and Acleon,
the Rape of Europa, and a Sufanna. He died at Rome
in 1640.
ARPINUM, a town of the Volfci, a little to the
eaft of the confluence of the rivers Liris and Fibrenus,
in the Terra di Lavora ; now decayed, and called Ar¬
pino. It was the native place of Cicero, and of Caius
Marius, (Salluft.)
ARQUA, a town of Italy, in the Paduan, and ter¬
ritory of Venice, remarkable for the tomb of Petrarch.
E. Long. 11. 43. N. Lat. 45. 43.
ARQUEBUS. See Harquebus.
ARQUES, a town of Normandy, now the depart¬
ment of the Lower Seine, in France, feated on a fmall ri¬
ver of the fame name. E. Long. 1. 30. N. Lat. 49. 54.
ARRACHEE, in Heraldry, a term applied to the
reprefentations of plants torn up by the roots.
ARRACK. SccArack.
ARRAGON, a province of Spain, bounded on the
north by the Pyrenean mountains, which feparate it
.4 R from
A R R [682
Arragon. from France; on the weft by Navarre and the two
Caftiles j on the fouth, by Valencia 5 and on the eaft,
by Catalonia. It is in length about 180 miles, and in
breadth 149 5 bu. the land is mountainous, dry, fandy
or ftony, badly cultivated, and worfe peopled. How¬
ever it does not want rivers; for befides- the Ebro,
which croffes it in the middle, there are the Xalo, the
Cinea, the Galego, and the Arragon. The air is pure
and wholefome ; and there are mines of iron, and fome
fay of gold. The moft fertile parts are about the ri¬
vers : for there the land produces corn, wine, oil, flax,
hemp, various fruits, and a fmall quantity of faffron,
befides large flocks of fheep, and plenty of game in the
woods.
The Arragonefe have the character of being bold,
courageous, and well bred ; but pofitive in their opi¬
nions, and bigotted in their religion. Thefe were the
firft of the Spaniards that threw off the Moorifh yoke.
Saragoffa is the capital of this province 5 and the other
chief towns are Balbaftro, Jaca, Sarazona, Haefca,
Calatajud, Albarrazin, Trevel, Daroca, and Boria.
ARRAIGNMENT, mLaw, the arraigning or fet-
ting a thing in order, as a perfon is faid to arraign
a writ of novel diffeifin, who prepares and fits it for
trial.
Arraignment is moft properly ufed to call a perfon
to anfwer in form of law upon an indi&ment, &c.
When brought to the bar, the criminal is called up¬
on by name to hold up his hand ; which though it
may feem a trifling circumftance, yet is of this im¬
portance, that by the holding up of his hand conjlat de
perform, and he owns himfelf to be of that name by
which he is called. However it is not an indifpenfible
ceremony j for being calculated merely for the pur-
pofe of identifying the perfon, any other acknowledge¬
ment will anfwer the purpofe as well: therefore, if the
prifoner obftinately and contemptuoufly refufes to hold
up his hand, but confeffes he is the perfon named, it is
fully fufhcient.
Then the indi&ment is to be read to him diftinftly
in the Englifh tongue (which was law, even while all
other proceedings were in Latin), that he may fully
underftand his charge. After which it is to be demand¬
ed of him, whether he be guilty of the crime whereof
he ftands indidled, or not guilty ?
When a criminal is arraigned he either ftands mute,
or confeffes the fa<ft, or elfe he pleads to the indict¬
ment.
1. If he fays nothing, the court ought ex officio to
impannel a jury to inquire whether he ftands obftinately
mute, or whether he be dumb ex vijitotione Dei. If
the latter appears to be the cafe, the judges of the
court (who are to be of counfel for the prifoner, and
to fee that he hath law and juftice) ftiall proceed to the
trial, and examine all points as if he had pleaded not
guilty. But whether judgment of death can be given
againft fuch a prifoner, who hath never pleaded, and
can fay nothing in arreft of judgment, is a point yet
undetermined.
If he be found to be obftinately mute (which a pri¬
foner hath been held to be that hath cut his own
tongue), then, if it be on an indictment of high trea-
fon, it hath long been clearly fettled, that Handing
mute is equivalent to a conviction, and he lhall receive
the fame judgment and execution.
1
A R R
The Englilh judgment of penance forftanding mute Arragon.
was as follows : That the prifoner be remanded to the ' v~—
prifon from whence he came, and put into a low dark
chamber ; and there be laid on his back, on the bare
floor, naked, unlefs where decency forbids; that there
be placed upon his body as great a weight of iron as he
could bear, and more j that he have no fuftenance, fave
only, on the firft day, three morfels of the worft bread j
and, on the fecond day, three draughts of Handing wa¬
ter that ftiould be neareft to the prifon door ; and in
this fituation this ftiould be alternately his daily diet,
till he died, or, as anciently the judgment ran, till he
anfwered.
It hath been doubted whether this puniftiment fub-
filled at the common law, or wras introduced in confe-
quence of the ftatute Weftm. I. 3 Edw. I. c. 12. wdrich
feems to be the better opinion. For not a word of it
is mentioned in Glanvil or BraClon, or in any ancient
author, cafe, or record (that hath yet been produced),
previous to the reign of Edward I. : but there are In-
ftances on record in the reign of Henry III. where
perfons accufed of felony, and Handing mute, W'ere
tried in a particular manner, by two fucceflive juries,
and conviCled ; and it is afferted by the judges in
8 Henry IV. that, by the common law before the fta¬
tute, Handing mute on an appeal amounted to a con¬
viction of the felony. This ftatute of Edward I. di¬
rects fuch perfons, “ as will not put themfelves upon
inquefts of felonies before the judges at the fuit of the
king, to be put into hard and ftrong prifon (foient
mys en la prifone fort et dure) as thofe which refufe to
be at the common law of the land.” And, immedi¬
ately after this ftatute, the form of the judgment ap¬
pears in Fleta and Britton to have been only a very
ftrait confinement in prifon, with hardly any degree of
fuftenance ; but no weight is direCted to be laid up¬
on the body, fo as to haften the death of the miferable
fufferer : and indeed any furcharge of puniftiment on
perfons adjudged to penance, fo as to ftiorten their
lives, is reckoned by Horne in the Mirror as a fpecies
of criminal homicide. It alfo clearly appears, by a
record of 31 Edw. III. that the prifoner might then
poflibly fubfift for 40 days under this lingering punilh-
ment. It is therefore imagined that the praCtice of
loading him wdth weights, or, as it is ufually called,
prejjing him to death, was gradually introduced between
31 Edward III. and 8 Henry IV. at which laft period
it firft appears upon the books 5 being intended as a
fpecies of mercy to the delinquent, by delivering him
the fooner from his torment: and hence it is alfo pro¬
bable, that the duration of the penance wTas then firft
altered ; and inftead of continuing till he anfwered, it
was direCfly to continue till he died, which muft very
foon happen under an enormous preffure.
The uncertainty of its original, the doubts that were
conceived of its legality, and the repugnance of its
theory (for it rarely wras carried into pradfice) to the
humanity of the lawrs of England, all concurred to re¬
quire a legiftative abolition of this cruel procefs, and a
reftitution of the ancient common law 5 whereby the
Handing mute in felony, as well as in treafon and in
trefpafs, amounted to a confeflion of the charge.
2. If the prifoner made a Ample and plain confeflion,
the court hath nothing to do but to award judgment :
but it is ufually very backward in receiving and re¬
cording
A R R [ 683 ] A R R
Arran, cording fuch confeffion, out of tendernefs to the life of
' * 1 ’ the fubjeft j and will generally advife the prifoner to
retraft it, and,
3. Plead to the indidfment j as to which, fee the ar¬
ticle Plea of Indifiment.
ARRAN, an ifland of Scotland, in the frith of
Clyde, between Kintyre and Cunningham. Of this
ifland the beft defcription we have is that given by Mr
Pennant in his Tour through Scotland, vol. ii. 172—
184.
“ Arran, or properly Arr-inn, or, ‘ the ifland of
mountains,’ feems not to have been noticed by the an¬
cients, notwithflanding it muff have been known to
the Romans, whofe navy, from the time of Agricola,
had its ftation in the Glottce JEJiuarium, or the Frith of
Clyde. Camden, indeed, makes this illand the Glotta
of Antonine, but no fuch name occurs in his Itinerary:
it therefore was beftow7ed on Arran by fome of his com¬
mentators. By the immenfe cairns, the vail monumen¬
tal ftones, and many relicks of Druidifm, this illand mull;
have been confiderable in very ancient times. Here are
Hill traditions of the hero Fingal, or Fin Mac Coul, who
is fuppofed here to have enjoyed the pleafures of the
chafe ; and many places retain his name : but I can
difcover nothing but oral hiltory that relates to the
ifland till the time of Magnus the Barefooted, the
Norwegian viftor, who probably included Arran in
his conquefts of Kintyre. If he did not conquer that
ifland, it was certainly included among thofe that Do¬
nald Bane w’as to cede j for it appears that Acho, one
of the fuccelfors of Magnus, in 1263, laid claim to
Arran, Bute, and the Cumrays, in confequence of that
promife : the twTo firft he fubdued, but the defeat he
met with at Largs foon obliged him to give up his con-
quefts. Arran was the property of the crown. Ro¬
bert Bruce retired thither during his diftreffes, and
met with protedlion from his faithful valfals. Numbers
of them followed his fortunes ; and after the battle of
Bannockburn he rewarded feveral, fuch as the Mac-
cooks, Mackinnons, Macbrides, and Maclouis, or
Fullertons, with different charters of lands in their na¬
tive country. All thefe are now abforbed by this
great family, except the Fullertons, and a Stewart,
defcended from a fon of Robert III. who gave him a
fettlement here. In the time of the Dean of the Lies,
his defendant poffeffed Calile Douan ; and he and his
hluid, fays the Dean, are the bejl men in that countrey.
About the year 1334, this illand appears to have form¬
ed part of the eftate of Robert Stewart, great fteward
of Scotland, afterwards Robert II. At that time they
took arms to fupport the caufe of their mafter; who
afterwards, in reward, not only granted at their re-
queft an immunity from their annual tribute of corn,
but added feveral new privileges, and a donative to all
the inhabitants that W'ere prefent. In 1456, thewdiole
illand was ravaged by Donald earl of Rofs and lord of
the Hies. At that period, it wras ftill the property of
James II.; but in the reign of his fucceffor James III.
when that monarch matched his filter to Thomas lord
Boyd, he created him earl of Arran, and gave him
the illand as a portion. Soon after, on the difgrace of
that family, he caufed the countefs to be divorced from
her unfortunate hulband ; and beltowTed both the lady
and illand on Sir James Hamilton, in whofe family it
continues to this time, a very few7 farms excepted.
“ Arran is of great extent, being 23 miles from Arran.
Sgreadan Point north to Beinnean fouth j and thev——v**-
number of inhabitants are about 7000, who chiefly in¬
habit the coalls j the far greater part of the country-
being uninhabited by reafon of the vaft and barren
mountains. Here are only two parilhes, Kilbride and
Kilmore 5 with a fort of chapel of eafe to each, found¬
ed in the lalt century, in the golden age of this ifland,
when it was bleffed with Anne duchefs of Hamilton,
whofe amiable difpofition and humane attention to the
welfare of Arran render at this diftant time her me¬
mory dear to every inhabitant. The principal moun¬
tains of Arran are, Goatfield, or Gaoilbheinn, or “ the
mountain of the winds,” of a height equal to moft of
the Scotilh Alps, compofed of immenfe piles of moor-
ftone, in form of w'ool packs, clothed only with lichens
and moffes, inhabited by eagles and ptarmigans ; Bein-
bharrain, or “ the fharp-pointed Ceum-na-caillich,
“ the ftep of the carline or old hag j” and Grianan-
Athol, that yields to none in ruggednefs. The lakes
are, Loch-jorfa, wTere falmon come to fpawn 5 Loch-
tana ; Loch-nah-jura, on the top of a high hill; Loch-
mhachrai ; and Loch-knoc-a-charbeil, full of large eels.
The chief rivers are, Abhan-mhor, Moina-mhor, Slon-
drai-machrei, and Jorfa ; the two laft remarkable for
the abundance of falmon.
“ The quadrupeds are very few; only otters, wdld
cats, Ihrew mice, rabbits, and bats : the flags, which
ufed to abound, are now reduced to about a dozen.
The birds are, eagles, hooded crows, wild pigeons,
flares, black game, grous, ptarmigans, daws, green
plovers, and curlew's. It may be remarked, that the
partridge at prefent inhabits this ifland, a proof of the
advancement of agriculture.
“ The climate is very fevere : for befides the violence
of wind, the cold is very rigorous ^ and fnow' lay here
in the valleys for 13 wrecks of the laft winter. In fum-
mer, the air is remarkably falubrious 5 and many in¬
valids refort here on that account, and to drink the
whey of goats milk.
“ The principal difeafe here is the pleurify : fmall-
pox, meafles, and chincough, vifit the ifland once in
feven or eight years. The praftice of bleeding twice
every year feems to have been intended as a preven¬
tive againft the pleurify : but it is now' performed with
the utmofl regularity at fpring and fall. The duke of
Hamilton keeps a furgeon in pay ; who at thofe fea-.
fons makes a tour of the ifland. On notice of his ap- ■
proach, the inhabitants of each farm affemble in the
open air ; extend their arms ; and are bled into a hole
made in the ground, the common receptacle of the
vital fluid. In burning fevers, a tea of wood forrel is
ufed with fuccefs, to allay the heat. An infufion of
ramfons, or allium urfnum, in brandy, is efteemed here
a good remedy for the gravel.
“ The men are ftrong, tall, and well made ; all fpeak
the Erfe language, but the ancient habit is entirely laid
afide. Their diet is chiefly potatoes and meal; and
during wdnter, fome dried mutton or goat is added to
their hard fare. A deep dejeftion appears in general
through the countenances of all: no time can be fpared
for amuiement of any kind ; the whole being given
for procuring the means of paying their rent, of lay¬
ing in their fuel, or getting a fcanty pittance of meat
and clothing.
4 R 2
“ The
A R R
Arran. “ The leafes of farms are 19 years. The fucceeding
tenants generally find the ground little better than a
capn mortuum: and for this reafon: Should they at
the expiration of the leafe leave the lands in a good
Hate, fome avaricious neighbours would have the pre¬
ference in the next fetting, by offering a price more
than the perfon who had expended part of his fubftance
in enriching the farm could polfibly do. This induces
them to leave it in the original ftate. The method of
fetting a farm is very Angular *, each is commonly pof-
felfed by a number of fmall tenants ; thus a farm of
40I. a year is occupied by 18 different people, who
by their leafes are bound, conjunftly and feverally, for
the payment of the rent to the proprietor. Thefe live
' in the farm in houfes cluftered together, fo that each
farm appears like a little village. The tenants annually
divide the arable land by lot; each has his ridge of
land, to which he puts his mark, fuch as he would do
to any writing ; and this fpecies of farm is called run-
rig, (i. e.) ridge. They join in ploughing 5 everyone
keeps a horfe or more j and the number of thofe ani¬
mals confumes fo much corn, as often to occafion a fcar-
city 5 the corn and peas raifed being (much of it) de-
figned for their fubfiftence, and that of the cattle, du¬
ring the long wunter. The pafture and moor land an¬
nexed to the farm is common to all the poffeffors. All
the farms are open. Enclofures of any form, except in
two or three places, are quite unknown : fo that there
muff be a great lofs of time in preferving their corn,
&c. from trefpafs. The ufual manure is fea plants,
coral and fhells. The run-rig farms are now difcou-
raged : but fince the tenements are fet by roup or auc¬
tion, and advanced by an unnatural force to above dou¬
ble the old rent, without any allowance for enclofing,
any example fet in agriculture, any fecurity of tenure
by lengthening the leafes, affairs will turn retrograde,
and the farms relapfe into their old ftate of rudenefs j
migration will increafe (for it has begun), and the
rents be reduced even below their former value : the
late rents were fcarce 1200I. a-year 5 the expedled
rents 3000I.
“ The produce of the ifland is oats j of which about
5000 bolls, each equal to nine Winchefter bufhels, are
town, 500 of beans, a few peas j and above 1000 bolls
of potatoes are annually fet : notwithftanding this,
500 bolls of oat meal are annually imported, to fubfift
the natives.
“ The live flock of the ifiand is 3183 milch cowts j
2000 cattle, from one to three years old ; 1058 horfes j
x 500 ftreep and 500 goats : many of the two laft are
killed at Michaelmas and dried for winter-provifion,
or fold at Greenock. The cattle are fold from 40 to
50s. per head, which brings into the ifland about
i 200I. per annum : I think that the fale of horfes alfo
brings in about 300I. Hogs wTere introduced here on¬
ly two years ago. The herring-fifhery round the ifland
brings in 300I. the fale of herring-nets look and that
of thread about 300I. for a good deal of flax is fown
here. Thefe are the exports of the ifland 5 but the mo¬
ney that goes out for mere neceflaries is a melancholy
drawback.
“ The women manufacture the wmol for the cloth¬
ing of their families 5 they fet the potatoes, and drefs
and fpin the flax. They make butter for exportation,
and cheefe for their own ufe.
A R R
“ The inhabitants in general are fober, religious, Airange-
and induftrious j great part of the fummer is employ- ment,
ed in getting peat for fuel, the only kind in ufe here ; Arras,
or in building or repairing their houfes, for the badnefs —1
of the materials requires annual repairs : before and
after harveft, they are bufied in the herring filhery j and
during winter the men make their herring nets j while
the women are employed in fpinning their linen and
woollen yarn. The light they often ufe is that of
lamps. From the beginning of February to the end
of May, if the wTeatber permits, they are engaged in
labouring their ground : in autumn they burn a great
quantity of fern, to make kelp. So that, excepting
at new7-year s day, at marriages, or at the two or three
fairs in that ifland, they have no leifure for any amufe-
ments : no wonder then at their depreflion of Ipirits.
“ Arran forms part of the county of Bute, and is
fubjeCl to the fame fort of government: but, befides,
juftice is adminiftered at the baron’s bailie-court, who
has power to fine as high as 20s. 5 can decide in mat¬
ters of property not exceeding 40s.; can imprifon for
a month ? and put delinquents into the flocks for three
hours, but that only during day-time.”
In this ifland there are many of thofe rude antiqui¬
ties or monuments called cairns, druidical circles, &c.
See Cairns.
ARRANGEMENT, or Rangement, the difpofi-
tion of the parts of a whole, in a certain order.
The modern philofophy fhows us, that the diverfity
of the colours of bodies depends entirely on the fitua-
tion and arrangement of the parts, which refleCl the
light differently 5 the diverfity of taftes and fmells on
the different arrangements of the pores, which render
them differently fenfible j and the general diverfity of
bodies on the different arrangement of their parts. The
happy arrangement of words makes one of the greateft
beauties of difcourfe.
ARRAS, the capital city of Artois, a province in
the French Netherlands. It is feated on a mountain $
and the parts about it are full of quarries, where they
get ftone for building. It is divided into two parts,
the town and the city. The abbe of St Vedaft is lord
of the town, and the bilhop of Arras of the city, which
is the leaft part. They are divided by a ftrong wall,
a large foffe, and the little river Chrinchron, which
100 paces below falls into the Scarp. They are both
well fortified, enclofed by high ramparts, and by double
deep foffes, which in feveral places are cut out of the
rock. It has four gates \ and fince the French are be¬
come mafters of it, has a ftrong citadel with five baf-
tions. The moft remarkable places are, the great
fquare where the principal market is kept \ this is full
of fine buildings, with piazzas all round it like thofe
of Covent-garden. Not far from this is the leffer mar¬
ket, which contains the town-houfe, a very noble ftruc-
ture, wuth a high tower covered with a crown, on the
top of wTich is a brazen lion which ferves for a vane.
In the midft of this market is the chapel of the Holy
Candle, which the Papifts pretend was brought by the
Virgin Mary herfelf above 600 years ago, when the
city wras afflidled wuth divers diieafes, and every one that
touched the candle wTas cured; it is kept in a filver
Ihrine. This chapel has a fpire fteeple, adorned with
feveral ftatues. The cathedral church of Notre-Dame
Hands ixx the city : it is a very large Gothic building,
extremely
[ 684 ]
A R R
Arras
Arreft.
extremely well adorned j the tower is very high, and
has a fine clock embelliihed with little figures in bronze,
_ which reprefent the paffion of Jefus Chrift ; they pafs
before the bell to flrike the hours and half hours. In
this church there is a filver (hrine, enriched with pearls
and diamonds, which contains a fort of wool, which
they call manna, that they fay fell from heaven in the
time of a great drought, almoft 1400 years ago : they
carry it very folemnly in proceiTion when they want
rain. The abbey-church of St Vedaft is the greateft
ornament of Arras, it being adorned with a fine fteeple,
and feats for the monks of admirable workmanlhip 5
the pulpit is of brafs, falhioned like a tree, fupported
by two bears of the fame metal, fitting on their hind
legs ; there are little bears in different poftures coming
to climb up the tree. The chimes are remarkable for
the different tunes which they play. There are 11
parifh churches, and a great many convents of men
and women. It is from this city that the tapeftry call¬
ed arras hangings takes its denomination. E. Long.
2. 56. N. Lat. 50. 17.
Arras, or Araxes, is alfo the name of a river of
Georgia, which difeharges itfelf into the Cafpian fea.
ARRAY, in Law, the ranking or fetting forth of
a jury, or inqueff of men impanelled on a caufe.
Battle-Array, the order or difpofition of an army,
drawn up with a view to engage the enemy. See
Army.
ARRAYERS, or Arragers, Arraitores, is
ufed in fome ancient ftatutes, for fuch officers as had
care of the foldiers armour, and faw them duly ac¬
coutred in their kinds. In fome reigns, commiffioners
have been appointed for this purpofe. Such were the
commiffioners of array appointed by King Charles I. in
the year 1642.
ARREARS, the remainder of a fum due, or money
remaining in the hands of an accountant. It likewife
fignifies the money due for rent, wages, &c. or wdiat
remains unpaid of penfions, taxes, &c.
ARRENTATION, in the foreft laws, implies the
licenfing the owner of lands in a forefl to enclofe them
with a low hedge and a fmall ditch, in confideration of
a yearly rent.
ARREST, in Englifh Law (from the French wmrd
arrejier, tojlop or Jay), is the reftraint of a man’s per-
fon, obliging him to be obedient to the law ; and is
defined to be the execution of the command of fome
court of record or office of juftice. An arreft is the
beginning of imprifonment ; where a man is firft ta¬
ken, and reftrained of his liberty, by pow-er or colour
of a lawful warrant.
Arrefts are either in civil or criminal cafes.
r. An arreft in a civil caufe is defined to be the ap¬
prehending or reftraining one’s perfon by procefs in
execution of the command of fome court.
An arreft muft be by corporal feizing or touching
the defender’s body •, after which the bailiff may jufti-
fy breaking open the houfe in which he is, to take
him : otherwife he has no fuch power 5 but muft wTatch
his opportunity to arreft him. For every man’s houfe
is looked upon by the law to be his caftle of defence
and afylum, wffierein he fhould fuller no violence.
Which principle is carried fo far in the civil law, that,
for the molt part, not fo much as a common citation
or fummons, much lefs an arreft, can be executed upon
[ 685 ]
A R R
a man within his own walls. Peers of the realm, Arreft.
members of parliament, and corporations, are privileged —v—"
from arrefts} and of courfe from outlawries. And
againft them the procefs to enforce an appearance muft
be by fummons and diftrefs infinite, inftead of a capias.
Alfo clerks, attorneys, and all other perfons attending
the courts of juftice (for attorneys being officers of the
court, are always fuppofed to be there attending) are
not liable to be arrefted by the ordinary procefs of the
court, but muft be fued by bill (called ufually a bill of
privilege), as being perfonally prefent in court. Cler¬
gymen performing divine fervice, and not merely Hay¬
ing in the church with a fraudulent defign, are for the
time privileged from arrefts, by ftatute 50 Edw. III.
c. 5. and 1 Rich. II. c. 16.; as likewife members of
convocation aftually attending thereon, by ftatute
8 Hen. VI. c. I. Suitors, witneffes, and other per¬
fons, neceffarily attending any courts of record upon
bufinefs, are not to be arrefted during their adlual at¬
tendance, which includes the neceffary coming and re¬
turning. Seamen in the king’s fervice are privileged
from arrefts for debts under 20I. (1 Geo. II. c. 14.
and 14 Geo. II. c. 38.) 5 and foldiers or marines are
not liable to arrefts for a debt of lefs than 10K
(3° Geo. II. c. 6. 11.) And no arreft can be made
in the king’s prefence, nor within the verge of his
royal palace, nor in any place wffiere the king’s jufti-
ces are actually fitting, ft he king hath moreover a
fpecial prerogative (which indeed is very feldom ex¬
erted), that he may by his writ of protettion privilege
a defendant from all perfonal, and many real fuits, for
one year at a time, and no longer ; in refpeft of his
being engaged in his fervice out of the realm. And
the king alfo by the common law might take his cre¬
ditor into his proteftion, fo that no one might fue or
arreft him till the king’s debt w'as paid : but by the
ftatute 25 Edw. III. c. 19. notwithftanding fuch pro-
teflion, another creditor may proceed to judgment
againft him, with a ftay of execution, till the king’s
debt be paid ; unlefs fuch creditor will undertake for
the king’s debt, and then he lhall have execution for
both. And, laftly, Ey ftatute 29 Car. II. c. 7. no
arreft can be made, nor procefs ferved, upon a Sunday,
except for treafon, felony, or breach of the peace.
2. An arreft in a criminal caufe is the apprehending
or reftraining one’s perfon, in order to be forthcoming
to anfwer an alleged crime. To this arreft all perfons
whatfoever are, wfithout diftin&ion, equally liable; and *
doors may be broken open to arreft the offender : but
no man is to be arrefted, unlefs charged with fuch a
crime as will at leaft juftify holding him to bail when
taken. There is this difference alfo between arrefts in
civil and criminal cafes, that none ftiall be arrefted for
debt, trefpafs, or other caufe of aftion, but by virtue
of a precept or commandment out of fome court; but
for treafon, felony, or breach of the peace, any man
may arreft with or wdthout warrant or precept. But
the king cannot command any one by word of mouth
to be arrefted ; for Ire muft do it by writ, or order of
his courts, according to law : nor may the king arreft
any man for fufpicion of treafon, or felony, as his fub-
jefts may ; becaufe, if he doth wrong, the party can¬
not have an a£tion againft him.
Arrefts by private perfons are in fome cafes com¬
manded. Perfons prefent at the committing of a fe¬
lony'
Arreft
A R R [ 686 ]
lony muft ufe their endeavours to apprehend the offend- of Cecrops.
er, under penalty of fine and imprifonment; and they
are alfo, with the utmoft diligence to purfue and en¬
deavour to take all thofe who fhall be guilty thereof
out of their view, upon a hue and cry levied againft
them. By the vagrant aft 17 Geo. II. c. 5. every
perfon may apprehend beggars and vagrants ; and eve¬
ry private perfon is bound to aflift an officer requiring
him to apprehend a felon.
In fome cafes likewife arrefts by private perfons are
rewarded by law. By the 4 and 5 William and Ma¬
ry, c. 8. perfons apprehending highwaymen, and pro-
fecuting them to a conviftion are entitled to a reward
of 40I.; and if they are killed in the attempt, their
executors, &c. are entitled to the like reward. By
the 6 and 7 William III. c. 17. perfons apprehending
counterfeiters and clippers of the coin, and profecuting
them to conviftion are entitled to 40I.
By 5 Ann, c. 31. perfons who lhall take any one
guilty of burglary, or the felonious breaking and en¬
tering any houfe in the day time, and profecute them
to conviftion, ffiall receive the fum of 40I. within one
month after fuch conviftion.
With regard to arrefts by public officers, as watch¬
men, conftables, &c. they are either made by their
own authority, which differs but very little from the
power of a private perfon j or they are made by a
warrant from a juftice of peace. See Warrant.
Arrest of Judgment, in Law, the affigning juft
reafon why judgment ihould not pafs : as, Want of no¬
tice of the trial; a material defeft in the pleading j
when the record differs from the deed impleaded;
when perfons are mifnamed ; where more is given by
the verdift than is laid in the declaration, &c. This
may be done either in criminal or civil cafes.
ARRESTMENT, in Scots Law, fignifies the fe-
curing of a criminal till trial, or till he find caution to
Hand trial, in what are called bailable crimes. In ci¬
vil cafes, it fignifies either the detaining of ftrangers,
or natives in meditatione fugce, till they find caution
judicio f/li, or the attaching the effefts of a ftranger
in order to found jurifdiftion. But, in the moft ge¬
neral acceptation of the word, it denotes that diligence
by wffiich a creditor detains the goods or eft'efts of his
debtor in the hands of third parties till the debt due to
him be either paid or fecured. See Law.
ARRESTO facto super bonis, &c. a writ
brought by a denizen againft the goods of aliens found
within this kingdom, as a recompenfe for goods taken
from him in a foreign country.
ARRESTS, in Farriery, mangy tumours upon a
horfe’s hinder legs, between the ham and the pa-
ftern.
ARRETIUM, (Cicero, Ccefar) ; Arrhetium, (Pto¬
lemy) 5 TJrbs Arrhetinonim, (Polybius) ; one of the
twelve ancient towns of Tufcany, near the Arnis and
Clanis, fituated in a pleafant valley. Now Arezzo,
42 miles eaft of Florence. E. Long. 13. 18. Lat. 43.
15-
ARRHABONARII, a feft of Chriftians, who
held that the eucharift is neither the real fleffi or blood
of Chrift, nor yet the fign of them 5 but only the
pledge or earneft thereof.
ARRHEPHORIA, a feaft among the Athenians,
inftituted in honour of Minerva, and Herfe daughter
A R R
The word is compofed of x^iov, myf cry,
and I carry ; on account of certain myfferious
things which were carried in proceffion at this folem-
nity.—Boys, or, as fome fay, girls, between fevenNand
twelve years of age, were the minifters that affifted at
this feaft, and wrere denominated This feaft
wras alfo called Her/ipkoria, from the daughter of Ce¬
crops, already mentioned.
ARRIAN, a famous philofopher and hiftorian un¬
der the emperor Hadrian and the turn Antonines, was
born at Nicomedia in Bithynia. His great learning
and eloquence procured him the title of The fecond
Xenophon; and railed him to the moft confiderable
dignities at Rome, even the confulftiip itfelf. We have
four books of his Differtations upon Epictetus, whofe
fcholar he had been 5 and his ITi/lory of Alexander the
Great, in feven books, is greatly admired by the beft
judges.
ARRIERE, the hinder or pofterior part of any
thing.
Arriere Ban, in the French Cufoms, w^as a gene¬
ral proclamation, whereby the king fummoned to war
all that held of him, both his vaffals, i. e. the nobleffe,
and the vaffals of his vaffals.
Arriere Fee, or Fief, is a fee dependent on a fu-
perior one. Thefe fees commenced, when the dukes
and counts, rendering their governments hereditary
in their families, diftributed to their officers parts of
the royal domains which they found in their refpeftive
provinces, and even permitted thofe officers to gratify
the fokliers under them in the fame manner.
ARROBAS, or Arobas, a weight ufed in Spain,
Portugal, and the foreign dominions of both. The
arrobas of Portugal is alio called arata, and contains
thirty-two Lilbon pounds; that of Spain contains
In Peru it is called ar-
Arrian
twenty-five Spanilh pounds
roue.
ARROE, a fmall illand of Denmark, in the Baltic
fea, a little fouth of the iftand of Funen. It is eight
miles in length, and about twa in breadth ; and pro¬
duces corn, anifeed, black cattle, and horfes. It has
three parilhes, the moft confiderable of which is Rop¬
ing. It Hands at the fouth fide of the iiland, in the
bottom of a bay, and has a port with fome trade.
E. Long. 9. 40. N. Lat. 55. 20.
ARROJO, de St Servan, a town of Spain, in
Eftremadura. W. Long. 5. 20. N. Lat. 38. 40.
ARRONDEE, in Heraldry, a crofs, the arms of
which are compofed of feftions of a circle, not oppo-
fite to each other, fo as to make the arms bulge out
thicker in one part than another 5 but the feftions of
each arm lying the fame way, fo that the arm is eve¬
rywhere of an equal tfticknefs, and all of them ter¬
minating at the edge of the efcutcheon like the plain
crofs.
ARROW, a miffive weapon of offence, {lender,
pointed, and barbed, to be caft or Ihot with a bowr.
See Archery.
Arrow-Mahers, are called f etchers ; and were for¬
merly, as well as bowyers, perfons of great confe-
quence in the commonwrealth.
Arrow-heads and quarrels were to be wTell boched or
brafed, and hardened at the points with fteel ; the do¬
ing of which feems to have been the bufinefs of the
arrow-fmith.
Arrow-
A R S [ 687 ] ART
Arrow- y^RRow-Head. See Sagittaria, Botany Index.
AnRoir-Root. See Maranta, Botany Index.
Arfinoe. ARSACES, otherwife Mithridates, a king of
the Parthians, fpoken of in the firft book of Macca¬
bees, xiv. 2. He confiderably enlarged the kingdom
of Parthia by his good conduft and valour. See Par-
thia.
ARSCHIN, in Commerce, a long meafure ufed in
China to meafure fluffs. Four arfchins make three
yards of London.
ARSENAL, a royal or public magazine, or place
appointed for the making and keeping of arms, necef-
fary either for defence or affault. Some derive this
word from arx ufortrefs; others from ars, denoting a
machine ; others again from arx and fenatus, becaufe
this was the defence of the ftnate : but the more pro¬
bable opinion derives it from the Arabic darfenaa,
which lignifies arfenal.
The arfenal of V enice is the place where the galleys
are built and laid up. The arfenal of Paris is that
where the cannon or great guns are call. It has this
infcription over the gate :
JEtna hccc Henrico vulcania tela minijlrat,
Tela Gigantceos debellatura furores.
d here are arfenals, or ftore-houfes, appropriated to
naval furniture and equipments. At Marfeilles is the
arfenal for the galleys $ and at Toulon, Rochfort, and
Breft, are thofe for the men of war.
ARSENIC. See Mineralogy and Chemistry
Index.
ARSENICS, a deacon of the Roman church, of
great learning and piety. He was pitched upon by
the pope to go to the emperor Theodofms, as tutor to
his Ion Arcadius. Arfenius arrived at Conllantinople
m the year 383. The emperor happening one day to
go into the room where Arfenius was inftru&ing Ar¬
cadius, his fon was feated and the preceptor Handing 5
at this he was exceedingly difpleafed, took from his fon
the imperial ornaments, made Arfenius fit in his place,
and ordered Arcadius for the future to receive his lef-
fons (landing uncovered. Arcadius, however, profited
but little by his tutor’s*in(lru£lions, for fome time af¬
ter he formed a defign of defpatching him. The offi¬
cer to whom Arcadius had applied for this purpofe, di¬
vulged the affair to Arfenius, who retired to the de-
ferts of Scete, where he paffed many years in the exer-
cifes of the mod drift and fervent devotion. He died
there, at 95 years of age.
ARSHOT, a town of the Audrian Netherlands,
fituated about 14 miles ead of the city of Mechlin, in
E. Long. 4. 45. N. Lat. 51.5.
ARSINOE, in Ancient Geography, a town of E-
gypt, on the wed fide of the Arabian gulf, near its
extremity, to the fouth of Hieropolis, (Strabo, Pto-
lemy )•; called Cleopatris by fome. Another Arfinoe,
a town of Cilicia, (Ptolemy) ; and the fifth of that
name in Cilicia, (Stephanus) ; with a road or dation
for (hips, (Strabo). A third Arfinoe, in the fouth of
Cyprus, with a port between Citium and Salamis,
(Strabo). A fourth, an inland town of Cyprus, call¬
ed Marium formerly, (Stephanus). A fifth in the
north of Cyprus, between Acamas and Soli, (Strabo) ;
lb called from Arfinoe, a queen of Egypt, Cyprus be¬
ing in the hands of the Ptolemies. A fixtli Arfinoe,
a maritime town of Cyrene, formerly called Teuchira.
A feventh Arfinoe, in the Nomos Arfinoites, to the
wred of the Heracleotes, on the wedcrn bank of the
Nile, formerly called Crocodilorum Urbs, (Strabo) j
the name Arfinoe continued under Adrian, (Coin.)
Ptolemy calls this Arfinoe an inland metropolis, and
therefore at fome didance from the Nile, with a port
called Ptolemais. An eighth Arfinoe, a maritime
town of Lycia ; fo called by Ptolemy Philadelphus,
after the name of his confort, which did not hold lon^,
it afterwards recovering its ancient name Patara, (Stra¬
bo). A ninth, a town of the Troglodytse, near the
mouth of the Arabian gulf, which towards Ethiopia is
terminated by a promontory called Dire, (Ptolemy).
This Arfinoe is called Berenice, and the third of that
name in this quarter, w’lth the didinclion Epideres;
becaufe fituated on a neck of land running out a great
way into the fea.
ARSIS and. thesis, in Mufc, is a term applied to
compofitions in which one part rifes and the other
falls.
ARSMART. See Persicaria, Botany Index.
ARSON, in Englijh Law, is the malicious and wil¬
ful burning of the houfe or outhoufe of another man 5
wffiich is felony at common law.
This is an offence of very great malignity, and much
more pernicious to the public than fimple theft: be¬
caufe, fird, it is an offence againd that right of habi¬
tation which is acquired by the law of nature as well
as by the laws of fociety ; next, becaufe of the terror
and confufion that neceffarily attends it ; and, ladly,
becaufe in fimple theft^ the thing dolen only changes its
mader, but dill remains m ejfe for the benefit of the
public ; whereas by burning the very fubdance is ab-
(olutely dedroyed. It is alfo frequently more dedruc-
tive than murder itfelf, of which too it is often the
caufe :. fince murder, atrocious as it is, feldom extends
beyond the felonious aft defigned, whereas fire too fre¬
quently involves in the common calamity perfons un¬
known to the incendiary, and not intended to be hurt
by him, and friends as well as enemies.
ARSURA, in ancient cudoms, a term ufed for the
melting of gold or filver, either to refine them, or to
examine their value.—The method of doing this is ex¬
plained at large in the Black Book of the Exchequer,
afcribed to Gervaife, in the chapter Dc Officio Militis
Argentarii, being in thofe days of great ufe, on ac¬
count of the various places and diderent manners in
which the king’s money was paid.
Arsura, is alfo ufed for the lols or diminution of
the metal in the trial. In this fenfe, a pound was faid
tot ardere denarios, to lofe fo many pennyweights.
Arsura is alfo ufed for the dud and (weepings or
filverfmiths, and others, who work in filver, melted
down.
ART is defined by Lord Bacon, a proper difpofal
of the things of nature by human thought and expe¬
rience, . fo as to anfwer the feveral purpofes of man¬
kind ; in which fenfe art dands oppofed to nature.
Art is principally ufed for a fydem of rules ferving
to facilitate the performance of certain adlions ; in
which fenfe it dands oppoled to fcience, or a fydem of
fpeculative principles.
Arts are commonly divided into ufeful or mechanic,
liberal or polite. The former are thofe wherein the
hand'
Arfis
[|
Art.
Arts.
lOrigin and
progrefs of
lifeful arts.
Kaimes's
Sketches,
Sk. v.
ART [ 688 ] ART.
hand and body are more concerned than the mind ; of Greece before Clk-worms were introduced there. The Art',
which kind are moft of thofe which. furnilh us with manufadturers were provided with raw iilk from Per- '—■““v——J
the necejfaries of life, and are popularly known by the fia : but that commerce being frequently interrupted
name of trades •, as baking, brewing, carpentry, fmith- by war, two monks, in the reign of Juftinian, brought
ery, weaving, &c.—The latter are fuch as depend eggs of the fdk-worm from Hindoilan, and taught
more on the labour of the mind than that of the hand j their countrymen the method of managing them.—
they are the produce of the imagination, their effence The art of reading made a very How progrefs. To
conlifts in expreffion, and their end is pleafure. Of this encourage that art in England, the capital puniftiment
kind are poetry, painting, mufic, &c. for murder was remitted if the criminal could but
Progrefs of the Arts. Some ufeful arts muft be read, which in law language is termed benefit of cler-
nearly coeval with the human race j for food, clothing, gy. One -would imagine that the arts muft have made
and habitation, even in their original fimplicity, re- a very rapid progrefs when fo greatly favoured : but
quire fome art. Many other arts are of fuch antiquity there is a fignal proof of the contrary : for fo fmall an
as to place the inventors beyond the reach of tradi- edition of the Bible as 6co copies, tranflated into Eng-
tion. Several have gradually crept into the world lilh in the reign of Henry VIII. was not wholly fcid
without an inventor. The bufy mind, however, ac- oft' in three years. The people of England muft have
cuftomed to a beginning in things, cannot reft till it been profoundly ignorant in Queen Elizabeth’s time,
finds or imagines a beginning to every art. The moft when a forged claufe added to the 20th article of the
probable conjeftures of this nature the reader may fee Englifh creed pafled unnoticed till about 50 years
in the hiftorical introdudtions to the different articles. ago.
In all countries where the people are barbarous and The difcoveries of the Portuguefe in the weft coaft
illiterate, the progrefs of arts is extremely fiow\ It is of Africa is a remarkable inftance of the flow progrels
vouched by an old French poem, that the virtues of the of arts. In the beginning of the 15th century, they
loadftone were known in France before anno 118c. were totally ignorant of that coaft beyond Cape Non,
The mariner’s compafs wTas exhibited at Venice anno 28 degrees north latitude. In 1410, the celebrated
1260, by Paulus Venetus, as his owm invention. John Prince Henry of Portugal fitted out a fleet for difco-
Goya of Amalphi was the firft who, many years after- veries, wdiich proceeded along the coaft to Cape Boja-
ward, ufed it in navigation •, and alfo paffed for being dore in 26 deg. but had not courage to double it. In
the inventor. Though it w’as ufed in China for navi- 1418, Triftan Vaz difcovered the ifland Porto Santo j
gation long before it was known in Europe, yet to this and the year after, the ifland Madeira was difcovered.
day it is not fo perfedt as in Europe. Inftead of fuf- In 1439, a Portuguefe captain doubled Cape Bajadore j
pending it in order to make it adt freely, it is placed and the next year the Portuguefe reached Cape Blan-
upon a bed of fand, by w7hich every motion of the (hip co, lat. 20 deg. In 1446, Nuna Triftan doubled
difturbs its operation. Hand-mills, termed querns, Cape de Verd, lat. 14. 40. In 1448, Don Gonzallo
wrere early ufed for grinding corn j and when corn came Vallo took poffeflion of the Azores. In 1449, the
to be raifed in greater quantity, horfe-mills fucceeded. iflands of Cape de Verd wjere difcovered for Don Hen-
Water-mills for grinding corn are defcribed by Vitru- ry. In 1471, Pedro d’Efcovar difcovered the ifland
vius. Wind-mills were known in Greece, and in Ara- St Thomas and Prince’s ifland. In 1484, Diego Cam
bia as early as the feventh century j and yet no men- difcovered the kingdom of Congo. In i486, Bartho-
tion is made of them in Italy till the fourteenth. That lomew Diaz, employed by John II. of Portugal, dou-
they wTere not knowm in England in the reign of Hen- bled the Cape of Good Hope, which »he called Cabo
ry VIII. appears from a houfehold book of an earl of Tormentofo, from the tempeftuous wTeather he found in
Northumberland, cotemporary with that king, ftating the paffage.
an allowance for three mill horfes, “ two to draw in The exertion of national fpirit upon any particular Caufes
the mill, and one to carry fluff to the mill and fro.” art, promotes aflivity to profecute other arts. The which ad¬
vanced the
progrefs of
ployed glafs to imitate cryftal vafes and goblets ; yet other arts. Having, in the progrefs of fociety, ac-
they never thought of ufing it in windows. In the quired fome degree of tafte and polifh, a talent for
13th century, the Venetians were the only people who working broke forth. Nevius compofed in verfe feven
had the art of making cryftal glafs for mirrors. A books of the Punic wrar •, befides comedies, replete
clock that ftrikes the hours w7as unknown in Europe w7ith bitter raillery againft the nobility. Ennius wrote
till the end of the 12th century. And hence the cu- annals, and an epic poem. Lucius Andronicus was
ftom of employing men to proclaim the hours during the father of dramatic poetry in Rome. Pacuvius
night j w-hich to this day continues in Germany, Flan- wrote tragedies. Plautus and Terence wrote come-
ders, and England. Galileo was the firft w7ho con- dies. Lucilius compofed fatires, w hich Cicero efteems
ceived an idea that a pendulum might be ufeful for to be flight and void of erudition. Fabius Piflor, Cin-
meafuring time j and Huygens was the firft wdio put cius Alimentus, Pifo Frugi, Valerius Antias, and Ca-
the idea in execution, by making a pendulum clock, to, w7ere rather annalifts than hiftorians, confining
Hook, in the year 1660, invented a fpiral fpring for themfelves to naked fa£ls, ranged in order of time,
a w7atch, though a w7atch wras far from being a new in- The genius of the Romans for the fine arts was much
vention. Paper was made no earlier than the 14th inflamed by Greek learning, when free intercourfe be-
century j and the invention of printing was a century tween the twTo nations was opened. Many of thofe
later. Silk manufaftures were long eftablifhed in who made the greateft figure in the Roman ftate com¬
menced
Water-mills for corn muft in England have been of a Romans, by conftant ftudy, came to excel in the art
later date. The ancients had mirror-glaffes, and em- of w’ar, which led them naturally to improve upon
ART [ 689 1 ART
menced authors Caefar, Cicero, 6cc. Sylla compo-
fed memoirs of his own tranfaftions, a work much
efteemed even in the days of Plutarch.
The progrefs of art feldom fails to be rapid, when
a people happen to be roufed out of a torpid ftate by
fome fortunate change of circumftances. Profperity,
contrafted with former abafement, gives to the mind a
fpring, which is vigoroufly exerted in every new pur-
fuit. The Athenians made but a mean figure under
the tyranny of Pififtratus j but upon regaining free¬
dom and independence, they were converted into he¬
roes. Miletus, a Greek city of Ionia, being deftroy-
ed by the king of Perfia, and the inhabitants made
flaves, the Athenians, deeply affe&ed with the mifery
of their brethren, boldly attacked the king in his own
dominions, and burnt the city of Sardis. In lefs than
10 years after, they gained a fignal viftory at Mara¬
thon ; and, under Themiftocles, made head againft that
prodigious army with which Xerxes threatened utter
ruin to Greece. Such profperity produced its ufual ef-
fefts : arts flourilhed with arms, and Athens became
the chief theatre for fciences, as well as for fine arts.
The reign of Auguftus Caefar, which put an end to
the rancour of civil war, and reftored peace to Rome,
with the comforts of fociety, proved an aufpicious era
for literature ; and produced a cloud of Latin hiftorians,
poets, and philofophers, to whom the moderns are in¬
debted for their tafte and talents. One who makes a
figure roufes emulation in all: one catches fire from
another, and the national fpirit is everywhere triumph¬
ant : clafiical works are compofed, and ufeful difeove-
ries made in every art and fcience. With regard to
Rome, it is true, that the Roman government under
Auguftus was in effeft defpotic : but defpotifm, in that
fingle inftance, made no obftruftion to literature, it
having been the policy of that reign to hide power as
much as poflible. A fimilar revolution happened in
Tufcany about three centuries ago. That country
having been divided into a number of fmall republics,
the people excited by mutual hatred between fmall na¬
tions in clofe neighbourhood, became ferocious and
bloody, flaming with revenge for the flighteft offence.
Thefe republics being united under the great duke
of Tufcany, enjoyed the fweets of peace in a mild go¬
vernment. That comfortable revolution, which made
the deeper impreflion by a retrofpedl to recent calami¬
ties, roufed the national fpirit, and produced ardent
application to arts and literature. The reftoration of
the royal family in England, which put an end to a
cruel and envenomed civil war, promoted improvements
of every kind ; arts and induftry made a rapid progrefs
among the people, though left to themfelves by a weak
and flu£luating adminiftration. Had the nation, upon
that favourable turn of fortune, been bleffed with a
fucceflion of able and virtuous princes, to what a height
might not arts and fciences have been carried ! In
Scotland, a favourable period for improvement was the
reign of the firft Robert, after (baking off the Englilh
yoke j but the domineering fpirit of the feudal fyftem
rendered every attempt abortive. The reftoration of
the royal family mentioned above, animated the legif-
lature of Scotland to promote manufactures of various
kinds : but in vain *, for the union of the two croVvns
had introduced defpotifm into Scotland, which funk
the genius of the people, and rendered them heartlefs
Vol. II. Part II.
and indolent. Liberty, indeed, and many other ad¬
vantages, were procured to them by the union of the
two kingdoms j but the falutary effeCts were long fu-
fpended by mutual enmity, fuch as commonly fubfifts
between neighbouring nations. Enmity gradually wore
out, and the eyes of the Scots were opened to the
advantages of their prefent condition $ the national
fpirit was roufed to emulate and to excel: talents
were exerted, hitherto latent; and Scotland at prefent
makes a figure in arts and fciences above what it ever
made while an independent kingdom.
Another caufe of aClivity and animation, is the be¬
ing engaged in fome important aftion of doubtful e
vent; a ftruggle for liberty, the refilling a potent in¬
vader, or the like. Greece, divided into fmail dates
frequently at war with each other, advanced literature
and the fine arts to unrivalled perfection. The Corfi
cans, while engaged in a perilous war for defence of
their liberties, exerted a vigorous national fpirit •, they
founded a univerfity for arts and fciences, a public li
brary, and a public bank. After a long ftupor during
the dark ages of Chriftianity, arts and literature reviv ¬
ed among the turbulent ftates of Italy. The Royal
Society in London, and the Academy of Sciences in
Paris, were both of them inftituted after civil wars that
had animated the people and roufed their aClivity.
As the progrefs of arts and fciences tpward perfec¬
tion is greatly promoted by emulation, nothing is more
fatal to an art or fcience than to remove that fpur, as
where fome extraordinary genius appears who foars
above rivalfliip. Mathematics feem to be declining in
Britain j the great Newton, having furpaffed all the
ancients, has not left to the moderns even the fainted
hope of equalling him •, and what man will enter the
lifts who defpairs of viClory ?
In a country thinly peopled, where even neceffary
arts want hands, it is common to fee one perfon ex-
ercifing more arts than one : in feveral parts of Scot¬
land, one man ferves as a phyfician, furgeon, and apo¬
thecary. In every populous country, even fimple arts
are fplit into parts, and each part has an artift appro¬
priated to it. In the large towns of ancient Egypt,
a phyfician was confined to a fingle difeafe. In me¬
chanic arts that method is excellent. As a hand con¬
fined to a fingle operation becomes both expert and ex¬
peditious, a mechanic art is perfected by having its dif¬
ferent operations diftributed among the greateft num¬
ber of hands : many hands are employed in making a
watch, and a (till greater number in manufacturing a
web of woollen cloth. Various arts or operations car¬
ried on by the fame man, invigorate his mind, becaufe
they exercife different faculties j and as he cannot be
equally expert in every art or operation, he is fre¬
quently reduced to fupply want of fidll by thought
and invention. Conftant application, on the contrary,
to a fingle operation, confines the mind to a fingle
objeCt, and excludes all thought and invention : in
fuch a train of life, the operator becomes dull and ftu-
pid, like a bead of burden. The difference is vifi-
ble in the manners of the people : in a country where,
from want of hands, feveral occupations muft be car¬
ried on by the .fame perfon, the people are knowing
and converfable : in a populous country, where manu¬
factures flourifh, they are ignorant and unfociable.
The fame effeCt is equally vifible in countries where an
4 S art
ART [ 690 ] ART
Arts, art or manufacture is confined to a certain clafs of men.
t"' ‘ It is vifible in Indoftan, where the people are divided
into carts, which never mix even by marriage, and
where every man follows his father’s trade. The
Dutch lint-boors are a fimilar inftance : the fame fa¬
milies carry on the trade from generation to genera¬
tion ; and are accordingly ignorant and brutilh even
beyond other Dutch peafants. The inhabitants of
Buckhaven, a fea port in the county of Fife, were ori¬
ginally a colony of foreigners, invited hither to teach
our people the art of fifhing. They continue fifhers to
this day, marry among themfelves, have little inter-
courfe with their neighbours, and are dull and ftupid
3 to a proverb.
Progrefs of Ufeful arts paved the way to fine arts. Men upon
thejfor arts, whom the former had beftowed every convenience,
turned their thoughts to the latter. Beauty was ftu-
died in objeCls of fight j and men of tafte attached
themfelves to the fine arts, whith multiplied their en¬
joyments, and improved their benevolence. Sculpture
and painting made an early figure in Greece j which
afforded plenty of beautiful originals to be copied in
thefe imitative arts. Statuary, a more fimple imita¬
tion than painting, wTas fooner brought to perfection :
the ftatue of Jupiter by Phidias, and of Juno by Po-
lycletes, though the admiration of all the world, were
executed long before the art of light and fliade was
known. Apollodorus, and Zeuxis his difciple, who
flourirtied in the 15th Olympiad, were the firft who
figured in that art. Another caufe concurred to ad¬
vance ftatuary before painting in Greece, viz. a great
demand for ftatues of their gods. Architecture, as a
fine art, .made a flow-er progrefs. Proportions, upon
which its elegance chiefly depends, cannot be accu¬
rately afcertained, but by an infinity of trials in great
buildings 5 a model cannot be relied on : for a large
and a fmall building, even of the fame form, require
different proportions.
Literary From the fine arts mentioned, we proceed to lite-
compofx- ratuve. It is agreed, among all antiquaries, that the
tiou. firff waitings were in verfe, and that writing in profe
was of a much later date. The firft Greek who wrote
in profe was Pherecides Syrus: the firft Roman was
Appius Gaecus, who compofed a declamation againft
Pyrrhus. The four books of the Chatah Bhade,
which is the facred book of Hindoftan, are compofed
in verfe ftanzas; and the Arabian compofitions in profe
followed long after thofe in verfe. To account for that
Angular faCt, many learned pens have been employed 5
but without fuccefs. By fome it has been urged, that
as memory is the only record of events where writing
is unknown, hiftory originally was compofed in verfe
for the fake of memory. This is not fatisfaClory. To
undertake the painful talk of compofing in verfe, mere¬
ly for the fake of memory, would require more fore¬
fight than ever was exerted by a barbarian : not to
mention that other means were ufed for preferving the
memory of remarkable events; a heap of ftones, a pillar,
or other objeCt that catches the eye. The account
given by Longinus is more ingenious. In a fragment
of his treatife on verfe, the only part that remains, he
obferves, “ that meafure or verfe belongs to poetry,
becaufe poetry reprefents the various paffions with
their language j for which reafon the ancients, in their
ordinary difcourfe, delivered their thoughts in verfe
rather than in profe.” Longinus thought, that an- Arts,
ciently men were more expofed to accidents and dan-1——v——^
gers, than when they were protefted by good govern¬
ment and by fortified cities. But he feems hot to have
adverted, that fear and grief, infpired by dangers and
misfortunes, are better fuited to humble profe than to
elevated verfe. It may be added, that however natu¬
ral poetical di&ion may be when one is animated with
any vivid paffion, it is not fuppofable that the ancients
never wrote nor fpoke but when excited by pafiion.
Their hiftory, their laws, their covenants, were cer¬
tainly not compofed in that tone of mind.
An important article in the progrefs of the fine arts,
which writers have not fufficiently attended to, will
perhaps explain this myftery. The article is the pro-
feffion of a bard, which fprung up in early times be¬
fore waiting was known *, and died away gradually as # gee tjiff
writing became more and more common f. article
The fongs of the bards, being univerfal favourites, Writing.
wrere certainly the firft compofitions that writing was t See
employed upon : they would be carefully colledted
by the moft Ikilful writers, in order to preferve them
in perpetual remembrance. The following part of the
progrefs is obvious. People acquainted 'with no writ¬
ten compofitions, but what wTere in verfe, compofed in
verfe their laws, their religious ceremonies, and every
memorable tranfaftion that was intended to be prefer-
ved in memory by writing. But w7hen fubje£ls of
wanting multiplied, and became more and more invol¬
ved j when people began to reafon, to teach, and to
harangue j they were obliged to.defcend to humble
profe : for to confine a writer or fpeaker to verfe in
handling fubjefts of that nature w'ould be a burden
unfupportable. 5
The profe compofitions of early hiftorians are all ofHiltory.
them dramatic. A writer deftitute of art is naturally
prompted to relate fafts as he faw them performed :
he introduces his perfonages as fpeaking and confer¬
ring j and he himfelf relates w?hat was adfed, and not
fpoke. The hiftorical books of the Old Teftament
are compofed in that mode; and fo addicted to the
dramatic are the authors of thofe books, that they fre¬
quently introduce God himfelf into the dialogue. At
the fame time, the fimplicity of that mode is happily
fuited to the poverty of every language in its early pe¬
riods. The dramatic mode has a delicious effeft in
exprefling fentiment, and every thing that is fimple
and tender. Read, as an inftance of a low incident be¬
coming, by that means, not a little interefting, Ruth
i. 8. to iv. 16.
The dramatic mode is far from pleafing fo much in
relating bare hiftorical fa£ts. Read, as an example,
the ftory of Adonijah in 1 Kings i. 11—49.
In that paffage there are frequent repetitions j not
how'ever by the fame perfon, but by different perfons,
who have occafion in the courfe of the ftory to fay the
fame things $ which is natural in the dramatic mode,
where things are reprefented precifely as they were
tranfa&ed. In that view, Homer’s repetitions are a
beauty, not a blemilh *, for they are confined to the
dramatic part, and never occur in the narrative.
But the dramatic mode of compofition, horveyer
pleafing, is tedious and intolerable in a long hiftory.
In the progrefs of fociety new appetites and new paf-
fious arife j men come to be involved with each other
in
ART [ 691 ] ART
Arts. in various connexions ; incidents and events multiply,
*u_"' v 1 and hiftory becomes intricate by an endlefs variety of
circumftances. Dialogue accordingly is more fparingly
ufed, and in hiftory plain narration is mixed.with it.
Narration is as it were the ground-work ; and dia¬
logue is raifed upon it, like flowers in embroidery.
Homer is admitted by all to be the great mafter in
that mode of compofition.
The narrative mode came in time fo to prevail, that
in a long chain of hiftory, the writer commonly leaves
off dialogue altogether. Early writers of that kind
appear to have very little judgment in diftinguifliing
capital fadls from minute circumftances, fuch as can be
fupplied by the reader without being mentioned. The
hiftory of the Trojan war by Dares Phrygius is a cu¬
rious inftance of that cold and creeping manner of
compofition. The Roman hiftories before the time of
Cicero are chronicles merely. Cato, Fabius Piftor,
and Pifo, confined themfelves to naked fadfs. In the
Auguftae Hiftoriae Scriptores we find nothing but a
jejune narrative of fads, commonly of very little mo¬
ment, concerning a degenerate people, without a
iingle incident that can roufe the imagination or exer-
cife the judgment. Hie monkiih hiftories are all of
them compofed in the fame manner.
The dry narrative manner being very little intereft-
ing or agreeable, a tafte for embelliftiment prompt¬
ed fome writers to be copious and verbofe. Saxo-
Grammaticus, who in the 12th century compofed in
Latin a hiftory of Denmark furprifingly pure at that
early period, is extremely verbofe and full of tautolo¬
gies. Such a ftyle, at any rate unpleafant, is intole¬
rable in a modern tongue, before it is enriched with a
ftock of phrafes for exprefiing aptly the great variety
of incidents that enter into hiftory.
The perfedfion of hiftorical compofition which wri¬
ters at laft attain to after wandering through various
imperfedl modes, is a relation of interefting fadts,
connedted with their motives and confequences. A
hiftory of that kind is truly a chain of caufes and ef-
6 fedls.
^Eloquence. The hiftory of Thucydides, and ftill more that of
Tacitus, are fhining inftances of that mode.
Eloquence was of a later date than the art of litera¬
ry compofition; for till the latter was improved
there were no models for ftudying the former. Cice¬
ro’s oration for Rofcius is compofed in a ftyle diflufe
and highly ornamented ; which, fays Plutarch, was uni-
verfally approved, becaufe at that time the ftyle of
Afia, introduced into Rome with its luxury, was in
high vogue. But Cicero, in a journey to Greece,
where he leifurely ftudied Greek authors, was taught
to prune off fuperfluities, and to purify his ftyle, which
he did to a high degree of refinement. He introdu¬
ced into his native tongue a fweetnefs, a grace, a ma-
jefty, that furprifed the world, and even the Romans
themfelves. Cicero obferves with great regret, that if
ambition for power had not drawn Julius Casfar from
the bar to command legions, he would have become
the moft complete orator in the world. So partial are
men to the profeflion in which they excel. Eloquence
triumphs in a popular affembly 5 makes fome figure in
a court of law compofed of many judges, very little
where there is but a lingle judge, and none at all in a
defpotic government. Eloquence flouriilied in the re¬
publics of Athens and of Rome ; and makes fome fi- Arts,
gure at prefent in a Britilh Houfe of Commons. 'r~~
I he Greek ftage has been juftly admired among allT ^rr^v
polite nations. The tragedies of Sophocles and Eu- r''
ripides, in particular, are by all critics held to be perfedl
in their kind, excellent models for imitation, but far
above rivalihip. If the Greek ftage was fo early
brought to maturity, it is a phenomenon not a little
Angular in the progrefs of arts. The Greek tragedy
made a rapid progrefs from Thefpis to Sophocles and
Euripides, whofe compofitions are wonderful produc¬
tions of genius, confidering that the Greeks at that
period v7ere but beginning to emerge from roughnefs
and barbarity into a tafte for literature. The c@mpo-
fitions of Efchylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, muft
have been highly relilhed among a people who had no
idea of any thing more perfett. We judge by com-
parifon, and every work is held to be perfeft that has
no rival. It ought at the fame time to be kept in
view, that it was not the dialogue which chiefly en¬
chanted the Athenians, nor variety in the paflions re-
prefented, nor perfetlion in the aftors; but machinery
and pompous decoration, joined with exquifite mufic.
That thefe particulars were carried to the greatefl
height, w7e may with certainty conclude from the ex¬
travagant fums bellowed on them : the exhibiting a
Angle tragedy was more expenfive to the Athenians
than their fleet or their armies in any Angle campaign.
One would imagine, however, that thefe compoA-
tions w'ere too Ample to enchant for ever: as variety
in a£lion, lentiment, and paflion, is requiAte, without
which the ftage will not continue long a favourite en¬
tertainment: and yet w7e And not a Angle improve¬
ment attempted after the days of Sophocles and Euri¬
pides. The manner of performance, indeed, prevented
abfolutely any improvement. A fluctuation of paflion
and refined fentiments wmuld have made no figure on
the Grecian ftage. Imagine the difeording feene be¬
tween Brutus and Caflius in Julius Caffar to be there
exhibited, or the handkerchief in the Moor of Venice:
how flight would be their effeft, when pronounced in
a malk, and through a pipe ? The workings of nature
upon the countenance, and the flexions of voice ex-
preffive of various feelings, fo deeply affeCling in mo¬
dern reprefentation, would have been entirely loft. If
a great genius had arifen with talents for compofing a
pathetic tragedy in perfection, he would have made
no figure in Greece. An edifice muft have been ereCted
of a moderate fize : new aCtors muft have been trained
to aCt with a bare face, and to pronounce in their own
voice. And after all, there remained a greater mira¬
cle ftill to be performed, viz. a total reformation of
tafte in the people of Athens. In one word, the fim-
plicity of the Greek tragedy was fuited to the manner
of aCting ; and that manner excluded all improvements. g
^ With refpeCt to comedy, it does not appear that the Comedy.
Greek comedy furpaffed the tragedy in its progrefs
toward perfection. Horace mentions three ftages of
Greek comedy. The firft well fuited to the rough
and coarfe manners of the Greeks, when Eupolis, Cra-
tinus, and Ariftophanes, wrote. Thefe authors were
not alhamed to reprefent on the ftage real perfons, not
even difguifing their names ; of which we have a ftrik-
ing inftance in a comedy of Ariftophanes, called' Tie
Clouds, where Socrates is introduced, and moft corr-
4 S 2 temptuoufly
ART [69
Arts. temptuoufly treated. This fort of comedy, fparing
—1 neither gods nor men, was reftrained by the magiftrates
of Athens, fo far as to prohibit perfons to be named on
the ftage. This led writers to do what is done at pre¬
lent : the charafters and manners of known perfons
were painted fo much to the life, that there could be
no miltake *, and the fatire was indeed heightened by
this regulation, as it was an additional pleafure to find
out the names that were meant in the reprefentation.
This was termed the middle comedy. But as there dill
remained too great fcope for obloquy and licentioufnefs,
a law was made, prohibiting real events or incidents to
be introduced upon the ftage. This law happily ba-
niihed fatire againft individuals, and confined it to man¬
ners and cuftoms in general. Obedient to this law are
the comedies of Menander, Philemon, and Diphilus,
who flouriftred about 300 years before the Chriftian era.
And this is termed the third ftage of Greek comedy.
The comedies of Ariftophanes which ftill remain, err
not lefs againft tafte than againft decency. But the
Greek comedy is fuppofed to have been confiderably
refined by Menander and his cotemporaries. Their
works, however, wrere far from perfeftion, if we can
draw any conjeflure from their imitator Plautus, who
wrote about a century later. Plautus was a writer of
genius j and it may be reafonably fuppofed that his
copies did not fall much fhort of the originals, at leaft
in matters that can be faithfully copied j and he fhows
very little art, either in his compofitions or in the con-
du<£l of his pieces. With refpeft to the former, his
plots are wondrous fimple, very little varied, and very
little interefting. The fubjeft of almoft every piece is
a young man in love with a mufic girl, defiring to pur-
chafe her from the procurer, and employing a favour¬
ite Have to cheat his father out of the price ; and the
different ways of accompliftiing the cheat is all the va¬
riety we find. In fome few of his comedies the ftory
rifes to a higher tone, the mufic girl being difcovered
to be the daughter of a freeman, which removes every
obftru&ion to a marriage between her and her lover.
In the condu£l of his pieces there is a miferable defe£t
of art. Inftead of unfolding the fubjeft in the progrefs
of the a&ion, as is done by Terence, and by every
modern writer, Plautus introduces a perfon for no
other end but to explain the ftory to the audience. In
one of his comedies, a houfehold god is lo obliging as
not only to unfold the fubjecl, but to relate before¬
hand every particular that is to be reprefented, not ex¬
cepting the cataftrophe. .
The Roman theatre, from the time of Plautus to
that of Terence, made a rapid progrefs. Ariftotle
defines comedy to be “ an imitation of light and trivial
fubjefts, provoking laughter.” The comedies of Plau-
tos correfpond accurately to that definition : thole of
Terence rife to a higher tone.
Nothing is more evident than the fuperiority of Te¬
rence above Plautus in the art of writing j and, confi-
dering that Terence is a later writer, nothing would
appear more natural, if they did not copy the fame ori¬
ginals. It may be owdng to genius that Terence ex¬
celled in purity of language and propriety of dialogue ;
but how account for his fuperiority over Plautus in the
ronftru6fion and conduct of a play ? It will not cer¬
tainly be thought, that Plautus would imitate the word
conftrufled plays, leaving the belt to thofe who Ihould
2 ] ART
come after him. This difficulty does not feemto have Arts,
occurred to any of the commentators. Had the wrorks ' 'W
of Menandet and of his cotemporaries been preferved,
they probably vmuld have explained the myftery j
which for want of that light will probably remain a
myftery for ever. p
Homer has for more than 2000 years been held the Epopee,
prince of poets. Such perfeftion in an author who
flourifhed when arts w7ere far ftiort of maturity, is tru¬
ly wonderful. The nations engaged in the Trojan wrar
are deferibed by him as in a progrefs from the Ihepherd
ftate to that of agriculture. Frequent mention is made
in the Iliad of the moft eminent men being ftiepherds.
Andromache, in particular, mentions feven of her bre¬
thren who were (lain by Achilles as they tended their
father’s docks and herds. In that ftate, garments of
woollen cloth were ufed j but the Ikins of beafts, the
original clothing, were ftill w7orn as an upper garment;
every chief in the Iliad appears in that drefs. Such in¬
deed was the fimplicity of this early period, that a
black ew7e vTas promifed by each chief to the man who
would undertake to be a fpy. In times of fuch fimpli¬
city, literature could not be far advanced ; and it is a
great doubt, whether there was at that time a fingle
poem of the epic kind for Homer to imitate or improve
upon. Homer is undoubtedly a wonderful genius,
perhaps the greateft that ever exifted : his fire, and the
boldnefs of his conceptions, are inimitable. But in
that early age, it would fall little fhort of a real mi¬
racle, to find fuch ripenefs of judgment, and correftnefs
of execution, as in modern writers are the fruits of long
experience and progreflive improvements during the
courfe of many centuries. Accordingly, that Homer
is far from being fo ripe, or fo correft, cannot efcape
the obfervation of any reader of tafte and difeernment.
One ftriking particular is, his digreffions without end,
which draw our attention from the principal fubjeft.
Diomedes, for inftance, meeting with Glaucus in the
field of battle, and doubting from his majeftic air,
whether he might not be an immortal, inquires who he
was, declaring that he would not fight with a god.
Glaucus lays hold of this very flight opportunity, in
the very heat of aftion, to give a long hiftory of his
family. In the mean time, the reader’s patience is
put to a trial, and his ardour cools. Again, Aga¬
memnon defiring advice howto refift the Trojans, Dio¬
medes fprings forward ; but before he offers advice,
gives the hiftory of all his progenitors, and of their
charafters, in a long train. And, after all, what was
the fage advice that required fuch a preface ? It was,
that Agamemnon fhould exhort the Greeks to fight
bravely. At any rate, was Dicmedes fo little known,
as to make it proper to fufpend the aftion at io critical
a junfture, for a genealogical hiftory ? There is a
third particular which juftly merits cenfure ; and that
is, an endlefs number of minute circumftances, efpe-
cially in the defeription of battles, where they are
moft improper. The capital beauty of an epic poem
is, the feleftion of fuch incidents and circumftances
as make a deep impreffion, keeping out of view every
thing low or familiar. An account of a fingle battle
employs the whole fifth book of the Iliad and a great
part of the fixth : yet in the whole there is no general
aftion \ but unknown warriors, whom we never heard
of before, killed at a diftance with an arrow cr a jave-
lin>
ART [ 693 ] ART
Arts. lin ; and every wound defcribed with anatomical accu-
racy. The whole feventeenth book is employed in the
eonteft about the dead body of Patroclus, fluffed with
minute circumltances, below the dignity of an epic
poem. In fuch fcenes the reader is fatigued with end-
lefs particulars ; and has nothing to fupport him but
I0 the melody of Homer’s verfification.
Caufes of Having traced the progrefs of the fine arts toward
the decline maturity, in a fummary way, the decline of thefe arts
of the fine comes next in order. An art, in its progrefs toward
arts‘ maturity, is greatly promoted by emulation ; and, af¬
ter arriving at maturity, its downfal is not lefs promo¬
ted by it. It is difficult to judge of perfedlion but by
comparifon ; and an artifl, ambitious to outftrip his
predeceffbrs, cannot fubmit to be an imitator, but muff
flrike out fomething new, which, in an art advanced
to ripenefs, feldom fails to be a degeneracy. This
caufe of the decline of the fine arts may be illuftrated
by various inftances. The perfection of vocal mufic is
to accompany paffion, and to enforce fentiment. In
ancient Greece, the province of mufic was well under-
flood ; which being confined without its proper fphere,
had an enchanting influence. Harmony at that time
was very little cultivated, becaufe it was of very little
ufe : melody reaches the heart, and it is by it chiefly
that a fentiment is enforced, or a paffion foothed ; har¬
mony, on the contrary, reaches the ear only , and it
is a matter of undoubted experience, that the molt me¬
lodious airs admit but of very Ample harmony. Art-
ifls, in later times, ignorant why harmony was fo little
regarded by the ancients, applied themfelves ferioufly
to its cultivation ; and they have been wonderfully fuc-
cefsful. But they have been fuccefsful at the expence
of melody ; which in modern compofitions, generally
fpeaking, is loft amid the blaze of harmony. Thefe
compofitions tickle the ear by the luxury of complica¬
ted founds, but feldom make any impreffion on the
heart. The Italian opera, in its form, refembles the
Greek tragedy, from which it is evidently copied ; but
very little in fubftance. In the latter, mufic being
made fubfervient to fentiment, the dialogue is nervous
and fublime : in the former, the whole weight is laid on
mufic j and the dialogue, devoid of fentiment, is weak
and fpiritlefs. Reftlefs man knows no golden mean,
but will be attempting innovations without end. By
the fame ambition, architedfure has vifibly declined
from its perfeftion. The Ionic was the favourite order
when architedhire was in its height of glory. The
Corinthian order came next ; which, in attempting
greater perfedlion, has deviated from the true fimpli-
city of nature : and the deviation is ftill greater in the
Compofite order. With refpedl to literary productions,
the firft effays of the Romans were very imperfedt.
We may judge of this from Plautus, whofe compofi¬
tions are abundantly rude, though much admired by
his cotemporaries, being the beft that exifted at that
time. The exalted fpirit of the Romans hurried them
on to the grand and beautiful *, and literary produc¬
tions of all kinds were in perfection when Auguftus
reigned. In attempting ftill greater perfection, the
Roman compofitions became a ftrange jumble of incon-
fiftent parts: they were tumid and pompous; and, at
the fame time, full of antithefes, conceit, and tinfel
wit. Every thing new in the fine arts pleafes, though
lei’s perfect than what we are accuftomed to 3 and, for
that reafon, fuch compofitions were generally reliffi-
ed. We fee not by what gradual fteps writers, after*"
the time of Auguftus, deviated from the patterns that
were before them 3 for no book of any moment after
that time is prefeved till we come down to Seneca,
in whofe works nature and fimplicity give place to ar¬
tificial thought and baftard wit. He was a great cor¬
rupter of the Roman tafte 3 and after him nothing
was relilhed but brilliant ftrokes of fancy, with very
little regard to fentiment: even Virgil and Cicero
made no figure in comparifon. Lucan has a forced
elevation of thought and ftyle very difficult to be fup-
ported 3 and, accordingly, he finks often into puerile
refleftions 3 witnefs his encomium on the river Po 3
which, fays he, would equal the Danube, had it the
fame number of tributary ftreams. Quintilian, a wri¬
ter of true and claffical tafte, who wTas protedled and
encouraged by Vefpalian, attempted to ftem the tide
of falfe writing. His rhetoric is compofed in an ele¬
gant ftyle ; and his obfervations contain every delicacy
of the critical art. At the fame time flourilhed Ta¬
citus, poffeffing a more extenfive knowledge of the
nature of man than any other author, ancient or mo¬
dern, if Shakefpeare be not excepted. His ftyle is ori¬
ginal, concife, compadl, and comprehenfive 3 and, in
what is properly called his hi/lory, perfeftly corredt and
beautiful. He has been imitated by feveral, but never
equalled by any. Brutus is faid to be the laft of the
Romans for love of liberty : Quintilian and Tacitus
may be faid to be the laft of the Romans for literary
genius. Pliny the younger is no exception 3 his ftyle
is affedled, turgid, and full of childilh brilliancy. Se¬
neca and Pliny are proper examples of writers who ftu-
dy ffiow more than fubftance, and who make fenfe yield
to found. The difference between thefe authors and
thofe of the Auguftan age, refembles the difference be¬
tween Greek and Italian mufic. Mufic, among the
Greeks, limited itfelf to the employment to which it is
deftined by nature, viz. to be the handmaid of fenfe,
to enforce, enliven, or fweeten a fentiment. In the
Italian opera, the miftrefs is degraded to be hand¬
maid 3 and harmony triumphs, with very little regard
to fentiment.
Another great caufe that precipitates the downfal of
every fine art is defpotifm. The reafon is obvious 3 and
there is a difmal example of it in Rome, particularly
with regard to eloquence. We learn from a dialogue
accounting for the corruption of the Roman eloquence,
that in the decline of the art it became falhionable to
fluff harangues with impertinent poetical quotations,
without any view but ornament merely 3 and this alfo
wTas long faffiionable in France. It happened unlucki¬
ly for the Romans, and for the world, that the fine
arts were at their height in Rome, and not much upon
the decline in Greece, when defpotifm put an end to the
republic. Auguftus, it is true, retarded their fall, par¬
ticularly that of literature 3 it being the politics of his
reign to hide defpotifm, and to give his government
an air of freedom. His court was a fchocl of urbani¬
ty, where people of genius acquired that delicacy of
tafte, that elevation of fentiment, and that purity of
expreffion, which characterize the writers of his time.
He honoured men of learning, admitted them to his
table, and was bountiful to them. It would be pain¬
ful to follow the decline of the fine arts in Rome to
thein
Arts.
ART [ 694 ]
^ their total extirpation. The tyranny of Tiberius, and all we
“ of fubfequent emperors, broke at laft the elevated and
independent fpirit of the brave Romans, reduced them
to abje£l flavery, and left not a fpark of genius. The
fcience of law is the only exception, as it fiourilhed even
in the word; of times : the Roman lawyers were a re-
fpe&able body,- and lefs the objeft of jealoufy than
men of power and extenfive landed property. Among
the Greeks alfo, a conquered people, the fine arts de¬
cayed j but not fo rapidly as at Rome : the Greeks,
farther removed from the feat of government, being
lefs. within the reach of a Roman tyrant. During
their depreffion, they w^ere guilty of the moft puerile
conceits : ivitnefs verfes compofed in the form of an
axe, an egg, wings, and fuch like. The ftyle of Greek
authors, in the reign of the emperor Adrian, is une¬
qual, obfcure, ftiff, and affe&ed. Lucian is the only
exception that may be made.
We fcarcely need any other caufe but defpotifm, to
account for the decline of flatuary and painting in
Greece. Thefe arts had arrived at their utmoft per-
feftion about the time of Alexander the Great 5 and
from that time they declined gradually with the vigour
of a free people $ for Greece w’as now enflaved by the
Macedonian power. It may in general be obferved,
that when a nation becomes ftationary in that degree
of power which it acquires from its conflitution and fi-
tuation, the national fpirit fubfides, and men of talents
become rare. It is ftill wmrfe with a nation that is
funk below its former powder and pre-eminence ; and
worit of all when it is reduced to flavery. Other caufes
concurred to accelerate the downfal of the arts men¬
tioned. Greece, in the days of Alexander, was filled
with flatues of excellent workmanfhip ; and there being
little demand for more, the later ftatuaries wrere re¬
duced to heads and bulls. At laft the Romans put a
total end both to ftatuary and painting in Greece, by
plundering it of its fineft pieces j and the Greeks, ex-
pofed to the avarice of the conquerors, beftowed no
longer any money on the fine arts.
* Petronius The decline of the fine arts in Rome is by a * writer
of tafte and elegance afcribed to a caufe different from
any above mentioned, a caufe that overwhelms man¬
hood as well as the fine arts wherever it prevails;
and that is opulence, joined with its faithful attendants
avarice and luxury. “ In ancient times (fays he),
when naked virtue had her admirers, the liberal arts
were in their higheft vigour ; and there was a generous
conteft among men, that nothing of real and perma¬
nent advantage fliould long remain undifcovered. De¬
mocritus extrafted the juice of every herb and plant ;
and, left the virtue of a fingle ftone or twig fhould
efcape him, he confumed a lifetime in experiments.
Eudoxus, immerfed in the ftudy of aftronomy, fpent
his age upon the top of a mountain. Chryfippus, to
ftimulate his inventive faculty, thrice purified his ge¬
nius with hellebore. To turn to the imitative arts :
Lyfippus, while labouring on the form of a fingle fta-
tue, periflied from want. Myron, whofe powerful
hand gave to the brafs almoft the foul of man and ani¬
mals, at his death found not art heir ! Of us of mo¬
dern times what ftiall we fay ? Immerfed in drunken-
nefs and debauchery, we want the fpirit to cultivate
thofe arts which we poffefs. We inveigh againft the
manners of antiquity j we ftudy vice alone j and vice is
ART
Where nowr is the art of reafoning ?
Arbiter.
teach.
Where aftronomy ? Where is the right path of wif-
dom ? What man now-a-days is heard in our temples
to make a vow for the attainment of eloquence, or for
the difcovery of the fountain of true philofophy ? Nor
do we even pray for health of body, or a found under-
ftanding. One, while he has fcarce entered the porch
of the temple, devotes a gift in the event of the death
of a rich relation ; another prays for the difcovery of a
treafure ; a third for a minifterial fortune. The fenate
itfelf, the exemplary preceptor of what is good and
laudable, has promifed a thoufand pounds of gold to
the capitol j and, to remove all reproach from the crime
of avarice, has offered a bribe to Jupiter himfelf. How
ftiould we wonder that the art of painting has declined,
when, in the eyes both of the gods and men, there is
more beauty in a mafs of gold than in all the works of
Phidias and Apelles.”—In England, the fine arts are
far from fuch perfection as to fuffer by opulence. They
are in a progrefs, it is true, toward maturity j but
they proceed in a very flow pace.
There is ftill another caufe that never fails to under¬
mine a fine art in a country where it is brought to
perfection, abftraCting from every one of the caufes
above mentioned. It is remarked a little above, that
nothing is more fatal to an art or to a fcience than a
performance fo much fuperior to all of the kind as to
extinguith emulation. This remark is exemplified in
the great Newton, who having furpaffed all the an¬
cients, has not left to his countrymen even the fainteft
hope of rivalling him ; and to that caufe is attributed
the vifible decline of mathematics in Great Britain.'
The fame caufe would have been fatal to the arts of
ftatuary and painting among the Greeks, even though
they had continued a free people. The decay of paint¬
ing in modern Italy is, probably, owing to the fame
caufe : Michael Angelo, Raphael, Titian, &c. are
lofty oaks that bear down young plants in their neigh¬
bourhood, and intercept from them the funfhine of emu¬
lation. Had the art of painting made a flower pro¬
grefs in Italy, it might have there continued in vigour
to this day. Velleius Paterculus fays judicioufly, “Ut
primo ad confequendos quos priores ducimus accendi-
mur ; ita, ubi aut praeteriri aut aequari eos poffe de-
fperavimus, ftudium cum fpe fenefcit; et quod adfe-
qui non poteft, fequi definit: praeteritoque eo in quo
eminere non poffimus, aliquid in quo nitamur conqui-
rimus.”
The decline of an art or fcience proceeding from the
foregoing caufe, is the moft rapid where a ftriCl com-
parifon can be inftituted between the works of differ¬
ent mafters. The fuperiority of Newton above every
other mathematician can be afcertained with precifion j
and hence the fudden decline of that fcience in Great
Britain. In Italy a talent for painting continued ma¬
ny years in vigour, becaufe no painter appeared with
fuch fuperiority of genius as to carry perfection in eve¬
ry branch of the art. As one furpaffed in defigning,
one in colouring, one in graceful attitudes, there was
ftill fcope for emulation. But when at laft there wras
not a fingle perfection but what one or other mafter
had excelled in, from that period the art began to lan-
guifti. Architecture continued longer in vigour than
painting, becaufe the principles of comparifon in the
former are lefs precife than in the latter. The artift
' who
ART
[ 69S ]
ART
Arts.
Ufeful arts
lefs fubject
to decline.
I 2
Theory
of the po¬
lite arts.
13
What arts
fo denomi¬
nated.
14
Ufe of pre¬
cepts.
who could not rival his predeceffors in an eftablifhed
mode, fought out a new mode for himfelf, which,
though perhaps lefs elegant or perfect, was for a time
fupported by novelty.
Ufeful arts will never be negle&ed in^ a country
where there is any police for every man finds his ac¬
count in them. Fine arts are more precarious. They
are not relilhed but by perfons of tafte, who are
rare ; and fuch as can fpare great fums for fupport-
ing them are ftill more rare. For that reafon, they
will never flourilh in any country, unlefs patronized
by the fovereign, or by men of power and opulence.
They merit fuch patronage, as one of the fprings of
government : and a capital fpring they make, by mul¬
tiplying amufements, and humanizing manners ; upon
which account they have always been encouraged by
good princes.
General Theory of the Polite Arts. The effence of
the polite arts, as before dbferved, confiits in exprejfon.
The end of all thefe arts is pleafure ; whereas the end
of the fciences is inJlruSion and utility. Some of the
polite arts indeed, as eloquence, poetry, and architec¬
ture, are frequently applied to objects that are ufeful,
or exercifed in matters that are inftrudive, as we {hall
{how more particularly in their proper place 5 but in
thefe cafes, though the ground-work belongs to thofe
fciences which employ the underftanding, yet the ex-
preftion arifes from the inventive faculty. It is a pic¬
ture that is defigned by Minerva, to which the Mufes
add the colouring, and the Graces the frame. This u-
nion forms therefore the perfeftion of the art, accord¬
ing to that fententious and well known precept of Ho¬
race :
Omne tulit punBum, qui mifcuit utile dulci.
Under the denomination therefore, of Polite Arts,
we comprehend, 1. Fdoquence j 2. Poetry 5 3. Mufic j
4. Painting; 5. Sculpture; 6. Graving; 7. Architec¬
ture ; 8. Declamation ; 9. Dancing. Particular de-
fcriptions of thefe arts are given under their refpedtive
names. This branch of the prefent article is intended
as a general introduftion to them; and, as fuch, will
be occafionally referred to.
There is one very effential refleftion, which it ap¬
pears to us proper to make in the firft place, on the po¬
lite arts in general. All the rules in the world are not
fufficient to make a great poet, an able orator, or an
excellent artift; becaufe the quality, neceflary to form
thefe, depends on the natural difpofition, the fire of
genius, which no human art can confer, but which is
the pure gift of heaven. The rules, however will
prevent a man from being a bad artift, a dull orator, or
a wretched poet; feeing they are the refteftions of the
greateft matters in thofe arts, and that they point out
the rocks which the artift flrould {him in the exercife
of his talents. They are of ufe moreover, in facilitating
his labours, and in directing him to arrive by the
ftiorteft and fureft road at perfection. They refine,
ftrengthen, and confirm his tafte. Nature, abandoned
to herfelf, has fomething conftantly wild and favage.
Art, founded on juft and fagacious rules, gives her e-
legance, dignity, and politenefs ; and it is impoflible
to facrifice properly to the Graces, without knowing
the incenfe that is pleafing to them.
Beauty is the objedl of all the polite arts.. It is not
Arts.
how-ever, fo eafy, as it may feem, to give a clear and
determinate idea of what we precifely mean by that
term*. Many able waiters, wTho have treated ex- x5
prefsly on the fubjeCt, have ftiown that they were to-
tally ignorant of what it was. It is one of thefe expref- what.
fions that \\t comprehend immediately, that prefent * gce t]if.
us wdth a clear and precife idea, that leave a diftinCt article
impreffion on our minds, when it is {imply written or Beauty.
pronounced; but which philofophers envelope in dark-
nefs, wdien they attempt to elucidate it by definitions
and defcriptions ; and the more, as mankind have dif¬
ferent ideas of beauty, their opinions and taftes being
as various as their underftandings and phyfiognomies.
We may fay, however, in general, that beauty refults
from the various perfeClions of which any objeCt is fuf-
ceptible, and which it adlually pofleffes; and that the
perfections which produce beauty confift principally in
the agreeable and delightful proportions which are
found, x. Between the feveral parts of the fame ob-
jeCt; 2. Between each part and the whole together ;
3. Between the parts and the end or defign of the ob-
jeCt to which they belong. Genius, or invention, is
that faculty of the mind by which beauty is produced.
Tajle j-, difpofition, or rather the natural fenfation of f See Ts/o
the mind refined by art, ferves to guide the genius in
difcerning, embracing, and producing, that which is
beautiful of every kind. From whence it follow's,
that the general theory of the polite arts is nothing
more than the knowdedge of wdrat they contain that is
truly beautiful and agreeable; and it is this knowledge,
this theory, which modern philofophers call by the
Latin name of cefhetica.
It fhould be conftantly remembered, that the eflence
of the polite arts confifts in exprefiion. This expreftion
lies fometimes in the words, and fometimes in the
pen ; fometimes in founds and their harmony, and at
others in corporeal attitudes ; fometimes in the pen¬
cil or in the chifel, and at others in the graver;
fometimes in a proper difpofition or judicious employ¬
ment of the mechanic arts, and at others merely in
their manner of aCting. From wdience arife thofe arts
that we have mentioned, and which are defcribed in
their order. 1(j
The general theory of the polite arts, or efhetics, jq-rfl- gene,
neceffarily fuppofes, therefore, certain rules; but thefe ral rule,
general rules are of no great number. The firft is,
That whoever would devote himfelf to the polite arts,
fhould above all things confult his genius ; diveft him¬
felf of felf-love ; and examine if he be a true fon of
Apollo, and cherilhed by the Mufes : for
In vain, raftr author, doft thou ftrive to climb,
By lofty verfe, Parnafliis’ height fublime,
If heaven does not by fecret powers infpire,
. Or if thy natal ftar darts not poetic fire.
• .17
This precept with regard to poetry in particular, is f„aglnat;6„7
applicable to all the polite arts in general: for their what,
moft happy fuccefs is founded on imagination. By
this term we underftand, in general, a faculty of the
mind, a particular genius, a lively invention, a certain
fubtle fpirit, which gives a facility in difcovering
fomething new. But it is neceflary alfo to prefcribe
juft bounds to this term new, which muft not be here l8
tajcen in an abfolute fenfe. Solomon wifely remarks, Novelty
that, even in his time, there was nothing new under and Invert
thetim’
ART
Arts.
the fun. In fa£t, all that exifts, and all that is capable
J of being difcovered in the known world, has already
been difcovered. The fine arts in their imitations of
nature, in their expreffions, can borrow images, fi¬
gures, comparifons, from thofe things only that exift
and are known. As there have been from the begin¬
ning of the world to our days, millions of authors in
each of the polite arts, almofl all the poffible combi¬
nations of the various fubje£ts have been produced by
their lively imaginations; and when we hear the igno-
x-ant part of mankind talk of a work of wit or of art
that is entirely new, that offers ideas which were be¬
fore utterly unknown, that had never entered into the
brain of any other man, we fhould refer fuch aflertions
to the clafs of popular errors j and reflefl on thofe fto-
ries we every day hear of certain empirics, who pretend
to be alone polIeHed of marvellous methods of cure by
means of fimples; as if there were any plant, any ftalk
of grafs that grows in our world, that can have efcaped
the refearches of botanills. But the novelty, of which
we here fpeak, confifts in the ingenious ufe of combina¬
tions of all the various obje£ls of nature, that are new,
happy, and agreeable, that have not yet been exhauft-
ed, and which appear even to be inexhauftible; and of
the ufe which the artift makes of all new difcoveries,
which he turns to his advantage, by a judicious appli¬
cation. Invention therefore fuppofes a confiderable
fund of preliminary knowledge, fuch as is capable of
furnifhing ideas and images, to form new combinations.
But there is no art by which invention itfelf can be
produced; for that, as we have already faid, is the gift
of heaven ; and it is an endowment wdiich we cannot
even make ufe of whenever we pleafe. We would ra¬
ther fay, therefore, that invention confifts in producing,
in works of genius, that which is unexpeSled; an object,
a harmony, a perfe&ion, a thought, an expreftion of
which we had no idea, that we could not forefee, nor
hope to find, where the artift has fo happily placed it,
and where we perceive it with delight. This idea ap¬
pears applicable to fuch of the polite arts as affect the
mind by the hearing as well as by the fight; and it is
a matter that is highly effential.
The fecond rule is, That every artift ought incef-
fantly to labour in the improvement of his tajle; in
acquiring that fenfible, refined, and clear difcernment,
by which he will be enabled to diftinguiih the real
beauties in each object, the ornaments that are agree¬
able to it, and the proportions and relations that fubfift
among the feveral parts : and by this faculty, he will
be regulated in the employment of his natural talents.
This labour confifts not only in the profound refiedlions
he will make on the properties of obje&s as they
relate to the fine arts, but alfo in a conftant, affiduous
ftudy of the grand models of beauty.
w . • The third rule to be obferved in the praflice of the
rionofna- polite arts, is the imitation of nature. Every objeft in
the univerfe has its peculiar nature, of which the artift
fhould never lofe fight in his manner of treating it. In
vain will he otherwife ornament his work with the moft
refined and moft brilliant ftrokesj for, if nature be not
juftly imitated, it will for ever remain imperfeift. The
fublime Homer has fometimes finned againft this rule:
for, as the gods have a nature peculiar to themfelves,
it cannot be a juft imitation when we attribute to them
[ 696 1
ART
19
2d Rule,
Improve¬
ment of
tafte.
3d, Imita-
paffions that are fcarce pardonable in mortals, and make Arts,
them frequently converfe in a language that is at once v——v——-
vulgar and ridiculous. It was not to imitate nature,
to put in the mouth of a hero, at the moment of a
decifive battle, an harangue that muft become tedious
by its exceflive length, and which certainly could not
have been heard by the thoufandth part of a numerous
army: but we have already touched upon fome of the
faults that are ftrewed over the poems of that great
man j to multiply or dwell upon them would be un¬
grateful. -We muft, however, obferve that this imita¬
tion of nature, which appears at firft view fo fimple
and fo eafy, is of all things the moft difficult in prac¬
tice ; and that it requires a difcernment fo fagacious,
and an expreffion fo happy, as is rarely beftowed by
heaven on mortal man.
Perfpicuity forms the fourth rule of expreffion. In 4th, Per-
all the fine arts, in general, an obfcure, perplexed, am- fpieuity,
biguous, and elaborate expreffion, is always bad. The
true ftriking beauty muft be manifeft and perceptible
to the moft ignorant of mankind as well as the moft
learned. Thofe are ever falfe or inferior beauties that
have occafion for a covering, a kind of veil that may
make them appear greater than they really are : true
beauty wants no veil, but fhines by its native luftre.
From the union of the true imitation of nature with
perfpicuity of expreffion arifes that truth which is fo
effential in the productions of the fine arts. ^
In all the polite arts, and in all the fubjeCts they 5th, Eleva*
embrace, there muft neceffarily reign an elevation oftion fen-
fentiment, that expreffes each objeCt in the greatefttiments*
perfection of which it is fufceptible ; that imitates na¬
ture in her moft exalted beauty. This makes the
fifth general rule. The defign of the fine arts being
to excite pleafure by the expreffion of that which is
beautiful, every artift ftiould raife himfelf above his
fubjeCt j and, choofing the moft favourable light where¬
in to place it, fhould there embellifh it with the great-
eft, moft noble, and beautiful ornaments, that his own
genius can fuggeft j ftill, however, obferving a ftriCt
imitation of nature.
From the obfervation of thefe two laft rules refults fith/Ae
the fublime, which is the union of the greateft perfpi- fublime to
cuity with the ftrifteft truth and moft exalted eleva-be enc!ea-
tion poffible. It is neceffary to remark here, that the j"rured af*
moft fimple and common fubjeCfs are fufceptible of a
fublime that is agreeable to their nature. An idyl or
landfcape may be as fublime in their kinds as an epic
poem or a hiftory piece. When Mofes begins the book
of Genefis, with thefe words, In the beginning God
created the heaven and the earth ; or when he tells us,
that God faid, Let there be light, and there was light ;
thefe expreffions are fublime in the higheft degree, be-
caufe they are perfe&ly clear, true, and elevated. E-
very author ftiould therefore endeavour after the fu¬
blime * in every fubjeCt that he undertakes 5 and this* See the
makes the fixth and laft general rule in the praftice of article
the polite arts. But if he cannot attain to this, it is, d
however, indifpenfably neceffary that he conftantly
make ufe of expreffions that are noble and refined. E- ^
very thing that is low, indecent, or difagreealle, is na¬
turally repugnant to the fublime, and ought to be for
ever baniffied from all -works that proceed from the
noble and liberal arts.
Art
ART [ 697 ] ART
Art Art is alfo an appellation given to feveral fuperfti-
II tious pra£lices, as, St Anfelhm's art, St Paul's art,
Artaxata. ^.c
V Art and Part, in Scots Law. See Accessory.
ARIA, by fome called Larta, a town of Lower
Albania, in Turkey in Europe, with a Greek arch-
bilhop’s fee. It is a pretty large town, and contains
about 7000 or 8000 inhabitants, Greeks and Turks j
but the former are the moll numerous. The cathe¬
dral has as many windows and doors as there are days
in the year. It is fupported by above 2000 marble
pillars ; and was built by Michael Ducas Commeno
emperor of Conftantinople, as appears by an infcription
over the great door. It carries on a confiderable trade,
particularly in tobacco and furs. E. Long. 31. 30.
N. Lat. 39. 28.
ART ABA, an ancient meafure of capacity ufed by
the Perfians, Medes, and Egyptians.
The Perlian artaba is reprefented by Herodotus as
bigger than the Attic medimnus by three Attic chce-
nixes: from which it appears that it was equal to 6-|
Roman modii ; confequently that it contained i66y
pounds of wine or water, or I 26y pounds of wheat.
The Egyptian artaba contained five Roman modii,
and fell ihort of the Attic medimnus by one modius 5
confequently held 133-f pounds of water or wine, 100
pounds of wheat, or 60 of Hour.
ARTAB ANUS, the name of feveral kings of Par-
thia. See Part hi a.
ARTABAZUS, the fon of Pharnaces, command¬
ed the Parthians and Chorafmians in the famous expe¬
dition of Xerxes. After the battle of Salamis, he
efcorted the king his mafter to the HdSefpont with
60,000 chofen men ; and after the battle of Plataea, in
which Mardonius engaged contrary to his advice, he
made a noble retreat, and returned to Alia with 40,000
men under his command.
ARTAXATA, the royal relidence and metro¬
polis of Armenia Major (Strabo, Pliny, Juvenal),
and built according to a plan of Hannibal, for King
Artaxias, after whom it rvas called. It was fituated
on an elbow of the river Araxes, which formed a kind
of peninfula, and furrounded the town like a wall, ex¬
cept on the fide of the ifthmus, but this fide was fe-
cured by a rampart and ditch. This town wras deem¬
ed fo ftrong, that Lucullus, after having defeated Ti-
granes, durll not lay fiege to it 5 but Pompey com¬
pelled him to deliver it up without ftriking a blow. It
was then levelled with the ground ; but the Armeni¬
ans have a tradition, that the ruins of it are ftill to be
leen at a place called Ardachat. Sir John Chardin
fays, that it has the name of Ardachat from Artaxias,
whom in the Eaft they call Ardechier. Here are the
remains of a ftately palace which the Armenians take
to be that of Tiridates who reigned in the time of
Conftantine the Great. One front of this building is
but half ruined, and there are many other fine antiqui¬
ties which the inhabitants call Ta& Tradat, that is,
the throne of Tiridates, Tavernier alfo mentions the
ruins of Artaxata between Erivan and Mount Ararat,
but does not fpecify them. The ancient geographers
mention another city of the fame name, likewife fi¬
tuated on the Araxes, but in the northern part of Me¬
dia, known among the ancients by the name of Aero-
fiatia.
Vol. II. Part II.
Perfia. See Persia. Artemido
ARTEDI, Peter, an eminent naturalift, was born rus_
in Sweden in the year 1725, in the province of An- -^ — *
germania. Although his parents were poor, yet it
appears they found means to give him a liberal educa¬
tion, and with this view they fent him to the college
of Hurnefand. Intending to embrace the ecclefiaftical
profeffion, he went in 1724 to Upfal •, but being fond
of the ftudy of natural hiftory, he yielded to the bent
of inclination, and direfted his attention towards me¬
dicine. In natural hiftory he made rapid progrefs, and
foon arofe to confiderable eminence, particularly in the
knowledge of Ichthyology. His reputation for natural
knowledge wras high when Linnseus arrived at Upfal in
the year 1728. A lafting frirndfhip was formed between
thefe two great men. Confining his botanical ftudies to
the umbelliferous plants, he fuggefted a new mode of
claflification $ but Artedi was much better acquainted
with chemiftry than botany. His attention was chiefly
direfted to ichthyology, the claflification of wdiich he
greatly reformed, and new-modelled upon philofophi-
cal principles. This arrangement added greatly to
his reputation as a naturalift. When the two friends
wTere about to leave Upfal, Linnaeus to go to Lapland,
and Artedi to England, they reciprocally bequeathed
to each other their manuferipts and books upon the
event of death. In the year 1735, they, however,
met again at Leyden, wdiere Artedi wras introduced to
Seba, and employed in preparing for the prefs the
third volume of that eminent naturalift’s Lhefaurus,
which chiefly related to fifties. Artedi formed the re-
folution, as foon as that wrork was finifhed, to return
to his native country, to publifh the fruits of his own
labours 5 but unfortunately as he was returning home
from Seba’s houfe on the evening of September 27.
1735, the night being dark, he fell into the canal and
was drowned. According to agreement, his manu¬
feripts came into the hands of Linnaeus, and he pub-
lifhed his Bibliotheca Ichthyologica, and Philofophia Ich-
thyologica, together with a life of the author, at Ley¬
den in the year 1738. [Gen. Biog.)
ARTEDI A. See Botany Index.
ARTEMIDORUS, famous for his Treatife on
Dreams. He was born at Ephefus, but took upon him
the furname of Daldianus in this book, by way of
refpeft to his mother country Daltis. He ftyled him-
felf the Ephejian in his other performances. He not
only bought up all that had been written concerning
the explication of dreams, which amounted to many
volumes j but he likewife fpent many years in travel¬
ling, in order to contract an acquaintance with for¬
tune-tellers ; he alfo carried on an extenfive correfpon-
dence with all the people of this fort in the cities and
affemblies of Greece, Italy, and the moft populous
iflands ; collefting at the fame time all the old dreams,
and the events wdiich are faid to have followed therm
The work wTich he wrote on dreams confifted of five
books : the firtt three were dedicated to one Caflius
Maximus ; and the laft twm to his fon, wdiom he took
a good deal of pains to inftrufl in the nature and inter¬
pretation of dreams. This work, though filled with
frivolous obfervatibns, contains fome things that are
interefting. It wTas firft printed in Greek at Venice in
15183 and Rigaltius publilhed an edition at Paris, in
4 T Greek
ART [
Artemma, Greek and Latin, in 1603, and added fome notes.
Artermfi- Artemidorus \vrote alfo a treatife upon Auguries and
^ another upon Chiromancy ; but they are not extant.
He lived under the emperor Antoninus Pius.
ARTEMISIA, wife of Maufolus, king of Caria,
has immortalized herfelf by the honours which fhe paid
to the memory of her hufband. She built for him in
Halicarnaffus a very magnificent tomb, called the Mau-
foleum, which was one of the feven wonders of the
world, and from wdiich the title of Maufoleum was af¬
terwards given to all tombs remarkable for their
grandeur ; but (lie died of regret and forrow before
the Maufbleum was finifhed. She appointed panegy¬
rics to be made in honour of him, and propofed a prize
of great value for the perfon who Ihould compofe the
belt. He died about the rnd of the 106th Olympiad,
351 years before the Chriilian era.
ART
Four hundred galleys w^ere deftroyed by its vio- Artenufj.
6y8 ]
fury.
lence, befides a vail number of ftorelhips and tranfports.
Eight hundred Ihips of war, however, befides innume- ''"‘“A'—^
rable vefiels of burden, failed into the Pegafean bay,
and anchored in the road of Aphete, which, at the di-
Ilance of a few miles, lies diredlly oppoiite to the har¬
bour of Artemifium.
The Grecians had polled centinels on the heights of From Gil-
Euboea to obferve the confequence of the Ilonn, and l,es'sHijiofy
to watch the motions of the enemy. When informed ®rcccc'
of the dilafier which had befallen them, they poured
out a joyous libation, and facrificed with pious grati¬
tude, to “ Neptune the Deliverer.”
rl he Perfians, however, having recovered from the
terrors of the ftorm, prepared for battle ; and as they
entertained not the frnallell doubt of conquering, they
detached 200 of their bed failing veffels round the ifle
Artemisia, queen of Caria, and the daughter of of Euboea to intercept the expefted flight of theenemv
Ligdamis, marched in perfon in the expedition of through the narrow Euripus.
marched in perion in
Xerxes againfl the Greeks, and performed wonders in
the fea-fight near Salamis, 480 years before the Clirif-
tian era. Being purlued by an Athenian veflfel, Ihe
attacked one of the Perfian Ihips, commanded by De-
mafithymus, king of Calyndus, her enemy, and funk
it ; on which the Athenians, thinking that her Ihip
wms on the fide of the Greeks, ceafed their purfuit:
but Xerxes was the principal perfon impofed upon in
this affair ; for believing Ihe had funk an Athenian
velfel, he declared, that “ the men had behaved like
women, and the women like men.” Xerxes intruded
her with the care of the young princes of Perfia, his
ions, when, agreeably to her advice, he abandoned
Greece, in order to return to Afia. Thefe great qua¬
lities did not fecure her from the weaknefs of love :
Ihe was paflionately fond of a man of Abydos, wTofe
name was Dardanus, and wras fo enraged at his negleft
of her, that Ihe put out his eyes while he was adeep.
The gods in order to punifli her for this, infpired her
with a dill dronger paflion for him ; fo that the oracle
having advifed her to go to Leucas, which was the
ufage of defperate lovers, Ihe took the leap from
thence, and was interred at that place.—Many writers
confound this Artemifia with the former, the wife of
Maufolus.
Artemisia, Mug wort y Southernwood, and Worm¬
wood. See Botany Index.
ARTEMISIUM, in Ancient Geography, a promon¬
tory on the north-ead of Eubcea, (called Leon and
Cale AEie by Ptolemy), memorable for the fird feaen¬
gagements between the Greeks and Xerxes.
The Grecian fleet was dationed in the harbour j
while that of the Perfians, too numerous for any har¬
bour to contain, had anchored in the road that extends
between the city of Cadanaea and the promontory of
Sepias, on the coad of Thelfaly.
The fird line of their fleet was Iheltered b)r the coad
of Thelfaly; but the other lines, to the number of fe¬
ven, rode at anchor, at fmall intervals, with the prows
of the vefifels turned to the fea. When they adopted
this arrangement, the waters were fmooth, the Iky
clear, the weather calm and ferene : but on the morn¬
ing of the fecond day after their arrival on the coail,
the Iky began to lower ; the appearance of the hea¬
vens grew threatening and terrible 5 a dreadful dorm
fucceeded, and for three days raged with ur.abating
About funfet the Grecian fleet approached in a line ;
and the Perfians met them with the confidence of vic¬
tory, as their drips w^ere dill fufficiently numerous to
furround thofe of their opponents. At the fird fignal
the Greeks formed into a circle, at the fecond they
began the fight. Though crowded into a narrow com-
pafs, and having the enemy on every fide, they foon
took 30 of their fliips, and funk many more. Night
came on, accompanied with an impetuous dorm of
rain and thunder ; the Greeks retired into the harbour
of Artemifium 5 the enemy were driven to the coad
of Thelfaly.
By good fortune, however, rather than by defign,
the greated part of the Perfian fleet efcaped immediate
dedrudion, and gained the Pegafean bay ; but the
Ihips ordered to fail round Euboea met with a more
dreadful difader. They wrere overtaken by the dorm,
after they had adventured further from the dxore than
wras ufual with the wary mariners of antiquity. Clouds
foon intercepted the dars, by which alone they direct¬
ed their courfe; and after continuing during the
greated part of the night the fport of the elements,
they all peri died miferably amidil the Ihoals and rocks
of an unknown coad.
The morning arofe with different profpefls and hopes
to the Perfians and the Greeks. To the former it
difcovered the extent of their misfortunes j to the
latter it brought a reinforcement of 53 Athenian
flups. Encouraged by this favourable circumdance,
they determined again to attack the enemy, at the
fame hour as on the preceding day, becaufe their
knowledge of the coad and their Ikill in fighting their
Ihips rendered the dulk peculiarly propitious to their
defigns. At the appointed time, they failed towards
the road of Aphete 5 and having cut off the Cilician
fquadron from the red, totally dedroyed it, and re¬
turned at night to Artemifium.—The Perfian com¬
manders being deeply affetted with their repeated dif-
aders, but dill more alarmed at the much-dreaded re-
fentment of their king, they determined to make one
vigorous effort for redoring the glory of their arms.
By art and dratagem, and under favour of the night,
the Greeks had hitherto gained many important advan¬
tages. It now belonged to the Perfians to choofe the
time for aflion. On the third day at noon, they fail¬
ed forth in the form of a crefcent, -which was dill fuf-
fkiently
ART [ ^99 ] ART
Artcmifi- ficlently extenfive to infold tlie Grecian line. The
U!||1 Greeks, animated by former fuccefs, were averfe to
Arthur decline any offer of battle ; yet it is probable that their
——Y—■«"“/ admirals, and particularly Themiftocles, would much
rather have delayed it to a more favourable opportu¬
nity. Rage, refentment, and indignation, fupplied
the defeft of the barbarians in {kill and courage. The
battle was longer, and more doubtful, than on any
former occafion $ many Grecian veffels were deftroyed,
five were taken by the Egyptians, who particularly
fignalized themfelves on the fide of the barbarians, as
the Athenians did on that of the Greeks. The perfe-
vering valour of the latter at length prevailed, the
enemy retiring, and acknowledging their fuperiority,
by leaving them in pofleffion of the dead and the
wreck. But the viftory cofl them dear ; fince their
veffels, particularly thofe of the Athenians, were re¬
duced to a very fhattered condition j and their great
inferiority in the number and fize of their fliips, made
them feel more fenfibly every diminution of ftrength.
Artemisium, a town of Oenotria, (Stephanus) :
now S. Agatha, in the Hither Calabria, on the river
Pifaurus, or la Foglia, diflant eight miles from the
Tufcan fea.—Another of the Conteftani, in Spain,
(Strabo) 5 other wife called Dianium: now Denia, on
the fea coaft of Valencia.
ARTERIOTOMY, the opening an artery, with
defign to procure an evacuation of blood. See Sur¬
gery.
ARTERY, in Anato?ny, a conical tube or canal
which conveys the blood from the heart to all parts of
the body. See Anatomy.
ARTHRITIS, in Medicine, the Gout. See the
Index fubjoined to Medicine.
ARTHRODIA, in Natural liiflory, a genus of im-
perfedt cryflals, found always in complex maffes, and
forming long fingle pyramids, with very fhort and flen-
der columns.
Arthrodia, in Anatomy, a fpecies of articulation,
wherein the flat head of one bone is received into a
fhallow focket in the other. The humerus and fcapu-
la are joined by this fpecies of articulation.
ARTHUR, the celebrated hero of the Britons, is
faid to have been the fon of Uther Pendragon king of
Britain, and to have been born in 501. His life is a
continued fcene of wonders. It is faid that he killed
four hundred and feventy Saxons with his own hand
in one day; and after having fubdued many mighty
nations, and inftituted the order of the Knights of the
Round Table, died A. D. 542, of wounds which he
received in battle. The moft particular detail of his
itory and his exploits is that given by Geoffroy of
Monmouth : but the probable there is fo blended with
the marvellous and the extravagant, that not only the
truth of the whole, but even the reality of Arthur’s
exiftence, has been called in queftion.
In this controverfy, Mr Whittaker has taken much
pains to vindicate the exiftence, and difcriminate be¬
tween the real and the fabulous tranfaflions, of the
Britifh worthy. “ Many of the a&ions (he obferves)
attributed to Arthur by the Welfh chronicles of Bri¬
tain, are as abfurd in themfelves as they are fpurious
in their authority. Written, as thofe narratives were,
many centuries after the fa£!s, and being merely the
authentic accounts of Arthur, embellifhed with the
fidftions and diftorted by the perverfions of folly j they Arthur.
are inconfiftent equally with the ftate of the times, and ' u ,,'
the hiftory of the continent and the ifland. And the Manck^tr,
ignorance of the forgers, and the credulity of their Vol. ii. 4to.
abettors, can be equalled only by the injudicioufnefsedit. p. 31,
and incredulity of the opponents to both. If fome ac-
counts of Arthur and Cunobeline in thefe hiftories be
certainly fpurious, others are as certainly genuine.
And the relations of Suetonius, Dio, and Nennius, are
not to be rejedled, becaufe of the falfehoods wdiiclrim-
pofture has grafted upon them, and abfurdity ad¬
mitted with them.
“ The exiftence of Arthur is evinced by that of the
fables, which have at once annihilated his aftions and
his name with the misjudging critic. And the rea-
foner’s own arguments really turn againft himfelf, and
demonftrate the point which they were intended to dif-
prove. The annals of Wales have long laboured in
Arthur’s commendation. The Highlanders have long
had a poetical hiftory of his exploits in their own lan¬
guage. The whole ifland is in traditionary poffeflion
of his character; and 600 or 700 places within it are
ftill diftinguilhed by his name.
“ The genuine aftions of the chief are mentioned-
by his own hiftorians, with a modefty and concifenefs
that is no bad argument of the truth, and with a par¬
ticularity of time and place that is a good evidence of
the fafts. They are noticed by men, whom the. death
of the hero had exempted from all temptation to flat¬
tery : they are recited by perfons, whom a proximity
to the time had precluded from all poffibility of mi-
ftake : and they are attefted by the beft hiftorical au¬
thority, writers wTho lived cotemporary with him, au¬
thors wrho converfed wuth his warriors, and hiftorians
that wrote within a few years after him. He is fpo-
ken of as the honourable father of the Britilh heroes
by the aged Llomarch, a writer adfually cotemporary
with him, and fome time ■ refident at his court. One
of his greater aftions is incidentally recorded by Ta-
lieflin, an hiftorical bard living under Maelwn Gwin-
ed, who was a fovereign among the Britons in the
days of Arthur, Gildas, and Llomarch. Another of
his confiderable exploits is cafually intimated by Myrd-
hin Wyhlt or Merlinus Caledonius, who complains of
the fevere treatment which he himfelf received from
Rydderch Hael, a king cotemporary with Urien Re-
ged, and engaged with him in a war againft the Sax¬
ons on the death of Ida in 560. And all his adlions
are particularly recited by Nennius.
“ In the Hiftaria Britonum of this laft author, Ar¬
thur’s viftories over the Saxons are thus recorded.
The firft battle was fought at the mouth of the river
which is denominated Glem. Thefecond, third, fourth,
and fifth, were upon another river, that is called Du-
glas, and lies in the region Linuis. The fixth was on
a ftream, which bears the appellation of BaJJas. The
feventh was in the wood of Celidon, that is, in Cat
Coit Celidon. The eighth wTas at Caftle Gunnion.
And the ninth was at the city of the Legion. The
tenth was on the bank of the river Ribroit ; the ele-*
venth at the hill Agned Cathregonion ; and the twelfth
at Mount Badon. Thefe twelve battles of Arthur are
defcribed to us in the fame manner as Vortimer’s three.
Only the general fafts are mentioned, and only the
common names of places are recited, in both. And
4 T 2 ' from
Arthur.
Ibid.
34—*4.
ART [ 7oo
from the whole air and afpeft of the hiftory, the re¬
markable concifenefs with which the notices are given,
and the great eafe with which the places are pointed
out, the detail appears to have been drawn up at the
didance only of a few years from the tranfadfions, and
when thefe little references were fufficiently under-
ftood.”
Mr Whittaker proceeds to afcertain the fcenes of
Arthur’s battles ; after which he gives a relation of
them with a furprifing particularity, A fevere critic
might be apt to fay, as Dr Kippis obferves, that it re¬
quires all our faith in the author’s judgment, as well
as in his ingenuity and learning, not to fufpedl that he
fometimes allows too much fcope to fancy and conjec¬
ture. However, the w7hole of what he hath advanced
is Angularly curious, and deferves peculiar attention
and confideration. And no one can help admiring the
penetration with which he hath formed fuch a regular
detail of fafts, from the combined aid of hiflory, ro¬
mance, and tradition. According to Mr Whittaker,
Arthur’s principal exploits were againft the northern
Saxons, whilft he was only prince of the Sllures, and
Ambrolius wTas the didlator or pendragon of the Bri¬
tons. “ In a feries probably of five campaigns, and
in a fucceffion certainly of eleven vidlories, this great
commander had repelled the Saxons from the north of
Flavia, difiodged them from all Maxima, and difpof-
fefled them of all Valentia. And thefe wrere fucceffes
fo unchequered with misfortunes, fo great in them-
felves, and fo beneficial to the public, that the name
of Arthur claims the firfl: rank in the lift of military,
and the better one of patriot, heroes.” The twelfth
battle of Arthur was fought in the fouth of England,
after he wras elected to the pendragonfhip, againft Cer-
dfc the Saxon. “ This (fays Mr Whittaker) wras a
moft extraordinary vidtory, and completes the circle
of Arthur’s military glories.” In the author’s ac¬
count of this prince’s condudl in peace, he alferts, that
“ Arthur faw that an appointment was wanted, wrhich
Ihould at once be a more regular and more honourable
fignature of merit; by the certainty of the honour and
the greatnefs of the dignity, call out all the worth of
of all the worthy in the nation •, and colleft it round
the throne of the pendragon. Accordingly he efta-
bliihed a military order. It w-as the firft that had ever
been inftituted in the iftand \ and it has fince been imi¬
tated by all the nations on the continent. By means
of this aiTociation, Arthur raifed among the provinci¬
als a general glow of ingenuous heroifm, the firft fpi-
rit of chivalry that ever appeared in Europe j that
manly and honourable gallantry of foul, which has
made him and his worthies the fubjedl of romantic
hiftories over all the weft of it. By this, and this
alone, could he have been what hiftory reprefents him,
the Reverend Father of the Britilh Heroes in general,
even to the conclufion of the fixth century, and nearly
the middle of .the feventh. The order naturally fur-
vived its founder. And the members of it were deno¬
minated the Warriors of Arthur, though the perfons
were born half a century after his death.” Mr Whit¬
taker goes on to inform us, that under the prudent
management of Arthur for 20 years together, a fair
profpedl dawned upon the Britons, and long fcenes of
future glories opened to their imaginations. “ But the
gay vifion was deftroyed at once by the commence-
ART
ment of a civil war. Many towns ftill remained in
ruins, the memorial of the former wars, and the dif-
grace of the prefent. The diffufed fpirit of chivalry v
was turned upon the nation, and heroifm became the
tool of diiTenfion. And the dreadful combination of
civil evils was begun and confummated, at once, by
the death of the renowned Arthur in battle. Thus
died the incomparable hero in 542.”
To thefe obfervations it may not be improper to add
the following account of the difcovery of Arthur’s
tomb, which appears to be tolerably well authenticated.
Henry II. who w;as the firft of the Plantagenet line,
being, in the laft year of his reign, at Pembroke, and
hearing there a Welih bard finging to his harp the
ftory of Arthur, concluding with an account of his
death, and burial in the churchyard of Glaftonbury
between tw?o pyramids 5 the king inftantly gave orders
that the matter fhould be inquired into, and the body
dug up. This was done as the king direfted ; and at
the depth of feven feet w7as found a vaft ftone, where¬
on w7as faftened a leaden crofs, wfith this inlcription on
the infide : Hie Jacet Sepultus Inclytus Rex Arturius in
Infula Avalonia; i. e. “ Here lies the famous King
Arthur, buried in the iile of Avalon.” Digging ftill
lowrer, they found the king’s body in the trunk of a
tree, his beautiful queen lying by him, with long flow¬
ing hair, in colour bright as gold, w'hich how7ever funk
into dull w7hen touched. The king’s bones wrere very
large fized ; and in his Ikull there were ten wT©unds or
more, all cicatrized, except that of which he died.
This difcovery was made in the year 1189, as Giral-
dus Cambrenfis tells us, w7ho faw thefe bones, and
examined the whole matter carefully. There was alfo
a table containing this ftory, fet up in the monailery
of Glaftonbury, and the leaden crofs with the inferip-
tion remained there till the diffolution of the mona-
ftery, where it was feen by the great antiquary Le-
land, but w7hat is become of it fince does not appear.
Of the different places above alluded to as being di-
ftinguifhed by our hero’s name, and ferving to evince
his exiftence, the following may be mentioned as one
of the principal.
Arthur’s Seat, a high hill in the neighbourhood
of Edinburgh, faid to have been fo denominated from
a tradition that King Arthur furveyed the country
from its fummit, and had alfo defeated the Saxons in
its neighbourhood. This hill rifes by a fteep and rug¬
ged afeent, till it terminates in a rocky point near 700
feet high from the bafe, being more than double the
height of the crofs on the top of St Paul’s, London,
which is 340 feet. On the fouth it is in many parts
a perpendicular rock, compofed ol baialtic pillars, re¬
gularly pentagonal or hexagonal, about three feet in
diameter, and from 40 to 50 feet in height. Conti¬
guous upon the weft, and partly connected with it at
the bafe, are Salilbury Crags, of inferior height, but
exhibiting an appearance equally lingular and grand.
They prefent to the city an aw'ful front of broken
rocks and precipices, forming a fort of natural amphi¬
theatre of folid rock ; and backward from the craggy
verge above, the hill forms an extenfive irregular Hope,
the furface affording pafture to numerous flocks of
flieep. The crags, belides ores, fpars, rock plants,
and here and there, it is faid, fome precious ftones,
afford an inexhauftible fupply of ftone for paving the
ftreets
Artlmr’a
Seat.
ART [ 701 ] ART
Artichoke, ftreets and oilier p jrpofes. In quarrying, a part of the
Article. crags has been worn down into a fpacious fhelf, having
the appearance of a lofty terrace, and ftretching a con-
fiderable length. From hence is a near and diftindl
profpecl of the city, with its environs and the adjacent
country. But from the pinnacle called Arthur's Seat
the view is more noble and extenlive. d he traveller
may here fit and furvey at his eafe the centre of the
kingdom, befides having a complete view of Edinburgh
and its caftle, on which he looks down as if feated
among the clouds. In a word, the German ocean,
the whole courfe of the Forth, the diftant Grampians,
and a large portion of the molt populous and bell cul¬
tivated part of Scotland, form a landfcape fublime, va¬
rious, and beautiful.
The denomination of this hill, derived as above, has
been adduced as an argument again!! thofe who dif-
pute the exiitence of the Britifii Arthur. That deri¬
vation, however, though probable, is not without un¬
certainty. For Arthur's Seat is laid to be derived, or
rather corrupted, from A'rd Seir, a “ place or field of
arrows,” where people fliot at a mark : And this not
improperly ; for among thefe cliffs is a dell or reclufe
valley, where the wind can fcarcely reach, now called
the Hunter's Bog, the bottom of it being a morafs.
, The adjacent crags are fuppofed to have taken their
name from the earl of Saljbury, who in the reign of
Edward III. accompanied that prince in an expedition
again!! the Scots.
ARTICHOKE. See Cinara, Botany Index.
ARTICLE, a claufe or condition of a contra£I,
treaty, &c. It is alfo a fmall part or divifion of a dif-
courfe, book, or writing, &c.
Article of Death, the la!! pangs or agony of one
jut! expiring.
Article of Faith, is by feme defined a point of
Chrifiian do£!rine, which we are obliged to believe, as
having been revealed by God himfelf, and allowed and
eilabliflied as !uch by the church.
The thirty-nine articles w^ere founded, for the mo!!
part, upon a body of articles compiled and publifhed
in the reign of Edward VI. They were firft paffed in
the convocation, and confirmed by royal authority in
the year 1562. They tvere afterwards ratified anew
in the year 1571, and again by Charles I. The law
requires a fublcription to thefe articles of all perfons
ordained to be deacons or priefts, 13 Eliz. cap. 12. of
all clergymen inducled to any ecclefiaftical living, by
the fame flatute, and of licenfed ledlurers and curates,
13 Eliz. cap. 12. and 13 and 14 Ch. II. cap. 4. of the
heads of colleges, of chancellors, officials, and comniif-
faries, and of fchoolmallers. By 1 Will. HI. cap. 18.
difienting teachers are to fubferibe all, except the 34th,
35th, and 36th, and part of the 20th (and in the cafe
of Anabaptifts, except alfo part of the 27th) ; other-
wife they are exempted from the benefits of the ac! of
toleration.
Article, in Grammar, denotes a particle ufed in
mofl languages for the declining of nouns, and denot¬
ing the feveral cafes and genders thereof.
The ufe of articles arifes chiefly hence, that in lan¬
guages w'hich have no different terminations, to ex-
prefs the different Hates and circumftances of nouns,
there is fomething required to fupply that office.
The Latins have no articles} but the Greeks, and
mo!! of the modern languages, have had recourfe to Articulate
them, for fixing and afeertaining the vague fignification
of common and appellative names. .' " ‘ ^ A>
The Greeks have their 0, the eaffern tongues their
he etnphaticum ; the Italians their il, lo, and la. The
French their /<?, la, and les. The Germans their der,
das, dat.
The Englilh alfo have two articles, a and the;
which being prefixed to fubflantives, apply their ge¬
neral fignification to fome particular things.
Some grammarians make the article a diftimf! part
of fpeech •, others will have it a pronoun, and others
a noun adjedlive. See Grammar.
Articles are of great fervice in a language, as they
contribute to the more neat and precife exprefling of
feveral properties and relations, which muff othervvife
be loft. And hence one great advantage of fuch
languages over the Latin, in that the article being ei¬
ther exprefled or left out, makes an alteration in the
fenfe, which the Latins cannot diftinguifh. Thus
when the devil faid to our Saviour, Si tu es Filius dei,
it may either be underftood, “ if thou art a fon of
God,” or, “ if thou art the fon of God.” The Ita¬
lians even prefix articles to proper names, which do
not naturally need any, becaufe they themfelves figni-
fy things individually. Thus they fay, il Ariq/lo, il
Faffo, il Petrarcha. Even the French join the article
to the proper names of kingdoms, provinces, &cc. as
la Suede, la Normandie. And we likewife annex it to
the names of certain mountains and rivers j as, The
Rhine, the Danube, the Alps, &c.
ARTICULATE sounds, are fuch founds as ex-
prefs the letters, fyllables, or words of any alphabet
or language : fuch are formed by the human voice,
and by fome few birds, as parrots, &c.
ARTICULATION, or jointing, is the joining
of bones together. See Anatomy.
Articulation, in Botany, is the connexion of
parts that confift of joints or knees, fuch as the pods
of French honeyfuckles, which when ripe divide into
fo many parts as there are knees or joints ; alfo thofe
parts of plants wdiich fwell into nodes or joints, and
which ufually fend forth branches.
ARTIFICER, a perfon w'hofe employment it is to
manufadfure any kind of commodity, as in iron, brafs,.
wool, &c. fuch are fmiths, brafiers, carpenters, &c.
The Roman artificers had their peculiar temples, where
they aflembled and chofe their owm patron, to defend
their caufes: they were exempted from all perfonal
fervices. Taruntenus Paternus reckons 32 fpecies of
artificers, and Conftantine 35, who enjoyed this privi¬
lege. The artificers were incorporated into divers col¬
leges or companies, each of which had their tutelar
gods, to whom they offered their worftiip. Several of
thefe, when they quitted their profeffion, hung up their
tools, a votive offering to their gods. Artificers were
held a degree below merchants, and argentarii or mo¬
ney-changers, and their employment more fordid.
Some deny, that in the earlieft ages of the Roman ftate
artificers W'ere ranked in the number of citizens :
others, who affert their citizenfliip, allow that they
were held in contempt, as being unfit for war, and fo
poor that they could fcarcely pay any taxes. For which
reafon they were not entered among the citizens in the
cenfor’s books ; the defign of the cenfus being only to
fee
Artificial
J
Artillery,
A R T [ 7
lee what number of perfons were yearly fit to bear
arms, and to pay taxes towards the fupport of the
ftate. It may be added, that much of the artificers
bufinefs was done by (laves and foreigners, who left
little for the Romans to mind but their hufbandry and
war. By means of the arts, the minds of men are en¬
gaged in inventions beneficial to the whole communi¬
ty ; and thus prove the grand prefervative againft the
barbarifm and brutality, which ever attend on an in¬
dolent and inaftive (lupidity.
By the Englilb laws, artificers in wool, iron, Heel,
brafs, or other metal, going out of the kingdom into
any foreign country without licenfe, are to be impri-
foned three months, and fined in a fum not exceeding
one hundred pounds. And fuch as going abroad, and
not returning on warning given by our ambaffadors,
&c. (hall be difabled from holding lands by defcent or
devife, from receiving any legacy, &c. and be deemed
aliens. Stat. 5. Geo. I. cap. 27. By 23 Geo. II. cap.
13. § 1. penalty is alfo inflifted on feducing artificers
to go abroad. Ramazini has a treatife on the difeafes
of artificers.
ARTIFICIAL, in a general fenfe, denotes fome-
thing made, faflrioned, or produced by art, in contra-
diftin&ion from the produdtions of nature.
Artificial is alfo frequently ufed for faftitious.
Thus we have artificial fal ammoniac, artificial borax,
&c.
Artificial Fire-works are compolitions of inflam¬
mable materials, chiefly ufed on folemn occalions, by
way of rejoicing. See Pyrotechny.
Artificial Lightning. See Electricity and
Lightning.
Artificial Lines, on a fe£tor or fcale, are certain
lines fo contrived, as to reprefent the logarithmic
fines and tangents $ which, by the help of the line of
numbers will folve all queftions in trigonometry, na¬
vigation, &c. pretty exa&ly.
Artificial Magnets. See Magnets.
ARTIGI, indeclinable, (Pliny) ; Artigis, (Ptole¬
my)-, a town of the Turduli, in Bsetica. Now A/hama.
ARTILLERY, in its general fenfe, denotes the
offenfive apparatus of war, particularly of the miflile
kind. Among the French the term was anciently ap¬
propriated to archery. In its modern acceptation it
fignifies fire-arms, mounted on their carriages and rea¬
dy for aftion, with their balls, their bombs, their gre¬
nades, &c.
If we take the term in a more extenfive meaning, it
includes the powder, the matches, inftruments for
fire-works, the utenfils of ordnance, the machines
which facilitate their motion and tranfport them,- the
vehicles over which they traverfe rivers, every thing
neceflary to them, and all that enters into the form of
a train of artillery.
The fame word (till farther extended in its mean¬
ing, likewife comprehends the men deftined for the
fervice of the artillery; the people who provide the
artillery with materials and implements when enga¬
ged, the cannoniers, the bombardiers, the officers of
every rank, and engineers of every kind.
By artillery is likewife underftood the fcience which
the officers of artillery ought to pofifefs. This fcience
teaches to know the nature of all the materials and
ingredients which enter into the compofltion and the
02 ] ART
ftrufture of every thing relative tb the artillery, fuch Artillery.
as nitre, fulphur, charcoal; the properties of air and *—-1
fire •, the compofition and preparation of gunpowder ,
the materials for fire-works ; the conrtru£Hon, propor¬
tions, &cc. of the different warlike machines ; the ar¬
rangement, movement, and wffiole management, of
cannon, See. in the field or in fieges, in fuch a manner,
that each of them, according to the length of its tube
and the diameter of its bore, may be lituated in the
bed place and at the propereft diftance for execution,
and that the whole train taken together may recipro¬
cally affift and fupport each other with the greateft
advantage.
_ Artillery has undergone many changes from its ori¬
gin to the prefent time. The artillery of the ancients
were the catapulta, the baliftae, the different kinds of
flings, &c. In latter ages, the Franks ufed the hatchet
as a miflile weapon, throwing it in the fame manner as
the Americans do theirs called the tomahawk. The
Gafcons and Genoefe were excellent crofs-bow men.
The Swifsxowed their victories to their (Length and
(kill in the ufe of the pike, halberd, and efpadon or
two-handed fword_j and the victories of Creffy, Poic-
tiers, and Agincourt, will occafion the valour and (kill
of the Engliih archers to be tranfmitted down to lateft
pofterity. See Archery.
The chevalier Folard was extremely attached to the
ancient machines firft mentioned, and feemed even to
prefer them to our fire-arms: an opinion which muft
appear not a little extraordinary from fuch a perfon.
Father Daniel might well be miftaken in the compari-
fon which he made between the effefts of ancient and
modern artillery, and in his conclufion that the latter
was o( little ufe : the fituation of this good father re¬
moved him from the feenes of w^ar and the opportuni¬
ties of military experience. But it is aftoniffiing, that
one fo learned in the military art as the commentator
of Polybius, who had ocular demonftration of the fuc-
cefs of modern artillery, fliould have declared fo violent¬
ly againfl: it. Whatever be the cafe with thefe au¬
thors and their maxims, it may be afferted, that can¬
non is one of the mod lingular difeoveries which have
been made amongfl: men -, and by little and little it has
changed the whole art of war, and of confequence in¬
fluenced the whole fyftem of policy in Europe. The
era of artillery is dated from the battle of Creffy in
1346, becaufe it is only from that day that cannons
w-ere mentioned in battle. Edward III. of England
fuccefsfully employed fome pieces of artillery placed in
the front of his army. The invention of artillery was
then known in France as well as in England -, but pro¬
bably Philip VI. marched with fo much hurry and pre¬
cipitation to attack his enemy, that he left his cannon
as ulelefs encumbrances behind him. The ignorance
of that age in mechanical arts confiderably retarded
the progrefs of artillery ; and that of which they were
then poffeffed was fo unwieldy and imperfe£I, that
they could not poflibly difeern its importance and ef¬
ficacy in praftice.
After the invention of gunpowder, the Spaniards
were the firft who armed part of their foot with muf-
kets and harquebuffes, and mixed them with the pikes.
In this they were foon imitated by mod other nations j
though the Engliffi had not entirely laid afide their fa¬
vourite weapon the long bow, and generally taken to
the
f
ART
AtiUery. the ufe of fire arms, during the reign of Queen Eliza
beth.
The firft mulkets were very heavy, and could not be
fired without a reft : they had matchlocks, and barrels
of a wide bore, that carried a large ball and charge of
powder, and did execution at a great diftance. The
mulketeers on a march carried only their refts and am¬
munition ; and had boys to bear their mufkets after
them, for which they were allowed great additional pay.
1 hey were very flow in loading, not only by reafon of
the unwieldinefs of the pieces, and becaufe they earned
the powder and balls feparate, but from the time it
took to prepare and adjuft the match ; fo that their fire
ir as not near fo brilk as ours is now. .Afterwards a
lighter kind of matchlock mufleet came into ufe 5 and
they carried their ammunition in bandeliers, which
were broad belts that came over the fiioulder, to which
were hung feveral. little cafes of wood covered with
leather, each containing a charge of powder j the balls
they carried loole in a pouch, and they had alfo a
priming horn hanging by thejr fide. Matchlocks were,
about the beginning of this century, univerfally difufed
in Europe, and the troops were armed with firelocks j
to.which, much about the fame time, the bayonet
being added, pikes alfo were laid afide ; which latter
change, wrhether it wras for the better or not, is a point
that ftill admits of difpute among the beft military
writers, who are divided in their opinions about it,
though moft of them difapprove of it.
The old Englilh writers call thofe large mulkets ca-
Zivers; the harquebus was a lighter piece, that could
be fired without a reft. The matchlock was fired by
a match, fixed by a kind of tongs in the ferpentine or
cock, which by pulling the trigger was brought down
wiiii great quicknefs upon the priming in the pan,
over which there was a Aiding cover, which was drawn
back by hand, juft at the time of firing. There was a
great deal of nicety and care required to fit the match
piopeily to the cock, fo as to come down exactly true
on the priming, to blow the allies from the coal, and
to guard the pan from the fparks that fell from it : a
great deal of time was alfo loft in taking it out of the
cock, and returning it between the fingers of the left
hand, every time that the piece was fired ; and wet
weather often rendered the matches ufelefs. How¬
ever, moft writers allow that they were very fure and
lels apt to mifs fire than the firelock.
r iT'u6 ^re^oc^ caHed, from producing fire of it-
ielt, by the a&ion of the flint and fteel. The moft an¬
cient invention of this fort is the wheel lock, which we
tmd mentioned in Luigi Collado’s Treatife of Artillery
printed at Venice, 1586, as then lately invented in
icrmany. This fort of lock was ufed till within thele
hundred years, efpecially for piftols and carabines. It
was compofed of a folid fteel wheel, with an axis, to
which was faftened a chain, which, by being wound
round it drew up a very ftrong fpring 5 on pulling the
tiiggei, the fpring afting, whirled the wheel about
with great velocity, and the friftion of the edge of it
(which was a little notched) againft the ftone produ¬
ced the fire; the cock was made fo as to bring the
ftone upon the edge of the wheel, part of which was
in the pan, and touched the priming ; they ufed any
common hard pebble for that purpofe, which ferved as
well as flint.
[ 7°3 1
ART
1 hefe locks were inconvenient, took time to wind Artill
up (or fpan, as they termed it), and fometimes would '--"v
not go off; an inftance of which may be feen in Lud¬
low’s Memoirs.
When the firelock, fuch as we now ufe, was invent¬
ed, wTe cannot afeertain j it is called by writers of about
the middle of the laft century, nfnaphane ox fnafihance,
which being the Dutch wmrd for a firelock, leems to
indicate that it is a Dutch invention, and that we took
it rom them. But Ward, in his Animadverfions of
War, printed in 1639, P- 502, after deferibing the ex-
ercife of the firelock, piftol, and carabine (by which he
means the wheel-lock), fays, that as moft of our pieces
go with Englifh locks, which differ from firelocks, he
fhall add the method of handling them 5 and then gives
the exercife of the fnaphine carabine ; by which it ap¬
pears, that there was little or no dift'erence between
that and the pieces now in ufe. ft he more modern,
writers call it a fufiee, from the French word fufii±
whence the name of fufileers is ftill continued to feve-
ral of our regiments, which were the firft that were
armed with them on the difufe of matchlocks.
They ufed the mulket and reft in England fo late as
the beginning of the civil wars, as may be feen in
Col. Banffe’s Young Artillery Man, printed at Lon¬
don, 1643.
Figuera, in his embaffy in 1518, relates, that the
Perfians would neither make ufe of infantry nor of ar¬
tillery,^ becaufe by them the impetuofity of attack and
the facility of retreat were equally encumbered and re¬
tarded : m thefe expedients alone their addrefs and
their glory confifted. This method of advancing and
recalling is widely different from the prefent condu£
O- war, as the artillery in armies is now prodigiouily
multiplied, and muft be tranfported to every place
where any body of troops whatever is deftined to ope¬
rate. r
. ^he length and diameter of cannon has been much
diminiflied, which muft likewife proportionably dimi-
nifli their weight. It is by long practice and expe¬
rience that they have difeovered how much might be
deduced from their magnitude in both thefe refpefts
t.ith propnety, without hurting the grand effedls
which, on fome occafions, it is neceffary they fliould
produce, by rendering them more eafy to be wielded,
which was the advantage purfued by leffening their
fize. See further the articles Cannon, Gunnery and
Projectiles.
Improvements, however, are ftill making, and will
probably long continue to be made, in thefe ignivo-
mpus machines that mock the thunder, which, though
they feem to be invented for the deftruaion of the hu¬
man race and the fubverfion of empires, have yet by
their effe as rendered war lefs far age and lefs fanguine •
political alliances have been more fuccefsfully concili¬
ated among all nations, conquefts are become lefs fre¬
quent and lefs rapid, and fucceffes in war have been
more eafily reduced to calculation.
The change introduced in the military art by the nr
modenv artillery, Dr Smith obferves, has enhanced St"
greatly ooth the expence of exercifing and difcipliningvol. iii. ’
any particular number of foldiers in time of peace, andP- 7p*
that of employing them in time of war. Both their
aims and their ammunition are become more expenfive.
A mulket is a more expenfive machine than a javelin
ART [ 704 1 ART
Artillery, or a bow and arrows; a cannon or a mortar, than a
“■"—'v balifta or a catapulta. The powder which is fpent in
a modern review is loft irrecoverably, and occafions a
very confiderable expence. The javelins and arrows
which were thrown or fhot in an ancient one, could ea-
ftly be picked up again, and were belides of very little
value. The cannon and the mortar are not only much
dearer, but much heavier machines than the balifta or
catapulta, and require a greater expence, not only to
prepare them for the field, but to carry them to it.
As the fuperiority of the modern artillery too over that
of the ancients is very great, it has become much more
difficult, and confequently much more expenfive, to
fortify a town fo as to refill: even for a few weeks the
attack of that fuperior artillery.
In modern war the great expence of fire arms gives
an evident advantage to the nation which can beft af¬
ford that expence 5 and confequently, to an opulent
and civilized, over a poor and barbarous nation. In
ancient times, the opulent and civilized found it diffi¬
cult to defend themfelves againft the poor and barba¬
rous nations. In modern times the poor and barba¬
rous find it difficult to defend themfelves againft the
opulent and civilized. The invention of fire arms, an
invention which at firft fight appears to be fo perni¬
cious, is certainly favourable both to the permanency
and to the extenfion of civilization.
It has to many appeared matter of furprife, that the
battles of the ancients Ihould be defcribed wdth an or¬
der, perfpicuity, and circumftantial minutenefs, which
are not to be found in the military writers of modern
times. Scholars have endeavoured to explain this dif¬
ference by obferving the immenfe difproportion, in
point of dignity and abilities, between the military hi-
ftorians of modern Europe and thofe of Greece and
Rome. But the difficulty will be better folved, Dr
Gillies thinks, by reflefting on the changes introduced
into the art of war by the change of artillery *, which
in military operations, form the pivot on which the
whole turns. 1. From the nature of fire arms, modem
battles are involved in fmoke and confufion. 2. From
the fame caufe, modern armies occupy a much greater
extent of ground, and begin to a£l at much greater
diftances : which renders it more difficult to obferve
and afcertain their manoeuvres. 3. The immenfe train
of artillery, ammunition, &c. required in the praftice
of modern war, gives a certain immobility to our ar¬
mies, which renders it impoffible to perform, without
great danger, thofe rapid evolutions in fight of an ene¬
my, which fo often decided the battles of the ancients.
With us, almoft every thing depends on the judicious
choice of ground, a matter requiring great military
genius, but not admitting the embelliftiments of hifto-
rical defcription.
In the battles of the Greeks and Romans, the ex¬
traordinary difproportion between the numbers flain on
the fide of the vigors and the vanquiffied has been ob-
ferved as another remarkable circumftance. But this
neceffarily refulted from the nature of their arms. Their
principal weapons being not miffile, but manual, armies
could not begin to aSi till they had approached fo near
to each other, that the conquered found themfelves
cut off from all poffibility of retreat. In modern times,
fuch confequences feldom take place. The ufe of fire
arms (which often renders the a&ion itfelf more bloody,
furnilhes the defeated party with various means of re- Artillery,
treating with confiderabie fafety. The fphere of mili-, Altlttp‘ i
tary aftion is fo widely extended in modern times, v
that before the vidlors can run over the fpace which fe-
parates them from the vanquifhed, the latter may fall
back, and proceed with little lofs beyond their reach j
and Ihould any village, hedge, ravine, &-C. be found in
their way, may often check the ardour of the purfuers.
Upon tliefe confiderations, the invention of gunpowder
anu modern artillery may be faid to have faved the effu-
fion of human blood. Equeftrian engagements (fince
the principles on which cavalry aft remain nearly the
fame in every age) are ftill diftinguifhed by fimilar cir-
cumftances to thofe which appear fo extraordinary in
the battles of antiquity.
Artillery Park, the place in the rear of both lines
in an army, for encamping the artillery, which is
drawn up in lines, of which one is formed by the
guns •, the ammunition waggons make two or three
lines, 60 paces behind the guns, and 30 diftant from
one another ; the pontoons and tumbrils make the laft
line. The whole is furrounded with a rope which forms
the park : the gunners and matroffes encamp on the
flanks 5 and the bombardiers, pontoon men, and arti¬
ficers, in the rear.
Artillery Train, a certain number of pieces of
ordnance, mounted on carriages, with all their furniture
fit for marching.
Artillery Company, a band of infantry, confifting
of 600 men, making part ol the militia or city guard
of London.
ARTIST, in a general fenfe, a perfon {killed in fame
art. Mr Harris defines an artift to be, “ A perfon pof-
feflmg an habitual power of becoming the caufe of feme
effeft, according to a fyrtem of various and well ap¬
proved precepts.” See x\rt. * Evil. Dif-
We are told * of a privilege granted at Vicenza to^A «/
artifts, like that of clergy in England : in virtue there-
of criminals adjudged to death fave their lives if they1- ■)/-
can prove themfelves the moft excellent and confum-
mate wTorkmen in any ufe fill art. ft his benefit is allow¬
ed them in favorem artis, for the firft offence, except
in fome particular crimes, of which coining is one j for
here the greater the artift, the more dangerous the
perfon.
Artist (Jrtijla), in an academical fenfe, denotes a
philofopher or proficient in the faculty of arts.
In the early ages of univerfities, the feven liberal arts
completed the whole courfe of ftudy, or philofophy, as
it is called : wdience the mailers of this faculty were
denominated Artifis. What they underilocd by tne
liberal arts ufed to be fummed up in the following La¬
tin verfe :
Lingua, Tropus, Patio, Numerus, Tonus, Angulus,AJlra.
Artist is more peculiarly ufed, by Paracelfus and
other adepts, for a chemift or alchemift. W e find fre¬
quent mention, in authors of this clafs, of Elias Aitifta,
or Elias the artift, who is to come fome time before
the diffolution of the world, and reftore and make per-
feft all arts and fciences, but Specially the gold-mak¬
ing art } and uffier in a truly gold( n age, or millen¬
nium. The lower and meaner things m this lublime
art, Paracelfus obferves, God has permitted to be al¬
ready difeovered > but for the greater and more im¬
portant
ART [ 705 ] ART
Aftobiiga portant matters, as the tranfmutation of other metals
I! into gold, they are referved to the coining of Elias the
l-Aruba- > artift.
ARTOBRIGA, a town of Vindelicia (Ptolemy):
Now? Alt%burg, in Bavaria, on the Danube, below In-
golftadt (Aventinus) : but Cluverius fuppofes it to be
Lebenau, on the Saltzbach, below Lauft'en, in the arch-
bifhopric of Saltzburg.
ARTOCARPUS, the bread fruit tree. See
Botany Index.
ARTOIS, a late province of France, and one of the
fineit and moft fertile in the whole kingdom. Formerly
it wras one of the 17 provinces of the Netherlands, but
now belongs entirely to France, and is included in the
department of the Straits of Calais. The names of Ar¬
tois, and Arras its capital, are derived from the Atre-
bates, a people of Gallia Belgica, mentioned by Ju¬
lius Caefar. Its greateft length from north to fouth
is about 24 leagues, and its breadth about 12, being
bounded to the fouth and weft by Picardy, to the eaft
by Hainault, and to the north by Flanders. A con-
liderable trade is carried on in the province in grain,
flax, hops, wool, and linen cloth. The moft confider-
able places in Artois are, Arras the capital, Bapaume,
Bethune, St Venant, and St Omer.
ARTOLICA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
SalalTii in Gallia Cifpadana, at the foot of the Alps :
now called la Tuile by the inhabitants, a hamlet of Sa¬
voy, in the duchy of Aouft, at the foot of Mount St
Bernard the Lefs.
ARTOTYRITES, a Chriftian fe£l, in the primi¬
tive church, who celebrated the eucharift with bread
and cheefe, faying, that the firft oblations of men, were
not only of the fruits of the earth, but of their flocks.
The word is derived from eegroj, bread, and
cheefe.
The Artotyrites admitted women to the priefthood
and epifcopacy ; and Epiphanius tells us, it was a com¬
mon thing to fee feven girls at once enter into their
church, robed in white, and holding a torch in their
hand ; where they wept, and bewailed the w’retched-
nefs of human nature, and the miferies of this life.
ARUA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Baetica,
in the jurifdiftion of the Conventus Hifpalenfls: now
Alclea, a citadel of Andalufia, on the Btetis, or Gua-
dalquiver, feven leagues above Seville.
ARVALES fratres, in Roman Antiquity, a col¬
lege of r 2 priefts, inftituted by Romulus, and chofen
out of the moft noble families, himfelf being one of
that body : they aflifted in the facrifices of the amber-
valia annually offered to Ceres and Bacchus, for the
profperity of the fruits of the earth $ wflien they wore
on their heads crowns made of ears of corn. The ori¬
ginal of this inftitution was as follows : Acca Lauren-
tia, Romulus’s nurfe, was accuftomed once a-year to
make a folemn facrifice for a blefling on the fields, her
12 fons always aflifting her in the folemnity j but at
laft lofing one of her fons, Romulus offered himfelf to
i’upply his place, and gave this fmall fociety the name
of Ar-oales fratr-es. This order was in great repute at
Rome : they held the dignity for life, and never loft
it upon account of imprifonment, banilhment, or any
other accident.
ARUBA, a fmall ifland on the coaft of Terra Fir-
Vol. II. Part. IL
ma, fubject to the Dutch, and fituated in W. Long. Aruei
69. 30. N. Lat. 12. 30. il
ARUCI, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Cel- iAruii
tici, in the north of Lufitania, (Antonine, Infcription) j
called alfo Aruci Novum, to diftinguifh it from the fol¬
lowing : Nowr fuppofed to be Moura, a fmall city of
Portugal, near the confluence of the Ardila and Gua-
dalquiver.
Aruci Vetus, in Ancient Geography, a fmall city
of the Turdetani, in Baetica, (Ptolemy) ; now Aroche,
a hamlet of Andalufia, on the confines of Portugal and
Eftremadura, on the river Gama, feven leagues to the
eaft of Aruci Novum or Moura. From it a mountain,
in its neighbourhood, takes the name Arucitanus. Now
la Sierra de Aroche.
ARUCI A, in Ancient Geography, a town of Illyria,
in the inland parts of Liburnia, (Ptolemy). Noiv
Bregna, according to fome ; but Ottofchatz, according
to others ; a citadel of Morlachia.
ARVERNI, an appellation early ufed for the capi¬
tal of the Arverni, according to the cuftom of the lat¬
ter ages of naming towns from the people j it was for¬
merly called Nemojfus, (Strabo). The Arverni, a brave
and ancient people, and one of the moft powerful na¬
tions of Gaul, claimed athnity wTith the Romans, as
defcendants from Antenor, (Lucan) : and after their
conqueft by the Romans, their ancient liberty was pre-
ferved to them on account of their bravery, (Pliny).
Above 1000 years ago the town was called Clarus
Mans, from its fituation, (Valefius.) Now Clermont,
in Auvergne. E. Long. 3. 20. N. Lat. 45. 42.
ARVIL supper, a feaft or entertainment made at
funerals, in the north part of England. Arvil bread is
the bread delivered to the poor at funeral folemnities :
and arvil, arval, arfal, are ufed for the burial or fune¬
ral rites j as,
Come, bring my jerkin, Tibb, I’ll to the arvil;
Yon man’s dea fcuy feoun, it makes me marvil.
ICorhJh. Dial. p. 58.
ARVIRAGUS, an ancient Britifti king who flou-
riftied in the time of the emperor Domitian. He gain¬
ed a complete viftory over Claudius : but being foon
after befieged in the city of Winchefter, he made a
treaty with the Romans, and married the emperor’s
daughter Genuiffa. This monarch lived to a good old
age : he confirmed the ancient laws, enafted new ones,
and liberally rewarded perfons of merit.
ARUM, wakerobim, or cuckow-pint. See Bo¬
tany Index.
ARUNDA, a town of Hifpania Baetica, on the
Anas, or Guadiana, (Ptolemy, Pliny) : Nowr faid to
be Ronda, in the province of Granada, on the confines
of Andalufia. W. Long. 5. 40. Lat. 36. 26.
ARUNDEL, Thomas, archbilhop of Canterbury
in the reigns of Richard II. Henry IV. and Henry V.
was the fecond fon of Robert earl of Arundel and
Warren, and brother of Richard earl of Arundel, who
■was beheaded. At .22 years of age, from being arch¬
deacon of Taunton he was raifed to the bifhopric of
Ely, the 6th of April .137 5, in the reign of Edward
III. He was a great benefaftor to the church and
palace of this fee ; among other donations he gave a
curious table of maffy gold, adorned with precious
4 U ftones,
Arundel.
A R U [ 706
Hones, which had been given to Prince Edward by
the king of Spain, and fold by the latter to Bilhop A-
rundel. In 1386, he was appointed lord chancellor of
England ; two years after, he was tranllated to the fee
of York ; and, in 1396, was advanced to the archie-
pifcopal fee of Canterbury, when he refigned the chan-
cellorlhip. This was the firft inftance of the tranfla-
tion of an archbilhop of York to the fee of Canterbury.
Scarcely was he fixed in this fee, when he had a conteft
with the univerfity of Oxford about the right of vifi-
tation. The affair was referred to King Richard, who
determined it in favour of the archbifhop. At his vi-
fitation in London, he revived an old conffitution, by
which the inhabitants of the refpe&ive parifhes were
obliged to pay to their reftor one halfpenny in the
pound out of the rent of their houfes. In the fecond
year of his tranflation, a parliament being held at Lon¬
don, the commons with the king’s leave impeached
the archbifhop, together -with his brother the earl of
Arundel, and the duke of Gloucefler, of high treafon.
The archbifhop was fentenced to be banifhed, and with¬
in forty days to depart the kingdom on pain of death.
He retired firft to France ; and then to the court of
Rome, where Pope Boniface IX. gave him a kind re¬
ception. About this time the duke of Lancafter (af¬
terwards Henry IV.) was in France, having been ba¬
nifhed by King Richard. The nobility and others, tired
with the oppreffions of Richard, folicited the duke to
take the crown. This their requeft they drew up in a
letter, and fent it over by faithful meffengers to Arch-
bilhop Arundel, defiring him to be their advocate on
this occafion with the duke. The archbifhop, being a
fellow fufferer, gladly accepted the office; and went
with the melfengers to the duke at Paris, where they
delivered the letters from the nobles and commons of
England, and the archbifhop feconded them with the
beft arguments he could invent. The inviting offer,
after fome objecfions which wTere eafily obviated, the
duke accepted ; and upon his acceffion to the throne,
Arundel, who had returned with him to England, was
reftored to his fee. In the firft year of this prince’s
reign, Arundel fummoned a fynod which fat at St
Paul’s. The next year the commons moved that the
revenues of the church might be applied to the fervice
of the public j but Arundel oppofed the motion with
fuch vigour, that it was thrown afide. In the year 1408,
Arundel began to exert himfelf againft the Lollards,
or Wickliffites ; and his zeal for fuppreffing that fecff
carried him to feveral unjuftifiable feverities againft the
heads of it, particularly againft Sir John Oldcaftle and
Lord Cobham. He alfo procured a fynodical conftitu-
tion, which forbade the tranflation of the Scriptures
into the vulgar tongue. This prelate died at Canter¬
bury, Feb. 20. 1413, of an inflammation in his throat,
with which he was feized (as it is pretended) whilft he
w7as pronouncing fentence upon Lord Cobham. The
Lollards afferted this to be a judgment from God ;
and indeed Bifhop Goodwin fpeaks in the fame manner,
faying, “ He wrho had withheld from the people the
word of God, the food of the foul, by the juft judge¬
ment of God had his throat fo clofed, that he could
not fpeak a Angle word, nor fwallow meat or drink,
and was fo ftarved to death.” He was buried in the
cathedral church of Canterbury, near the weft end,.
under a monument erected by himfelf in his lifetime.
] a r u
To this church he was a confiderable benefa&or 5 for
he built the lantern-tower and great part of the nave :
gave a ring of five bells, called from him Arundel's <
ring; feveral rich veftments, a mitre enchafed with
jewels, a filver gilt crofier, and two golden chalices.
Arundel, a borough and market town in Suffex,
feated on the north-weft fide of the river Arun, over
which there is a bridge. It had a harbour, wherein a
fhip of 100 tons burden might ride; but the fea had
ruined it fo far, that, in 1733, an a<ff paffed for re¬
pairing it, and for erefling new piers, locks, &c. The
caftle, which gives the title of earl to its poffeffors, is
feated on the eaft of the Tame, and is reputed to be a
mile in compafs. It fends two members to parlia¬
ment ; and is 55 miles fouth-weft-by-fouth of London,
and 10 miles eart of Chichefter. Arundel is the pre¬
mier earldom in England, belonging to the illuftrious
family of Norfolk ; and is the only title in England
that goes along with the lands. W. Long. o. 25. N.
Lat. 50. 45.
Arundel Oil, in the Materia Medica. At Bom¬
bay, Gombroon, and Surat, in the Eaft Indies, there
grows a tree which bears a nut enclofed in a rough
hulk, which refembles much the horfe-chefnut; and
the kernel of the nut yields an oil by expreffion, which
is of a purgative nature. A tea-fpoonful of it is rec¬
koned a dofe. The tree goes by the name of the arun-
del tree at Bombay, and its oil by that of the arundet
oil. Mr Sinclair, one of the furgeons belonging to the
royal regiment of artillery, who was formerly furgeon
to an Eaft; India (hip, gave Dr Monro of London a
fmall battle full of this oil, which he faid was much
ufed for the cure of the dyfentery in India, and that he
had given it in four recent cafes of dyfentery with fuc-
cefs. Dr Monro thinks it probable that this is the oil
of the purging nuts mentioned in Dale’s Pharmacologia,
which are got from the tree called lignum moluccenfe,
pavana dictum, fruciu avellance, J. B. 1. 342 5 and pinus
Indica, nucleo purgante, C. B. 492 ; and the palma
Chri/lt Indica, Tournefort Mat. Med.
ARUNDELIAN Marbles, Oxford Marbles,
or Parian Chronicle, are ancient ftones (as has
been fuppofed), whereon is infcribed a chronicle of
the city of Athens, engraven in capital letters in the
ifland of Paros, one of the Cyclades, 264 years before
Jefus Chrift. They take their firft name from Thomas
earl of Arundel, who procured them out of the Eaft,
or from Henry his grandfon, who prefented them to
the univerfity of Oxford.
The Arundelian marbles, in their perfefl ftate, con¬
tained a chronological detail of the principal events
of Greece during a period of 1318 years, beginning
with Cecrops, before Chrift 1582 years, and ending
with the archonfhip of Diognetus, before Chrift 264.
But the chronicle of the laft 90 years is loft ; fo that
the part now remaining ends at the archonfhip of Dio-
timus, 354 years before the birth of Chrift: j and in this
fragment the infcription is at prefent fo much corroded
and eft'aced, that the fenfe can only be difcovered by
very learned and induftrious antiquaries j or, more pro¬
perly fpeaking, fupplied by their conjeftures.
'Phis chronicle, and many other relicks of antiquity,
real or pretended, were purchafed in Alia Minor, in
Greece, or in the iflands of the Archipelago, by Mr
William Petty, who in the year 1624 was fent by
Thomas
Arundel,
Arunde¬
lian.
A R U t 7°7 1 A R U
Arurwia- Thomas earl of Arundel for tlie purpofe of making
iian. fuch colleftions for him in the eaft. 1 hey were brought
into England about the beginning of the year 1619,
and placed in the gardens belonging to Arundel houle
in London.
Soon after their arrival they excited a general curio-
fity, and were viewed by many inquifitive and learned
men ; among others by Sir Robert Cotton, who pre¬
vailed upon Selden to employ his abilities in explaining
the Greek infcriptions. Selden and two of his friends,
Patrick Young, or, as he ftyled himfelf in Latin, Pa-
tricius Junius, and Richard James, immediately com¬
menced their operations, by cleaning and examining
the marble containing the Smyrnean and Magnefian
league, and afterwards proceeded to the Parian chro¬
nicle. The following year Selden publifhed a fmall
volume in quarto, including about 39 infcriptions co¬
pied from the marbles.
In the turbulent reign of Charles I. and the fubfe-
quent ufurpation, Arundel houfe was often deferted by
the illuftrious owners ; and, in their abfence, fome of
the marbles wrere defaced and broken, and others either
ftolen or ufed for the ordinary purpofes of architecture.
The chronological marble in particular, was unfortu¬
nately broken and defaced. The upper part, contain¬
ing 31 epochas, is faid to have been worked up in re¬
pairing a chimney in Arundel houfe.
In the year 1667, the Hon. Henry Howard, after¬
wards duke of Norfolk, the grandfon of the firft collec¬
tor, prefented thefe fuppofed remains of antiquity to
the univerlity of Oxford.
Selden’s work becoming very fcarce, Bilhop Fell en¬
gaged Mr Prideaux to publilh a new edition of the in-
icriptions, which was printed at Oxford in 1676. In
1732 Mr Maittaire obliged the public with a more
comprehenfive view of the marbles than either of his
predecellbrs. Laltly, Dr Chandler publifhed a new
and improved copy of the marbles in 1763, in which
he corrected the miftakes of the former editors j and
in fome of the infcriptions, particularly that of the Pa¬
rian chronicle, fupplied the lacunce by many ingenious
conjeCtures.
The Arundelian marbles have generally been regard¬
ed as a curious monument of antiquity. They were,
however, difcovered in fome inftances to be inconfiltent
with the moft authentic hiftorical accounts; Sir Ifaac
Newton and feveral other modern philofophers paid
little or no regard to them ; and of late their abfolute
authenticity has been feverely queftioned in an exprefs
differtation upon the fubjeCt, entitled The Parian Chro¬
nicle. In this differtation much ingenuity as well as
judgment and a great extent of ancient learning are
difplayed. His doubts, the author obferves, arife from
the following confiderations.
I. “ The chara&ers have no certain or unequivocal
marks of antiquity.” The n and Z, which frequently
occur in the form fuppofed to be the moft ancient (viz.
the perpendicular line of the n on the right hand only
half as long as that on the left, and the Z in the form
of a proftrate 3; ), are fo well known, that any modern
fabricator of a Greek infcription, which he intends to
impofe upon the world as a rclick of antiquity, -would
moft probably ufe them in preference to the more
common and ordinary forms. But the letters in the
Parian chronicle have no appearance of antiquity ex¬
cept this very equivocal one. They do not in the leaft
referable the Sigean, the Nemean, or the Delian in¬
fcriptions, which are fuppofed to be of a more ancient
date. They differ in many refpeCts from the letters
on the Marmor Sandvicenfe, which, according to the
learned editor of that infcription, was engraved in the
year before Chrift 374. They bear no fort of refem-
blance to the characters on the Farnefian pillars, to
thofe of the Alexandrian manufcript, or others of a
later date. They feem, continues our author, to re¬
ferable perhaps more than any other the letters of the
alphabet taken by Montfaucon from the Marmor Cyzi-
cenum at Venice. They are plain and fimple in their
form, and fuch as an ordinary ftonecutter of the pre-
fent age would probably make, if he were employed to
engrave a Greek infcription according to the alphabet
now in ufe. The fmall letters intermixed among the
larger have, in the opinion of our author, an air of af-
feClation and artifice, rather than genuine antiquity 5
and he is perfuaded, that the antiquity of an infcrip¬
tion can never be proved by the mere form of the let¬
ters, becaufe the molt ancient characters may be as
eafily counterfeited as thofe which compofe our prefent
alphabets.
That the learned reader may form a competent idea
of the characters in the Parian chronicle, the author
has compared them with thofe of other infcriptions, and
given what is ufually termed a facJimile.
In regard to feveral archaifms, as they are called, in
this chronicle, and which our author fpecifies, he con¬
tends, that no conclulion can be drawn from them in
favour of its antiquity. What reafon could there be,
he afks, for introducing thefe into the Parian chronL
cle ? We do not ufually find them in Greek writers of
the fame age, or even in thofe of the moft early date.
The reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, with the 21ft year
of which the date of the chronicle coincides, was not
an age of rude antiquity with refpeft to the Greek
language ; being only 130 years after the time of Xe¬
nophon and Plato, when the Greek was fpoken and
written in its utmoft purity and elegance : and we can
fcarcely fuppofe, that even a ftonecutter, in that re¬
fined age, would have been permitted to difgrace a fu-
perb and learned monument with fuch barbarifms as
occur in the chronicle. The archaifms, however, he
remarks, are not uniformly obferved in this infcription.
He adduces fix inftances of deviation ; and adds, he is
almoft tempted to fufpeft, that
and other pretended archaifms, are owing to a mere af¬
fectation of antiquity, or to a corrupted dialed and
pronunciation in later ages. Thofe archaifms, our au¬
thor acknowledges, appear on other marbles: but he
thinks, that, for that very reafon, they would naturally
be adopted by the fabricator of a fuppofititious infcrip-
tion ; and the authenticity of thofe infcriptions in
which they appear muft be eftablifhed before they can
be urged in oppofition to the prefent argument.
II. “ It is not probable that the chronicle was en¬
graved for private ufeP—Our author thinks it an im-
poftible fuppofition that fuch an expenfive and cumber-
fome work could have been executed by a private ci¬
tizen, either for his own amufemeilt, or for the bene¬
fit of his fellowT citizens. In the firft place, a long in¬
fcription could not be engraved in marble without fuch
an expence as few learned Greeks were able to afford.
4 U 2 Or,
A R U
Aranrie-
iian.
Or, if its autlaor, by an uncommon felicity, was able
to ere& liich a literary monument, the fcheme would
have been ufelefs and imprudent j as all the contents of
the infcription might have been publillied more com-
modioufly and dfedually by the common mode of
writing in ufe at that time.
A variety of arguments is adduced, illuftrating the
luperiority oi a manufcript to fuch an infcription as
the chronicle, in a number of refpe£ls 5 and enforcing
the improbability of its having ever been executed, ei¬
ther for public or private ufe. Much evidence from
ancient hiltory is hkewife produced in fupport of the
affertion, that the common mode of writing, in the
reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, was not on itones. It
is not, however, neceflary to prove, by the teftimony
of ancient authors, that books were written on parch¬
ment, or paper made of the Egyptian papyrus, or any
fuch materials, before the date of the Parian chronicle.
This is fufficiently evinced by the very exiftence of the
writings of Moles, David, Solomon, and the Jewilh
prophets; the works of Homer, Hefiod, Anacreon,
Pindar, TEfchylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Herodotus,
Hippocrates, Ariftophanes, Thucydides, Xenophon,
Plato, Demofthenes, Ariftotle, &c.: And it is Hill more
inconteftably proved by the libraries which were col-
ledted in preceding ages, or about that time j fuch as
thofe of Polycrates in Samos, Pififtratus and Euclides
at Athens, Nicocrates in Cyprus, Euripides the poet,
Ariftotle the philofopher, Clearchus at Heraclea Pon-
tica, and the moft extenlive and magnificent library of
Ptolemy Philadelphus in Egypt, founded in or before
the year 284, which in his time is faid to have contain¬
ed 100,000 volumes, and to have been enlarged by his
fucceffors to the amount of almoil 600,000. Not long
afterwards a library was founded at Pergamus by Atta¬
ins and Eumenes, which, according to Plutarch, con¬
tained 200,000. Thefe are clear and decifive proofs that
the common mode of writing in the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphus was not on Hones.
III. “ The chronicle does not appear to have been
engraved by public authority.''''
1. The fir It argument in fupport of this opinion is,
that infcriptions of that kind uiually being with a
particular form-, as, H BOYAH KAI O AHMOS, ‘ The
fenate and the people or thus, EAOHEN THI BOYAHI
KAI TQI AHMftI, ‘ It pleafed the fenate and the
people, &c.’ But the Parian chronicle begins in the
manner of a private man, fpeaking of his own perfor¬
mance in the firft perfon Angular. This argument,
our author remarks, cannot be much affefted by ob-
ferving, that the beginning of the infcription is obli¬
terated \ for it is neceflarily implied by the words now
remaining.
2. The fa£Is and dates, which are mentioned in this
chronicle, do not appear to have been extra&ed from
any public records, or calculated to anfwer the purpofe
of authentic documents j as many eminent princes and
magiftrates are palled over without notice $ in feveral
inftances, the tranfaftions of wdiole centuries are omit¬
ted ; and the fa61s, chiefly fpecified, are not matters of
general or national importance.
3. The Parian infcription is fuch a one as we can
hardly fuppofe the magiftrates or the people of Paros
would have ordered to be engraved. Stately fepulchres,
pillars, triumphal arches, and the like, wrere ere&ed to
[ 708 ]
A R U
perpetuate the glory of eminent men. The remem- Arande-
brance of events in which nations were interefted, the i‘un-
fucceffion of princes, &c, were preferved in the fame * v
manner. Leagues, decrees, and laws, were likewife
engraved on marble or brafs, and fixed to a pillar, the
walls of a temple, or other public buildings ; becaufe
fuch infcriptions were deligned for the infpe£tion of the
people, as they effentially concerned their conduct,
their property, their liberty, or their lives. But, our
author alks, lor whom could the chronicle of Paros be
intended ? It contains no encomiums of any of the
patriots, the heroes, or the demigods of the country,
no decrees of the magiftrates, no public records, no
laws of ftate. On the contrary, it is a work of mere
fpeculation and learning, in which the inhabitants of
that ifiand, efpecially the common people, had not the
leaft intereft or concern.
Thefe words at the beginning, to?
would naturally lead us to fuppofe, that the infcription
related to Paros. And, if fo, it would have been na¬
tural for the author to have mentioned fome of the
moft important occurrences in the hiftory of that ifiand.
But, fays this acute and learned critic, what fcheme
does our chronologer purfue on this occafion ? Does
he record the events and revolutions of his own coun¬
try ? Does he mention any of the battles, fieges,
and treaties of the Parians ? any of their public inrtitu-
tions ? any of their poets, patriots, or warriors ? Does
he mention Archilochus, who was honoured by his
countrymen, and diftinguiftied as a poet in a general
aflembly of the Greeks ? Not a fyllable on any of
thefe fubjedls ! On the contrary, he rambles from place
to place, and records the tranfaftions of Athens, Co¬
rinth, Macedon, Lydia, Crete, Cyprus, Sicily, Perfi^
and other foreign countries with which Paros had no
conneifion.
In this view the infcription feems to have been as
impertinent in the ifland of Paros, as a marble monu¬
ment would be in this country, recording the antiqui¬
ties of France or Spain \ or one in Jamaica recording
the revolutions of England. But upon fuppofition that
the infcription is a forgery, it is eafy to account for this
extraordinary circumftance. A few chronological oc¬
currences in the ancient hiftory of Paros would not have
been fo interefting to the generality of readers, or fo
valuable in the eftimation of every lover of antiquities,
or, in fliort, fo profitable to the compiler, as a general
fyftem of Grecian chronology.
VI. “ The Greek and Roman writers, for a long
time after the date of this work, complain that they
had no chronological account of the affairs of ancient
Greece.” This pofition is confirmed by the teftimony
of Julius Africanus, Juftin Martyr, Plutarch, Jofephus,
Varro, Diodorus Siculus, and others; and the following
feries of interrogatories is fubjoined : “ Thucydides,
I know, lived 140 years before the chronicle is faid ta
have been written ; but if Thucydides, as well as other
writers, complained that there was nothing but uncer¬
tainty in the earlier period of Grecian hiftory, from
whence can we fuppofe the author of this infcription
colle6led fuch a clear, determinate, and comprehenfive
fyftem of chronology ? If he had any fources of infor¬
mation, which were unknown to fucceeding writers,
how happens it, that they ftiould all of them overlook
this moft confiderable, moft exaft, moft creditable au¬
thor ?
A R U [ 709 ] A R U
Arande- thor ? "Why did they omit this ancient account of their
lian early ages ? Why did they not copy his molt memo-
1 table epochas ? Why did they not produce his autho¬
rity r1 or at lead, why did they not mention his opi¬
nion ? Surely nothing, to all appearance, could be more
elaborate, more important, or of higher authority, than
a chronological table, which was thought worthy of
being engraved on marble.
V. “ The chronicle is not once mentioned by any
writer of antiquity. This indeed appears a ftrong
argument againft its authenticity. Apollodorus, an
Athenian, the difciple of Atiftarchus the grammarian,
and Panaetius the philofopher, wrote a genealogical
and hiftorical work on the early ages of Greece j but,
though compofed 120 years after the date of the Pa¬
rian chronicle, it does not contain the fmalleft traces
of a fyltematical chronology. It is remarkable too
that the chronicle of Apollodorus is quoted by Diodo¬
rus Siculus, Strabo, Plutarch, A. Gellius, Lucian,
and many other writers of antiquity ; while the Parian
chronicle, which comprehends a more extenfive period,
is entirely unnoticed. It contains, however, fuch won¬
derful difcoveries in ancient hiftory, that if it had ex-
iiled 264 years before the Chriftian era, it mull have
excited a general attention, and been referred to as an
authority by writers of fucceeding times. But we do
not find, in any author of antiquity, either poet or hi-
ilorian, geographer or chronologer, mythologift or ■
fcholiaft, the moll dillant allufion to the Parian chro¬
nicle j though it was fuch a common practice among
the ancients to mention the works of their predeceiTors,
that in many books we find references and allufions to
three, four, five, fix, or feven hundred different au¬
thors of every denomination.
VI. “ Some of the fa£ls mentioned in the chronicle
feem to have been taken from writers of a later date.”
Our inquirer collates feveral paffages in the Parian
chronicle with parallel paffages in Greek authors, to
evince that there is, in the former, an appearance of
imitation, or a ftronger refemblance than fuch as may
be fuppofed to arife from accident •, that there are
likewife fome improbabilities attending the account of
Deucalion, as related in the Parian chronicle ; and that
the names of fix, and, if the lacunce are properly fup-
plied, the names of 12 cities appear to have been en¬
graved on the marble, exaftly as we find them in iE-
lian’s Various Hiftory. But there is not, our author
obferves, any imaginable reafon for this particular ar¬
rangement. It does not correfpond with the time of
their foundation, with their fituation in Ionia, with
their relative importance, or with the order in which
they are placed by other eminent hiftorians. The argu¬
ment by which our author endeavours to prove that the
Parian chronicle has, in this inftance, copied Asian’s
Various Hiftory, feems decifive of the fadl. Pie ob¬
ferves, that fix names may be tranfpofed 720 different
ways; and that 12 names admit of 479,001,600 dif¬
ferent tranfpofitions. Suppofing then, that there is no
particular reafon for one arrangement rather than ano¬
ther, it will follow, that the chance of two authors,
placing them in the fame order, is, in the former cafe,
as 1 to 720 ; and in the latter as r to 479,001,600.
It is therefore, fays he, utterly improbable, that thefe
names ftiould have been placed in this order on the
marble, if the author of the infcription had not tran- Amnde-
fcribed them from the hiftorian.” . ^an'
It may indeed be urged, with regard to this fimi-
larity of arrangement in the Parian chronicle and
Atlian’s Various Hiftory, that the inference might be
the very inverfe of that which is fpecified by our au¬
thor. But that ASlian Ihould have feen the Parian
chronicle, without once mentioning it; or that he
fhould have exactly copied a lift of towns, arrranged
neither according to chronological or topographical
order ; is indeed a fuppofition equally improbable with
the other.
VII. “ Parachronifms appear in fome of the epochas,
which we can fcarcely fuppofe a Greek chronologer in
the 129th Olympiad would be liable to commit.” Af¬
ter fpecifying thefe, our inquirer alks, Would a writer
of reputation and learning, in one of the moft poliftied
and enlightened eras of ancient Greece, commit fuch
miftakes in oppofition to the pofitive atteftations of
the moft accurate hiftorians, in events of public no¬
toriety ? Would a private citizen, or a magiftrate of
Paros, order a crude and inaccurate feries of epochas
to be engraved, at a great expence, and tranfmitted
to pofterity on a marble monument ? It is hardly pro¬
bable.
VIII. “The hiftory of the difcovery of the Parian
chronicle is obfcure and unfatisfadlory.” Our author
obferves, that it is attended with fome fufpicious cir-
cumftances, and without any of thofe clear and une¬
quivocal evidences -which always difcriminate truth
from falfehood. There are no data in the infcription
by which to difcover the place where the marble was
eredled. The place likewife where it was found is
not afcertained ; though the generality of writers who
have had occafion to mention it have fuppofed that it
was found in the ifland of Paros. If it was eredled at
Smyrna, as fome imagine, our author alks for what
purpofe does the writer mention Aftyanax the archon
of Paros, and not one circumftanee relative to Smyrna ?
If, adds he, it was eredled at Paros, tvhy does he not
mention more archons of that city than one ? Or how
lhall we account for his profound filence with refpecft:
to all the events and revolutions which mull have hap¬
pened in that iftand, and have been infinitely more in-
tereftrng to the natives than the tranfaftions of any
foreign country ?
The train of circumftances by which the Parian
chronicle came into the poffeffion of Mr Petty, whom
Lord Arundel had fent into the eaft for the purpofe
of coliefling antiquities, as well as the fubfequent con-
dufl of Peirefc its former owner, affords our author a
ftrong prefumption, that “the infcription was aflually
fabricated, with the view of obtaining for it a high
price, upon the pretence that it was a relick of great
antiquity. It is certain, that there is fomething my-
fterious in the condufl of the firll oftenfible proprietors.
Thefe marbles had been totally unknown, or unnoticed,
for almoft 1900 years, and at laft they are dug out of
the ground—nobody can tell us when or where !”
IX. “ The literary world has been frequently im-
pofed upon by fpurious books and infcriptions, and
therefore we fhould be extremely cautious with regard
to what we receive under the venerable name of anti¬
quity.” This propofition is illuftrated by a great va¬
riety,
\
i
*
A R U [ 7
^iian0* r^e,:^ examP^es> anc^ very properly expofes the for-
geries which have difgraced the republic of letters in
Arufini. different ages : and although one of the more recent
y——' ones cited, namely Offian’s poems, be a point very far
indeed from being eftablilhed, yet that deceptions of
this kind have been pradifed is an unqueftionable fa<5f.
In endeavouring, towards the end of his differtation,
to inveftigate the time of the fuppofed forgery, he ob-
ferves, that the 16th century, and the prior part of
the 17th, produced a multitude of grammarians, critics,
and commentators, deeply verfed in Grecian literature,
and amply qualified for the compilation of fuch a chro¬
nological fyftem as that of the Arundelian marbles.
Above all, the fcience of chronology was particularly
ftudied and inveftigated about that time : “ Nunc fer-
vet chronologia,” fays Scaliger in the year 1605,
“ omnes hoc ferrum excalfaciunt.” Cafaubon treats
thofe perfons with contempt who were unacquainted
with the improvements which had been made in that
department of learning after the revival of letters. In¬
numerable fyftems of chrmrology had been publifhed
before the year 1625 : from which it was eafy to ex-
traft a feries of memorable events, and give the com¬
pilation a Grecian drefs. “ The avidity,” fays our
author, “with which all relicks of antiquity were then
colledled, and the high price at which they wTere pur-
chafed, were fufficient inducements to any one, whofe
avarice or whofe neceffity was ftronger than his inte¬
grity, to engrave his labours on marble, and tranfmit
them to Smyrna, as a commodious emporium for fuch
rarities.”
The precife period of the fabrication, however, muff
Till be reckoned apocryphal and uncertain. The fum
of fifty guineas, which Peirefc gave to the fuppofed
fabricator, was inadequate to fuch a laborious and ex-
penfive work. Upon the whole, perhaps, it would be
too haffy to pronounce decifively that this famous
chronicle, fo long refpe&ed, is an impofition upon
the public. It may, however, be fafely affirmed, that
the fufpicions againft it are extremely Trong, and the
objections already cited of a nature very difficult to be
removed. No attempts have yet been made with this
viewr: But under fome future article, as Chronology
Ma rules, or Parian Chronicle, we may poffibly have
an opportunity of refuming the fubjeft with addition¬
al information.
ARUNDO, the Reed. See Botany Index.
ARUSINI cam pi (erroneoufly written Taura/ini
by Cluverius), plains in Lucania, famous for the laT
battle fought between the Romans and Pyrrhus. That
prince being at Tarentum, and hearing that the twro
new confuls Curius Dentatus and Cornelius Lentulus
had divided their forces, the one including Lucania
and the other Samniumj he likewife divided a chofen
detachment of his army into two bodies, marching
with his Epirots againT Dentatus, in hopes of furprif-
ing him in his camp near Beneventum. But the con-
ful having notice of his approach, marched out of
his intrenchments with a ftrong detachment of legion¬
aries to meet him, repulfed his vanguard, put many
of the Epirots to the fword, and took fome of their
elephants. Curius, encouraged by this fuccefs, march¬
ed into the Arufian fields, and drew up his army in a
plain, which was wide enough for his troops, but too
narrow for the Epirot phalanx to a£t with its full ef-
o ] A r x
feCl. But the king’s eagernefs to try his {Length and Anifpke*
{kill wdth fo renowned a commander, ftimulated him II
to engage at that great difad vantage. Upon the firit Arx-
fignal the aClion began } and one of the king’s wings v '
giving way, victory feemed to incline to the Romans.
But that wing where the king fought in perfon repulf¬
ed the enemy and drove them to their intrenchments.
1 his advantage wras in great part owing to the ele¬
phants; a circumftance which Curius perceiving, com¬
manded a body of referve, which he had poTed near
the camp, to advance and attack thofe animals with
burning torches ; which frightened and annoyed them
to fuch a degree, that they wheeled about, broke into
the phalanx, and put that body into the utmoT difor-
der. The Romans taking advantage of this confufion,
charged wnth fuch fury that the enemy were entirely
broken and defeated. Pyrrhus retired to Tarentum,
attended only by a fmall body of horfe, leaving the
Romans in full poffeffion of his camp ; which they fo
much admired, that they made it a model which they
followed ever after.
ARUSPICES, or haruspices, in Rot?ian Anti¬
quity, an order of prieffs who pretended to foretel fu¬
ture events by infpeCling the entrails of victims killed
in facrifice ; they were alfo confulted on occafion of
portents and prodigies. The harufpices w7ere always
chofen from the bed families ; and as their employ¬
ment w7as of the fame nature as that of the augurs,
they were as much honoured. Their college, as well
as thofe of the other religious orders, had its particu¬
lar regifters and records.
ARX, in the Ancient Military Art, a town, fort,
or caftle, for defence of a place.
The arx in ancient Rome was a diftinCt edifice from
the capitol, though fome have confounded the two.
According to Ryckius, the arx, properly fpeaking,
uTas a place on the higheff part of the Capitoline mount,
Tronger and better fortified than the reft, wdth towers
and pinnated wralls: in which was alfo the temple of
Jupiter Capitolinus.
Arx alfo denoted a confecrated place on the Pala¬
tine mount, where the augurs publicly performed
their office. Some will have the arx to have been the
augural temple ; but Varro exprefsly diilinguilhes be¬
tween the two.
Arx was particularly ufed for a public place in
Rome, fet apart for the operations of the augurs. In
which fenfe arx amounts to the fame with what is
otherwife called auguraculum and auguratorium, and
in the camp augurale. Out of this arx it was that the
fcciales, or heralds, gathered the grafs ufed in the ce¬
remony of making leagues and treaties.
Arx Britannica, a citadel of Batavia, whofe foun¬
dation is feen at low water, near the old mouth of the
middle Rhine: fome imagine it the pharos or high
tower of Caligula, as Suetonius calls it; a monument
of Caligula’s ffiam conqueft of Britain. Others, that
it was built by Drufus, with an altar afterwards by
Claudius, on his expedition into Britain. But the
ufual paffage was from Gefforiacum ; and Suetonius
exprefsly fays, Claudius paffed over thence. The an¬
cient name of this citadel, now covered by the fea,
is nowhere expreffed : Now commonly called V Hu is
Britten, or Brittenburg ; that is, Arx Britannica ; but
from what authority does not appear.
ARYTENOIDES,
ASA [7
Aryte- ARY TENOIDES, in Anatomy, the name of two
noides cartilages which, together with others, conftitute the
Afa. ^eac^ t^le larynx. It is alfo applied to fome mufcles
—of the larynx.
AR\ I HMUS, in Medicine, the want of a juft mo¬
dulation in the pulfe. It is oppofed to eurythmus, a
pulfe modulated agreeably to nature.
.ARZILLA, a very ancient maritime town of A-
frica, in the kingdom of Fez, about five leagues from
Tangiers. It is built at the mouth of a river, and in¬
habited by Moors and Jews, who carry on no trade.
It was formerly a Roman colony ; afterwards fell under
the government of the Goths 5 and was next taken by
the Mahometans. Alphonfo of Portugal, furnamed
the African, took it by affault in 1471, and brought
away the prefumptive heir of the crown. After that
prince came to the throne, he befieged it, in 1508,
with r 00,000 men j but was obliged to abandon the
undertaking. . However, at length the Portuguefe for-
fook it of their own accord. W. Long. 5. 30. N. Lat.
35- 3°-.
AS, in Antiquity, a particular weight, confifting of
I 2 ounces $ being the fame with libra, or the Roman
pound.. The word is derived from the Greek
which in the Doric dialed! is ufed for £<j, one, q. d. an
entire thing; though others will have it named as
quafi ces, becaufe made of bafs.
As was alfo the name of a Roman coin, which was
of different weights and different matter in different
ages of the commonwealth. Under Numa Pompilius,
according to Eufebius, the Roman money was either
of wood, leather, or ihells. In the time of Tullus
Hortilius, it was of brafs ; and called as, libra, libella,
or pondo, becaufe adtually weighing a pound or 12
ounces. Four hundred and twenty years after, the firft
Punic war having exhaufted the treafury, they reduced
the as to two ounces. In the fecond Punic war, Han-
nioal preffing very hard upon them, they reduced the
as to half its weight, viz. to one ounce. And, laftly,
by the Papirian law, they took away half an ounce
more, and confequently reduced the as to the diminu¬
tive weight of half an ounce : and it is generally
thought that it continued the fame during the com¬
monwealth, and even till the reign of Vefpafian. The
as therefore was of four different weights in the com¬
monwealth. Its original ftamp was that of a fheep,
ox, or fow : but from the time of the emperors, it had
on one fide a Janus with two faces, and on the reverfe
the roftrum or prow of a lhip.
As was alfo ufed to denote any integer or whole.
Whence the Engliffi word ace. Thus as fignified the
whole inheritance; whence hneres ex ajfe, the heir to
the whole eftate. ,
ASA, king of Judah, fucceeded his father Abijam.
He pulled down the altars erected to idols, reftored
the worfliip of the true God, and, with the afliffance
of Benhadad king of Syria, took feveral towns from
the king of Ifrael. He died 917 years before the Chri-
flian era, and was fucceeded by Jehofhaphat,
Asa, among Naturalijfs. The writers of the later
ages have formed this word afa from the lafar of the
ancients, and attributed it to a gum very different
from that anciently known by the name they have
thus corrupted.
I he afa of the ancients was an odoriferous and fra-
11 ] ASA
grant gum ; and the afa of the after ages had fo little Afa
title to this epithet, that they diftinguifhed it by one, II
exprefiing its being of an offenfive or ftinking fmell. A^r"a^'
The Arabian writers, according to this diftinftion, de- ■ d°n'
fcribe two kinds of afa, the one ftinking, the other aro¬
matic ; and the modern Greeks preferved the name
afa, or lafar, to the ftinking gum the Latins called by
that name, but added a diftincd . e epithet to exprefs
its fmell, and called it fcardolafarum.
Asa or Assa, in the Materia Medico, a name given
to two very different fubftances, called afa-dulcis and
afa-foetida.
Asa Dulcis is the fame with Benzoin.
AsA-Fcelida is the concrete juice of an umbelliferous
plant growing in feveral parts of Afia. See Ferula,
Botany and Materia Medica Index.
ASAPH, St, a city in Flintftiire, with a bifhop’s
fee ; on which account principally it deferves notice,
being in itfelf but a poor place. As a bifhoprick, it is
of great antiquity, and was founded about the year
560, by Kentigern, a Scotfman, bifhop of Glafgow.
Fie began the church on the banks of the river Elw'y,*
whence it is called by the Welih Land Elwy, and in
Latin Elwenfs. Kentigern returning into Scotland,
left a holy man his fucceffor, St Afaph. Who was
his fuccelior is uncertain, as there are no records that
mention it ; and it feems rather probable that the re¬
ligious fettled here had been neceftitated to remove to
fome more peaceable abode, as the country was fre¬
quently the feat of war between the Englilh and the
W ellh. This fee was formerly a very wealthy one ;
but its revenues were greatly leffened by the profufion
of Bilhop Parfew, w7ho alienated much of the lands be¬
longing to this biftioprick.
I his diocefe doth not contain any one whole county ;
but confifts of part of Denbigh, Flint (where its church
is), Montgomery, and Merioneth ftiires, and a fmall
part of Shropihire ; wherein are 121 parifties, and 131
churches and chapels, moft of which are in the imme¬
diate patronage of the bilhop. This fee hath but one
archdeaconry, viz. that of St Afaph, which is united
to the bilhoprick, for the better maintenance thereof.
This fee is valued in the king’s books at 187I. us.
6d. but computed to be worth annually 1500I. The
tenth of the clergy comes to 186I. 19s. 6jd. To this
cathedral belongs a bilhop, a dean, archdeacon, chan¬
cellor, &c.
ASAPPES, or Azapes, an order of foldiers in the
j. urkilh army, whom they always expofe to the firft
Ihock of the enemy : to the end that the enemy being
thus fatigued, and their fwords blunted, the fpahis and
janizaries may fall on and find an eafy conqueft. The
word is derived from the Turkifh fapb, which fignifies
rank, from whence they have formed afphaph, “ to
range in battle.” The afappes are laid to be held of
fo little value, that they frequently ferve as bridges for
the cavalry to pafs over in bad roads, and as fafcines
to fill up the ditches of places befieged. They travel
on foot, and have no pay but the plunder they can
get from the enemy.
ASAR-addon, or Esar-Haddon, the fon of Sen-
nachenb fucceeded his father about 712 years before
the Chriftian era, and united the kingdoms of Nine¬
veh and Babylon. He rendered himfelf mafter of Sy¬
ria ; fent a colony to Samaria; and his generals took
King
A farina
II
Afbeltos.
#
A S B [71
King MandTes, and carried him loaded with chains to
Babylon. Afar-Addon died after a reign of 12 years.
ASARINA. See Chelone.
ASAROTA, atrcccaircc, from u and c-xigu, Ifweep, a
kind of painted pavements in ufe before the invention
of mofaic work. The moft celebrated was that at Per-
gamus, painted by Sefus, and exhibiting the appearance
of crumbs, as if the fc jor had not been fwept after din¬
ner, whence, according to Pliny, the denomination.
Perrault fuppofes them to have been a black kind of
pavements of a fpongy matter.
ASARUM, asarabacca. See Botany Index.
ASBAMEA, a fountain of Cappadocia, near Ty-
ana, facred to Jupiter, and to an oath. Though this
fountain bubbled up, as in a ftate of boiling, yet its
water was cold ; and never ran over, but fell back
again : ( Philoftratus, Ammian).
ASBESTOS, a native foffil done, which may be
fplit into threads and filaments, from one inch to ten
inches in length, very fine, brittle, yet fomewhat flex¬
ible, filky, and of a grayifh colour, not unlike talc of
'Venice. It is almoft infipid to the tafte, infoluble in
water, and poffeffes the wonderful property of remain¬
ing unconfumed in the fire, which only whitens it.
The induftry of mankind has found a method of
working this mineral, and employing it in divers ma¬
nufactures, chiefly cloth and paper. The manufacture
is undoubtedly difficult enough. Pliny calls the albef-
tos inventu rarum, textu dijjicillimum. Wormius af-
fures us, that the method of making cloth of alheftos is
now entirely unknown. And indeed one would fcarce-
ly imagine the thing practicable, without the mixture
of fome other pliant matter, as wool, hemp, or flax,
along with the afbeftos, the filaments of this latter ap¬
pearing too coarfe and brittle to make any tolerable
fine work. However this be, Bapt. Porta affures us,
that in his time the fpinning of afbeftos wTas a thing
known to everybody at Venice. Sig. Caftagnatta, fuper-
intendant of fome mines in Italy, is faid to have car¬
ried the manufacture to fuch perfection, that his affief-
tos was foft and traCtable, much refembling lamb fkin
drefied white : he could thicken and thin it at pleafure,
and thus either make it into a very white Ikin or a
very white paper.
This kind of linen cloth was chiefly efteemed by the
ancients ; though then better known and more com¬
mon than among us, being held equally precious with
the richeft pearls : nor is it now of mean value, even
in the country where it is moft generally made, a Chi¬
na cover (i. e. a piece of 23 inches and three-quarters
long) being worth 80 tale, i. e. 36I. 13s. qd. Pliny
fays, he himfelf had feen napkins thereof, which, being
taken foul from the table after a feaft, were thrown
into the fire, and by that means were better fcoured
than if they had been waflied in water, &c. But its
principal ufe, according to Pliny, was for the making
of Ihrouds, for royal funerals, to wrap up the corpfe,
fo that the affies might be preferved diftinft from thofe
of the wood, &c. whereof the funeral pile wTas com-
pofed : and the princes of Tartary, according to the
accounts in the Philofophical TranfaCtions, ftill ufe it
at this day in burning their dead. Some of the an¬
cients are faid to have made themfelves clothes of it,
particularly the Brachmans among the Indians. The
wicks for their perpetual lamps, according to Dr Lif-
2 ] A S B
ter, were alfo made of it: fome to this day ufe it for Afbeibos
the wicks of fuch lamps as they would not have any ^ H ^
trouble with j becaufe the albeftos never wafting, there . 'Ll‘c nn
is no occafion for (hifting the wick. Septalla, canon
of Milan, had thread, ropes, nets, and paper, made of
the albeftos. A handkerchief or pattern of the linen
was long fince prefented to the Royal Society, a foot
long and half a foot broad. This gave two proofs of
its refilling fire; though, in both experiments, it loft
above three drachms of its weight. When taken out
red hot, it did not burn a piece of white paper on which
it was laid. Mr Villette pretends that his large burn¬
ing concave ufually vitrifies the albeftos.
The method of preparing the incombuftible paper
and cloth is thus deferibed by Ciampini : The ftone is
laid to foak in warm water} then opened and divided
by the hands, that the earthy matter may be r\ allied
out. The ablution being feveral times repeated, the
flaxlike filaments are colledled and dried \ and they
are moft conveniently fpun with an addition of flax.
Two or three filaments of the albeftos are eafily twill¬
ed along with the flaxen thread, if the operator’s fin¬
gers are kept oiled. The cloth alfo, when woven, is
bell preferved by oil from breaking or wafting. On
expofure to the fire, the flax and the oil burn out, and
the cloth remains pure and white. Probably from the
diffipation of fome extraneous matter of this kind pro¬
ceeded the diminution of weight in the handkerchief
juft recited j for pure albeftos leaves nothing. The
ftiorter filaments which feparate in walhing the ftone
may be made into paper in the common manner.
The albeftos is found in Crete and Cyprus ; in Tar¬
tary } at Namur in the Low Countries j in Thuringia
among the mines } in the old Noricum ; in Egypt}
in the mountains of Arcadia •, at Puteoli; in the iftand
of Corfica *, in the ifland of Anglefey in Wales ; in
Aberdeenftiire in Scotland ; at Montauban in France j
and in Siberra.
ASCALON, an ancient city, and one of the five
fatrapies or principalities of the Philiftines ; fituated
on the Mediterranean, 43 miles to the fouth-weft of
Jerufalem (Antonine), between Azotus to the north
and Gaza to the fouth. The birth place of Herod
the Great, thence furnamed Afcalonita (Stephanus).
Famous for its fcallions, which take name from this
town (Strabo, Pliny). Now Scalona. E. Long. 34.
30. Lat. 31. 30.
ASCAN1US, the fon of Atneas and Creufa, fuc-
ceeded his father in the kingdom of the Latins, and de¬
feated Mezentius king of the Tufcans, who had refufed
to conclude a peace with him. At length he founded
Alba Longa j and died about 1139 years before the
Chriftian era, after a reign of 38 years.
ASCARIS. See Helminthology /We*.
ASCENDANT, in AJlrology^ denotes the horo-
fcope, or the degree of the ecliptic which riles upon
the horizon at the time of the birth of any one. This
is fuppofed to have an influence on the perfon’s life
and fortune, by giving him a bent and propenfity to
one thing more than another.
In the celeftial theme, this is alfo called theyf/y?
houfe^ the angle of the Eaf or Oriental angle, and the
fgnifeator oj life. Such a planet ruled in his afeendant :
[upiter was in his afeendant, &c. Hence the word is
alfo ufed in a moral fenfe, for a certain fuperiority
which
A S C
[ 7
Afcendants which one man has over another, from fome unknown
l! , caufe.
AIfiand. ASCENDANTS, in Law, are oppofed to defcend-
t——Y——' ants in fuccelTion j i. e. when a father fucceeded his fon,
or an uncle his nephew, &c. heritage is faid to afcend,
or go to afcendants.
ASCENDING, in AJlronomy, is faid of fuch ftars
as are riling above the horizon in any parallel of the
equator.
Ascending Latitude, is the latitude of a planet when
going towards the north pole.
Ascending Node, is that point of a planet’s orbit,
wherein it palfes the ecliptic, to proceed northward.
This is otherwile called the northern node, and repre-
fented by this character Q,.
Ascending VeJJ'els, in Anatomy, thofe which carry
the blood upwards } as the aorta afcendens. See Ana¬
tomy.
ASCENSION, in AJlronomy, is either right or ob¬
lique. Right afcenlion of the lun, or a liar, is that de¬
gree of the equinotlial, counted from the beginning of
Aries, which rifes with the fun or liar in a right fphere.
Oblique afcenfion is an arch of the equator intercepted
between the firit point of Aries and that point of the
equator which rifes together wuth a liar in an oblique
Ijphere.
Ascension Day, a feftival of the Chriftian church,
held ten days before Whitfuntide, in memory of our
Saviour’s afcenlion into heaven after his refurre£tion.
Ascension Ijland, a barren illand on the coaft of
Africa, lying in W. Long. 17. 20. S. Lat 7. 5. The
following account is given of it by Mr Forlter. “ This
illand wTas firll difcovered in 1501, by Joao de Nova
Galego, a Portuguefe navigator, who named it llha de
Nojfa Senhora de Conceigao. The fame admiral on his
return to Portugal in 1502, difcovered the ifland of
St Helena, which obtained that name from the day
of the difcovery. Afcenlion wTas feen a fecond time
by Alfonfo d’Albuquerque on his voyage to India in
I5°3> and then received the name it now bears j but
was already at that time in the fame defolate condition
as at prefent. We fent feveral parties on Ihore, who
palled the night on the wTatch for turtles, which came
to lay their eggs on the fandy Ihores. The drearinefs
of this ifland furpaffed all the horrors of Eafter ifland
and Tierra del Fuego, even without the afliltance of
Inow. It was a ruinous heap of rocks, many of which,
as far as w’e could difcern from the fliip, feemed to be
totally changed by the lire of a volcano. Nearly in
the centre of the ifland riles a broad white mountain of
great height, on which w?e difcerned fome verdure by
the help of our glafles, from whence it has obtained the
name of Green Mountain.
“ We landed early in the morning among fome
rocks, the lurf being always immenfely high on the
great beach 5 which conlifts of minute Ihcll-fand, chiefly
of a lnow7y white, very deep, dry, and intolerable to
the eyes when the fun fnines. We afcended among
heaps of black cavernous ftone, wdiich perfectly re-
lembles the moll common lavas T)f Vefuvius and Ice¬
land, and of which the broken pieces looked as if they
had been accumulated by art. The lava currents cool¬
ing very fuddenly, may ealily be imagined to produce
fuch an effedt. Having afcended about 12 or 15 yards
perpendicular, we found ourfelves on a great level plain
Vox.. II. Part II.
13 1 ; A S C
of fix or eight miles in circuit; in the different corners Afcenfion
of which we obferved a large hill of an exadl conical HLeL
Ihape, and of a reddilh colour, Handing perfectly infu-
lated. Part of the plain between thefe conic hills was
covered with great numbers of fmaller hillocks, confift-
ing of the fame wild and ragged lava as that near the
fea, and ringing like glafs when tw7o pieces are knock¬
ed together. The ground between the heaps of lava
was covered with a black earth, on which we walked
very firmly; but when thefe heaps did not appear, the
whole was a red earth, which was fo loofe, and in fuch
dry minute particles, that the wind railed clouds of
dull upon it. The conic hills confifted of a very dif¬
ferent fort of lava, which was red, foft, and crumbling
into earth. One of thefe hills Hands diredtly in front
of the bay, and has a wooden crofs on its fummit, from
whence the bay is faid to take its name. Its fides are
very fleep, but a path near three quarters of a mile
long winds round it to the fummit. After examining
this remarkable country a little longer, we concluded,
with a great degree of probability on our fide, That the
plain on which we flood w'as once the crater or feat of
a volcano, by the accumulation of wdiofe cinders and
pumice Hones the conic hills had been gradually form¬
ed : that the currents of lava which we now faw divid¬
ed into many heaps, had perhaps been gradually bu¬
ried in frelh cinders and allies ; and the waters coming
down from the interior mountain in the rainy feafon
had fmoothened every thing in their way, and filled up
by degrees the cavity of the crater. The rocky black
lava w7as the refidence of numberlefs men-of-war birds
and boobies, which fat on their eggs, and fuffered uS
to come clofe to them.
“ About eight in the evening, it being then quite
dark, a fmall veffel came into the bay, and anchored
direftly within us. Captain Cook having hailed her
repeatedly, received in anfwer that flie was the Lucre-
tia, a New York Hoop, which had been at Sierra Leon,
and was now come to catch turtles, in order to fell
them at the windw'ard iflands of the Wefl Indies. A
lieutenant W'as fent on board, wdio learned from the
mailer, that he had taken our fliip to be a French In-
diaman, and w7as very defirous of trading with Englifh
India fliips, in which he was difappointed by the com¬
pany’s regulations. He dined with our officers the
next day, but on the 31H at day-break left the iflaVid.
On the 30th in the morning, we landed a fecond timej
and, croffing the plain, arrived at a prodigious lava
current, interfered by many channels from fix to eight
yards deep, which bore flrong marks of being w'orn
by vaft torrents of water, but w>ere at prefent perfectly
dry, the fun being in the northern hemifphere. In.
thefe gullies we found a fmall quantity of foil confifting
of a black volcanic earth, mixed with fome whitiffi
particles gritty to the touch. Flere w7e faw fome fmall
bunches of purflane, and a fpecies of grafs (panicum
fnnguineum) wdiich found fufficient nutriment in the
dry foih Having at lall, with great fatigue, climbed
over this extenfive and tremendous current of lava,
which was much more folid than the heaps nearer to
the fea, we came to the foot of the Green Mountain,
which even from the (hip’s place in the bay we had
plainly diflinguiffied to be of a different nature from all
the reft of the country. Thofe parts of the lava which
furrounded it w7ere covered wdth a prodigious quantity
4 ^ of
A S C [ 71
Aicenfion of purilane, and a new kind of fern, lonchites Adfcen-
Jjonis), wTliere feveral flocks of wild goats were feed-
Afcent. great mountain is divided in its extremities,
——mJ by various clefts, into feveral bodies ; but in the centre
they all run together, and form one broad mafs of
great height. The whole appears to confifl: of a grit¬
ty tophaceous lime ftone, which has never been at¬
tacked by the volcano, but probably exifted prior to
its eruption *, it fides are covered with a kind of grafs,
peculiar to the ifland, which Linnaeus has named arif-
tida Adfcenjionis. We likewife obferved feveral flocks
of goats feeding on it; but they were all exceflively
fliy, and ran with furpriflng velocity along tremendous
precipices, where it was impoffible to follow them.
ri he mafter of the New York floop acquainted us, that
there is a fpring of water on one part of this mountain,
which falls down a great precipice, and is afterwards
ablorbed in the fand. I am almoft perfuaded, that,
with a little trouble, Afcenfion might fhortly be made
fit for the refidence of men. The introduction of
furze (ulex Europceus), and of a few other plants
which thrive befi: in a parched foil, and are not likely
to be attacked by rats or goats, would foon have the
fame effeCt as at St Helena. The moiflure attracted
from the atmofphere by the high mountains in the
centre of the ifland, would then no longer be evapora¬
ted by the violent aCtion of the fun, but colleCt into
rivulets, and gradually fupply the whole ifland. A
fod of grafles would everywhere cover the furface
of the ground, and annually increafe the ftratum of
mould, till it could be planted with more ufeful vege¬
tables.
We returned gradually to Crofs Bay, in the heat
of noon, over the plain ; having a fpace of more than
five miles to traverfe, where the fun burnt and blifter-
ed our faces and necks, and heated the foil to fuch a
degree, that our feet were likewife extremely fore.
About three o’clock we arrived at the water’s fide j
and after bathing in a fmall cove among a few rocks,
we made the fignal for a boat, and were taken on
board. The next forenoon we made another fmall
excurfion, in company with Captain Cook, towards
the Green Mountain ; but we were all of us fo much
fatigued, that we could not reach it. We made no
new obfervations in the courfe of this day, the nature
of the ifland being dreary beyond defeription in its out-
fkirts.”
ASCENSIONAL difference, the difference be¬
tween the right and oblique afcenfion of the fame point
to the furface of the fphere.
ASCENT, in a general fenfe, implies the motion
of a body upwards, or the continual recefs of a body
from the earth. The Peripatetics attribute the fpou-
taneous afeent of bodies to a principle of levity inhe¬
rent in them. The moderns deny any fuch thing as
fpontaneous levity ; and fhow, that whatever afeends,
does it in virtue of feme external impulfe or extrufion.
Thus it is that fmoke and other rare bodies afeend in
the atmcfphere 5 and oil, light -woods, &c. in water j
not by any external principle of levity, but by the fu-
perior gravity or tendency downwards of the parts of
the medium wherein they are. The afeent of light bo¬
dies Jn heavy mediums is produced after the fame man¬
ner as the afeent of the lighter fcale of a balance. It
is not that fuch fcale has an internal principle whereby
4 ] a s, c
it immediately tends upwards j but it is impelled up- Afeent
wards by the preponderancy of the other fcale ; the . U
excefs of the weight of the one having the fame effect, A<cham-
by augmenting its impetus downwanfs, as fo much
real levity in the other ; by reafon the tendencies mu¬
tually oppofe each other, and that adion and readion
are always equal.
Ascent of Bodies on Inclined Planes, the reader
will find explained under Mechanics 5 Afeent of
Fluids, under Hydrostatics ; and Afeent of Vapours,
under the article Evaporation.
A SC E SIS, properly denotes exercife of the body.
It is formed from the verb eerx-uv, ufed by the an¬
cients in fpeaking of the fports and combats of the ath¬
letic.
Ascesis is alfo ufed by philofophers, to denote an
exercife conducive to virtue, or to the acquiring a
greater degree of virtue. This is particularly denomi¬
nated the philofophical afeefs, becaule pradifed chiefly
by philofophers, who make a more peculiar profeflion
of improving themfelves in virtue j on the model
whereof the ancient Chriftians introduced a religious
Afcefis.
ASCETERIUM, in Ecclefafical Writers, is fre¬
quently ufed for a monaftery, or place fet apart for
the exercife of virtue and religion. The word is
formed from afeefs “ exercifeor afeetra, “ one
who performs exercife.” Originally it fignified a place
where the athletae or gladiators performed their exer-
cifes.
ASCETIC, an ancient appellation given to fuch
peribns as, in the primitive times, devoted themfelves
more immediately to the exercifes of piety and virtue,
in a retired life ; and particularly to prayer, abfti-
nence, and mortification. The word is derived from
ctexiu, exerceo, “ I exercife.” Afterwards, when the
monks came in fafliion, this title was bellowed upon
them ; efpecially upon fuch of them as lived in foli-
tude.
Ascetic is alfo a title of feveral books of fpiritual
exercifes.—As, the Afcetics, or devout exercifes of St
Bafil, archbifliop of Caifarea in Cappadocia.
We alfo fay the afcetic life, meaning the exercife of
prayer, meditation, and mortification.
ASCHAFFENBURG, a town of Germany, feated
on the river Maine, in the circle of the Lower Rhine,
and territory of the eleflor of Mentz, who has a pa¬
lace there. It is memorable for being the place where
the king of Great Britain took up his quarters the
night before the battle of Dettingen. E. Long. 9. 3 5.
N. Lat. 90. 14.
ASCHAM, Roger, an Englifliman of confiderable
learning in the 16th century, was born at Kirby
Wilke, a village in Yorklhire, near Northallerton.
John Afcham, his father, was houfe-lleward in the fa¬
mily of Scroop, and by his wife, Margaret, was con-
nedled with feveral refpeflable families. A fhort time
before his death, Sir Anthony Winfield, having con¬
ceived a prediledlion for his third fon Roger, took him
into his family, and extended his bounty fo far as to
give him the advantage of a private education along
with his own fons. Under a domellic tutor, he made
a rapid progrefs in claflical learning, and early difeo-
vered a great partia’ity for reading. The fuperiority
of genius and docility of temper which he conllantly
difplayed,
A S C [71
Afcham. dlfplayed, induced his patron to fend him to St John’s
 v ’college, Cambridge, in the year 153°*
The revival of Grecian and Roman literature at the
period Afcham entered upon his ftudies, was peculiar¬
ly favourable to the natural bent of his inclination.
A defire of excelling uniformly influenced his conduft,
and adopting the maxim, ^in docet, difcit, he began
to teach boys the rudiments of the Greek language,
as foon as he was acquainted with the elementary parts
himfelf. His plan was approved by Pember 5 and un¬
der the dire&ion of this valuable friend, he foon be¬
came acquainted with the bell; Greek and Latin au¬
thors. But he took particular delight in reading Ci¬
cero and Caefar j and upon them he formed the ele-*
gance of his Latin llyle, which proved fo honourable
and fo advantageous in the after part of his life.
Afcham took his firft degree of bachelor of arts in
the 18th year of his life, and w7as chofen fellow of the
college about a month afterwards. The favourable
difpofition, however, which he manifefted towards the
reformed religion, was no fmall obftacle in the way of
his preferment. He wras elefted mailer of arts in the
year 1537, the 2ill of his age ; and about this period
he began to a£l in the capacity of a tutor.
His reputation for Greek learning foon brought him
many pupils j and thefe were fo well inllrufled, that
feveral of them afterwards arofe to confiderable emi¬
nence. Of thefe, William Grindall was one of the
molt diltinguilhed, who obtained the llation of mailer
of languages to the lady Elizabeth, upon the recom¬
mendation of Sir John Cheke. It appears uncertain
why Afcham himfelf was not appointed to that honour¬
able llation *, but his partiality for the univerfity, feems,
from a hint in one of his letters, to have been the
caufe. At that period there was no particular chair
appropriated to the Greek language 5 but Afcham was
appointed by the univerfity, to read leflures upon that
language in the fchools. A difpute arofe in the uni¬
verfity at that time about the pronunciation of the
Greek language, in which Afcham firlt oppofed the
method obferved by Sir John Cheke and Sir Thomas
Smith ; but upon more mature deliberation, he adopt¬
ed that method, which has ever fince been pradtifed in
the Englilh fchools. Both on account of the beauty
of his hand-writing, and the purity and elegance of
his Latin, he was employed to write the public letters
of the univerfity.
By the advice of his friend Pember, he turned his
attention to the Itudy of inftrumental mufic, and there¬
by enlivened his leifure hours, and prepared his mind
lor renewed exertion. In his Itudy he alfo amufed
himfelf writh embellilhing the pages of his manufcripts
with beautiful draughts j and in the field, he joined in
the diverfion of the bow and arrow. The learned Af¬
cham did not deem his labour improperly bellowed
in writing a book entitled Toxophilus, in that age
when the practice of fire-arms was in its infancy, and
the proper ufe of the bow was of more importance than
for mere amufement. This work was ufeful at that
time for introducing into the Englilh language, a
more natural, eafy, and truly Englilh didlion, than
was formerly in ufe ; and it alfo abounds with many
beautiful allufions and curious fragments of Englilh
hillory. Afcham candidly acknowledges, that being
anxious to make the tour of Italy, which was then the
j 1 A S C
great republic of letters, and particularly of Grecian Afcham.
literature, he wilhed, by dedicating his book to the
king, to obtain a peniion, to enable him to make that
tour. It refledls fome lultre on the benevolence oi
Henry VIIL that in the year 1544, he fettled upon
him an annual penfion of 10I. which Dr Johnfon, confi-
dering the circumltance of the times, eltimates at the
value of tool. Upon the death of Henry, this pen¬
fion was for fome time difcontinued, but was again re¬
newed by Edward VI. and doubled by Queen Mary.
In the fame year alfo, Afcham obtained the appoint¬
ment of orator to the univerfity, an office which he
retained with great reputation, during the period he
was connected with the univerfity.
For fome years he received an annual gratuity from
Lee, archbiffiop of York, but to what amount is not
recorded \ and, in 1548, upon the death of his* pupil
Grindall, preceptor to the lady Elizabeth, his pupils
and writings had acquired him fuch celebrity, that he
was appointed to dire£t the Itudies of that princefs. He
fuccefsfully acquitted himfelf in that honourable charge;
but two years after, from fome unknown caufe of dif-
fatisfaclion, he returned to the univerfity, having ta¬
ken an abrupt leave of the princefs. This part of
his conduct did not leffen him in the efteem of Eliza¬
beth ; for in the fame year, ffie recalled him to court,
and appointed him fecretary to Sir Richard Morifine,
ambaffador to the emperor Charles V. In his way to
London, he paid a vifit to Lady Jane Gray, whom
he found in her chamber, reading Plato’s Phsedo in
Greek, “ and that,” fays he, “ with as much delight,
as fome gentlemen would read a merry tale in Boc-
cace j” while the duke and duchefs, and the reft of the
houfehold, were hunting in the park.
In the character of fecretary to Sir Richard, befides
aiding him in the management of his public affairs, he
alfo conducted his private ftudies. During the morn¬
ings of four days in the week, he read with him a por¬
tion of Herodotus or Demofthenes; and, in the even¬
ings, fome pages of Sophocles or Euripides j and, on
the other mornings, he wrote the letters of public bu-
finefs ; and, on the evenings, he either wrote his own
private letters, or continued his diary and remarks.
While Afcham was on his travels, he made a fhort ex-
curfion to,,, Italy j but was much difgufted with the
manners of that people, efpecially of the Venetians.
After his return from that tour, he favoured the world
with a curious traft, entitled “ A Report, and Dif-
courfe of the Affairs and State of Germany,” &c.
Upon the death of Edward VI. Morifine was re¬
called, and Afcham returned to the univerfity. But
through the intereft of Bifhop Gardiner, the fortune
of Afcham foon took a favourable turn, who although
he knew him to be a Proteftant, obtained him the of¬
fice of Latin fecretary to the queen, with liberty to re¬
tain his univerfity emoluments, and the additional fa-
lary of 10I. a-year. The prudence of Afcham ena¬
bled him to a6t a refpeflable part, both under the in¬
tolerant reign of Mary, and alfo in the molt perilous
fituations during the reign of Elizabeth j and the rea-
dinefs and elegance of his Latin ftyle, rendered him a
ufeful member at court. He is reported, to have
written during the courfe of three days 47 letters, to
perfons in the higheft ranks of life.
When the crown paffed to a Proteftant prince, it
4X2 made
A S C r 7i
MtSm “*de Ut.tIe ,al'fra,io!' in >l>e condition of Afcham, who
Afcites. , fetainecj his Nation. He fpent feveral hours every
 day m reading the learned languages with the queen •
and her proficiency was equal to his labours, and it
might have been expefted, that his rewards would have
been more ample than 20I. per annum, together with
tne prebend of W eftwang. Some have alleged, that the
queen kept him poor, becaufe, it is faid, he was ad¬
dicted to cock-fighting, and in other refpe&s extrava-
gant j but the defeds in his charader fhould not have
deprived him of the rewards due to aftual fervices.
. confequence of a converfation which took place
in the apartment of fecretary Cecil, upon the fubiea
m education, Sir Richard Sackville, who was prefent,
requeued him to write a book on the general fubiea
of education. This work is entitled “ The School-
matter; ’ and while it difplays the humanity of the
author, contains many excellent indruaions to the
teachers of youth. This treatife was publifned by his
widow after his death. By too clofe application in
compofmg a poem, which he intended to prefent to
the queen on the new year’s day of 1569, he was fei-
zed with an illnefs, which proved fatal, and he died
- , 7 r w xctcciAj anu iic uiea
the 53d year of his age, on the 23d of December,
150S. His death was univerfally lamented, and the
queen exprelfed her regret, by faying, that “ fhc
xvould rather have loft io,oool. than her tutor Af¬
cham.” His epiftles, which are valuable, both on
account of their ftyle and hiftorical information, were
pubhfhed after his death, and dedicated to the queen :
and his other works have fince been colkaed into one
volume by Bennet.
Roger Afcham appears to have been pofTeffed of an
amiable difpofition, kind to his friends, and grateful to
his benefaftors. Although he was firm in his adhe-
rence to his religious opinions, yet his zeal did not
carry him to excefs in oppofing thofe of other men.
liis talents both as a man and as a fcholar were very
confiderable, and he deferved more ample returns for
ms lervices than were conferred upon him by thofe
who enjoyed the benefit of his labours, in the advance¬
ment of folid learning and corre£l tafte. (Gen. Bio? 'I
1 B URGd UM, in Ancient Geography, mention¬
ed _ by lacitus, fuppofed to be one of the 50 citadels
buut on the Rhine 5 who adds, fome imagined it was
oiult by^ Ulyfles. Here was a Roman camp and a gar-
rilon. I o its fituation on the banks of the Rhine an-
Iwds a fmall hamlet, now called AJhurg, not far from
Meurs, in the duchy of Cleves.
ASCIDIA. See Hulminthology Index.
ASCII, among Geographers, an appellation given
to thofe inhabitants of the earth who, at certain fea-
ions oi the year have no ftiadow ; fuch are all the in¬
habitants of the torrid zone, when the fun is vertical
to them.
ASCI FiE, (from *c-*9S, a bag or bottle), in Anti-
3 ie<^ °r ^ranc^ Montanifts, who appeared in
the fecond century. They were fo called, becaufe
they introduced a kind of Bacchanals into their aflem-
bhes, who danced round a bag or Ikin blowed up •
faying, they were thofe new bottles filled with new
wine whereof our Saviour makes mention, Matth. ix.
I7‘ -They are fometimes alfo called Afcodrogitce.
ASCITES, in Medicine, the dropfy of the abdo¬
men, See Medicine Index.
6 J A s c
ASCLEPIA, a feftival of iEfculapius the god of
phyfic, obierved particularly at Epidaurus, where it
was attended with a conteft between the poets and
muficians, whence it was likewife called
toe facred contention. * ’
ASCLEPIAD, in Ancient Poetry, a verfecompof-
ed ot tour feet, the firft of which is a fpondee, the fe¬
cond a choriambus, and the two laft daftyls ; or of
lour feet and a caefura, the firft a fpondee, the fecond
a dactyl, after which comes the caefura, then the two
dactyls ; as, Maecenas atavis edite regibus.
ASCLEPIADES, one of the molt celebrated phy-
iicnans among the ancients, was a native of Prufa, in
Bithynia j and practifed phyfic at Rome, under Pom-
pey 96 years before the Chriftian era. He was the
head of a new feft 5 and, by making ufe of wine and
cold water in the cure of the Pick, acquired a very
great reputation. He wrote feveral books, which are
frequently mentioned by Galen, Celfus, and Pliny;
but they are now loft.
Asclepiades, a famous phyfician under Hadrian,
of the lame city with the former. He wrote feveral
books concerning the compofition of medicines : both
internal and external.
ASCLEPIASj swallow-wort. See Botany
Index.
ASCODUTAi, in Antiquity, a fe£t of heretics, in
the fecond century, who rejeded all ufe of fymbols and
acraments, on this principle, That incorporeal things
cannot be communicated by things corporeal, nor di¬
vine myfteries by any thing vifible.
ASCOLI, formerly Afculum Apulum, a pretty large
and populous town ot Italy, in the marquifate of An¬
cona and territory of the church. It is a bilhop’s fee,
and Rated on a mountain, at the bottom of which runs
the river Pronto. E. Long. 15. 20. N. Lat. 42.47.
Ascoli de Satriano, formerly Afculum Picenum, an
epilcopal city of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples :
leated on a mountain. E. Long. 15. 5. N. Lat. 42. 8.
ASCOLI A, in Grecian Antiquity, a feftival cele-
brated by the Athenian hufbandmen in honour of Bao
chus, to whom they facrifice a he-goat, becaufe it de-
ftroys the vines (Ovid. Fajl. i. 357) ; and, to Ihow the
greater indignity to an animal hated by Bacchus, the
peafants, after having killed him, made a foot-ball of
his flem. Virgil has beautifully deferibed the occafion
of the facrifice and manner of celebrating, the feftival
Georg, ii. 380. ’ ’
ASCRIPTITII, or Adscriptitii, were a kind of
villains, who, coming from abroad, fettle in the lands
of fome new lord, whofe fubjeds or fervants they com¬
mence ; being fo annexed to the lands, that they may
be transferred and fold writh the fame. Alcriptitii is
lometimes alfo ufed in fpeaking of aliens or foreigners
newly admitted to the freedom of a city or country.
Ascrip riTii was alfo ufed in the military laws for
the recruits appointed to fupply the lofiTes of the le¬
gions, called alfo Accenfi.
/iSCRI V 1LIVI, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Dalmatia, on the Sinus Rhizicus (Pliny, Ptolemy).-'
Now CattarO' (Harduin) ; the capital of the territory
of Cattaro, in Venetian Dalmatia. E. Long. ig. 20*
Lat. 45. 25.
ASCULUM apulum, in Ancient Geography, a
toun of Apulia, much mentioned in the rvar with
Pyrrhus
Afclepfa
tl
Afculum
Apulum.
ASH [ 7
Avcu’um Pyrrhus (Florus, Plutarch) : Now called Afcoli; a
icen im 0£ Capitanata, in the kingdom of Naples.
AnibydelaE- ^ong. x6. 30. Lat. 41. 15.
Zouch. Asculum Picenum, in Ancient Geography, a town
*" of the Piceni (Cajfar) j and the capital (Florus):
Now Afcoh, in the marquifate of Ancona, on the ri¬
ver Fronto. E. Long. 15. 5. Lat. 42. 50.
ASCYRUM, peter’s-wort. See Botany In¬
dex.
ASDRUBAL, the name of feveral Carthaginian
generals. See Carthage.
_ ASEKI, or Asekai, the name which the Turks
give to the favourite fultanas who have brought forth
fons. T. nefe are greatly diftinguilhed above others in
their apartments, attendants, penlions, and honours.
They have fometimes fhared the government. The
fultana w7ho firft prefents the emperor with a male child,
is reckoned the chief favourite, is called bayuk afeki,
and ranks as a legitimate wife : though, from the time
of Bajazet I. the fultans are forbid to marry by a pu¬
blic law, which Solyman II. violated in favour of Rox-
alana.
ASELLUS, in Zoology, the trivial name of a fpe-
cies of onifcus. See Oniscus, Entomology Index.
ASGILL, John, a late humorous writer, was bred
to the law, and pradtifed in Ireland wdth great fuc-
cefs. He was there eledfed a member of the houfe of
commons, but was expelled for waiting a treatife on
the poffibility of avoiding death ; and being afterwards
chofen a member for the .borough of Bromber in Suf-
fex, he was alfo on the fame account expelled the par¬
liament of England. After this, he continued 30
years a prifoner in the Mint, Fleet, and King’s-bench ;
during which time he publifhed a multitude of fmall
political pamphlets, feveral of wdiich were in defence
of the fucceffion of the houfe of Hanover, and againft
the pretender. He died in the rules of the King’s-
bench, in the year 1738, when he was upwards"5of
iourfcore.
ASH, in Botany. SccFraxinus, Botany Index.
Ash-HoIc, among Chemijls, is the lowed part of a
furnace ; and is intended to receive the allies falling
from the fire, and to give a paflage to the air which is
to be introduced into the furnace, to keep up the com-
buflion.
Ash-Wednefday, the firft day of Lent 5 fuppofed to
have been fo called from a cuftom in the church, of
fprinkling alhes that day on the heads of penitents then
admitted to penance. See Lent.
ASHBORN, a town in Derbylhire, feated between
the rivers Dove and Compton, over which there is a
ftone bridge, in a rich foil. It is a pretty large town,
though not fo flourilhing as formerly. W. Lone. 1 2C
N. Lat. 53. o. & .
ASHBURTON, a town in Devonlhire. It fends
two members to parliament, and is one of the four ftan-
. nery towns- It is feated among'the hills, which are
remarkable for tin and copper 5 and has a very hand-
fome church ; as alfo a chapel, which is turned into a
fchool. It gives title of Baron to the family of Dun¬
ning. W. Long. 3. 10. N. Lat. 50. 30.
ASHBY DE LA ZOUCH, a market-town in Leicefter-
ihire, fituated in W. Long. 1. 20. N. Lat. 52.40. It
had a caftle which was long in the poffeftion of the fa¬
mily of de la Zouch. It afterwards fell into the hands
17 1 as H
of Edward IV. who granted it to Sir Edward Haftings, Aflulod
created Baron Haftings, with licenfe to make a caftle 11
of the manor-houfe, to which he adjoined a very high
tower. It w7as demolilhed in 1648 ; but a great part ' w""
of the towrer is Hill Handing. It now belongs to the
earl of Huntingdon.
ASHDOD, or Azotus. See Azotus.
ASHES, the earthy particles of combuftible fub-
ftances alter they have been burnt.
If the alhes are produced from vegetable bodies,
they contain a confiderable quantity of fixed fait,
blended with earthy particles: and from thefe allies
the fixed alkaline falts called pot-ajh, pearl-ajh, &c.
are extradled. See Chemistry Index.
The allies of all vegetables are vitrifiable, and found
to contain iron.—They are alfo an excellent manure
for cold and wret grounds.
Several religious ceremonies depend upon the ufe of
allies. St Jerome relates, that the Jews in his time
rolled themfelves in alhes, as a fign of mourning. To
repent in fackcloth and allies, is a frequent expreflion
in Scripture for mourning and being afflitted for our
fins. There was a fort of lie and luftral water made
w ith the allies of a heifer facrificed upon the great
day of expiation ; the alhes w'hereof were diftributed
to the people, and this w7ater was ufed in purifications,
as often as any touched a dead body, or was prefent at
funerals, (Numb. xix. 17.) Tamar after the injury
received from her brother Amnon, covered her head
with alhes, (2 Sam. xiii. 19.) The Pfalmift in great
forrow fays, that he had eaten allies as if it were bread,
(Pf. cii. 9.) ; which, however, is to be confidered as
an hyperbole. Fie fat on alhes, he threw allies on his
head ; his food, his bread, w7as fpoiled with the alhes
wherewith he wus covered.
The ancient Perfians had a fort of punilhment for
fome great criminals, w7hich confifted in executing them
in allies. The criminal wTas thrown headlong from a
tower 50 cubits high, w’hich was filled wuth allies to a
particular height, (2 Mac. xiii. 5, 6.) The motion
W'hich the criminal ufed to difengage himfelf from this
place, plunged him Hill deeper into it, and this agi¬
tation was further increafed by a wheel which ftirred
the alhes continually about him till at laft he was
Hilled.
ASHFORD, a market town of Kent, fituated about
12 miles fouth-weft of Canterbury, in E. Long-, ac
and N. Lat. 51. 15. S *
ASHL AR, a term ufed among builders j by W'hich
they mean common or free Hones, as they come out of
the quarry,^ of different lengths and thickneffes.
ASHLLRING, among Builders, fignifies quarter¬
ing, to lath to, in garrets, about two and a half or
three feet high, perpendicular to the floor, up to the
under fide of the rafters.
ASHMOLE, Elias, an induftrious Englilh anti¬
quarian, and an eminent philofopher of the 17th cen¬
tury, was bom at Litchfield in 1617. Having enjoyed
the advantages of a country education, he w7ent to
London at the age of 16, and refided in the family of
James Paget, Efq. one of the barons of the exchequer,
and then turned his attention to the law and other
branches of literature. In the year 1638, he married,
and commenced the bufinefs of attorney in London!
V hen the civil war began, he them being a widorver,
entered
ASH [7
Aflimole. entered into the king’s fervice in the ordnance de-
^ '' ^ partment. When refiding in the city of Oxford in
that capacity, he entered Brazen Note college, and
began the ftudy of natural philofophy, mathematics,
and aftronomy. Naturally inclined to grave and feien-
tific trifles, he wandered too far into the wilds of aftro-
logical impofture, not a little encouraged by feveral
eminent men of that age. From the fame caufe, he
entered keenly into-the fecrets of mafonry, and made
conflderable additions to the hiftory of that fe£L
When Worcefter was furrendered to parliament in
1646, Aflimole retired to London, where he became
acquainted with the famous aftrologers, Moore, Lilly,
and Booker.
Having retired to Berkfhire in the year following,
he added the knowledge of botany to his other ac¬
quirements. There he became acquainted with Lady
Mainwaring, a well-jointured widow, whom he mar¬
ried in 1649 j and although her eftate was fequeftered
on account of his loyalty, yet through the interefl: of
Lilly and others, he again recovered his property,
and afterwards fettled in London, where his houfe be¬
came the refort of all the curious literati of the place.
A tafte for chemiftry, or rather alchemy, was produ¬
ced, by his converfation with William Backhoufe j
and Aflimole, under a feigned name, publifhed a work
upon that fubjedt. The next effort of his induftry,
was a colledlion of the manuferipts of Englifti chemifts,
which he publiflied under the title of Theatrum Chy-
mieum Britannicum, in 410. This work was the effedt
of great labour and much expence •, and although it
procured him much fame among the learned, yet it
was only a colledlion of Alchemy ; and he appears to
have been ignorant of real chemical knowledge. A-
bout this period, he began to number among his ac¬
quaintances Selden, Oughtred, and Dr Wharton.
The wealth he acquired by his marriage engaged
him in feveral difputes, and the lady herfelf at laft
made an attack upon him in chancery, but he was
honourably acquitted, and the lady reftored to her
afteftionate hufband. His aftive induftry never wea¬
ried out, and he next attended to the ftudy of antiqui¬
ty and the inveftigation of records. Along with Sir
W. Dugdale, he about this period traced a Roman
road to Litchfield. Abandoning all other purfuits, he
began to make preparations for his “ Hiftory of the or¬
der of the Garter j” a produftion which procured him
lafting fame. Upon a vifit to Oxford, he gave a full de-
feription of the_coins bequeathed to that univerfity by
Laud 5 and about this time, John Tradefcant, the fa¬
mous gardener of Lambeth, prefented him with the
colleftion of curiofities, which both he and his father
had procured.
Upon the reftoration, Aflimole was greatly refpe£l-
ed by the king, who made him Windfor herald, and
employed him to give a defeription of the royal me¬
dals. The offices of commiflioner and comptroller of
excife were conferred upon him j and being called to
the bar in the Middle Temple, he was afterwards ad¬
mitted a fellow of the Royal Society. The univerfity
of Oxford conferred upon him the degree of doftor of
phyfic, and feveral other employments and emolu¬
ments were given him, until he rofe to the higheft
eminence in the literary world. About this time his
fecond wife died, and he married the daughter of his
18 j a s 1
friend Sir W. Dugdale. In May 1672, he addrefled Afia.
his great work on the order of the Garter, to the king,v——\
entitled “ The inftitution, laws, and ceremonies of
the moft noble order of the Garter 5 colledfted and di-
gefted into one body, by Elias Aihmole of the Mid¬
dle Temple, Efq. Windfor herald at arms,” folio,
London, 1672. In favour of his brother-in-law, Mr
Dugdale, he refigned his office of herald of Windfor j
and when offered the office of garter king-at-arms, he
declined it in favour of Sir W. Dugdale. About this
time a fire broke out in one of the chambers of the
temple adjacent to his, and confumed a library which ,
he had been collefting during the courfe of thirty-
three years, together with 9000 coins, and many va¬
luable antiquities j but his manuferipts and gold me¬
dals fortunately were faved. In 1683, he fent his
manuferipts and curiofities to the univerfity of Oxford,
which laid the foundation of the Mufaum Afhmolea-
num, ftill in Oxford. On the death t>f Sir W. Dug- . •
dale, he refufed a fecond time the office which he
held. At the advanced age of 76, he died, and wyas
• interred in the church of Great Lambeth. Induftry,
perfeverance, curiofity, and accuracy, appear to have
been the leading features in his character. (Gen.
Biog.)
ASIA, according to the ancients, was one of the
three great divifions of the earth, and is confidered by
the moderns as one of the four quarters of the habitable
globe. Its extent is immenfe; and its importance, both
in a hiftorical and in a philofophical point of view, is
very great. It contains every variety of foil and cli¬
mate, and is inhabited by nations wffiich poffefs un¬
doubted claims to the higheft antiquity. When Eu¬
rope was yet covered by deep forefts, thinly inhabited
by a few wdld animals, or by a barbarous race of men,
deftitute of fcience, and even of the meaneft of thofe
accommodations which the progrefs of art nowT enables
all claffes of people to enjoy, Afia abounded with
flouriffiing cities and populous nations, in wffiich com¬
merce and agriculture had reached a confiderable mea-
fure of improvement. 1
The revolutions which have occurred in different re- The conn,
gions of the great Afiatic continent, occupy a great
fpace in the general hiftory of the human race. Thefe derecj as
revolutions have pofiefled this peculiar character, that conne<£led
wffien they commenced in one quarter of Afia, we moft wfth each
frequently find that they extended themfelves, in a few0l;^er’
years, to-the remoteft regions, and even fometimes in¬
to the centre of Europe. As the human mind ufually
derives its character from the fituation in wffiich it is
placed, we fliall be enabled by attention to the foil and
climate, and geographical pofition of the principal
parts of Afia, to form fome general principles from
which to deduce the caufes that have influenced the
deftiny of the nations by which it is inhabited. With¬
out enlightened notions of general geography, hiftory
degenerates into a mere detail of romantic adventures,
and no valuable progrefs can be made in political or
in commercial fcience. We fliall here therefore give
a general defeription of this vaft continent, confider-
ing it, as far as poffible, as one great wffiole, the va¬
rious parts of which have at times pofftffed an in¬
fluence over each other-, leaving its particular diftridts
and countries, to be feparately difeuffed as they occur
in the arrangement of our wxnk, unlefs in fuch in-
IJances
Afia.
Boundaries
of Alia.
AST [ 7
fiances as may feem to claim fpecial notice from the
fingularitjA of their nature, or the recentnefs of the
period at which time they have come to the knowdedge
of the European nations.
Beginning wuth its north-weft corner adjoining to
Europe, the boundary of Afia commences at Waigats
ftraits, oppofite to the ifland of Nova Zembla, in
what is called the Northern ocean or Icy fea. From
thence the boundary extends foutlward along the U-
rahan chain of mountains, wdiich are thus accounted
half European and half Afiatic. After leaving thefe
mountains, Afia is underftood by geographers to pro¬
ceed in a fouthwvefterly direftion, through the pro¬
vinces of the Ruffian empire, till it meets the river
Don, where it approaches neareft to the Wolga. Pro¬
ceeding along the river Don, it enters into the Black
fea, which it croffes diagonally, proceeding to the fouth-
weft through the ftraits of the Bofphorus, at Conftan-
tinople, and through the Propontis and Hellefpont;
from whence turning fouth it proceeds through the Ar¬
chipelago, and the eaftern part of the Mediterranean
fea called the Levant, to the ifthmus of Suez, a narrow
neck of land of 60 miles over, which divides Afia
from Africa. The remaining part of the weftern
boundary of Afia, is formed by the Red fea or Ara¬
bian gulf, which is connefted wuth the Arabian fea,
by the ftrait of Babelmandel.
The fouthern boundary of Afia, is formed by the
great Indian ocean, under a variety of names derived
from the different parts of the Afiatic coaft, which are
walked by its wraters. Along the whole of this fouth¬
ern boundary, the ocean and the land alternately en¬
croach upon each other, thereby forming immenfe bays
and gulfs of the ocean, and peninfulated trafls of
land. Thus to the eartward of the ftraits of Babel¬
mandel, the Indian ocean advances northward under
the appellation of the Arabian fea, having the penin-
iula of Arabia on the weft, and the weftern peninfula
pf India on the eaft. Penetrating Hill farther north,
it receives the name of the gulf of Ormus, and after¬
wards of the Perfian gulf, which advances very far
in a north-wefterly direftion, having Arabia on the
fouth-weft, and Perfia on the north-eaft. The fame
Aiabian. fea in its north-eaftern extremity, making a
flighter inroad upon the land, receives the river Indus
on the eaft of Perfia, and is called the gulf of Scindi.
To the eaftward of the neareft peninfula of India, the
fame Indian ocean forms a moft extenfive gulf, called
the bay of Bengal, bounded on the eart and weft by the
two Indian peninfulas. The farther peninfula ftretches
to a great diftance fouthward under the name of Ma¬
lacca, beyond wdiich the boundaries of the continent
affume in general an eallerly diredlion, more efpecially
auer pafting the gulf of Siam, immediately beyond
Malacca and the gulf of Tonkin, on the boundaries
of China and of the farther India. The Chinefe em-
pire encroaches eaftward upon the great Pacific ocean
which is here the boundary of Afia. Its coafts are fuf-
ficiently regular. Its bays and gulfs are trifling when
compared with thofe of the Indian ocean, although to-
waids its northern extremity, the Pacific ocean, under
the name of the Yellow fea, advances into the continent
forming to the eartward the peninfula of Corea, of mo¬
derate extent. After which this eaftern ocean pafling
the tiles of Japan, at a great diftance to the north, again
19 1 A s 1
encroaches on the land, forming the fea or great bay Alia,
of Ochotfk, wdiich has the peninfula of Kamtfchatka l—v—J
on its eaftern fide, and the country of Siberia or the
mainland of Afia on the weft. Beyond Kamtfchatka
one more gulf is formed in that direction, called the
fea of Anadyr, terminating in the gulf of Notchen, to '
which fucceeds the peninfula of Tfchutfki, ftretching
to the eaftward, till it approaches the coaft of America
at the bay of St Laurence. After which turning to the
weft ward, the Afiatic continent is entirely bounded on
its northern fide by the Icy fea, forming obfcure gulfs
and promontories, of which little knowledge has yet
been obtained, and which can never be of much im¬
portance to the human race.
Tim great continent wdiofe general outline we have Extent 0f
thus llightly traced, muft neceffarily vary confider- the Afiatic
ably in breadth and length, according to the points continent,
from which an eftimate of its menfuration is formed.
Some idea, however, may be obtained of the territorv
included in it, from obferving that the continent
of Afia, from the Hellefpont at 26° of E. Long, ex¬
tends to nearly 190° E. Long, at Eaft Cape, or to the
170° of W. Long, being a line of 164° or 6500 geo¬
graphic miles, allowing 60 miles to a degree. The
extreme breadth of this continent, from the fouth cape
of Malacca, in the 20 of N. Lat. to Cape Severe Vof-
tochnoi, in 770 N. Lat. amounts to about 4509 geo¬
graphic miles. Hence the length of the continent of
Afia is not lefs than 75^3 Britifti miles, and its
breadth from fouth to north is about 5250.
That the relative fituation of the nations inhabiting Relative
this continent may be rightly underftood, it is necef- pofuion of
jary to remark that the centre of Afia confifts of an the nab°ns
immenfe and irregular plain, which is elevated to a°^Afia-
vaft height above the furrounding countries, and ex- ^
tends feme jhoufand miles in every dire&ion. This High re¬
elevated region or high level of land, ftands aloft like gion in tLe:
a table, and is fupported by a creft or front of lofty cffitre
and precipitous rocks, which overlook in every direc- ^
tion the furrounding regions. The high level or elevated
territory, which thefe rocks furround and feem to up¬
hold on all fides, conftitutes the proper country of Tar¬
tary. The climate, even in latitude 270, which elfe-
where is extremely hot, is here very cold, and the foil
is barren. In fome diredlions, to the extent of rooo
mrtes, nothing is. to be found but frightful deferts,
covered with moving fands, which at times are car¬
ried aloft, as in Arabia and Africa, by the winds.
I hey are rendered pafiable by ridges of mountains
which divide them j and the fummits of thefe moun¬
tains are covered with perpetual fnow. Even where
the foil feems more favourable, only the hardieft plants
and. trees can flourilh in this barren region, whofe in¬
habitants have in all ages remained in the paftoral
“ate, fubfiftmg by the produce of their flocks and
herds, without engaging in the labours of agriculture.
This vaft upland trad, , which is probably the high-DiftrL.
eft region of the .old hemifphere, and which forms the tion of the
iargeir. extent of continued elevated land upon the countr^es
globe, contains in general the tradl or countries of the Alia‘
Kalmucs, of the Mongols, Thibet, and Eaftern Tur-
keftan, or the original country of the Turks. From
the borders of this traeft in the centre of Afia, the
gieat. rivers ot that continent defeend towards the o-
ceati in every direction, luch as the. Oxas and cJaxartesr
A S I [ 720 ] A S I
Afia. on tlie weft, the Amur on the eaft, the Ganges and
''' ~ v ' ‘ Burrampooter on the fouth, and the Oby and Jenijea on
the north. The countries that furround this tradt are,
Geog. of therefore, juftly coniidered by Major Rennel and
Herodot. others, as a kind of inclined planes or hanging levels,
or defcents along the Ikirts of it, feeing the waters
flow fo regularly and uninterruptedly from it, as from a
common center to all the furrounding feas. On the
fouth of this elevated region, are the vaft countries of
India, defcending gradually to the great fouthern or
Indian ocean. They receive from their expofure', the
fierceft rays of a tropical fun, and are flieltered by the
rocky front of the high country behind them from
every northern blaft. On the weft of the elevated
tradl, are the countries which formed the ancient Per-
ftan empire, and which in like manner defcend gra¬
dually, though more irregularly, towards the fetting
fun, and the territory of Europe. On the eaft of the
high table, or elevated central region, is the immenfe
empire of China, defcending with its rivers towards
the great Pacific or Eaftern ocean. On the north of
the fame region is Siberia, defcending gradually to the
Icy fea. The high country to the louth intercepts
\from Siberia the heated air which might otherwife
advance towards it from a more fervid climate, while
its gradual defcent towards the north expofes it unpro-
te&ed to every blaft that may afcend from the icy re¬
gions of the pole, and thus the climate is rendered as
much too cold in proportion to its latitude, as India
is too hot. The foil, however, of Siberia, is in many
places equal in fertility to that of almoft any other
country of the globe, and it has only been prevented
from riling into importance, by the intolerable feveri-
ty of a long winter, which has always operated as a
tax upon the induftry of its inhabitants, to prevent any
great increafe of population. Its rivers are bound up
during half the year, under a covering of almoft im¬
penetrable ice ; and the ocean into which they flow,
can at no feafon be navigated with fafety, a circum-
llance which banilhes thofe refources which an extenfive
commerce might afford, to compenfate the evils of the
^ climate.
Alluvions It may here be remarked, that the rivers which de-
ofthe Afia-ffend towards the fouth, from the high centre of Afia,
tic rivers, through countries lubjefl to periodical rainy feafons,
have by their alluvions, or by carrying down immenfe
quantities of mud and earth, formed vaft fertile plains
n^ar the fea coafts, fimilar in their nature to the Delta,
or rich valley of Lower Egypt. Accordingly, in the
fouth of Afia, from Perfia to China 5 near the mouths
of the Indus, the Ganges, and other rivers, immenle
trafts of level country are found, which are periodi¬
cally overflowed, and'which, aided by the warmth of
the climate, exhibit a degree of fertility in all the
productions of the vegetable world, of which in our
temperate and colder regions we^. have little concep-
8 tion.
Boundaries The high level of which we have now fpoken, which
of the high is of fo much importance both to the geography and
level. t0 tyje hiftory Gf Afia, is bounded, as already mention¬
ed, on all fides by a creft or ridge of mountains ad¬
joining to which are leffer chains of hills, which gra¬
dually fubfide in the neighbouring low countries. The
great ridge called Imaus by the ancients, or the Indian
(daucafus, is properly the creft or front of the weftern
declivity towards Perfia. The part of this creft or Afia.
the front of the high level towards the fouth w as an-v—v—"
ciently called Emodus, and fometimes alfo Imaus, of
which it is a continuation. The modern name is Hin-
doo-Kho.—The northern, front of the high territory
which overlooks the Baikal lake, and the w hole length
of Siberia, is of immenle extent, and is ufually called
by hiftorians the Altaic ridge or chain. The appel¬
lation of the front of the fame high country towards
China is little known to European geographers, but
it forms in itfelf nothing more than a continuation of
the ridges of Imaus and Altai furrounding the high
country of Tartary. 9
This high country or elevated level, which may with Chains of
propriety be called Grand Eartary, fends forth in dif- mountains
ferent direflions various ramifications of itfelf, or chains
of mountains, to the utmoft extremities of Afia. Thus level,
it fends forth eaftward a chain of mountains to the
gulf of Corea ta the northward of Pekin. This chain
appears like a continuation of the Altaic mountains,
which may thus be confidered as proceeding from the
70° to the 140° of eaft longitude, or about JCOO mile*.
Another mountainous chain proceeds north-eaftward to
the gulf or fea of Ochotfk oppofite Kamfchatka. A
fimilar ridge called the Uralian chain, proceeds to the
north-weft, and terminating in the vicinity of Nova
Zembla, within the polar circle, has already been men¬
tioned as one of the boundaries which divide Afia from
Europe. Another chain, better known to both an¬
cient and modern writers, proceeds from Imaus, or the
front of the great high level, w^eftward under the celebra¬
ted name of Mount Taurus, and terminates in the Medi¬
terranean fea at the peninfula ot Leffer Afia. T his im¬
portant ridge has on the one fide, or to the fouth, a
great part of the ancient Perfian empire, and on the
north the great fait lake called the Cafpian fea, and al¬
fo the Black fea, w ith the high country of Georgia be¬
tween them, which anciently received the appellation
of the Grecian Caucafus.
A great trad of low^ country which lies to the eaft
and to the north of the Cafpian, and proceeds weftward
along the ihores of the Black fea, alio receives from mo-
dern geographers the appellation of Tartary, and wasvVeftem
anciently denominated Scythia. Hence what is called I artary.
Tartary muft be regarded as confifting of two very di-
ftindl trafts of country fituatedupon very different levels.
Eaftern Tartary, lying beyond the mountains of Imaus
and fouthward of the mountains of Altai, conftitutes the
high level or elevated central region of Afia ; whereas
the country called Tartary fituated upon the Cafpian and
the Black feas, now fometimes called Ri/flian. I artary,
is not only fituated upon a lowTer level, but inftead of
confifting of a horizontal plain, it lies upon a fouth
expofure, and its rivers, fuch as the Wolga and the
Don, defcend fouthward into the Calpian and the
Black feas, which are placed along the northern balls
of the ridge of mountains anciently denominated I au¬
ras. Beyond the fources of the Don and the V. olga,
however, the country begins to defcend towards the po- j
lar circle and the Icy fea, like the reft of Siberia, of
wdiich it partakes the name. _ I!f
In all ages Afia might be divided into two regions ; Alia divL
the civilized, containing men who cultivated the foil ded into el¬
and lived in cities ; and the barbarous, whofe inhabi-
tants fubfifted by hunting or by the paftoral life. 1 o
the
tusconcern
ing Afia.
A S I [ 72
Alia. the former belonged the three countries which deicend
—y — > from the elevated region of Aha on the eaft, the louth,
and the weft, forming the empires of China, of India,
and the ancient Perfian empire, extending to the Hel-
lefpont. To the barbarous or uncivilized nations have
always belonged the far more extenftve tracts of Sibe¬
ria, of High Tartary, and of Weftern or the Lower
Tartary, which lies to the north of the Cafpian lea, of
Mount Caucafus, and of the Black fea. On the fouth-
weft of Alia alfo a different race of barbarians, engaged
in a great meafure in a limilar life of pafturage, under
the denomination of jirabs, have occupied an immenfe
portion of territory £ and both of thefe claffes of bar¬
barians, the Tartars of the eaft and north, and the
Arabs of the fouth-weft, have at times afted a moft
important part in the affairs of Afia, and even of Eu¬
rope •, and by their movements have decided the def-
I2 tiny of nations.
Knowledge The knowledge of the ancients concerning Afia ap-
oi Herodo- pears to have been extremely limited. Herodotus, like
all the ancient writers, admitted the exiftence of a
northern ocean, upon the Ihores of which the Hyper¬
boreans were fuppofed to exift, a peaceful race of men,
upon whom nobody made war, and who never diftur-
bed the tranquillity of other nations. He was alfo
acquainted with the exiftence of various Scythian, or,
as we now call them, Tartar tribes, inhabiting the
country to the north of the Black fea and the Cafpian,
and upon the river Jaxartes, which he underftood to
flow into the lake Aral to the eaftward of the Cafpian.
But Herodotus did not believe in the exiftence of an
eaftern ocean, or that Afia was in that quarter bound-
> ed by the fea. He alio extended Europe indefinitely
to the eaft, including all in that divifion of the globe
that lies to the northward of Mount Caucafus and the
Cafpian fea. To the eaftward of what he called Afia,
that is the Perfian empire, he confidered India as the
laft inhabited country, afferting, that “ the Indians
are the people of Afia that are neareft the eaft and the
place of the rifing fun.” Beyond India he confeffed
that he knew nothing. “ As far as India (fays he)
Afia is well inhabited ; but from India eaftward the
wrhole country is one vaft defert, unknown and unex¬
plored.” In thefe times, therefore, it is certain that
the Greeks knew nothing of the vaft empire of China
and its dependencies, or of the peninfula beyond the
Ganges, which forms the eaftern divifion of India. In¬
deed it would appear that the elevated region of Tar¬
tary formed in thefe early times an impenetrable
barrier which divided the weftern nations of Afia
from thofe on the eaft. Neither does it appear
that Herodotus was well acquainted with the fouthern
frontiers even of Perfia and Arabia, d he whole Ara¬
bian fea, including the Arabic gulf, was called the
Erythrean or Red fea ; but he does not feem to have
known that the fea bordering upon the ancient king¬
dom of Perfia or Perfia Proper, is itfelf nothing more
than a gulf like that which divides Arabia from Egypt
and Ethiopia, to which the name of Red fea is now ex-
cluiively confined.
The Mace- It is a circumftance not a little fingular, that the
donjan ex- Qf Alexander the Great to India through Perfia did
falfifieTthe ^7 no means extend the limits which preceding geo-
geography graphers had aftigned to Afia. A correft knowledge
of Alia. of the .coaft of the conquered empire of Perfia was in-
Vo l. II. Part II.
Alla.
i ] A S I
deed acquired, but neither to the eaft nor to the noith ^
was any knowledge gained. The high ridge of Imaus,
forming the front of the elevated region of I artary, was
denominated by the geographers of Alexander tne
Indian Caucafus, probably from fome obfcure notion,
that this ridge wTas a continuance of the mountains ol
that name between the Euxine and Cafpian feas. Be¬
yond India alfo he admitted of no tra6I of land what¬
ever, thus making India the moft eaftern country of
Afia, and confequently of the whole earth,, although
Herodotus had placed a vaft defert beyond it. But it
is probable that this diminution of territory to the eaft¬
ward might be a facrifice to the vanity of Alexander,
who wiftred to imagine, and to make others believe,
that he had approached the world’s boundary. In ano¬
ther point alfo the geography of Ana was falfified by
the followers of this conqueror. Herodotus had right¬
ly defcribed the Cafpian fea as a great lake, but the
followers of Alexander imagined they had difcovered
it to be a gulf of the northern ocean. With this
ocean, therefore, they were under the neceftity of fup*
pofing it to communicate by a narrow channel} a cir¬
cumftance which led them to limit the comment to a
very trifling extenfion northward, T he knowledge
w’hich Herodotus poffeffed concerning the unconnefted
ftate of the Cafpian in refpeft of other feas being thus
loft, its geographical pofition as a lake remained .un¬
known in the times of Eratofthenes, Strabo, and Pliny.
It was, however, regained in the age of Ptolemy, who
reftored its form of a lake, but under fuch dimenfions
and proportions as demonftrate that the fmaller lake,
called Aral, which is 200 miles to the eaftw'ard, w^as
miftaken for a part of it. . 14
The moft remarkable feature in the ancient Greek Mount
and Roman defcriptions of Afia, that is, of the coun-Taurus of
try to the weftwTard of Imaus, and to the fout.h ^ecjentSi
Cafpian fea, is the high ridge of mountains, which they
in general denominated Taurus. I his ridge w as to
them as it were a line of feparation between two worlds,
the civilized and the barbarous ; or two climates, the
warm and fertile, and the cold and barren. As I aurus,
however, is at times broken into diftinft chains of
mountains which occafionally alter their general direc¬
tion, various names were afcribed to particular parts of
it, fuch as Niphates, Cafpius, Paropamifus, Caucafus,
Emodus, &c. The general chain, however, or the
Taurus of the ancient geographers, originated in the
fouth-weft extremity of what they called Afa Minor,
that is, the fmall part of Afia embraced between the
Euxine or Black fea on the north, the ftraits of the
Hellefpont, and the Dardanelles on the weft, and the
Levant, or eaftern part of the Mediterranean fea on the
fouth. The ridge of Taurus was underftood to pafs
eaftward through Leffer Afia at no great diftance from
the fliores of the Levant. From thence, in its courfe
eaflward, it feparated Armenia from Mefopotamia, the
twTo countries called Media from each other, and the
greater Media from the narrow tra£l along the fouthern
border of the Cafpian fea. Oppofite to the fouth end
of the Cafpian its inferior ridges were divided by a
vaft chafm called the Cafpian Jlraits, wTich. was with The c5af_
the ancients an important geographical, point, being pian ftrait,
fuppofed to vbe in the fame parallel with Iflus and
Rhodes. This remarkable chafm or ftrait formed the
heft road or paffage from Media, Mefopotamia, and the
4 Y w’eftern
A S 1 £ .7
Afia. weftern countries in general, to Parthia, Hyrcania,
(r-—1 Aria, and others on the eaft, becaufe by it confiderable
deferts to the fouth might be avoided. Alexander the
Great paffed through it in his way from Rages towards
Aria and Baftria. It is at prefent called the Jirait of
Khovoar, from a town or diftri£t in the neighbourhood,
and is almoft due north from Ifpahan: it is eight miles
through, and is in general not more than 40 yards in
breadth. Pliny fays that it is only wide enough for a
carriage, and modern writers have faid that where it is
narroweft and moft winding a litter can fcarcely pafs.
The mountains are very lofty on each fide. The
bottom is upon the whole flat, and at certain feafons a
confiderable ftream of fait water flows along it towards
the defert on the fouth.
After having palled the fouth-eafi; corner of the Caf-
pian, Taurus proceeding farther eaftward, was under-
ftood by the ancients, and reprefented, as feparating the
countries of Parthia, Margiana, and Baftria, on the
north, from thofe of Aria, Drangiana, and the north-
weftern provinces of India, watered by the heads of the
Indus. Here Taurus was known to meet the lofty
ridge of Imaus, which we have already mentioned as
the weftern front of the elevated region that forms the
centre of Afia. But as this general account of the
opinions of the ancients concerning the courfe of thefe
mountains can give little idea of the general level of
the countries through which they pafs, we fliall here
notice more particularly the elevation of thefe coun¬
tries, and the way in which they are divided from
each other. In doing fo we lhall chiefly follow the
authority of the learned and accurate Major Rennell;
and we prefer the ufe of ancient appellations to the
, names afligned to thefe provinces by the barbarian? who
jg now inhabit or rather wander over them.
Elevation We have faid, that from Imaus, or from the high
or level of region of central x^dia, or Great Tartary, the country
countries Jefcends gradually towards the weft, forming what was
fiomlmaus.ca^ec£ Afla by the ancients, but what was in truth lit¬
tle more than the Perfian empire. In departing from
Imaus, however, the country is very elevated, and vari¬
ous ridges occur, which gradually, after affuming a va¬
riety of forms, unite in the ridge which terminates far
to the weft at the extremities of the Lefler Afia, and
was called Mount Taurus, as already ftated. In their
progrefs the valleys or ordinary country near thefe
mountains gradually becomes lower as it proceeds to¬
wards the weft, and the mountains themfelves decline
in height. Even in the weft, however, the mountains
1J? appear not a little elevated.
Moft weft- Returning from the weft, or beginning with the pe-
erly terri- ninfula of Afia or Afia Minor, which is enclofed on
tory loweft- three fides by the Mediterranean, Aegean, and Euxine
feas, it is to be remarked that even this traft acquires
fpeedily a confiderable elevation •, but the fouthern part
of Leffer Afia towards the Mediterranean is by far the
higheft, being the proper Taurus itfelf, rifing abruptly
from the neighbourhood of the fea-coaft, and turning
* the courfes of the principal waters towards the Euxine
l8 fea on the north.
Second por- The next portion of territory is ftill more elevated,
tion higher, extending from the Euxine to the Cafpian fea. To
the north it fends forth a traft of very mountainous
country called Caucafus, or the modern Georgia, which
overlooks the Sarmatian plains, or, in other words, the
2 ] A S 1
defert of Aftracan, and the country of the Tartars Afia.
called Don Cojfacs, being the low lands on the north -y—^
both of the Euxine and Cafpian feas. Southward this
high region, which is a part of the Taurus of the an¬
cients, overlooks the vaft low countries, in which are
contained the kingdoms or ftates of Syria, Mefppota-
mia, Affyria, and Babylonia, and even the great Ara¬
bian defert. The ancient divifions of this high region
were called Cappadocia, Armenia, Pontus, Colchis,
Iberia, Albania, the country of the Carduchians, and a
part of Media. It feemstobe the higheft continued trad!
of territory in Weftern Afia, giving rife to the rivers
Euphrates, Tigris, Cyrus, Araxes, Hypanis or Ku¬
ban, and Phafis, which flow from it in different direc¬
tions towards the Euxine or Cafpian feas, or the Per¬
fian gulf. It is w'orthy of remark, that in the high¬
er parts of this region two great fait lakes are to be
found.
Advancing eaftward is a third portion of ftill moreEaftern
elevated territory, extending from the Cafpian fea to trail high-
the lofty Imaus, or weftern creft of the great Afiatic6^*
highlands. This third region is ftill higher than the
two former parts of the tratt of Mount Taurus. Its
breadth is very various. Its weftern quarter is limited
by the approach towards each other of the Cafpian and
Perfian feas ; but the high country expands to a much
greater breadth beyond the Cafpian, till it is again nar¬
rowed on its approach to Imaus by two valleys, along
the one of which flow’s the river Indus to the fouth,
and along the other the Oxus to the north-weft, an¬
ciently terminating in the Cafpian fea, but now in the
fea or lake of Aral. Of this third portion of the high
country of Weftern Afia the northern part between
the Cafpian fea and Mount Imaus contains the ancient
Parthia, Margiana, and Sogdiana, which overlook to¬
wards the north the low countries of Weftern Tartary
in that quarter called Chorafmia, and the feats of the
Maflagetae (the ancient Magog) at the Jaxartes. The
middle part of the high country contains Aria and
Ba&riana, adjoining on the eaft to Mount Imaus.
The fouthern part of the fame elevated region contains
Perfia Proper, Carmania, Arachofia, &c. which to¬
wards the Perfian gulf are bordered by the low tratt
of Maritime Perfia. The higheft continuous ridge of
this territory is that which pafles by the fouth-eaft of
the Cafpian fea and Hyrcania, between Drangiana on
the fouth and Aria on the north, and from thence be¬
tween Baftriana and the provinces of India; where, as
it approaches Imaus, w'hich, as already ftated, is the
front of a yet more elevated region, it fwells to an im-
menfe magnitude and height, and is covered with fnow
annually till the month of Auguft. 20
From this tra£l of elevated country, which we have Lateral
thus defcribed as gradually increafing in height from ridges of
the Mediterranean to Mount Imaus, various lateralTaurus'
ridges projeft towards the fouth, forming between
them different hollow bafons or low countries. But
thefe fouthern projeftions are not equal in altitude to
the great chain that proceeds from weft to eaft. The
moft wefterly of thefe crofs ridges is that which begins
from the body of Taurus, near the place where it is
croffed by the Euphrates, at the northern extremity of
Syria. This ridge proceeds to the fouth, inclining to
the wTeft, and forms a kind of mound or dam, fkiiting
the eaftern fhore of the Mediterranean, under the
A S I [ 723 1 A S I
Afia. names of Amanus, Lebanon, &c. Having pafled the
Mediterranean and the fouthern border of Paleftine, it
advances to the eaftem coaft of the Red fea, where it
fpreads out, and forms the centre of Arabia, finally-
terminating in what is called Arabia Felix, or the
fouthern part of the Arabian peninfula.
Farther to the eaft another ridge proceeds towards
the fouth, which was called by the Greeks Zagros,
and advances to the neighbourhood of the Perfian gulf.
Between this laft ridge on the eaft, and the former, or
Syrian ridge, on the weft, and Taurus on the north,
is a great valley or traft of low country that formed
the ancient empire of Aflyria, which was guarded in
this manncsr by a wall of mountains on three fides, and
by the Perfian gulf and the Arabian defert on the fouth.
It is watered by the fertilizing ftreams of the Tigris
and Euphrates, upon which Nineveh and Babylon for¬
merly flood. To the eaft ward the country becomes
more dry and elevated. Faffing through Media, a
great fait defert occupies the centre of the country,
having Perfia Proper on the fouth, and Parthia on the
north, and continuing ftill to afcend, the mountains be¬
come more numerous and lefs regular, in proportion as
they approach Imaus. Thefe regions, however, are of
great importance in ancient hiftory as the feats of civi¬
lization and of empire, though they are now funk-int6
obfcurity, and a prey in a great meafure to tribes of
barbarians, who wander over them with their flocks
and herds, and refide in tents. The eaftern part of
the countries known to the ancients, as Afia, or rather
as the Perfian empire, ftill retains that name ; but to
the weftward of the Euphrates Afia belongs to Tur¬
key, excepting the great country or peninfula of Ara-
bia, o^’ which we (hall here take fome general notice.
Arabia. This country is worthy of the utmoft attention in a
hiftorical point of view, on account of the influence
which its inhabitants have had upon a great part of the
nations of Afia, and confequently upon a large portion
of the human race. They have contrived to extend
themfelves farther over the world than almoft any other
people, and have preserved in all fituations more
itrongly than other nations their language, religion,
manners, and peculiar cuftoms. From the river Sene¬
gal, on the weft coaft of Africa, to the Indus, colonies
of Arabs are to be met with, and alfo from the heads
of the Euphrates on the north to the ifland of Mada-
gafcar. Even the Tartar hordes have fcarcely occu-
2j pied a wider extent on the globe.
• Boundaries Arabia, properly fo called, is that great peninfula
®f Arabia, formed by the Red fea, or Arabic gulf, on the weft,
the Indian ocean, or Arabian fea, on the fouth, and the
Perfian gulf on the north-eaft. Accordingly the an¬
cients appear to have comprehended under the name of
Arabia the whole traft lying between thofe feas and
a line drawn from the point of the Perfian gulf to that
of the Arabic gulf. This line, however, was never
the real boundary of the country, which appears to
have at all times extended northwards to a great di-
ftance, and to have been limited on one fide by the ri¬
ver Euphrates, and on the weft by Syria, Paleftine,
and the ifthmus of Suez. Thus Arabia may be re¬
garded as a vaft but irregular triangle. From the
northern point at Beles, where Xenophon and the
Greeks firft pafled the Euphrates to the ftraits of Ba-
belmandel, is a line of 1500 miles, forming the weft-
ern fide of the triangle, while its fouthern bafis prefents Alla,
a front of 1000 miles to the Indian ocean. The me-
dium breadth of the peninfula from Baffora on the Per¬
fian gulf to Suez on the Red fea is upwards of 700
miles. The entire furface of the country, therefore,
exceeds France or Germany in a fourfold proportion.
Being fituated from 130 to 30° of N. Lat. and of
confequence partly between the tropics, its climate
muft neceflarily be regarded as hot. In fome pro¬
vinces, indeed, the heat is exceffive; but in this coun¬
try, as in others, the degrees of elevation of the foil
produce effe&s upon the temperature which fet afide
all calculations that might be founded upon the gene¬
ral principle of the vicinity or remotenefs of the torrid
zone. To underftand the varieties of climate that ex-
ift in Arabia, it is neceflary to attend to the form and
afpedt of its furface. The wffiole centre of the Arabian
peninfula, or interior country, confifts of a fucceffion
of mountains. Around the foot of thefe mountains,
adjacent to the fea-coaft, is a belt of flat ground. This
belt furrounds the wffiole of the Arabian peninfula.
It proceeds along the Ihores of the Red fea, of the In¬
dian ocean, and of the 'Perfian gulf. Even the defert
of Syria on the north may be confidered as a part of
this belt. It extends everywhere to the diftance of
about two days journey from the fea, and is denomina¬
ted Tehama by the Arabs. This belt of flat land is
dry and fandy, and prefents one unvaried pi&ure of de-
folation. It bears every mark of having been ancient¬
ly a part of the bed of the fea. Its bottom foil is a
greyilh clay, with a large proportion of fand, and hav¬
ing remains of marine animals interfperfed. to a great
diftance from the ftiore. It contains large ftrata of
fait, which in fome places even rife up into hills. Its
regular inclination towards the fea indicates that it has
emerged gradually j and the fea feems ftill continuing
to recede. The banks of coral are ftill increafing, and
coming nearer to the ftiore, fo as to render the naviga¬
tion round Arabia every day more and more danger¬
ous. The fand accumulated by the bilkws gradual¬
ly fills up the intermediate fpace, and joins thefe beds
of coral to the continent. This receffion of the fea,
however, or conqueft over the watery element, has pro¬
duced little advantage to man. The Tehama is every¬
where a frightful defert of fand, diverfified only by na¬
ked rocks, writh nothing to foften the force of the fun’s
rays, and in which all vegetation is burnt up. The
drought is fo extreme in thefe flat plains that whole
years pafs without rain •, and the torrents wffiich de-
fcend from the hills, which occupy the interior of the
country, are loft among the fands long before they can
reach the fea.
In the interior country, the foil and climate are very
different. The great ranges of lofty mountains attradl;
vapours, which, defcending in abundant rains, cool the
air, and quicken vegetation. The cold occafioned by
the height of the country produces falls of fnow, but
this never lies long upon the ground. While the in¬
habitants of the plains fuffer by heat, thofe of the hills
are obliged to wrap themfelves in pelices 5 but as the
hills or mountains are by no means of the primary or¬
der in point of elevation, ice and fteady froft feems to
be unknown. The foil, however, is as much diverfi¬
fied as in other countries; but the figurfe of the hills is
unfavourable to their fertility. They are in general
4 Y 2 fo
A S I [
ASa. fb craggy and precipitous as to afford little fpace or
v - foil for vegetable produftions, the beft part of the foil
being continually wafhed away by the waters. Hence
the culture of the land is difficult and expenfive. Ter¬
races muft be formed, and the foil carefully preferved
and accumulated upon them j fo that, upon the whole,
no part of Arabia can with any propriety be denomi¬
nated rich or fertile. In the fouthern divifion of it,
called by the ancients, by way of eminence, the Hap¬
py, or Arabia Felix, the inhabitants are at once indu-
ffrious and poor. The defert between Syria and the
Euphrates, or that part of Arabia which extends to the
northward of the peninfula, is altogether incapable of
improvement by culture. A wide level of fand is on¬
ly interfered by (harp mountains deftitute of verdure,
which render more powerful by refleflion the intenfe
rays of an almoft tropical fun. The .rare and hardy
plants, the tamarind, or the acacia, that ftrike their
roots into the clefts of the rocks, are nourifhed by the
dews of night. A grove of date trees, or a green pa-
fture, attradls a fmall colony of Arabs $ and a well of
water is a place of importance and of refort.
Yet this defert is not deftitute of a tolerable number
of inhabitants. They rear the camel, a ftrong and
patient beaft of burden, which fubfifts on the moft
Hunted and withered roots, or upon herbs of the gourd
fpecies, which abound in the drieft countries. Neither
are they deftitute of horned cattle, and goats and
Iheep ; and naturalifts confider this as the native coun¬
try of the horfe, which is the peculiar favourite of the
„ Arabians.
Two clafles Properly fpeaking, there are two kinds or claffes of
•f Arabs. Arabs, the one fedentary, that is, living in cities, or
attached to hufbandry, and the other, wandering in the
paftoral ftate, called Bedouins. The Arabs fettled in
cities, and efpecially in fea-port towns, of which there
are feveral on the coafts of the peninfula, have loft
fomewhat of their diftindlive national manners by their
int^rcourfe with ftrangers ; but the Bedouins, who live
in tents, and are divided into tribes or clans, retain the
cuftoms and manners of their earlieft anceftors. They
are the genuine Arabs, and poffefs in the aggregate all
thofe charafteriftics of which the other branches of
the nation exhibit different {hades and degrees. It is
the difference in their ways of living that conftitutes
the great diftindlion between the different tribes. The
genuine and nobler Arabs difdain hufbandry, as an em¬
ployment by which they would be degraded. They
maintain no domeftic animals but (beep, camels, and
horfes. Hence it is known, that Mahomet, the found¬
er of their religion, belonged to a noble tribe or rac£,
becaufe he was a dealer in camels. Some tribes are
even mentioned contemptuoufly by their countrymen,
becaufe they keep cows or dromedaries; and the pea-
fants who cultivate the foil are accounted the loweft
clafs. Even among the tribes which apply to agri¬
culture, the chiefs live always in tents, and leave the
culture of their grounds to their fubjefts, whofe dwell¬
ings are miferable huts.
In the interior of Arabia, towards the Indian ocean,
which is chiefly the quarter capable of being cultiva¬
ted, fome governments exift of a confiderable extent;
fuch as, Yemen and Hadramant, and Oman. Inthefe
the people are of a mild and civilized character. A
Granger travels unpvote&ed and alone with as much
24 ] A S I
fafety as in any country in Europe. The only danger Alia,
of impofition or of ill ufage occurs in the fea-portv-—-v—
torvns, from the officers of government. Here alfo the
religion of Mahomet exhibits a lefs intolerant afpedl
than in Turkey, Africa, or almoft any other country.
Indeed it is not a little Angular, that while this reli¬
gion extended itfelf to the pillars of Hercules, to the
mouths of the Ganges, and to the extreme regions of
Tartary, feveral tribes of native Arabs, fecure in the
faftneffes of the rugged mountains, regarded it with in¬
difference or contempt. Some tribes in the interior
could never be fubdued by the power of the caliphs,
and retain the w'orftiip of the heavenly bodies, as in the
times of their anceftors. Even a tribe c* Jew7s has
exifted for ages amidft thefe inacceflible mountains,
though the moft odious of mankind in the eyes of the
furrounding Mahometans.
The Bedouins, or wandering Arabs, who conftitute
the body of the nation, are divided into an endlefs va¬
riety of tribes. Their chiefs, whether high or low,
are denominated fchiechs. Thefe fchiecks, or nobles,
are very numerous, and the plebeians are invariably
a&uated and guided by them : They are both fhep-
herds and foldiers. The dignity of fchieck is heredi¬
tary, but is not confined to the order of primogeniture.
The petty fchiecks, wdio form the hereditary nobility,
choofe the grand fchieck of any diftrift out of the
reigning family, without regarding the degree of his
propinquity to his predeceffor. They pay him little
or no revenue, and the other fchiecks are rather his
equals than his fubjefls. If diffatisfied with his go¬
vernment, they depofe him, or go awTay with their
cattle, and join another tribe. Thefe emigrations,
which happen not unfrequently, produce great revolu¬
tions among the tribes. Even the peafants poffefs a
fimilar privilege. Though underftood to be flaves,
they may quit the fervice of a mafter with whom they
are diffatisfied, and choofe another. It was remarked
in the time of the Romans, that the Arabs w^ere at.
once additled to robbery and to commerce j a fa£t
w'hich holds true to this day. They become the faith¬
ful fervants of the merchant, who hires them to con¬
duct him through the defert j while at the fame time
they are extremely apt to confider the property of un-
protefted travellers as an objedl which they may law¬
fully feize. But it may alfo be remarked, that wx are
fometimes apt to confider as robbery what the Arabs
view in another light. Every grand fchieck, or
fchieck of fchiecks, as he is called, confiders himfelf as
the abfolute lord of his whole territory, and exafts du¬
ties upon all goods carried through his dominions.
The Europeans are wrong wdien they fuppofe the fums
paid by travellers to the grand fchiecks to be a ranfom
to redeem them from pillage. On the contrary, it is
regarded by the Arab nobles in no other light than as
the duties levied in other countries by princes for the
fupport of the government. The fouthern part of
Arabia, called by the ancients Arabia Felix, has at
times been fubdued by ftrangers ; but the Bedouins,
who live in tents in the defert, do not appear to have
ever been effe&ually conquered. In a conteft with
them, much is hazarded, and little can be won. Their
horfes and camels, which in eight or ten days can per¬
form a march of 400 or 500 miles, difappear before a
vi&orrous army. The fecret waters of the defert elude
A S I [ 725 ] A S I
Afra. tilt fearcti of the invader, and his troops are confumed
by hunger, thirft, and fatigue, in the purfuit of an in¬
visible foe, who mocks his efforts, and at all times finds
Safety in the midft of a burning folitude.
How far Notwithftanding the memory of their ancient inde-
conne&ed pendence, even the wandering Arabs are frequently
with fo- tempted to fettle near towns, or in fertile provinces j
reign Hates. w^ch ^ jn different ages brought them into fubjec-
tion to the fovereigns of thefe provinces. Their neigh¬
bours, alfo, fuch as the Perfians, the princes of the
Greek empire, and the modern Turks, have contrived
to acquire an influence over fome of the tribes, by fow-
ing dilfenfions among the great families, and efpoufing
the caufe of pretenders to the dignity of grand fchieck.
Accordingly the Turks allege that they are the fove¬
reigns of Arabia 5 but this is no more than a vain-glo¬
rious affertion, which is fo far from being true, that
they find it neceffary to pay the ufual tribute to the
fchiechs when their caravans pafs through the defert to
Mecca. The tribes who live near the road keep the
wells open, permit the paflage of merchandife, and
efcort the caravans. Quarrels, indeed, often occur, in
which the rapacity of the Bedouins is feldom more re¬
markable than the infolence of the Turks, who regard
all the Arabs as rebels. The famous Ali Bey, when
he conduced the Egyptian caravan, would not pay all
the duties on his way to Mecca, but promifed to pay
the reft on his return, and forgot his promife. On the
year following the Arabs aflembled in greater numbers,
and obliged the captain of the caravan to pay both
for himfelf and Ali Bey. The Turks exclaimed
againft this as an a£l of robbery •, yet the Arabs had
only done themfelves juftice. The condudt of Abdal-
la, pacha of Damafcus, who commanded the Syrian
caravan in 1756, was ftill more odious. When the
fchiechs of the tribe of Harb came to meet him to re¬
ceive the ftipulated toll, he gave them a friendly invi¬
tation to vifit him 5 but inftead of paying the toll, he
cut off their heads, and fent them to Conftantinople, as
a proof of his vi&ory over the rebel Arabs. The
ftroke which they had thus fuffered, by the death of
their chiefs, hindered them from attempting any thing,
in revenge, on either that or the following year : The
caravans traa^lled in triumph to Mecca, and the Turks
boafted of the valour and prudence of Abdalla Pacha.
But in the third year the Arabs avenged the flaughter-
ed fchiecks, and, with an army of 80,000 men, raifed
out of all the tribes, routed the Turks, and pillaged
the caravan.—Thus the Arabs, notwithftanding their
internal divifions, confider themfelves on extraordinary
occafions as one nation. A certain fubordination even
fubfifts among the tribes : The petty tribes being un¬
able to defend themfelves, place themfelves under the
protection of the greater, and are governed by their
laws 5 and thus are powerful tribes formed by the union
of feveral fmall tribes.
Character The climate and barren foil of their country has a
and food of confiderable influence on the general character of the
the people. Arabians. They are an extremely fober and frugal
nation, which produces in them an appearance of lean-
nefs and ftinted growth. The ufual articles upon
which the better fort fubfift are, rice, pulfe, milk, and
butter : mutton is their moft common fpecies of but¬
cher’s meat, but they feldom eat of it, as all kinds of
animal food are accounted unwholefome in thefe hot
countries. The common people have little other food Afia.
than a kind of bread made of durra, a fort of coarfe '—■‘'V—"""1
millet, by kneading it with camels milk, oil, butter, or
greafe : They alfo ufe barley bread. Like the other
natives of the warm regions of Afia, they have lefs reft-
lefsnefs or natural defire for exercife than the natives
of the colder countries of Europe; and this inacti¬
vity is, no doubt, increafed by their general habits of
abftinence and extreme frugality with regard to food.
They are aftonilhed when they obferve the quantity of
all kinds of meat that Europeans devour at a meal,
and account them guilty of. the moft odious gluttony $
for they themfelves, at leaft the wandering Arabs, are
not only taught from their youth to live upon little,
but even to accommodate themfelves to any kind of
food. Hence locufts are in common ufe among them,
and have a confiderable influence upon their condition.
Immenfe clouds of thefe animals fometimes defcend
upon a diftriCl, and produce the greateft mifchief, by
deftroying the whole verdure. They darken the air,,,
and appear at a diftance like clouds of fmoke. The
noife of their flight is ftunning, like that of a water¬
fall. Every thing that is green is wafted by them;
but corn, either ripe or nearly fo, is too hard for their
ufe. The Arabs of the defert convert this fcourge to
their advantage. They roaft the locufts alive, and de¬
vour them eagerly; or they kill and dry them, and
ftore them up for ufe : This food is faid to be by no
means unwholefome. The Jews of Arabia afiert, that
the fowls, of which the Ifraelites ate fo largely in the
wildernefs or defert, were only clouds of locufts ; and
they, ridicule our tranflators, for fuppofing that they
found quails where quails never were. ^
In Arabia polygamy was always tolerated, , and is Their con-]-
permitted by the law of Mahomet ; but the Arabians diufl to-
are, in general, too poor to avail themfelves of thewan*sw0"
privilege of poffefling a plurality of wives. The law,
however, has this effeCl, that it often induces the rich
to give their daughters to poor men in preference to
thofe who are wealthy. The marriage articles are
made out before the cadi or judge. The wife’s pro¬
perty is fecured to her even during the marriage, fo
that fire becomes abfolute miftrefs of her hufband’s
houfe ; and he, having no feparate property, can have
no means of bringing another wife into the family.
All wTomen, however, in Arabia live in a moft retired
manner. They receive no vifits from ftrangers of the
other fex. In the houfes of the rich the front apart¬
ments belong to the men, and thofe behind to the wro-
men. In the houfes of perfons of inferior rank, defti-
tute of a variety of apartments, w'hen the hulband car¬
ries a Arranger to his houfe, he enters before him, and
calls aloud, tai’ik, retire ; upon which the women in-
ftantly difappear; and even his moft intimate friends
never fee one of them. Their notions of the delicacy
neceffary to be obferved, wTith regard to women, is ex¬
treme. It is accounted unpolite to falute a woman,
or even to look her ftedfaftly in the face. In thejealoufj.
neighbourhood of the city of Barra an adventure oc¬
curred wThich difplays in ftrong. colours the jealoufy
of the Arabians in whatever concerns the other fex.
A man of eminence, belonging to the tribe of Monte-
fidfi, had given his daughter in marriage to an Arab
of the tribe of Korne. Shortly after the marriage a
fchieck of an inferior tribe alked him in a coffeehoufe,
whether-
A S I
[ 726 1
A S I
Alia.
a8
Their vin-
didlive
Spirit.
whether he was father of the handfome young wife of
fuch a one, whom he named ? The father fuppofmg
his daughter’s honour ruined, immediately left the
company to ftab her. At his return from the execu¬
tion of this inhuman deed, he rvho had fo indifcreetly
put the queftion, w^as gone. Breathing nothing now
but vengeance, he fought him everywhere •, and not
finding him, killed in the mean time feveral of his re¬
lations, wnthout fparing even his cattle or fervants.
The offender offered the governor of Korne a great
fum, if he would rid him of fo furious an adverfary.
The governor fent for him who had been offended, and
endeavoured by threats and a {how of the apparatus of
punifhment to force him to a reconciliation} but the
vengeful Arab w'ould rather meet death than forego
his revenge. Then the governor, to pieferve a man
of fuch high honour, foothed him to an agreement, by
which the firft aggreiTor gave his daughter, with a hand¬
fome portion, in marriage to him whom he had offend¬
ed. But the father-in-law durft never alter appear
before his fon-in-law.
Revenge is indeed among the Arabs a moft ungo¬
vernable fentiment. In fome of the ftates of the fouth-
ern part of the peninfula the government is ftrong
enough to reftrain private revenge, and to affume to
itfelf the puniftiment of crimes, as in other civilized
countries*, but over a great part of Arabia the lela-
tions of a perfon {lain are allowed to accept a compo-
fftion in money, to require the murderer to furrender
himfelf to juftice, or to avenge themfelves on him or his
family. The paflion of avarice is often found to afford,
among barbarians, the belt means of fubduing animo-
ffty: but in many places among the Arabians it is ac-
counted difgraceful to take money for the (bedding of
blood, which, by their laws of honour, can be expiated
only by blood. Their refined malice even refufes to
be fatisfied by the deftru&ion of the affaffm either by
their own hands or by the hand of public juftice ;
for this would be to deliver from an unwmrthy mem¬
ber a family which deferves no fuch favour from them:
hence they revenge themfelves, as cuftom allows, by
fubftituting an innocent to the guilty perfon, and leek
an opportunity of flaying the chief or the moft confi-
derable perfon of the race of him by wdiom they have
been injured. When a murder has been committed,
therefore, the two families are in continual fears till
fome one or other of the. murderer’s family be flam.
Till this occur no reconciliation can take place, and
the quarrel is occafionally renewed. If in the conteft
a man of the murdered perfon’s family happen to fall,
there can be no peace till two others of the murderer’s
have been {lain, and there are inftances of fuch family
feuds lafting forty years. r -l r
Nor is the point of honour confined to inch caies.as
thofe wre have now mentioned. The noble Bedouins
carry their pride higher than even our barbarous an-
ceftors feem to have done. If one fchieck fays to an¬
other, with a ferious air, “ thy bonnet is dirty,” or
“ the wrong fide of thy turban is out,” nothing but
blood can wafti away the reproach; and not merely
the blood of the offenders, but that alfo of all the Arabs
of his family. An infult offered to' the beard of
an Arab is regarded with equal indignation, and pro¬
duces equal refentment.
When thefe capital points, however, are avoided,
Afi*.
29
the Arabs are underftood to be by no means quarrel- ^
fome. They take a pride in preferving their coolnefs v
of temper againft reproachful language. V\ hen a dn-
pute happens fuddenly to arife among them, they make
much noife, and are apt to forget themfehes, and to
proceed to extremities j but {hould an indifferent per¬
fon calmly fay to them, “ think of God and his pio-
phet,” they inftantly make an effort to refume their
tranquillity, and a reconciliation is effefied. If this
conteft cannot be fettled at once, they choofe arbitrators
to whofe decifton they fubmit.
The manners of the Arabs are grave and fenous. Manners.
As foon as boys attain to five or fix years of age, they
pafs w7hole days together in their father s company,
and are indeed allowed to be as feldom out of it as pof-
fible. Being thus always under the eyes of perfons
advanced in life, they acquire a penfivenefs and gravi¬
ty of manners, and an air of recolleftion, at a very early
age. Their imaginations being accuftomed to barren
deferts and bare rocks are apt to acquire a gloomy
caft j but in \ emen or Arabia helix, wdiere the foil
is more fertile and the population more confiderable,
they poffefs fufficient vivacity of character, and are
extremely fond of fociety. In the towns of Syria in
which they fettle they are far more cheerful and fond
of amufement than the Turks. Both there and in
Arabia Felix they are fond of frequenting coffeehoufes
and public markets. _ _ 3°
In the earlieft ages the Arabians were alw'ays ac- Literature,
counted admirers of poetry, and v’ere accuftomed to
celebrate in verfe the military exploits of their chiefs.
The genius and merit of a rifing poet was rewarded
by the applaufe of his own and of the kindred tribes j
and they regarded him as a herald rifen up to immor¬
talize their renown. Before the days of Mahomet
there exifted an inftitution which the foundation of his
firft followers abolifhed. An annual fair was held,
to which the moft diftant or hoftile tribes refoited, and
which lafted thirty days. For fome time before and
after this fair, amounting in all to two, or as lome fay,
to four months, a general truce took place *, during
which every public and private quarrel was fufpended
throughout the wThole extent of Arabia. This truce
was fandlioned by the laws of honour j and, as a breach
of it was attended with perpetual infamy, every fword
was religioufly ftieathed while it lafted. At this great
market not only corn and wine, but alio eloquence
and poetry were exchanged. The prize .wras.difputed
by the emulation of the bards, and the victorious per¬
formance was depofited in the archives of the prince j
and, on fome extraordinary occafions, inferibed in let¬
ters of gold, and fufpended in the temple of Mecca,
which even in thefe early times was a place of nation¬
al pilgrimage. Generofity and valour formed the fa¬
vourite theme of the fongs of the Arabian poets 5 and
their keeneft fafire or bittereft reproach againft a def-
picable race, confifted of the affirmation, that the men
knew not how to give, nor the women to deny. Such
a feftival refembling, in fome meafure, the Olympic
games of the Greeks, muft have poffeffed confiderable
influence in humanizing the manners of the people.
As the northern part of Arabia was fituated in the
very centre of the moft civilized nations of antiquity,
wdiofe caravans muft have been continually pafling
through it j its inhabitants, therefore, could not lad
Afi<i
31
Superfti-
tions.
A S I [72
at a very early period, to acquire feme portion of that
information rvhich an acquaintance with intelligent
ftrangers brings along with it. As a commerce with
India appears at a very early period to have been car¬
ried on by fea from the fouthern parts of the penin-
fula, it is probable that fuch a portion of literature
as might be requifite for condu&ing its tranfaftions
would, be cultivated by the Arabians in a very diftant
antiquity. Literature however was never diffufed to
any great extent in this peninfula. In the northern
parts, indeed, or in the Syrian defert, where the Ro¬
man^ and Perfian empires flourilhed on each fide, the
Aiabian city of Palmyra appears to have received and
cultivated the learning and the arts of Greece, and at
a future, period, when the fuccdlbrs of Mahomet car¬
ried their dominion into other countries, in which they
fettled and purfued the arts of peace; the Arabian con¬
querors cultivated various branches of literature. At
all times, however, the defert itfelf, or the native coun¬
try of the Arabians, has exhibited an illiterate race of
men. At prefent their youth are not indeed entire¬
ly neglected.. The chiefs of the defert can frequently
read and write, and in the cities many of the lowed:
of the people. polfefs thefe qualifications. They have
fchools in their mofques for the education of the poor:
and in great towns there are fchools to which perfons
in better circumftances fend their fons, but no girls at¬
tend the public fchools, being privately taught at
home by women. The Arabians can fcarcely be faid
to poffefs any fcience. Aftronomy is fomewhat valued
by them, but only in fubferviency to aftrology, a fci¬
ence highly efteemed and very lucrative in the Eaft
though prohibited by the Mahometan law. From
their ignorance they are indeed extremely fond of
what are called the occult fciences, which are fuppofed
to enable their pofieflors to become familiar with genii
and to oblige them to obey their pleafure, to teach
how to command the winds and fealbns, to cure the
bites of ferpents and many difeafes or infirmities. A
great part, however, of thefe occult fciences have ap-
peared to ftrangers to be nothing more than tricks,
which the credulity of the people induces individuals
to piactife upon them. The Arabians are alfo extreme¬
ly fuperftitious. If frequently happens that a town
. as been reared on the ipot which it occupies merely
in confequence of its having been the dwelling place
of fome Mahometan hermit or faint. In this way the
city of Loheia was founded. Its founder and patron
was a faint called Scbieck Scclei, who fpent his days in
a hut on the ftiore of the Red fea. A houfe of prayer
was. afterwards, raifed over his tomb, and fome devout
perlons imagining it would be a great happinefs to live
near the remains of fo holy a perfon, built huts around
it. Nearly at the.fame time the fea having retreated
from a neighbouring harbour, an accident which is
always happening on the Arabian coaft, the inhabi-
tants deferted it, and fettled at Loheia, which is now
a well-frequented port. In the fame way the city of
.Beit el Fakeh originated around the tomb of a faint
called Achmed ibn Mu/a. Some devout perfons built
themlelves cottages round his tomb, and the harbour
of Galefka being about the fame time choaked up, the
inhabitants of that city removed thither. This faint
was a great worker of miracles. A Turkilh pacha,
^who had been for 20 years a captive in Spain, where
7 1 AST
he was bound with ponderous chains to two large Alia.
ftones, long and vainly invoked the aid of different1 
faints. Laft of all he bethought himfelf of the great
Achmed, and invoked him alfo in his turn. The faint
itretched out his hand from his tomb 5 and at that ve¬
ry inftant, in the.prefence of many witneffes, the pacha
arrived from Spain, bearing with him his chains and
the ftones to which they were fixed. This miracle
took place not many years ago on the eve of the fefti-
V3i j r and t^le Arabs regard it as authenti¬
cated by unexceptionable evidence, notwithrtanding
all . prayers or invocations to faints are ftridly pro¬
hibited by the Koran. Another miracle performed
by limael Mulk, the patron faint of the city of Taoes,
is eafily accounted for. Two beggars had afked cha¬
nty from the dola or governor of Taoes, but only one
of them had tafted of his bounty. The other went
upon this to the tomb of Ifmael Mulk to implore his
aid. Ifmael, who, when alive, had been very chari¬
table, ftretched his hand out of the tomb, and gave
the beggar a letter containing an order on the dola to
pay the beggar, an hundred crowns. Upon examin¬
ing this order with the greateft care, it was found that
Ifmael.Mu.lk had written it with his own hand, and
fealed it with his feal. The governor could not re-
u e payment, but to avoid all fubfequent trouble
from inch bills of exchange, he had a wall built in-
clofing the tomb.
. In the fouthern parts of Arabia the pofterity of the
faints are treated with as much refpeft, as is fhewn to
the defeendants of Mahomet at Mecca, which is very
great. Every perfon who can number a reputed
faint among his anceflors, is dignified with the title of
Schieck, and accounted an ecclefiaftic by birth. Fa¬
milies thus find it their intereft to eftablifh, by every
poffible means, the fandfity of the perfon from whom
they are defeended, and to maintain the authenticity
ofthe miracles aferibed to him. In this manner, in
fpne of the Koran, which is ftridfly Unitarian, the
fuperftitious worfhip of faints is daily extending its
influence among the Arabs, and feigned miracles are
confequently multiplying, fo that they may be faid in
fome meafure to be relapfing into the polytheifm of
their anceftors. At the fame time it is to be obferved
that within thefe forty years a fort of reformation of reli¬
gion has been attempted, and even accomplifhed, in a
part of the central or mountainous country of Arabia
b) one Abdul Wahheb, in whofe family a fovereignty
of confiderable extent has been eftablifhed. He tauoht
that God, as the creator and governor of the world is
the only proper objeft of worfhip. He forbade the in-
v°^1°n °*' faints, and the very mention of the name
01 Mahomet, or of any other prophet, in prayer as
pradlices favouring of. idolatry. Fie forbade the ma¬
king of vows to obtain deliverance from danger, as a
crime again!! providence. He reprefented Mofes
Mahomet, Jefus Chrift, who were refpedled by his
countrymen as prophets, as merely great men, whofe
niftory might be read with improvement; denying that
any book was ever written by divine infpiration, or
brought down from heaven by the angel Gabriel.
h C°Untl*S men can to beHofpnality
nofpitable to ftrangers, becaufe they fee them feldom. and charity.
In Arabia, however, this virtue is ftill more valued
than ellewhere. Poverty is a misfortune very general
A S I [ 728 ] A S I
Afia. among the people of this country $ and when travelling
' ■■■—/——' through their deferts they are apt to fuffer great hard-
fluips both from hunger and third. Hence among
them kindnefs to ftrangers, and charity to the poor, are
the mod popular of all virtues, and a breach of the fa-
cred laws of hofpitality is productive of the mod inde¬
lible diflmnour. The rapacity even of an Arabian
robber is checked by the induence of this law, and an
enemy is fafe with thofe who have confented to tade
along with him a morfel of bread. On the ivhole it
appears that the inhabitants of this great territory,
though in general barbarians, are yet of a mixed cha¬
racter. A part of them have in every age participa¬
ted the civilization of the countries in their neighbour¬
hood ; and though the tribes of the defert have been
always in fome meafure independent, and governed
only by their own fancy or prejudices, yet they have
always acknowledged a connection with the red of the
nation that redde in towns, or that cultivate the foil.
Though labouring under a degree of that tendency to
indolence which is common to rude nations, yet their
poverty and the hardfhips to which they are inured,
prepare them for the toils of war, and render them ca-
33 pable of enterprife.
?erfia. Of the prefent Perdan empire, in a general view of
Ada, it is unneceflary to take much notice. Both
ddes of the Perdan gulf are to fome didance poffeded
by the Arabs, and the interior provinces have funk
into decay under a long fuccedion of military ufurpa-
tions. Cultivation is in a great meafure condned to
the near neighbourhood of a few towns $ and a condder-
able part of the open country is ufed for the padurage
of the cattle of wandering hordes of barbarians that
have defcended from Tartary, and that now occupy
thefe feats of ancient civilization and riches.
We have already remarked, that between the Per¬
dan gulf on the fouth, and the Cafpian fea on the north,
but neared to the Cafpian, a chain of mountains, the
celebrated Taurus of the ancients, proceeds from the
draits of the Dardanelles eadward to the front of the
high central region of Ada called Imaus. After paf-
dng the Cafpian fea and the Perdan gulf, thefe moun¬
tains widen to a great extent, and the middle ridge, as
it reaches Imaus, becomes very elevated. This middle
ridge appears to be eroded by no rivers, and according¬
ly the dreams which defeend from itfelf, or from Imaus
on the northern dde of it, proceed in a north-wederly
direddion to the Cafpian or the lake Aral. Thefe are
chiefly the Oxus and the Jaxartes. To the fouth of
the middle ridge of Taurus, the rivers defeend fouth-
ward to the Arabian fea or Indian ocean. The prin-
34 cipal river that defeends fouthward from the wedern or
River Sind fouth-wedern front of Imaus is the river Sind or Indus,
or Indus. t^e Upper branches of which approach very near to
thofe of the Oxus; and it may be proper here to re¬
mark that the prefent commerce between the Ruflian
empire and India proceeds in this channel. The mer¬
chants, after leaving the Cafpian fea, travel in caravans
or bodies up the river Oxus and down the river Indus.
In the mountainous country near the wedern and
fouth-wedern front of Imaus, are feveral beautiful
valleys, which in all ages have been the admiration of
travellers. Among thefe we may mention between Imaus
and the Cafpian, the valley or country of Sogdia w-ith
its capital Samarcand. This country was in ancient
times accounted by the orientals a terredrial paradife, Afia.
pofleffing all the fertility of a torrid climate with the v*~“
falubrity of the colded regions. Not lefs remarkable,
upon the fouth-wedern front of Imaus on one of the 35
heads of the river Indus, is the valley of Caflimere, Caflunere.
which in every age has been the happy valley of the
Indian poets, or the paradife of Hindoodan. It is of
an oval form, about 80 miles in length and 40 in
breadth, and is fuppofed to have been once filled with
w^ater, which having burd its mound, left this valley
fertilized to the mod didant ages by the mud which
had been depofited in it. The emperors of Hindoo¬
dan frequently vifited it to forget the cares of govern¬
ment, and to colleft new health and vigour from the
falubrity of the air and the beauties of the place. In
1664 Aurengzebe went thither for this purpofe from
Agra his Indian capital. M. Bernier attended in qua¬
lity of phyfician to one of his omrahs. The train of the
emperor was extremely fplendid. The heats on the
march were dreadful, as the lofty mountains that fkirt
the front of the high region of Tartary prevent the
cool air of the north from defeending to refrelh the
parched plains of India. A vad mouncain called
Bember divides Caflimere from India. The fouthern
fide of this mountain is deep and arid. The jirocef-
fion encamped in the channel of a large torrent dried
up, full of fand and dones, which were burning hot.
“ After pafling the Bember (fays M. Bernier) we pafs
from a torrid to a temperate zone : for we had no
fooner mounted this dreadful wall of the w'orld, I mean
this high, deep, black, and bald mountain of Bember,
than in defeending on the other fide, we found an air
that was pretty tolerable, frefli, gentle and temperate.
But that which furprifed me more in thefe mountains
was to find myfelf in a trice traniported out of the In¬
dies into Europe. For feeing the earth covered with
all our plants andflrrubs, except hyffop, thyme, marjoram,
and rofemary, I imagined I was in iome of our moun¬
tains of Auvergne in the midd of a fared of all our
kinds of trees, pines, oaks, elms, plane-trees. And I
was the more adonidied, becaufe in all thofe burning
fields of Indodan, whence I came, I had feen almod
nothing of all that.
“ Among other things relating to plants this fur¬
prifed me, that one and a half days journey from Bem¬
ber I found a mountain that was covered with them
on both Tides, but with this difference, that on the fide
of the mountain that was foutheily towards the Indies
there wras a mixture of Indian and European plants,
and on that which was expofed to the north I obferved
none but European ones, as if the former had partici¬
pated of the air and temper of Europe and the Indies,
and the other had been merely European.” The fame
traveller proceeds in his defeription of this valley or
kingdom of Caihmere. “ Thoufands of cafcades de¬
feend from the furrounding mountains of this en¬
chanting plain, and forming rivulets meandring through
all parts, render it fo fair and fruitful, that one w’ould
take this whole kingdom for fome great evergreen
garden, intermixed with villages and boroughs dif-
covering themfelves between trees and diverfified by
meadows, fields of rice, corn, and diverfe other legu¬
mes, of hemp and fuffron, all interlaced with ditches
full of water, with channels, with fmall lakes and rivu¬
lets here and there. Up and down everywhere are
A S I
/fia- alfo feen fome of our European plants, flowers, and all
—v—* forts of our trees, as apples, pears, prunes, apricots,
cherries, nuts, vines. The particular gardens are full
of melons, ikirrets, beets, radilhes, all forts of our pot¬
herbs, and of fome we have not.”
This delightful fpot is furrounded by the mountains
adjoining to Ima-us, which are of vaft height and rude
afpeft, perpetually covered with fnow. At the foot of
the exterior chain of mountains is an inner circle of
hills, which abound in trees, grafs, and various forts of
vegetation, and which are full of all kinds of cattle, as
cows, fheep, goats, gazelles, and mulks. The exterior
mountains are fo lofty and cold, that the pioneers of
Aurengzebe were obliged to cut through a glaciere
or a great mafs, as Bernier calls it, of icy fnow. The
capital is fometimes called Cajhmere, fometimes Sirina-
gur, and fometimes Nagas. It is in N. Lat. 34. 12. on
the banks of a celebrated river, the fabulofus Hydafpes
of the ancients. Its current is fmooth, and it is navi¬
gable in Cafnmere by fmall boats. The town was in
Bernier’s time three quarters of a French league long
on both fides of the river, and extending from it along
a navigable canal to a fmall but beautiful lake. The
houfes are built of wood, four ftories or more in height.
The lower ftory is for the cattle, the next for the fa¬
mily, and the third and fourth ferve as warehoufes.
The roofs are planted with tulips, which have a moft
beautiful effeft in the fpring. Every part of the coun¬
try exhibits the remains of palaces, pavilions, and gar¬
dens formed there by the emperors of Hindooftan.
The periodical rains, which almoft deluge the reft of
India, are excluded from Calhmere by the height of
the mountains ; and it experiences only light fhowers,
which, however, are fufficient to feed the thoufands of
cafcades which defcend into the valley from every
part of the ftupendous and romantic bulwark of
mountains by which it is encircled. The horfes of this
country are fmall, hardy, and fure-footed. The cows
are black and ugly, but yield abundance of milk and
excellent butter. They have alfo a kind of ftieep
which is ufed to carry burdens. The elk is mentioned
as one of the wild animals that inhabit the woods at
the bafe of the fnowy mountains in the neighbourhood.
Calhmere is famous for its manufa&ure of ftiawls
made of the wool of the broad-tailed ftieep of Thibet,
whofe fleeces, in finenefs, beauty, and length, are faid to
exceed all others in the world. The Caftimerians en-
grofs this article, and have fa&ors in all parts of Thi¬
bet for buying up the wool, which is fent into Caflnmere
and worked into fliawls of the higheft value. The In¬
dian emperor Akbar, who conquered this country in
t585> greatly encouraged this manufafture, and intro¬
duced it into Lahore. The natural colour of the wool
is laid to be gray tinged with red, but fometimes it is
quite white.
The Calhmerians are accounted an ingenious people,
fond of poetry, and having a language of their own.
They are induftrious mechanics, and the various ar¬
ticles of their workmanlhip are fent into all parts of
India. They are celebrated for the finenefs of their
features and their admirable complexions. They look
like Europeans, and neither refemble their neighbours
of 1 artary nor of India, having nothing of the flat
nofes and fmall eyes of the Tartars, nor of the black
colour of the Indians. In the time of Bernier the In-
Yol. II. Part II.
A S I
dian courtiers were extremely folicitous to obtain Afia.
Caftimerian women, to have children by them whiter
than the natives of Hindooftan, that they might pafs
for the true Mogul breed of the fame race with their
monarch.
As already mentioned, India confifts of two penin-
fulas, one to the wTeftward, and the other to the ealE
ward of the Ganges. The weftern peninfula is over¬
looked from the north, by that part of the chain of
Imaus or Emodus which conftitutes the fouthern front 36
of the region of Tartary. In the fouth-weftern fide of Sources of
this high region the rivers Ganges and Indus havetIie Ganges
their fource. After advancing weftward to no greatand
diftance from the Indus, the river Ganges turns to¬
wards the fouth, and afterwards traverfes almoft the
whole breadth of the peninfula in an eafterly direction,
till at laft it proceeds fouth into the bay or gulf of
Bengal. The Indus, rifing in the fouth-weftern part
of 1 artary, called Cafhgar, defcends in a fouth but
fomewhat wefterly courfe, till it enters the Arabian
fea by various channels to the northward of the bay of
Cutch. At its mouth, it has a broad delta or trad of
fertile land, like the Nile in Egypt, formed by its own
alluvions, or the depofition of mud brought down
from the high country by the periodical floods to
which it is fubjedf. To a great diftance from the fea
it flows, like the Nile, along a fertile valley enriched
by its inundations. Parallel to the channel of the ri¬
ver, after it has received all its tributary ftreams, run
two chains of mountains, by which its courfe is direft-
ed, and its valley is feparated from other countries. Be¬
yond the mountains, on the eaft, extends a fandy de~
fert of 200 miles in breadth, by which the valley of the
Indus is (hut out from the reft of India. The whole
courfe of this river amounts to nearly 1 coo miles. It
has an uninterrupted navigation from the fea for flat-
bottomed veffels of nearly 200 tons, as high as the
city of Lahore, at the diftance of about 650 miles.
The current of the Indus muft be rapid, as veffels fre¬
quently fall down the river from Lahore in 12 days j
but the afcending paflage requires fix or feven weeks.
As the Indus and the Ganges nearly peninfulate or Indus de-
enclofe weftern India on the north, in a manner fimilarfcribed.
to that in which it is enclofed by the ocean on the
fouth, we lhall take fome farther notice of the courfe
of the Indus, This river is the moft wefterly of In¬
dia. Before it enters the narrow tradft already men¬
tioned between the mountains, which run parallel to
its courfe, it is formed by the contribution of a variety of
ftreams, which have their fources in the rugged country
adjacent to high Tartary. Thefe rivers, whofe union
forms the Indus, water a large and fertile territory, a
part of which appears to have belonged to the ancient
Perfian empire ot Darius Hyftafpes. Various great
and populous cities have in different ages flood upon
thefe ftreams, in what is called the Panjab, or country
of the five rivers, which confifts of fpacious and fertile
plains. Alexander the Great reached thefe plains,
and they formed the fcene of his exploits againft Po- "
rus and other Indian kings. Here alfo ended the pro-
grefs of the Macedonian conqueror. He built a fleet
of velfels, and defcended the river with his army ; an
attempt which he is faid to have been induced to make,
Irqm a notion that he had found out the head of the
Nile. As in his time it was not known to the Greeks',
4 2. that
[ 729 ]
A 8 1 [ 7
Afia. that any other river in the world, excepting that of
v'""" Egypt, contained crocodiles. The difcovery of cro¬
codiles in the river Indus, fuggefted the notion in
thefe times, when geography was lb little underfcood,
that there might be fome communication between this
river and the great river of Africa. Arrian fays, that
Alexander had even written to his mother an account
of his difcovery of the head of the Nile. But the voy¬
age down the river pointed out the miftake, as it
Delta^of brought him to the ocean.
the Indus. lower parts of the Indus, or the fertile but
fwampy land near its mouth, was in the time of the
ancients unhealthy and hot in the extreme. This rich
delta or triangle of land is of great extent, each lidfe
of the triangle being 115 miles in length. The mouth
of the river was well known at a very early period.
Not only did Nearchus, the admiral of Alexander the
Great, fail from it to the Perfian gulf; but at a much
earlier period, Darius Hyftafpes, from curiofity to af-
certain the place at which the Indus met the ocean,
built, according to Herodotus, a fleet on the borders
of Scythia, that is, of Tartary, high up the river, and
gave the command of it to Scylax, a Grecian of Ca-
ryandra, an able failor. He was dire£fed to be atten¬
tive to difcoveries on both fides ; and when he reached
the mouth, to fail weftward, and that way to return
home. He executed his commiffion, paffed the ftraits
of Babelmandel } and in thirty months from the time
he failed from Cafpatyrus, landed fafely in Egypt,
at the place from whence it is faid, that Necho fent
his Phoenicians to circumnavigate Africa, by its now
well-known promontory the Cape of. Good Hope.
This expedition took place in the 1 2th year of Darius,
and in the year 509 before the Chriftian era.
The delta or low country, is ftill extremely un¬
healthy. The heats are fo violent, in confequence of
the vicinity of the fandy defects, that it is found ne-
celTary to ventilate the houfes occafionally, by means
of apertures in the tops like chimneys. When the
hotteft wands prevail, the wundows that are clofely
Ihut exclude the warmer current of the air, while
the cooler part of the atmofphere being more elevated,
defcends through the chimneys. The foil depends for
its fertility entirely upon the overflowings of the river;
and it fometimes happens that a fingle fhowTer does not fall
during three years. There are no trees upon the delta,
but in the drier parts the foil is covered with brulh-
wood. The cil^y of Tatta Hands in the delta, upon
the we/tern branch of the river, about 65 miles from
the fea, which is the diftance to which the tide af-
cends. The Britifh had at one period a factory here,
for the purpofe of tranfmitting the Englifh broad cloths
to the high countries around the fources of the Indus.
Beyond Tatta, various towms are formed along the
fertile banks of this river, during its wrhole progrefs
between the parallel ranges of mountains, wdiich are
diftant from its banks from 30 to 40 miles. In lati-
39 tude 290 8', on the eaftern fide, the Indus is joined
*.iverSet- by the river Setlege or Hyfudrus ; and it is to be re-
0 ' marked, that in confequence of the fandy defects by
wThich the lower parts of the Indus are furrounded,
this is the firft river that falls into it, in a traft of 520
miles from the fea. This river Setlege, is the fouth-
ern boundary of the Panjab already mentioned, which
■having from time immemorial been a moll fertile, and
30 ] a s 1
populous region, and at the fame time the frontier of Afia.
India towards the north-weft, has been the fcene in dif-v—■“-Nr—■
ferent ages of the moft dreadful maffacres, by the ce¬
lebrated deftroyers of mankind, Alexander the Great,
Timur or Tamerlane, and Kouli Khan. The river
Setlege rifes at the foot of Mount Imaus, and is joined
by another ftream, called the Beyah o* Hyphq/is. Both
of them pafs through a fertile tradl of country.
About 50 miles above the difcharge of the Setlege,
another river called the Chunaub or Acejines, falls intoChunaub,
the Indus. On the fouthern banks of the Chunaub,
in latitude 30° 34' Hands the city of Moultan, the ca-capjtai0f
pital of a province, in a country very fertile in cotton, the Bani-
and alfo in fugar, opium, brimftone, galls, and abound-ans*
ing in camels, w'hich animals' alio are reared in great
numbers on the kwer parts of the Indus. This city
is remarkable for being the principal refidence of the
Banians, an hereditary caft or tribe, who employ
themfelves folely in commerce, and are the merchants
or brokers of India. Their chief refides here, but
they form fettlements in every commercial town of In¬
dia j and they fend colonies to the trading towns of A-
rabia and Perfia, and even as far as Aftracan. As
thefe die aw'ay or incline to return home, a fupply is
fent from India of unmarried “young men. As
no females attend them, they live at Aftracan and
fome other places, with Tartarian women ; but the con-
traft lafts only during their refidence. They are high¬
ly efteemed for the integrity of their dealings, and are
trufted to a great extent by Europeans and other ftran-
gers, as well as by the natives. They are the bank¬
ers of India *, and the confidence repofed in them, is
one of the means by w hich the civilization of that
country has been preferved amidft its revolutions and
the fanguinary wars of its princes. No prince has
ever offered violence to the Banians with the view of
extorting from them their treafures, without fpeedily
finding himfelf undone. His officers have inftantly
confpired againft him, becaufe by robbing the Banians,
or bankers in whofe hands their money was depofited,
he ultimately'plundered the very perfons who fupport-
ed his power, and had the readieft accefs to his per-
fon. About 150 miles above Moultan, is Lahore,
the capital of the Seiks, a fet of religionifts who vene¬
rate the ox like the Hindoos, but who are pure Mo-
notheifts and Predeftinarians, worftiipping God without
the ufe of images. They form a fort of ariftocratical
republic. They can raife 100,coo cavalry, and they
have of late become very formidable. They are a
kind of Indian reformers, hoflile both to the govern¬
ment and the religion of the country. They admit of
profelytes, and have no calls or divifion into diftinf!
hereditary profeflions. In their territory a vaft moun¬
tain of rock fait is found, which is cut into dilhes,
plates, and ftands for lamps.
Between Lahore and Moultan, the Chunaub is join- 4,
ed by the Behut or the fabulofus Hydafpes, which Behut.
flow^s, as already mentioned, from the romantic Calh-
mere. A little above the mouth of the Chunaub, the
Indus receives an obfcure river, the Lucca, from the
territory on the north-weft, called the kingdom of Can-
dahar. The city of Candahar, fituated in N. Lat. 33.
E. Long. 67. 15. was anciently a place of much im¬
portance, being the gate of India, with refpefl to Per¬
fia, and the great magazine of Indian and Perfian
goods.
rA S I
[ 73
goods. Somewhat higher, that is, more northerly,
two tributary ftreams enter the Indus, called the Cow
or Cofthenes, and the Kameh or Gurdus. On the for¬
mer Hands the city of Ghifni, and on the latter is Ca-
bul. This laft city is in N. Lat. 34. 36. and E. Long.
68. 58. near the foot of the Indian Caucafus, or I-
maus. It Hands in fo happy a climate, that it produ¬
ces the fruits both of the temperate and torrid zones,
though it is in the near neighbourhood of mountains,
whole fummits are covered with perpetual fnow. The
Indian hiflorians fpeak of it with raptures. • Cabul is
the refidence of the kings of Gandahar. It has at all
times been of much importance, as the frontier of In¬
dia towards the river Oxus, which flows into the Caf-
pian fea and towards Tartary. In ancient times, it
always was a great commercial magazine, as well as
an important fortrefs. To this day, it is on the diredl
road by which the commerce of the fouthern parts of
the Ruflian empire is carried on with India. It is at
prefent noted for its vafl fairs of horfes and cattle, the
firfl of which are brought hither by the Ufbec Tar¬
tars ; and merchants refort to thefe markets from Per-
fia, China, and Tartary. Near the mouth of the ri¬
ver Kameh, the city of Attock Hands upon the Indus.
Attock fignifies forbidden; this being the original
boundary of Hindooltan, towards the north-wefl, which
the Hindoos were prohibited to pafs. Here the river
is three quarters of a mile broad, and the water is cold,
and the Hream rapid and turbulent, having much black
„ land fufpended in it. To this place the Indus defcends
from the lofty mountains of Imaus, and the high re¬
gion of Tartary. The remainder of its courfe, there¬
fore, lies through a country little known, and fo rude
in its foil and climate, as fcarcely to admit even of the
molt flender population.
Returning to the ocean, it is to be obferved, that
the moH eaflern of the branches into which the Indus
is divided towards its mouth, flows into the bay or
gulf of Cutch, which advances far into the country,
receiving the river Puddar. This river, and the bay
into which it flows, form one fide of the fertile penin-
fula of Guzerat, the other fide of the fame peninfula
being contiguous to the gulf of Cambay. The wefl-
ern parts of the peninfula of Guzerat are mountainous
and woody. The refi is extremely rich, and once famed
for a very confiderable commerce of its productions.
Here Hood in former times, on the promontory of Gu¬
zerat in the neighbourhood of Diu, one of the laft re¬
maining pofleflions of the Portuguefe in India, the
Pagoda of great temple or pagoda of Sumnat. It was deftroyed
Suxnnat. in the eleventh century by Mahmud, the greateft of
the princes of that race of Tartars called Turks. He
was the fovereign of Ghizni, which we have already
noticed as a town in the kingdom of Candahar, upon
one of the ftreams that fall into the Indus from the
north-weft. Being a moft fanatical Mahometan, he
undertook 12 holy wars as they were called, againft
, the unbelieving nations of India. Lahore, Moultan,
and Delhi, were compelled to open their gates to him,
and he at laft reached and conquered the rich penin¬
fula or kingdom of Guzerat. On the payment of a
tribute, the rajahs preferved their dominions, and the
people their lives and fortunes j but to the religion of
the country Mahmud was inexorable. Many hundred
temples or, pagodas were levelled with the ground.
Afi».
43
Bay of
Cutch.
44
1 ] A S I
Many thoufand idols were demolilhed, and the fer-
vants of the Arabian prophet were ftimulated, and re-
warded, by the precious materials of which they wrere
compofed. The pagoda of Sumnat wras at this time
confpicuous beyond all the retreats of Indian fuperfti-
tion. Its magnificence and its deftruftion deferve wrell
to be noticed, as indicating the character of two Afia-
tic nations : the riches and devout fuperftition of the
one, and the furious fanaticifm which the other had
been able to diflfufe over a great part of the world.
This pagoda or temple, was endowed with thp reve¬
nue of 2000 villages 5 2000 Brahmins were confecrat-
ed to the fervice of the deity, whom they walked
each morning and evening with water from the dir
ftant Ganges. The fubordinate -minilters confifted of
300 mulicians, 300 barbers, and 500 dancing girls,
confpicuous for their birth or beauty. Three fides of
the temple were protefted by the ocean 5 the narrow
ifthmus was fortified by a natural or artificial preci¬
pice, and the city and adjacent country were peopled
by a nation of fanatics. They confefled the fins and
the puniftiment of Kinnoge and Delhi; but they boaft-
ed, that if the impious ftranger Ihould prefume to ap¬
proach their holy precindls, he would furely be over¬
whelmed by a blaft of the divine vengeance. By this
challenge the faith of Mahmud was animated to a per-
fonal trial of the ftrength of this Indian deity. Fifty
thoufand of his worlhippers were pierced by the fpears
of the Modems; the walls were fcaled ; the fanhluary
was profaned 5 and the conqueror aimed a blow of his
iron mace at the head of the idol. The trembling
Brahmins are faid to have offered ten millions fterling
for his random *, and it was urged by the w'ifeft coun-
fellors, that the deftruftion of a Hone image would
not change the hearts of the Gentoos, and that fuch a
fum might be dedicated to the relief of the true be¬
lievers : “ Your reafons,” replied the fultan, <£ are
fpecious and ftrong 5 but never in the eyes of pofteri-
ty, fhall Mahmud appear as a merchant of idols.” He
repeated his blows, and a treafure of pearls and rubies,
concealed in the belly of the ftatue, explained in Tome
degree the devout prodigality of the Brahmins. The
fragments of the idol were diftributed to Gazna, Mec¬
ca, and Medina. Bagdad liftened, fays the hiftorian,
to the edifying tale ; and Mahmud was faluted by the
caliph, with the title of Guardian of the fortune and
faith of Mahomet.
Adjoining to the peninfula of Guzerat, and at the City of
bottom of the gulf of Cambay, Hands the city of that Cambay,
name, which once was the capital of a confiderable
kingdom. It is fituated in a great manufa&uring
country, which furnifties large quantities of coarfe
unbleached cotton cloth, for Perfia, Arabia, Egypt,
and Abyfiinia ; alfo blue cloths for the fame countries,
and for the Englhh and Dutch trade on the w^eftern
coaft of Africa 5 likewife blue and white checks to be
ufed as mantles in Arabia and Turkey, fome coarfe,
and others enriched with gold ; muffins for turbans,
gauzes, mixed Huffs of filk and cotton, and fhawls
made of the Cafhmerian wool. This country alfo
fends annually to Surat, Bengal, China, Perfia, and
Arabia, immenfe quantities of raw' cotton, as well as
rich embroideries of various kinds. ^
From the bottom of the gulf of Cambay, the penin-Form of the
fula of weftern India may be faid to begin in the ftriff- peninfula of
4 Z 2 eft Hindooltan.
#
Afia.
47
Ghauts.
48
Nerbudda
river.
49
TaptL,
AS1 f 732
eft fenfe ; as a line of coaft here commences, which
—' proceeds without interruption, or any confiderable
bending, to Cape Comorin, the fouthern part of the
peninfula, after which the coaft fuddenly turns to the
north-eaft ; and the bay of Bengal bounds the penin¬
fula on the eaft. From Cambay to Cape Comorin, the
weftern coaft of the peninfula may be divided into
three unequal parts. The firft extends from the moft
advanced part of the gulf fouthward, a little beyond
the city of Surat, d he iecond tradft of coaft, which is
more extenfive than this, in a fourfold proportion, is
called the coqfl of Concan, or the pirate coaf. To the
fouthward of this, the coaft of the peninfula, all the
way to Cape Comorin, receives the appellation of the
Malabar coajl. The firft; of thefe divifions, lying up¬
on the eaftern fhorc of the gulf of Cambay, confifts of
a low country, into which the rivers defcend from
the upper part of the peninfula of .Hindooftan. After
pafting Surat, however, the phyfical ftruflure of the
peninfula affumes a peculiar charafter well worthy of
attention. The Concan and Malabar coafts which
form almoft the whole of the weftern fhores of the pe¬
ninfula are extremely low, and a narrow ftripe of le¬
vel land, of from 40 to 70 miles in breadth, runs along
the coaft; from Surat to Cape Comorin. At the back
of this ftripe of low land, a chain of mountains runs
parallel to the fea ftiore. They are called the Ghauts,
and rife to a furprifing height, oppofing to the weft a
lofty wTall of rugged and precipitous rocks. The
whole chain feems one connefted creft or wall, inac-
ceflible to the fummit, unlefs by paths which have been
worked by the hand of man, and which cannot be af-
cended even by a fingle traveller, without the fa¬
tiguing labour of many hours. From the root of thefe
rocks, the plain towards the fea is variegated with
fmall hills, which gradually defcend into a level and
fertile country, bleft with a cool and healthy air.
The fmall hills near the foot of the Ghauts are clothed
with forefts of the moft valuable timber; and from the
iides of the mountains magnificent catarafls defcend,
forming torrents which facilitate the conveyance of the
timber to the fea coaft.
The word Ghauts fignifies pajfes ; but this name has
been given to the whole front of rocks which over¬
looks the weftern coaft. At the fummit of the Ghauts
the country is level, and confifts of an elevated trad!
of fertile and populous plains, which are fupported to
the weft by the Ghauts, as by the walls of a terrace
formed on an immenfe feale. The country, however,
begins gradually to defcend towards the eaft ; and ac¬
cordingly from Surat to Cape Comorin, the great ri¬
vers of the peninfula uniformly flow from the Ghauts
eaftward, and form confiderable tradls of low rich
land upon that coaft, which receives the appellation of
the Coromandel coajl. Thus the weftern peninfula of
india muft be confidered as refembling a plane, gra¬
dually inclining towards the eaft, and fupported on the
weft by a long chain of lofty rocks.
In the north-weftern quarter of the peninfula, the
two moft confiderable rivers that flow into the gulf of
Cambay, are the Nerbudda, in N. Lat. 23. 10. F..
Long. 82. 10. which runs a courfe of 700 miles; from
the centre of the northern part of the peninfula ; and
the river Tapti^ upon which Hands the celebrated city
Afin.
] A s I
of Surat, in N. Lat. 21. 11. This city has long been
W’ell known as a place of great commerce. It is the
port from which the Mahometan pilgrims fail on their
way to Mecca. The oldeft Britiih faftory in India is
in this city, and it is ftill a place of the firft commer¬
cial importance. Wheat grows in great abundance in
the furrounding country of equal quality with that of
Europe, though it fcarcely flourifhes farther to the
fouth.
On the coaft of Concan or the Pirate coaft, is the Coaft of
ifland of Bombay, containing a celebrated Britifh fet-Concan°r
tlement which need not here be noticed. The pirate l>‘rate
coaft contains a great variety of harbours, and is thus
deferibed by Mr Rennel : “ Perhaps there are few
coafts fo much broken into fmall bays and harbours,
and that at the fame time have fo ftraight a general
outline. This multitude of fmall ports, uninterrupted
view along ftiore, and elevated coafts favourable to di-
ftant vifion, have fitted this coaft for the feat of pira¬
cy ; and the alternate land and fea breezes that pre¬
vail during a great part of the year, oblige veffels to
navigate very near the Ihore. No wmnder then that
Pliny fliould notice them in his time, as committing
depredations on the Roman Eaft India trade ; and al¬
though a temporary check has been given them in the
deftru&ion of Angria’s fleets, &c.; yet we may ex-
pe£f they wfill continue the practice w'hile commerce
lafts. They are protefted by the Ihallownefs of their
ports and the ftrength of the country within. As pi¬
rates, they have greater natural advantages than thofe
of Barbary, wEo being compelled to roam far from
their coafts, have expenfive outfets : here the prizes
come to their own doors, and the cruizers may be fe-
cure in port until the prey is difeovered.”
In ancient times the Romans were obliged to put on
board their merchant fhips a number of archers to de¬
fend them again!! the attacks of thefe pirates. In mo¬
dern times the pirates have made a confiderable fi¬
gure, particularly under a chief called Mngria, who
rvas fubdued by the Englifh, and his port Gheriah ta¬
ken. They fometimes ufe veffels of 300 tons with
three mafts ; but, in general, they are of 150 tons and
only tw’o mafts. Their cannon are fix and nine poun¬
ders. They make prize of all that do not condefcend
to purchafe their paflports. As the Britiih trade in
thefe feas is carried on in large vefl'els, it does not fuf-
fer from the pirates ; but the Ihips of the Indians are
much expofed to their enterprifes. It is faid, that the
celebrated Hyder Ally eftablilhed a fea port upon this er
coaft at the town of Mangalore, with the view of ac- Mangalore,
complifiling a moft grand but vifionary plan. He had Hyder Al-
formed the proje£! not only of becoming fovereign of^^P^^
the Indian feas, but even retaliating on the Britifti the England. *
invafions they had made into India. To become a na¬
val power he invited fiiipwuights from all countries,
and under them trained his own fubjedls. He had
heard fomething of the eft'efts of froft in cold climates,
and had formed fome ftrange ideas of the folidity and
ftrength, or hardnefs, of the waters of the European
feas. Under the notion, therefore, of combating
again!! oceans of ice, he ftrengthened his ftiips with
planks of great thicknefs. But his port was twice ta¬
ken by Britifh detachments. In 1768 a fleet from
Bombay brought away from it nine great fhips and fe-
veral
A S I [ 733 1 A S I
Afm. veral lefler ones. In 1781, he had nearly finiflied fix
' ■ “ ^ ' fliips of the line, and feveral frigates and Hoops of war,
Wc ter when the port of Mangalore was again captured,
f .akes fjiew It is to be obferved, that the approach to this coaft
the vi'-inity was formerly thought very dangerous. Ships were
of the Pi- hurried forward by fo rapid a current that they could
rate coaft. neither keep their reckoning, nor dillinguilh the coaft
during the rainy feafon. Many veffels were confe-
quently loft. Thefe misfortunes have ceafed, fince an
obfervation wras made of a fa6t noticed by Arrian in
ancient times, that in the Indian ocean, at a certain
• diftance from land, many water ferpents, from 1 2 to 13
inches in length, are to be feen rifing above the fur-
face of the water. "When thefe ferpents are feen, they
indicate that the coaft is precifely two degrees diftant.
This coaft of Concan was anciently denominated the
Lymirica regw. It w^as greatly frequented by Roman
merchants, and is thus fpoken of by Arrian : “ Origi¬
nally they performed only coafting voyages from har¬
bour to harbour, failing from Cana, on the coaft of A-
rabia Felix, till Hippalus, an adventurous feaman, ha¬
ving confidered the fituation of the harbours and the
form of the fea, found out a navigation through the
ocean, at the feafon in which the winds blow' with us
from the fea, and the weft-fouth-weft wind prevails in
the Indian ocean, w'hioh wind is called Hippalus, from
the firft difcoverer of that navigation. From that time
till now, fome fail in a dirett courfe from Cona, others
from the harbour of the Aromati : they who fail for
Lymirica make a longer ftay j others who fteer for
Barygafa or Scythia, rtay not above three days 5 they
fpend the reft of the time in completing their ufual
53 voyage.”
Malabar Southward of Mangalore all the way to Cape Co-
coaft. morin, this fhore receives the appellation ©f the Mala¬
bar coafl. It contains feveral towns, the firft of which
is Tellicherry: From the fhore to the Ghauts, the coun¬
try here and elfewhere is extremely beautiful. Pepper
is the chief article of commerce ; but coffee is alfo cul¬
tivated. There are various other towns of note, par¬
ticularly Mahi, originally a French fettlement, Cali¬
cut, Canganore, Cochin, and Ajenga. The interior
of the level country to the foot of the Ghauts, is co¬
vered w'ith fine forefts, both here and in Concan, W'hich
54 contain that moft valuable of all treafures for the na-
Teekwood. vigation of the Indian fea, the teek wmod, which de-
ferves particular attention. It is an evergreen, and
efteemed a facred tree. The Gentoos repair or build
their pagodas with this timber only, w'hen timber is
at all ufed. Its property of refifting the worm, which
in thefe climates is fo deftruftive to all fliips, renders
it of the utmoft importance. Mr Rennell fpeaks in
the following terms of it : ‘‘I cannot clofe this ac¬
count, without remarking the unpardonable negligence
we are guilty of in delaying to build teek fhips of
war for the ufe of the Indian feas. They might be
freighted home w'ithout the ceremony of regular equip¬
ment, as to mafts, fails, and furniture, wdiich might
be calculated juft to anfwer the purpofe of the home
paffage at the beft feafon, and crew's could be provided
in India. The letter annexed, which wras written
with the beft intentions nine or ten years ago, will ex¬
plain the circumftances of the fame cafe. Teek fhips
of forty years old and upwards, are no uncommon ob-
jeds in the Indian feas, while an European built fliip
is ruined there in five years. The fhips built at Bom- Afia.
bay are the beft, both in point of workmanfhip and 'v" '--i
materials, of any that are conftru&ed in India \ and
although fourth rates only are mentioned in the letter,
there is no doubt but that third rates may be con-
ftruded, as there is a choice of timber. The Spaniards
build capital fhips in their foreign fettlements. The Eaft
India Company have a teek fhip on her fourth voyage
at prefent, which fhip has wintered in England ; there¬
fore, any obje&ion founded on the effeds of froft on
the teek timber, is done away.”
“ Frequent have been the opportunities I have had
of obferving how very rapid the decay of fhips built
of European timber is in the Eaft Indies 5 and, on
the contrary, how durable the fhips are that are built
of the wood of that country, namely, the teek, which
may not be improperly ftyled Indian oak. The num¬
ber of fhips of war that were ruined in thofe feas during
the late war (1757 to 1762), may be admitted as a
proof of the former remark 5 and the great age of the
fliips built in India may ferve to prove the latter.
What I mean to infer from this for your lordihips
ufe is, that fhips of war under third rates may be con-
ftruded in India, and, with moderate repairs, laft for
ages ; whereas a fhip of European conftrudion can re¬
main there but a very few years j to which difadvan-
tage may be added, that of lofmg, in the mean time,
the fervices of the fhips that are fent to relieve the
worn-out ones.”
To the weftward of the Malabar coaft, at the di- Lacealivy
fiance of feveral leagues, are the Laccadive ifles. They ifles.
extend from latitude io° to 120 50' north. They are
fuppofed to be the ifles mentioned by Ptolemy, under
the title of infulce numero 195 though in fa ft they
are 32 in number. They are fmall and covered with
trees. They have fome trade. They export the pro-
duft of the cocoa trees, that is to fay, the oil extraft-
ed from the nut, and cordage formed of the rind.
They alfo export dried fifli to the continent of India,
and receive rice in return. Ambergreafe is frequent¬
ly found floating near thefe iflands. At a confiderable 6
diftance from the Laccadives are the Maidive iflands. Maldives-.
They extend from N. Lat. i.to 7. 25. From their
number, Ptolemy calls them Infulce 1378. The na¬
tives make the number of their ifles amount to J 2,000.
They are divided into 13 provinces under one king,
whofe fubjefts are miferably poor. He aiTumes, how¬
ever, the magnificent title of fultan of the Maldives,
king of 13 provinces, and 1 2,000 ifles : But thefe ifles’
whatever their number may be, are extremely trifling.
A fifhery, however, is carried on in their vicinity ; and
they produce cocoa nuts, w'hich, rvith the cordage pro¬
duced from, that ufeful tree, are fold upon the weftern
coaft of India. Thefe ifles are chiefly w'orthy of notice,
on account of one article obtained from them : this is .
the cowry, a fmall fpecies of fhell, the cyprcea moneta Cowry
of Linnams. 1 hefe fhells, w'hich appear to be pro- die 11s.
duced in the Maldives alone, have been ufed as cur¬
rent coin for ages-paft in different parts of the wmrld.
The fhells are collefted twice in the month, at the full
and new moon, by the women, who wade into the fea
for that puipole up to their middle. Phey are pack¬
ed up in parcels of 12,000 each, and are ufed as cur¬
rent money among the poor in Bengal. As provifions
are exceedingly cheap in that country, it is found ab- '
folutely
ss
Cape Como-
rin.
AS! [734
Afia. folutely neceflary to employ, for the ufe of the common
""■v——' people, fomething lefs valuable than any coin formed
of metal. Thefe (hells or cowries ferve this purpole.
One cowry is rated in Bengal at the hundredth and
lixtieth part of a penny. Eighty cowries make a pun j N
and from 50 to 60 puns are equal to a rupee, or four
(hillings and (ixpence Britilh money. In Africa, in
the country of the negroes, upon the rivers Niger, Se¬
negal, and Gambia, thefe cowries alfo pafs as current
money ; but at about ten times the value that they
bear in Bengal. Hence, the Engliflh, French, and
Hutch, are induced to purchafe them in India, and to
bring them to Europe, from whence they are after¬
wards exported for the purpofes of trade ; and thus,
an ufelefs (hell, brought from the milerable iilands of
which we are now (peaking, comes to be ultimately
employed to purchafe the perfons of men.
Cape Comorin is the mod fouthern part of this pe-
ninfula, and confequently of Hindoflan. It is in N. Lat.
8°. A little to the north of this cape, the Ghauts
terminate. The fea adjacent to it is conlidered by the
natives as facred, and perfons refort thither to perform
ablutions and lullrations. From this point the land
turns towards the north-eaft, along the gulf of Man-
59 ara, which is between the main-land and the ifland of
Ceylon. Ceylon. This ifland was known to the ancients, by
the name of Taprobana. Pliny treats very particular¬
ly concerning' it, and the Arabian geographers of a
later age give it the name of Serenciib. It is rich in
almoft all mineral produclions excepting the diamond,
and pofleffes a fertile foil. On account of the -cinna¬
mon which it produces, the Portuguefe madethemfelves
mailers of the whole of its ports. In 16116, they were
expelled by the Dutch ; who had been invited thither
by the monarch of the bland, to refcue him from the
date of dependance in which he was held by the Por¬
tuguefe. The emperor repaid the Dutch in cinnamon,
all the expence of their efforts in his favour; and in
return, fpeedily found himfelf in the fame dependant
Hate as before his victories over the Portuguefe. The
cunning Dutchmen obtained from him a grant of coaft,
round the ifland, twelve miles in breadth, reckoning from
the fea, and under pretence of defending him from
foreign invafions, they fortified every one of his ports.
Having thus hemmed in his majedy, thefe good allies
had it at all times in their power, by refufing to fell
him fait, to compel him and his fubjefts to fubmit to
any terms they were pleafed to dictate.
It is to be obferved, that the natives of this ifland,
differ totally in their language, and in a confiderable
degree in their religion, from the inhabitants of the
neighbouring continent. They are worflnppers of Bud-
ho or Gaudma, who they believe came upon earth for
the falvation of mankind. They have many pagodas
or temples, which are richly carved. Between the
ifland of Ceylon and the continent, at the narrowed
part of the flrait, is a chain of rocks which runs en¬
tirely acrofs the channel. The length of the chain is
about 30 miles, but the whole is frequently interrupted
by narrow paffages, wThich however are extremely (hal-
•low. It is very probable that this fucceflion of rocks,
at fome period, formed part of an iflhmus, which un¬
ited Ceylon to the continent. Pliny takes notice of
the greenilh cad of this (hallow part of the channel,
of its being filled with (hrubs, that is with corals. On
]
A S I
each fide of the chain of rocks, the w^ater does not ex- Afia.
ceed for fome diilance the depth of 13 or 14 feet. The ^
chain of rocks which, we have now mentioned, is call- 60
ed by the Mahometans Adam's Bridge. Their tradi- Adam’s
tion is, that our common father, after his tranfgreflion, bru!ge-
was cad down from paradife, which they underdand
to have been celedial, and not terredrial, as w;e do;
that he fell upon Ceylon ; but that afterwards this
bridge was made by angels, to enable him to pafs over
to the continent. The highed mountain of the ifland, <54
which is ol a conical form, is called Adam's Peak. On Adam’s
the fummit is a flat done, with an impreflion refem- Pea^-
bling a human foot, which is tw-a feet long. The Ma¬
hometans fay that it is the mark of Adam’s foot; that
he fell from payadife on this fummit, and that Eve fell
near Judda in Arabia. They wTere feparated 200 years,
after which he found his wife, and condudted her to
his old retreat in Ceylon, where he died and w^as bu¬
ried, and where twro large tombs remain, which are vi-
fited by Mahometan pilgrims. But the Pagan inhabi¬
tants of the ifland, alcribe the mark df the foot to
their gi*eat deity Buddo, Budho, or Gaudma, when he
afcended into heaven. To this fummit therefore they
alfo make pilgrimages, and here they offer facrifices,
which by an ancient cullom, defcriptive of a very to¬
lerant fpirit, they give to the Mahometan pilgrims. ^
This fine ifland, with the valuable (pices and other Ceylon re¬
riches which abound in it, is now relinquiflied by the linquiflied
Dutch in favour of the Britifli: and it remains to bet0 Britain,
feen, whether the.natives will find their independence
increafed by this new alteration of the protedlors of
their coaft, and the purchafers of their cinnamon; or
whether the monarch and his people will not as ufual
be kept under controul, by the aid of the monopoly of
fait, an article of immenfe importance in hot climates
where vegetable food is chiefly ufed.
From Cape Comorin north-eaftward to Cape Cal-
mere, in N. Lat. io°. 20'. is above 220 miles. The
country is watered by frequent dreams from the north-
wed, that is, defcending from the eadern fide or fum¬
mit of the Ghauts. At Cape Calmere wdiat is proper-
ly called the Coromandel coajl begins. In the fouthern Coromandel
part of it, is the pearl fifliery, w hich has been well coaft.
known and pradtifed during feveral ages. ^
Around Cape Calmere, is the delta of the river Ca-River Ca-
very, which proceeding from the fouth of the Ghauts, very,
near the wedern (bore of the peninfula, there forms
an extenfive tradi of lowr and fertile land, well fuited
to the cultivation of rice, the grain bed fuited to hot
climates. This delta formed what was called the king¬
dom of Tanjore, now a province belonging to the Britidi
Ead India Company. The river is at one place divi¬
ded by an ifland called Senngham, upon which are two
pagodas or Indian temples, one of wTich is perhaps the
moil famed in Hindoodan for its fandlity, magnitude,
and the vad refort of pilgrims, who go to it from all
quarters. Mr Orm gives the following defcription of 6
this facred retreat. “ It is compofed of feven fquare Pagoda of
enclofures one within the other, the walls of which are Scringham.
20 feet high, and four feet thick. Thefe enclofures 1
are 350 feet didant from one another, and each has
four large gates with a high tower, which are placed,
one in the middle of each fide of the enclolure, and
oppofite to the four cardinal points. The outward wall
is near four miles in circumference, and its gateway to
the
Alia-
; a s i
tl*e foutli is ornamented with pillars
are, {ingle ftones 35 feet long, and nearly five in dia¬
meter j and thofe which form the roof are Hill larger.^
In the inmoft enclolures are the chapels. About bait
a mile to the eaft of Seringham, and nearer to the Ca-
«veri than the Coleroon, is another large pagoda called
JumbakiJina, but this has only one enclofure. 1 he ex¬
treme veneration in which Seringham is held, ariles
from a belief that it contains the identical image of the
god Willchnu, which ufed to be worfiripped by the god
Brachma. Pilgrims from all parts of the peninfula
come here to obtain abfolution, and none come with¬
out an offering of money j and a large part of the re¬
venue of the xlland is allotted for the maintenance of
the Brahmins who inhabit the pagoda j and thefe wfith
their families formerly compofed a multitude not lefs
than 40,000 fouls, maintained without labour by the li¬
berality of fuperftition. Here, as in all the other great
pagodas of India, the Brahmins live in a fubordination
which know7s no reliftance, and (lumber in a voluptu-
oufnefs which knows no wahts; and fenfible of the hap-
pinefs of their condition, they quit not the filence of
their retreats to mingle in the tumults of the (late, nor
point the brand flaming from the altar, againfl; the
authority of the fov’ereign, or the tranquillity of the
government.”
Tranquebar Upon the fame coaft, is fituated the fmall Danilh
and Pondi- fettle me nt of Tranquebar j to the northward of which
dicuv. pon(fjchei.ry belonging to the French, part of which,
at a confiderable diftance, the Britifh fettlement of
Madras fucceeds. Near Pondicherry, the bird called
the vulture is frequently found. This animal is wTell
known to feed upon dead or putrid carcafes. A lingular
circumitance concerning it has been obferved in every
age in the eaftern countries, that though very rare in a
particular quarter, yet when two hoftile armies approach
to give battle to each other, the air is fuddenly teen fill¬
ed with multitudes of them, flying with their ufual flug-
giih wing, from every quarter, to partake of the car¬
nage. Hence in former times they were fuppoied to
poifefs a prophetic inftindt, or prefage of battle, which
led them to feek the fpot of future {laughter three days
before the event. To this opinion Milton alludes,
when he compares the great enemy of mankind to one
of thefe birds.
 “ As w’hen a flock
Alia.
69
65
67
Vultures,
68
Kriflma.
Of ravenous fowl, though many a league remote,
Againfl: the day of battle, to a field
- Where armies lie encamp’d, come flying, lur’d
With fcent of living carcafes defign’d
For death, the following day, in bloody fight;
So fcented the grim feature, and upturn’d
His noftril wide into the murky air,
Sagacious of his quarry from afar.”
Paradife Lq/l, Book X. 1. 2'7 3.
Between Pondicherry and Madras, the river Paliar
enters the fea. Upon this river, about 66 miles above
its mouth, ftands the city of Arcot, the Arcati re¬
gia Sorts of Ptolemy, and Soro-mandalam, corrupted
into the modern Coromandel, giving name to the whole
coaft.
At a confiderable diftance to the north is the great
river Kiftnah or Kriflma in Lat. 15* 43* It riles near
the weftern Ghauts, and like, all the other rivers of this
[ 735 1 „A s 1
feveral of whicli extenfive coaft annually overflow’s a vaft traft of. coun¬
try. Into the north fide of this river, in Lat. 16. 20.
flow^s a great ftream called the river Beetna, which al-
fo rifes at the head of the Ghauts, within 50 miles of
the other' fide of the peninfula. It runs a courfe of
350 miles. To the north of the river Kriflma is the
celebrated and once powerful kingdom of Golconda,
abounding in corn, rice, cattle, flreep, and every ne-
ceffary of life \ alfo in filh, which are found in the
numerous rivers, which in lome places are in a great
meafure formed by art. Dams are made acrofs the
hollows between hills fometimes half a league in
length. Thefe are filled during the rainy feafon, and
the inhabitants introduce the water as it is wanted into
the lower country, w hich, aflifted by the heat of this
climate, produces prodigious fertility.
The river Godavery is the next great ftream upon Godavery,
this eaftern coaft of the peninfula. Like the others,
it rifes near the weftern coaft, and flows towards the
eaft. It is joined by another great river called the
Bain-gonga. The delta of this river is of vaft fertility,
enriched by the foil brought down by the periodical
inundations. To this river fucceeds a flat coaft which,
unlike the more foutherly parts of this eaftern fide of
the peninfula, has behind it, at fome diftance inland, a
barren lofty chain of rude and almoft inacceftible
mountains. The part of the coaft betwixt the fea
and thefe mountains is called the Circars. 'I o the
northward the country defcends regularly towards
the eaft, aS throughout the reft of the peninfula.
In general, however, it is foft and moraffy though fer¬
tile. This country was knowm in the time of Pliny.
It is now called Ori/fa or Orixa, and was in his time
faid to be the feat of the Gangaridce Calingts, whofe
monarch wTas very powerful, being able to bring into
the field 70,000 foot, 1000 horfe, and 500 elephants.
Beyond this part of the Indian territory, at fome di¬
ftance, the mouths of the Ganges begin, forming the
extremity of the bay of Bengal, and of the eaftern fide
of this peninfula. 70
The Ganges is the moft celebrated of all the eaftern Ganges,
rivers, being in every part of its courfe held facred by
the original inhabitants of the country. It periodical¬
ly overflow's an immenfe extent of fertile territory,
formed by the depofition of mud, which in the courfe
of ages it has brought down from the higher country.
Compared to this mighty ftream, the Egyptian Nile
finks into infignificance, and the fertility which it pro¬
duces is trifling. So completely is the whole of this
country formed by the alluvions of its river, that there
is not a ftone quarry on the banks of the Ganges for
the fpace of 500 miles. The depth of the river
to that diftance is 30 feet. Immediately at the
mouth, however, it is obftrufted by the rnud brought
dowm by its own floods, fo that its eaftern or true
channel cannot be entered by large veffels. The Hoogly,
channel called the Hoogly river, upon which the
city of Calcutta {lands, is the moft ufeful of it|
mouths, being that which is .entered by large veffels,
though even at the mouth of this branch great danger «
is experienced from numbers of longitudinal banks at
its entrance formed by the mud or fand brought down
and depofited there by the waters of the river. There-
are fome other branches alfo which may be entered
during,the rainy feafon, or at its clofe. At the grjeat,
trail
A S I
7*
Source of
traft which faces the bay is a colle&ion of flat iflands,
' divided by a labyrinth of canals covered with trees, and*
forming altogether a foreit as large as the principality
of Wales. The head of the delta is 2 20 miles from
the fea in a ftraight line. The numerous channels which
pals through it in every direttion, form a complete in-
land navigation along the lower parts. Ships fail
amidft a foreft divided into numberlels ifles by a con¬
tinual labyrinth of channels, fo various in breadth that
a veffel has at one time her marts almoft entangled in
trees, while at another (he parties uninterruptedly along
a capacious river beautifully flickered with woods.
Thefe woods, however, are dreadfully infefted by tigers,
to which the pious Hindoos, wdien coming on a pilgri¬
mage, to w7alh themfelves in the facred rtream, are apt
to fall a prey.
the Ganges. • It:.^as been already mentioned, that this great river
b ’rifes in the fouthern part of the high central region of
Afia. The territory round its fource is called the
kingdom of Thibet, and is in about Lat. 33. 10. From
thence the Ganges proceeds to a confiderable diftance
weftward, among lofty and favage mountains, after
which it precipitates itfelf into a vaft and deep chafm,
from which, at a great diilance, it efcapes after a courfe*
in all of 800 miles from its origin, and enters at once
as from a iecond fource into the vaft and fertile plains
of Hindooftan. Through thefe it runs navigable wdth
an eafy and fmooth current 1320 miles, till it reaches
the fea. The place at which it emerges through a
gap or divifion of the lofty Imaus or fouthern front of
Tartary is called Hurdwar. In this neighbourhood
the mountains are covered with lofty fpires of ice
overlooking the torrid plains of India. Into the Ganges
flow multitudes of great rivers from each fide, w'hich
give a matchlefs inland navigation. It receives in its
courfe through the plains eleven rivers, fome of which
are equal in fize to the Rhine, and none lefs than the
Thames. It maintains 30,000 boatmen by the car¬
riage of fait and food for ten millions of people in the
province of Bengal, and all this independant of its
fifheries, and of its different exports and imports. Where
it partes through valleys which require not the aid of
its inundations to aflift the fertility of the foil, the coun¬
try is defended by vaft dikes, which are kept up at an
enormous expence. One branch of the Ganges is thus
confined for the extent of 70 miles, fo that when the
river is full, paffengers in (hips and boats look down
on each fide as from a lofty eminence into the adjacent
country. Its wraters are periodically increafed by the
tropical rains, and by the melting of the fnows in the
mountains of Tartary adjacent to its fource; it then
aflumes the appearance of a fea of almoft boundlefs ex¬
tent. When the-rains fubfide the wrater quickly partes
away, and in its ftead there fuddenly afcends to view a
fertile country, which, by the rapidity of tropical ve¬
getation, is almoft inftantly covered with corn fields
and other plantations, fome of the iflands of the Ganges
producing three or four crops yearly.
The moft important of the rivers which join the
Ganges is the Jumna from the fouth. It proceeds
through a very fertile country; and Delhi and Agra,
the ancient Mogul capitals, are fituated upon it.
Though the waters of the Ganges are in every part
held facred, yet they are doubly fo at their junftion
with the Jumna, which is alfo accounted facred. The
[ 736 ]
A S I
Afia,
73
Jumna
city, which ftands at the junflion or forks of the two
rivers is therefore called Allahabad or the City of God.'
At fome diftance below this is the city and diftriift: of
Benares, the great feat of the Hindoo fciences, in which
the Brahmins inftruft immenfe numbers of pupils in
their religion, contained in books written in, what is
now a dead language, the Sanfcrit. Many other great
cities ftand upon this river, of which it is unneceffary
here to take notice. The whole country naturally en¬
joys extreme fertility, and being poffeffed by an induf-
trious people it abounds with inhabitants.
I o the north-eaft of Bengal, which is the province Bootam
at the moutn of the Ganges, the high country of
Bootan is fituated near the foot of the mountains that
overlook the plains pf Hindooftan. Here the great
chain of Emodus, caped with eternal fnow, (hows it¬
felf to the inhabitants of Hindooftan, over the leffer
hills which guard its approach. On the eaftward of
the Ganges the river Burrampooter alfo falls into the Bummpcc-
bay of Bengal. This river is fuperior to the Ganges in ter. * *
fize and in extent of courfe. It rifes, like it, in the
fouthern part of the high region of Tartary, but flows
eaftward, and as its channel lies among rugged rocks
and mountains inhabited only by fcattered and bar¬
barous tribes, it is of little renown, and till lately was
unnoticed by ftrangers though its mouth is clofe to the
mouth of the Ganges. It has only been difcovered
to be a firft rate river fo late as the year 1765. Be¬
yond the lower part of the Burrampooter Hindoo¬
ftan fpeedily terminates to the eaft, at a narrow chain of
mountains running from north to fouth, the laft pro¬
vince receiving the appellation of Chittagong. This
province proceeds only to a (hort diftance fouthward
along the eaftern fhore of the bay of Bengal.
The great country of Hindooftan, from the Panjab
and the courfd of the Indus on the weft, to the lower
part of the Burrampooter and Chittagong on the eaft,
and from the front of Tartary on the north to Cape
Comorin on the fouth, has undoubtedly, from the moft
diftant ages been one of the moft fertile and populous
regions on the globe. Its civilization runs back to
the remoteft periods, and the monuments of ancient
magnificence which it exhibits are innumerable. When
Alexander the Great invaded the weftern part of it,
he found it, as it now is, filled with an induftrious,
wealthy, and civilized people, poffefling the fame reli¬
gion and manners as at prefent. In its original ftate
it does not appear that India, like China, was ever
united under one government, unlefs when fubjefted
to a foreign yoke. It wmuld feem to have been divided
into a great number of independent principalities, and
it has always had a tendency to fall back into that
ftate, a circumftance which has rendered its different
parts an eafy prey to foreigners. The Hindoos are achar7a^er
mild and humane people ; but they are at the fame time of the Hin-
an extremely ina&ive, timid, and feeble race of men, dcos.
patient of infults and injuftice, fo that all invaders have
been able to fubdue them. A Tartar conqueft intro¬
duced the Mahometan religion and a feudal govern¬
ment into their country, and changed their language
for that of Perfia, though to this day the Mahometans
are only as one to ten of the population. The Britifti
alfo coming from an ifland of the Weftern ocean, have,
with an handful of men, been able to become their
makers. A remnant, indeed, of Hindoo independence
exifts
A S I [737
Afia. exifts in wliat are called the Mahmtta Jlates, upon the ar
v J fummit of the Ghauts in the weftern part of the penin-
lula ^ but this independence they will not probably be
long able to preferve. Even in the ordinary exertions
of life the Hindoos aft like men deftitute of energy.
As carpenters, for example, they perform their work
with much neatnefs and dexterity, but they employ
fmall and light tools, which to men of a more vigorous
charafter and habit, appear contemptible; and when
an ordinary beam is to be turned over, an affiftant la¬
bourer muft give his aid, of which an European work¬
man would not perceive the neceffity ; but the Hindoos
living in a country in which labour is extremely cheap,
are accuftomed to fupply by numbers their own defi¬
ciency of energy of mind or of ftrength of body.
A general imbecility of charafter feems indeed to
mark this nation, or an incapacity to make any vigor¬
ous effort of felf command. In matters of intelleft
they are flaves of imagination and of education. On
the banks of, the Ganges, in a fertile climate, in which
human life is eafily fuilained, and the conftitution na¬
turally prone to indolence, a fuperffition has been invent¬
ed which feems to have, proved a fource of the greateft
misfortunes to the nation. Not only is the imagina¬
tion filled, and the exercife of the underflanding in¬
jured, by endlefs legends or tales about the transfigu¬
ration of their divinities, but a fet of ceremonies and
regulations is introduced which places every part of
life under controul. The whole people are divided in¬
to tribes or hereditary caffs. A member of one of
thefe caffs cannot marry into a different caff without
contrafting impurity, and being for ever difhonoured
or driven out of his tribe. A Hindoo is not permit¬
ted by his religion to eat with a ffranger, or even to
drink water that has been drawn by impure hands,
that is to fay, by perfons belonging to a different caff.
One caff only, the Rajaputes, are permitted to eat ani¬
mal food, but the reft are compelled by their religion
to live upon vegetables alone. Endlefs minute obfer-
vances in their eatings are alfo impofed upon them,
founded on the notion of the poffibility of contrafting
pollution in this way. Thus are the Hindoos, though
a mild and humane race, rendered in the moft ordi¬
nary aftions of life, the moft unfocial as well as the
moft irrational of mankind. Being occupied at every
moment by fome religious ceremony or other, and fill¬
ed with the dread of pollution, they appear contemp¬
tible to thofe ftrangers whom they avoid as profane or
impure. From the impoflibility, in this manner im¬
pofed upon them, of uniting in any refpeft with the
Tartars who conquered their country, they have funk
into a degraded and defpifed race } whereas, could they
have united or mingled with the invaders, they muft
ipeedily have become as one people, and the evils re-
fulting from conqueft would gradually have been for¬
gotten. 1 hey have perfevered for ages in the fame
intelleftual errors, becaufe they have got polfeflion of
their imaginations, and becaufe they want energy to
calf off any habit or train of thought to which they
have once fubmitted.
The Hindoos appear to be no lefs deftitute of felf
command in their aftive than in their intelleftual
powers. Hence arifes the unbounded fuperiority in all
military enterprifes which the Europeans poffefs over
them. The attack of their armies is thus defcribed by
Vox.. II. Part. II.
] A S I
an ingenious writer : “ It may perhaps afford fome
meafure of gratification to European curiofity, to be v‘
informed, that the undiiciplined troops of Afia, general¬
ly inflamed with bang and other intoxicating drugs,
pour forth, as they advance, a torrent of menacing
and abufive language on their adverfaries. Every ex,-
preflion of contempt and averfion, every threat, fitted
to make any impreflion of terror, or to excite ideas of
horror, that cuftom readily prefents or inventive fancy
can fuggeft, accompanies the utmoft fei'ocity of looks,
voice, and gefture. A murmuring found, with clouds
of duff, announce their approach, wdiile they are yet
at the diffance of feveral miles. As they advance,
their accents are more and more diftinftly heard, until
at laft, with their eyes fixed and weapons pointed at
fome individual, they devote him, with many execrations,
to deftruftion, giving his flefli, like the heroes in
Homer and the Philiftine warriors, to the dogs, and the
birds of the air and the beafts of the field. The num¬
bers of the Afiatic armies, the ferocity of their manner,
and the novelty of their appearance, would unnerve
and overcome the hearts of the fmall European bodies
that are oppofed to them in the field of battle, if ex¬
perience had not fufficiently proved how much the
filence of difcipline excels barbarian noife 5 and uni¬
formity of deiign and aftion, the defultory efforts of
brutal force, afting by ftarts, and liable to the conta¬
gion of accidental impreflion.”
Indeed the fuperiority of Europeans over Hindoos is
fo great, that it is never balanced by almoft any differ¬
ence in point of numbers. If a body of European
troops is only fufficiently numerous to cover a tolerable
extent of ground, fo that one part of them may reft
wdxile the other is on guard, and that advantage may
be taken of the viftory wffien gained, the event of the
war is uniformly unfavourable to the feeble natives of
this region. There feems to exift a defeft in their
moral nature, to which military difcipline cannot afford
a remedy. An European gentleman, though a ftranger
to the ufe of arms, if called upon by what he accounts
his honour or his duty, is able, with an tfhchanging
countenance, to meet the hazard of inftant death, and
can take the chance of giving or receiving deftruftion
with little paffion, and without exhibiting the external
fymptoms either of anger or of fear. The cafe is dif¬
ferent with the mild and timid inhabitants of Hindoo-
ftan; they cannot meet danger w ith coolnefs and re-
colleftion, but are under the neceffity of working
themfelves into a rage, which enables them to rufh upon
perils which they are unable calmly to encounter.
Thus their fury is irregular and fruitlefs, like that of
men under the influence of intoxication, while at the
fame time, if their paffion decline for an inftant, they
are feized wdth fudden terror, and under its influence
fometimes rufh into greater perils than they wiftied to
avoid. They poffefs throughout their country fortreffes
fituated upon elevated and precipitous mountains, or
furrounded by works of art of inconceivable folidity
and ftrength. Many of thefe fortreffes, under defence,
would prove abfolutely impregnable, and in this ardent
climate the armies of their northern invaders might
perilh miferably before them ; but thefe fortreffes the
Hindoos have been utterly unable to defend. They
cannot long remain coolly and without paffion on the
defenlive 3 in fome moment or other of weaknefs they
5 A become
Afia.
A S I [ 738 ] A S I
Afi®* become panic (truck, and all is loll. They call them-
' v—i'elves headlong from the fummit of the walls, and
fometimes, having murdered their wives and children,
they call themfelves upon the weapons of their anta*
gonilts; finding death in this manner, though the agi¬
tation that accompanies their blind fury, prevents them
^ from finding revenge for their calamities.
What ad- In every age, the inhabitants of Hindooltan, who
vantages want nothing from the reft of mankind, have received
anfe from an(j £lver Gf other nations in return for the
tour'f^with Preci°us productions of their favoured foil: the fugar,
Hindooltan. th6 fpices, the gems, and the valuable manufadtures of
the country, have at all times been fought, either by
commerce or by conqueft. Rut excepting thefe pro-
dudtions of nature, or of art, it does not appear that
any valuable advantages can be derived from an inter-
courfe with the people. Notwithftanding the high an¬
tiquity of their civilization, they are inferior in every
branch of fcience to ourfelves. Their moral and poli¬
tical fpeculations are extremely trifling, fo far at leall
as has hitherto been difcovered. Their poetry may
have its beauties, but it undoubtedly equals not the
produdlions of the north-weftern regions, that is, of
Europe. It is probable, that the only branch of valu¬
able knowledge which could be injproved by an in-
tercourfe with the people of thefe countries is, that
which concerns the conftrudlion of different machines,
or the performance of proceffes connected with the va¬
rious parts of manufadturing, agricultural, or domellic
oeconomy. They are underftood to pofiefs feveral
machines of wonderful fimplicity, and to perform ma¬
ny proceffes in an'eafier and lefs expenfive mode than
we are accuftomed to do in Europe. They ufed, from
time immemorial, the drill plough, which with us is a
late invention. Their hand-mills for grinding grain
are at once Ample and effedlual ; as alfo their procefs
of diflillation. It ought to be recolledled by the Eu¬
ropean nations, that they are but of yefterday when
compared with the Hindoos 5 though we have outrun
them in the career of intelledf, or of general fcience,
yet the improvement of the proceffes and inftruments
connedted with the oeconomy of ordinary life requires
various fucceffive experiments, which can only be per¬
formed during a great length of time, efpecially if
thefe proceffes are not ufually performed by perfons
converfant in the higheft walks of literature. All
newly invented machines and proceffes are apt to be
complex, expenfive, and imperfedl. It is only after
repeated trials and alterations that they are reduced
to that fimplicity which conftitutes their excellence.
Ample leifure has been allowed for thefe trials and im¬
provements in the civilized nations of the Eaft 5 and
the fimplicity of their machines, which dedudls from
their apparent importance, ought to be regarded as
their perfedlion. They were probably invented by
more ingenious men than thofe who now ufe them,
and they probably had the fame imperfedtions by which
ours are at prefent affedled 5 but fucceeding genera¬
tions gradually improved them, and they have at laft
come down into the poffeffion of a degenerate race,
incapable of difcerning the value of tools in whofe
conilrudlion there is no feeming intricacy, though their
gradual progrefs to the prefent date may have requi¬
red much exertion from fucceffive minds poffeffed of
great energy and ingenuity. We may take the liber¬
ty to fuggeft, therefore, to fuch of our countrymen as Afia.
have occafion to refide for any length of time among v " *
this ancient people, that one of the moll valuable fer-
vices which they can perform to fociety in Europe
might confift of executing and tranfmitting accurate
defcriptions of the different tools and machinery made
ufe of by the Hindoos, and of the proceffes ufed by
them in the different branches of their domeftic oeco¬
nomy and management. The difcovery of the ancient
code of Roman law at Amalphi in Italy, together with
the introdudlion of Grecian literature after the taking
of Conftantinople by the Turks, gave to the Europe¬
an nations immenfe afliftance in their progrefs to civi¬
lization, by exhibiting to them the pradlices and the
fentiments of a former enlightened age, and thereby
abridging their labour in the purfuit of intelleftual im¬
provement. A fimilar aid, or abridgment of the la¬
bours of invention, would in all probability be derived
from a minute acquaintance with the pradffices and ma¬
chinery employed with luccefs during fo many ages in
the oeconomy of Hindoftan.
Leaving this mild, but timid and feeble race of men, Eaftern pe-
we pafs to the eaftern peninfula of India, a narrow ninfula of
part of which ftretches under the name of Malacca to
wflthin twro degrees of the equator. Before advancing
to the main land, how-ever, w^e may notice towards the
fouth-eaftern part of the bay of Bengal a group of Hies
called the Andamans, chiefly remarkable on account of Andaman
the lingular people by wffiom they are inhabited. They ifles.
are the northern divifion of a number of fmall iftands,
llretching from io° 32' to 130 40'N. Lat. and from
90° 6' to 920 9' E. Long. : the fouthern divifion of
thefe ifles is called the Nicobars, inhabited by a mild
and inoffenfive people. What is called the Great An¬
daman, the chief of the northern divifion of illands, is
140 miles in length, and 2o in breadth. A fettlement
wras eltablilhed upon it by the Britilh in 1793, and con-
vi6ls are tranfported thither from Bengal. All that
voyagers have related of uncivilized life is faid to fall
Ihort of the barbarifm of the people of Andaman. The
ferocious natives of New Zealand, or the fhivering
half animated favages of Terra del Fuego, are in a
Hate of refinement, compared to thefe iflanders. The
population of the Great Andaman and its dependen¬
cies amounts to little more than 2000 fouls, whofe foie
occupation it is to rove along the margin of the fea in
quell of a precarious meal of filh, which during the
tempeftuous feafon they often feek in vain. In ftature,
the Andamaners feldom exceed f^ve feet. Their limbs
are difproportionably (lender, their bellies protuberant,
with high fhoulders and large heads; and, ftrange to
find in this part of the world, they are a degenerate
race of negroes, vfith woolly hair, flat nofes, and thick
lips. Their eyes are fmall and red ; their Ikin of a
deep footy black ; whilll their countenances exhibit
the extreme of wretchednefs, a mixture of famine and
ferocity. They go quite naked, and are infenfible of
any lhame from expofure. Two young women, allu-cm~
red by the temptation of filh, were "fecured, and brought toAva.
on board a Ihip at anchor in the harbour: the captain
treated them with great humanity : They foon got rid
of all fear of violence, except what might be offered to
their chaftity, which they guarded with unremitting
vigilance. Although they had a fmall apartment al¬
lotted to themfelves, and had no real caufe for appre-
henfion,
A S I [ 739 ] A S I
Afia. henfion, one always ‘watched while the other llept.
’■“v They fuifered clothes to be put on, but took them off
again as foon as opportunity offered, and threw them
away as ufelefs incumbrances. When their fears were
over they became cheerful, chattered with freedom,
and were inexpreffibly diverted at the fight of their
own perfons in a mirror. They were fond of finging,
fometimes in melancholy recitative, at others in a lively
key ; and often danced about the deck with great agi¬
lity, flapping their pofteriors with the back of their
heel. Wine and fpirituous liquors were difagreeable
to them ; no food feemed fo palatable as fifii, rice, and
fugar. In a few weeks, having recovered ftrength,
and become fat, from the more than half-famifiied ftate
in which they were brought on board, they began to
think confinement irkfome, and longed to regain their
native freedom. In the middle of the night, when all
but the watchmen were afleep, they palled in filence
through the captain’s cabin, jumped out of the Hern
windows into the fea, and fwam to an ifland half a mile
diftant, where it was in vain to purfue them, had there
been any fuch intention ; but the obje£t was, to retain
them by kindnefs, not bycompulfion ; an attempt that
has failed on every trial. Hunger may (and thefe in-
ftances are rare) induce them to put themfelves in the
power of ftrangers ; but the moment that want is fa-
tisfied, nothing Ihort of coercion can prevent them from
returning to a way of life more congenial to their fa-
vage nature. The few implements they ufe are of the
rudeft texture ; a bow from four to five feet long j the
firing made of the fibre of a tree, or a flip of bamboo,
with arrows of reed, headed with fifii bone, or wood
hardened in the fire, is their principal weapon. Be-
fides this, they carry a fpear of heavy wood, fharply
pointed, and a fiiield made of bark, to defend them¬
felves from the affaults of their enemies j for even thefe
poor wretches have rights to affert and dignities to
maintain. Necefiity has taught them an expert ma¬
nagement of their arms, on which they rely for fubfilf-
ence. Happily for them, their numerous bays and
creeks abound with fifli, which they (hoot and fpear
with furprifing dexterity. They are faid alfo to ufe a
fmall hand-net made of the filaments of bark : the fifti,
W'hen caught, are put into a wicker bafket, which they
carry on their backs. Having kindled a fire, they
throw the food on the coals, and devour it half-broiled.
A few diminutive fwine are to be found in the fkirts of
the forefis, and among the mangrove thickets in the
low grounds; but thefe are very fcarce, and are pro¬
bably the progeny of a flock left by former naviga¬
tors. When a native has the good fortune to flay one,
he carefully preferves the fkull and teeth, to ornament
his hut. They crofs the bays, and go to fifii, either in
canoes formed of a hollow tree, or on rafts of bamboo,
which they direfl by paddles. Their habitations dif-
play little more ingenuity than the dens of wild beaftsj
four flicks ftuck in the ground are bound together at
the top, and faftened tranfverfely by others, to which
branches of trees are fufpended ; an opening is left on
one fide, juft large enough to admit of entrance ;—
leaves compofe their bed. Being much incommoded
by infefts, their firft occupation in a morning is to pla-
fter their bodies all over with mud, which, hardening-
in the fun, forms an impenetrable annour. They paint
their woolly heads with red ochre and water. When
thus completely dreffed, a more hideous appearance is Alia,
not to be found in human form. 1 w
Although their principal food confifts of fifli, yet
they eagerly feize on whatever elfe prefents itfelf: li¬
zards, guanas, rats, and fnakes, fupply a change of re-
paft. The vegetable diet of the Andamaners confifts
of the natural produce of the woods, in which the re-
fearches of Europeans find little that is palatable or
nutritious. The fruit of the mangrove is principally
ufed, having often been found in their deferted habita¬
tions, fteeping in an embanked puddle of water. As
they have no pot or veffel that can bear the a£tion of
fire, they cannot derive much advantage from fuch ef-
culent herbs as the forefts may contain ; indeed, their
extenuated and difeafed figures too plainly indicate the
want of wholefome nourifliment. Unhappily for them,
the cocoa-nut, which thrives in the utmoft luxuriance
in the neighbouring ifles, is not to be found here 5 but
they are extremely fond of it ; and whenever a nut
was left in their way by the fettlers, it was immediately
carried off with much apparent fatisfadfion.
There are feveral forts of trees on the ifland ; among
which are, the Jicus religiofa, or banyan tree, the al¬
mond tree, and the oil tree ; which latter grows to a
great height, and from it a very ufeful oil is thus pro¬
duced :—A horizontal incifion being made in the
trunk, fix or eight inches deep, a chip fourteen or fif¬
teen inches long is cut at right angles, and the furface
of the incifion being hollowed and filled with live coals,
the turpentine, or wood oil, exudes copioufly from the
top of the wound. The peniagre tree is alfo found,
and is -well adapted for the knees of fhips; and the
iron tree, of ftupendous fize, whofe timber almoft bids
defiance to the axe of the wood-cutter 5 the red wood,
which makes beautiful furniture, little inferior to fine
mahogany. Befides thefe, there are numberlefs creepers
and rattans which furround the Items of the larger trees,
and, interwoven with each other, form fo thick a hedge. -
that it is impoffible to penetrate far into the forefts, but
by the flow and laborious procefs of cutting a road.
It is a fort of hiftorical myftery how a race of ne¬
groes fhould be here found, a people fo widely differ¬
ing, not only from all the inhabitants of that vaft con¬
tinent in which the ifland of Andaman is embayed,
but alfo from the natives of the Nicobar iflands, which
are immediately contiguous to it. Some have fuppo-
fed, that a Portuguefe veffel, early jn the fixteenth
century, laden with flaves from Africa, may have been
call on thefe fliores, and that the prefent Andamaners
are the defcendants of fuch as efcaped drowning. This
conjedfure, however, is proved to be erroneous, from an
account of the Andamaners given by two Mahometan
travellers, long before the navigation of thofe feas bv
Europeans. But an accident fimilar to that now lug-
gefted may pofiibly, at fome period or other, have oc¬
curred to an Arabian veffel, as that people are known
to have failed upon the Indian ocean as early as the fe-
venth century 5 and they hot only explored the conti¬
nent of India as far as the Chinefe fea, but likewife
gained a "knowledge of moft of the Eaftern iflands.
Returning from thefe iflands to the province called
Chittagong, which forms the extremity on the eaft of
the Britiftr Eaft India Company’s poffeflions, as well
as the boundary in that quarter of the territory of Hin-
dooftan, we enter upon the farther or eaftern peninfula
5 A 2 of
A S I • [ 74o ] A S I
Alla. of India. From Chittagong, proceeding fouthward
~Y—along the eaftern fhores, the coaft is fertile and rich for
a confiderable ditfance within land, forming the an-
80 cient kingdom of Aracan. Parallel to the coaft runs
Aracan. a chain of lofty and precipitous mountains, forming
the boundary of Aracan to the eaftward. Beyond
thefe mountains eaftward is a level and fertile country,
containing rivers which, defcending from the regions
of High Tartary already mentioned, defcend fouth¬
ward along the peninfula, fertilizing the foil by their
periodical floods, and forming at their mouths a great
extent of low and fertile territory, or delta land. The
country to the fouth-eaft of Aracan is called Pegu ;
that to the eaft has long been called Ava by Europe¬
ans, from the name of the former capital, but is called
8r by the people of the country, Birmah, and the people
JBirmah. themfelves Birmans. This laft people, the Birmans,
have recently fubdued both of the kingdoms called
Pegu and Aracan^ and form at the prefent period a ri¬
ling empire of great importance in the eaft, and well
deferving our attention. Though their territories are
only divided from thofe of the Britifli Eaft India Com¬
pany by a narrow chain of mountains, and at one place
by a trifling river called the Naaf, yet it was only ve¬
ry lately that they were at all known to the Europe¬
ans in that quarter as a neighbouring power of any
conftderation, our connexion with them having for¬
merly been merely in the way of commerce carried on
from their fouthern ports, near the mouth of the bay of
Bengal. The following circumftance gave rife to far¬
ther inquiries concerning them :—The trade of Ara¬
can had fullered by the attacks of fome robbers, or pi¬
rates, who infefted the rivers near the coaft. They
conveyed their plunder acrofs the river Naaf into the
Chittagong province, where, being fecured from pur-
fuit under the proteftion of the Britifh flag, they dif-
pofed of their fpoils to advantage, and lived at eafe till
returning want impelled them to refume their preda¬
tory excurfions. On its being afcertained that three
of the moft diftinguiihed of the robbers had fought re¬
fuge in the Britiih diftricts, the king or emperor of
the Birmans fent one of his officers into the Eaft India
Company’s territories at the head of 5000 men, with
injundtions to the commander to bring with him the
delinquents, dead or alive, and not to return without
them. To fupport this detachment, an army of
20,000 men was held in readinefs at Aracan.
S2 Senee Nunda Kiozo, the Birman chief, having crof-
jBirman nr- fed the river Kaaf, and encamped within the Compa-
my entered ny’s territory on the weftern bank, fent a letter to the
territory In magiftrate of Chittagong, acquainting him of
India. the reafons for the inroad ; that the feizure of the de¬
linquents was his foie objecl, without harbouring any
defign of hoftility againft the Englilh. At the fame
time he declared, that, till the delinquents were given
up, he would not depart from the Company’s territo¬
ry. In confirmation of this threat, he fortified his
camp with a ftockade. Thefe matters being reported
to the Britifli government at Calcutta, tlie refugees
were ordered to be apprehended and kept in cuftody 5
and, in the mean time, detachments of Europeans, and
of Indian troops in their fervice, called Sepoys, with
proper artillery, were fent to the fpot under Major
General Erfkine. On the approach of General Er-
ikine, the Birman general fent a flag of truce, to pro-
pofe terms of accommodation, ftipulating for the fur- Alla,
render of the fugitive pirates as the bafis of the agree-
ment. It was replied, that no propofal could be li-
ftened to while the Birmans continued on the Britiih
territory that, unlefs they departed from it in a li¬
mited time, force would be ufed ; but that, if they
would withdraw peaceably, the fubjedl of their com¬
plaints would be difcufied. On receiving this anfwer,
the Birman chief, with a manly confidence in the cha-
racler of his antagonifts which commanded refpedf,
perfonally waited on General Erlkine, and ftated the
nature of his inftruftion, the enormity of the offenders,
and the outrages they had committed. General Er¬
lkine affured him that the Britiih government had no
defire to afford an afylum to robbers ; that it had no
objection to do juftice j but infilled, that in the firft
inftance, the Birmans ought to retire peaceably from
the Britifh territory. The Birman general, in confe-
quence of thefe affurances, profeffed his reliance on
General Erlkine, and agreed to withdraw his troops.
The retreat was conduced in the moft orderly man¬
ner ; and lo ftridl was the difcipline of the Birman ar¬
my, that not one irregular aft was committed while
they remained within the Company’s territory. The
charges againft the refugees were afterwards inveftiga-
ted, and their guilt being clearly elfablilhed, they were
delivered over to their own laws, by whofe fentence
two out of the three underwent capital punilhment.
This event called the attention of the Britiih go¬
vernment in India towards the Birmans, a people evi¬
dently of a fuperior charafter to the Hindoos, w hofe
territory w5as in their vicinity, and with whom, by
their fouthern ports, a very extenfive commerce had,
within a few years, fprung up ; wdiich, in the fingle
article of teek-wood, already required an annual return
of Indian commodities to the amount of 200,000!. fter-
ling. It therefore appeared a matter of importance to
enter into fomething in the nature of a commercial
treaty with this power, at leaft to the efteft of obtain-
ing regular proteftion for our merchants when vifiting
their ports. With this view, and to obtain farther in¬
telligence concerning the nature of the government,
the charafter of the people, and the advantages to be
derived from intercourfe with them, the governor ge¬
neral of Bengal, Sir John Shore, fent by fea to the prin¬
cipal Birman port a regular embaffy ; at the head of
which was Michael Symes, Efq; then a captain in the Britifh em-
Britiflr army. From the information obtained and pub-baffy to the
lilhed in confequence of this embafly, the following ac- Brmans.
count of the Birmans and their empire is extrafted. Ylc*e ,
As already noticed, the Birman empire extends *eK'
along the weflern coaft of the eaftern peninfula of In¬
dia, or forms the eaftern fide of the bay of Bengal.
It approaches the frontier of China on the north-eaft,
and is limited on the north by the rugged and moun¬
tainous country which forms the fouth-eaftern front of
the high region of Tartary, being a continuation to
this quarter of the great chain of Imaus. From the
foot of that elevated region, this, like the weftern pen¬
infula of India defeends gradually to the fouth, and
the rivers proceed in that direftion till the largeft of
them terminate near Cape Negrais in the fouth-eaftern
quarter of the bay of Bengal, where the coaft turns
fuddenly eaftward to a confiderable diftance; after
which it proceeds as formerly to the fouth. The prin¬
cipal.
A S I
Afia.
84
Hiftory of
the Bir¬
mans.
8S
Alompra,
firtt of the
prefen t.
Birman dy
nalty.
86
Aiompra’s
rebellion.
cipal towns of the Birman empire hand
rivers •, and the Britilh ertibaffy failed up the chief ri¬
ver, the Irrawaddy or Brabatty, to a great diftance,
till they reached Ummerapoora, the prefent capital of
the Birman dominions.
The Birmans and the people of Pegu have long
been rival Hates. The Birmans, though formerly fub-
jeft to the king of Pegu, revolted about the middle of
the lixteenth century, and appear to have acquired a
fuperiority over the Peguers which continued down
to about the year 1740. At that period a war took
place, which was profecuted on both Tides with favage
ferocity ■, but as the Peguers, living to the fouth-
ward near the mouth of the navigable rivers already
mentioned, had a conliderable intercourfe with Euro¬
pean traders, from whom they could purchafe better
arms than are manufactured in the eaft, they gradu¬
ally obtained a fuperiority, and gained feveral viftories
over the Birmans in the years 1750 and 1751. Thefe
advantages were fo vigoroully profecuted, that in the
year 1752 the Birman capital Ava wasinvefted. 1 he
Birmans, dilpirited by repeated defeats, and probably
ill commanded, after a Ihort fiege Diveepdee, the lad
of a long line of kings, wras made prifoner with all
his family, except two Ions who efcaped to Siam.
Beinga Della, king of Pegu, left his brother Apporaza
as governor of Ava, and carried to Pegu the captive
Birman king. Thus a complete conqueft appeared to
be efTs£ted. The landholders and principal inhabitants
of the country round Ava fubmitted, and took an oath
of allegiance to the king of Pegu, who in an infolent
proclamation, announced the annexation of the Bir¬
man country to the Pegu monarchy. In the mean time,
a Birman of low extraction, Alompra, afpired to be¬
come the deliverer of his country. He had fubmitted
like the reft, and was continued by the conqueror in
the command of an inconfiderable village Moncha-
boo. Plere he had no more than 100 devoted fol¬
lowers, upon whofe intrepidity and fidelity he could rely.
This village, like moll of the Birman towns, was fur-
rounded by a ftockade. This he ftrengthened and re¬
paired without awakening any fufpicion in the Pegu
conquerors, who never fufpe&ed that fo inconfiderable a
perfon would attempt a rebellion. In Aiompra’s vil¬
lage of Monchaboo there w'ere/no more than 50 Pegu
foldiers, who treated the Birmans with great arrogance :
Taking advantage of the indignation excited by fome
particular aft of indignity, Alompra encouraged his
followers to attack the Pegu foldiers, and he put every
one of them to the fword. Even after this aft of re¬
bellion, Alompra difguifed his intention with a view
to gain time. He wrote to the brother of the Pegu
king Apporaza, who had been left governor of Ava,
exprefting much humility and regret for what had
happened, profefling his fidelity to the Pegu govern¬
ment, and reprefenting the maffacre as the refult of an
accidental quarrel between the Pegu foldiers and the
people of his village. Thefe affurances prevented vi¬
gorous meafures from being taken with fulficient fpeed
againft him. Apporaza, having prefling bufinefs at
Pegu, left Ava under the government of his nephew
Dotachew, with inftruftions to keep Alompra as a pri¬
foner. Accordingly about a thoufand men w7ere fent
to occupy Aiompra’s turbulent village, and to fend
himfelf to Ava. They expefted no oppofiticn, and
[ 74i ] . A . s 1
upon the came ill prepared for it. They were not a little dil- ^
concerted to find the gates of the ftockade around the v
village ftiut againft them on their arival, which was
late in the evening •, and at day-break next morning
they were fuddenly attacked and routed by the Bir¬
mans. Alompra, having thus involved a fmall party
of his countrymen in rebellion againft their conquerors,
reprefented to them that there no longer exifted for
them any fafety but in viftory 5 that they would never
be forgiven, and muft refolve to conquer or perifh. He
invited the Birmans of the neighbouring towms to join
his ftandard, and he found a fmall number who w’ere
wulling to embrace his apparently defperate fortunes :
with thefe he adopted the fudden refolution of march¬
ing towards Ava the Birman capital, before the nume¬
rous detachments of Peguers that were fcattered over
the provinces could be recalled for its defence. As
he advanced, fame magnified his numbers. The gover¬
nor of Ava, who had not more than 3000 men, was
difconcerted j and, defpairing of fuccels, deferted that
city with his troops, and a few of his countrymen
who remained behind him were put to death by the gy
populace. Inftead of advancing in perfon, Alompra Aloirpra’s
now fent his fecond fon Shembuan to take pofleflion oT11*^13*
Ava. Thefe events occurred in autumn 1753. Inconfe-
quence of his firft fuccefs Aiompra’s reputation became
unbounded. His countrymen everywhere revolted, and
attached themfelves to him as their deliverer. The Pe¬
gu king was alarmed for the northern diftrifts of his own
territory, in which the Birman population exceeded that
of the Peguers. A large force was collefted under Ap¬
poraza the Pegu king’s brother. It confifted of an ar¬
my, and of a numerous fleet of war boats, which failed
up the Irrawaddy to reduce the infurgents. He laid
liege to Ava where Shembuan held out 40 days, till his
father Alompra advanced to his aid. Apporaza raifed
the fiege, and went to encounter Alompra. The conteft-
was chiefly confined to the fleet; the armies only fkir-
milhing on fliore. Shembuan having advanced from the
fort of Ava to attack the rear of the Peguers, they gave
way and fled with precipitation, fullering great daugh¬
ter in their retreat. The Peguers, enraged by thefe
misfortunes, put to death the dethroned monarch of the
Birmans, together with all the principal men of his
nation, to the amount of leveral hundreds, that were in-
their power, under pretence that they had been de-
tefted in a plot againft their conquerors. This only
rendered the mutual hatred of the nations more violent 5
and in feveral towns the Birmans role upon the Pegu
garrifons, and maffacred the whole of them. §3
In the mean time Alompra continued to improveAlompra
his fortune, and avowedly endeavoured to eftablilh inafpiresto
his own perfon the fovereignty of his country. WhenrAalty-
the fon of the late king attempted to return, he drove
him back to his afylum among the Siamefe. Towards
the end of the year 1754 the Pegu king Beinga Della,
with a confiderable army, laid liege to Prome, a fron¬
tier town defended by a fohd wall, a deep ditch, and
a ftrong ftockade. The Birmans fuccefsfully refilled
a general alfault, and the Peguers had recourfe to a
blockade. Alompra fent 36 war boats to the afliftance
of the town, which Hands upon a river; the com¬
mander of thefe threw himfelf with a confiderable fup-
ply of men and provifions into the town, and fent
back his boats, only a few of which were taken. After
A S I
Afia.
^ a farther delay of fix weeks Alompra arrived in perfon,
and attacked the Peguers both by land and water. In-
ftead of keeping up a fire of mufquetry as ufual, the
boats clofed, and, after a defperate engagement, the
Peguers abandoned the fiege. The tide of fuccefs was
now fo completely turned, that the war was become
defenfive on the part of the king of Pegu. He retired
to Ills capital, which being near the fea coaft, the con-
teft became a kind of maritime warfare in the mouths
and creeks of the rivers 5 which laft are extremely nu¬
merous in the low delta land near their mouths. At
this time both the French and Englifh were in poifeffion
of fadtories in the Pegu country, and both the Pe¬
guers and Birmans folicited the aflillance of the ftran-
gers, being abundantly fenfible that a fewfhips of bur¬
den furnifhed with guns would give a vaft advantage
to either party in a contefl: againft the war boats ufed
in their country. In the courfe of the year 1755 both
the F rench and Englifh appear to have entered iecretly
into feparate negotiations with each of the parties, and
to have promifed aid to each of them. Both of them
ultimately broke faith with Alompra, and joined the
people of Pegu. Notwithftanding this afiiftance, the
Birman leader continued to enjoy a career of fuccefs.
He was victorious on land, and the aid of the foreigners
by water only produced a flight degree of embarrafs-
ment. At one time three Engliih fliips and one
French (hip affifted the Pegu force, confifting of 200
armed boats, while 10,000 men marched along with
them as a land force ; but the Birmans difconcerted
the attack by a ftratagem. With confiderable ingenui¬
ty they conftrufted fire-rafts, confiding of a number of
boats faftened together, and filled with combuftibles.
Thefe rafts were floated with a ftrong fpring tide to
where the European fliips lay at anchor, and direfted
with fuch (kill and effeCl as to oblige them to flip
their cables and remove, the French fliip narrowly
efcaping deftru&ion. Alompra at lait fucceeded in
cutting off the communication between Pegu and
the fea. A French (hip coming to the afliftance of
the Peguers was taken by furprife ; and as her papers
proved the objeCl of her voyage, her officers were put
to death by the order of Alompra : other foreigners,
however, particularly the Englifli, taken in the impor¬
tant Pegu town of Syriam, were fuffered to depart un-
molefted, though he had fufficient reafon to complain
of their countrymen. Alompra was at laft, in confe-
quence of his fuccefles in every quarter, enabled to lay
fiege to Pegu itfelf the capital of his enemies. It was
fituated on an extenfive plain, furrounded with a high
folid wall, flanked by fmall towers, and ftrengthened
on each face by demibaftions equidiftant. A broad
ditch contained about three feet depth of water, and
the pagoda of Shoemadoo, which will be afterwards
defcribed, ferved as a citadel. Circumvallation is a
favourite mode of warfare with the Birmans, as they are
almoft deftitute of cannon, and therefore truft rather
to famine than to force. Having invefted Pegu, and
eretted numerous ftockades both to hem in the town,
and to fecure his own army againft external attack,
Alompra, in the month of January 1757, refolved to
wait patiently till the want of fupplies fhould bring the
city into his power. After a fiege of two months the
numerous population of Pegu became mutinous in con-
fequence of want. The king fummoned a council of
[ 742 ]
A S I
his family and chiefs, and propofed to fue for peace, on Afia.
condition of being allowed to govern his country, con--v—
fenting to do homage for it to the Birman monarch.
The proppfal was accepted by Alompra 5 but as a pre¬
liminary the Pegu king was under the neceflity of fur¬
rendering to the conqueror his only unmarried daugh¬
ter. For fome days the peace feemed reftored, and
the befiegers and the befieged mingled with each other
in amity; but Alompra, probably with a treacherous
intention, having introduced fome foldiers in difguife
into the town, they were feized and put to death by
order or the king of Pegu’s nephew Choupavea. Ho-
ftiiities recommenced, and at laft the king of Pegu,
who appears to have been a timid man, privately ad- g9
mitted the Birmans into the city, on condition that Pegu ta-
his own life ftiould be fpared; the town itfelf was de-ken.
livered up to plunder.
Alompra, thus fuccefsful, extended his power over
fevefal furrounding provinces, and rendered Pvloncha-
boo, his original refidence, the feat of imperial go¬
vernment. While upon an expedition to Caflay, a
northern province of his empire, the Peguers revolted,
but were defeated on his return. On this occafion he
was led to fufpedf, that the perfons belonging to a Bri-
tifh fettlement at the ifland of Negrais, had given af-
fiftance to the revolters : They were fuddenly attack-MafEcre
ed, therefore, by his orders, in October 1759, andof the Bri-
moft o'f them deftroyed. A few efcaped in two vef-tlfll-
fels, the Shaftefbury and the Victoria. Alompra nextw 91 ■ ,
made war upon his neighbours on the eaft, the Siamefe,siam.Wlth
accufing them of aflifting his enemies of Pegu, and of
aflifting confpiracies againft his authority. He under¬
took an expedition againft the capital of Siam ; the
enemy harafled his march, but did not hazard a deci-
five engagement. In a month he reached the vicinity
of the metropolis, wdiich prepared to fuftain a fiege ;
but here the career of Alompra terminated. He was
taken ill of a mortal difeafe, faid to be a fpecies of
fcrophula. He forefaw his end, and gave orders for
an immediate attack 5 but he died on the 15th of MayDeat9h2of
1760, before he reached his capital. He was deeply Aiompra.
regretted by his people, who admired his talents and
his fuccefs, and regarded him as their deliverer from a
foreign yoke. He is reprefented as having performed
no lefs fervice to his country by the laws which he
ena&ed, than by the battles which he fought. In par¬
ticular, he reformed the adminiftration of juftice, pro¬
hibited magiftrates to fit in judgment, unlefs in a pub¬
lic place, and required every decree to be regiftered.
He alfo iffued edifts againft gaming, and the ufe of
fpirituous liquors in his dominions.
The Birman law veils the right of fucceffion in the
eldeft heir male ; but, upon the death of Alompra,
his fecond fon, Shembuan, made an attempt to feduce
the army and to. feize the throne. Receiving little Alompra
fupport, he fubmitted to his eldeft brother, Namdogee fucceeded
Praw, who, at the requeft of their common mother, by h's el-
received him into favour. One of Alompra’s generals’^11 f°n
called Nuttoon, was a more dangerous rival. A divi-p^w
fion of the army under his command feized upon the
city of Ava. He expelled fuccours from Siam, but
was difappointed ; and being befieged in Ava, he was
reduced to great diftrefs. hie tried to make his efcapej
but was taken and put to death with moft of his adhe¬
rents. The deftruclion of Nuttoon did not put an end
to
A S I
[ 743 1
A S I
94
95
Invades
Siam.
Ana. to the diilurbances that agitated the Birman empire.
v '“T' ‘ A younger brother of Alompra, who held a coniider-
able government, afpired to independence ; but he alfo
was taken in his fortrefs, after a liege of three months.
His life was fpared, but he was kept a clofe prifoner.
Namdogee Praw died at his capital in March 1764,
of the fame difeafe that brought his father to the grave,
Shembuan leaving one fon, Momien, an infant. Shembuan, the
obtains the fecond fon of Alompra, now feized the government as
throne. king ; and the child of his elder brother was educated
in religious obfcurity, as a rhahaan or pried. Shem-
buan’s firft undertaking was a war againft the Siamefe,
wdiofe country, in the year 1766, he entered at differ¬
ent points with three armies ; which after fome refift-
ance, effected a jumffion. Having approached the ca¬
pital, a general battle was fought, in which the
Birmans were luccefsful, and invefted the capital of
Siam. Each party had fome artillery, which was of
little fervice ; and the Birmans had recourfe to block¬
ade, which as already noticed, is their favourite fy-
ffem of warfare. After a two months liege, the king
of Siam fecretly made his efcape. The city capitu¬
lated, and a Siamefe governor was appointed, who
fwore allegiance, and engaged to pay tribute to the
96 Birman monarch.
The Chi- In the beginning of the year 1767, a Chinefe army
nefe invade jnva(je4 Birman empire. Shembuan prepared to
11 ’ meet this danger ; and it appears that, in confequence
of the numerous wars in which they had recently been
engaged, the Birmans were enabled to a6l upon this oc-
cafion with a conliderable degree of military Ikiil and
energy. They formed two feparate armies j one con-
lifting of 10,000 infantry and 2000 cavalry, was fent
to meet the invaders. They accordingly advanced,
and encamped within eight miles of the Chinefe army.
On the following day, an a£Hon took place in which
the Birmans were worfted and retired. The Chinefe,
elated by their fuccefs, preffed eagerly forward, and
were in this manner drawn to a conliderable diftance
into the country. In the mean time, a fecond Bir¬
man army, amounting to 30,000 men, had taken a
circuitous road, and got into the rear of the Chinefe.
The army in front now made a ftand, and the inva¬
ders found themfelves hemmed in on all lides. The
Tartar cavalry, on whofe adfivity the Chinefe army
depended for provilions, would no longer venture out
either to procure fupplies or to protect convoys. The
Birmans now attacked their enemy with impetuolity,
who refifted with a refolution founded on defpair. The
conflift Lifted three days, and the Chinefe at laft at¬
tempted to cut their way through the weakeft part of
the Birman line. This attempt proved fatal. The
Birmans, fure of being reinforced, maintained their
ground till the troops of both their armies arrived to
their afliftance. The Chinefe now funk under the
preffure of an attack from numbers which were in-
crealing every hour. The carnage vvas dreadful, as
the Birmans are extremely ferocious and unrelenting
in war. Of the Chinefe army not a man returned to
his native country. About 2500 were preferved from
the fword and condudled to the Birman capital, where
they wrere employed in fuch occupations as they under-
ftood, without any other reward for their labour than
„ a bare fubliftence.
Meanwhile, Shembuan’s fucceffes againft the Sia¬
mefe were attended with no permanent advantage. His Alia,
armies were no fooner recalled than his authority was ' "" *
openly difregarded. He fent one of his generals once
more into their country j but he met with fuch oppoli-
tion as compelled him to retreat and to demand rein¬
forcements. This laft requeft was complied with, in
a manner that produced a ferious danger. One of the
viceroys of the fouthern parts of the empire wTas com¬
manded to raife the neceffary fupplies *, but as his ju-
rifdidtion was inhabited chiefly by families of Peguers,
he had no fooner affembled his recruits and placed
arms in their hands, than they became confcious of _
their own ftrength, and were feized with a deftre to
regain their empire. They rofe upon their Birman
officers and companions, and commenced an indifcri-
minate flaughter. It was not till after an army of
20,000 men was affembled, with 24 pieces of cannon,
befides a great number of war boats, that they could
be fubdued. While this ftruggle was going on in the
lower part of the empire againft the people of Pegu,
now confidered as rebels, Shembuan followed out a
plan of conqueft to the north-weft, in the country call¬
ed Cajfay. His troops even penetrated within what
are called the Himmaleh hi/ls, which form a continua¬
tion of the lofty Imaus, and which defcending towards
the extremity of the bay of Bengal, feem to be a bar¬
rier raifed by nature to proteft the unwarlike inhabi¬
tants of Hindooftan from the more hardy natives of
the eaft. Shembuan loft a great number of troops in
attacking the chiefs or rajahs of thefe hilly countries,
but at laft fucceeded in fubduing a great number of
them, though the conqueft could be of little utility,
as poffeflion of thefe rude territories could fcarcely be
retained.
On his return from this north-weftern expedition,
Shembuan went fouthward to vifit his Pegu territories,
which had fo recently been involved in civil war. On ^
this occafion he pretended to difcover that the old king Old king of
of Pegu, who had been taken by Alompra, and had Pegu put
remained all this while in prifon, had engaged in fomet0 ^eath*
kind of confpiracy. In confequence of an accufation
to this effeft, the dethroned monarch underwent the
form of a trial, was condemned and put to death.
Many perfons of rank, of the race of the Peguers,
were alfo put to death on this occafion, under pre¬
tence that they had given countenance or aid to the
late rebellion. ^
Thefe were among the laft tranfa&ions of Shem-Death of
buan’s life. He died in the city of Ava, about the Shembuan,
middle of fpring, in the year 1776. He was fucceed-cjier^9za
ed by his fon Chenguza, who appears in every refpeft fucce^(js to
to have been incapable of exercifing dominion w ith the throne,
any tolerable degree of propriety. He degraded his
father’s moft refpe&able ofticers, and plunged into the
moft ftiameful debauchery, which he avowed openly by
repealing the ediot againft the ufe of fpirituous liquors.
He put to death a younger brother, from jealoufy of
his ambition, employed himfelf wholly in hunting, and
left public affairs to be managed by favourites. He
alfo put to death one of his uncles, kept another of
them clofe prifoner, and watched vigilantly a third of
them, who affected to live in the moft inoffenfive ob¬
fcurity. In a fit of jealoufy, he alfo put to death his
wife in a public and open manner, and having at laft:
rendered himfelf both odious and terrible, a confpiracy
A S I
Aft a.
100
Mindera
gee luc-
ceeds to the
throne.
ioi
New capi¬
tal Umme-
rapoora.
was formed againft him, at the head of which was his
uncle Minderagee Praw, the refult of which was, that
the latter obtained poflefTion of the throne, and Chen-
g,uza, deferted by all the world, was killed by the father
of the wife whom he had put to death, though the
flayer avas afterwards alfo put to death, under pretence
of having died royal blood contrary to the exprefs let¬
ter of the laAv of the Birmans.
Shembuan Mia Shean Minderagee Praw, the fourth
fon of the deceafed Alompra, thus fucceeded to the
pofieflion of the empire. In the firft days of the con-
fpiracy, a pretence had been made that the objeft of
it was to raife to the throne Momien, the only child
of Namdogee Praw the eldeft fon of Alompra ; but
this pretence was fpeedily laid afide, and in eleven days
after his acceflion to the throne, he Avas put to death.
Minderagee Praw, notwithftanding the manner in Avhich
he obtained the fovereignty, is underftood to have go¬
verned well, and he was upon the throne when the
Britifh envoy, Captain Symes, vilited that country.
While he led a private life, however, this monarch is
reprefented as having imbibed much of the fuperftition
that fo ftrongly characterizes every form of religion in
the eaft. During his days of leifure he had directed
much of his attention to altronomy, and became a
thorough believer in judicial aftrology. Some few
Brahmins, had for ages been accultomed to emigrate
from Calfay and Aracan, to Ava, wdiere, on account
of their fuperior knowledge, they were employed as
profeifors of fcience. A college Avas eftabliftred and
■lands appropriated for its fupport. Thefe Brahmin doc¬
tors compofed almanacks, calculating eclipfes; and from
their intercourfe A\dth the planets, pronounced the pro¬
pitious hour and feafon to attempt any momentous un¬
dertaking. Long before his elevation, thefe Brahmins
had foretold to Minderagee Praw the fortune that a-
A\raited him. The accomplifhment of their prophecy
confirmed their influence over him. He appointed a
certain number to be his chaplains, who, on court days,
arrayed in white robes and Handing round the throne,
chaunt a folemn benedidlion in melodious recitative.
This ceremony is performed as foon as the king afcends
the imperial feat, and before the commencement of
public bufinefs. Prompted by the perfuafions of his
counfellors, Minderagee refolved to withdraw the feat
of government from Ava, and to found a new city.
The fite fixed on for the projefted fettlement was judi¬
cious : about four miles north-eafl: of Ava, there is a
deep and extenfive lake called Toungemanny formed by
the influx of the river during the monfoon, through a
narrow channel, which afterwards expands and difplays
a body of water a mile and a half broad, and feven or
eight miles long. This lake firfl: takes a northerly di-
redlion, nearly parallel with the river j it afterwards
curves to the fouth-eaft, in a leflening fheet, and di¬
mini Ihes to a morafs favourable to the culture of rice.
When filled by the periodical rains, the lake with the
river on one fide, enclofes a dry and healthy peninfula,
on which Ummerapoora, the name given to the new city,
now Hands. Buildings in the Birman country are com¬
pofed for the mofl part of wood ; and water carriage
being here convenient, the old town was fpeedily de-
moliflred, and the prefent capital rofe from its mate¬
rials ; whilfl fuch was the afliduity ufed in removal,
that Ummerapoora became, in a fliort time, one of the
[ 744 1
A S I
Aiia.
102
mofl flourilhing and Avell built cities of the eafl. The
fort likeAvife, which is fpacious and regular, is com-'
pletely fortified after the Afiatic manner. A lofty
rampart, protefted by a parapet, and flrengthened by
baflions compofed of excellent mafonry, is further fe-
cured by a deep and broad ditch, faced with brick and
filled with Avater: the gateways are guarded by cannon,
and retrenchments defend the pafles of the ditch. The
new monarch foon refolved to extend his dominions
weflAvard, by the conquefl of Aracan. This country, Invafion
as already mentioned, is fituated to the AveflAvard of an(l con-
Ava, along the (here of the bay of Bengal, but theot
direft road is embarraffed by a chain of mountains 56 Aracan-
miles in breadth. The road is fo difficult that an en-
terprifing people might eafily have defended the pafles
againft any fuperiority of number 5 but the Birman
king knew too well the indolent chara&er of the king
of Aracan, and the unwarlike difpofition of his fubjefts,
to dread any \dgorous oppofition. This country, horv-
ever, had never been completely conquered : the Mo¬
guls on the weft, the Peguers on the eaft, and the
Pbrtuguefe from Europe, had at different times carried
their arms into the heart of the country, but after thefe
pafling inroads Aracan had always recovered its inde¬
pendence. The difficulty of conqueft, on the prefent
occafion, confifted chiefly of finding a Avay into a
country fo well defended by nature. The range of
lofty mountains, already mentioned, nearly encircles it
on the caft. From the fouthern quarter at Negrais
Aracan could only be invaded by water, through the
many rivers that interfedl the country adjacent to the
fea. From the fide of Chittagong, entry into Ara¬
can muft be effected by a march along the fea beach,
which is interrupted by feveral channels, that oavc
their waters chiefly to the aftion of the tide. The
coaft, however, is extremely Avell adapted to commerce,
by the various large and Avell cultivated illands which
it poffefles, and the variety of channels by which vef-
fels can pafs into the country, which to the mountains
is everywhere low and well watered. The trade of
Aracan has not indeed been very confiderable. It is
confined to fait, bees Avax, elephants teeth, and rice.
This latter article is produced in fuch abundance, that
it might be improved into a lucrative branch of com¬
merce. Polfeffion of Aracan and its iflands is not on¬
ly coveted by the Birmans, on account of the fertility
of the foil, but alfo from the protefHon it might af¬
ford to their boats, which navigating along the coaft
make an annual voyage to Chittagong and Calcutta,
where they difpofe of the produce of their country,
and in return bring back cloth and the commodities of
India.
In the year 1783, the Birmans accomplifhed their
intended invafion, by attacking Aracan in different de¬
tachments, a part of Avhich croffed the mountains while
others went round by Avater. After a naval engage¬
ment, which terminated in favour of the invaders, the
king of Aracan took flight Avith his family 5 but being
clofely purfued, he was taken prifoner, and conduced
to the Birman capital, where he was treated with hu¬
manity, but died in the courfe of a year. The town
and pont of Aracan fell after a faint refiftance. The
booty found in it was confiderable, but on nothing was
a higher value placed, than on an image of burniflied
brafs of the god of the Birmans called Gaudnza, or
Boodb.
A S I
103
Aracan
now a Bir¬
man pro¬
vince.
Afia. Boodh, or Budhoo. The figure is about 10 feet high
' in the cuftomary fitting pofture with the legs croffed,
the left hand refting on the lap and the right pendent.
This image is believed to be an original refemblance,
taken from life, and is fo highly venerated, that pil¬
grims have for centuries come from the remoteft coun¬
tries, even Ceylon, China, and Japan, where the fu-
premacy of Gaudma is acknowledged, to pay their devo¬
tions at the feet of his brazen reprefentative. There
were alfo found five images of Rakufs, the dsemon of
the Hindoos, of the fame metal and ftature. Thefe
were valued as guardians of the fan&ity of the idol.
A lingular piece of ordnance was alfo found of enor¬
mous dimenlions, compofed of huge bars of iron beat¬
en into form. This ponderous cannon meafured 30 feet
in length, two feet and a half in diameter at the mouth
and 10 inches in the calibre j it was tranfported to
Ummerapoora by water, and depofited in the yard of
the royal palace, where it is now preferved as a mili¬
tary trophy ; it is mounted on a low carriage fupported
by fix wheels, and is covered from the weather by a
wooden pent houfe. Gaudma and his infernal guards
were, in like manner, conveyed by water to the capi¬
tal, with much pomp and fuperftitious parade.
Since this period Aracan, with its dependencies, has
conftituted a province of the Birman empire, and is
governed by a maywoori or viceroy. Birman troops
are diftributed in the different towns, and lands were
granted to many Birmans, on condition that they Ihould
come with their families and fettle in the country. The
valuable acquifition of Aracan, did not fatisfy the am¬
bition of Minderagee Praw, and he fpeedily turned
his arms againft the Siamefe, his neighbours on the
iouth-eaft. From the year 1785 to 1793, he carried
on againft them a very fanguinary war, in which he
fuffered a confiderable number of defeats, though the
Siamefe could make no progrefs againfl him upon his
, owl? territory. At length the Siamefe propofed a ne¬
gotiation, which terminated in a treaty of peace, very
favourable to the Birman interefts, as the Siamefe con-
lented to relinquifli to them a confiderable extent of
territory to the fouthward, on the w'eflern fide of the
104 peninfula.
fheBirman The r?rult of a11 thefe acquifitions is, that the Bir-
-‘finpire. man empire upon the whole, at prefent, appears to
include the fpace between 90 and 26° N. Lat. and
between 92° and 107° E. Long, from Greenwich, or
about 1030 geographical miles in length, and 600
in breadth. Thefe are ftated as the afcertainable limits
takifn from the. Birman accounts, though it is thought
that, their territories ftretch ftill farther to the north •
but it muff be remarked, that in the fouthern parts the’
breadth often varies, and is in many places very incon-
fiderable. .On .the whole, however, they poffefs a ter¬
ritory fuperior in extent to the German empire. But
t leir perpetual wars, efpecially their fanguinary con-
tefls with Pegu and Siam, have greatly depopulated
their country j and here, as in every other part of the
world, it has been found, that war, while it ruins the
vanquished, is feldom the fource of internal profperity
to the victorious nation. From what can be difcover-
ed, there, is no reafon to believe that their prefent po¬
pulation, including Aracan, exceeds 17,000,000. Yet
the foil of the fouthern provinces of the Birman em-
pn-e is remarkably fertile, and produces as luxuriant
Vol. II, Part II,
[ 745 ]
A S I
crops of rice as are to be found in the fineft parts of Alla.
engalj but extenfive plains, on which the veftiges ofu“—v—
former culture and population are abundant, remain
without a Single houfe or inhabitant, having been de-
lolated by the ravages of war, during the contefts of
Birmans and Peguers, fo that the fineft territories in
the world have in many places of this empire become
for a time at leafc, the undifputed domain of the wild’
beads of the foreft. In the northern parts of the em-
prre, the country becomes irregular and mountainous;
but the plains and valleys, particularly near the rivers*
are exceedingly fruitful. They yield good wheat, and
the various kinds of fmall grain, which grow in warm
climates, with the different forts of efculent vegeta¬
bles : fugar canes, tobacco of a fuperior quality, indi¬
go, cotton, and the different tropical fruits in perfec¬
tion, are all natural products of this favoured land. v
The climate.of every part of the Birman empire, isClimatl
laid to teftify its own falubrity by the belt of all cri-
tenons, the appearance and figure of the natives, who
appear equal in Strength and adivity to any other race
or men in the world. The feafons are regular and
the extremes of heat and cold are feldom experienced
at leaft the duration of that intenfe heat, which imme¬
diately precedes the commencement of the rainy feafon
is fo Short,, that it incommodes but for a very little
time. During the refidence of the Britifh embaffy
m the country, only one man was loft by difeafe. A-
nother met an accidental death; in wandering through
the woods he became the prey of a tiger. 6
. 1<r)ne °^the valuable produdions of this empireTeekwood.
is the teek tree, which grows in vaft abundance in the
fouthern parts of the empire, near the great rivers.
1 ms article alone renders a free commerce with the
Birmans of vaft importance to the Britifh fettlements
in India. Teek wood, fo abfolutely neceffary for the
navigation of the eaftern feas, cannot be conveyed from
the Malabar to. the Coromandel coaft of the weftern
pemnfula of India, or to Calcutta, but at an expence fo
great as to preclude the attempt. This wood grows
indeed, on the banks of. the river Godaverry, but the
impediments to procuring it from that quarter have
hitherto been found infurmountable. Hence a great
part of Britifh India depends for Ship-timber upon the
Birman empire.. Moft other defcriptions of timber
are alfo found in this empire ; on the banks of the
river Irravaddy a large log of fir was feen by Dodor
Buchanan,.one of the gentlemen belonging to the em¬
baffy. He was informed by the natives that it had
been wafhed down by the torrents from a mountainous
part of the country northward of the capital, where it
grows in abundance and of confiderable magnitude.
It is called t&nys. The turpentine is extraded from
it, and turned to ufe, but the wood is confidered as of
little value on account of its foftnefs. It will proba¬
bly hereafter be brought to market in India, as top-
gallant-mafts and yards made of teek are thought too
heavy, and European and American fpars are often
bought for thefe purpofes at a very exorbitant price
On account of the depopulation of various parts of AninSs,
the country by war, the wild animals have multiplied
to a great, extent. The moft troublefome of thefe are
tigers, which infeft all the forefts, and what are called
jungles or woody thickets near the banks of torrents fo
as to render it dangerous to enter them ; wild elephants
5 alfo
A S I
[ 746 ]
A S I
Alia.
108
Minerals.
109
Petroleum
wells.
alfo abound ?md occupy the forefts in great numbers.
Thefe powerful animals, allured by the early crops of
rice and fugar-cane, make predatory excurfions in large
troops, and do much mifchief, dertroying more than
they devour. The peafantry have often to lament the
deftru&ion of their molt expofed plantations in confe-
quence of thefe inroads. Herds of deer are frequently
feen, and horfes and cattle are reared in abundance by
the people. They have alfo large herds of buffaloes,
which have a powerful antipathy to a red or fcarlet co¬
lour, and are fo extremely fierce, that the tigers dare
not attack them.
The two peninfulas of India are the native countries
of the peacock, and alfo of our barn-door fowl 5 the
latter abound in the jungles or thickets, and are well
known to fportfmen in India. I hey differ little from
the barn-door fowl in Europe, except that the v\ild
fort are all fimilar in colour •, a dark red, with blacK
bread and legs : their fledi is very delicate.
The Birman empire abounds in minerals. Near the
frontiers of China they have mines of gold and filyer ;
there are alfo mines of gold, diver, rubies, and fapphires,
at prefent open on a mountain near the river Keen-
duem j but the mod valuable, and thofe which produce
the bned jewels, are in the vicinity of the capital. Pie-
cious dones are found in feveral other parts of the em¬
pire. The inferior minerals, fuch as contain iron, tin,
lead, antimony, arfenic, fulphur, &c. are met with in
great abundance j amber, of a conddence unuiually
pure and pellucid, is dug up in large quantities near
the principal river. Gold likewufe is difcovered in ihe
fandy beds of dreams wdiich defcend from the moun¬
tains ; diamonds and emeralds are not found in any part
of the Birman empire, but it affords amethyds, garnets,
very beautiful chryfolites, jafper, loaddone, and marble.
This lad is equal in quality to the dned marble of Italy,
and admits of a polifh that renders it aimed tranfpa-
rent, but it is not alknved to be fold in its rude date oi
in blocks, being held facred, and ufed only for the pur-
pofe of manufacturing images of Gaudma.
They have alfo wells of petroleum, wdnch were vidted
by the Britilh envoy, who deferibes his journey to them
in the following terms : “ Doftor Buchanan partook
of an early dinner with me, and when the fun had de-
feended fo low as to be no longer inconvenient, we
mounted our horfes to vidt the celebrated wells that
produce the oil, an article of univerfal uie thoughout
the Birman empire. The face of the country was cheer-
lefs and deril •, the road, which wound among rocky
eminences, was barely wide enough to admit the paflage
of a dngle cart; and in many places the track in which
the wheels mud run, was a foot and a half lower on
one dde than the other : there were feveral of theie
lanes, fome more circuitous than others, according to
the dtuation of the fmall hills among which they led :
vehicles going and returning were thus enabled to pur-
fue different routes, except at particular places, where
the nature of the ground would only admit ol one icau *7
when a cart came to the entrance of Inch a defile, the
driver hallooed out todop any that might interfere with
him from the oppodte dde, no part being fufdciently
wide for tw'o carts to pafs. 1 he hills, or rather hillocks,
y/ere covered wnth gravel, and yielded no other vegeta¬
tion than a few dunted budies. The wheels had worn
ruts deep into the rock, which feeraed to be rather a
mafs of concreted gravel than hard done, and many
pieces of petnded wTood lay drewed about. It is re¬
markable, that wherever thefe petrifa&ions were found,
the foil was unprodu&ive and the ground deditute of
verdure. The evening being far advanced, we met but
few caits j thofe which we did obferve were drawn
each by a pair of oxen, and of a length difproportionate
to the breadth, to allow fpace for the earthem pots that
contained the oil. It was a matter of furprife to us howr
they could convey fuch brittle ware, with any degree
of fafety, over fo rugged a road j each pot was packed
in a feparate bafket, and laid on draw } notwithdand-
ing which precaution, the ground all the way was
drewed with the fragments of the veffels and wet with
oil *, f®r no care can prevent the fraflure of fome in
every journey. As we approached the pits, which
were more didant than we had imagined, the country
became lefs uneven, and the foil produced herbage } it
was nearly dark when we reached them, and the la¬
bourers had retired from work. 1 here feemed to be a
great many pits within a fmall compafs: walking to
the neared, we found the aperture about four feet
fquare, and the fides, as far as we could fee down,
were lined with timber ; the oil is drawn up in an iron
pot, fadened to a rope paffed over a wooden cylinder,
which revolves on an axis fupported by two upright
pods 5 when the pot is filled, two men take the rope
by the end, and run down a declivity which is cut m
the ground to a didance equivalent to the depth of the
well j thus, when they reach the end of their track,
the pot is raifed to its proper elevation ; the contents,
water and qil together, are then difeharged into a
cidern, and the water is afterwards drawn off through
a hole at the bottom. Our guide, an adive intelligent
fellow, went to the neighbouring houfe and procured a
well-rope, by means of which we were enabled to mea-
fure the depth, and afeertained it to be 37 fathoms,
but of the quantity of oil at the bottom we could not
judge , the owner of the rope, who followed our guide,
affirmed, that when a pit yielded as much as came up
to the waid of a man, it was deemed tolerably produc¬
tive
Alia.
~ , if it reached to bis neck it was abundant j but
that which rofe no higher than the knee was account¬
ed indifferent : when a well is exhauded, they redore
the fpring by cutting deeper into the rock, which is
extremely bard in thefe places where the oil is produ¬
ced. Government farm out the ground that fupplies this
ufeful commodity j and it is again let to adventurers,
who dig wells at their own hazard, by which they
fometimes gain, and often lofe, as the labour and ex¬
pence of digging are confiderable. The oil is fold on
the fpot for a mere trifle I think two or three hundred
pots for a tachal or half-a-crown. The principal charge
is incurred by the tranfportation and purchafe of veffels.
We had but half gratified our curiofity when it grew
dark, and our guide urged us not to remain any longer,
as the road wTas faid to be infefted wdth tigers that
prowled at night among the rocky uninhabited ways
through which we bad to pafs $ we followed his ad¬
vice, and returned, with greater rilk, as I thought, of
breaking our necks from the badnefs of the road than
of being devoured by wild beafts. As ten o^clock we
reached our boats without any mifadventure.'” 110
The Birmans are very far from being in a Hate ofChararter
intellectual darknefs. Though they have not exploredofthe Vir¬
tue
A
A S I [ 747 ] A S I
Afid. tKe depths offcience, nor reached to excellence in the
*—-"V—-- finer arts, they yet have an undeniable claim to the
character of a civilized and well-inftru&ed people.
Their police is better regulated than in moft European
countries. In their natural difpofitions they are high
fpirited, aflive, impatient, and irrafcible ; but at the
fame time they are friendly and hofpitable to ftrangers,
and their manners are rather expreflive of manly can¬
dour than of courteous diflimulation : A knowledge of
letters is fo widely diffufed that there are no mechanics,
few of the peafantry, or even the common watermen,
ufually the moft illiterate clafs, who cannot read and
write in the vulgar tongue •, few, however, are verfed
in their books of fcience, which containing many Shan-
fcrit terms, and being often written in the Pali text,
are (like the Hindoo Shatters) above the comprehen-
fion of the multitude. The Birmans are not (hackled
by any prejudices of calls like the Hindoos, reftrifted
to hereditary occupations, or forbidden to participate
with ftrangers in every kind of focial connexion.
Hence it is probable, that if a refpite is allowed them
from foreign wars, their progrefs in improvement will
be rapid. They are a very fober people, and though
the activity of their character renders them fond of
amufements, yet multitudes of them are feen aflembled
together upon their public feftivals, without one aH of
intemperance being committed or a fingle inftance of
Xlt intoxifcation being perceived.
Women. The laws or cuftoms of the Birmans with regard to
women contain a ftrange mixture of reafon and of ab-
furdity } on the one hand the women are allowed en¬
tire freedom, and are confidered as of much importance,
while in other refpefts they arc treated with great, con¬
tempt. The Birmans encourage all ftrangers to marry
Birman wives 5 even (laves taken in war who comply
with this invitation, acquire confiderable privileges.
This cuftom, in which thefe people agree with the
wifeft and bed governed nations of antiquity, is fingular
among the civilized countries of the eaft, and peculiar¬
ly remarkable in a people furrounded by kingdoms
‘ where women are kept inviolably facred from the fight
and converfe of ftrangers, and where the exclufive
fyftem of cafts or tribes admits neither of civil nor re¬
ligious profelytifm. Even the public proftitutes in
China are prohibited from having intercourfe with
ftrangers. The Hindoo women of rank are no lefs in-
aceflible, and admiflion into a refpeftable caft is not to
be obtained by money. The Birmans, on the con¬
trary, fenfible that the ftrength of an empire confifts in
its population, admit to their fociety men of all reli¬
gions and complexions, Pagans or Jews, Mahometans
or Chriftians, the difciples of Confucius or the worfhip-
ers of fire ; the children of whom born of a Birman
woman, are underftood to be natural born fubje6ts of
the ftate, and are entitled to the fame prote&ion and
privileges as if they had fprung from a line of Birman
anceftry. Accordingly the jealoufy which prompts the
eaftern nations to immure their women within the walls
of a haram, and to furround them with guards, feems
fcarcely to have any influence over the minds of this
extraordinary people. Birman wives and daughters
are not concealed from the fight of men, and are fuf-
fered to have as free intercourfe with the wmrld as the
rules of European fociety admit. A man can only
marry one wife. 5 but it appears that their men of rank
take a fecond in the character of a concubine, who is Ada.
by law, however, obliged to attend and obey the law-
ful wife as a fervant. Women are accounted of fuch
political importance, that great care is taken to pre¬
vent their being conveyed out of the country. The
law in this point is very rigorous j every (hip, before
(he receives her clearance, is diligently fearched by
the officers of the cuftomhoufe} even if their vigilance
■were to be eluded, the woman wmuld be quickly miffed,
and it would foon be difcovered in what veffel (lie had
gone, nor could that (hip ever return to a Birman port
but under penalty of confifcation of the property, and
the inflidtion of a heavy fine and imprifonment on the
mafter : female children alfo, born of a Birman mother,
are not fuffered to be taken away. Men are permit-,
ted to emigrate ; but they think that the expatriation
of women would impoverifti the ftate by diminiftiing
the fources of its population.
On the other handj women are treated in many re-
fpefts as not belonging to the fame fcale of creation as
men ; tbe evidence of a woman is not received as of
equal weight with that of a man, and a woman is not
fuffered to afcend the fteps of a court of juftice, but is
obliged to deliver her teftimony on the outfide of the
roof. The lotver clafs of Birmans make no fcruple of
felling their daughters, or even their wives, to ftrangers
who come to refide among them for a (hort time, and
none of the parties are underftood to be diflionoured
by the connexion. When the mafter of a family in¬
curs debts which he cannot pay, his wufe and daughters
may be fold as (laves for payment of his creditors.
Near the great towns is a place, called taclially, in the
fuburbs afligned to common proftitutes, who are under
the controul of a public fuperintendant. He fre*
quently purchafes the unfortunate women, who are fold
for the payment of the debts of their relations, and
makes gain by the proftitution of them.
Still, how^ever, domeftic fociety is on a very differ¬
ent footing among the Birmans from that in which it
is placed among the other eaftern nations, and the wo¬
men take a much more active (hare in the fuperintend-
ance of all affairs, as appears from the following anec¬
dote, which fell under the obfervation of the Britifti
embaffy, in the neighbourhood of wdiofe refidence a
large (hip wras building for the governor of Maindu.
“ If this (hip was not compofed of prime materials, the
building at lead was well attended to ; every morning
the governor’s wife croffed the river in her hufband’s
barge, attended by two or three female fervants 5 after
landing, (lie commonly took her feat on one of the
timbers in the yard, and overlooked the workmen for
fome hours j after which (he returned home, and fel-
dom miffed coming back in the evening to fee that the
days talk had been completed. The flip on which the
(hip was built happened to be contiguous to our firft
habitation, a circumftance that caufed us to remark her
conftant vifits ; curiofity, however, did not prompt her,
or any of her attendants, to come within our precinfts,
whilft decorum deterred us from making advances to¬
wards an acquaintance. Her hulhand never accom¬
panied her, and (lie did not feem to require his aid.
Women in the Birman country are net only good houfe-
wives, but likewife manage the more important mer¬
cantile concerns of their hufbands, and attend to their
interefts in all out-door tranlaftions : they are induftri-
5 B 2 out
A S I
Afia.
~ 113
Politenefs.
ous to the greateft degree, and are faid
mothers, and feldom from inclination unfaithful wives.”
Marriages Marriages among the Birmans are not contrafted till
* ‘the parties attain the age of puberty. The contradl is
purely civil, and the priefts have no interference in it.
When a young man is defirous to marry a girl, his mo¬
ther, or neared female relation, fird makes the propofal
in private. If the fuit be fuccefsful, a party of his
friends proceed to the houfe of the parents of the maiden,
and adjud the dowry. On the morning of the bridal-
day the bridegroom fends to the bride three loongees,
lower garments 5 three tubbecks, or fadies ; and three
pieces of wrhite mudin j alfo Inch jewels, ear-rings, and
bracelets, as his circumdances admit of. A fead is
prepared by the bride’s parents, and formal writings are
executed. / The new-married couple eat out of the fame
didi. The bridegroom prefents the bride with fome
pickled tea, which die accepts, and returns the com¬
pliment, which terminates the ceremony.
The Birmans are extremely polite, but at the fame
time unceremonious in their manners. Their form of
demondrating refpeft condds of affuming a fitting or
low podure. Accordingly, when perfons of rank vi-
dted the Ead India Company’s ambaffador, they no
fooner came into the apartment than they indantly
took to themfelves chairs and fat down, while their
attendants aflumed a lower podure, by reding upon
their hams in the eadern manner. Though the em-
balfy was at fird received with conliderable didrud by
the government, yet the members of which it was com-
pofed were treated with the utmod politenefs and per-
fonal refpedt, both by perfons in office and by all ranks
of people. The curidfity with which they were vifit-
ed when at Pegu is thus defcribed :—“ Our hall in
the morning was generally crowded, as every perfon
of didindlion in Pegu paid us the compliment of a vi-
fit, except the maywoon, who, within the precin&s of
his own government, where he reprefents the king, ne¬
ver returns a vifit. Numbers both of men and women,
prompted by harmlefs curiofity, furrounded the paling
of the enclofure from morning till night : Thofe of a
better clafs ufually came in, fome previoufly alking
permiffion ; but many entered without it. Perfectly
free from redraint among themfelves, the Birmans
icruple not to go into your houfe without ceremony,
although you are an utter dranger. To do them juf-
tice, however, they are not at all difpleafed at your
taking the fame freedom with them. This intrufion
is confined wholly to your public room : they do not
attempt to open a door 5 and where a curtain dropped
denotes privacy, they never offer to violate the barrier.
On entering the room, they immediately defcend into
the podure of refpect. Of all our cudoms, none feem-
ed to furprife them more than the preparations for di¬
ning : the variety of utenfils, and our manner of fit¬
ting at a table, excited their wonder. They never
took any greater liberty than merely to come into the
room, and fit down on the door : they meddled with
nothing, and afked for nothing ; and when defired to
go away, always obeyed with cheerfulnefs. Had un¬
told gold been placed before them, I am confident not
a piece would have been purloined.” The behaviour
of thefe people at another of their towms is thus men¬
tioned : “ The new's of the miffion had reached the
place before we arrived, and excited a general curio-
[ 748 ] A S I
to be good fity to fee the boomien of the colars, or the general of Afia.
the ftrangers, as they w^ere pleafed to denominate me. \ 
Not only the better clafs of the inhabitants of Meea-
day came to vifit us, but likewife people of condition
from all the towms and villages twenty miles round :
I have fometimes received eight or ten different com¬
panies in a morning. When a party wiflied to be in¬
troduced, a meflage wras fent to afk permiffion 5 which
being obtained, they entered the room in a crouching
pofition, and fat down on their heels, men and women
alike. They always brought a gift of fomething,
whatever they fuppofed might be acceptable 5 tobac¬
co, onions, fine rice, &c. No company prefented
themfelves empty handed : it would not have been re-
fpe&ful. Of courfe, their offerings drew from me a
fuitable return 5 fuch as, fillets of Indian muflin to the
women, and a Coffembuzar filk handkerchief to the
men. Several parties of wTomen came unaccompanied
by their hufbands, or any of their male friends ; and,
according to the notions entertained by them, there
was nothing indecorous in it : They wTere unconfcious
of any thing but an innocent defire to gratify curio¬
fity and manifeft refpeft. Women of a better clafs
were always accompanied by a train of female atten¬
dants 5 and, like the fex everyvffiere, were more live¬
ly, good humoured, and inquifitive than the men.”
Among the public amufements of this people. are Amufe4.
mentioned, boxing matches, fire-works, proceffions, ex-ments.
hibitions of dancing j as alfo plays and puppet fliows.
Perfons of' rank among them are fond of chefs. This
game is held in high eflimation among the fuperior chefs.'5’
ranks : the board they ufe is exaftly fimilar to ours,
containing 64 fquares, and their number of troops the
fame, 16 on each fide •, but the names, the power, and
dilpoTal of them, differ effentially. The king and his
minifter (a queen is never introduced by the orientals)
are mounted on elephants 5 thefe are defended by two
callies or yettay, two knights on horfeback, mene, two
officers on foot, one called Meem, the other Chekey, and
eight maundelay or foot foldiers. The forces of each
party are arranged on three lines, by which eight fquares
remain unoccupied : none of the pieces polfefs equal
force with our queen ; and this reftri&ed operation
renders the Birman mode of playing more complex and
difficult than ours. The Birmans affirm that it is a
game of high antiquity, and that it is acknowledged
and authorized by their facred writings, although eve¬
ry play of chance is prohibited. This teftimony con¬
firms the opinion of the late Sir William Jones, that
chefs was invented in India, and is not, as generally
imagined, of Perfian origin. The Birmans call it
chedreen, a word that bears fome refemblance to the
name which is given to the game in moll other parts of
the world.
One of their amufements deferves attention, clfieflyThr^n
on account of its fingularity and the good temper which water on
it indicates. It is thus defcribed by Mr Symes, wffio the laft day-
held the place of ambafiador “ On the 12th of A- t^e Jear*
pril, the laft day of the Birman year, we were invited
by the maywoon to bear a part ourfelves in a fport that
is univerfally praclifed throughout the Birman domi¬
nions on the concluding day of their annual cycle.
To walh awray the impurities of the paft, and com¬
mence the new year free from ftain, women on this
day are accuftomed to throw water on every man they
meet,
A S I [ 749 ] A S I
Ai'a. meet, which the men have the privilege of retorting.
'' This licence gives rife to a great deal of hamlefs mer¬
riment, particularly amongft the young women, who,
armed with great fyringes and flaggons, endeavour to
wet every man that goes along the ftreet, and in their
titrn receive a wetting with perfeft good humour. Nor
is the fmalleft indecency ever manifefted in this or in
any other of their fports. Dirty water is never caft.
A man is not allowed to lay hold of a woman, but may
fling as much water over her as he pleafes, provided
Ihe has been the aggreffor 5 but if a woman warns a
man that flie does not mean to join in the diverfion, it
is confidered as an avovral of pregnancy, and Ihe paffes
without moleftation.
“ About an hour before funfet we went to the may-
woon’s, and found that his lady had provided plenti¬
fully to give us a wet reception. In the hall were
placed three large china jars, full of water, with bowls
and ladles to fling it. Each of us, on entering, had a
bottle of rofe water prefented to him, a little of which
we in turn poured into the palm of the maywoon’s hand,
who fprinkled it over his own veil of fine flowered
muflin. The lady then made her appearance at the
door, and gave us to underftand that Ihe did not mean
to join in the fport herfelf, but made her eldefl: daugh¬
ter, a pretty child in the nurfe’s armst pour from a
golden cup fome rofe-water, mixed with fandel wood,
firfi: over her father, and then over each of the Englifli
gentlemen : this was a fignal for the fport to begin.
We-were prepared, being drefled in linen waiftcoats.
From ten to twenty women, young and middle aged,
rufhed into the hall from the inner apartments, who
furrounded and deluged without mercy four men, ill
able to maintain fo unequal a conteft. The maywoon
was foon driven from the field 5 but Mr vVbod having
got pofleflion of one of the jars, we were enabled to
preferve our ground till the water was exhaufted : It
feemed to afford them great diverfion, efpecially if we'
appeared at all diftreffed by the quantity of water flung
in our faces. All parties being tired, and completely
drenched, we went home to change our clothes, and
in the way met many damfels who would willingly
have renewed the fport *, they, however, were afraid to
begin without receiving encouragement from us, not
knowing how it might be taken by ftrangers j but
they affailed Baba-fheem and his Birmari attendants
with little ceremony. No inconvenient confequences
were to be apprehended from the wetting } the weather
was favourable, and we ran no rilk of taking cold.
Saving put on dry clothes, we returned to the may¬
woon’s, and were entertained with a dance and puppet
fliow that lafted till eleven.
Drefs/ The court drefs of the Birman nobles is reprefented
as very becoming. It confifts of a long robe of flow¬
ered fatin or of velvet, reaching to the ankles, with an
open collar and loofe fleeves. Over this there is a
fcarf, or flowing mantle, that hangs from the ftioulders,
and on their heads they wear high caps of velvet, ei¬
ther plain, or of filk, embroidered with flowers of gold,
according to the rank of the owmer. Ear-rings are
worn by the meny and fome perfons of condition ufe
tubes of gold about three inches long, and as thick as
a large quill, which expands at one end like the mouth
of a fpeaking trumpet. Others wear a heavy mafs of
gold, beaten into a plate, and rolled up. This lump
of metal forms a large orifice in the lobe of the ear, Afia.
and drags it down by the weight to the extent fome-■-v—
times of two inches. Men of rank wear in common
drefs a tight coat, with long fleeves, made of muflin,
or of extremely fine nankeen, which is manufaftured
in the country j alfo a filk wrapper that encircles the
waift. The working clafs are ufually naked to the
middle, but in the cold feafon, a mantle or veil of Eu¬
ropean broad cloth is highly prized. The women tie
their hair in a bunch at the top of the head. They
bind it round with a fillet, the ornaments of which ex-
prefs the rank of the wearer. A ftiort ftnft, reaching
to the pit of the ftomach, and drawn tighfby firings,
fupports the breafts. Over that is a loofe jacket, with
clofe fleeves. Round their waift they roll a long piece
of filk or cloth, which reaching to their feet, and fome-
times trailing on the ground, encircles them twice, and
is then tucked in. When women of condition go
abroad, they wxar a filk fafh refembling a long fhawl,
which croffes their bofom, and is caft over the fhoul-
ders, fo as to flow gracefully on each fide. The low-
eft clafs of females often wear only a fingle garment in
the form of a fheet, which, wrapped round the body,
and tucked under the arm, croffes their breafts, which
it fcarcely conceals, and defcends to their ancles. Thus
when they walk, the lower part of the cloth, where it
overlaps, is opened by the protrufion of the leg, and
difplays to a fide view7 as high as the middle of the
thigh. Indeed, every woman wThen walking muft
fhew7 a great part of her leg, as the lower part of their •
drefs is never clofed by a feam. Women in full drefs
ftain the palms of their hands and their nails a red co¬
lour, by irteans of a vegetable juice, and ftrew on their
bofoms pow'der of fandal wood, or of a bark called by
them funneka, with which fome rub their faces. Both
men and w7omen tinge the edges of their eyelids and
their teeth with black. Ilg
The Birmans in their features have a nearer refem- Perfons of
blance to the Chinefe than to the natives of Hindoo- the people,
flan. The w^omen, efpecially, in the northern parts of
the empire are fairer than the Hindoo females, but not
fo delicately formed. They are inclined to corpu¬
lence, and their hair is black, long, and coarfe. The
men are athletic and aftive, but not tall. They have
a very youthful appearance, from the cuftom of pluck¬
ing out the hair of their beards inftead of {having.
Girls are taught at an early age to turn their arms in
fuch a manner as to make them appear diftorted.
When the arm is extended, the elbow is inverted, the
infide of the joint being protruded, and the external
part bending inwards. If9,
With regard to religion, the Birmans are a fort ofReligion, -
Hindoos 5 not votaries of Brahma, but feflaries of
Boodh ; which latter is admitted by Hindoos of all
defcriptions to be the ninth avatar or defcent of the
deity in his capacity of preferver. He reformed the
do£lrines contained in the vedas, and feverely cenfured
the facrifice of cattle, or depriving any being of life j
He is called the author of happinefs : his place of re-
fidence was difcovered at Gaya in Bengal, by the il-
luftrious Amara, renowmed amongft men, “ who cau-
fed an image of the fupreme Boodh to be made, and
he worfhipped it : Reverence be unto thee in the form
of Boodh 5 reverence be unto thee, lord of the earth j
reverence be unto thee an incarnation of the deity,.
and-
A S I [ 750 ] A S I
Afia. and eternal one; reverence be unto thee, O God, in
-"•v—' the form of mercy !”
Gotma, or Gantum, according to the Hindoos of
India, or Gaudma, among the inhabitants of the more
eaftern parts, is faid to have been a philofopher, and is
by the Birmans believed to have flourifhed above 2300
years ago. He taught in the Indian fchools the he¬
terodox religion and philofophy of Boodh. The
image that' reprefents Boodh is called Gaudma, or Gan¬
tum, which is now a commonly received appellation of
Boodh himfelf: This image is the primary objefl of
worfhip in all the countries htuated between Bengal and
China. The fe&aries of Boodh contend with thofe of
Brahma for the honour of antiquity, and are certainly
far more numerous. The Cingalefe, that is, the ori¬
ginal inhabitants of Ceylon, are Boodhifts of the pu-
reft fource j and the Birmans acknowledge to have ori¬
ginally received their religion from that ifland. It
was brought, fay the rhahaans, firft from Zehoo (Cey¬
lon) to Aracan, and thence was introduced into Ava,
and probably into China •, for the Birmans affert with
confidence that the Chinefe are Boodhifts.
This is a curious fubjeft of inveftigation •, and the
concurrent teftimony of circumftances, added to the
opinions of the moft intelligent writers, feem to leave
little doubt of the fail. It cannot, however, be de-
monftrated beyond the poffibility of difpute, till we
Ihall have acquired a more perfedl knowledge of Chi¬
nefe letters, and a readier accefs to their repofitories of
learning. Little can at prefent be added to the lights
caft on the fubjeft by the late Sir William Jones, in
his difcourfe delivered to the Afiatic fociety on the
Chinefe. That great man has expreffed his convi&ion
in pofitive terms, that “ Boodh was unqueftionably the
To of China,” and that he was alfo the god of Japan,
and the Woden of the Goths j an opinion which cor-
refponds with, and is perhaps grafted on, the informa¬
tion of the learned and laborious Kcempfer, corrobora¬
ted afterwards by his own refearches. On whatever
grounds the latter inference refts, it will not tend to
weaken the belief of his firft pofition, when I obferve
thait the Chinefe deputies, on the occafion of our intro-
du&ion to the feredan, or high prieft of the Birman
empire, proftrated themfelves before him, and after¬
wards adored an image of Gaudma with more religious
fervour than mere politenefs or acquiefcence in the cu-
ftoms of another nation would have excited. The
bonzes alfo of China, like the rhahaans of Ava, wear
yellow, as the facerdotal colour j and in many of jheir
cuftoms and ceremonies there may be traced a ftriking
120 fimilitude.
v,rs* The laws of the Birmans are connefled with their
religion, being contained in what they call the Derma
Sath, or Sajlra, which is one of many commentaries on
the w’ritings of Menu, to whom, according to the Hin¬
doos, the facred principles of their law were revealed
by divine authority.
The Saftra provides fpecifically for almoft every cafe
of crime that can be committed, and adds a copious
chapter of precedents and decifions to guide the inex¬
perienced. The Birmans agree with the Hindoos in
one benevolent do&rine, the finfulnefs of depriving any
creature of life to fatisfy a carnivorous appetite •, but
the Birmans do not carry this branch of their religion
to any fcrupulous length, like the timid and fuperfti-
tious natives of the weftern peninfula. Merely to eat Afia,
flefh is not deemed a crime by the Birmans, but he '-'""•v 
who eats it is not exempt from fin, unlefs the creature
died a natural death, or was llain by accident, or by
other hands. But in every thing that concerns reli¬
gion the Birmans are abundantly liberal. The prohi¬
bition to kill animals as obje&s of food is nowhere ve¬
ry fcrupuloufly obferved, except by the rhahaans or
priefts. In times of danger, or in confequence of fu-
perftition, the king and his viceroys fometimes iflue
proclamations, enjoirting obedience to the facred law j
but thefe produce little other effe& than to caufe the
animals for a (hort time to be killed with more fecre-
cy than ufual •, and wherever foreigners are in que-
ftion, both the government and the people are abun¬
dantly tolerant. The mayvroon of Pegu, who fent to
the embaffy large fupplies of fruit, rice, oil, tamarinds,
and fpices, did not indeed offer any butcher’s meat for
the ufe of the table ; but they were allowed to purchafe
and kill whatever they wanted, fuch as, fowls, kid,
and venifon. When they had advanced farther into
the country, a private intimation was given to the am-
baffador, that there rvould be no crime if a fervant of
his ftiould kill a fat bullock when he met one $ that it
would be aferibed to accident, and reparation might
be made to the owmer, who would think himfelf amply
recompenced for his lofs by two tachals, about fix (hil¬
lings •, and the beaft being dead, there could be no fin
in eating it, but that a public fanftion could not pre- I2I
vioufly be given to daughter one. The Birmans ne- Religions
ver quarrel with a ftranger on account of his religion, toleration.
Their principal fea-port, Rangoon, has long been the
afylum of infolvent debtors from the different fettle-
ments of Ind^. It is crowded with foreigners of def-
perate fortunes, who find from the Birmans a friendly
reception, and carry on a petty trade, which affords a
decent fubfiftence to thofe who adl with prudence.
Here are to be found fugitives from all countries of the
eaft, and of all complexions : Malabars, Moguls, Per-
fians, Parfees, Armenians, Portuguefe, French, and
Englifti, all mingle here, and are engaged in various
branches of commerce. The members of this difeor-
dant multitude are not only permitted to refide under
the prote&ion of government, but likewife enjoy the
moft liberal toleration in matters of religion : They
celebrate their feveral rites and feftivals, totally difi-
regarded by the Birmans, wTo have no inclination ta
make profelytes. In the fame ftreet may be heard the
folemn voice of the muezzin, calling pious Iflamites to
early prayers, and the bell of the Portuguefe chapel
tinkling a fummons to Romiftr Chriftians. Proceflions
meet and pafs each other without giving or receiving
caufe of offence. The Birmans never trouble them¬
felves about the religious opinions of any fe£l, nor dif-
turb their ritual ceremonies, provided they do not break
the peace, or meddle with their own divinity, Gaud¬
ma j but if any perfon commit an outrage, which the
muffulmans in their zeal for the true faith will fome¬
times do, the offender is fure to be put into the flocks $
and if that does not calm his turbulent enthufiafm,
they baftinado him into tranquillity. I22
The rhahaans, or priefts, are a kind of monks vvhoRhahaarw
live in cloifters, profefs celibacy, and abftain from or priefts.
every fenfual indulgence. The preferibed puniftiment
for a rhahaan detefted in an aft of incontinence, is
expulfion
Alia.
123
Kioums, or
monafte-
ries.
A S I [ 75
expulfion and public difgrace. Tlie_ delinquent^ is
feated on an afs, and bis face daubed with black paint,
interfperfed with fpots of white. He is t^lus
through the ftreets, with a drum beating before him,
and afterwards turned out of the city. 1 he juniors
only go abroad by the permiffion of the fupenor or
prior of the convent. They are dreffed in a long loofe
cloak, and yellow is the only colour worn by them.
The rhahaans never drefs their own vicluais, holding
It an abufe of time to perform any of the common func¬
tions of life, which, fo long as they occupy, mull di¬
vert them from the abftraft contemplation of the di-
vin^effence. They receive the contributions of the
laity ready cooked, and prefer cold food to hot. At
the dawn of the morning they begin to perambulate
the town, to colledf fupplies for the day : Each con¬
vent fends forth a certain number of its members, who
walk at a quick pace through the ftreets, fupporting
with the right arm a blue lackered box, in which the
donations are depoftted j thefe ulually confift of boiled
rice mixed with oil, dried and picxled fuh, fweet-
meats, fruit, &c. During their walk they never caft
their eyes to the right nor to the left, but keep them
fixed on the ground j they do not flop to folicit, and
feldom even look at the donors, who appear more de-
firous to beftow than the others to receive. The rha¬
haans eat but once a-day, at the hour of noon. A
much larger quantity of provifions being commonly
procured than fufRces for the members of the convent,
the furplus is difpofed of as charitably as it was given,
to the needy ftranger, or the poor fcholars who daily
attend them to be inftrufted in letters, and taugat
their moral and religious duties.
In their choice of a reftdence, the rhahaans com¬
monly feleft the moft retired fpots they can find,
where fiiady trees, particularly the tamarind and^ ba¬
nyan, protect them from the noonday fun. I heir
monafteries are different from common houfes they
are made entirely of wood ; the roof is compofed of
different ftages fupported by ftrong pillars j the infide
comprehends one large hall •, the whole houfe is open
at the fides, and no private apartments are allowed :
Publicity is the prevailing fyftem of Birman conduft,
and they admit of no fecrets either in church or ftate.
All kioums or monafteries, whether in town or coun¬
try, are feminaries for the education of youth, in
which boys of a certain age are taught their letters,
and inftru£led in moral and religious duties.. To thefe
fchpols the neighbouring villagers fend their, children,
where they are educated gratis, no diftincfion being
made between the fon oi the peafant, and of him who
wears the tfaloe or firing of nobility. A piece of
ground contiguous to the grove is enclofed for a gar¬
den, where they fow vegetables and plant fiuit trees .
the’Indian fweet potato and the plantain, being the
moft nutritious, are principally cultivated. The cha¬
rity of the country people fupplies them abundantly
with rice, and the few neceffaries'which their narrow
wants require. Abftracfed from all worldly confide-
rations, they do not occupy themfelves in the common
concerns of life : they never buy, fell, or accept of
money. Formerly there were nunneries of virgin
priefteffes, who, like the rhahaans, wore yellow gar¬
ments, cut off their hair, and devoted themfelves to
chaftity and religion j but the Birman government has
Alia.
124
i ] A S I
long fince abolifhed thefe focieties, and refufes to .al-(
low women, under pretence of religion, to be with¬
drawn from the performance of the important duty of
contributing to fupport and increafe the population of
the ftate. # . ---*
The Birmans are extremely magnificent in the ftruc-Temples,
ture of their temples ; that of Shoemadoo, at the an¬
cient city of Pegu, is moft remarkable.^ W e fhall
therefore give the defcription of it at full length .
“ The objeft in Pegu that moft attrafts and moft me_ I2i> „
rits notice, is the noble edifice of Shoemadoo or .the
golden fupreme. This extraordinary pile of buildings
is erefted on a double terrace, one raifed upon ano¬
ther. The lower and greater terrace is about 10 feet
above the natural level of the ground, forming.an ex-
a£t parallelogram : the upper and Idler terrace is fimi-
lar in ftiape, and rifes about 20 feet above the lower
terrace, or 30 above the level of the country. I
judged a fide of the lower terrace to be 1391 feet 5 of
the upper 684. The walls that fuftained. the fides of
the terrace, both upper and lower, are in a ruinous
ftate ; they were formerly covered with plafter wrought
into various figures. The area of the lower is ftrewed
with the fragments of fmall decayed buildings j but
the upper is kept free from filth, and is in tolerably
good order. There is reafon to conclude, that this
building and the fortrefs are coeval, as the earth of
which the terraces are compofed, appears to have been
taken from the ditch •, there being no other excavation
in the city, or in its neighbourhood, that could have
afforded a tenth part of the quantity. *
“ The terraces are afcended by flights of ftone fteps,
which are now broken and neglefted. On each fide
are dwellings of the rhahaans raifed on timbers four or
five feet from the ground ; thefe houfes confift only ot
a large wall} the wooden pillars that fupport them, are
turned with neatnefs } the roofs are covered with tiles,
and the fides are made of boards j and there, are a
number of bare benches in every houfe, on which the
rhahaans fleep j but we faw no other furniture.
“ Shoemadoo is a pyramidical building compofed of
brick and mortar, without excavation or . aperture of
any fort j oftagonal at the bafe, and fpiral at top.j
each fide of the bafe meafures 162 feet j this immenfe
breadth diminiflies abruptly, and a fimilar building has
not unaptly been compared in fliape to a large fpeak-
ing trumpet.
“ Six feet from the ground there is a wide projec¬
tion that furrounds the bafe, on the plane of which are
57 fmall fpires of equal fize, and equidiftant 5 one of
them meafured 27 feet in height, and 40 in circumfe¬
rence at the bottom. On a higher ledge there is ano¬
ther row, confifting of 53 fpires fimilar ftiape and
meafurement. _ .
“ A great variety of mouldings encircle the building,
and ornaments fomewhat relembhng the fleur-de-lys.fur-
round the lower part of the fpire ; circular mouldings
likewife girt it to a confiderable height, above which
there are ornaments in ftucco not unlike tne leaves ot
a Corinthian capital : And the whole is crowned by a
tee or umbrella, of open iron-work, from which rifes a
rod with a gilded pennant.
“ The tee or umbrella is to be feen on every facred
building that is of a fpiral form j the raifing and con-
fecratien of this laft and indifpenfable appendage is an
Alia.
A S I
act of high religious folemnity, and a feafon of feftivi-
ty and relaxation. The prefent king bellowed the tee
that covers Shoemadoo. It was made at the capital :
and many of the principal nobility came down from
vitioT13150013 t0 be prefent at the ceremony of its ele-
fhe circumference of the tee is 56 feet: it reds
cured fi‘Td In the building’ aild is farther fe-
cmed by large chains llrongly rivetted to the fpire
be°rUof b’u ,We!T 0f‘he ,e<: !,re al,Pend'd a num-
c^ualjSgUVh’ Bg‘tated ^ th' Wind’ mak' 3
r ^ Pa^d to be tbe intention
the king to gild the whole of the fpire. All the
diei pagodas are ornamented with proportionable urn-
^ WhiCh ^ 1!keWif' en-
The extrem.e he;ght of the edifice, from the level
Oi the country, is 361 feet, and above the interior ter-
race 331 feet.
Q ^hefouth-eall angle of the upper terrace there
are two handlome falcons or kioums lately erefted, the
roofs compofed of different If ages, fupported by pil.
til'* fd lenSth °f each to ^ about^60
Imh tvi iC bTidtly3i0 ’cthe Ceiling of one is already
embelhlhed with gold leaf, and the pillars are lacker¬
ed 5 the decoration of the other is not yet completed.
hey are made entirely of wood j the carving on the
outfide is laborious and minute j we faw feveral unfi-
nilhed figures of animals and men in grotefque atti-
nam’ fTV'‘ur deflSned as ornaments for different
parts of the> building. Some images of Gaudma, the
SounT °bjea °f B'rman adoration, lay fcattered
“ At each angle of the interior and higher terrace
there is a temple 67 feet high, refembling in miniature
the great temple 5 in front of that, in the fouthern
rornpr at***  r
[ 7S2 ]
A S I
of Palloo or the evil genius, half beaft half human,
feated on their hams, each with a large club on the
right flmulder. rhe Pundoo who accompanied me,
rp!d rthat the^ refembled the Rahufs of the Hindoos,
i hefe are guardians of the temple.
Nearly in the centre of the eaft face of the area are
two human figures m flucco beneath a gilded umbrel¬
la i one Handing reprefents a man with a book before
him, and a pen in his hand j he is called Thqfiamee,
the recorder of mortal merits and mortal mifdeeds 1
tb frmf\ figUr£ kneeling» is Maha Sumdera,
the protearefs of the umverfe, fo long as the univerfe
is doomed to 1 a ft j but when the time of general diffo-
lution arrives, by her hand the world is to be over¬
whelmed and everlaftingly deftroyed.
“ A fmall brick building, near the north-eaft ansjle
contains an upright marble .flab, four feet high, and
three feet wide: there is a long legible infcription on
V . ”a! ,old 11 was an account of the donations of
pilgrims of only a recent date.
“ Along whole extent of the north face of the
upper terrace there is a wooden ftied, for the conve-
menee of devotees who come from a diftant part of
i C0)ann1^' the ri°rth fide of the temple are three
Hrge bells of good workmanlhip, fufpended nigh the
ground between pillars ; leveral deers horns lie ftrew-
around i thofe who come to pay their devotions
firft, take up one of the horns and ftrike the bell three
times, giving an alternate ftroke to the ground : this
att 1 was told is to announce to the fpirit of Gaudma
the approach of a fuppliant. There are feveral low
benches near the foot of the temple on which the per-
lon who comes to pray places his offering, commonly
confiding of boiled rice, a plate of fweetmeats, or co¬
coa nut fried in oil ; when it is given, the devotee
cares not what becomes of it ; the crows and wild dogs
often devour it in prefence of the doner, who never at-
tempts to difturb the animals. I faw feveral plates of
Victuals dilpofed of in this manner, and underftood it
*° Ca^e all that was brought,
“ 7 here are many fmall temples on the areas of both
terraces, which are negletfed and fuffered to fall into
decay. Numberlefs images of Gaudma lie indiferimi,
nately fcattered. A pious Birman who purchafes an
idol, firft procures the ceremony of confecration to be
performed by the rhahaans he then takes his purchafe
to whatever facred building is moft convenient, and
there places it within the {belter of a kioum, or in the
open grpund before the temple ; nor does be ever again
leem to have any anxiety about its prefervation, but
leaves the divinity to fbift for itfelf. Some of thole idols
are made of marble that is found in the neighbourhood
of the capital of the Birman dominions, many are form¬
ed of wood and gilded, and a few are of filver. The
latter, however, are not ufually expofed and negledb-
ed like the others. Silver and gold are rarely ufed,
except m the compofition of houfehold gods.
. “ Pn both terraces are a number of white cy¬
lindrical flags raifed on bamboo poles j thefe flags are
peculiar to the rhahaans, and are confidered as emble-
- matic of purity and of their facred funaions On the
top of the ftaff there is a henza or goofe, the fymbol
both oi the Birman and Pegu nations,
“From the upper projedion that furrounds the bafe
Afia-
corner, are four gigantic reprefentations in nWh f Prr0jeaion that Surrounds the bafe
of Palloo or the evil genius, half beaft half hnmmy t • oemad?°’ th^ PfoPpea of the circumjacent coun-
’ . . Dealt halt human, try is extenftve and n anrefn,^ • K,,*- P .‘o   o ^
try is extenftve and piaurefque 5 but it is a profpea of
nature 111 her rudeft ftate : there are few inhabitants
and fcarcely any cultivation. The hills of Martaban
rile to the eaftward, and the Sitang river, winding
along the plains, gives an interrupted view of its wa¬
ters. To the northward about 40 miles are the Ga-
ladzet hills, whence the Pegu river takes its rife ; hills
remarkable only for the noifome effe&s of their atmo-
fphere. In every other diretfion the eye looks over a
boundlefs plain, chequered by a wild intermixture of
. wood and water.”
. ^ be temple of Shoemadoo appears to be the largeft
in the Birman dominions. At the fame time, they
have many others formed upon a fimilar plan and of
great extent. Of one of thefe we thall take notice,
on account of the coincidence between its name, and
the name of a Pagan temple mentioned in the facred
Scriptures. It is to be' obferved, that in the Birman
tongue, the word /hoe, fignifies golden ; and the name
of the temple to which we allude, is called Shoedagon
or the temple of the golden Dagon. It is thus deferibed :
, ^ be temple of Shoedagon or Dagonng, about two
miles, and a half north of Rangoon, is a very grand
building, although not fo high by 25 or-30 "feet as
t .at of Shoemadoo at Pegu. It is much more orna¬
mented ; the terrace on which it Hands is raifed on a
rocky eminence, confiderably higher than the circum¬
jacent
Afia.
A S I t 753 ] AS
iacent country* It is afccndcd by above 100 ftone end to pull down tbe tbatcb*
I
u6
Frivate
buildings.
ileps that have been fuffered to fall into decay. The
fituation renders Sboedagon a confpicuous ooje6t at the
diftance of many miles. The tee and the whole of
the Ipire are richly gilded, which, when the fun fhines,
exhibit a Angularly fplendid appearance.
“ The fmall auxiliary buildings are yet more nume¬
rous than thofe that furround the bafe of the Pegu tem¬
ple. Perceiving that feveral of thefe were in a ruinous
Hate, whilft the foundations of others were juft laid,
and fome half finiftied, I alked, why they did not
repair the damages of the old before they ere£ted new
ones, and was told, that to mend a decayed praw or
temple, though an aft of piety, was not fo meritorious
as to ereft a new one *, that fometimes the old ones
were repaired by thofe who were unwilling or unable
to be at the expence of a complete building 5 but this
entirely depended on the means or inclination of the
danor.
“ The borders of the terrace on which the temple is
raifed are planted rvith Ihady trees in regular rows :
From thjs eminence there is a beautiful and extenfive
profpeft •, the Pegu and Rangoon rivers are feen wind¬
ing throu'/h a level woody country, and the temple of
Syriam, little inferior to thofe that have been deferib-
ed, Hands near the junftion of the ftreams. The rai¬
ny monfoon had now fet in, and inundations were
formed in feveral places. It would have been a more
pleafmg, though perhaps lefs pifturefque feene, had
the plains been cleared and the fields laid out for cul¬
tivation : we could obferve few marks of improve¬
ment woods, lakes, and rivers, prefented themfelves
on every fide.”
But although the Birmans difplay fufficient magni¬
ficence in their temples and public buildings, their pri¬
vate houfes are conftrufted of very Ample and cheap
materials. Their king has even prohibited brick or
{tone to be ufed in the conftruftion of any private
houfe, from an apprehenfion, it is faid, that if people
were allowed to ereft brick houfes, they might ereft
brick fortifications to the danger of the ftate. It is
not improbable, however, that the prohibition is owing
to another caufe. In the hot climates, where the foil
is fertile, if the population happen to be defeftive, it
is extremely difficult to prevent the whole country
from being overrun with forefts, which is at prefent
in a great degree the cafe in the Birman dominions.
One of the eafieft modes of fubduing thefe forefts, con-
fifts of adopting the meafure now mentioned, of prohi¬
biting the ufe of brick or ftone for private buildings.
In other refpefts, however, the houfes are built with
fufficient attention to conveniency, and are all raifed
from the ground, either on wooden polls or bamboos,
according to the fize of the building $ fo that the low-
eft floor is above the ground. The monaileries of the
rhahaans, and the habitations of the higher ranks, are
ufually elevated fix or eight feet, and thofe of the
lower claifes from two to four. The walls of the
houfes are made of boards or matts, fupported on bam¬
boos or polls. One inconvenience, however, attends
them all, that from their being compofed of fuch corn-
buftible materials, the inhabitants are under continual
dread of fire, againft which they take every precau¬
tion. The roofs are lightly covered ; and at every
door Hands a long bamboo with an iron hook at the
Vol. II. Part II.
There is alfo another Alia,
pole with an iron grating at the extremity to fupprefs ' "
flame by preffure. Almoft every houfe has earthen
pots filled with water, Handing ready on the roof;
and a number of firemen patrole the ftreets during the
night to put out all fires and lights after a certain
hour\ . 127
It is cuftomary when the king, or when perfons of Xcmporary
high rank travel, to ereft temporary habitations for houfes.
them, and this was done in honour of the Britifh em-
baffy. Thefe temporary houfes are thus deferibed :
“ The materials of which thefe houfes are made, are al¬
ways eafy to be procured ; and the flrufture is fo Am¬
ple that a fpacious and by no means an uncomfortable
dwelling, fuited to the climate, may be erefted in one
day. Our habitation, confifling of a fmall room to each,
and a hall, open to the north, in little more than four
hours was in readinels for our reception. Fifty or fixty
labourers completed it in that time*, and, on emergency,
could perform the work in much lefs. Bamboos, grais
for thatching, and the ground rattan are all the mate¬
rials requifite ; not a nail is ufed in the whole edifice ',
a rorv of ftrong bamboos from eight to ten feet high
are fixed firm in the ground, which deferibe the outline
and are the fupports of the building *, fmaller bamboos
are then tied horizontally by ftrips of the gr9und rat¬
tan to thefe upright polls 5 the wails compofed of bam¬
boo matts are faftened to the fides with firnilar liga¬
ments y bamboo rafters are quickly raifed, and a roof
formed, over which thatch is fpread in regular layers,
and bound to the roof by filaments of rattan j a floor
of bamboo grating is next laid in the infide, elevated
two or three feet above the ground ; this grating is
fupported on bamboos, and covered with mats and car¬
pets : thus ends the procefs, which is not more Ample
than effeftual. When the workmen take pains, a
houfe of this fort is proof againft very inclement wea¬
ther. We experienced during our flay at Meeaday a
fevere ftorm of wind and rain, but no water penetrat¬
ed nor thatch efcaped and, if the tempeft flrould blow
down the houfe, the inhabitants would run no rifk of
having their brains knocked out or their bones bro¬
ken j the fall of the whole fabric wTould not cruffi a
lady’s lap dog.’’ _ r . n. , ^ 128
In the admimftration of juftice the Birmans are ex- Admini-
tremely regular and formal j the place where the judges ftration of
of any diftrift fit is called the rhoom, where they hear the Juffice-
pleadings of parties or their counfel, and examine witnef- »
fes, whofe depofitions are taken down in writing. Thefe
depolitions are fent to the may woon or viceroy, who re-
prefents the king, and the judges tranfmit their opinions
along with the evidence, wffiich the maywoon either
confirms or rejefts as h? thinks proper 5 and, in cafes
of capital conviftion, orders execution or pardons the
culprit. From his judgment there lies no appeal, un~
lefs the offender hold a royal commiffion ; in which
cafe the evidence muft be tranfmitted to the council of
ftate, and the king himfelf applies the law and pro¬
nounces judgment. I2p
The building denominated the rhoom is alfo the offi- The rhoom.
cial hall where the members of provincial governments '
and all municipal officers are accuftomed to affemble
to tranfaft public bufinefs. Every man of high rank in
the Birman empire is a magiftrate, and has a place of
this defeription and name contiguous to his divelling }
5 C bu
A S I
but always on the outfide of the enclofure of his court
yard, and not furrounded by any fence or railing, in
order to manifeft publicity, and fhow that it is the feat
of majefty and juftice, to which all mankind may have
tree acccls. An imperial mandate to a governor, or an
order from a governor to a petty miongee or chief of a
Imall town or diftridi, is invariably opened and read
aloud in this fanftified hall. The Birman government,
in the adminiilration of public affairs, profeffes no fuch
thing as privacy or concealment. The rhoom is like-
wife an appendage of dignity, as it denotes him to
whofe habitation it is annexed to be a perfon of rank
and confequence : a building of this fort was eredted
within a few yards of the front gate of the Britifh am-
baffador’s enclofure. It is to be remarked, that when
the ambaffador had obtained from the government the
eftablifhment of certain regulations refpedling com¬
merce, and had returned to the fea port of Rangoon,
the viceroy of that diftrift informed him, that the or¬
ders for carrying into effedl the late regulations would
be publicly read and regiftered at the rhoom on the fol¬
lowing day. The viceroy alfo invited him to fend a
confidential perfon to be prefent at the ceremony •, ad¬
ding, that the records were always open to public in-
fpedlion •, and that whoever chofe might, at any time,
procure a copy, by paying a trifling fee to the officers
of the court. The refult of this publicity is, that fo¬
reigners, acquainted with the charafter of the people,
do not hefitate to truft themfelves in the very centre
of the country. At the diftance of 150 miles from the
coaft, including the windings of the river, our embaffy
found a muffelman merchant from Surat, out of oeco-
nomy, building a veffel of four hundred tons burden,
inilead of building it at the fea port of Rangoon. He
meant, as foon as the hull flrould be finiffied, to float it
down the ftream. The inland navigation is confidered
as dangerous; but this merchant chofe to encounter
the rilk for the fake of obtaining the teek timber at a
cheap rate near the fpot where it grows, and proba¬
bly alfo for the fake of obtaining labour at a more mo¬
derate pricec This adventurer furniffies a proof of the
confidence that may be placed in the Birman govern¬
ment, and the fecurity that a ftranger has for his pro¬
perty.
The Birman government is of a feudal nature in the
flrifteft fenfe of the word. The people are a nation
of foldiers j every man in the kingdom being liable
to be called upon military fervice, and war is deemed
the moft honourable occupation. The regular milita¬
ry eftabliihment of the nation, however, as among our
anceftors in feudal times, is very inconfiderable, con¬
fining only of the royal guards, and as many troops as
are neceffary to preferve the police of the capital.
Thefe are fuppofed to amount in all, to about 20CO
infantry, and 300 cavalry, though it is laid that the
cavalry fcattered in fmall detachments through the dif-
tridls adjoining to the capital, amount to about 2000.
The infantry are armed with mulkets and fabres, and
are not uniformly clothed $ the cavalry in the king’s
fervice, are natives of the porthern province of Caffay,
who are accounted much better horfemen than the Bir¬
mans ; they feldom ufe any other weapon than a fpear
about feven or eight feet long. They ride like all
orientals with ffiort ftirrups, and a loofe rein j their
drefs is not unbecoming j it confifts of a tight coat, with
[ 754 1
A S I
fkirts reaching down to the middle of the thigh, and
on their head they wear a turban of cloth rolled hard u’“
and plaited, which forms a high cone, that bends back¬
wards in a graceful manner; their horfes are fmall,
but hardy and adlive, and are frequently exported to
the weftern peninfula. When an army is to be railed,
a mandate iflues to all the viceroys of provinces and
governors of diltridls, requiring a certain number of
men to be at a general rendezvous on an appointed
day ; the levy is proportioned to the population of the
province or diilridt, ellimated from the number of re¬
giftered houfes that it contains j the provincial court
determines the burden which each houfe is to bear ;
a certain number of houfes furnilh a recruit among
them, or pay 300 tachal in money, about 40I. or 4.5I.:
I he recruit is lupplied with arms, ammunition, and,
it is oelieved, with a daily allowance of grain from
the government ; but he receives no pay. The fami¬
lies of thole confcyipts are carefully retained in their
diftricts as hoftages for the good conduct of their rela¬
tion. In cafe of delertion or treachery the innocent
wife, children, and parent of the guilty perfon are
dragged to execution w ithout. pity •, even cowardice
fubje&s the family of the delinquent to capital pu-
niftiment, and this barbarous law is rigoroufly in-
forced.
By far the moft refpe&able part of the Birman mi- War
litary force is their eftabliihment of war boats ; every
town of note in the vicinity of the principal rivers is
obliged to furhiffi a certain number of men, and one
or more boats, in proportion to the magnitude of the
place ; thus the king can command at a very ffiort no¬
tice 500 of thefe velfels : They are conftrufted out of
the lolid trunk of the teek-tree, which is excavated
partly by fire and partly by cutting ; the largeft are
from Bo to 100 feet long, but the breadth feldom ex¬
ceeds eight feet, and even this fpace is produced by
artificially extending the Tides after the trunk has been
hollowed : They carry from 50 to 60 rowers, who ufe
Ihort oars, that work on a fpinble. The prow is folid,
and is a flat furface on which, when they go to war,
a piece of ordnance is mounted *, a fix, a nine, or even
a twelve pounder. rIhe gun-carriage is fecured by laffi-
ings to ftrong bolts on each fide, and fwivels are fre¬
quently fixed on the curvature of the ftern. Each
rower is provided with a fword and a lance, which are
placed by his fide while he plies the oars. Befides the
boatmen, there are ufually 30 foldiers on board, who
are armed with mulkets : thus prepared, they go in
fleets to meet the foe, and when in fight, draw' up in a
line, prefenting their prows to the enemy. Their at¬
tack is extremely impetuous ; they advance with great
rapidity, and fing a wTar fong, at once to encourage
their people, daunt their adverfaries, and regulate the
ftrokes of their oars j they generally endeavour to
grapple, and when that is effefted, the adtion becomes
very fevere, as thefe people are endowed with great
courage, ftrength, and adlivity. In times of peace
they are fond of exercifing in their boats, and they
difplay much dexterity in the management of them.
1 he veffels being low in the water, their greateft
danger is that of being run down by a larger beat
ftriking on their broadfide, a misfortune wfliich the
fteerfman is taught to dread and to avoid above all
others. It is furprifing, fays our author, to fee the fa¬
cility
Alia.
A S I [ 755 1 . A
cility with which they fleer and elude each other in that compoie the ornament.
S I
Alia,
132
Revenue.
133
The go¬
vernment
feudal.
134
Ranks in
fociety.
their mock combats. rI he rowers are abo practifed to
row backwards, and impel the veffel with the ftern
foremoft; this is the mode of retreat, by means of
which the artillery ftill bears upon their opponent.
The largeft of the war boats do not draw more than
three feet water.
The revenue of the Birman king is, according to
the laws of their religion, as ftated in their facred
books, a tenth of all produce, and it is certain that one-
tenth ’is the amount of the king’s duty on all foreign
goods imported into his dominions. I he revenue aii-
liiig from the cufloms on imports, and from internal
produce, is moftly taken in kind j a fmall part of which
is converted into cafli: the reft is diftributed as received
in lieu of falaries to the various dependants of the
court. Princes of the blood, high officers of ftate,
and provincial governors, receive grants of provinces,
cities, villages, and farms, to lupport their dignity,
and as a remuneration of their fervices j the rents of
thefe aflignments they colleft for their own benefit.
Money, except on prefling emergency, is never difhur-
fed from the royal coffers • to one man the fees of an
office are allotted j to another a ftation where certain
impofts are collected 5 a third has land ) each in pro¬
portion to the importance of his refpe&ive employment.
By thefe donations they aje not only bound in their
own perfonal fervitude, but likewife in that of all their
dependants •, they are called flaves of the king, and in
turn their Haves are denominated flaves +0 them : the
conditions of thefe grants include alio fervices of war as
well as the duties of office. Thus the Birman govern¬
ment exhibits almoft a faithful pifture of Europe in
the darker ages, when, on the decline of the Roman
empire, the principles of feudal dependance were efta-
blithed by barbarians from the north.
This fyftem of feudal dependence may be confider-
ed as exifting in the Birman government in its pureft
ft ate. There are no hereditary dignities or employ¬
ments } all honours and offices on the demife of the
poffeffor revert to the crown, a circumftance which
when taken along with the obligation to military fer-
vice, 'which is incumbent upon all down to the loweft
of the people, gives to this government that appearance
of a military encampment and fubordination which the
feudal tenures have been underftood to exhibit, but from
which they degenerated in Europe, wdren dignities and
authority became hereditary. In confequence of the
feudal principles which here prevail, the fubordination
of rank is maintained and marked By the Birmans with
the moft tenacious ftrictnefs. In the manner of con-
Thefe firings are Taftened
by boffes where they unite : three of open chain-work
is the loweft rank j three of neatly tw'ifted wire is the
next j then of fix, of nine, and of tw7elve ; no fubjeft
is ever honoured with a higher degree than twelve j
the king alone wears 24.
As gold is underftood to be the nobleft of metals,
the king of the Birmans, who is the fountain of rank,
is defignated or delcribed by the appellation of Jkoe
or golden ; thus, a particular village inhabited by
watermen in the fervice of the king is called Sboe-lee-
rua, or golden boat village, nor is the perfon of the
fovereign ever fpoken of but in conjunction with this
precious metal. When a fubjeft means to affirm that
the king has heard any thing, he fays, “ It has reached
the golden ears }” he who has obtained admiffion to
the royal prefence, has been at the golden feet; the
perfume of ottar of rofes, a nobleman obferved one
day, “ was an odour grateful to the golden nofe."
Gold among the Birmans'being a type of excellence,
is not merely afcribed to their king, but on folemn oc-
cafions it is placed on his drefs in fuch quantities as to
prove not a little cumberfome. The form in which the
ambaffadors were introduced to his majefty, and the 135
appearance which he made are thus defcribed : “ On Introduc-
entering tile gate, we perceived the royal faloon of ce-
remony in front of us, and the court aiiembied m ail t^e jjjrrnan
the parade of pomp and decoration. It was an opening,
hall, fupported by colonnades of pillars, 20 in length
and only four in depth ; we were conduced into it by
a flight of fteps, and advancing, took our places next
the fpace oppofite to the throne, which is always leit
vacant as being in full view7 of his majefty. On our
entrance, the bafement of the throne was alone vifible,
which we judged to be about five feet high j. folding
doors fcreened the feat from our view7: the throne, cak ¬
ed ya%apalay, was richly gilded and carved j on each
fide a fmall gallery enclofed by a gilt baluftrade ex¬
tended a fevv feet to the right and left, containing
four umbrellas of ftate j and on twm tables at tne foot
of the throne were placed feveral large veffels of gold,
of various forms, and for different purpofes 5 immedi¬
ately over the throne a fplendid piafath or pyramid rofe
in feven ftages above the roofs of the building, crown¬
ed by a tee or umbrella, from which a fpiral rod was
elevated above the whole.
“ We had been feated little more than a quarter of
an hour, wffien the folding-doors that concealed the
feat opened with a loud noife, and difcovered his ma-
jefty afcendxng a flight of fteps that led up to the
throne from the inner apartment $ he advanced but
the molt tenacious uricmeis. 111 me mamici      f r r 1 •
ftru&ing Wes, whether temporary or lafting, flrift „ flowly. leemed » ^hh Hs hat,*
attention is paid to the form which indicates the rank
of the inhabitant 5 nor dare any fubjeft affume a mode
of ftrufture to which he is not legally entitled : the
diftimftion confifts chiefly of the nuipber of ftages of
wffiich the roof is compofed •, even domeftic imple¬
ments, fuch as the betel-box, water-flagon, drinking-
cup, and horfe-furniture, all exprefs by their ftiape and
quality the precife ftation of the ow-ner ; nor can one
perfon intrude upon the rights of another under penalty
of incurring a moft fevere punifhment, which is never
remitted. The tfalfe, or chain, is the badge of the
order of nobility, of which there are different degrees,
diftinguiffied by the number of firings or fmall chains
limbs,’being obliged to fupport himfelf with his hands
on the baluftrade. I was informed, however, tnat
this appearance of w7eaknefs did not proceed rrom any
bodily infirmity, but from the weight of the regal ha¬
biliments in which he w7as clad 5 and if what wre weie
told was true, that he carried on his drefs 15 vifs, up¬
wards of 50 pounds avoirdupois of gold, his difficulty
of afeent was not furprifing. On reaching the top, he
flood for a minute, as though to take breath, and then
fat down on an embroidered cuflrion, with his legs in¬
verted. His crow’n was a high conical cap, richly
ftudded with precious ftones *, his fingers were covered
with rings, and in his drefs he bore the appearance of
5 C 2 a
A S I r - -
LSv" !!:m0Ur,> «!W«i or pro/-J
135
3-iterature.
un],i„ 0 , , o . U1’ vv,ullt a gilded or pro-
l a golden wmg on each Ihoulder did not add
much hghtnels to his figure. His looks denoted him
to be between 50 and 60 years old, of a ftrong make
m ftature rather beneath the middle height, with hard
features and of a dark complexion j yet the expref-
lion of his countenance was not unpleafing, and feemed
I^thougnt, to indicate an intelligent and inquiring
“ On the firll appearance of his majefiy, all the
courtiers bent their bodies, and held their hands join!
ed in an attitude of Application. Nothing farther was
required of us than to lean a little forward, and to turn
our legs as much as we could ; not any aft being fo
of tfil r ™a/^° as to prefent the foies
of the feet towards the face of a dignified perfon. Four
■ a mins, oreffed in white caps, and gowns, chanted the
nfual prayer at the foot of the throne: a Nakhaan
t itn advanced into the vacant fpace before the king
and recited m a mufical cadence the name of each per-
on who was to be introduced on that day, and of
^ character of a fuppliant, he en¬
treated his majefty’s acceptance. My offering, con-
Med of two pieces of Benares gold brocade ; Doaor
uchanan and Mr Wood, each prefented one. When
our names were mentioned we were feparately defired
to take a few grains of rice in our hands, and, joining
e'rmH V t1hC kl"g 3S low as vve conveniently
could , with which we immediately complied. When
this ceremony was finithed the king uttered a few in-
dilhna words, to convey, as I was informed, an or¬
der for inverting fome perfons prefent with the in-
figma of a certain degree of nobility; the imperial
mandate was inrtantly proclaimed aloud by heralds
the court. His majerty remained only a^ew mt
Hites longer, and during that time looked at us at-
entively but did not honour us with any verbal no-
ice, or fpeak at all, except to give the order before
SmTf* U h-'V he- r°fe t0 dePart’ he nianiferted
t ie lame figns ot infirmity as on his entrance; after he
iad withdrawn, the folding doors were clofed, and the
court broke up.”
Xtil?ay-1ke^e,ke addcd’ ^lat among the Birmans the
royal family rs^held of fo much importance, that tofuc-
fmm t0 11 tar0ne’ eVeiy prince rauft be defcended
worn royal parentage by both father and mother ; for
ms reaion inceftuous marriages are permitted to
their princes, but to no body elfe ; the king may in¬
deed marry a fecond wife of inferior rank while his
! d h ^ 18 accoumed merely a concubine,
the throi?1 dren arC llleSltimate» and cannot inherit
^7heib00kS1°frthe Birmans are generally formed of
•\ P3 ™6.110 on wbjch the letters are engraved
wu.i a flylus. Books are fometimes compofed,° how-
CVer’ °f,thm ,of bamboo delicately plaited and
varnirtred over in fuch a manner as to form a fmooth
iard for face upon a leaf of any dimenfion. This fur-
foce is afterwards gilded, and the letters traced upon
it in ^ack and ftuning japan. The margin is illumined
by wreaths and figures of gold. The Birmans write
from left to right, and though they leave no diftinguirti-
ing fpace between their words, they mark the paufes
or a fentende and the full rtops. Their letters are
and their manufcnpts- are in general very
6 1 A S I
tT!!ri‘L dJli1 rco"tains 33 Ample founds, AC,,
and then- alphabet confifts of an equal number of dll' 
lima characters, exclufiye of various marks and con¬
tractions, which are explained in their fpelling-book.
1 heir common charaaers confift of circles, and fe?-
ments of circles, varioufly difpofed and combined. The
Birmans are extremely fond both of poetry and mufic : Poe^J
their poetry, when repeated by a well educated perfon
is exceedingly melodious; it is fometimes in fucceflive’
and lometimes in alternate rhymes : they have epic as
well as religious poems of high celebrity, and they are
ond ot reciting m heroic numbers, the exploits of their
kings and generals. It is faid, that the prowefs of the
great Alompra, the deliverer of his country, is record-
ed in verfes not unworthy of his courage and his for-
tuim. I he members of the Britilh embaffy were in¬
vited by the maywoon or viceroy of Pegu to one of
l iTnl dra“aS re?refentatIOns’ which they applaud not
a httle. _ I he theatre was the open court, fplendid-
ly illuminated by lamps and torches ; the maywoon
and his lady fat m a projeding balcony of his houfe ;
w-e occupied feats below him, raifed about two feet from
the ground, and covered with carpets; a crowd of *
Ipectators were feated in a circle round the flage. The
performance began immediately on our arrival, and far
excelled any Indian drama that I had ever feen. The
dialogue was fpinted without rant, and the adion ani¬
mated without being extravagant ; the dreffes of the
principal performers were fliowy and becoming. I was
told that the beft adors were natives of Siam, a nation
which though unable to contend with the Birmans and
Peguers m war, have cultivated with more fuccefs the
refined arts of peace. By way of interlude between
the acts, a clowmlh buffoon entertained the audience
with a recital of different paffages ; and by grimace
and frequent alterations of tone and countenance ex-
torted loud peals of laughter from the fpedators.
I he Birmans leem to delight in mimickry, and are
very expert in the pradice, poffeffmg uncommon ver-
latinty of countenance. An eminent praditioner of this
art, amufed us with a fpecimen of his fkill, at our own
mule, and, to our no fmall aftonifhment, exhibited a
marterly ddplay of the paflions in pantomimic looks
aifogeftures; the tranfitions he made from pain to
pleaiure, from joy to defpair, from rage to mildnefs,
lora laughter to tears ; his expreffion of terror, and
above all, his fook of idiotifm, were performances of
urt rate merit 111 their line ; and we agreed in opinion,
that had his_ fates decreed him to have been a native
ot Great Britain, his genius would have rivalled that of
any modern comedian of the Englifh ftage.
J he plot of the drama performed this evening I
underftood, was taken from the facred text of the
Ramayan of Balmiec (called by Sir William Tones,
Ttf/W) a work of high authority among the Hindoos.
It reprefentcd the battles of the holy Ram, and the
impious Rahwaan, chief of the Rakufs or demons to
revenge the rape of Seda, the wife of Ram, who was
forcibly earned away by Rahwaan, and bound under
the fpells of enchantment. Viciflitudes of fortune took
place during the performance that feemed highly in-
tereftmg to the audience. Ram was at length wounded
by a poifoned arrow ; the fages Ikilled in medicine con-
.ted on his cure ; they dif&vtred, that on the moun¬
tain Indragurry grew a certain tree that produced a
gum,.
A s 1 [ 757 ] A S I
^ g^j wnich was a iovereign antidote agamit the dele-
""" terious effe&s of poifon ; but the diftance was fo great
that none could be found to undertake the journey } at
length Honyraaan, leader of the army of apes, offered
to go in quell of it. When he arrived at the place,
being uncertain which was the tree, he took up half
the mountain and tranfported it with eafe : thus was
the cure of Ram happily effe&ed, the enchantment
was broken, and the piece ended with a dance and
fon^s of triumph.”
When at the capital, Ummerapoora, our author de-
fcribes his vifit to the royal library in the following
terms : “ Having finilhed our introductory vifits to
the different members of the royal family, we had now
leifure to gratify our curiofity by viewing whatever the
capital contained that was molt defervmg the notice of
Grangers. The day not being far advanced, we walk¬
ed from the palace of Pagahm to fee the pedigaut tick
or royal library : it is fituated at the north-well angle
of the fort, in the centre of a court paved w'ith broad
Hags, and clofe to a very handlbme kioum or mona-
Ikry. Before we entered the library we afcended the
kioum, and found the inlide correfpond wuth the exter¬
nal appearance ; the building was Ipacious and richly
gilded ; the pillars, the ceiling, and the pannels, were
entirely covered with gold leaf; and the image of
Gaudma Ihone with a brilliant ludre ; a baluftrade of
wood, minutely and beautifully carved, protected the
image from intruders. On the pannels of the walls
w-ere reprefented figures of inferior agents of the divi¬
nity, and of proftrate rhahaans in the' a£l of devotion ;
■thefe were all lhaped in fret-work in the wood, and
were of no contemptible workmanihip ; a well wrought
foliage of the fame bordered the pannels. The image
or Gaudma in this kioum, was large, and made of mar¬
ble ; it was feated on a broad pedeftal entirely gilded ;
in front of which, within the baluftrade, ftood a hand-
lome girandole of cut glafs of European manufacture :
near the image wras a gilded couch, which we were
informed was the cuftomary bed of the principal rha-
naan, or head of all the Birman priefthood, when he
chofe to pafs the night in the fort, which rarely hap¬
pened. It was fplendidly gilt; the bottom, however,
w as only a bare board ; pillows were not wanting, for
there were two, but they were made of wood. A mat
fpread on the floor is the higheft luxury of repofe in
which the rhahaans indulge.
“ From the kioum we proceeded to vifit the adjacent
library ; it is a large brick building railed on a terrace,
and covered by a roof of a very compound ftrucfture!
It confifts of one fquare room, with an enclofed veranda,
or gallery, furrounding it: this room was locked, and
as we had not brought a fpecial order for feeing it, the
perfon who had the care of the library faid, that he was
not at liberty to open the doors, but allured us, that
there wns nothing in the infide different from what we
might fee in the veranda, where a number of large
chefts, curioufly ornamented with gilding and Japan,
were ranged in regular order againft the wall ; I count¬
ed 50, but there were many more, probably not lefts
than 100. ^ The books were regularly claffed, and the
contents of each cheft were written in gold letters on
the hd. The librarian opened two, and fhewed me
feme veiy beautiful writing on thin leaves of ivory,
the margins of which were ornamented with flowers of
gold neatly executed. I ftaw alfto fome books written Afia.
in the ancient Pali, the religious text. Every thing v'*-
leemed to be arranged wuth perfect regularity, and I
was informed, that there w'ere books upon divers fub-
jeefts ; more on divinity than any other ; but hiftory,
mufic, medicine, painting, and romance, had their fe-
parate treatiftes. 1 he volumes were diftpofted under
diltinft heads, regularly numbered ; and if all the other
chefts were as well filled as thofe that were ftubmitted
to our impedlion, it is not improbable that his Birman,
majefty may pollefts a more numerous library than any
potentate from the banks of the Danube to the borders
of China.”
Books were afterwards brought for fale to the gentle¬
men of the embaffy, but always clandeitinely ; and an
exorbitant price w;as demanded, under pretence that if
any perfton were diftcovered to have fold books to a
foreigner without permiffion he would be liable to a
fevere penalty. A man w^as aftually impriftoned for an
oftence of this nature, upon which Captain Symes ftent
a meffage to the chief woongee or prime minifter, ap-
priling him of the circumftance, and defiring to know
whether it was illegal to fell books to himftelf or his
fuite ; adding, that if their law prohibited it, he would
rejedf fuch as in future might be brought, and direH
every perfon under his authority to do the fame. The
woongee returned a civil meffage, and thejman was fet
at liberty. His majefty being made acquainted with
the aftair, ftummoned, on the following day, the princi¬
pal rhahaans to attend his council, and ftubmitted to
them, whether or not it was confiftent with Birman
tenets, to grant books that treated of their hiftory and
laws to foreigners ? The conclave, after ftolemn deli¬
beration, determined in the affirmative, and added,
that it was not only admiffible but laudable, for the dif-
femination ol knowledge. His majefty was thereupon
pleafted to order a handiome copy of the Razawayn, or
hiftory of their kings, and of the Dhermafath, or code
of laws, to be delivered to Captain Symes from the
royal library ; each was contained in one large volume,
written in a beautiful manner, and handfomely adorned
with painting and gilding.
Mufic is a ftcience that is held in no ftmall degree of Mufic?
eftimation throughout the Birman empire, and is very
generally cultivated ; there is fcarcely even a boatman
who does not poffefts an inftrument of fome fort; they
wffio can procure no better have at leaft what is called
a Jew's-har/), with which they delight to beguile half
an hour of a cool evening after a day fpent in fevere
labour under a burning fun. Some of the profeffional
muficians difplay confiderable Ikill and execution ; and
the fofter airs are pleafing even to an ear unaccuftomed
to the melodies of the country. The principal inftru-
ments are a lbum or harp, made of light wood hollow¬
ed and varnifhed, in ftiape fornewhat refembling a canoe
with a deck ; at the extremity, a piece of hard wood
is neatly fattened, which tapers to the end, and rifing-
curves over the body of the harp ; from this curvature
ti,e firings, ufually made of wire, are extended to a
bridge on the belly of the inftrument; there are two
founding holes, one on each fide of the bridge. The
fize of the foum varies from two to five feet in length.
The turr refembles our violin. It has only three
firings, and is played on with a bow. The pullaway
is a common flagelet. The kyezoup is a c-olleflion of
about'
AfSa,
Time.
A S I [ 758 ] A S I
about 18 cymbals, fufpended in a bamboo frame : thefe
cymbals, varying in lize, produce modulated grada¬
tions of founds. The patola, or guitar of the Birmans,
is faid to be a curious inftruthent: it is the exafl form,
in miniature, of a crocodile ; the body of which is
hollow, with founding holes in the back $ three firings
of wire extend from the fhoulder to the tail, to which
they arefallened. It is played on by the fingers, and
is generally ufed to accompany the voice. The bon-
daw is a collection of drums, oblong in form, and vary¬
ing in fize, which are fufpended perpendicularly in a
wooden frame by leather thongs. The whole machine
is about five feet in diameter, and four feet high. The
performer Hands in the centre, and beats on the drums
with a fmall flick. This inflrument is always introdu¬
ced when there is a full band, and is much ufed in
proceffions, of which the Birmans are very fond, being
carried by two men, while the performer fhuffles along
in the infide, playing as he goes. The heem is the
pipe of Pan, formed of reeds neatly joined together,
and founded by a common mouth-piece. It produced
a very plaintive melody.
The Birmans divide their year into 12 months,
which, flriftly fpeaking, cannot be called fynodical,
although they comprehend the fame number of days.
A revolution of the moon, in pafling from one con-
junftion with the fun to another, is performed in 29
days 1 2 hours and 44 minutes $ but the Birman luna¬
tions confifl of 29 and 30 days alternately, which
caufes a difference between the Newtonian and Bir¬
man lunar account of 8 hours and 48 minutes. The
Birman months are as follows :
Tagoo contains 29
Kayoung 30
Nay Young 29
Wazoo 30
Wagoung 29
Toozelien 30
Tandaing Guite 29
Tazoung Moang 30
’ Gnadoh 29
Peeazoo 30
Taboodiray 29
Taboung 30
354
In order to complete a folar revolution, they interca¬
late in every third year a month of 30 days, which is
-called Toodea IVazoo; in this third year the fnonths
of Tagoo and Nay Young have each 30 days inftead
of 29 ; they likewife fupprefs or pafs over a day, which,
if reckoned, would either be the 31ft Taboung, or the
1 ft of Tagoo ; by thefe means the number of days in
three folar years is thus computed :
Days.
Three lunar years of 3 54 days each, 1062
Intercalary month in the third year, 30
Two intercalary days in Tagoo and Nay Young, 2
Supprelfed or palled over at the end of the year, 1
1095
This computation correfponds in the number of
-days with three years j every fourth year, however,
will occafion the difference of a day on account of our Afia
biffextile, or leap year j of this the Birmans are fully v"
fenfible, as well as of many other defedts in their manner
of reckoning •, to remedy the confufion likely to enfue
from fuch erroneous, calculations, their ftyle or mode
has frequently been altered by arbitrary authority.
The manner in wiaich the Birman month is fubdi-
vided is fomewhat peculiar ; inftead of reckoning the
days progreftively from the commencement to the
clofe of the month, they divide it into two parts, and
number the days of the increafing and of the waning
moon feparately. Each moon or month is alfo divided
into weeks of feven days-each , and Sunday, as with us,
is the firft day of the Birman week. The eighth day of
the increafing moon, the fifteenth or full moon, and the
eighth of the decreafing moon, are obferved as facred
fellivals. On thefe holidays no bufinefs is tranfadled
in the rhoom} mercantile dealings are fufpended ;
handicraft occupations are forbidden, and the ftridtly
pious take no fuftenance between the rifing and the
letting fun. This lalt inftance of felf-denial, however,
is uncommon, except in the metropolis, where it is
fubmitted to by ambitious perfons with a view7 to ob¬
tain favour with the king, who is underftood to be a
great favourer of the aufterities of the Birman reli¬
gion. Minute portions of time are divided as follows :
“ The fpace in which the finger can be raifed and de-
prefled is called cbaraxi; ten charazi make one piaan 5
fix piaan one bezana, about a minute. The day, of
24 hours commencing at noon, is divided into eight
portions or yettee, of three hours each. Thefe divi-
fions of time are afcertained by a machine refembling
the hour-glafs, and fometimes by a perforated pan
placed in a tub of water ; they are announced by a
llroke on an oblong drum, which is always kept near
the dwelling of the chief magiftrate of the city, town,
or .village ; it is commonly raifed on a high bam¬
boo ftage, with a roof of mats to protedl it from the
w’eather.
The edifice at the royal palace for the reception of
this inftrument is of mafonry, and very lofty, whence
the found is faid to be diftinftly conveyed to the re-
moteft quarters of the city.
The Birmans, like the Chinefe, have no coin. Sil-M^m^
verin bullion, and lead, are the current monies of the
country *, weight and purity are of courfe the ftandard
of value, and in the afcertainment of both the natives
are exceedingly fcrupulous and expert. What foreigners
call a tackal, properly kiat, is the moft general piece
of filver in circulation 5 it weighs lodv^ts lOggr- 3 its
fubdivifions are, the tubbee, two of which make one
moo j twTo moo, one math j four math, one tackal $ and
-one hundred tackal compofe one vifs. Money fcales
and weights are all fabricated at the capital, w7here
they are ftamped, and aftemards circulated through¬
out the empire; the ufe of any other is prohibited.
The bankers, called by foreigners pynions, are likewife
W'orkets in filver and affayers of metal. This is a clafs
of people very numerous, and indifpenfably neceffary,
as no ftranger can undertake either to pay or receive
money without having it firft examined. Every mer¬
chant has a banker of this defcription, with whom he
lodges all his cafh, and who, for receiving and paying,
gets an eftabliftied commiffion of one per cent; in
confideration of which he is refponfible for the quality
of
A S I [ 759 J A S I
Alia. of what goes through his hands j and in no inftance
"_v ' ‘ has it been knowrn that a breach of truft was commit¬
ted by one of thefe bankers. The quantity of alloy
varies in the filver current in different parts of the em¬
pire 5 at Rangoon it is adulterated twenty-five per
cent; at Ummerapoora, fine, or what is caWedflowered
fl/ver, is moft common ) in this latter all royal dues
are paid. Any perfon may have his filver either pu¬
rified or depreciated to whatever rtandard he choofes ;
the neareft filverfmith will be glad to perform the
work, free from charge for his labour, as the bringer,
by the operation, mult lofe a tride, which the artift
gains ; the fmall quantity of metal that adheres to the
crucible is his profit.
Meafures. The Birman meafures of length are a paul-gaut or
inch, 18 of which compofe the jaim or cubit; the
faundgaling or royal cubit, equal to 2 2 inches ; the
dha or bamboo, which confifts of 7 royal cubits;
IOOO dfia make one Birman league or dain, nearly
equal to two Britilh miles and two furlongs ; the
league is alfo fubdlvided into tenths. The Birmans
keep their accounts in decimals, after the manner of
the Chinefe.
The Birmans have hitherto carried few of the arts
Agricul- to very great perfeftion. The art of agriculture, which
ture. is the foundation of all others, feems in a very imper-
fe£t ftate ; this, however, does, not appear to arife fo
much from want of {kill in the people as from their
prefent fituation, which renders great exertions to pro¬
cure fubfiftence by no means neceffary. The foil is
extremely fertile, while the population is very fcan-
ty ; the Birmans, therefore, are fomewhat in the ftate
of colonifts upon a new territory ; land is abundant
and cheap, while labour is obtained with difficulty ;
hence they cultivate only the moft fertile fpots, and
thefe in an indifferent manner, leaving the greater
part of the work to nature, which has been very boun¬
tiful to them. They are not, however, altoge¬
ther unacquainted with fame ufeful practices; they
everywhere burn the rank grafs, once a year, to im¬
prove the pafture. In fome quarters of the country
neat farms are to be feen, with lands well fenced and
divided into enclofures to receive the cattle, of which
there are great abundance ; the fields are divided by
thorn hedges; the low grounds are prepared for rice,
and the higher lands are planted with leguminous
ftmibs, or left for pafture.
Ship-build- The Birmans are at prefent endeavouring wdth great
ing. fpirit to improve their marine architedlure. Formerly,
they ufed only fmall veffels, no better than a kind of
boats ; but, having obtained farther information from
their communication with Europeans, they are now
launching veffels of confiderable magnitude. When
the Britifh embaffy were at Rangoon, they faw^ feveral
(hips upon the flocks from 600 to 1000 tons bur¬
den ; one belonging to the maywoon of Pegu about
900 tons was confidered, by profeffional men, as^a fpe-
cimen of excellent workmanftiip ; it was entirely form¬
ed by Birman carpenters upon a French model, as are
moft of their large veffels, the Birmans having received
their firft rudiments of the art from that nation ; three
or four veffels of burden were likewufe in a ftate of
forwardnefs belonging to Englifti adventurers. Bir¬
man fhipwrights appear to finifti their work v7ell; they
are athletic men, and poffefs, in an eminent degree,
that vigour which diftinguifties Europeans, and gives Alia,
them pre-eminence over the enervated natives of Hin- ™
dooftan. 144
Upon the fea coaft they manufadlured great quan- Salt,
tities of fait, from which the government derives a 145
confiderable revenue. Cloths of different kinds are
manufactured by the women in all parts of the empire ;
and even in the royal palace they carry on domeftic
manufactures. On a vifit to the mother of the queen,
the ambaffador faw, in one of the galleries of her pa¬
lace, three or four looms at wmrk. At Pegu the wo¬
men weave for their owm and their hufbands ufe filk
and cotton cloth ; the thread is well fpun ; the texture
of the web is clofe and ftrong, and it is moftly chequer¬
ed like Scotch tartan. At a town in the interior
called Pahang-yog, fituated upon the river Irrawaddy,
large quantities of filken cloth, and of filk and cotton
mixed, are manufaftured. The filk of which thefe
goods are made comes from Yunan, the fouth wert
province of China, in a raw ftate ; the colours are
bright and beautiful; the texture is clofe, and the cloth
is faid to wear much longer than any Chinefe or In- 145
dian manufacture. At a town called Sumtnei-kioum is Saltpetre
the greateft manufactory of faltpetre and gunpowder aiU*
in the kingdom. From a prejudice, not unufual in the
infancy of commerce, neither faltpetre nor gunpmvder
is fuffered to be exported upon any plea. At the fub-
urbs of a town called Pagahm, the members of the
embaffy found the inhabitants employed in prefling
oil from the fefamum feed ; the grain is put into a Oil raids,
deep wooden trough, in which it is prefied by an up¬
right timber fixed in a frame ; the force is increafed
by a long lever, on the extremity of which a man fits
and guides a bullock that moves in a circle, thus turn¬
ing and prefling the feed at the fame time ; the ma¬
chine wras Ample, and anfivered the purpofe effectually.
There were not lefs than 200 of thofe mills with¬
in a narrow compafs. From the circumftance of the
cattle being in good order, w7e concluded, that they
were fed on the feed after the oil was extracted. The
land about Pagahm fcarcely yields fufficient vegetation
to nourilh goats.
Our readers will readily believe, that we perufed
with much pleafure the following paffage in Captain
Symes’s Account of his Embaffy : “ Among the arti¬
cles of foreign trade which had found their way into*
the Birman country, nothing w7as held in higher efti-
mation than the European glafsware, imported into ~ .
Rangoon from the Britifli fettlements in India. The
art of vitrification has long been known and pradifed
in moft countries of the eaft ; but nowffiere can they
make a pure tranfparent fubftance, like that which is
brought from Europe. The Birman monarch, who
is a great admirer of the manufacture, was particularly
defirous to introduce it into his ow7n dominions ; and
fuppofing that every Englifliman muft be verfed in the
knowdedge of making whatever comes from his own
country, lie fent a meffage to requeft that I rvould
furnifli his artificers with Inch inftruCtions as might en¬
able them to fabricate glafs of a quality equal to what
■was made in England. Unluckily none of us happen¬
ed to be {killed in the myftery of a glafs-houfe ; all,
therefore that v7e could do, was to explain the princi¬
ples of the art, which Dr Buchanan obligingly under¬
took ; and, in order to facilitate them in the acquire-
ment3.
Afia.
A S I [76
ment, and guide them in the practice, I lent them the
Encyclopaedia Britannica, and pointed out the article
where the procefs is fully explained. Baba Sheen, the fe-
cond in authority at the port of Rangoon, and the Arme¬
nian interpreter, tranflated it into the Birman tongue.”
As the Birmans poflefs within their country the
-whole materials from which the beft kinds of glafs are
prepared, there is little reafon to doubt, that this ac¬
tive people would fpeedily be enabled to reduce to
practice the leflbn they obtained in the manner above
.mentioned ; and thus, the proprietors and condu&ors
of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, have the fatisfa&ion
to know, that the former edition of their work, has
contributed to diffufe in the moft di’ftant regions of the
globe, a knowledge of thofe arts, which add conveni¬
ence and elegance to civilized life. The utility of
their undertaking has exceeded the limits of their own
forefight, as they have, in this inftance at lead, la¬
boured for the inftfuftion and improvement of a prince
-and of a people, whofe very name and exiftence wore
unknown to them when their labours commenced.
Happy had it been for the nations of the eaft, had
they derived from their intercourfe with Europeans no
other fruits than the extenfion of fcience, and the en¬
largement of their powers, by an acquaintance with that
command over the different objedts of nature, which hu¬
man ingenuity has attained in this quarter of the world.
One manufacture on which the Birmans beftow much
attention, muff not pafs unnoticed. It is carried on at
a village called Kyeock Zeit, and conlifts of the forma¬
tion of idols of marble. Our author faw 30 or 40
large yards crowded with ftatuaries at work, on ima¬
ges of various dizes, but all of the fame perfonage,
Gaudma, fitting crofs-legged on a pedeftal. The quar¬
ries whence the materials are obtained, are only a few
miles diftant. The marble is brought to the village
in blocks; and after being falhioned, the images are
publicly fold to pious people. The largeft, little ex¬
ceeded the human fize, and the price was faid to be
.100 tackals, that is, 1 2 or 13I. $ but fome diminutive
Gaudmas were to be difpofed of as low as two or three
tackals. The workmen were civil and communica¬
tive. Their tools were a chifel and a mallet, and
they fmooth the image with freeftone and water. Ma¬
ny of the idols were beautifully polifhed, which is faid
to be accomplilhed by rubbing the marble with three
different forts of Hone *, the firft rough, the fecond fin¬
er, and the third, fuch as hones are made of. The
workmen afterwards ufe the palms of their hands.
This laft operation gives it a tranfparent clearnefs, far
furpaffing the brighteff polifh that European marble
ever exhibits. Such images as are defigned for gild¬
ing, are not finilhed fo highly 5 but none of the idols
are allowed to be fold to any, except native Birmdns.
Anextenfive trade is carried on between Ummerapoo-
ra the capital of the Birman dominions, and Yunan in
mCommerce. China. The principal export from the Birman territory
is cotton, of which it is faid there are twro kinds, one of
a brown colour, of which nankeens are made, the other
white, like the cotton of India. This commodity is
tranfported up the Irraw-addy in large boats, as far as a
place called Bamoo ; where it is bartered at the com¬
mon market with Chinefe merchants, who convey it
partly by land and partly by water, into the Chinefe
/taminions. Amber, ivory, precious Hones, betel nut,
Afia.
149
Marble
GO
Hols.
o ] • AS!
and the edible neftsTrought from the eaflern Archipela¬
go, are alfo articles of commerce. In return, the Bir- 1
mans procure raw and wrought filks, gold leaf, pre-
ferves, paper, and fome utenfils of hardware. A great
inland commerce is alfo carried on between the capi¬
tal and the fouthern parts of the empire, which is
greatly afiifted by the noble river Irrawaddy, that wa¬
ters the country. The chief objedls of this commerce
are the necefi’aries of life. Several thoufand boats are
employed in tranfporting rice and fait from the fouth¬
ern or lowrer provinces, to fupply Ummerapoora and
the northern difiridts. Up the fame ftream are con¬
veyed China ware and glafs j alfo European broad
cloth, with fome hardware and coarfe muffins from
Bengal. Silver, lace, and precious Hones, are brought
dowm by the merchants. r ^
We have treated fomewhat minutely of the manner importance
and fituation of this people, becaufe they form a ffrik-of the Bir¬
ing exception to the general features of the Afiatic m^n.s t0 t5ie
character, as it has always exiffed among the other na-511*11^1’
tions that inhabit the more fertile diftrifts of that great
continent. It is to be obferved, that the Birmans are
alfo of importance, in confequence of their geographi¬
cal pofition in relation to the great Britiffi empire in
India. A durable veffel of burthen cannot be built in
the Ganges without the aid of teek plank, wffiich can
only be procured from Pegu. Should the timber trade
of the Birman empire therefore be interrupted, the
marine of Calcutta, amounting to 40,000 tons of (hip¬
ping, would be reduced nearly to annihilation. This ma¬
rine has already been of importance to Britain. In 1 794,
14,000 tons of dripping, almoff entirely India built,
were freighted to carry rice to England, and reduced the
price of that article of food to three halfpence per pound.
The maritime ports of the Birman empire are extremely
commodious for Indian commerce. Britain poffeffes
the weffern fide of the bay of Bengal; the Birmans
the eaftern, which is far fuperior to the former for the
purpofes of navigation. From Cape Comorin to the
Ganges, is an unbroken line of expofed fiiore, ■without
a fingle harbour capable of affording dicker to a veffel
of 500 tons burden : But the Birmans poffefs three
excellent ports, Negrais, the fecured harbour in the
bay ; Rangoon, and Mergui, each of which is as con¬
venient, and not lefs acceffible than the Ganges, which
is the only Britidi port in the w-hole bay. In fuch cir-
cumffances, the importance to the government of the
w'efiern peninfula of retaining a good underflanding
with thefe people, cannot be difputed. They are a
very different race from the timid and paffive Hindoos,
whom we have conquered. Though unequal to Eu¬
ropeans in manufadlures or in arts, yet in a climate
adapted to their natural conflitution and unfriendly to
ours, they might prove dangerous enemies, in a con-
teff with whom much might be loff, and nothing can
be gained.
After this account of the Birmans and their empire, The
it will be unneceffary to take much notice of the reft of mainder of
the eaftern peninfula, as the inhabitants of that terri-t*ie.ea^ern
tory appear upon the wffiole to poffefs the fame gene-Pen^u*a’
ral character, laws, and manners. To the fouth-eaft
of the Birman territory, the great eaftern peninfula
becomes forked, or divides itfelf into two feparate pe-
ninfulas, with the gulf of Siam between them. The
moft wrefterly of thefe two peninfulas, is a narrow traft
of
A S I
[ 761 J
A S I
*54
Malacca.
Afia. of country called Malacca, which ft retches fouthward
to a great diftance, till it approaches the equator. The
peniniula to the eaftward of the gulf of Siam is much
broader than the other, but proceeds to a much lefs di¬
ftance fouthward. The city of Siam Hands at the bottom
of the bay of that name, where the divifion of farther
India into two peninfulas commences. The peninfula,
beyond the Siamefe territory, contains the countries
called Ciampa, Cambodia, and Cochin-China, on the
eaft, and Tonquin on the north-eaft.
The ifthmus, or neck of land, by which the penin¬
fula of Malacca joins the continent, is only about 50
miles in breadth. To the weft ward of it, at the di¬
ftance of 260 miles, is the ifland of Junkfeilon, which
yields confiderable quantities of tin. In 1784, 500
tons of that metal were exported. Malacca itielf yields
few commodities for exportation, excepting ivory and
tin. The city of Malacca, however, is a true empo¬
rium or magazine of the various rich articles of com¬
merce brought from the furrounding countries. This
coaft was known to the ancients. It was celebrated
for its gold, on account of which it received the ap¬
pellation of Aurea Chsrfonefcs. Some imagine this to
have been the Ophir of Solomon, though others con¬
tend that Ophir wr4s a port in Africa. One reafon
for fufpeffing this or fome other port in India to have
r Kings, x. been Ophir, is this, that Solomon’s fleet is faid to have
23‘ brought home peacocks. Thefe birds are natives of
India, and at that early period were unknown in the in¬
terior or fouthern coafts of Africa. It is farther to be
remarked, that on the eaftern fide of this peninfula,
much gold is found near Pahang. This town is fitu-
ated in N. Lat. 30 50', in a moft: fruitful country, at
the mouth of a river which has an eftuary of about a
mile broad. The river contains much gold. Lumps
of five or fix ounces weight are faid to have been
found. It is brought up by divers. Sometimes eight
hundred weight has been exported. This place, there¬
fore, might well be the Ophir of Solomon ; and the
Jewifh hiftorian, Jofephus, actually fixes it here.
Trangano or Tringoran, a fmall town a little to the
north of Pahang, is feated on a river near the fea. It
confifts of about 1000 houfes, half of which are inha¬
bited by Chinefe, rvho traffic in their junks to Siam,
Cambodia, and Tonquin. Trangano is moft deliciouf-
ly fituated amidft low hills, covered with the eternal
verdure of undeciduous trees. Lemons, oranges, man-
gofteens, and all the fruits of the Indies, grow here in
perfection ; and the vallies produce grain, pulfe, fugar,
and efpecially pepper, in great abundance ; but only
in confequence of the induftry of the Chinefe, for the
Malays themfelves are too indolent to make the earth
yield its full increafe. We know too little of the an¬
cient hiltory of this fingular people in particular, and
indeed of the whole peninfula beyond the Ganges in
general, to be able to account in a fatisfaCtory manner
for their prcfent ftate, or their connexion with a mul¬
titude of adjoining tribes and ftates. The ancients
formed of the whole of this great eaftern peninfula,
along both fides of the bay of Siam, a mighty empire,
to which they gave the appellation of Thince, or Since,
diftinguifhing them from the Chinefe on the one hand,
and from the Hindoos on the other. The fimilarity of
. charafter and cuftoms that is to be found among the
whole of thefe ftates of Birmah, Malacca, Siam, Cambo-
Vol. II. Part II.
dia, Cochin-China, and Tonquin, render the exiftencc of Alta,
fuch an ancient empire extremely probable. It may have ' ,n v
beendeftroyed by Tartar conquell or internal revolutions,
and the inhabitants may have loft a great part of the
civilization, and a multitude of the arts \fhich they
once poffefied. That this laft fuppofition is not only
probable, but in fome degree true, is fufficiently de-
monftrated by a fact mentioned by Captain Symes, in
the account already noticed, of his embaffy to Umme-
rapoora. He faw in many places beautiful vaults and
arches formed of ftone or brick, fupporting lofty build¬
ings ; but he learned, that the art of conftrudting
vaults or arches is at prefent entirely loft in the coun¬
try, and that no Birman workman wall at the prefent
period engage to erect a building of that kind. T,.
The charadter of the inhabitants of the peninfula be- Charadtev
yond the Ganges, appears to be more ftrikingly mark-°f the Ma-
ed in the Malays than any other people ; and at fomd *ays’
remote period, they have undoubtedly made a confi¬
derable figure in thefe regions, and muft have poffefted
a great fpirit of national enterprife. They differ from
the other ftates of the peninfula only in this, that the
Arabs have converted them to Mahometanifin. The
feudal fyftem at prefent exifts among them in full per-
fedlion or barbarity. They have the fame pride of
honour and delight in war that diftinguilh the Bir¬
mans, and that marked the charadler of the ancient
inhabitants of the north of Europe. They are govern¬
ed by petty chiefs, who are engaged in endlefs and
fanguinary hoftilitics againft each other. Like the
Birmans, the people in their perfons are robuft, but
not tall. They are adtive and reftlefs, and their fero¬
city in war is unbounded : No enterprife is fo dange¬
rous as to deter them from engaging in it. Not only
will a handful of them in a boat attempt to board an
European veffel of any fize, and to murder the crew
wuth their poniards ; but when employed by the
Dutch as foldiers in their wars againfl: the Englifti or
Portuguefe, 14 or 20 of them have been known to
fally from a fort, under cover of the fmoke of the can¬
non ; and having found their way in an inftant into
one of the batteries of the befiegers, they have ftabbed
almoft the wffiole gunners while working the artillery,
and retreated with little lofs, and before effedlual mea-
fures could be taken againft them. The Dutch are fo
cautious with regard to them, that unlefs in cafe of ex¬
treme neceffity, they never employ above two or three
of them at once as mariners on board the fame ftfip :
Yet this people, barbarous as they now are, have at
one period made fuch national exertions, that their
race and language is found to extend over a very large
portion of the globe. To the fouth and eaft of Ma- Afiadc Ar
lacca the great Afiatic Archipelago is fituated, con-chipdago.
taining a multitude of iiles of immenfe extent. Over
a great part of thefe ifies the Malays have Ipread
themfelves, and their language is fpoken. The firft
ifiand to the fouth and fouth-weft of Malacca is Suma¬
tra, the paffage between wffiich and the main land, is
called the Straits of Malacca. The ifland of Sumatra
is croffed in the middle by the equator : its length is
about 800 miles, and its breadth about 130. A range
of mountains runs along the whole ifiand, fometimes ,
in a double or triple chain, with beautiful vallies be*- *
tw-een them ; but unlefs where cleared, both vallies
and mountains are clothed with fliady forefts. The
5 D • ifiand
1*
A S I [ 762 ] A S I
Afia. ifland has long been celebrated for its gold, and a moun-
v tain under the line is called Ophir, which affords an ad¬
ditional reafon for fuppoling that the {hips of King So¬
lomon came to this quarter of the world. It is 13,842
feet high, or two miles and 1094 yards. The Ma¬
lays upon the ifland are faid to be Ikilful artilfs in
works of fillagree, in both gold and filver. Sugar,
ivory, teek wood, and all the other tropical produc¬
tions, are found upon it; but its climate is extremely
deftru&ive to Europeans. Though no fnow is ever
feen on the illand, yet the inhabitants of the moun¬
tains, like thofe of other Alpine regions, are fubjeft
to monftrous wens in the neck, or goitres.
To the eaft of Sumatra, and divided from it by the
flraits of Sunda, is the ifland of Java, in which alfo
the Malays abound, and in which the Dutch have
their fettlement of Batavia. Like Sumatra, a chain
of mountains runs along the middle of it, and it is ex¬
tremely unhealthy to Europeans. Eaftward of Java is
the great ifland of Borneo, immediately under the
line. A great part of the coafts is in the hands of
the Malays, though Moors and Javanefe are alfo
found here. It produces all the vegetable and mine¬
ral productions that are found in the other parts of the
Indies. The interior is mountainous, but unhealthy •,
and this, like all the reft of thefp iflands, is fubjedt to
frequent and very dangerous earthquakes. The origi¬
nal inhabitants of this and the other iflands in its neigh¬
bourhood are extremely barbarous, and have been dri¬
ven from the fea coaft by the Malays and other ftran-
gers. To the north-eaft of Borneo are the Philippine
iflands *, and to the fouth-eaft are Celebes and the
Molucca ifles, beyond which is New Guinea, with a
multitude of adjoining iflands, all inhabited by barba¬
rous tribes of little importance in a general view of
Afia. To the fouth of all thefe iflands is the vaft
ifland, or rather continent, of New Holland, which is
j ^ fcarcely-inhabited, though equal in fize to Europe.
Siam Returning to the continent of farther India, the
kingdom of Siairt is fituated, as already mentioned, at
the bottom of the bay of that name, to the fouth-eaft
of the Birman territory. The city hands at the mouth
of a large river called Meinam, which fertilizes the
country, and affords an internal navigation to a confi-
derable diftance. The river is deep, rapid, and broad¬
er than the Elbe. The upper part is rocky and in¬
terrupted by cataracts. At its lower part, the flream
divides into feveral channels, pafling through a level
country, which it fertilizes by periodical inundations.
The country is woody. The hoafes, likje thofe of the
Birmans, are raifed aloft on ftilts or ports 5 but upon
the river a kind of floating habitations are ufed, in
which many people conftantly refide, and occafionally
move from place to place when the wraters are high.
The capital is in latitude 140 30', and is furrounded
by a lofty brick wall, which has not always been
able, as already noticed, to defend it againfl the
arms of the Birmans. Rice is produced in amazing
crops, and all the fruits of the Indies rife up with lit¬
tle or no cultivation. Logwood, like that cut in
Campeachy, is faid t© be one of the produblions of the
country. The Siamefe territory is very narrow from
cart; to weft, but extends northward along its owm ri-
I c.g ver to a confiderable diftance.
Cambodia. To the eaftward of Siam is the kingdom of Cambo¬
dia, extending along the banks of its river, which Afia.
flows in a courfe nearly parallel to the river of Siam.
I’he moil foutherly point of the country, being the
eaftern extremity of the gulf of Siam, is called Cape
Cambodia, beyond which the coaft turns to the eaft¬
ward, and the river Cambodia dilcharges itfelf into
the fea through feveral mouths, forming by its allu¬
vions a very fertile traft of territory, like the rivers of
Siam and of Birmah. The capital Hands 90 miles up
the river, and confifts only of one ftreet, built on an
eminence, to prelerve it during the inundations : The
prefent city of Cambodia, is fuppofed to be near the
fite of Thina Metropolis Sinarum, of Ptolemy and Mar- Ancient
cianus. Mr Caverhill quotes Argenfol for the proof, C1T-
and fays, on his authority, that marble ruins of an ex-
tenfive city have been difcovered to the north-weft of
Cambodia ; yet Ptolemy relates, that it was not fur-
rounded with fuch walls, nor had any thing wmrth
mentioning. Arrian, in his Periplus Maris Erythrcei,
calls it the greateft of the inland cities, and that it fent
to Barygaza, the modern Barochia, on the wefteru
fide of Hindooftan, wool, thread, and othonium feri-
cum. Thefe were carried the whole of the journey by
men on foot *, prodigious indeed muft the journey have
been, if it is true that they w^ent through Baftra, a
detour of amazing extent. The kingdom of Cambo¬
dia wras known to the Arabs, by the name of Rach-
mi. It wras vifited in the ninth century by tw>o Ara¬
bian travellers, wdio report, that the fineft muffins in
the wrorld were made there, and that the natives wore
garments fo fine, that they might be drawn through a
middle-fized ring. The fame writers tell wonderful
things of the karkandan or unicorn 5 but from the
whole defcription, it is evident, that they mean no
other animal than the one-horned rhinoceros. 16b
The noted ifland of Pulo Condore lies about 15 Illand of
leagues to the fouth of the weftern channel of the
Cambodia. It is fituated in latitude 8° 40'. Its form
is that of a crefcent; the length not above eight miles,
the greateft breadth about two : the whole is lofty
and mountainous, and it is furrounded by leffer ifles.
The name is derived from pulo, an ifle, and condore,
a calabafh, from its production of that fruit. It was
vifited by Dampier in 1686. Here Dampier’s crew
found the cuftom to prevail which we have noticed,
among the inferior clafs of Birmans, which exifts over
the whole peninfula beyond the Ganges, of the people
of ordinary rank allowing their wTomen to live with
ftrangers. Our poet, Prior, humoroufiy exaggerates
the practice, and by miftake afcribes it to the ChL
nefe.
“ In China, Dampier’s travels tell ye,
(Look in his index for Pagelli).
Soon as the Britiih ftiips unmoor,
And jolly long-boats row to fhore j
Down come the nobles of the land,
Each brings his daughter in his hand ;
Befeeching th’ imperious tar,
To make her but one hour his care.
The tender mother ftands affrighted,
Left her dear daughter fhould be flighted 5
And poor Mifs Yaya dreads the fhame
Of going back the maid Ihe came.” ^
Eaftward of the eftuaries of the river of Cambodia, is Clampa.
the
A S I [ 763 1 A S I
Afia. tlie fmall territory of Ciampa, extending about 150
miles along the fhore : the breadth not exceeding 90.
The people appear to be of the fame race with thofe
that inhabit the reft of the peninfula, but their chief
is tributary to the Cochin-Chinefe, whom, however,
they excel in naval, though not in military affairs.
Their (hips, or junks, are extremely well built ; they
are chiefly employed in the fifheries, which are very
confiderable, and form their moft important fource of
commerce. The Chinefe fend ihips very frequently to
the northern parts of the country laden with tea, an
inferior fort of ftlk, porcelain, and fome other com¬
modities of that empire. They take in return gold
and columbo wrood, to be burnt on the tombs of their
anceftors and relations, or before the altars of their di¬
vinities. It is to be obferved, that a ftrange mixture
of religions here exifts, in confequence of the influ¬
ence of the neighbouring nations upon this fmall ma¬
ritime ftate. Many of the people are Mahometans.
Others are followers of the Chinefe philofopher, Con¬
fucius ; a third fort are worftuppers of Gaudma ; and
the greateft part of the people jumble all thefe fyftems
together. They all agree, however, to tolerate each
I!j2 other.
Cochin- To the eaftward of its tributary, Ciampa, the king-
China. dom 0f Cochin-China begins, forming a long ftripe of
territory along the eaftern fhore of the farther peninfu¬
la of India. To the weftward it is limited by a chain
of lofty mountains, which run parallel to the coaft of
the Chinefe fea, or eaftern Pacific ocean. The whole
of Cochin-China, beginning from the borders of Cam¬
bodia, is in form of a bow, bending into the ocean as
far as Cape Varelle, in Lat. 130, when it inclines to
its northern extremity, in Lat. 170 30b The whole
length of this great curvature is about fix hundred and
fixty miles, the breadth not exceeding that which we
have aferibed to Ciampa. The northern borders are
defended by a wall, which runs from the fea to the
great chain of mountains, and forbids all approach from
that quarter, as the inacceflible chain itfelf does every
attempt of invafion from their w7eftern neighbours. The
lower parts of this kingdom are overflowed during the
rainy feafon, and here, as elfewhere in India, rice is
the great harveft : a kind as white as fnow is cultiva¬
ted on the mountains and dry foils: when drefled, it is
of a flimy vifeous nature, and is made into paftes. Su¬
gar, cotton, pepper, and other Indian commodities, are
alfo cultivated here in great abundance by the labour
of free men, and are articles of commerce with China.
Among other commodities which are exported, men¬
tion is made of filk, and of certain kinds of wood much
efteemed in the eaft, fuch as, aloes wood, or agollo-
cha, erroneoufly called eaglewood, columbo, and others
of value, either in mechanics, or for their fweet feent.
The price of columbo wood on the very fpot is five du¬
cats a pound, at the ports fixteen, and in Japan, to
which much is exported, twTo hundred. A pillow of
this wood is the hrgheft luxury of the orientalifts, par¬
ticularly of the Japanefe, who will give three or four
hundred ducats per pound for a piece big enough for
that purpofe. The agollocha bears a good price, great
quantities being (hipped for Hindooftan for the ufe of
the Hindoos, to burn their dead, who feem to emulate
the ancient Romans in the aromatic profufion of their
funeral piles.
The war boats of the Cochin-Chinefe are very nu- Afia.
merous, and referable thofe of the Birmans. Thofe
allotted to the defence of the coaft are finely painted jyfiinary
and highly varnifhed, rowed w’ith fifty oars, and carry p0wer0f
a cannon at the head, and two fmall ones on each fide. Cochin-
The navy of the country is quickly manned, every di- China,
ftridl being bound to furnifh a certain number of fai-
lors, who ferve with alacrity, as they are well treated,
and their waves and children fupported during their
abfence. They are drefl'ed in uniform, with a gilt hel¬
met, and a cloak which leaves their right arm quite
bare.
The Cochin-Chinefe have confiderable fifheries,
and both confume and export fi(h in large quantities.
They make ufe of elephants as beads of burden. On
the backs of thefe huge animals they place a machine
like the body of a coach, which conveys of outfide and
infide paflengers about thirteen or fourteen perfons.
When the elephants arriye at a river, they take the
water very readily, and even convey their fare in per¬
fect fafety over an arm of the fea a mile wflde. The
people of this country referable the Chinefe in their
perfons, but they are lefs in body, and more brave and
adlive. The complexion of thofe on the coaft is olive:
that of the inland inhabitants near the mountains is
fairer, and approaches to that of Europeans.
The bay of Tonquin begins near the w all of Cochin-Tonquin.
China, ait the northern extremity of that kingdom.
The entrance of the bay is bounded on the eaftern fide
by the ifland of Hainan. The tides of this bay have
long been remarked on account of the following pecu¬
liarity, that a fingle flux and reflux occupies a full pe¬
riod of 24 hours. The kingdom of Tonquin is very
narrow towards the fouth, at the Cochin-Chinefe w^all.
To the w'eft it is there bounded by the Cochin-Chi¬
nefe chain of mountains, which foon retires, and gra¬
dually leaves a larger and larger expanfe to the great
plain of which this kingdom confifts. The country is
very populous, being thick (et with villages. It is
watered by a river, which, coming from the north or
north-weft, is called by the name of the country, Ton¬
quin. It enters the bay by two mouths, one of which,
having only 1 2 feet water, is frequented by the flat-
bottomed vefiels of the Siamefe and Chinefe ; but the
other being deeper, is frequented by European velfels.
The river is fubjeft, like all others in that territory,
to periodical floods, which fertilize the foil, and enable
it to give forth abundant crops of rice and other pro-
dudtions of warm climates. The natives are acquaint¬
ed, like the Birmans, with the pra&ice of rearing occa-
fional dwellings for any temporary purpofe. About
fix leagues from the mouth of the river is the village
of Domea, ufually confiding of a hundred houfes ; yet,
on the arrival of the European (hips, it foon increafes
to a large town. The natives refort, for the fake of
trade, from all parts. Houfes fuddenly fpring up ; for
being only conftrufted of frames of bamboo, and the
roof of palm or other leaves, a temporary town is quick¬
ly formed, in which a fair is kept as dong as the (hips
remain in the karbour. Here, as well as in Cochin-
China, Chinefe opinions and notions prevail in a con¬
fiderable degree. The religion of the country appears
to be that of Budho, or Gaudma. Here alfo, as
among the Birmans and all the other nations of the
peninfula beyond the Ganges, the ftrange practice pre-
5 D 2 vails
A S I
[ 764 ]
A S I
Afia.
x6^
vails of rendering the teeth black by means of art.
All perfons, high or low, rich and poor, are under the
neceffity of undergoing a dyeing procefs, for the pur-
pofe of avoiding that difgrace to human nature, of hav¬
ing teeth white, like thofe of dogs or elephants. Prior
mentions this cuftom, but transfers it to the Chinefe :
“ In China, none hold women fweet,
<4 Unlefs their Inags are black as jet:
“ King Chiku put nine queens to death,
“ ConviQ: on ftatute iv’ry teeth.”
Review of From the brief defcription here given of thefe coun-
thc eaflern trjes> not ^ ditFcult to underftand the phyfical
pemniu a. a(pe^j. 0£ great peninfula of farther India, and the
political divilions which have refulted from it. Ara-
can on the weft, and Cochin-China on the eaft of the
peninfula, bear a confiderable refemblance to each
other. They both confift of a narrow traft of fertile
territory, extending along the fhore, and having be¬
hind them towards the continent a large chain of lofty
and rugged mountains, which form the natural as well
as political boundary. The reft of the peninfula is
chiefly formed in the following manner :—Several
chains of mountains run from north to fouth. Be¬
tween every two chains is a traft of fertile country,
watered by a large river, proceeding alfo from north
towards the fouth. Each of thefe valleys forms a
kingdom, which is long and narrow, and bounded to
the eaft and the weft by a chain of mountains : Thus
are formed the countries of Birmah, Siam, Cambodia,
and Tonquin. The narrow peninfula of Malacca,
however, muft be regarded as a fort of territory by it-
felf, probably formed by a continuation to a great di-
ftance fouthward of the chain of mountains that di¬
vides the Birman from the Siamefe territory. Were
it poflible to unite into one empire the various nations
which we have mentioned as inhabiting this vaft penin¬
fula of India to the eaftward of the Ganges, the vigo¬
rous charadler of the people would probably render
them extremely formidable to their neighbours the Chi-
•nefe on the north-eaft, as well as the Hindoos of the
weftern peninfula. Any union of thefe countries, how¬
ever, into one ftate, though a poflible event, could on¬
ly be accomplifhed during a great length of time, and
after many ftruggles, in confequence of the bravery of
the people, and the readinefs with which they engage
in war. The Birmans have indeed conquered Pegu,
but only in confequence of a long continuance of the
moft fanguinary confli&s, which exhaufted the popula¬
tion of both ftates, and almoft deftroyed the inhabit¬
ants of the conquered country. Aracan was, no
doubt, more eafily united to the Birman empire 5 but
this in all probability arofe from its being accidentally
ill governed, and perhaps alfo from its vicinity to Hin-
dooftan, which had led its inhabitants to acquire much
of the feeble charafter of the Hindoos. In the con-
tefts between the Birmans and the Siamefe, it appeared
that neither of the nations could be fubdued, and that
before the one of them could enlarge its territory, it
muft nearly exterminate the population of the other.
China. From the peninfula of farther India, uTe proceed
north-eaftwTard to China, of which we (hall not here
find it neceffary to fay much. As already mentioned,
it is the traft of country which forms the gradual de-
feent from the high regions of Tartary towards the Pa¬
cific ocean on the eaft. The dominion of the Chinefe Afia.
emperor extends over a civilized people, from the ftraits v——^
of Hainan, in N. Lat. 20° 13', to the extremity of the
province of Pe-tche-li, in Lat. 410 15', comprehending
a fpace of nearly fifteen hundred miles in length, and
in - breadth above a thoufand. Or, more accurately,
according to the information obtained by Lord Macart¬
ney’s embaffy, China Proper includes a fpace of
1.297,999 fquare miles, inhabjted by a popula- I(^
tion of 333,coo,000. The ifland of Hainan, already Ifle of Hai-
mentioned, is at the fouthern extremity of the em-nan.
pire, but it is only half fubdued, the natives in the in¬
terior of it maintaining their independence amidft lofty
mountains. It produces gold, and the /a/n's la%idi,
which is in great requeft among the Chineie, for giv¬
ing a blue glazing to their porcelain. It has confi¬
derable fifheries on its coafts. From the continent op-
pofite to this iiland the coaft proceeds towards the ^
north-eaft to the bay of Canton, wTich is the port fre-Canton,
quented by Europeans. At Canton the celebrated im¬
perial canal begins, or paflage by water, which reaches
from hence within land to Pekin and the extremities
of the empire, an extent of about 1800 Englilh miles.
Part of this inland navigation is formed by rivers and
lakes, and the reft of it confifts of a canal 900 miles in
length, and a fathom and a half in depth. On the
courfe of this internal navigation, multitudes of popu¬
lous cities are fituated, amidft a country in which the
cultivation of every part of the foil is carried on with
the moft minute attention and oeconomy.
Of the coafts of China, and indeed of the country at Coafts of
large, not much is known, in confequence of the jea- China,
loufy which they entertain of all foreigners, and of the
great rigour with wljich they put in force their prohi¬
bition to trade in any of their ports except Canton.
The next province to the north-eaft, proceeding
along the coaft, is called Foo-tchien. The country is
hilly and irregular, but, by the induftry of the inha¬
bitants, the fides of the hills are formed into terraces,
afeending in a feries of twenty or thirty, one above
another ; and thefe terraces are often continued for fe-
veral miles in length. Water is forced up to thefe ter¬
races in pipes of bamboo, and grain and other vege¬
tables are cultivated upon them. On an ifland called
A-?nwy, on- the coaft of this province, is a vaft rocking
ft one, of 40 tons weight, moveable by the ftightert
touch. Oppofite to the coaft, alfo, is the ifland of
Formofa, 90 leagues in length and 30 in breadth.—
The next province northward on the eaftern coaft is
called Tche-Tchiang. Like the reft of China, it is
amazingly commercial. It is remarkable for its rich
embroidered filks, its timber, its forefts of bamboo, its
fait works upon the coafts, its mulhrooms, hams, and
vegetable tallow. A great part of the province has
been won from the fea, as Holland was by the Dutch.
It is guarded by immenfe mounds from the fury of the
waves ; and thefe mounds remain as ftupendous marks
of the induftry of this moft populous nation. They
far exceed the fimilar dykes of Holland, as they have
a much more powerful ocean to fefift than that which
affails the coaft of the European low countries.
The next province northward is called Kyang-Nan,
near the northern boundary of which is the great and ^
rapid river Whang-ho-hoo. Among the curiofities ofwild lilk
this province is faid to be the worm that fabricates not worms.
1 the
A S I [ 7C5 1 A S 1 . „ .
Afia. the common filk, but that mentioned by Pliny, which particular channel. Inftead of becoming ofientatious t
    ' he and the ancient writers believed to be the only fpe- and magnificent in their drefs, equipage, and houies,
cies of that beautiful produaion. Pliny reprefents filk they are led to expend their wealth m fupportmg and
as a vegetable, combed from the leaves and branches rearing up very numerous families. I?4
of trees. His error is not furprifing ; for the wild The ftruclure of the Chinefe government perhaps Chinefe go-
w orms of this province, which relemble caterpillars, deferves even more attention from philofophers than it vernment.
ipin their webs on Ihrubs and bufhes, and furnilh as has hitherto obtained. They acknowledge in their em-
great quantities as the domeftic worms. This filk peror abfolute power in the molt unlimited^ degree.
colts in a manner nothing, and is fo Itrong that the From the nature of human affairs, however, it is evi-
171 goods made from it are uncommonly lalting. dent that this power can be diredtly exerted oyer only
Northern 1 j'rom hence northward, the Chinefe coalt is expofed a few individuals of the immenle fociety of which he is
boundary not to ^ n oceail) but to a gulf, the ealtern fide the head. The people at large mult neceflanly be go-
ol China. of which confifts of the peninfula of Korea. In Lat. verned by delegated authority 5 and the value of the
38° 12' begins the province of Pe-tcbe-li already men- conftitution of the itate, or of the mode of government,
turned, which in N. Lat. 30° takes a north-eaftern di- mult depend upon the manner in which a feledion is
refit ion, and on the fide of the gulf finilhes China Pro- made of thofe magiftrates to whom the imperial powyr
per, in N. Lat. 40°. The capital, Pekin, is in this is intrufted. The Chinefe emperor, like other Auatic
northern part of the empire, about 100 miles from the princes, will naturally be led to pafs much of his time
mouth of the river Pei-ho. The empire ends about in the luxury of his palace among eunuchs anu w o-
1 50 miles farther, in Lat. 40° 45' where the celebra- men. Were the nomination of the magiltrates ot the
ted wall begins, wffiofe length in a Itraight line is empire altogether intrufted to fiich a man, it is evident
700 or 8oo’ miles, and including its windings and that the adminiftration or affairs would ipeedily go iq-
afcents over craggy mountains, or defcents into deep to confufion, and ufurpation and anarchy prevail,
valleys, may be eftimated at double that length. It This, however, rarely occurs ; and it is the peculiar
was intended as a bulwark againft the invafions of the nature of the Chinefe government to Reconcile deipo-
Tartars on this molt acceffible fide of the empire j but tiim with a regular and prudent ■adminntraUcn o a-
172 this purpofe it has never fuccefsfully fulfilled. fairs, and the luxury and weaknefs of the prince, with
Climate. The climate of China is liable to fevere viciflitudes fidelity and ability on the part of his mi miters. . o-
- of heat and cold. The heat is powerful during the reign conqueft does not alter thrs order ot tilings. I he
fummer, becaufe a great part of the country is in a ftrangers fpeedily coalefce with the vanquished people,
fouthern latitude, and becaufe its great extent does not and the conqueror fubmits his arbitrary will to the cu-
admit of its being cooled by breezes from the fea. At Homs that he finds eltablilhed among a wealthy and a
the fame time, its vicinity to Siberia on the north, and numerous people. Hence the>civilization ot China has-
to the elevated country ot Tartary on the wTelt, the exiffed from the lemotelt antiquity. y as i ,a Pe
mountains of which are covered with perpetual fnow, riods of interruption and of anarchy, during w me 1 t ic
expofe it to a degree of cold in winter greater than nation has fubmitted to Itrangers ; but thele Itrangers
what is known in the fouthern parts of Europe. It is foon ceafed to be known as fuch. The ancient laws
alio to be remarked, that the Chinefe rivers, efpecially of the empire^ by the admiration which they excited,
towards the northern parts of the empire, have a far fubdued the minds of the barbarians, whole arms ad
more rapid current than thofe of either peninfula of In- proved irrefiltible. _ „ , ^ . r
diu : the reafon is, the country of China is itfelf much The oltenfible maxim of the Chinefe government or
more elevated than India. It riles far more fuddenly conftitution is this, that paternal authority is 111 all htu-
from the Pacific ocean than India does from its own ations to be refpefited and implicitly obeyed j that the
feas. Hence it is enabled to oppofe a more powerful emperor is the father of the people, and to be regard-
front to the waters which wafti its coalts, and which, ed with boundlefs reverence as Inch y that all interior
impelled by the trade wfinds, would otherwfife very ra- magiffrates are to be regarded in the lame p°mt o.
pidly encroach upon the land in this quarter of the view; and the feventies they inthet are to be conlider-
1 qe> ed not as the punilhment of criminals, but as the chai-
■p ,173 In China, domeftic life is undoubtedly upon a wmrfe tifement of children intended for their benefit.. .From
of thfchi- footing than in the Indian peninfulas. The Hindoos the nature of the. human charafter, however, it is evi-
nefe. who have not become Mahometans are monogamiffs ; dent that this fifition, applied to a 1 artanan conqueror
and we have feen that the fame law prevails among the recently feated upon the throne, would only go a Ihort
Birmans and the other nations of the eaftern peninfu- way to preferve the tranquillity of the Hate, and. that,
la. But in China polygamy has always been allowed, even under a long ellabliflied line of. hereditary princes,
This neceffarily produces an uniocial mode of living, it would have little eiTefif in restraining the ambition
and that jealous feclufion of one half of the human of enterprifing individuals, or in preferving the iub-
fpecies which uniformly attends the exiftence of fuch miffion of a difeontented people. . It may operate at
a lawn It is not improbable, however, that the per- times perhaps as a falutary prejudice on the minds or
miffion of polygamy, accompanied, as it is in China, the weak and ignorant, or it may aftoid a p auiible
by a law of fucceflion, which admits of right of pri- juftification of that, implicit obedience m the people,
mogeniture, but divides the whole property of the pa- and abfolute power in the prince, which are eitabmhed
rents equally among the children, may contribute in and maintained by more powerful means; but farther
no fmall degree to the production of the crowded po- its influence can fcarcely extent.. . . .
pulation that is found to exift in this empire. The lu- The radical principle of the political conflituUon of
xury and feufuality of rich men is thus directed int> a China muff confift c£ a more powerful and fefhcienc
J principle,.
Afia.
A S I [ 7
principle, whicli appears to be this :—The law, or an¬
cient cuflom of China, fo arranges affairs, that the beft
informed men in the country, and thofe whofe charac¬
ters are molt unexceptionable, {hall at all times polfefs
the power of the ftate and the adminilfration of public
bufinefs. Literature there affords the means of ad¬
vancement ) and China affords the lingular example of
a country governed by its men of letters. In this em¬
pire no order of nobility or of magiffracy is hereditary.
The whole country, however, is ruled by a privileged
clafs of individuals called mandarins; and it is upon
the mode in which this ruling clafs is nominated, or
felefted from the mafs of the people, that the peculia¬
rity of the Chinefe conflitution and its whole value de¬
pends. There are two fets of mandarins, the civil and
the military, who are employed in thefe different de¬
partments of the public fervice. Of each department
there are fix or feven claffes or orders of mandarins,
afcending above each other in a regular gradation of
rank. The fon of the lowed: perfon in the ftate is al¬
lowed at certain appointed periods to prefent himfelf
for trial before the mandarins of his diftrift, either ci¬
vil or military. If his charafter is without reproach,
and if, after various examinations, his learning or {kill
in the appointed exercifes appear complete, he is ad¬
mitted to the rank of a mandarin of the lowed: order,
which makes him a candidate for certain public offices,
as the emperor, unlefs in very Angular cafes, only con¬
fers public employments upon mandarins thus found
duly qualified. After a certain time he may prefent
himfelf for trial in his diftridft before the next fuperior
order of mandarins, and, if received into their num¬
ber, his rank in fociety is proportionably augmented,
and he becomes a candidate for ftill higher employ¬
ments. He may thus afcend by force of talents, and
of an unblemiffied reputation, through all the orders of
mandarins, till he is enrolled in the higheft clafs, out
of which the minifters of ftate, governors of provinces,
and commanders of armies are appointed. In the dif¬
ferent examinations and trials, favour or hereditary in-
tereft can give little affiftance to the candidate j for
no mandarin ever holds an office in the province wffiere
he was born ; fo that the judges cannot be the kin¬
dred of the perfons who appear before them for exa¬
mination or trial.
- - One w’ould almoft fuppofe that fuch a conftitution
of the chi- mu^ ke abfolutely perfeft. The eftabliftiment of a
nefe confti- hereditary reigning family at its head repreffes inordi-
tution. nate ambition, and prevents military ufurpations by
foldiers of fortune. As the emperor poffeffes the powrer
of appointing any one of the imperial family as his fuc-
ceffor, the hazard is avoided of having at any time an
idiot or an infant placed at the head of the ftate. The
expence of his court can be of little importance in this
mighty empire. The abfolute power afcribed to him
can do little harm, as he is at all times furrounded by
the ableft and moft virtuous men of the nation. The
manners of the people cannot become corrupted, be-
caufe vice is not kept in countenance by the bad ex¬
ample of powerful men 5 as diftindftion and power can
only be attained by perfons wffiofe integrity of condudt
is proved to the fatisfadlion of men of advanced age,
who have themfelves rifen to eminence by the accom-
plifhments of their minds and the purity of their lives,
it muft be difficult, or almoft impoffible, to difturb the
i75
Apparent
66 ] AS!
internal tranquillity of fuch a nation, becaufe the ableft Afia.
men that it contains are at the head of all affairs j and u~~~v "l
the powrer which refults from uniting intelleflual fupe-
riority to the authority of office muft evidently prove
irrefiftible. The adminiftration, alfo, of public bufi¬
nefs will in general be wTell condudfed, becaufe the in¬
ferior mandarins, unprotedfed by family connexions,
wall have no means of fecuring indemnity for ill con-
ducf, and becaufe their ambition will naturally lead
them conftantly to endeavour to recommend themfelves
to thofe of a fuperior clafs, whofe public approbation
affords the only means of obtaining farther preferment.
Accordingly, in no country in the world has any go¬
vernment found it pradficable to execute and keep in
repair fuch immenfe public wmrks as are found in Chi-
^ia. Their prodigious canals and regular roads, toge¬
ther writh the immenfe public magazines of grain accu¬
mulated to guard againft any partial or general fcarci-
ty, demonftrate this to the fatisfadlion of every tra¬
veller.
Yet this apparently unexceptionable government, Baci
which produces a numerous, an induftrious, a peace-of the Chi¬
ful, and wealthy people, does undoubtedly contain in nefe confti-
a moral or intellectual point of view7, fome great andtut^on'
radical defedt. It is true, that under it men become
no worfe ; but it is alfo true that they become no bet¬
ter. No improvements are ever made •, arts and
fciences have remained for ages in the fame ftate ; in¬
vention is unknown : Imitation, regularity, and rou¬
tine, pervade every order of fociety, and lull the hu¬
man faculties into everlafting (lumber. Though the
Chinefe annals extend to many thoufand years of civi¬
lization, yet in a few7 centuries, the Europeans, emer¬
ging from barbarifm, have been able to furpais them
in every feience, and almoft in all the arts of life. The
prefent Chinefe are precifely w'hat their forefathers
were 4000 years ago, and fhould their political ar-
•rangements continue for ages to come, there is no rea-
fon to believe that they will rife above their prefent
ftate. With all their literature and all the encourage¬
ment they give to it, they do riot yet pradlice alpha¬
betical wniting j but having a mark for every feparate
word, it is neceffary for them to {pend many years in
learning to w7rite and read. Though they have
been acquainted with gunpowder from a very remote
antiquity, the military art among them is fo contempti¬
ble, or fuch is underftood to be the feeblenefs of their
charadter, that it is believed an European army of
100,000 men, would find little difficulty in dethron¬
ing their emperor, and feizing the government of the
country.^ . _ I?7
The imbecility of charadfer, or the ftagnation ofThedefeift
intelledl which takes place in China, cannot be afcrib-°f the con¬
ed to religion as among the fuperftitious Hindoos, for
they tolerate all religions : They even admit of no re¬
ligious eftablifliment, and the greater number of them
are fuppofed, as already mentioned, to be of the fame
religion with the more vigorous and adlive Birmans.
The w7eaknefs of the Chinefe, therefore, and want of
progrefs in improvement, is in all probability to be af¬
cribed to the manner in which power and preferment
are obtained under their political conftitution. In all
countries the higher claffes. of fociety are apt to be
afraid of novelties, becaufe their fituation cannot be
made better. The lower claffes, on the contrary, per¬
ceiving
A S I [ 767 ] A S I
ceiving themfelves at the bottom of the wheel of fortune,
readily fet changes at defiance, and are fond of whatever
promifes to improve their condition. Hence they ap¬
plaud and patronize, though frequently to their coil, the
fearlefs, the ambitious, and the contrivers of whatever
is bold or uncommon. The higher claffes naturally
oppofe all this, and patronize among their inferiors the
qualities of caution, docility, fubmiffion, and whate¬
ver is fartheft from innovation or an impatience of con-
troul. In every fociety, ambitious men regulate their
conducl in the wray belt calculated to recommend them
to thofe from wdrom promotion comes. Hence in Eng¬
land, in confequence of the exiftence in the political
conditution of a portion of popular patronage, afpiring
individuals have often attempted to recommend them¬
felves to notice by turbulence, and by loud declara¬
tion that all wTas wrong and ought to be altered. But
in a fociety arranged like China, every candidate for
preferment muft neceffarily ftudy to regulate his con¬
duct and manners in the way molt acceptable to his fu-
periors, who in that country are a fet of wealthy and
prudent old men. He will, therefore, like a Undent
on trial for a degree at one of our univerfities, avoid
whatever looks like novelty, rafhnefs, or difrefpedt for
thofe above him : He will labour to fpeak as they
fpeak, and to think as they think : thus ambition it-
felf will make him tame and fubmiffive, and the paf-
fion for diftindion wall render him careful to keep in
the beaten tra£t, and to fubdue his mind to an unqua¬
lified acquiefcence in whatever has been long efta-
blifhed. A fociety, whofe moft vigorous members- are
thus conftantly occupied in fubduing their own minds,
and reducing them to this paflive temper and to a
correfponding demeanour, will neceffarily poffefs the
character of prudence, languor, timidity, and perpe¬
tual old age : It will hate novelty and invention, which
will render improvement impofiible, becaufe all im¬
provements are new, and the refult of a reftlefs fpirit.
Could the Chinefe conftitution be reverfed ; were the
firft or lowTeft clafs of mandarins elefted by the multi¬
tude, or by perfons of moderate wealth ; were the fe-
cond clafs eledffed by the firft, the third clafs by the
fecond, and fo upwards ; it is evident, that the intel-
leftual chara61er of the people would fpeedily alter,
and they would become as reftlefs and enterprifing, as
they are now paftive and ftationary. That the happi-
nefs of this multitude of people w'ould not by fuch a
change be increafed, is undoubtedly very true •, that
they might even in confequence of it be expofed to
many fanguinary convulfions, is alfo very probable •,
but their rank in the fcale of intelligent beings would
be altered, and their importance among nations could
be immeafureably increafed. Foreigners would ceafe
to be objefts of terror to a people ruled by men of an
enterprifing chara&er f To preferve tranquillity at
home, it would be found neceffary to have recourfe to
objefls of diftant enterprife : the immenfe population
of this empire would enable and compel it to cover
all Afia with its colonies j to fill the Indian ocean with
its fleets, and the ifles with its commercial and politi¬
cal eftabliftiments.
Adjacent to the north-eaftern quarter of China, and
oppofite to a part of the Chinefe coaft, is the peninfula
of Korea, extending from latitude 420 50' to latitude
340; bounded on one fide by the gulf of Pe-tche-li,
and on the eaftern fide by the Japanefe gulf. Japan Afia. ^
extends the whole length of the coaft of Korea, and'
even ftretches beyond its fouthern part. Korea is of
an oblong form •, about 100 leagues in breadth, and 180
in length. Its inhabitants are a mixed people, and have
been conquered at different periods by the Japanefe, the
Tartars, and the Chinefe. The yoke of China, however,
is very light, as the Chinefe fear, that fevere treatment
might at fome period induce them to unite with the Ruf¬
fians, w'ho have advanced through Siberia towards the
Chinefe frontiers. The Korea is mountainous, and pro¬
duces moft of the European fruits and foreft trees ; it
was protedled by a wTall to the north-weft, which,
however, did not prevent a Tartar conquert, and is
now neglefted. The government is regular, and the
cuftoms and laws reiemble thofe of the Chinefe. 1 he
natives carry on a great commerce openly with China,
and clandeftinely with Japan, the Philippine ifles, and
perhaps Java : They alfo trade with the Ruffians to a
confiderable extent, and procure from them large quan¬
tities of furs, which they convey to China, and repre-
fent there as the produce of their own country. To
facilitate their illicit trade with the Japanefe, the lat¬
ter have ceded to them a fmall ifland called Sujima
near their coaft. As they poffefs abundance of Euro¬
pean goods, no part of which they purchafe in China,
they are underftood to obtain them by their trade with
the Dutch at Batavia. 179
To the eaftward of the Chinefe coaft, and fouth ofHquejo
the peninfula of Korea, are feveral iflands called the1^65'
ijles of Liquejo. The moft confiderable is Kintfchin,
extending north and fouth between latitude 26° 28'
and 250 45k It is about 50 leagues long, and 15
broad ; the eaft and fouth parts of it are fkirted by
numberlefs little ifles and rocks. The inhabitants are
chiefly Chinefe, who fled from the Tartars at the time
of the laft revolution ; they export confiderable quan¬
tities of cowries of the fame fpecies that is found in the
Maidive ifles : From thefe fhells is prepared a white
varnifh. They alfo export a fort of large flat {hells,
which, when poliftied, are almoft tranfparent, and are
ufed by the Japanefe in their windows inftead of glafs. l8o
To the eaftward of Korea are the ifles of Japan ;japan>
they extend from latitude 30° 1040° north : their lon¬
gitude is from 1430 to 1610 eaft. The furrounding
feas are ftormy and filled with dangerous rocks j the
climate is changeable and fubjeft to frequent rains j
thunder is frequent, and earthquakes fo common, as
not to be regarded, unlefs, which is often the cafe,
they produce dangerous confequences ; the fummer
heat rifes in July and Auguft to xoo degrees of Fah¬
renheit’s thermometer, and the cold of winter is pro-
portionably fevere } the country is everywhere moun¬
tainous, and the people of a mixed race from the
neighbouring countries, but poffeifing a very a&ive
charafler. See Japan.
To the north of the wall of Korea and of China,
Chinefe Tartary begins. It is in general inhabited byxartary.
Tartars in a paftoral ftate, fubjeft to the prefent impe- ig2
rial family of China, who are themfelves Tartars. This The river
country extends northward to the river Amoor or Sag-Amoor.
halien. This river takes its rife from the Kentaiham Sauer 3 £x«
mountains, about the latitude of 490 and longitude/J^0"
no0 eaft from Greenwich j and is here called Onon. “^‘a'
Its direction is nearly north-eaft j and at the difeharge.
of
s
A S I [ 768 j A S I
a. of the Nirza, where the city of Nertihinlk is fituated,
' about latitude 5 2° it bears the name of the Shilha.
This courfe it continues to latitude 5240, its moll
northern extremity, where the Tungoofe call it Slmoor,
and the Chinefe Saghaaiien Ula (black mountain river,
from the oak forefts on the mountains hereabouts,
which the Chinefe call b/ackwood). From hence it is
navigable in veflels of moderate fize, having received
confiderable fupplies from the torrents rufhing down
the eaftern and northern mountains, as alfo from a very
confiderable river flowing from the fouth-wcft, and
called the jdrgoori, which difcharges itfelf into the A-
moor, about 180 miles eaft of Nertfhinfk. In the vi¬
cinity of thefe parts the Ruffians have feveral forts.
From latitude 52^° to /\.^\° it flows nearly fouth-eaff,
receiving in its courfe a number of rivers both eaft
and weft. The Tfhukir has its fource from this fide
of the fame mountains as give rife to the Olekma and
Aldan, (both emptying themfelves into'the Lena), and
flowing nearly fouth, joins with the Silempid, which
flows from the vicinity of the Ud j keeping nearly a
weftern courfe into the Amoor. All thefe rivers are
navigable for boats nearly to their fource. The coun¬
try is very mountainous, but the plains and vallies are
fpacious and fertile : the low country, howxver, la¬
bours under the difadvantage of being fubjed to inun¬
dations and earthquakes, which are very frequent.
No rivers of any importance join the Amoor from
the eaft, except the two above mentioned. The Non-
ni Ula, however, a very large river which takes its
rife about the latitude of 510, and longitude 1230,
makes a confiderable inland circuit, and empties itfelf
into the Amoor at its fouthern extremity, about the
latitude of 47I0. Another confiderable river, the U-
iuri, lofes itfelf in the Amoor nearer its eftuary, about
latitude 48It rifes from the lake Hinka, and has
a commi;nication after a fhort day’s journey by land
with the fea of Japan. It nowr flow's in its own chan¬
nel north-wxft into the fea of Ochotlk, about the la¬
titude of 5 24-0,, oppofite the ifland Saghaaiien. This
river is well flocked wuth fifh, -and its borders are co-
vered with forefts of oak, walnut, birch, and differ¬
ent forts of pines. The foil is very rich, the climate
mild and healthy. The whole courfe of this great ri¬
ver and its tributary ftreams is fubjed to the Chinefe,
or inhabited by people under their protedion. It was
difcovered by the Ruffians in 1639 by means of fome
Cofacks: the Ruffians were delighted with the difco-
very of a river which report made to caft up gold and
filver, and its neighbourhood to abound with the moft
precious furs, cattle, and fruit: the Ruffian colonifts
of Siberia emigrated thither in crowds, and depopulat¬
ed their former country. They founded a fort in la¬
titude 530, which they called Albajln. The Chinefe
burnt it in 1680, and carried the garrifon prifoners to
Pekin j but it wxs rebuilt and ftrongly garrifoned, till
it gave fuch ferious caufe of jealoufy, that the affair
was at laft terminated in 1689, by a treaty at Nert-
fliinlk, upon the river Indoga, in the reign of John
and Peter, afterwards furnamed the Great, and of
Kang-hi, emperor of China. Had the Ruffians ob¬
tained the poffeffion of Amoor, and of the forefts and
fertile territory in its vicinity, they might foon have
got the command of the fea of Japan and of the coafts
4>f China, by defcending the river with their fleets.
Even by marching from this river as from a magazine Af.a.
of arms and provifions, they could without difficulty w"~'v ' *
have affaulted the Chinefe empire, with an army train¬
ed in the dilcipline and the military taffies of Europe.
By the treaty of Nertftiinfk, however, the Chinefe
empire was declared .to extend as high as Lat. 56° 32'.
Its weftern limit is near the lake Baikal, at the north¬
ern front of the high region of Tartary, the greateft
part of w'hich alfo it includes. Beyond this, to the
north and weft, the territory is claimed by the Ruf¬
fians, who have fettlements in various fituations, and
are in a great meafure mailers of the Tartar inhabi¬
tants of difterent tribes. Thefe tribes are apt to be¬
come dilcoptented with the Ruffian government 5 hence
great numbers of them have recently emigrated to the
Chinefe territory upon the river Amoor. In the year
1787, there emigrated from the Ruffians noftefs than
6000 of the tribe called lakuti, w ith all their cattle
and goods, and put themfelves under the proteffion of
the Chinefe. Thus at prefent upon the river Amoor,
a mixed race of Chinefe, and of people from all the
Tartar and Siberian tribes, is uniting in a fertile coun¬
try under the government of China, and will probably
form out of their feveral dialecfs a new language of
their owm. The Chinefe juftly confider them as a va¬
luable advanced guard to their frontiers, and give them
every encouragement, by affilling them in the cultiva¬
tion of grain, and in carrying on trade with Korea and
other places in their neighbourhood.
Faffing to the north of the Amoor and of the ftreams
that flow' into it, we come to Siberia, the proper coun¬
try of the rein-deer, and of men wTho pafs the winter
in holes dug in the earth, to proteft them againft the
feverity of the climate. The wffiole territory inclines,
as already mentioned, dowm toward the polar circle ;
but the furface of the country is various, and the coafts
exhibit fome peculiarities. Oppofite to the mouth of
the Amoor is the ifland of Sagalien, inhabited by a
peaceable people, little known either to the Ruffians
or Chinefe. The ifland is 160 miles long, and 80
broad. It is fituated at the mouth of the fea or gulf
gf Ochotlk, which has the main land of Siberia on the g
wxft, and the peninfula of Kamtfchatka on the eaft.K?1*ltj(
The Ruffians are fettled on both fides of the bay. This chatka.
peninfula having been vifited of late years by different
European navigators, has been deferibed at leaft as mi¬
nutely as its importance on the map of Alia requires.
It is in general very mountainous ; but a part of it
which is level contains a deep rich foil compofed of
black earth. Firs, common pine, and larch trees of
a tolerable fize, with birch, poplar, alh, and mountain
afh, cover the hills in the middle of the peninfula. The
under wxods are currants, dog rofes, hawthorn, alder,
and bulhes producing berries. Tire climate in the fouth¬
ern parts is chilled by the fea breezes, and in the
northern by the cold winds from Siberia •, but in the
centre of the peninfula a flieltered valley produces very
fine cabbages, potatoes, turnips, carrots, &e. toge¬
ther with buck-wheat and rye. Hemp alfo grows re¬
markably well, but there is little neceffity for culti¬
vating it, as the nettle anfwers every purpofe equally
well. The Kamtlchadels and Ruffians make fewing
thread of this laft plant, the nettle, and fabricate from
it their fiihing nets, which, if ufed with caution and.
properly dried, ferve them four or five years \ the pro-
1
A S I
t 769 1
A S I
Aft a.
184
Aleutan
Mes.
IS5 .
Their bai-
dars or
boats.
cefs of preparing it is nearly tire fame as that for
hemp. On a good loil the nettle grows to the height
of fix or feven feet 5 the fibres are much finer, and a
thread of equal thicknefs is faid to be flrongcr, than
that made of the belt hemp. The country is very fub-
jeft to earthquakes, and has fcveral volcanoes ana hot
Iprings. . ,
In this quarter of the globe tne coalls or tlie two
great continents of America and of Alia begin to ap¬
proach each other. From the American coaft, oppo-
lite to Kamtfchatka, extends to a confiderable diftance
into th. ocean the peninfula of Alyalka. Irom the
point of this peninfula a fucceflion of iilands called the
jlleutan ijlei', in the form of a crefcent, croi.es over to
Kamtfchatka. 1 hefe iilands are moft cioiely joined
where they approach the American continent, and the
intervals between them become more confiderable near
the Afiatic ihore. The concavity of the crefcent is
towards the north. The iflands are, in general, inhabit¬
ed y but the natives have been fubdued by the Ruffians,
or rather by the bodies of men w’ho have been ferit
thither by different trading companies for the purpofes
of hunting and fiihing. One of the Aleutan iflands
called OonalaJJjka is worthy of attention ; it is in north
latitude 530 45', and eaff longitude 1930 47k ^ 15
very mountainous, and the natives live chiefly by fifh-
ing •, they are of a middle fize, of a very dark brown
and healthy complexion, wflth round features, fmall
nofe, black eyes and hair, the latter very ftrong and
wiry ‘y they wear feal ikins, with the hair outward,
faftened like a carter’s frock } they go bare-footed, un-
lefs when walking on the rocky beech, when they
wrear a kind of awkward boots made of the throat of
the fea lion, foaled with thick feal fkin, wThich they
line with dry grafs. The men fometimes wear a kind
of clothing made of the fkins of birds, with the fea¬
thers occafionally outward or inwards j the fkin fide is
died red, and ornamented with flips of leather hanging
down to a confiderable length , the feams are covered
with thin flips of fkin, ornamented or embroidered with
white deers hair, goats hair, and the finews of fea ani¬
mals died of different colours } they alfo w^ear. light
pantaloons of white leather : the men have their hair
cut fliort; the women wear theirs fhort before, combed
over the forehead, and tied in a club on the top of the
back part of the head. In wet weather or when at
fea they wrear a drefs formed of the inteftines of fea
animals, the bladder of the halibut, or the fkin of tne
tongue of a whale j it has a hood to cover the head,
and is tied clofe round the neck and wuifts, fo that no
water can penetrate } it is nearly tranfparent, and looks
wen. The men wear a wooden bonnet ornamented
wflth the whifkers of the lea lion and with beads. I heir
baidars or boats, which are the admiration of travellers
from the eafe with which they are navigated, are built
in the following manner : A keel eighteen feet long,
four inches thick on the top, not tnree inches deep,
and two inches, or fomewhat lefs, at the bottom. I wo
upper frames, one on each fide, about an inch and a
half fquare, and fixteen feet long, join to a fliarp flat
board at the head, and are about fixteen inches fhorter
than the ftern, joined by a thwart, which keeps them
about twelve inches afunder. Two fimilar frames near
the bottom of the boat, fix inches below the upper ones,
about one inch fquare. Round flicks, thin, and about
Vol. II. Part II.
fix inches diflant from each other, are tied to thefe Alia-
frames, and form the fides. For the top thwarts, very
flrong flicks, and nearly as thick as the upper frames,
curved fo as to raife the middle of the boat about two
inches higher than the fides. There are thirteen of thefe
thwarts or beams : feven feet from the ftern is one of
them $ twenty inches nearer the head is another j a hoop
about two inches high is faftened between them for •
the rower fo fit in ; this is made ftrong, and grooved
to faften an open flan to, which they tie round their
body, and it prevents any water getting into the boat,
although it were funk. This frame is covered with
the fkin of the fea lion, drawn and fewed over it like a
cafe. The whole is fo extremely light, even when
fodden with water, that it may be carried with eafe in
one hand. The head of the boat is double, the lower
part fharp, and the upper part flat, refembling the open
mouth of a fifh, but contrived thus to keep the head
from finking too deep into the vvater j and they tie a
ftick from the one to the other, to prevent its entang¬
ling with the fea weeds. They row with eafe, in a
fea moderately fmooth, about ten miles in the hour,
and they keep the fea in a frefii gale of wind. The
paddles that they ufe are double, feven or- eight feet
long, and made equally neat with the other articles.
The women of thefe iflands plait neat ftraw mats,
which ferve for curtains and beds; they alfo make
bafkets, and kindle fires readily by ftrewing the pow¬
der of native fulphur upon dry grafs or mofs, after
which they ftrike two pieces of quartz one againft the
other over it j the fine particles of fulphur immediate¬
ly blaze like a flafh of lightning, and fet the whole of 1S6
the dry grafs or mofs in a flame. The whole natives Oppreffion
of the Aleutan iflands are held in a ftate of moft: mi-°^eRu '
ferable flavery by the Ruffian hunters, who refide in
this remote quarter of the globe, and compel them to
hunt and fifh in their fervice. Foxes and marmots are
almoft the only animals that the Ruffian hunters them-
felves can kill j for they are not capable of chafing
the fea animals, which require particular agility in go¬
verning the fmall leather canoes in which the natives
purfue the fea lion, the urfine feal, fea otter, porpoifes,
and common feals. The fea lion, called by the Ruf¬
fians JirootJha, is the ftrongeft and largeft of the feal
kind ; it is covered with dark-coloured coarfe hair,
which is very thick and long about the neck and
ffioulders; the hinder part is tapering wflth fmooth 187
fhort hair. The largeft of thefe animals is about eight Sea lion,
feet long j they have a fmall white fpot on the tem¬
ples, which is the only place about them vulnerable by
arrows, which hardly pierce the fkin in other parts ; but,
if poifoned, they penetrate deep enough to deftroy
the animal. The flefti of the fea lion is cut into thin
flireds and dried, and is eaten by the Ruffian hunters. _ 188
The urfine feal has a foft downy under fur, reftmbling 1 1^ne ^eai‘
brown filk } the largeft of the fpecies arc about fix
feet long ; when very young the fur is of a beautiful
fhort gloffy black, which changes to filvery when they
grow up, and, when they become old, it is almoft
white ; the moft valuable fur is that of the fea otter, ge;iotfer
called in Ruffia morjlioi-bobre; the largeft are about
five feet long, with a rich fur nearly black, interfperfed
wflth longer hairs of a gloffy white. From their value
the purfuit after them has been fo eager, that their
numbers are declining fail. Indeed the deftruclion of
5 E all
Aua.
~ 151
Tlhutfki.
A S I [ 770
vkinds of animals that produce valuable kinds of fur
v " has there, of late, been fo great, that the trade will
probably foon be at an end •, and this is the only pe¬
riod at which the natives of thefe illands, and of the
adjoining Afiatic and American coafts, can expert: a
190 deliverance from the Hate of ll a very under which they
ofAtia^'d ^lave heC!1 reduced by the Ruffians. From the Aleu-
A meric a'to tan.c^a^n °f hlands the ttvo continents irregularly but
each other, rapidly approach towards each other till they come
within a diftance of 40 miles at Bering ftraits. At
this quarter, the part of Alia that approaches neareR to
America, is a peninfula, having the Icy fea on the
north and the Pacific ocean on the foutlp; it is inha¬
bited by a tribe called the Tjhutjki, who appear to be
the iame clafs ol people that inhabit the oppofite
coaft of America. The Tfnutlki nation or tribe is
divided into two diflin£l: branches; the one confifts of
Hationary or fixed inhabitants of the coafl ; the other
are called Reindeer or Wanderers. Of the Hationary
part of the tribe the population amounts to about
300a males •, they are induflrious and neat workmen,
as appears from their boats, lances, arrows, bows, ap¬
parel, and utenfils, wuth which they fupply the wan¬
dering part of their tribe ; they dig cellars, in which
they keep their fupplies of food and oil. Their pro-
viiions conlift of the dried fleffi of fea animals and
deer, of roots and berries. They keep the oil of the
lea animals in feal Ikins •, they obtain immenfe quanti¬
ties of it, which they ufe for food, fuel, and light; and
alio, as an article of commerce, with the w-andering
tribes.
This wandering tribe confider themfelves as a very
fuperior and independent race of beings. They call all
the nations that furround them old women, only fit to
be their fervants. Rein-deer are their only riches.
Thefe, and the Ikins of animals that they kill in hunt¬
ing, they barter with the Ruffians for kettles, knives,
and trinkets ; wffiich articles they again exchange with
the Hationary tribe, for arms dreffes, &c.
19- Of Siberia in general it. may be obferved, that the
Capital of Ruffians have fixed their capital in the neighbourhood
r‘ of the Baikal lake, near the northern front of the high
region of Tartary. It is called Irkutjh, and is fituated
in 103° 4.6' 45" eaft of Greenwich, and in N. Lat.
$2° 16' 30". It contains ^oohoufes, chiefly of wood,
twelve ftone churches, a cathedral, " and two mona-
Heries : befides which, there are feveral public build¬
ings -y an hofpital, a public fchool, a library, and a
theatre. The number of inhabitants is about 20,000.
The merchants are numerous and ailluent, and a con-
fiderable trade is carried on with the Chinefe. Here the
aflbrtments of furs are made which are brought from A-
merica and the northern parts of Siberia. There is a
1 glafs-houfe near the Baikal lake, and a diftillery, in
which 60,000 ankers of fpirits are made in a year -y there
are alfo falt-works at three fprings, which fupply the
neighbouring country. The people are extremely
hofpitable to ftrangers. All kinds of food are cheap, as
are fpirituous liquors, and home-brewed beer y lilks,
cottons, linens, furs, and even Englifh cloths, are fold
at a moderate price. Many articles of luxury are
brought from China, and the country itfelf fupports
immenfe herds of cattle and horfes, and produces all
the kinds of European grain j the chief difadvantage
under which it labours is the intenfe feverity of a win-
1
A S I
Afin.
r93
ter wffiich lafts during fix months of the year. The
feverity of the winter, and its duration, increafe in pro¬
portion to the diftance from this moft fouthern part of
Siberia. *
The firft of the great rivers of Siberia towards theRiverKo-
eaft that runs into the Icy fea is the Kovima, whichVima*
takes its rife in what are called the Virchoyanfki nioun-
tainsy to the wefhvard of the moft northerly part of
Kamtfchatka. It flows in a direftion nearly north-eaH
about 1800 Ruffian verfts, each verft being about three
quarters of an Englilh mile. Different Ruffian villages
are fituated upon it or upon the different ffre*ms that
fall into it. Ofthefeitmay be obferved, that the village
called Virchni is in N. Lat. 65° 28' 25" and E. Long.
I53C' 24' 30"- Seredni, another village upon the fame
river farther down to the north, is in N. Lat. 67° 10'
14". A third village, containing 70 houfes, and a
church, called Nemjhni, is in N. Lat. 68° 17' 14''
and E. Long. 163° 1/ 30". Ip4
To give a corredl idea of the climate of thefe lati- Climate,
tudes we ffiall ftate the temperature at Virchni, as ob¬
ferved during nine days of the month of November
1786, old ftile, by Martin Sauer, fecretary to a Ruffian
expedition, fent to attempt to navigate the Icy fea ; the
obfervations appear to have been made with a fpirit
thermometer of Reaumur.
Deg. Wind.
Nov. 22.
4 A.M. 38i S.W. light
airs.
6 39t
8 39^
12 M. 38^
4 P. M. 39 S.S.E.
6 39t
8 39i
12 40
Nov. 23.
4 A.M. 37^
6 36
Nov. 26.
4 A. M
Deg. Wind.
391- s.
4° v
4°t
E.
8
1 2 M.
4 P. M.
32
32 S. E.
32i
32i
3°v
33
Nov. 24.
4 A. M. 34 N.
6 35
8 36
12 M. 354: ~
6 P. M. 35
12 36
Nov. 25.
4 A. M. 34I S. W. little
wind.
12 M. 34^ N.W.ditto.
4 P- M. 35"
6 36
8 37
12 38
12 M.
8 P. M. 40-i
12 41-j
Nov. 27.
4 A. M. 40J N. E.
40^ Calm.
40
38
39
40
• 40-I-
Nov. 28.
4 A. M. 37^ E. N. E..
8 33 S. E.
3*i
1
6
8 
12 M.
4 P. M.
8 
1 2 
12 M
4 P. M.
6 
8 
9 ■
12 •
O'
3°4
3*4-
32t
 36*
Nov. 29.
6 A. M. 385 to 39
Nov. 30.
6 A. M. 35
tie wind.
33
S. S. W. lit-
12 Pvl.
4 P. M.
3‘k
3ll
32
32
19s
On the 22d, at fix A. M. nine ounces of mercury Effedts
froze in twTo hours ; the earth, the ice of the river, the
timber of the houfes, &c. cracking with reports equal
to
A S I t 7?i ] A S I
Afia. to thofe of a raufket. On the fame evening ten ounces
—v - . J Qf mercury in a ftopped vial, froze in two hours and a
half. On the 23d, about ten o’clock A. M. the mer¬
cury in a ftopped vial thawed, but in the evening of the
fame day was again quite frozen. On the 26th, in the
morning, there was a thick fog, and the earth and the
river cracked violently. On the 27th, at nine A. M.
a fealed bottle of Aftracan brandy (there called French
brandy) expofed to the froft, thickened very much, but
was not frozen. On the 28th, at noon, the mercury
thawed, but at half paft ten at night it was obferved
frozen. At 370 it was almoft impoftible to fell tim¬
ber (which was as hard as the hatchet) unlefs it was
perfectly dry •, and in the greateft feverity of the cold,
the hatchets, on ftriking the wood, broke like glafs.
On coming out of a warm room it was abfolutely ne-
ceflary to breathe through a handkerchief j the body was
immediately furrounded by a mift arifing from the
breath, and this mift confifted of very fmall nodules of
hoar ice. Breathing caufed a noife like the tearing of
coarfe paper or the breaking of thin twigs, and the
expired breath was immediately condenfed into the fine
fubftance already mentioned. The northern lights
were conftant and very brilliant j they aflumed an
amazing diverfity of ftiapes, and might be heard to
V- 1 s ^loot al°ng*
growing The vegetable productions of this climate were chief-
bear the ty the following. _
Icy fea. Larch.—This is the chief tree in ufe for building,
firing, Sec. and the moft plentiful. It is pretty fize-
able as far as Virchni, and the country is moderately
wooded about 200 verfts lower, but the trees very
ftunted j beyond that they are in clufters on elevated
fpots of ground to about 30 verfts from the Icy fea,
where they ceafe growing, in about the latitude 68°
30'.
Birch extends to a little below Seredni, but very
ftunted and fmall trees.
Poplar and afp grow to a moderate fize on the iflands
ftieltered by mountains about the fource of the Kovi-
xna, but do not extend fo low down as Virchni.
Mountain afti is plenty as far as Virchni, but very
fcarce lower down.
Alder and willow have a trunk about 18 inches in
circumference, and grow to the height of two fathom,
about Virchni. They gradually diminiih in fize, and
ceafe growung with the larch.
Creeping-cedar, brufhwood, black and red currant,
rofe, and juniper, are met with as low as Neizftmi.
Brufhwood and creeping-wnllows extend to the Icy fea,
but never exceed from fix to eight inches. The creep¬
ing cedar, or pinns cembra, produces a confiderable'quan-
tity of feeds or nuts in cones, like the common pine j
but they ripen only the fecond year. Immenfe numbers
are colledled by the inhabitants •, fometimes confider-
able quantities are found in the fquirrels nefts in hollow
trees •, in fa<El they are the chief food of fquirrels and
mice. A very pellucid and fweet oil is extradfted from
thefe feeds.
Mountain afh berries are gathered, and ufed to give
a pleafant flavour to their drink.
Black and red currants are collected in abundance,
and preferved in cafks among ice ; fome are boiled and
preferved. The black only extend to about Seredni,
but the red continue growing as far as Neizftmi.
Cranberry.—Thefe are fcarce, and extend no further Afia.
north than Seredni; they are always preferved raw. ' —^
Brufniki, vaceiniimivitis id<ra, whortleberry.—Thefe
are very plenty as far as Neizfhni, and are preferved
rawu
Colubniki are very numerous : they feem to delight
in fuch ftony places as are overflowed in the fpring.
They are very pleafant tailed, of a dark-blue colour,
and grow on a low bulb exadlly refembling a myrtle.
They are preferved by boiling.
Maroflika, rubus chanmmorus.—Thefe are the fa¬
vourite berry of the inhabitants, and grow in damp
moffy places, particularly near lakes. They are reckon¬
ed a certain cure for the feurvy, and are always pre¬
ferved raw.
Siccha, growung on dry ftony places about the moun¬
tains, on a creeping fpecies of heath, with ftiort needle
leaves ; they are very fmall, black, and ftony, are col-
lefted in great abundance, and preferved by boiling.
Knezftmitfi, rubus arflicus, are fcarce, growing about
the roots of the alder and currant bullies. l^-.
The following animals are found in the neighbour- Animals,
hood of the river Kovima, and are hunted for food or
on account of the value of their fkins.
Names. Price of the Shins.
Elk, 2 rubles.
Deer, I do.
Bear, I do.
White bear, I do.
Glutton, 2 to 10 do.
Wolf, 2 to 8 do.
Fox, 1 to 5 do*
Stone fox, 50 copeeks.
Ermine, 5 do.
Lynx, 3 to 10 rubles, according to the length
of the hair.
Otter, 8 to iq rubles.
Sable, 10 do.
Sheep, argali, 1 do.
Hare, 3 to 5 copeeks.
Marmot, 5 to TO do.
Squirrel, 3 to 5 ^0i
Moft of the kinds of birds known in the northern Bird^
parts of Great Britain are alfo found in Siberia at
fome period of the year. At Neizfhni the fw'allovs
xvere obferved fwarming together under the eaves of
the church, chirping very much, particularly on the
2d of Auguft old ftile, which is ftill ufed in Ruflia 5
and on the 3d there was not one to be found, nor had
anybody feen them depart. They appear about the
2iftofMay, and depart between the 2d and 6th of
Auguft, never flaying beyond the latter date. The
red breaft remains a day or two longer than the white.
The fnow bunting, the firft bird that appears, is feen
about the middle of March, feeding on the feeds of
grafs on the fandy fhores of the river, and about the
roots of bullies where the fnow is earlieft melted by
the fun. Different flights follow after each other for
about a mouth ; eagles follow clofe upon them. Swans,
geefe, and ducks arrive towards the end of April, and
continue about the neighbouring lakes and rivers till
the beginning of September. The river Kovima is
frozen over about the 20th of September, and opens
about the 24th of May, when it deluges the lowr coun¬
try. At Neizfhni, on the 25th of November^ the fun
5 E 2 goes
if)S
A S I
Afia.
goes down, and does not rile again till the
"J January, when it appears above the horizon, and this
199 is the time of the greateft cold.
d ^ coa^ t^le ^ea m°derately high, formed
fjribed. ^ projecting promontories and {hallow bays expofed
to every wind except the fouth. The mountains are
cpvered in different places with fnow, which melting,
produces fmall torrents that rufh into the fea. The
mountains are compofed of granite, quartz, and a hard
black {tone ; they produce mofs, a kind of vetch the
root of which is edible, creeping willow, and birch, not
exceeding ten inches in height. Near the mouths of
the large rivers the ftiores are covered with drift-wood,
and in every place remains of huts left by different
hunters are feen. Upon the fhore rein-deer are found
pretty numerous j bears, but not white ; wolves, foxes,
itone fox, wild fheep, and the whiffling marmot j the
gulls, ravens, hawks, black-headed buntings, fnow-larks,
a few partridges, geefe, ducks, and divers. The produc¬
tions of the fea itfelf are very few ; fomc feals, herrings,
whales, and a fmall fpecies of falmon, but no traces of
ffiell-filh of any kind are to be met with. The atmo-
fphere is always cold and chilly, though the thermome¬
ter in the middle of July rifes 140 and 160 above the
freezing point of Reaumur. The fogs upon this fea are
very remarkable, continually hovering above the ice
at no great height j fometimes having the fame ap¬
pearance with iflands when feen in a haze, and refem-
bling vaft columns of fmoke. Neither ebb nor flow of
the tide is perceived, and the ice is always brackiih to
200 the tafte.
Attempt to This ocean never has been, and, in all probability,
explore the never can be fully explored 5 various attempts, how-
icy lea. ever, have been made by individuals, as hunters, in
fearch of places in which abundance of game may be
SOI found, or in fearch of what are called the mammoths
Mammoths tujks: thefe are the talks of a fpecies of animal that
tulks. is now unknown and extindl; but which muff once have
exiffed in immenfe multitudes in Siberia. Thefe tulks
are found in great numbers buried under the high fandy
fhores of rivers at a confiderable depth 5 the fpring
floods bring them to view by walking awTay the fand
that covers them, and they appear to have been origi¬
nally buried by fimilar floods 5 they are equal to ele¬
phants teeth in whitenefs, beauty, and value, but very
different in their fhape, being all bent fpirally ; the
Sauers isje-largeft are found on the fhores of the Icy fea; one is
^edition. mentioned, which in direft length extended to four
feet one inch French meafure ; when meafured along
the bending, it was eight feet feven inches, and four
lines in length ; its circumference near the root was
14 inches and 3 lines; the thickeft part, which vras at
22 inches from the root, was 17 inches and 8 lines;
the weight of the whole was 1151b. avoirdupois. The
outfide was very brown from its having been expofed
to the wxather, and it wms cracked through the coat
or upper ftratum about an inch ; the infide was firm
and very wdffte.
In fearch of this valuable kind of ivory, which forms
an important branch of Siberian commerce, individuals
have attempted to penetrate into the Icy fea in the hope
of difeovering untouched ffores upon new iflands, or
fome unexplored continent. With this viewr one Lach-
off made an expedition from the river Yana, with fome
attendants, in the year 1770, and the following years..
[ 772 1 A S I
iff of Of this expedition Mr Sauer obtained the following
account from Zatai Protodiokanoff, a burgher of a Sibe¬
rian town called Yakutji^ in N. Lat. 62° 1'50", E.Long.
129° 24'. The account is chiefly of importance on
Afia.
9" 34'. lire account is chiefly ot importance on
account of the favage nature of the unknown region to
which it refers, and the extraordinary circumllance of
the bones of animals, particularly the rhinoceros, being
found in it, which in our times can only inhabit the
warmeft latitudes. “ Protodiokanoff accompanied
Lachoff in I77°> from his winter-buildings at the
eftuary of the Yana, in the month of March, to Swatoi
Nols, the northern promontory of a bay which receives
this river.
202
“ They faw' an immenfe herd of deer going to the Expedition
fouth, and obferved that their traces were from the by Ruffian
north acrofs the Icy fea. Lachoff refolved, if poflible, huntels‘
to find out whence they came ; and in the beginning of
April, let out very early in the morning, with his
fledge drawn by dogs. Towards evening he arrived
at an ifland 70 vertts from the promontory, in a due
north direction, where he paffed the night, and the next
day proceeded farther, the traces of the deer ferving
as a guide. About noon he arrived at a fecond ifland
20 verffs diflant, and in the fame diredlion. The
traces coming itill farther from the north he continued
his route. At a fmall diftance from the fecond ifland
he found the ice fo rugged and mountainous as to pre¬
vent his proceeding with dogs. He obferved no land ;
and therefore, after palling the night on the ice, he re¬
turned, and w-ith great difficulty, for w ant of provi-
lions for his dogs, regained Swatoi Nofs. He repre-
fented his difeovery to the chancery of Yakutlk, and
the intelligence W'as forwarded to St Peterlburg. The
emprefs Catharine II. called the iflands by the name
of the difeoverer, and gave him the exclufive right of
colledling ivory, and hunting animals in this place, and
in any other that he might thereafter difeover.
“ In 1773 he went with five workmen in a boat to
the iflands, and continued acrofs ffiaits, where he found
the fea very ialt, and a current fetting to the weft.
He foon faw land to the north, the weather being pret¬
ty clear, and arrived on w;hat he called the third ijland.
The ftiore was covered with drift w ood. The land wras
very mountainous, and feemingly of great extent; but
no wood was feen growing, nor did he obferve the
traces of any human being. He found fome tulks of
the mammoth, faw’ the tracks of animals, and returned
(without making any other difeovery) to tire firlt ifland,
where Lachoff built a hut of the drift-w ood, and paffed
the winter. One of his companions left a kettle and
a palma on the third ifland.
“ This w;as reckoned a difeovery of fome importance,
and the land-furveyor Chvoinoff received orders from
the chancery of Yakutlk, to accompany Lachoff to this
fartheft ifland, and take an exadl furvey of the fame. In
1775, on the 9th February, he left Yakutlk, and arrived
on the 26th March at Uft Yanlk Lemovia, or winter
huts at the eftuary of the Y ana. He immediately pro¬
ceeded acrofs the bay to Sw?atoi Nofs, which is qca
verfts from the difeharge of the river in a diredlion
north-north-eaft. On the 6th May he arrived at the
firft ifland, which is 150 verfts long and 80 verfts
broad in the wideft parts, and 20 verfts in the nar-
roweft. In the middle is a lake of confiderable extent,
but very (hallow, but the borders of which are fteep.
The
Afia.
A S 1 . . , t 7
The whole idand, except three or four inconfiderable
\ """ ' rocky mountains, is compofed of ice and fand •, and, as
the ihores fall, from the heat of the fun’s thawing
them, the tulks and bones of the mammoth are found
in great abundance. To ufe Chvoinoff’s own expref-
fion, the ifland is formed of the bones of this extra¬
ordinary animal, mixed with the horns and heads of
the buffalo, or fomething like it, and home horns of
the rhinoceros now and then, but very rarely, they
find a thin bone, very ifraight, of confiderable length,
and formed like a ferew.
“ The fecond illand is 20 verfts diffant from this,
low, and without drift-wood \ 50 verfts in length, and
from 20 to 30 verfts broad. Here alfo the tufks and
other bones are found 5 and great numbers of the arc¬
tic foxes are to be met with on both. The furface is
a bed of mofs of confiderable thicknefs, producing a
few low plants and flowers, fuch as grow' about the
borders of the Icy fea. This mofs may be ftripped off
as you would take a carpet from a floor, and the earth
underneath appears like clear ice and never thaws j
thefe fpots are called kaltafae.
“ The ftraits to the third ifland are 100 verfts
acrofs. He travelled along the ftrore, and on the 21ft
May difeovered a confiderable river, near which he
found the kettle, palma, and feme cut wood, in the
fame place and fituation, as they had been left by
Lachoff’s companions three years before Chvoinoft’s
arrival. This river he called Izarevaia Reka, in con-
lequence of having difeovered it on the 21ft of May.
The ftrore was covered with drift-wood, all of it ex¬
tremely fhattered. Afcending to the top of a very
lofty mountain, he faw a mountainous land as far as his
eye could trace in clear wmather, extending eaft, weft,
and north. Continuing his route along the coaft 100
verfts, he obferved three rivers, each of whicK brought
down a great quantity of wood, and abounded in filh 5
and here the nerk, a fpecies of falmon frequenting
Ochotlk and Kamtfchatka, was in abundance, though
not found in the Kovima or Indigirka. On this land
he palled the fummer, and returned in the autumn to
Swatoi Nofs.
“ I afked, whether he obferved any regular ebb or
flow of the tide ? He faid, ‘ that he did not obferve any
remarkable alteration Whether he recollefled how
the current fet ? ‘ He believed to the W'eft Whether
the water was fait ? ‘ Yes, and very bitter.’ He further
obferved, that there were whales and belluga, white
bears, wmlves, and rein-deer. No growing wood was
to be feen, and the mountains were bare ftone. None
of thefe travellers took any notice of the. depth of the
water, nor were they acquainted with the nature of
203 .tides.
Opinions of We account it worth wdtile to take notice of thefe
philofophersfa£!s ; partly, becaufe no circumftance that can tend to
elucidate the general ftruhlure of this globe, or point
out its different productions, ought to be regarded as
unimportant; and partly, becaufe feme philofophers have
attempted, from the remains of animals which appear
to have once inhabited the dreary, regions within the
polar circle, to infer that thefe countries muft once
have poffeffed a better climate, more favourable to ani¬
mal life, which muft have been altered by feme ex¬
traordinary change in the aftronomical politico, or in
the general temperature of the earth..
about the
Icy fea.
73 1 A S I
Befides the rivers we have already noticed, Siberia Ana.
contains many others ; the chief of which rife near the
northern front of the high region of Tartary, and
ceive the reft as tributary ftreams in their paffage to
the Icy fea ; the principal are the Lena, the Jenifea,
and the Oby. The defeription of them all is fimilar.
They flow through a country containing a very trifling
population, but which is as varied in its furface and in
its mineral produdftions as any other part of the world :
We lhall here take notice of the Lena only, as a de¬
feription of it will afford a fufficient general idea of the
reft. _ 205
About a hundred miles weft-fouth-weft of a fmall River Lena
Ruffian village called Katjhuga Pri/la?i, the Lena takes deferibed.
its rife from an inconfiderable lake among the moun¬
tains of Altai, near the Baikal lake. It flows in a
gentle and uninterrupted ftream, though here and there
impeded by {hallows at a late feafon, to about the di-
ftance of 300 miles from its fource ; when it deepens
confiderably. The diredtion is very winding, but pret¬
ty uniformly eaft-north-eaft to Yakutlk, and nearly
north from thence to its difeharge into the Icy fea,
about the latitude 710 30' and longitude 1 270 eaft of
Greemvich, after a courfe of 3450 geographical miles.
The appearance that it affumes is continually varying.
In fome places, mountains bound the channel on both
fides, clothed to the fummits with ftately pines) in
others they are barren, projedling into the river, and
turning its courfe, taking fantaftic fhapes, refembling
ruins of large buildings, towers, and churches j the
chafms overgrown with hawthorn, currant bullies, dog
rofes, Sec. In fome places the mountains retreat in¬
land for miles, forming a back ground to extenfive
plains, and expofing a miferably built town, furround-
ed with corn fields, gardens, and pafture grounds, with
a few herds of cattle grazing : Thefe openings are fre¬
quent, at unequal diftances of five to forty verfts from
each other, and are always occupied by villages as far
as Olekma, 1800 verfts from Katlhuga. All beyond
is defolate, except a few' huts inhabited by convidls
who have the charge of horfes for the polls, and the
towns of Petroftlky, Yakutlk, and Giganlk. The bell
of them is only a collection of huts inhabited by priefts
and their attendants, officers and Coffacks, who teach
obedience, and enfpree the payment of tribute from
the wandering tribes of Tartars that infeft the neigh- 206
bourhood. The following are the rivers that flow in-Rivers
to the Lena.—The Hga, 170 verfts from Katfhuga. flowm£in-
The Koot, 469 verfts from the fame place. Very near I.”1*10 ^e'
the eftuary of this river is a fait lake, which is very
lhallow, and works, the property of the prefent ifpra-
vink of the diftriCl, at which one boiling produces
1080 pounds weight of fait. Marakofka, 601 verfts
from Katftiuga. Makarova, 690. Kiringa, 778. Vi-
tima, 1178. This laft river flows from a lake eaft of
the Baikal. It is nearly equal to the Lena in width,
depth, and extent 5 and is famous for fables, lynx, fox,
ermine, fquirrel, and deer. The fables of this river
and of the Memo, which falls into it 300 verfts from
the difeharge, are very valuable, and of a fuperior qua¬
lity. Numbers of Tungoole travel about here on.
the chafe. Three verfts up this river are the moun¬
tains that produce talc. Specimens have been formerly
found, 28 inches fquare, and tranfparent as glafs :
What is now found is very fmall, but perfectly pellu¬
cid,,
Afia.
cid.
A S I t 774 ]
All the windows of thefe parts are glazed with not his wives.
A S I
. a?7
Siberian
tribes.
208
Tribe of
Tungoofe.
209
Cuftotns of
the Tun-
goofe.
"it. The river Pellidui, 1202 verfts from Katihuga j
alio famous for the above mentioned animals, and the
lail place that produces corn. Sparrows and magpies
are not feen farther north : they only came here about
the year 1780, after the ground had begun to be cul¬
tivated. The Nuye, 1475 verfts from Katftiuga.
The Yerba, 1505. The Patama, 1575. The Oo-
naghtali, 1595. The Olekma, 1822. The Aldan,
2600. Eefides feveral rivers farther north of no ma¬
terial confequence.
The moft remarkable of the native tribes of Siberia
are the Tungoofe, the Yakuti, and the Burati j all of
whom appear to have originally defcended thither from
the fouthern and more elevated regions of Tartary. To
thefe may jpe added the Coflacks, wdiom the Ruffians
have everywhere introduced. The Tungoofe wander
over an amazing extent of ground, from the mouth of
the Amour to the Baikal lake, the rivers Angara or
Tungooika, Lena, Aldan, Yudoma, Mayo, Ud, the
fea coaft of Ochotlk, the Amicon, Kovima, Indigirka,
Alafey, the coaft of the Icy fea, and all the mountains
of thefe parts, conftantly on the look-out for animals
of the chafe. They feldom refide more than fix days
in one place, but remove their tents, though it be to
the fmall diftance of 20 fathoms ; and this only in the
iififing feafon, and during the time of colledling ber¬
ries. They leave their fupplies of dried fiffi and ber¬
ries in large boxes, built on trees or poles, for the be¬
nefit of themfelves and their tribes in travelling during
the winter. Berries they dry by mixing them with the
undigefted food {lichen} out of the ftomach of the
rein-deer, making thin cakes, which they fpread on
the bark of trees, and dry upon their huts in the fun
or wind. They feem callous to the effefts of heat or
cold ; their tents are covered with fliamoy, or the in¬
ner bark of the birch, which they render as pliable as
leather, by rolling it up, and keeping it for fome time
in the fleam of boiling wrater and fmoke. Their win¬
ter drefs is the (kin of the deer, or of the wild ffieep,
drefied with the hair on ; a breaft-piece of the fame,
which ties round the neck, and reaches down to the
waift, wfidening towards the bottom, and neatly orna¬
mented with embroidery and beads $ pantaloons of the
fame materials, which alfo furniffi them with ftiort
ftockings, and boots of the legs of rein-deer, with the
hair outward ; a fur cap and gloves. Their fummer
drefs only differs in being Ample leather wfithout the
hair. They commonly hunt with the bow and arrow j
but fome have rifle-barreled guns. They do not like
to bury their dead, but place the body, dreffed in its
beft apparel, in a ftrong box, and fufpend it between
twm trees. The implements of the chafe belonging to
the deceafed are buried under the box. Except a for-
cerer is very near, no ceremony is obferved \ but in
his prefence they kill a deer, offer a part to the de¬
mons, and eat the reft. They allow polygamy •, but
the firft wife is the chief, and is attended by the reft.
The ceremony of marriage is a fimple purchafe of a
girl from her father: from 20 to 100 deer are given,
or the bridegroom wmrks a ftated time for the benefit
of the bride’s father. The unmarried are not remark¬
able for chaftity. A man will give his daughter for a
time to any friend or traveller that he takes a liking
to ; if he has no daughter he will give his fervant, but
They are rather below the middle fize, Afia.
and extremely adive \ have lively fmiimg countenan-   v—
ces, with fmall eyes 5 and both lexes are great lovers
of brandy. They declare that they know no greater
curfe than to live in one place, like a Ruffian or Ya¬
kut, where filth accumulates, and fills the habitation
with ftench and difeafe. 2IO
The Yakuti, or Socha, are a Tartar tribe that ori-Yakuti.
ginally defcended into the country of Siberia from the
high regions on the fouth. A nation of Mongals in¬
habiting a part of the country near China alfo call
themfelves Socha, and fpeak the fame language as the
Yakuti. The Ruffians difcovered them in 1620 : they
were divided into many tribes, and the diflenfions that
exifted among them contributed to their being fubdu-
ed. Their number is computed at 50,000 males; but
the population is declining. They complain of the
oppreffion of the Ruffian government, and of late, as
already mentioned, many of them have emigrated to
the river Amoor, to enjoy the advantages arifing from
the prote&ion of the milder and more popular govern¬
ment of the Chinefe.
There is perhaps no nation in the world that can ex- Their per-
hibit a greater variety with regard to fize than the Ya-1*0115'
kuti. The affluent, whofe dwellings are fituated about
the meadows on the fouth fide of the Virchoyanfki
chain, are from five feet ten inches to fix feet four
inches high, well proportioned, extremely ftrong, and
very adtive ; while the indigent inhabitants of the
more northerly parts are in general below the middle
fize, indolent, and of an unhealthy complexion ; evi¬
dently ftunted by the badnefs of their food, the feveri-
ty of the climate, and the want of proper clothing.
Their wealth confifts of horfes and horned cattle. The
private property of no individual at prefent exceeds
2000, all fpecies included ; formerly, numbers of them
poffeffed 20,000. 2i2
With regard to their capacity of fupporting them- Means'of
felves, they are independent. Their only' neceffaries fubfiftence.
are, a knife, hatchet (or palma), flint and ftecl, and a
kettle 5 and with thefe articles the all-providing hand
of God fufficiently fupplies them, and capacitates them
to furnith the other tribes. From the iron ore of the
Vilui they make their own knives, hatchets, &c. and
of fuch temperature as baffles the more enlightened art
of the Ruffians. This ore may be called native iron,
from the little trouble they have in preparing it. Eve¬
ry utenfil and article of drefs they m -ke themfelves.
Tanghra is with them the general name of god, orRr;p ^ o-
perhaps of the fupreme God j but they have other dei- the Yakuti.
ties, whofe names are in their language defcriptive of
their attributes. One of thefe is ftyled Aar-toy on,
(or the merciful chief). To him they afcribe the crea¬
tion, and fuppofe that he has a wife, whom they call
Knbey Chatoon, (finning in glory). They are both al¬
mighty. Another god, called Wechfyt, (the advocate),
carries up their prayers, and executes the will of the
godhead. He fometimes appears among them, affu-
ming the form of a white ftallion, or of any bird, from
the eagle to the cuckoo. It is he that intercedes for
them, and procures all defirable things. The wife of
Wechfyt is called Akfyt, (the giver). Thefe are their
benevolent gods, together with a being whom they
adore in the fun. They regard the fire, as containing
a peculiar being poffeffed both of good and evil quali¬
ties,
Alia.
2 14
Food.
215
Confecra
tion of kou-
Biifs.
A S I
ties, and to whom they contlantiy olTer
Their malevolent aerial fpirits are very numerous j
they have no lefs than 27 tribes or companies of them.
Their chief they call Ooloo Toyon : he has a wife and
many children. Sugai Toyon, the god of thunder,
is his minifter of immediate vengeance. (Sugai fignifies
a hatchet). The reft they diftinguith by the names
of different colours. Cattle and horfes are facred to
the different fpirits whofe colours they bear. They
reckon eight tribes of fpirits inhabiting Mung Taar
(everlafling mifery). Their chief is called Ajhary
Bioho (the mighty). They have wives, and the cattle
facred to them are quite black : Their departed (ha-
mans, or magicians, are funpofed to unite to thefe.
They dread greatly an evil goddefs, whom they call
Enachfys, (cowherdefs). She damages the cows, imiifts
diforders on them, deftroys calves, &c. She is fre¬
quently honoured with propitiatory facrifices.
Their magicians, or (hamans, are chiefly men,
though a few of them are women. Young magicians
are inftrufted by an old profeffor of the art, who con¬
duces them to the mod: folitary places of the woods ;
(hews them the favourite fpots of the fpirits of the air
and of the pit, and teaches them to invoke their power,
and prevail with them to appear. The magicians have
a peculiar drefs, confifting of a leather jacket, and an
apron reaching from the chin to the knees. The whole
is ornamented all over with iron plates, and pieces of
iron and brafs, hanging, which make a difmal noife
when they agitate their bodies, during the fantaftic but
childiih ceremonies which they perform while driving,
as they fay, the demons out of lick people. rI hey ufe
a tambour in their ceremonies, and are the priefts and
phyficians of the (ribe.
In their roving parties, on
they only take with them a fcanty fupply of koumifs,
depending on chance for the reft ; and (hould their
purfuits prove unfortunate, they find their food in the
inner bark of the pines and birch-trees, or the different
edible roots. Squirrels are in their eflimation very
good eating, but their favourite food is the whiffling
marmot. Of all their provifions, however, koumifs is
the mod; valued *, it is formed <?f mare’s milk, colledled
in large leather buckets, wide at bottom, and narrow
at the top 5 each containing about an anker. Into
this a fmall piece of the ftomach of a calf or colt is
thrown, and fome water mixed with it : it is agitated
till it ferments, and acquires an agreeable acidity ;
and when taken in great quantities it has an intoxica¬
ting quality (See Koumiss). Of this drink every one
collefts as much as he can ; and fome of the chiefs ob¬
tain more than 500 ankers of it. A day is then fix¬
ed upon by each chief to confecrate his (lock, -which is
performed as follows :—A fummer hut is built of thin
poles, of a conical form, covered with the inner ^bark
of birch, on fome extenfive meadow. It is ornament¬
ed, infide and out, with branches of the birch-tree,
and a hearth is made in the centre. Relations and ac¬
quaintances are invited to the banquet ; but all guefts
are welcome, of every nation, indifcriminately. The
magicians, or {hamans, take the head feats; others afe
feated according to the eftimation of their feniority.
When the hut is full, the elder lhaman rifes, and com¬
mands one of the Socha that he knows to be qualified
(namely, that has not feen a corpfe within the month,
Afia.
the chafe or travelling,
[ 775 1 A S I.
facrifices. and that never has been accufed of theft, or bearing
falfe witnefs againft any body, wdiich defiles them for
ever, and renders them unqualified for this facred and
folemn talk), to take a large goblet, called a tjhoron,
which is ufed to drink out of on folemn occafions, and
fill it with koumifs out of the firft fymir ; then to place
himfelf before the hearth, wuth his face to the eaft,
holding the tfhoron to his bread about two minutes.
He then pours koumifs three times on the hot embers,
as an offering to Aar Toyon. Tuiming a very little
to the right, he pours three times to Kubey Chatoon ;
then, to the fouth, he offers in the fame manner to each
of the benevolent gods. With his face to the weft, he
pours three times to the 27 tribes of aerial fpirits, and
three times to the north to the eight tribes of the pit,
and to the manes of their departed forcerers. After
a (Irort paufe, he concludes his libation by an offering
to Enachfys, the cowherdefs. The forcerer then turns
the man with his face to the eaft, and commences a
prayer aloud, thanking the godhead for all favours re¬
ceived, and foliciting a continuance of their bounty.
On concluding his prayer, he takes off his cap, with
wThich he fans himfelf three times, and cries out aloud,
“ Oorui” (grant), which is repeated by all prefent.
The elder fliaman, then, taking the tfhoron, drinks a
little, and hands it to his brethren of the fame order,
from whom it paffes to the company as they fit, except
fuch as are defiled. Women are not admitted into the
hut •, nor are they or the difqualified allowed any of
the koumifs out of the firft fymir, which they call fanc-
tified, as poffeffingthe power of purifying and ftrength-
ening in a divine fenfe. They all now go out of the
hut, and feat themfelves on the ftrew^ed branches of
birches, in half circles, fronting the eaft. All the fy-
mirs are carried, and placed between the branches of
trees ftuck in the earth, and they commence drinking j
every crefcent having their fymirs, tfhoron, and prefi-
ding ihaman wdio fills the goblet, and pufhes it about
with the courfe of the fun. The quantity that they
drink is incredible. Tournaments now' begin ; wreft-
ling, running, leaping, &c. ; and if any one carry off
the prize in all the achievements, he is efteemed as
particularly favoured by the deities, and receives more
refpeft and credit in his teftimony than falls to the lot
of a common man. When the ceremony is finifhed,
they mount their horfes, forming half circles, drinking
a parting draught, and wheeling round with the fun’s
courfe, ride home. Women attend, and form parties
among themfelves at fome diftance from the men, where
they drink, dance, &tc.
The Yakuti or Socha, in their intercourfe with each Charaifter,
other, have few atrocious vices. Robberies are fel-
dom committed ; they fometimes, indeed, lofe their cat¬
tle from their ftraying in thefe wide countries. If fto-
len, dcteftion is almoit certain, as they relate all their
Ioffes at every public meeting •, in confequence of which,
if the loft beaft has been feen, information is given, and
it is traced. A thief is not only compelled to make
reftoration, but to make good all the Ioffes of the other
Yakut during the year, whether he has ftolen the pro¬
perty or not. If one is accufed of having ftolen cattle,
and eaten or killed them, he muft either pay for them,
receive a flogging, which is very difgraceful, or take
an oath of his innocence, which is adminiftered with fo
many fuperftitious folemnities, that innocent perfons
will
2If>
A S I
Afia.
217
Superfti-
tions.
will often rather pay the damages than take the oath.
’ 1 hey are very revengeful of infults, and entail upon
their progeny the duty of revenge : their gratitude,
however, is equal to their refentment; they never for¬
get a benefit j and not only make a return, but recom¬
mend to their children to perfevere in friendfiiip and
gratitude to the benefa&ors of their parents. They are
very obedient to their chiefs and old men. They de¬
liberate in council on all matters of public concern, as
the courfe which each is to take in the chafe, &c.
I he old men are furrounded by the reft, and their ad¬
vice is implicitly obeyed. A young man gives his
opinion refpedlfully and cautioufly; and, even when
alked, he lubmits his ideas to the judgment of the old.
I hey are extremely hofpitable and attentive to travel-
lers, and are very inquifitive; they afkqueftions frequent¬
ly, but, at the fame time, they anfwer them without
embarraffment, and with a confiderable appearance of
intelligence. They are a vigorous race, accuftomed
to. travel in the.fevereft frofts, and to endure hunger
with patience. They are, however, -fubjedl; to fome
difeafes,. particularly rheumatifms, weaknefs of the
eyes, boils, and the itch. The fmallpox and meafles
have alfo at times proved very deftrudlive amon^ft;
them.
They have a multitude of petty fuperftitions, inde¬
pendent of their religion. Ravens, crows, and cuckoos,
are ominous birdsand, if thefe perch near their huts,
they dread fome misfortune, which can only be averted
by ftioo.ting the birds. On the contrary, eagles and
large birds of prey are the foreboders of good, and al-
moft every tribe has its objedt of veneration, but not
of worfhip, as the eagle, the fwan, the ftallion, &c.
I hey always taice care to make the doors of their huts
towards the eaft j the fire-place is in the middle, with
the back of the chimney towards the door 5 the fides
of the hut are furnifhed with benches and fmall cabins,
which ferve for fleeping places, and for fitting on.
I he men keep upon the fouth fide and the women up¬
on the north. Except the hoftefs, no woman may pre-
fent food to a male ftranger in front of the fire-place,
but muft walk round the chimney to prefent it. They
never wafh the veflels that contain their food ; but,
when a difh is emptied, they clean it as well as they
can with their fingers, accounting it ominous, or that
it forebodes.a fcarcity, to wafti away any part of their
lood. Their earthen vefiels are preferved extremely
clean by repeated burnings, as the fire confumes what
adhered to the fides. Before eating any thing, they
call; a morfel into the fire. Every Yakut has two
names, and is only called by the right name, in cafes
of neceflity, to void the fearch of evil fpirits. They
never mention the dead, unlefs allegorically, and for-
iake the hut in which any one has expired.
mardavend Polygamy is allowed among them, and fome have
& • fix wives, but the firft is refpeaed by all the r'eft, and
they dwell in feparate huts: their marriage ceremonies
Sauer's £x- are extremely formal. A young man, who wifties to
tedlUon' marry, fends his friends to afk the confent of the bride’s
father, and what kalym (purchafe) he demands j that
is, how many horfes and cattle, as alfo the quantity of
raw meat, horle fiefti, and beef, that he requires for
treats, and feafts ; this they call hurim; half of the
quantity is always given in prefents to the bridegroom
by the bride’s father, and is called yrdy. The daugh¬
1 776 1
A S I
218
ter’s inclinations are always confulted ; and, if fine does
not objedt, the kalym and kurim are ftipulated. The
bridegroom kills two fat mares, dreffes the heads whole,
and the Hefh in pieces, and goes with three or four
friends to the father of the bride. On his arrival at
the hut, one of his friends enters, and places cne of the
dreiTed horfe’s heads before the fire, and returns to his
companions without fpeaking a word. They then all
enter the hut ; and a forcerer being placed oppofite the
fire, the bridegroom kneels on one knee with his face
towards it, into which butter is thrown ; he then lifts
up his cap a little, and nods his head three times with¬
out bowing his body. The forcerer pronounces him
the happy man, and prophefies a fucceftion of happy
years, &c. I hen the bridegroom rifes, bows to the
father and mother, and takes his feat oppolite the
bride’s place,' but keeps filent. The meat is then
brought in, and the father of the bride diftributes it
among his own friends, but kills a fat mare to treat
his new guefts. Supper being over, the bridegroom
goes to bed ; the bride, who has not been prefent, is
conduced into the hut, and to his bed, by fome old
women, and they deep together j fometimes, however,
the bride does not appear at the firft vifit. In the
morning the friends return home, but the bridegroom
remains three or four days. A time is now fixed for
payment of the kalym, either at the new or full moon.
The kalym and kurim are then carried without any ce¬
remony, and delivered in the prefence of many friends,
who are feafted, and the bridegroom remains again
three or four days, and fixes a time to receive the
bride at his own dwelling, which muft be new built on
purpofe ; and this alfo at the new or full moon. All
her relations, male and female, with friends and neigh¬
bours, fometimes more than a hundred, accompany the
bride with her father and mother, taking with them
eight or ten fymirs full of melted butter, and the dref-
fed meat ol three mares. They go to the new hut
prepared for them ; three men are fent to the bride¬
groom in his old hut, and the greateft drinkers are
chofen for this purpofe. On entering, the firft fays,
“ we are come to fee your dwelling, and to fix pofts
before your door.” They then kneel on one knee be¬
fore the fire : an ayack is filled with koumifs, and hand¬
ed by tw'o men to the three kneeling 5 each of whom
empties an ayack at three draughts. They then rife
and go out, all the company faluting them with one
cheer. Three others enter ; the firft with nine fables,
the fecond with nine foxes, and the third with twenty-
feven ermine fkins ; thefe they hang on a peg in the
chief corner of the hut, and retire. Then a number
of women condudt the bride, her face being covered
with ermine fkins, to the hut; the entrance has a
w’ooden bar placed acrofs it, but of no flrength, which
the bride breaks with her breaft, and enters the hut. She
is placed before the fire, holding her hands open before
her, into which feven pieces of flicks are put ; as alfo
feveral pieces of butter, which fhe throws into the fire.
The fliaman pronounces a blefling; fhe then rifes and
is again conduced, with her face concealed all the
while, to the new hut, where the cover is taken from
her face. I he bridegroom enters, and feafts his guefts
twTo days 5 then prefents all his relations with cattle,
over and above the kalym ; which is, however, return¬
ed on paying their formal vifits, perhaps a year or more
afterwards.
Alla.
Afia.
319
Funerals.
270
Arts.
221
Tribe of
Burati.
.SI [ 777 1 A S I
a child is about to be born, the eft towards the fouthern boundary, in the latitudes
afterwards. When
hufhand is called, and two Ikilful women, in his pre¬
fence, aftift the delivery. If a fon be born, a fat mare
is killed on the third day 5 all the neighbours are in¬
vited to fupper -y the child is rubbed all over with fat,
and a name given to it, the more infignificant the
better ; for an elegant name would only entice the
demons to be continually about it. No ceremony is
obferved if the child be a daughter.
' The Yakuti bury a dead perfon in his beft apparel,
with his knife, flint, fteel, tinder, and fome meat, that
he may not hunger on the road to the dwelling of
fouls. Two holes are dug under a tree $ a favourite
horfe of the deceafed is killed and buried in one, while
the corpfe is laid in the other: a fat mare is killed,
drefled, and eaten, by the guefts j her Ikin is fufpend-
ed on the tree, under which the body lies with the
head to the weft. A magician, playing upon his tam¬
bour, invokes the demons to let the fpirit of the de¬
parted reft in peace; and the ceremony is finilhed
by filling up the grave. If an elder brother die,
Afia.
oft the Baikal lake and the river Amoor, where the
climate is mildeft. To give an idea of the population
of the lower or northern part, we lhall here ftate, from
the work already quoted, an account of the number of Sauer's Ex-
inhabitants from the latitude of 64°, to the extremity P'dHhn.
of the north coaft, and from the river Kovima -weft-
ward to the Anabara. “ The diftrift of Laftiiverlk
comprehends the rivers Kovima, Alafcy, Indigirka,
and Yana, and thofe that flow into them: The tri¬
butary nations are
- Yakuti - - 2810
Lamut and Tungoofe - 742
Yukagiri - - 322
Tfhuvantft and Chatinfy - 37
Tribute received 1788, amounts to 4560 rubles for
3911 males.
“ The circuit is about 6000 verfts in circumference.
The diftrift of Giganlk, a town north of Yakutik, on
the Lena, contains one church, two government hou-
his wives become the property of the younger j but feS} feven prIvate oneS) and 15 huts. It has
222
Population
«f Siberia.
the wives of a younger brother become free at his
death. ' ‘
Their drefs is fimilar to that of the Tungoofe, but
more complete. Their principal arts conftft of work¬
ing iron ore, as already mentioned, by means of char¬
coal, rendering it malleable without any previous pro-
cefs of fulion, and of drefling leather, which they are
faid to perform with wonderful fuccefs, fo as to render
it completely water-proof, in the following manner:
For fymirs or buckets, they take a frelh fldnned cow’s
or horfe’s hide, and fteep it in water a few days, when
the hair eaftly rubs off. It is then hung up till nearly
dry, when they lay it in blood until foaked through,
and then hang it in a fmoky place for a confiderable
time j of this they make their buckets and foals of
boots, &c. The latter are completely water-proof,
and the buckets or fymirs even retain oil. The legs
of boots they make of colts or calves fldns, fcraped
and rubbed till they be foft, then fewed, fteeped in
blood, and dried in fmoke \ afterwards blackened with
wood coals, and fat, feveral times, and fmoked again:
they are then water-proof. The thread with which they
few their clothes is made of the finews from the legs
of the horfe-deer or elk. They are expert archers,
and have a plentiful fupply of arrows in their quivers.
They make conftderable quantities of hay, and colleft
berries which they preferve by boiling. To fave their
hay, they kill at the beginning of winter the cattle
they intend to ufe for food, and let it freeze, which
preferves it freih and good during the whole of that
feafon.
Another tribe of Siberians inhabiting the fouthern
parts of the territory, is the Burati. They are divid¬
ed into a great number of feparate fmall tribes, and
are alfo a race of Tartars. They poffefs immenfe
herds of cattle and horfes. They are not unacquaint¬
ed with letters, and have lamas or priefts, like the in¬
habitants of the fouthern parts of High Tartary. There
are alfo various other tribes, fuch as the Yukagiri, the
Tftiuvantfi, Chatinfy, &c. who do not feem to differ
in their manners and charafler from thofe already de-
fcribed. On the whole, however, it appears that the
population of Siberia is very trifling. It is great-
Vot. II. Part II,
a mayor
{gorodnitfhik') and his chancery, and court of the di-
ftri61 (leinihoifud) and a magiftracy, although the mer¬
chants are mere trading pedlars, and only two I think in.
number. Its circuit alfo is about 6oco verfts from the
Yana to the Anabara, which divides^the governments
of Tobolflc and Irkutlk. The tributary nations are
Yakuti - - I449
489
Tungoofe
1938
223
Tribute received in 1798, 56 fables, 262 foxes, and
1169 rubles in money.
“ The Ruffians inhabiting both diftri&s, including
exiles, &c. do not exceed 750 males.”
The Ruffian inhabitants of the better parts of Sibe- Ruffians in
ria, efpecially towards the weft, employ themfelves in Siberia,
the cultivation of grain, or as graziers or carriers.
They havq an excellent breed of horned cattle, with
which, as wTell as with butter, they fupply both the
northern and eaftern diftrifls of the empire. They
are wealthy, hofpitable, healthy, and clean, and live
under no controul of individuals, only paying a trifling
fum to the captain of the diftrift for government. The
Siberians throughout are more induftrious and indepen¬
dent than any Ruffian peafants, and live far more com¬
fortably. They are making confiderable progrefs in
civilization, and this is perhaps, fo far as the bulk of
the people are concerned, the happieft part of that
great empire.
We now return to the territory from which we fet GrandTar-
out, Grand Tartary, or the elevated level trafl which tary.
conftitutes the central region of Afia. This high
country polfefies confiderable variety of foil and ap¬
pearance. Towards China is an immenfe defert form¬
ing the boundary of that empire. It confifts of fands,
that move with the winds like the current of a river.
Nature has formed three paffages acrofs them by means
of three chains of mountains, which, as in Arabia or Defert'of
in Africa, are mixed with pleafant vallies amidft thefe Lop, and
oceans of fand. Travellers who take any other courfe roacb
are apt to be overwhelmed with the torrents of fand, Jt-
which are equally dangerous as in the Arabian defert.
5 ? The
A s 1 [7
J The firft of thefe communication^ is in latitude 420
north, to the eaft-north-eaft of Pekin; the fecond to
the eaft of the province of Shen-fi 5 and the third in
latitude ^2 , to the eaft of Harm, on the frontiers of
Thibet. By thefe roads a fafe accefs was given
through the vaft I artarian regions, from the countries
bordeiing on the Cafpian fea, and more remotely from
Em ope itfelf, to caravans of merchants who had no
other way of carrying on commerce with China in the
middle ages, before the invention of the mariners com-
pafs, and the difcovery of the paffage round the Cape
of Good Hope had laid open an eafier mode of com¬
munication. It is not wonderful, that when travel¬
ling in thefe dreary folitudes, the imaginations of men
Should have been haunted and terrified by illufions.
Accordingly, Marco Polo, a traveller in the middle
ages who paifed through the great defert, which he
names the defert of Lop, fays, that during the night,
the caravans are terrified with the demons which haunt
thefe horrid fands and dreadful deferts 5 the travellers
muft be careful how they ftray, for they will imagine
themfelves called by their names by voices familiar to
them, till they are brought to the edge of a precipice,
and fometimes they will be entertained with aerial mu-
fic. Thefe romances reached Europe j and our poet,
Milton, makes the lady in Comus, when benighted
and bewildered on her way, to fpeak in the ftyle of
them.
78 ]
A S I
“ A thoufand fantafies
Begin to throng into my memory
Of calling fhapes, and beck’ning ftiadows dire,
And aery tongues, that fyllable men’s names
On fands and ftiores and defert wulderneffes.”
Even thefe deferts, however, are not entirely deftitute
of inhabitants, as a few Tartars are found upon them,
226 with their horfes, affes, and mules.
Soil of Tar- The reft of this high region pofleffes a confiderable
inhabitants Variet>r of f°n* In general, however, though it bears
1 11 s‘ abundance of trees and grafs, the climate is extremely
fevere. The fummits of all the chains of mountains
are covered with perpetual fnow, which augments the
cold of the adjoining plains. Even in the fouthern
parts of it, in latitude 310 39', within eight degrees of
the burning Calcutta, the cold is frequently found to
reach 290 below the freezing point, and this even
within a dwelling houfe. This high country, as al¬
ready mentioned, looks down from its different fides
upon Perfia, India, China, and Siberia, towards all
which it is furrounded by fteep precipices of difficult
defcent, which exclude its inhabitants from holding
any eafy intercourfe vrith thefe regions. Southward,
however, on the fide of India, the mountains appear to
be moft precipitous, and the approach moft difficult.
Towards Siberia, on the north, it feems lefs fo, and ac¬
cordingly it is chiefly in that direaion, or by the north-
eaft or fouth-rveft, that the Tartars have in different
ages approached China or Perfia, and through them
the fouthern regions of the Indies.. The inhabitants of
this lofty territory have in every age poffeffed the fame
character, and engaged in the fame occupations. They
have fubfifted in a paftoral ftate, by means of their
flocks and herds, and upon the flefh of fuch wild ani¬
mals as they could obtain by the chafe. They have,
at the fame time, been rude, and in general illiterate
barbarians, poffeffing fimilar manners to their Siberian Afia.
kindred, whom we have already defcribed, the Tun-   
goofe, the Yakuti, and Burati. It is a fingular cir-
cumftance, however, that in the fouthern part of this
territory, called Thibet, a fuperftition fliould have efta-
blifhed itfelf, which gives to an eftablifhed priefthood
the whole dominion of the ftate. What proves in a
fingular manner the influence of education upon man¬
kind, is this, that the fubjedls of the lama, or high pon¬
tiff of the I artars of Thibet, are no lefs unwarlike and
unfit to defend themfelves againft invaders, than the
fubjefts of the high-prieft, who in the regions of the
weft has fo long occupied the capital of the Caefars.
I his corner, however, of Grand Tartary, muft be re¬
garded merely as an exception to the general charac¬
ter of the people, who have at all times difplayed the
greateft aptitude for military enterprifes. From this
high region the great conquerors of Afia have de¬
fended, and under the names of Moguls, Turks, or
Tartars, have repeatedly overrun, and affumed com¬
plete dominion over the furrounding civilized nations. 22_
The general hiftory of the great continent of Afia Idea of the
may be ftated in a few words. When the civilized ^^ory of
nations which occupy the coafts of it on the weft, the A111 ancl
fouth, and the eaft, are well governed 5 when fociety
is in a proper ftate, and its powers can be direfted with
fkill and energy for the public proteftion, Grand Tar¬
tary becomes a place of little importance, or is merely
regarded as a grazing territory fit for the breeding of
cattle, which periodically are brought down to the
great markets of the richer countries in which they
are intended to be fattened and confumed. The Tar¬
tars themfelves, divided into an immenfe multitude of
tribes, are eafily kept by the intrigues of their more
artful neighbours in a ftate of conftant domeftic hofti-
lity, or they readily fubmit to the dominion, and en¬
gage in the fervice of the rulers of a better foil and
climate, to which they are at all times willing to emi¬
grate.
On the contrary, when the arrangements of fociety
become defective in the furrounding nations \ when
public inftitutions are allowed to fall into decay, and
when anarchy and weaknefs of government prevail,
the Tartars gradually refume their independence. Being
no longer either divided by the arts or overawed by
the power of their neighbours, they acquire a con¬
tempt for their weaknefs, and an avidity to poffefs
their riches. On fuch occafion, if an afpiring chief of
a Tartar tribe is able by perfuafion or by force to
unite under his ftandard a few neighbouring tribes, he
fpeedily becomes dangerous to t,he nations in his vici¬
nity, and almoft to the human race. By the booty
obtained in fome fuccefsful inroads, he acquires new
affociates ; the hope of plunder brings his whole coun¬
trymen to his ftandard, and the few who are not led
by hope, are compelled to follow and obey him through
fear. All Tartary is foon in motion, and China, Per¬
fia, and India, are defolated and fubdued.
That this is a correft account or true theory of the
hiftory of Afia, is evident from its prefent and part
ftate. At prefent, China, which has repeatedly been
conquered by the Tartars, commands them with the
greateft eafe. The power of the Chinefe emperor is
uncontrouled in the country of Thibet, which he pro¬
tects by his arms, and rules by mandarins, his depu¬
ties..
Afia.
228
Story of
Mamgo.
See Gib¬
bons Hijl
ry-
A S I [ 779 1
ties. Almoft the whole of the high region of Tarta- paft ages
' ry weftvvard to Imaus, which looks down upon the
Cafpian fea, and northward along the coaft of the A-
moor, and the Baikal lake, acknowledges his authority.
The fame appears to have been the cafe during the
third century of the Chriitian era, when a Chinefe ge¬
neral, in the reign of Vou-ti-thi, firft emperor of the
feventh dynally, marched as far as the Cafpian. A
lingle anecdote will fufficiently point out the authority
which the Chinefe poffeffed over Tartary at that pe¬
riod. Mamgo, a Tartar chief, whofe horde frequent¬
ed the Ikirts of China, having incurred the difpleafure
of the government of that country, retired with his
' followers to the banks of the Oxus, and implored the
proteftion of. Sapor, the reigning emperor of Perfia.
The emperor of China claimed the fugitive, and al¬
leged the rights of fovereignty. The Perfian monarch
pleaded the laws. of hofpitality, and with fome diffi¬
culty avoided a war, by the promife, that he would
baniffi Mamgo to the uttermoft parts of the weft •, a
puniffiment as he defcribed it, not lels dreadful than
death itfelf. Armenia was chofen for the place of ex¬
ile, and a large diftrift was affigned to the Scythian
horde, on which they might feed their flocks and herds,
and remove their encampment from one place to ano¬
ther, according to the different feafons of the year.—
Between that period and the prefent, however, China
has been repeatedly defolated by Tartar invafions,
though it has always rifen from its ruins, and refumed
its ancient power and profperity.
Thus Afia has been the fcene of continual revolu¬
tions. At one period the Tartars have been divided
and weak barbarians, deftitute of arts and of power,
and fubjeft to the controul of their civilized neigh¬
bours. Thefe neighbours have at the fame time been
profperous, commercial, and great. After the lapfe
of fome time, however, the reverfe of all this has ta¬
ken place } the civilized nations have funk into anar¬
chy ; Tartary has become ftrong 5 its ferocious tribes
have united, and the enterprifes refulting from their
union have covered the earth with defolation and car¬
nage. Thus the hiftory of Afia has always proceeded
in a circle and it becomes the duty of the philofophi-
cal geographer to inveftigate the caufes of this peculi¬
arity, which has attended the human race in fo great
jvrrangc- a portion of the globe. We ffiall here, therefore, en-
jnent of the deavour firft to point out thofe qualities in the charac-
following t€r ancl manners of the Tartars, which have enabled
them to vanquiffi the civilized nations of the earth
from thina to Germany, for fo far their conquefts
have reached, as the Hungarians and the Turks origi¬
nally defcended from Grand I artary, as well as the
race of princes who now rule the great empire of Chi¬
na. We fliall afterwards endeavour to explain the
circumftances in the ftate of fociety among the eaftern
nations, which periodically reduce them to degenera¬
cy and political weaknefs, and prevent their peifever-
ing in that career of civilization and of improvement,
in which the nations of Europe are now fo rapidly ad¬
vancing, and to which the friends of humanity and of
Icience as yet rather wiflr than hope a perpetual dura¬
tion. If we are fuccefsful in our inveftigation of the
caufes of the revolutions now alluded to, the philofo-
jihy of general hiftory will become extremely fimple,
and mankind will be enabled, from the experience of
219
-Arrange-
remarks.
jirrian.
A S I
r 0__7 to diftinguiffi the inftitutions which contain Afia.
within themfelves the feeds of decay and diffolution, ^ 1'
from thofe which have a tendency to increafe the ener¬
gies of the human charafter, and to preferve upon the
earth the dominion of civilization and of fcience over
barbarifm and ignorance. 230
We formerly remarked, that the human charafter Caufes of
is formed by its fituation, or by the education which
it receives. The education, however, of barbarians, among n£u
or the fituation in which they are placed, is almoft en- tions.
tirely the refult of their phyfical wants, and of the cli¬
mate and foil which they inhabit: Hence their cha-
radfter is formed by thefe circumftances, and is the
fame in every age. On the contrary, the moft re¬
markable circumftances in the fituation and education
of civilized men, and thofe which have the moft power¬
ful effeft upon their charafler, arife not fo much from
the cold or heat of the region in which they are born,
or from its comparative fertility or barrennefs, as from
the civil, religious, and political inftitutions which
have been eftabliffied in it, and the degree in which
the human mind is habituated to the purfuits of an en¬
lightened fcience, or accuftomed to make exertions for
the improvement of the various arts of life. Hence
we ffiall find, that although the Tartars always refera¬
ble each other, yet in countries of equal fertility and
of fimilar temperature, the Turks or Perfians, and the
Chinefe and Indians, differ widely in confequence of
the diverfity of their inftitutions. 231-
Though Grand Tartary, fituated in the centre of Extent of
Afia, and in contaft with its great monarchies, is the rartary'
place from which the revolutions of that continent
have ufually commenced, this high region mutt not be
confidered as the foie country of that barbarous race ©f
people, ufually called Tartars by the Europeans. We
have feen, that kindred tribes inhabit the countries to
the northward of China upon the river Amoor j they
alfo occupy the whole length of the habitable part of
Siberia, and proceed weftward to the Cafpian fea, and
along the northern fhores of the Black fea, to the
mouth of the Danube. Thus they range over 110 degrees
of longitude. When a movement, however, is once
begun in Grand Tartary, it is apt to extend itfelf in a
lefler or greater degree over the whole of thefe favagc
regions. Vanquiffied tribes are driven weftward be¬
fore their conquerors, and precipitated upon others,
who in their turn are preffed upon the northern na¬
tions of Europe. At other times, the whole bai'ba-
rous world fubmitting to the fame mafter, and gather¬
ing around his vidlorious ftandard, has been known to
pour down upon the more wealthy and peaceful na¬
tions of the fouth. In this wray were _ accomplifhed
the great conquefts of the Moguls and Tartars, the
Turks, and the Huns. A Tartar chief has been
known to number 1,500,000 followers in arms, and
to make an expedition at the head of 500,000 horfe.
Zenghis Khan’s army ufually amounted to Boo,000
barbarian cavalry, wffiotrode down the nations in their 232
progrefs. Confidered as a nation of ffiepherds and of Cautes of
warriors, the following circumftances have in all agesthe Tartar
contributed to prepare the Tartar, or as they were an-^1^0^8-
ciently called the Scythian tribes, for a career of vidlory.1 J~
The corn or the rice wffiich conftitutes the ordinary ^ voi.^
and wholefome food of a civilized people can be obtain- 1-3
ed only by the patient toil of the huffiandman. Some Their food.
; F 2 of
A S I [ 7!
Al!a‘ , °/ t{ie favages who dwell between the tropics are plen¬
tifully fupplied with vegetable food by the liberality of
nature ; but in the climates of the north, and in the
llerile plains of Grand Tartary, a nation of fhepherds
is reduced to depend for -fubfilfence upon their docks
and herds. When animal food is drefled in a certain
way, the common ailociation of carnivorous and cruel,
probably deferves to be confidered in no other light
than that of a humane prejudice 5 but if it be true that
the fentiment of compaffion is imperceptibly weakened
by the fight and practice of domeftic cruelty, we may
obferve, that the horrid objects which are difguifed by
tne arts of European refinement are exhibited in their
naked and moll: diigufting fimplicity in the tent of a
I artanan ihepnerd. I he ox or the fheep are flau'^h-
tered by the fame hand from which they were ac-
cuftomed to receive their daily food ; and the bleeding
limbs are lerved, with very little preparation, on the
table of their unfeeling murderer. In the military
profeffion, and efpecially in the condud of a numerous
army, the exclufive ufe of animal food appears to be
productive of the moll folid advantages. Corn is a
bulky and perilhable commodity j and the large ma¬
gazines which are indifpenfably neceflary for the fubfiit-
ence of our troops, mull be Howdy tjranfported by the
labour of men and horfes. But the Hocks and herds
which accompany the march of the Tartars afford a
hare and increafing fupply of flelh, milk, &c. In the
far greater part of the uncultivated walle the vegetation
of the grafs. is quick and luxuriant; and there are few
places fo extremely barren that the hardy cattle of the
north cannot find fome tolerable pallure. The fupply
is multiplied and prolonged, by the undiftinguilhing
appetite and patient abfiinence of the Tartars. They
indifferently feed on the flefii of thofe animals that
have been killed for the table or have died of difeafe.
* ^01/e. which has in every age and country been
profcnbed by die civilized nations of Europe and Afia,
they devour with peculiar greedinefs ; and this lingu¬
lar taile facilitates the fuccefs of their military opera¬
tions. The active cavalry of Scythia is always follotfv-
ed in their moll dillant and rapid incurfions by an ade¬
quate number of fpare horfes, who may be occafionally
, tiled, either to redouble the fpeed or to fatisfy the
hunger 01 the barbarians, hlany are the refources cf
courage and poverty. When the forage round a camp
°t Tartars is almoll confumed, they daughter the great-
ell part of their cattle, and preferve the flelh, either
unoked, or dried in the lun. On the Hidden emer¬
gency of a haily march, they provide themfelves with
a fufficient quantity of little balls cf cheefe, or rather
of hard curd, which they occafionally diffolve in water j
and this unfubllantial diet will fupport, for many days,
the life and even the fpints of the patient warrior.
But this extraordinary abflinence, which the lloic
would approve, and the hermit might envy, is common¬
ly fucceeded by the moll voracious indulgence of ap¬
petite. The wines of a happier climate are the moll
grateiul prefent, or the moll valuable commodity, that
can be offered to the Tartars 5 and one of the moll re¬
markable examples of their induflry confills of the art,
already mentioned, of extracting from mares milk a
fermented liquor which poffeffes Home power of intoxi¬
cation. Like the animals of prey, the favages, both of
the old and new world, experience the alternate viciff
So 1 A S I
tadcs of famine and plenty, and their flomach is in- Alia,
urea to lultam, without much inconvenience, the op- v—■
pofite extremes of hunger and of intemperance. F*
Ihe nature of their habitations • alio prepares theHabiu-
lartars lor war. In a country in which agriculture istions<
carried on, the hulbandmen are fcattered over the face
of the foil, and fome time muft elapie before they can
affemble in a body to defend their own confines, or to
invade the territories of others. The progrefs of ma¬
nufactures aud commerce infenfibly collects a large
multitude within the walls of a city 5 but thefe citizens
are no longer loldiers j the arts which addrn and im-
piove the Hate of civil fociety, corrupt the habits of
the military life. _ The palloral manners of the Scy¬
thians leem to unite the dilterent advantages of fimpli¬
city and refinement. The individuals of the fame tribe
are ccnfiantly affembled, but they are affembled in a
camp j and the native fpirit of thefe dauntlefs fliepherds
is animated by mutual fupport and emulation. The
houfes oi the Tartars are no more than fmall tents
of an oval form, which afford, a cold and dirty ha¬
bitation for the promifcuous youth of both fexes.
riie palaces of the rich confill of wooden huts, of Inch
a fize that they may be conveniently fixed on large
waggons, and drawn by a team perhaps of 20 or 30
oxen. . 1 he Hocks and herds, after grazing all day in
the adjacent pafiures, retire on the approach of niu-ht
within the proteClion of the camp. The neceflity of
preventing the moll mifchievous confufion in fuch a
perpetual concourfe of men and animals, muft Gradual¬
ly introduce, in their diftribution of the order &and the
guard of the encampment, the rudiments of the military
art. As foon as the forage of a certain diftriCl is con-
iumed, the tribe, or rather army of ihepherds, makes a
regular march to fome frelh pallures; and thus ac¬
quires, in the ordinary occupations of the paftoral life
the practical knowledge of one of the moll important
and diincult operations of war. The choice of ftations
is regulated by the difference of feafons. In the Hum¬
mer the Tartars advance towards the north, and pitch
their tents on the banks of a river, or at leaft in the
neighbourhood of a running ftream •, but in the win¬
ter they return to the fouth, and Ihelter their camp, be¬
hind fome fconvenient eminence, againft the winds, which
are chilled in their paffage over the bleak and icy re¬
gions of Siberia. Thefe manners are admirably adapt¬
ed to diffufe, among the wandering tribes, the fpirit of
emigration and conqueft. The connexion between the
people and their territory is of fo frail a texture that it
may be broken by the flighteft accident. The camp
and not the foil, is the native country of the genuine’
Tartar. Within the precinds of that camp, his fami¬
ly, his companions, his property, are always included *
and in the moll dillant marches, he is Hill furrounded
by the objeds which are dear or valuable, or familiar
in his eyes. The thirft of rapine, the fear or the re-
fentment of injury, the impatience of fervitude, have
in every age, been fufficient caufes to urge the tribes of
Scythia boldly to advance into fome unknown countries
where they might hope to find a more plentiful fub-
fiftence or a lefs formidable enemy. Even the feverity
of the climates which they inhabit facilitates their en-
terpnles. In the winter feafon, the broad and rapid
rivers that difcharge their waters into the Euxine, the
Cafpian, or the Icy fea, are ftrongly frozen j the fields
axe.
. A s.1 C ;
Afia. are covered with abed of fnow; and the fugitive or
' J victorious tribes may fecurely traverfe with their fa¬
milies, their waggons, and their cattle, the fmooth and
hard furface of an immenfe plain.
235 The ordinary exercifes of thefe people prepare them
Exercifes. far war. The paltoral life, compared with the labours
of agriculture and manufaftures, is undoubtedly a life
ol idlenels ; and as the molt honourable Ihepherds of
the Tartar race devolve on their captives the domeftic
management of their cattle, their own leifure is feldom
difturbed by any fervile and affiduous cares. But this
leilure, inltead of being devoted to the foft enjoyments
of love and harmony, is ufually fpent in the violent
and fanguinary exercile of the chafe. The plains of
fartary are filled with a ftrong and ferviceable breed
of horfes, wdhch are ufually trained for the purpofes of
war and hunting. The Scythians of every age have
been celebrated as bold and fkilful riders ; and con-
llant praftice had feated them fo firmly on horfeback,
that they were fuppofed by ftrangers to perform the or¬
dinary duties of civil life, to eat, drink, and even to
lleep, without difmounting from their fteeds. They ex¬
cel in the dexterous management of the lance ; the
long j artar bow is drawn with a nervous arm ; and
the weighty arrow is directed to its objeft with uner¬
ring aim, and irrefiflible force : thefe arrows are often
pointed againft the harmlefs animals of the defert,
which increafe and multiply in the abfence of their
moft formidable enemy ; the hare, the goat, the roe¬
buck, the fallow-deer, the flag, the elk, and the ante¬
lope. The vigour and patience both of the men and
horfes are continually exercifed by the fatigues of the
chafe ; and the plentiful fupply of game contributes
to the fubfiftence and even luxury of a Tartar camp.
But the exploits of the hunters of Scythia are not con¬
fined to the deftrudlion of innoxious beads 5 they bold¬
ly encounter the angry wild-boar when he turns
againd his purfuers, excite the fluggifh courage of the
bear, and provoke the fury of the tiger as he dumbers
in the thicket. Where there is danger there may be
glory ; and the mode of hunting wddeh opens the fair¬
ed field to the exertions of valour, may judly be con-
fidered as the image and as the fchool of war. The
general hunting matches, the pride and delight of the
1 artar princes, compofe an indruClive exercife for their
numerous cavalry. A circle is drawn of many miles
in circumference, to encompafs the game of an exten-
five didrifl ; and the troops that form the circle regular¬
ly advance towards a common centre, where the cap¬
tive animals, furrounded on every fide, are abandoned to
the darts of the hunters. In this march, which fre¬
quently continues many days, the cavalry are obliged
to climb the hills, to fwim the rivers, and to wind
through the vallies, without interrupting the preferib-
ed order of their gradual progrefs. They acquire the
habit of diredling their eye, and their deps, to a remote
objefl j of preferving their intervals ; of fufpending or
accelerating their pace, according to the motions of
the troops on their right and left; and of watching and
repeating the fignals of their leaders. Their leaders
dudy in this praftical fchool the mod important leffon
of the military art ; the prompt and accurate judgment
of giound, of didance, and of time. To employ againd
a human enemy the lame patience and valour, the fame
Hull and difeipline, is the only alteration which is re-
3i ] A S I
quired in real war ; and the amufements of the chafe Alia,
ferve as a prelude to the coriqued of an empire. y—«
The nature of their domedic government has at all 235
times greatly favoured every attempt of the Tartars Govern,
towards conqued. The political fociety of the ancientraent>
Germans has the appearance of a voluntary alliance of
independent warriors. The tribes of Scythia, didin-
guithed by the modern appellation of hordes, alfume, on
the contrary, the form of a numerous and increaling
family ; which, in the courfe of fuccedive generations,
has been propagated from the fame original dock.
The meaned and mod ignorant of the Tartars preferve,
with confcious pride, the inedimable treafure of their
genealogy; and whatever didinftions of rank may
have been introduced by the unequal diilribution of
padoral wealth, they mutually refpehl themfelves and
each other, as the defeendants of the fird founder of
the tribe. The cudom, wdiich dill prevails, of adopt¬
ing the braved and mod faithful of the captives, may-
countenance the very probable lufpicion, that this ex-
tenfive confanguinity is in a great meafure legal and
fi£litious. But the ufeful prejudice, which has obtain¬
ed the fandtion of time and opinion, produces the
effecls of truth ; the haughty barbarians yield a cheer¬
ful and voluntary obedience to the head of their blood;
and their chief, or murfa, as the reprefentative of their
great father, exercifes the authority of a judge in peace,
and of a leader in war. In the original date of the
padoral world each of the murfas (if w-e may continue
to ufe a modern appellation) adled as the independent
chief of a large and feparate family ; and the limits of
their peculiar territories were gradually fixed by lupe-
rior force, or mutual confent. When, by a coincidence
of fortune and of talents, a fuccefsful chieftain con¬
trived to unite under his command a great number of
feparate hordes, with a view to a common enterprife,
he found, from their ordinary habits of obedience and
fubordination, an army ready formed and arranged for
action : each tribe or horde followed its own chief, to
whofe authority it was accudomed to fubmit. If the
chief w'as taught to obey, the obedience of his horde
might, from the habits of the people, be fafely relied
on. Thus thefe barbarians have at all times been able
to fend forth detachments upon diftant expeditions,
which have afted with all the promptitude of a wrell
difeiplined military force, and enabled them at once to
pulh their conquefls towards the tropic and polar cir¬
cle, the Chinefe empire and the banks of the Danube. -
lo thefe advantages the Tartar chiefs have fome-The Tar-
times added a portion of military Ikill, according to the tars ac-
llate in which it exilted in the civilized nations in their
neighbourhood. It has been an ufual praaice among chinefe mi
the Chinefe to receive into their pay fome of the Tartar litary arts,
chiefs, and to ufe as foldiers confiderable bodies of this
brave and hardy race of men. Thefe are employed as
the cavalry of the Chinefe armies, and become a con¬
venient engine in the hands of an artful government,
at once to keep Tartary itfelf in fubjeaion, and to re-
prefs every attempt at rebellion among the Chinefe
themfelves, when they at any time happen to become
difeontented either in confequence of a corrupted and
tyrannical adminiftration, or of accidental famine, to
which that over-peopled country is expofed. But thefe
Tartar auxiliaries, or tools of power, have fometimes ul¬
timately become very dangerous. When the Chinefe
princes,
A S I [ ySz ] A S I
princes, trufting to the paflivenefs of their people, and
to the irrefiftible force of their mercenary troops, have
furfered themfelves to fink into indolence, and to negleft
the adminiftration of affairs, the Tartar chiefs in their
pay have fometimes learned to defpife their feeble
mailers, and have turned againlt them the portion of
military knowledge which they had acquired in the
Chinefe fervice, adding to it the whole vigour and fe¬
rocity which they derived from the habits of their early
life. The moll celebrated of the Tartar chiefs was
the renowned Temujin, or Zinghis, who, in the 13th
century of the Chrillian era, erefted a monarchy among
his palloral countrymen, and, in his own perfon, or by
his defcendants, fubdued the whole civilized nations of
Afia. In his youth he was a vaffal of the Chinefe em¬
pire : he wfas led to invade it by a knowledge of its
weaknefs and of the means of fuccefs, at a time when
it was dillrailed by domeftic faftion, and left expofed
in confequence of the revolt of 100,000 Khitans who
guarded the frontier. The conqueli of the five northern
provinces of that empire rendered him more dangerous
to other nations. He marched wellward, and attacked
the llourilhing and civilized empire of Carizme, which
then exilled to the eallward of the Cafpian fea. After
a battle, in w’hich the fultan of Carizme loll 160,000
of his troops, that prince withdrew into his towns, in
the hope of wearing out the barbarians by the length
and difficulty of a number of regular lieges. But the
forefight of Zinghis had formed a body of Chinefe en¬
gineers, {killed in the mechanic arts, informed perhaps
of the fecret of gunpowder, and capable, under his dif-
cipline, of attacking a foreign country with more vi¬
gour and fuccefs than they had defended their own.
The Perfian hiltorians relate the fieges and redudlion
of Otrar, Cogende, Bochara, Samarcand, Carizme,
Herat, Merou, Nifabour, Balch, and Candahar j and
the conquell of the rich and populous countries of
Tranfoxiana, Carizme, and Chorafan. From the Caf¬
pian to the Indus, the Tartars ruined a trail of many
hundred miles, which w^as adorned with the habitations
and labours of mankind ; and five centuries have not
been fufficient to repair the ravages of four years.
The right of hereditary fucceflion to the fovereignty
of a number of united hordes, together with the re¬
venue, which by their culloms, the fovereign was en¬
titled to levy, had a tendency to render them long
formidable. Zinghis had originally been raifed to
power by the admiration of his equals, and the fuccefs
of his enterprifes, under the title of khan. The right
of hereditary fucceffion w^as long confined to the blood
of the founder of the monarchy ; and at this moment
all the khans who reign from Crimea to the wrall of
China, reprefent themfelves as the lineal defcendants of
the renewed Zinghis. But as it is the indifpenfible
duty of a Tartar ibvereign to lead his warlike fubjedls
into the field, the claims of an infant are often difre-
garded 5 and ibme royal kinfman, difiinguifhed by his
age and valour, is entrufted with the fword and feeptre
of his predeceffor. Two diffindl and regular taxes are
levied on the tribes, to fupport the dignity of their na¬
tional monarch, and of their peculiar chief 5 and each
of thofe contributions amounts to the tythe, both of
their property and of their fpoil. A Tartar fovereign
enjoys a tenth part of the wealth of his people ; and as
his owyn domeftic riches of Hocks and herds increafe
in a much larger 'proportion, he is able plentifully to Afia.
maintain the rullic fplendour of his court, to reward '——-
the moft deferving or the moll favoured of his fol¬
lowers, and to obtain, from the gentle influence of
corruption, the obedience which might be fometimes
refufed to the item mandates of authority. The man¬
ners of his iubjedls, accuftomed, like himfelf, to blood
and rapine, might excufe, in their eyes, fuch partial
arts of tyranny as wmuld excite the horror of a civilized
people ; but the powder of a defpot has never been ac-
knowdedged in the defects of Scythia. The immediate
jurifdiblion of the khan is confined within the limits of
his own tribe, and the exercife of his royal prerogative
has been moderated by the ancient inilitution of a na¬
tional council. The coroultai, or diet, of the Tar¬
tars was long regularly held in the fpring and au¬
tumn in the midft of a plain, w-here the princes of
the reigning family and the murfas of the refpedlive
tribes may conveniently affemble on horfeback, with
their martial and numerous trains j and the ambitious
monarch, who reviewed the ftrength, mull confult the
inclination of an armed people. Thus the rudiments
of a feudal government may be difeovered in the con-
ftitution of the Scythian or Tartar nations j and in all
their conquefts they have uniformly been difpofed in
fome degree to retain fome refemblance of this form of
government, by diltributing their new territory among
their chiefs, to be ruled and divided among their fol¬
lowers in fubordination to the head of the Hate.
One circumftance, however, has always been necef- Weaknefs
fary to the fuccefs of Scythian or Tartar conqueft, that 0f other
the neighbouring nations Ihould be in a Hate of weak- nations ne-
nefs. The Chinefe and the Ruffians are at prefent the cefla.ry t0,
tyrants or mailers of the Tartars, who heretofore tyran-
nized over the world. The Chinefe rule them partly tars,
by art and partly by force j and the Ruffians find that
they are unable to refill the arts and the military {kill
of Europe. The population of China amounts to be¬
tween 300,000,000 and 400,000,000. That of Hin-
dooftan is equal to 100,000,000; and the ancient Per¬
fian empire was capable of pouring forth to the invafiou
of Europe an army amounting, as it is faid, to three mil¬
lions of men. Such nations, pofieffed of fuperior arts and
means of defence, could not upon their own territory
have been vanquilhed by any number of barbarians
that could unite againft them, did not fome defefl exill
in their character, or had they not been brought into a
Hate of political weaknefs by fome fault in their govern¬
ment. Such reafoning is natural to modern Europeans,
who fee the prefent Hate of the Tartars with juft indif¬
ference, as by no means formidable to the peace of the
world. It is confirmed by hiftory and experience.
We lhall therefore proceed to confider the circum-
ftances wffiich have hitherto had a tendency to expole
all the Afiatic Hates to conquefl and to ruin.
One circumHance which in moft of the Afiatic Hates
has a powerful tendency to produce a permanent infer!- ftances that
ority of character in the people, and a conHant ten- have weak-
dency to anarchy and revolution in the government, en5tl .the
arifes from the imperfefl Hate of domellic fociety. In
all the countries of Afia that have adopted the 2^o
Mahometan religion, polygamy is authorized by law, Polygamy,
that is to fay, befides Arabia, in Turkey, Perlia,
and Hindooftan, which laft contains 10,000,000 of
Mahometans. The fame praflice is alfo allowed in
China,
A S I
241
Its effedts
on popula¬
tion,
242
Alia. China, and it has always prevailed among the rude
tribes of Tartars. It is probable, that this law upon
the whole, facilitates population. It divides between
the rich and the poor more equally, that is, in a bet¬
ter proportion to their means, the expence of rearing
the future generation, as rich men, who can afford to
do fo, will naturally be led to have a greater number
on the cha-of children. But at the fame time, there can be no
radlerol doubt that this law mull have a powerful tendency to
the peop e, j.gpj.gj'g tbe intellectual improvement of the people.
The rich in every country dictate the falhions of life 5
and by this inilitution a fafhion is neceflarily introdu¬
ced of treating women with jealoufy, and thus of fe-
cluding one half of the fpecies from the ordinary fo-
ciety of the other. Women thus flmt up in retirement,
muft poffefs illiterate and unimproved characters 5 they
rnuft alfo be prevented in a great degree from carrying
on any part of the common bufinefs of life. From
thefe circumftances more evils will anfe than are at
firft obvious. One half of fociety, inftead of being ufe-
ful, becomes a burden upon the induftry of the other.
A fecluded and unfocial mode of life is introduced,
and as the human powers are belt improved by the in-
tercourfe with fociety, a conliderable difficulty is
thrown in the way of the enlargement of our faculties.
Befides this, it mull happen, that the ignorance and
imbecility of one half of the fpecies will affeCl the
other. An Afiatic retires from the management of
his bufinefs, to the fociety of an unintelligent and weak
being, who neither fees nor knows any thing of the
world or its affairs. In fuch fociety he muff relinquiffi
his reafon and his rational faculties, before he can en¬
joy much fatisfaClion. In fuch fociety, however, he
was educated during his firil j'ears, and a great part of
his time muff neceffarily be fpent. He cannot fly from
it to the houfe of a friend, for no friend can receive
him; and he can receive nobody freely into his dwel¬
ling, left his female prifoners fliould be feen. This at
leaft is the cafe with all thofe who live not in fpacious
manfions with a variety of apartments. In fuch a ftate
of fociety, it is impoffible that many men can acquire,
or long preferve, much zeal for feientific purfuits, or
that the improvement of literature and of ingenious arts
can be very earneftly cultivated,
on the form Thefe effedts of the law which regulates domeftic
ofhoufes fociety, appear even to the moft carelefs obferver of
and cities, an Afiatic city. It occupies a large extent of territo¬
ry, becaufe every family fecludes itfelf from the other.
Every houfe is furrounded by a wall, and ftands in an
enclofed area : Each family thus fortifies itfelf as with¬
in a rampart againft the intrufion of all neighbours.
Hence it has happened, that no attempt has ever been
made in the cities of Alia to eftabliffi a republican form
of government, even when the people were driven to
defpair by the fevereft oppreffion. There exiffs not
that rapid communication of fentiment, and that confi¬
dence in each other, which takes place where lociety is
more intimately blended, and which leads men to re-
pofe fuch confidence in each other, as to believe that
they can adl under the mere authority of public pac¬
tions or laws, without the interpofition of a mafter.
The mode of eredfing their dwellings alfo explains the
wonderful ftories, told us by the ancient writers, of the
immenfe extent of Babylon and of Nineveh. It alfo
accounts for the great tradts of territory, which in mo-
[ 783 1 A S I  
“ dern times are occupied by the Afiatic cities. This
circumftance alfo has contributed more than any thing J *
elfe to expofe them to the enterprifes of invaders. The
extent of their walls in proportion to the population
they contain, rendered the defence of them difficult or
impoffible. 244
The law of polygamy has alfo had a very fatal ef-on govera
fed! upon the Afiatic governments, and has been one m£1‘t'
of the moft ordinary means of introducing anarchy into
them. The princes have very numerous families by
different women. Each of the female favourites of the
reigning monarch attempts to eftablifh her own chil
dren in the moft advantageous fituations. Hence, the
Afiatic courts are at all times occupied by an endlefs ^
tiffue of dangerous intrigues. Attempts are often fuc- produces
cefsfully made to infpire an old man with jealoufy of diflenfions
his eldeft fon, the apparent heir. The knowledge of10.1116
the exiftence of fuch attempts, or even of the poffibi- g
lity of their exiftence, and of the fatal effedts which ‘
they may produce in a defpotic government, difpofes
all the fons of the prince to watch the condudl both of
him and of each other with the utmoft jealoufy : this
jealoufy is apt to burft out into open rebellion, and
frequently does fo. At all events, upon the death of
an Afiatic monarch, his numerous fons, whofe rival-
Ihip, hatred, and jealoufy of each other, have hither¬
to been confined within decent bounds, openly break
out into violence. A younger brother knows that he
is hated by the elder, who is now become his mafter.
In defence of his own exiftence, therefore, he is com¬
pelled to have recourfe to arms, and to obtain a crown
or fubmit to deftrudtion. In this way, the fuccefforof
an Afiatic prince has often to begin his reign by ftrug-
gling againft a confiderable number of defperate rebel¬
lions, and muft wade to the throne through the blood of
his nearert kindred. As fuccefs does not always attend
the arms of the elder brother, the law of primogeni¬
ture, being frequently violated, lofes its importance and
eftimation in the eyes of the multitude. The royal fa¬
mily itfelf, covered as its members muft be with par¬
ricides and crimes, cannot be greatly refpcfted by the
people, in whofe eyes fuccefs and viffory become,
therefore, the only undoubted titles to obedience.
Powerful fubjefts alfo, therefore, or enterprifing mili- Produces
tary leaders, are frequently tempted to difregard the ufurpations.
claims of the reigning family, and to appeal to the for¬
tune of arms as a title to dominion. When fuccefsful,
they find a people diftraffed by civil wars, and by the
pretenfions of different candidates, ready to acquiefce
in any government that can beftow upon them a tem¬
porary repofe. 247
Even ffiould a reigning family efcape thefe obvious Polygamy
calamities which lay wafte the territories of a nation, Prociuces
, • r • 1 r • • m bad govern*
and overthrow its proipenty by iangumary civil con- men^
tefts, there are evils by which the law of polygamy
more gradually, though not more certainly, under¬
mines the fafety of the ftate. The founder of a new
dynafty is ufually an ambitious and artful military
chief. His firft fijcceffors, educated in an adlive
reign, and anxious to fecure their dubious authority,
ufually partake his talents and energy. Time, how¬
ever, foon fanclifies their right to the'throne, though
originally founded in ufurpation. The monarch, now
placed in fecurity, indulges in that luxury to whichf
he is tempted by his fituation j and luxury, where the
law-
Afia.
A S I j- -| A S I
all others5,’ ka’ds^o'rn indotelife'"^/^th7p “d0'6 T|!t‘S ’“"t"* j'0,-vSa”'-v appears to be the fingle eir- '49
tion of an ignorant and unintelligent charafter The’ have occurred inChina81'!^0111 h^ revoIuti°ns, whieh
prmce led to Ihut h^felf up among a crowd of eu- gular form of government eSiftedThe^, the human ^
niind is mdppd o «—   •% • » •
248
nuchs and women, from whofe fociety he can derive
no improvement, and to whofe councils and paflions
he is ultimately led to intrutt the direftion of the moft
important affairs of his government. The armies of
the nate are foon neglefted, by a monarch, whofe fa¬
vourites employ every art to infpire him with a difguft
o . tne toils of war, that he may the more eafily be re¬
tained within the precin&s of his palace, and under
their management and influence. The provinces are
iubjected to the molf ruinous exaflions to gratify their
avarice, and every place of public truft comes to be
filied by men who undertake not to admiriifler pub¬
lic affairs, but to extort large fums of money from
the people, to be conveyed to the favourites that rule
vithin the palace. . i bus the if ate experiences a rapid
decay of its population and refources j and if it is at¬
tacked from abroad, it has no head to call forth its
remaining powers and direif them with vigour and
fkill againff an invader. J he population that remains
may flill be fufficiently ample for the defence of its
own territory, and abundance of perfonal courage may
exifl among the citizens ; but they cannot be arranged
.t‘leir force rendered effeaual, from the want of" an
Inftance of aftlve government. This appears to be precifely the
Turkey. fituation of the Turks at the prefent moment. Their
fjrlf piinces, inhabiting the frontier of Europe and of
Afia, exhibited, during a much longer period than is
tifual in the families of Afiatic monarchs, a very con-
fiderable degree of fpirit and of exertion. But the larv
which authorizes them to live with a multitude of wo¬
men, all of whofe children are legitimate, gradually
produced its natural effea:. The later princes have
fliut themfelves up in their palace, and neglefted the
adminiffration of affairs. The provinces have been
wafted j and initead of the numerous people which they
once contained, immenfe foreffs are riling over the
whole territory, and becoming the habitation of wild
beafts. The governors of the remoter provinces are
.afpiring to independence ; anarchy prevails in differ¬
ent quarters ; and a foreign conqueff is only prevent¬
ed by the jealoufy of the neighbouring nations, who
cannot agree to whofe lot thefe fine countries fhall
fall. \ et at this day the 1 inks are a race of as ffout
and brave men as their Scythian forefathers. They
are equally willing to fly to arms, and fufficient num¬
bers ftill remain to fet every enemy at defiance 3 but
they are not led by thofe vigorous chiefs who conduft-
ed their anceffors from the foot of Imaus, refilled the
poner of Perfia, feized the city of Conftantine, and
diffufed terror over Europe. A man of talents only is
wanting to render them flill refpe&able, if not formi-
dtable 3 but their unufual refpeft for the defcendants of
fo many illuftrious princes, has hitherto prevented their
government from being feized, and their nation prefer-
ved by a bold ufurper 3 while, in the mean time, their
fultan, loff in the indolence and voluptuoufnefs of his fe-
raglio, and blinded by his favourites, refufes to come
Jo! th and to undertake the diredlion of the remaining
mind is indeed preferved in a ffate of perpetual imbeci¬
lity, and is prevented from rifing in improvement be¬
yond a certain degree 3 this degree,^however, it never
tails to attain. It is fufficient to render the nation de¬
cidedly fuperior to their rude neighbours of Tartary •
and as Chmefe improvement can never advance far?
there appears no good reafon why it fhould ever de¬
cline or pafs away. But the law of polygamy from
time to time deranges all their inffitutions, and 'the re¬
gular march of their government. As they afcribe ab-
lolute power to their monarch, and their laws fecure
tranquillity to the ffate and complete obedience to
his will, he can have no occafion to quarrel with his
people, or to difturb inftitutions which give him the
command of as much wealth as his wifhes can crave
and as much power as he perfonally can have'any in¬
clination to exert. Accordingly, for fome time after
a recent conquefl, all goes well in China : the monarch
is delighted-with the fubmiffion and tranquillity of his
people, the induffry and profperity of the country, and
the immenfd revenue which is placed at his difpofal,
and which he can have no occafion to ufe otherwife
than in works of public magnificence, generofity, or
utility. Speedily, however, this peaceable ffate of
things produces its natural effeds. The monarch hav-
ing nothing to fear, and little to do, refigns himfelf to
pleafure 3 and that pleafure molf probably confiffs in
the kind of indulgence which the law allows and en-
courages, of colleding around him, and palling his
time in the fociety of, a multitude of beautiful women.
Such, however, ri the fkilful ftrudure of the Chinefe
government, that it proceeds and profpers without the
interference of the prince, who is rather a ufeful name
to prevent military ufurpation than an adive organ of
the conffitution. Affairs being in the hands of the
moff prudent men in the Hate, who have rifen by ap¬
proved fidelity and talents to the higheft rank and truff,
are conduded with abundance of care 3 and the re-
fponfibility of all inferior magiffrates is enforced.
Thus the emperor may be allowed to flumber wdth fe¬
cure dignity in his palace : If he interfere not to do
harm, the conifitution of the ffate will provide for the
management of public bufinefs and the profperity of the
people. But matters' cannot long reft thus. A weak
and ignorant prince who paffes his days fecluded from
the wmrld, amidft eunuchs and women, will not com¬
prehend the. value of that conftitution at the head of
which he is placed 3 his favourites prevail with him to
encroach upon its fundamental maxims ; he is induced
to diftruft thofe officers who have rifen by a gradual
progrefs under the diredion of the law to diftindion
and powrer, and to confer authority upon individuals to
whom the conftitution gives no title to receive it. As
implicit obedience to magiffrates, and above all to the
empeior, is a fundamental maxim of Chinefe juriforu-
dence, and inculcated as fuperior to all other duties,
the wall of the emperor meets with no refiftance : The
conftitution trufts that he will not attempt to violate it 3
but
A S I [785] A S I
Afia. but if be do fo, it provides no other remedy than the
prayers and entreaties of the higheit order of manda¬
rins, which they have been known to employ at the ha¬
zard of their lives, and even with the certainty of de-
flruftion. As the imperial will, therefore, can in no
way be refilled or controuled, when an emperor relin-
quifhes himfelf to the dominion of the inmates of his
palace, the confequences fpeedily occur which we have
already mentioned as refulting from the law of poly¬
gamy in other countries. The defence of the Hate is
difregarded j worthlefs men are raifed to the command
of armies and provinces $ corruption becomes the means
of obtaining preferment : the Tartar fubje6ls find out
the important fecret, that the reins of government are
loofely held, that the barriers which proteft the trea-
fures of a ■wealthy nation have fallen into decay, and
that thefe treafures have come to be at the mercy of
poverty and courage. Some chief endeavours to unite
the Ihepherds of the weft and the north in a common
enterprife : His firft efforts procure him plunder, if not
dominion, and the profpect of his riches procures him
new adherents, till at laft the hardy cavalry of Scythia
are enabled to difperfe the feeble and ill-condu£led ar¬
mies of the Chinefe and their leader and his family,
feated on the throne of a mighty empire, is gradually
led, by fimilar circumftances, to proceed in the fame
career, from ftrengih and aclivity, to weaknefs, degene¬
racy, and ruin. The conftitution of China, indeed,
triumphs over thefe calamities. The Tartars admire
the arts and manners of the vanquilhed people ; and
the conqueror is willing to revive and preferve a con¬
ftitution which preferves the profperity of the people,
while it fubmits every thing to the will of their mailer.
Had the laws of that empire provided, as in Europe,
that the inheritance both of public and private indivi¬
duals ftiould only pafs to their legitimate children by
one woman, China might undoubtedly have avoided
many of its revolutions. Its princes might have been
men of talents or otherwife, according to the ordinary
viciffitudes that in the courfe of nature occur in fami¬
lies ; but the poffeftion of talents by the prince is not
neceffary to the good government of China: it is
enough that he interfere not to do pofitive mifchief,
and under fuch a law, every temptation to do mifchief
250 would be removed from him.
General Another caufe of periodical weaknefs in Afiatic na-
form of go- txons arifes from the general form of government that
hWUla^as been adopted. Excepting in China, the
Tartars have in all their conquefts been led to eftablilh
251 themfelves under a fort of" feudal arrangement. In
feudal. their native country, they were divided and fubdivided
into tribes and families, under a chief who had led
them forth to war and conqueft. In their new terri¬
tories, it was. natural for the chief to reward his fuccefs-
ful officers with grants of provinces, which they were
again to fubdivide among their followers, under condi¬
tion of remaining in fubjedHon to himfelf, and of be¬
ing ready on all occafions to attend him in war. Thefe
grants, however, were only bellowed upon individuals
perfonally who received them : They were given as
the price or pay of military fervice : They might be
recalled at will, hke the commiftion of an officer; and
they were never meant to go to the heirs of the fa¬
voured chief, though undoubtedly in equal circumftan¬
ces his heirs would be preferred to others. A govem-
Vol. II, Part II.
ment like this is expofed to two kinds of diforders; Afia.
the one, arifing from exorbitant power acquired by the
great vaffals ; and the other, arifing from the too great
defpotifm of the prince.
Under a monarch of great aclivity and vigilance, the
chief vaffals of the flate, who have received large
grants of territory, may be retained in fufficient fub-
jedlion. He may fummon them and their followers
frequently to attend his perfon, and by engaging them
in wars under him, may preferve his perfonal afeen-
dency over them, by having frequent occafion to
change their fituations, and to prefer others to the _ ,
places they occupy. Should his immediate fucceffbrs, Feuifal go-
however, not be men of equal talents with himfelf, or vernment
Ihould a difputed fucceflion occur, the greater chiefsa!-Jt t0 l3.e'
will immediately aipire to independence : the empire^r 1
will fall to pieces, and degenerate into a hereditary
ariftocracy, in which every chief is engaged in hoftili -
ty with his neighbours, and in which the people at large,
oppreffed by a multitude of petty tyrants, can enjoy no
repofe or profperity. Such has been the deftiny of fe-
veral of the nations of Afia ; and it was alfo the defti
ny of Europe after its conqueft by the northern barba¬
rians. It is true that the European princes gradually
recovered the power that had beenwurefted from them,
and converted into local inheritances by their great
nobles. To fubdue thefe nobles, they affociated them¬
felves with the populace, with the few merchants, and
the induftrious part of the nation. They encouraged
theie people to unite themfelves into communities, and
to fortify themfelves with walls. They eftabliftied
courts of juftice, whofe regular and equitable proce¬
dure gained the affeedion of the weak, whom they pro-
tedled, and brought odium upon the violence and def¬
potifm of the petty local tyrants of the country. The
commercial and induftrious part of the community
were induced to contribute to the fupport of the prince,
who feemed thus to labour only for their welfare, and
to proteft them againft oppreflion. By this wealth he
was enabled to confirm his power, and to fubdue his
refraftory vaffals. By following out theie prudent
maxims for a few generations, the dominion of law and
order, along with the power of the fovereign, were efta¬
bliftied in the nations of Europe. But nothing of all
this can occur in Afia. Power may there be acqui¬
red by the violence of fudden conqueft, but it cannot
be gained by a train of artful policy fteadily purfued
from father to fon during a courfe of feveral genera¬
tions. In confequence, as already mentioned, of the
law of polygamy, no fooner does a prince die than one
of two things occurs ; either a war for the fucceffion
enfues among his children by different wives, which
confumes the wealth of the people, and augments the
power of the nobles, upon whom the candidates for do¬
minion mull rely for aid ; or, to prevent this calami¬
ty, the eldeft fon of the deceafed monarch feizes his
younger brothers, and puts out their eyes, cr deftroys
their lives. Thus an example of cruelty and injuftice
is exhibited, which deftroys in the minds of the people
every growing fentiment favourable to the eftablilhment
of order, and of humane and equitable laws.
On the other hand, it has frequently happened in Gq,2^
Afia that the power of the monarch has not been loftoient by
by its vaffals converting different dillrifts into heredi-viceroys,
tary poffeffiions. A fucceffion during a few generations
5 G of
A S I [7
of active and warlike princes has given leifure for the
chiefs of the Tartar tribes to acquire the manners of
the nations whom they vanquidied, and to fink, like
them, into a ftate of permanent fubjeftion to a fove-
reign, become too powerful to be refilled. In this cafe,
however, an error exiils in the general ftrudture of
Afiatic governments, which gradually brings them to
decay. The monarch divides his territory into pro¬
vinces, and over each province he places a governor,
or viceroy, whom he appoints and recals at pleal’ure.
The governor of a province pofleffes within it the
.whole power of the mailer whom he reprefents ; he
colle£ls the taxes, and remits them to the capital ; he
adminifters jullice by himfelf, or by deputies whom he
appoints and removes at pleafure j and lallly, he com¬
mands within his diftri£t the armies of the Hate. On
a little refledlion it will readily be conceived, that a
nation governed in this way cannot permanently pro-
fper. An abfolute monarch can fcarcely fail to be pa¬
triotic, becaufe the whole country is his own, and he
mull regard his people as his property, or as a kind of
appendage to his family. He will therefore intend to
govern them well, or as advantageoully as poihble.
But the governors whom he places over the provinces
mull entertain very different fentiments : The Hate is
not their inheritance ; they are appointed only for a
feafon ; and, like tenants at will, they will endeavour
to make the moll of their temporary polfedicn, though
they diminilh the permanent value of the eftate. Hence
thefe men are always apt to govern ill, and with a view
to make the moll of their time and opportunity, they
opprefs the people by their rapacity. The monarch
has no intention to fandlion their conduft, but there
exiils no other means of reltraining it than to main¬
tain a perpetual and vigilant infpedlion over them. If
he is not conflantly at Ihort intervals travelling into
every part of his dominions, and viewing ohjedls with
his own eyes, the governors of provinces will take ad¬
vantage of their fituation, to opprefs the people, and
will endeavour to fecure their oWn fafety by corrupting
the minilters who are near the perfon of the prince.
In a government thus conllituted, too much is made
to depend upon the aflivity and vigilance of one man.
If the monarch relax in his attention, the Hate at once
begins to decay j and even his perfonal infirmities, his
youth, or his old age, produce important effedls upon
the provinces. When a weak prince happens to fuc-
ceed to the throne, the decline of the empire becomes
vilible in a few years 5 and the moll active reign
fcarcely fuffices to repair the injuries which a Ihort pe¬
riod of weak government has occafioned. All thefe
evils are aggravated in Alia by the tendency which
the law of polygamy has to introduce into the palace
of the monarch a fyllem of feclufion from bufinefs, of
indolence, and of favoritifm.
In the ancient Roman empire this practice was adopt¬
ed of ruling the provinces by temporary governors pof-
feifed of unlimited power, and wras attended with all
the bad confequences which w^e have here deferibed.
From its firll eflablilhment, that empire, like an Afia¬
tic monarchy, underwent a gradual progreis of decay ;
and inftead of the people becoming gradually more
powerful, wealthy, and enlightened, every fcience and
every art, together wdth the population of the Hate,
declined, till the whole was oppreffed and funk under
86 ] A S I
the inroads of the northern barbarians. It is a curi¬
ous circumllance, and well worthy of all our attention,
that the progrefs of modern Europe is altogether the
reverfe of this. In Afia a monarchy is no fooner efta-
blilhed than its decline commences, and it gradually
becomes weaker and weaker, till, in the courfe of a
few luccefilons, its overthrow7 is eafily accomplilhed :
wrhereas in Europe, for fome centuries pall, every Hate
or monarchy of any tolerable extent, has gradually been
waxing flronger and llronger, and is capable of greater
exertions in proportion to the time that it has Hood.
Such, at leall, is the cafe, with regard to the middle
and northern Hates of Europe. The mode in which
the government is adminiflered will explain this, when
contraHed with that which is adopted in moll of the
Afiatic Hates, and which exifled in the Roman empire.
In Europe the fovereign does not intiull the whole
government and adminillration of aft'airs in a province
to an individual, who is at once to be tax-gatherer,
judge, and commander of the military force. On the
contrary, inflead of portioning out the whole territory
of the Hate in provinces, to be allotted to particular-
viceroys, a more artificial arrangement is adopted. The
bufinefs to be done is divided into difl'erent branches,
and thefe branches, though fometimes extending over
the whole territory, are intruded by the fovereign to
dillindt individuals or claffes of individuals. Thus an
office or officer is eflabliffied near the perfon of the
prince into wffiich the wffiole taxes of the nation are
ultimately paid. Under this office, or its managing
minifler, a variety of tax-gatherers are fent through¬
out the whole country, to colleft in the different towms
and diflridls the taxes eflabliffied by law, and to remit
them to the government. Thefe tax-gatherers have
no interference in military affairs or in the adminiffra-
tion of jullice. In like manner, a particular clafs of
perfons, properly qualified for the duty to be performed,
are appointed to adminifter juflice in the provinces,
and to interfere no farther in public affairs. No
part of the revenue comes into their hands, and they
have no command of the military force of the Hate.
Lallly, the whole military or foldiers likewife form a
feparate and diftindl body. Their officers are all ap¬
pointed by the prince and his miniflers, upon wffiom
they immediately depend, and they have no concern
in the collection of the taxes or in the adminiffration
of juflice. Under a government thus conflituted, if a
tax-gatherer make an unjuft exaClion from any of the
people, they complain to the judges, who, having no
ffiare in the management of the public revenue, and
deriving no profit from the oppreflions that may be
committed in it, are difpofed to liflen to all complaints,
and to do juftice againft the colledors of the taxes.
The judges themfelves are kept under controul in a
fimilar way. Not being commanders of the military
force or entrufted with the direClion of its operations,
they can only pronounce decrees, but have no powrer
to execute them. This muft be performed by the mi¬
litary, wffio are a diftinft body. They, however, will
have no inclination to fee the pow-er of judges and
law7yers exorbitantly increafed, and will revolt from
the idea of putting in force decrees which are notori-
ouffy unjuft, and of which the public difapprove. Thus
the people will, in every refpeft, be affured of protec¬
tion. The judges will protect them againft the tax-
gatherers
Alia.
Why Euro¬
pean na¬
tions im¬
prove in¬
ftead of
decaying
like Afiatic
ftates.
A S I
[ 7S7 1
A S I
Afia. gatherers and the military, who, in their turn, wall re-
gard with jealoufy the pow’er of the judges. In this
wray a juft and equitable government is maintained.
Accefs is eafily had to the prince, who can have no wifh
to fee affairs ill adminiftered. A great nation is go¬
verned like a ftngle family, by allowing different duties
to its different members, who are prevented from abu-
ftng their power. Induftry is encouraged by the fecu-
rity of property 5 and the human mind, unfubdued by
oppreftion, and animated by hope, is led to exert its
■whole energies in improving its own charadter and
condition. Whereas in Afia, and in all thofe countries
in which governors of provinces are appointed with ab-
folute powxr to condudt the whole bufinefs of admi-
niftration, every province is converted into a feparate
empire, in which no redrefs can be obtained for any
grievance. If a tax-gatherer make an undue demand,
the citizen can only ftate his complaint to the em¬
ployer of that tax-gatherer, the provincial-governor,
who is to receive the money that is to be paid. If a
foldier do wrong, he can only be complained of to the
fame governor who is the mafter and patron of the fol¬
dier. If a judge is unjuft, it is ftill to the fame indi¬
vidual that the complaint muft be carried. Thus no
check or controul exifts *, and if the governor of the
province is rapacious and unjuft, and has need of un¬
principled dependants to fupport his pow7er, the people
muft fubmit to an oppreflion for which there is no re¬
medy $ and the whole ftate, thus divided into depart¬
ments and oppreffed, muft fpeedily fink into ruin.
Commerce cannot flourifh where the fruits of induftry
are not fecure ♦, and wuthout commerce thofe arts can¬
not profper, the praffice and improvement of which
aftord fome of the beft means of enlarging the human
faculties.”
Religions of 1° many parts of Afia, religion is alfo a great fource
Afia hurt- of national wreaknefs. This arifes from two caufes, ei¬
ther from its dividing a ftate into different parties, or
from its dodlrines being of fuch a nature as to reftrain
in too great a degree the aftivity and improvement of
the human mind.
Before the Turks fubdued the Greek empire, they
fome places had been long enough fettled in the countries near the
divides the Cafpian fea, to acquire the religion of a more civilized
people. By the time they fubdued the country round
Conftantinople, and at laft the capital itfelf, they were
become zealous Mahometans; wdiilft the nation over
whom fchey eftablilhed their dominion, confifted of no
lefs zealous Chriftians. Hence a line of feparation was
drawn between the conquerors and the conquered,
which time has not been able to obliterate. One half
of the ftate confifts of mailers, and the other of an op¬
preffed people. In other nations the evils of conqueft
have been temporary, becaufe in a Ihort time the vic¬
tors and the vanquished, mingling in the ties of affini¬
ty and thence of confanguinity, have ceafed to be di-
llinguilhed from each other, and have coalefced into
one common people. But in Turkey, to this day, the
proud invader is known from the vanquilhed native.
Their refpedlive religions have fixed upon each of them
a mark, which has proved as indelible as that by
which, in our Weft India iflands, nature diftinguifhes
the negro Have from his European mafter. Hence the
1 urks continue to aft the part of infolent oppreffors
Afia.
ful.
*57 .
Religion in
itate.
25?
to their fubjefts, the Greeks j while the latter, accu-
ftomed to infults and to a fenfie of inferiority, have ac¬
quired the charafteriftics of Haves, infincerity and
cowardice. It is not wonderful, therefore, that theTurk-
ifti empire Ihould decay. It not only labours under all
the evils attending upon the law of polygamy, and of
a government by viceroys called pachas $ but to thefe
have been added an internal divifion among the people,
which degrades the charafter of one half of the na¬
tion, without conferring any improvement upon the
other. The fame evil has exifted during many centu¬
ries in Hindooftan. Before the conqueft of it by the
Mogul or Tartar princes, they had alfo embraced the
Mahometan faith. Their new fubjefts, however, the
Hindoos, adhered to the religion of their anceftors,
with ftill more obftinacy than the Greek Chriftians
have done againft the Turks, and the refult has been
fimilar. The Mahometan conquerors, with all the ad¬
vantages on their fide, of viftory, of public employ¬
ment, and royal favour, never amounted to above one-
tenth of the population of the country. The great bo¬
dy of the people, therefore, neceffarily lunk into a con¬
temptible and degraded condition, which impaired the
national ftrength, and retained fociety in a violent and
unnatural ftate in which it could not flourifh.
We can fcarcely confider as religious fyftems the fu-Hurtful re-
perftitions of the Siberians and Tartars, br other rude I'S10115 doc"
Afiatic tribes. Leaving them out of view, therefore, trines‘
the religions of Afia are chiefly three : that of Budho,
Gaudma, or Fo, which prevails in Ceylon, the far¬
ther peninfula of India, China, Japan, and Thibet ;
the Mahometan religion, which, befides Arabia, is in
poffefllon of Turkey, Perfia, and partly of Hindoo¬
ftan $ and, laftly, the Gentoo faith, which is adhered 2.^
to by ninety millions of people in India. Of thefe, Reiigjonof
the religion of Budho, Gaudma, or Fo, feems the Budho.
leaft pernicious. It is loaded with few ceremonies, fo
that it cannot greatly occupy the human mind. It is
perfeftly tolerant, and thus does not pofitively prohi¬
bit intelleftual improvement ; and its priefts are men
who voluntarily choofe their profeflion, and, except¬
ing in the fterile country of Thibet, have no interfe¬
rence in the ordinary bufinefs of life, and no fliare in
the adminiftration of public affairs. All error is, how¬
ever injurious to the human intelleft, by diminiftiing
its power of difcerning truth. Even independent of
this general circumftance, the religion of Gaudma has
been dangerous in another point of view. It has a book
which is of facred authority, and believed to be the
work of infpiration. That book is faid to regulate mi¬
nutely the ordinary affairs of life •, the taxes to be paid
to the ftate, and what ought to be accounted juft and
unjuft in the common tranfaftions of men : But an in¬
fallible law for the regulation of ordinary affairs is
always a great evil, as it renders error and ill govern¬
ment perpetual, buch a book, at the time when it was
written, might perhaps be a ufeful work, and contain
many valuable maxims and rules for adjufting all kinds
of bufinefs, and for the decifion of all difputes ; but
human affairs, to proceed well, muft be in a ftate of
improvement, that is, in a ftate of change to what is
better : But fuch a book has a tendency to oblige the
nation that adopts it to ftand ftill, and confequently to
fall behind other nations. Hence they have all the
5 G 2 chances
Afia>
260
Mahome¬
tan reli¬
gion.
A S I [ 7S8
chances of falling back into barbarifm that affeft other
there exifts no poffibility of their ad-
1
A S I
26l
Gentoo
religion.
nations, while
vanning farther in improvement.
1 he Mahometan law has this fpeculative advantage
over that of Gaudma or Budho, that it fuffers not the
hjpreme Intelligence to be likened to a flock or a done 5
but its praftical character is much more injurious to
the world. It not only has an infallible book, which
m the countries where it is adopted is regarded as the
law of the land for regulating the decifion of contro-
^eited caufes in all courts of juflice, but enjoins to its
followers the obfervance of a number of daily ceremo¬
nies, confiding of prayers and wafhings at Hated inter¬
vals, which tend to fix down fuperflition upon the hu¬
man mind. In addition to thefe, its extreme intole¬
rance has a tendency to render the intelle&ual im¬
provement of the people that have once adopted it ex-
tremely diificult, while the fanclion that it gives to the
law of polygamy, at once places private fociety on a
defe£live footing, and enfures the bad government of
the date.
The mod pernicious of all the religions of Ada,
however, appears to be the Gentoo fuperdition, or the
religion of the natives of Hindoodarn It does not in¬
deed authorize polygamy, nor does it fanftion the per-
fecution of thofe who believe in other religions ; but
in every other refpecf, it is mod evidently ruinous to
the vigour of the human chara&er. It fills the mind
W’ith all the idle tales and fuperditions of an abfurd po-
lytheifm. It enjoins an endlefs variety of rites and pu¬
rifications } and under its infiuence a morfel of bread
cannot Be eaten, or a cup of water taded, without the
utmod caution, that it have not come into contadf
with impure hands or impure veffels. The divifion
of the people into hereditary cads, of different degrees
of dignity according to their refpe(Stive employments,
none of which cads can intermarry, or even eat or
drink together, completely infulates every clafs of in¬
habitants j and by fixing them down to hereditary oc¬
cupations, prevents every exertion of talents beyond
the Iphere in which individuals happen to be born.
Religion, or fuperditious fear of offending againd the
rules of his cad, condantly occupies and abforbs the
whole mind and faculties of a Hindoo, fo as utterly to
deprive him of intellectual vigour or courage to in-
vedigate the foundations of the notions which place
under controul every dep of his life. A people thus
divided can poffefs little united drength or energy as
a nation, and the feeblenefs even of their bodily exer¬
tions may well fugged the quedion, Whether fuperdi¬
tious fear and intelledfual imbecility fixed down upon a
people during a courfe of ages, has not a tendency to
diminidi the corporeal powers, and to render the body
as feeble as the mind i1 In judice to the religion of the
Hindoos, however, it may be obferved, that if it pre¬
vent the nation from acquiring great power, it alfo
guards its civilization, or the arts that it poffeffes, from
being entirely lod in confequence of conqueds by
barbarians. Every Hindoo being bound by his reli¬
gion to follow the occupation of his father, if a whole
cad is not utterly exterminated, the arts which were
underdood by its members cannot be lod. They are
immediately praftifed anew' 5 they come to be in re-
qued, and the cad is employed by fociety, and multi¬
plied as before.
.That we may not appear, however, from a love of Afia.
fydem, altogether to deny the effedf of phyfical caufes v-—v  
upon the hidory of the civilized nations of Afia, we 262
diall acknowledge, that the fertility of the foil in thele Influence
countries in all probability adids the tendency to ne- phyfical
gligence of management which appears in their go- c?ul?s Pn
yernments. In the more barren regions of Europe, it^-^^
is ablolutely neceffary that a government aft with a
confiderable degree of caution, and adminider judice
well, to enable a nation to attain to any tolerable diare
of power or profperity. With us, man has many im¬
perious wants, which mud be fupplied before an indi¬
vidual can contribute any thing to the public. He
mud at lead have food, which can only be extorted
from an ungrateful foil by patient and fldlful indu-
dry. He mud alfo have clothes and fuel. The ferti¬
lity of the Afiatic foil enables man to obtain food with
lefs labour than in Europe, while the mildnefs of the
climate fubjefts him to little expence on account of.
fuel and clothing. Hence in thefe countries a much
lefs degree of indudry is neceffary for the fupport of
individuals, and to enable them to contribute lome-
tliing towards the public revenue. Governments,
therefore, are not fo foon brought under the neceflity
of repairing their owm errors. Abufes are more readi¬
ly allowed to multiply, and at lad can be got quit of
with greater difficulty. Add to this, that in a coun¬
try whofe inhabitants could not originally fubfid with¬
out the exertion of much indudry, a more vigorous
charafter is apt to diffufe itfelf among the people, than
in thofe nations upon whom, in their rude date, the
dighted effort of labour conferred abundance, and
who have only come to find good management and
indudry requifite, in confequence of the great multi¬
plication of their numbers.
Befides the revolutions occafioned by Tartar inva-Arabian
fions, feveral of the nations of Afia experienced accnqueft.
great revolution from the arms of another barbarous
race of men, the inhabitants of the'peninfula of A-
rabia. Similar caufes to thofe which have repeated¬
ly given viftory to the Tartars, enabled the Arabians
to vanquidi the neighbouring nations. They alfb exid
in a padoral date, and are divided into tribes or fami¬
lies. The Arabians, however, have not been accu-
domed to conqued like the Tartars. Arabia is of
trifling extent, when compared to Tartary and its de¬
pendencies ; its drength being lefs, it is lefs likely to
be engaged in didant enterprifes. Unlike to Tartary,
it has always poffeffed fome cities, and a part of the
people have connefted themfelves with the arts and
the commerce of the civilized nations around them.
Hence fomething more was neceffary to roufe the A-
rabian nation, and to unite its members in one common
enterprife, than the mere love of dominion. The A-
rabs became conquerors, only becaufe Mahomet was
fuccefsful in rendering them fanatics ; and they fub-
dued the earth, not fo much from a defire to poffefs its
riches and its luxuries, as from a zeal to extend the
glory of God, and to give the means of falvation to
mankind. When their religion had prevailed in all
direftions, and other nations adopted the fame fpirit
and caufe, th'e Arabians relapfed into their original
unimportance, and ceafed to be dangerous to the peace
of the world.
Of late fome of the nations of Afia have undergone
fubjugation,
' IlIA’i ntfij
A S I f 789 J A S I
Afia. fubjligation, and others have been threatened with it,
' y-"*—'1 not from the ordinary quarter of fartary, or from any
F other race of barbarians, but from the enterprifes of
conquefts. the civilized nations of Europe. This new peril
has originated from feveral caufes. The difcovery of
the mariners compafs, and the improvements which
have occurred in navigation, have brought the nations
of Afia, as it were, nearer to tkofe of this north-well
corner of the globe, and expofed them in a greater de¬
gree to their attacks. The nations of Europe, alfo
feonrr their better government, and from a religion which
prohibits polygamy, and which, at lead in the proteftant
ftates, interferes little in the affairs of this world, and
confers no dominion upon its priefls, have of late been
enabled to make a more rapid progrefs in the improve¬
ment of every art, than was ever formerly done, and
among the reft they have improved the terrible art of
war. In the mean time, the civilized nations of Afia
have beer^ either Handing ftill as ufual, fatisfied with
their allotted meafure of intelligence, or they have been
going backward. Thus the relative ftrength of tLefe
two quarters of the world has been greatly altered, and
fhould any remarkable additional improvement in the
art of navigation be foon made, it is probable that all
Profpedl of Afia will be enflaved by the European nations. Should
the deftiny fuch an event take place, its firft confequeiices wall
probably prove unfortunate. Europe will be corrupted,
while Afia will not be reformed. Its imperfe£t go¬
vernments, however, and its falfe religions, will be bro¬
ken up. The fuperiority of the human charafler in Eu¬
ropean countries is fo great, and the population of North
America is increafing fo rapidly, carrying the purfuits
of fcience and the pradlice of the arts in its train, that
there is little doubt the race of Europe muft in a few
centuries obtain the dominion of the earth. A new
era, therefore, is commencing for Afia, the events of
which cannot be forefeen. From the Ihort review,
however, which we have taken of that great continent,
we perceive, and we perceive with fatisfaftion, that
the moft beautiful regions of this-, globe are by no
means- unfit, as was fuppofed, for the produdlion of a
vigorous and a6Hve race of men. The Hindoo is ti¬
mid and feeble ; but it is not his climate which ren¬
ders him fo. In the fame climate wath Hindooftan,
and fcarcely divided from it, a vigorous race of men
has been' found to exift, forming a rifing people, eager
to emulate the career of civilized and powerful nations.
It is the religion of the Hindoo, therefore, that is the
caufe of his weaknefs, as the government of China is
the caufe of the ftationary chara&er of its people.
Were thefe caufes of feeblenefs removed, and above all
were the art of printing diffufed, the nations of the
earth w'ould probably by degrees approach nearer to a
fimilarity of mind and talents, than they have hitherto
been accounted capable of doing. Even Siberia itfelf,
by the great trjfls of fertile land which attention to
its inland navigation is capable of laying open, may
one day contribute to the general flock of human
power and riches. It ought never to be forgotten that
this globe is given as a valuable domain or pofleffion to
the human race, only in proportion to the degree in
which they fubdue its native wildnefs or fterility and
it becomes a fit and falubrious habitation for them, ac-
cording to the degree in which it is improved by cultf-
vation. The rein-deer once wandered in the forefts of
Germany. It cannot now live upon the {bores of the Afia
Baltic, and is forced to feek a region fufticiently cold Jl.
for its conftitution, within the polar circle and in the . A
neighbourhood of the Icy fea. The progrefs of civi-
zation and of agriculture have accompliftied this change
in the climate of the north of Europe, and the defcen-
dants of Europeans may probably accomplilh ftill
greater alterations upon the north ot Afia.
s^sij Minor, or Lejfer AJia ; the fame with Natolia.
See Natolia.
ASI ARCHIE, (termed by St Paul, Chief of Afa,
A£ts xix. 31;) were the Pagan pontiffs of Afia, chofen
to fuperintend and have the care of the public games,
wftiieh they did at their own expence : for which rea-
fon they were always the richeft and moft confiderable
men of the community.
ASIDE, in the Drama, fomething faid by an ac¬
tor, which fome, or even all, the other a&ors prefent
are fuppofed not to hear 5 a circumftance juftly con¬
demned as being unnatural and improbable.
ASIITO, a town of Italy, in Perugia, and in the
Pope’s territories. E. Long. 23.40. N. Lat. 43. o.
ASILUS* or Hornet-fly. See Entomology
Index.
ASINARA, an ifland of Italy, on the wefterncoaft
of Sardinia. E. Long. 8. 30. N. Lat. 41. o.
ASINIUS Pollio, a Roman conful and orator, di-
ftinguiftied himfelf under Auguftus by his exploits and
his literary works. He is frequently mentioned with
praifes by Horace and Virgil, and is faid to have col-
ledled the firft library at Rome. He died at Frefcati,
at 80 years of age.
ASIONGABER, Esiongeber, or Eziongeber,
a town of Arabia Petr tea, on the bay of Elath, a part
of the Arabian gulf: the dock or ftation for the {hips
of Solomon and Jeholhaphat; an ancient town, men¬
tioned alfo by Mofes. It was afterwards called Be¬
renice (Jofephus).
ASISIA, or Assisia, a town of Liburnia (Ptole¬
my, Antonine), now in ruins, but exhibiting many
monuments of antiquity. It is the Affefia or Afferia
of Pliny. This author, after having fpecified the Li-
burnian cities that were obliged to attend the congrefs
or diet of Scardona, adds to the catalogue the free
Afferians, immunefque AJferiates and this people, who
created their own magiftrates, and were governed by
their own municipal laws, were no doubt more rich
and powerful than their neighbours.
The veftiges of the walls of Afleria that flill remain,
are a fufficient proof of this; for their circumference
is clearly diftinguifliable above ground, and meafures
3600 Roman feet. The fpace enclofed by them forms
an oblong polygon, and they are built with common
Dalmatian marble ; but not taken from the hill on
which they {land, for that furnifties'only foft ftone.
The walls are invefted, both infide and out, with this
marble : fome of the ftones are ten feet long, and they
are all of confiderable dimenfions. The thicknefs of
thefe fortifications is commonly about eight feet: but
at the narroweft extremity, which falls towards the foot
of the hill, they are eleven feet thick ; and, in fome *
parts, their height ftill above ground reaches to near
30 feet. An antiquary, or even a fimple lover of the
fine arts* or of erudition, the Abbe Fortis obferves,.
cannot help wiftiing at Podgraje (the modern name of
Afferia) |:
Afifio
II
Aina.
A S N [ 7
Afleria), that fome powerful hand quicqirid fub terra
eft in apricum proferit; and fuch a wiih' becomes
Itronger when he reHeas, that fince the dettrubtion of
tnat city no fearch has ever been made under ground,
with a view to difcover any thing curious; and yet
theie walls without doubt enciofe a valuable depolite
ot antiquities, thrown down in heaps, who knows by
v. at caule ; perhaps naturally, by an earthquake, or
perhaps by a hidden inundation of barbarians, which
is ihn worfe. The gate now demolilhed, the confider-
able height of the walls to be feen in feveral places
from without, fome pieces of thick walls that hill ap¬
pear levelled to the ground among the bulhes, are cir-
cumtlances which give ground to hope that manv coft-
ly monuments might be recovered out of thefe'ruins.
I he magnificence of the remaining wall, and the ma¬
ny pieces of well-cut Hone and fine marble fcattered
over the contiguous fields, afford fufficient proof that
both good talle and grandeur once flouriflied in that
country. In the midff of the rubbifh which covers the
remains of Aliena, the parifh church of the little vil¬
lage Hands infulated; it is built of broken pieces of
ancient ruins, taken as they happened to be nearefl,
mixed with mutilated infcriptions and fragments of
noble cornices.
. AbISIO, or Asitio, a city of the pope’s territo¬
ries in Italy, fituated about 16 miles eaft of Perugia.
•E. Long. 13. 35. N. Lat. 43.
ASKELON. See Ascalon.
ASKERON, a place five miles from Doncaffer,
noted for a medicinal fpring. It is a Hrong fulphureous
water, and is flightly impregnated with a purging fait.
It is recommended internally and externally in flrumous
and. other ulcers, fcabs, leprofy, and fimilar complaints.
It is good in chronic obflrudions, and in cafes of
worms and foulnefs of the bowels.
.ASKRIG, a town in the north riding of York-
fhire.. W. Long. o. 5. N. Lat. 53. 50.
AS LAN!* in Commerce, a filver coin, worth from
115 to 120 afpers. See Asper.
ASMONEUS, or Assamoneus, the father of Si¬
mon, and chief of the Afmoneans, a family that reigned
over the Jews during 1 26 years.
ASNA, or Esna, a town in Upper Egypt, feated
upon the Nile, believed by fome authors to be the an¬
cient Syena, though others fay the ruins of it are Hill
to be feen near Affuan. It is fo near the cataracts of
the Nile, that they may be heard from thence. It con¬
tains feveral monuments of antiquity j and among the
leit an ancient Egyptian temple, pretty entire, all
painted throughout, except in fome place's that are ef¬
faced by time. The columns are full of hieroglyphic
figures. This .fuperb Hrudture is now made ufe of for
a Stable, wherein they put oxen, camels, and goats, A
little way from thence are the ruins of an ancient nun¬
nery, laid to built by St Helena, furrounded with
tombs—Afna is the principal town in thefe parts, and
the inhabitants are rich in corn and cattle. They drive
a confiderable trade into Lower Egypt and Nubia, by
means of the Nile, and alfo by the caravans that pafs
over the defert. The inhabitants are all Arabs, ex¬
cept about. 200 Copts, the ancient inhabitants, and a
fort m Chrifiians. They are under the government of
the Turks, who have a cadi, and the Arabs have two
Alow,
9° ] A S O
fchenffs of their own nation. E. Long. 31.40. N Lat Afela
3 3-15 * ‘ ii
ASOLA, a town of the Brefian in Italy, belonging
to the republic of Venice. E. Long. 14/18 N Lat
4 .15.
ASOLO, a town of Italy, in the Trevifan, feated
on a mountain 17 miles north-weft of Trevifan, and
10 north-eaft of Bafiano. E, Long. 12. 2. N. Lat u?
49- r
ASOPH, a town of Cuban Tartary, in Afia, feated
on the river Don, near its mouth, a little to the eaft
of the Palus Maeotis, or fea of Aloph. It has been
levex al times taken and retaken of late years j but in
1739. the contending powers agreed that the fortifica¬
tions ftiould be demolifhed $ and the town remains under
the dominion of Ruftia. E. Long. 41. 30. N. Lat.
47* *
ASOPUS, a river of Phrygia Major, which, toge¬
ther with the Lycus, wafhes Laodicea, (Pliny).—Ano¬
ther of Boeotia, which running from Mount Cithteron,
and watering the territory of Thebes, feparates it from
the territory of Plataea, and falls with an eaft courie in¬
to the Euripus, at Tanagra. On this river Adraftus
king of Sicyon built a temple to Nemefis, thence
called A dr aft eia. From this river Thebes came to be
furnamed Afopides, (Strabo.) It is now called Afopo.
A third Afopus, a river of Peloponnefus, -which runs
by Sicyon, (Strabo) 3 and with a north-weft courfe
falls into the Sinus Corinthiacus, to the weft of Co¬
rinth.—A fourth, a fmall river of the Locri Epicne-
midii, on the borders of Theffaly, (Pliny) j rifing in
Mount Oeta, and tailing into the Sinus IVIaliacus.
Asopus, . a town of Laconia, (Paufanias) ; on the
Smus Laconicus, with a port in a peninfula, between
Boar to the eaft, and the mouth of the Eurotas to the
weft. The citadel only remains Handing, now called
by the Tailors Caftel Rampano.
ASOR, or Razor, in Ancient Geography, a town of’
the trioe of Judah, to the fouth-weft, on the borders of
Aicalon, (Joftiua) j as alfo Hafor-Hadata, translated
by the feventy A<r^„ (id).—Another Afor, Afo-
rus, or Razor, a town of Galilee; called the capital
of all the kingdoms to the north of Paleftine. It was
taken by Joftiua $ the inhabitants were put to the
fword, and their houfes burnt. It was afterwards re-
buik (Judges, .! Sam.) j but remained Hill in the hands
of the Canaanites, though in the lot of the tribe of
Naphthali, (Jofhua). It lay to the north of the La-
cus Samachonites, called in Scripture the Waters of
Merom, (Jofephus).
ASOW, a celebrated and important fortrefs of Ruf-
fia, once a place of confiderable trade, but now demo¬
lilhed. It was fituated in the diftrid of Bachmut, near
the place where the Greeks many centuries ago built
the city of Tanais, which was very famous for its trade
and underwent many viciflitudes. The Genoefe, vhcl
fettled a trade with Ruftia loon after the difeovery of
Archangel by Captain Chancellor, became mailers of
this place, and gave it the name of Tana, or Catana:
but the Tartars, who were very powerful in thefe parts,
feem to have been in polTeflion of it long before j ftuq
as Bufching informs us, there are Afow coins yet gx!
tant, on which is the name of Tccktcmyfs Kan.' From
the Genoefe it fell into the hands of the Turks, loft
its
ASP [ 79' ] ASP1
its trade, and became an inconfiderable town. In 1637,
it was taken by the Coflacks, who defended it againit
the Turks in 1641,, and next year let fire to it, and
blew it up. The Turks rebuilt it with flrong fortifica¬
tions. The Ruffians laid claim to it in 1672, and took
it in 16965 but, by the treaty of Pruth in 1711, it
was rettored to the Turks. In 1736, the Ruffians be¬
came mailers of Afow 5 but by the treaty of Belgrade
they wTere obliged to reliquifh it, and entirely deftroy
the place.
ASP, in Natural Hijfory, a fmall poifonous kind of
ferpent, whofe bite gives a fpeedy but eafy death. It
is faid to be thus denominated from the Greek ug-tck,
fhield, in regard to the manner of its lying convolved
in a circle, in the centre of which is the head, which it
exerts, or raifes, like the umbo or umbilicus of a buck¬
ler. This fpecies of ferpent is very frequently men¬
tioned by authors 5 but fo carelefsly defcribed, that it is
not eaiy to determine wdiich, it any of the fpecies known
at prefent, may properly be called by this name. It is
faid to be common in Africa, and about the banks of
the Nile 5 and Bcllonius mentions a fmall fpecies of fer¬
pent W'hich he had met with in Italy, and which had a
fort of callous excrefcence on the forehead, which he
takes to have been the afpis of the ancients. It is with
the afp that Cleopatra is faid to have defpatched herfelf,
and prevented the defigns of Auguftus, who intended
to have carried her captive to adorn his triumphal en¬
try into Rome. But the fa£l is contefted : Brown
places it among his vulgar errors. The indications of
that queen’s having ufed the miniftry of the afp, were
only two almoft infenfible pricks found in her arm ;
and Plutarch fays it is unknown what Ihe died of. At
the fame time, it mull be obferved that the flightnefs
ol the pricks found in her arm furniffies no prefumption
againft the faft 5 for no more than the prick of a needle
point dipt in the poifon was neceffary for the purpofe.
Lord Bacon makes the afp the leaft painful of all
the inftruments of death. He fuppofes it to have an
affinity to opium, but to be lefs difagreeable in its ope¬
ration 5 and his opinion feems to correfpond with the
accounts of moft writers, as wrell as with the effedls de¬
fcribed to have been produced upon Cleopatra.
The ancients had a plafter called made of
this terrible animal, of great efficacy as a difcutient of
ftrumae and other indurations, and ufed likewife againfl
pains of the gout. The fieffi, and fkin or exuviae, of
the creature, had alfo their (hare in the ancient materia
medica.
ASPA, a town of Parthia, (Ptolemy), now Ifpahan,
(Holftenius). In Ptolemy the latitude feems to agree,
being 330 ; but whether the longitude does, is a quef-
tion. E. Long. 51. Lat. 32. 30.
ASPALATHUS, African broom. See Botany
Index.
ASPARAGUS, SPARAGUS, or SPARROW-GRASS.
See Botany Index.
ASPASIA of Miletus, a courtefan who fettled
at Athens under the adminiilration of Pericles, and one
of the moft noted ladies of antiquity . She was of ad¬
mirable beauty : yet her wit and eloquence, ftill more
than her beauty, gained her extraordinary reputation
among all ranks in the republic. In eloquence fhe
furpaffed all her contemporaries 5 and her converfation
was fo entertaining and inftruclive, that notwithftanding
Afperifolu
ate.
the diffionourable commerce ffie carried on in female AfpaJUcuni
virtue, perfons of the firft diftinflion, male and female,
reforted to her houfe as to an academy : (he even num¬
bered Socrates among her hearers and admirers. She
captivated Pericles in luch a manner, that he difmifled
his own wife, in order to efpoufe her 5 and, by her
univerfal knowledge, irrefiftible elocution, and intrigu-
ing genius, (lie in a great meafure influenced the admi-
nillration of Athens. She was accufed of having
excited, from motives of perfonal refentment, the war
of Peloponneius 5 yet, calamitous as that long and
obftinate confficl proved to Greece, and particularly
to Athens, it may be fufpedled that Afpafia occafion-
ed ftill more incurable evils to both. Her example,
and ftill more her inftrudlions, formed a fchool at A-
thens, by which her dangerous profeffion was reduced
into fyftem. The companions of Afpafia ferved as
models for painting and ftatuary, and themes for po¬
etry and panegyric. Nor w7ere they merely the ob¬
jects, but the authors of many literary works, in which
they eftabliffied rules for the behaviour of thejr lovers,
particularly at table 5 and explained the art of gain¬
ing the heart and captivating the affedlions. The drefs,
behaviour, and artifices of this clafs of women, became
continually more fedudlive and dangerous 5 and Athens
thenceforth remained the chief fchool of vice and plea-
fure, as well as of literature and philofophy.
ASPASTICUM, (from ctc-Trat^opiu, “ I falute,”) in
ecclefiaftical writers, a place, or apartment, adjoining
to the ancient churches, wherein the bifhop and prefhy-
ters fat, to receive the falutations of the perfons who
came to vifit them, defire their bleffing, or confult
them on bufinefs.—This is alfo called afpaticum dia-
conicum, reccptonum, metatonum, or mefatorium, and fa-
lutatonum: in Englifti, “ greeting-houfe.”
ASPECT, in Aflronomy, denotes the fituation of
the planets and liars with refpedl to each other.
There are five different afpedls. 1. Sextile afpedl is
when the planets or liars are 6o° diftant and marked
thus*. 2. The quartile, or quadrate, wffien they are
90° diftant, marked □. 3. Trine, when 120° diftant,
marked A. 4. Oppofition, wffien 180° diftant, mark¬
ed °. And, 5. Conjundlion, when both in the fame
degree, marked <5 .
Kepler, wffio added eight new ones, defines afpedl
to be the angle formed by the rays of two liars meet¬
ing on the earth, whereby their good or bad iniluence
is meafured : for it is to be obferved, that thefe afpe&s
being firft introduced by allrologers, were diftinguiffi-
ed into benign, malignant, and indifferent 5 the quar¬
tile and oppofition being accounted malign 5 the trine
and fextile, benign or friendly 5 and the conjunclion,
indifferent.
ASPEN tree. See Populus, Botany Index.
ASPER, in Grammar, an accent peculiar to the
Greek language, marked thus (') ; and importing, that
the letters over which it is placed ought to be ftrong-
ly afpirated, or pronounced as if an h were joined with
them.
Asper, or Afpre, in Commerce, a Turkilh coin,
three of which make a Me dine.
ASPERA arteria, in Anatomy, the fame wffiffi the
windpipe or trachea. See Anatomy Index.
ASPERIFOLIATE, or AsperifoIious, among
Botanlfs, fuch plants as are rough-leaved, having their
leaves
'ASP
Afperifoliae leaves placed alternately on their ftalks, and a mono-
AfphaUitej Peta1-ous ^ower divided into five parts.—They confti-
u-1—tute an order of plants in the Fragmenta methodi na~
turahs of Linnaeus, in which are thele genera, viz.
tournefortia, cerinthe, fymphytum, pulmonaria, an-
chufa, lithofpermum, myofotis heliotropium, cyno-
gloiTum, afpeiugo, lycopfis, echium, borrago: magis
mwufve oleracea;, muci/agitwfie, et glutinofce funt. Lin.
in the prefent fyftem, thefe are among the pentandria
monogynia.
ASPERIIOLI.dE plantae, rough-leaved plants j
the name of a clafs in Hermannus, Boerhaave, and
Ray’s methods, confiding of plants which have four
naked feeds, and whofe leaves are rough to the touch.
' In Tournefort’s Syitem, thefe plants conftitute the
third feftion or order of the fecond clafs j and in Lin¬
naeus’s Sexual Method, they make a part of the pen-
tandria monogynia.
ASPERITY, the inequality of the furface of any
body, which hinders the hand from palling over it
freely.^—'From the teftimony of fome blind perfong, it
has been luppofed that every colour hath its particular
degree of afperity: though this has been denied by
others. See the article Blind.
ASPEROSA, a town of Turkey in Europe it is
a bilhop’s fee, fituated on the coafi of the Archipela¬
go.. E. Long. 25. 20. N. Lat. 40. 58.
ASPERUGO, small wild bugloss. See Bo¬
tany Index.
ASPERULA, wooDRoor. See Botany Index.
ASPHALTITES, fo called from the great quanti¬
ty of bitumen it produces ; called alfo the ;
and from its fituation, the Faji fea ; the Salt fea, the
fea of Sodom, the fca of the Dcfert, and the fea of the
Plain, in the facred writings : A lake of Judea.
Many things have been faid and written of this famed,
or, if they were indeed true, rather infamous lake •, fuch
as that it arofe from the fubmerfion of the vale of Siddim,
rvhere once flood, as is commonly reported, the three
cities which perifhed in the miraculous conflagration,
with thofe of Sodom and Gomorrah, for their unna-
tual and deteftable wickednefs : on which account this
lake has been looked upon as a lafting monument of
the juft judgment of God, to deter mankind from fuch
abominations. Hence it is added, that the waters of
the lake are fo impregnated with fait, fulphur, and
other bituminous fluff, that nothing will fink or live in
it j and that it cafts fuch flench and fmoke, that the
very birds die in attempting to fly over it. The de-
fcription likewife of the apples that grew about it, fair
without, and only alhes and bitternefs within, were
looked upon as a farther monument of God’s anger.
So likewife the defcription which many travellers give
not only of the lake, but of all the country round
about, of the whole appearing dreadful to behold, all
fulphureous, bituminous, ftinking, and fuffocating :
and laftly, what hath been farther affirmed of the ruins
of the five cities being ftill to be feen in clear weather,
and having been aflually feen in thefe latter times ; all
thefe furprifing things, and ill-grounded notions, though
commonly, and fo long, received among Cbriftians,
have been of late fo much exploded, not only by the
teftimony of very credible witneffes, but even by argu¬
ments drawn from Scripture, that wt muft give them
up as inventions, unlefs we will fuppofe the face and
792 ] ■ AS P
nature of all thefe things, to have been entirely chang- Afphahites.
ed. Thofe, in particular, of bodies not linking in the '
water, and of birds being ftified by the exhalations of
it it, appear now falfe in faift. It is true, the quantity
of fait, alum, and fulphur, with which it is impregnat¬
ed, render it lb much fpecifically heavier (Dr Pococke
fays one-fifth) than frelh water, that bodies will not fo
eafily fink yet that author, and others, affure us,
they have fwam and dived in it j and, as to the birds,
we are told likewife, that they will fly over it without
any harm. To reconcile thefe things with the experi¬
ments which Pliny * tells us had been made by Veipa- *
fian, is impoftible, without fuppofing that thofe ingre-lib. v. cap.
dients have been fince much exhaufted, which is not alk¬
ali improbable ; fuch quantities of them, that is, of
the bitumen and fait, having been all along, and be¬
ing ftill taken off, and fuch ftreams of frelh water con¬
tinually pouring into it, as may reafonably be fuppofed
to have confiderably diminiftred its gravity and denfe-
nefs. For, with refpeff to its fait, we are told, the
Arabs make quantities of it from that lake, in large
pits about the ftiore, which they fill with that water,
and leave to be cryftallized by the fun. This fait is
in fome cafes much commended by Galen, as very
wholefome, and a ftrengthener of the ftomach, &c. on
account of its unpleafant bitternefs.
What likewife relates to the conftant fmoke afcend-
ing from the lake, its changing the colour of its water
three times a-day, fo confidently affirmed by Jofephusf | Bell. Jud.
and other ancients, and confirmed by Psince Radziville fib. v.cap. 5.
and other moderns, who pretend to have been eye-
witneffes of it, is all nowr in the fame manner exploded
by others of more modern date, and of at leaft equal
candour. The unhealthxnefs of the air about the lake
was affirmed by Jofephus and Pliny, efpecially on the
weft : the monks that five in the neighbourhood con¬
firm the fame, and would have difl'uaded Dr Pococke
from going to it on that acconut; and, as he ventured
to go and bathe in it, and was two days after, feized
with a dizzinels, and violent pain in the ftomach,
which lafted near three weeks, they made no doubt
but it was occafioned by it) and he doth not feem to
contradict them. As to the w^ater, it is, though clear,
fo impregnated with fait, that thole who dive into it
come out covered with a kind of faline matter. There
is one remarkable thing relating to this lake, general¬
ly agreed on by all travellers and geographers, viz,
that it receives the waters of Jordan, a confiderable
river, the brooks of jabbok, Kiftion, Arnon, and other
fprings, which flow into it from the adjacent moun¬
tains, and yet never overflows, though there is no vilible
way to be found by which it difeharges that great in¬
flux. Some naturalifls have been greatly embarrafied to
find a difeharge for thefie waters) and have therefore
been inclined to fufpeCt the lake had a communication
with the Mediterranean. But, befides that we know
of no gulf to corroborate this fuppofition, it has been
demonftrated, by accurate calculation, that evapora¬
tion is more than lutficient to cany off the waters
brought by the river. It is, in facf, very ccnfiderable *,
and frequently becomes fenfible to the eye, by the fogs
with which the lake is covered at the riling of the fun,
and which are afterwards difperfed by the heat. It is
enclofed on the eaft and welt with exceeding high
mountains, many of them craggy and dreadful to be¬
hold.
ASP r 7
Afpha.tites. hold. On the north it has the plain of Jericho j or, if
' v we take in both lides of the Jordan, it has the Great
Plain, properly fo called, on the fouth ; which is open,
and extends beyond the reach of the eye. Jofephus
gives this lake 580 furlongs in length, from the mouth
of the Jordan to the town of Segor, on the oppolite end,
that is about 22 leagues; and about 150 furlongs or
5 leagues, in its greateft breadth ; but our modern ac¬
counts commonly give it 24 leagues in length, and 6
or 7 in breadth. On the wed fide of it is a kind of
promontory, where they pretend to (how the remains
of Lot’s metamorphofed wife. Jofephus fays, it was
dill Handing in his time ; but when Prince Radziville
inquired after it, they told him there was no fuch fait
pillar or ilatue to be found in all that part. However,
they have found means, about a century after him, to
recover, as they pretended to allure Mr Maundrell, a
block or dump of it, which may in time grow up, with
a little art, into its ancient bulk.
It is to be obferved here, that the name of Dead fea
is not to be found in the facred writings ; but hath been
given to this lake becaufe no creature will live in it, on
account, of its exceflive faltnefs, or rather bituminous
quality ; for the Hebrews rank fulphur, nitre, and bi¬
tumen, under the general name of fait. However,
fome late travellers have found caufe to fufpeid the com¬
mon report of its breeding no living creature; one of
them having obferved, on the flaore, two or three (hells
of fi(h like thofe of an oyder, and which he fuppofes
to have been thrown up by the waves, at two miles
didance from the mouth of the Jordan, which he there
takes notice of, led they (hould be fufpebfed to have
been brought into the lake by that way. And Dr Po-
cocke, though he neither faw fifti nor (hells, tells us, on
the authority of a monk, that fome fort of fi(h had been
caught in it; and gives us his opinion, that as fo many
forts live in fait rvater, fome kind may be fo formed as
to live in a bituminous one. Mr Volney, however, af¬
firms that it contains neither animal nor vegetable life.
We fee no verdure on its banks, nor are fi(h to be found
within its waters. But he adds, that it is not true
that its exhalations are pediferous, fo as to dedroy
birds flying over it. “ It is very common (fays he) to
fee fvvallows Ikimming its furface, and dipping for the
W'ater neceffary to build their neds. The real caufe
which deprives it of vegetables and animals is the ex¬
treme faltnefs of the water, which is infinitely llronger
than that of the fea. The foil around it, equally im¬
pregnated with this faft, produces no plants; and the
air itfelf, which becomes loaded with it from evapora¬
tion, and which receives alfo the fulphureous and bitu¬
minous vapours, cannot be favourable to vegetation :
hence the deadly afpe£t which reigns around this lake.
In other refpefts, the ground about it, however, is not
marfliy ; and its waters are limpid and incorruptible,
as mud be the cafe with a diffolution of fait. The
origin of this mineral is eafy to be difcovered ; for on
the fouth-wed (liore are mines of foflil fait, of which I
have brought away feveral fpecimens. They are fitu-
ated in the fide of the mountains which extend along
that border ; and, from time immemorial, have fupplied
the neighbouring Arabs, and even the city of Jerufa-
lem. We find alfo on this (hore fragments of fulphur
and bitumen, which the Arabs convert into a trifling
article of commerce; as alfo hot fountains, and deep
Von. II. Part II.
>3 ] AS P
crevices, which are difcovered at a didance by little py- A/phaltites,
ramids built on the brink of them. We likervife find a A,P^aitU111’
fort of done, which, on rubbing, emits a noxious fmell, v~ ,Li"
burns like bitumen, receives a polifh like white alabafier,
and is ufed for the paving of court-yards. At intervals,
we alfo meet with unihapen blocks, which prejudiced
eyes midake for mutilated datues, and which pafs with
ignorant and iuperfiitious pilgrims for monuments of
the adventure of Lot’s wife ; though it is nowhere faid
(lie was metamorphofed into done like Niobe, but into
fait, which mud have melted the enfuing winter.”
It is on account of this bitumen that it hath had the
name of Afphaltite lake, it being reported to have
thrown up great quantities of that drug, which was
much in ufe among the Egyptians, and other nations,
for embalming of dead bodies. Jofephus affuresus, that
in his days it rofe in lumps as big as an ox without its
head, and fome even larger. But whatever it may have
formerly done, we are aflured by Mr Maundrell and
others, that it is now to be found but in (mail quanti¬
ties along the fliore, though in much greater near the
mountains on both fides the lake. But the contrary is
Alice affirmed by two or more late * travellers ; one * iWkV
of whom tells us, that it is obferved to float on the fur- TnjWj,
face of the water, and to come on the fliore after windy P'
weather, where the Arabians gather it, and put it to
all the ufes that common pitch is ufed for, even in
the compofition of fome medicines ; and another J- tells f Shaiv's
us, he was there informed, that it was raifed at certain ‘rravtls>
times from the bottom, in large hemifpheres, which,P' 374*
as foon as they touch the furface, and are ailed upon
by the external air, burfl at once, with great noife and
fmoke, like thepulvis fulminans of the chemifls, difperf-
ing themfelves about in a thoufand pieces. From both
thefe judicious authors we may conclude the reafon of
Mr Maundrell’s miflake, both as to the' lake’s throw¬
ing it up only on certain feafons (that reverend gentle¬
man might chance to be there at the v’rong time) ;
and likewife as to his not obferving it about the (hores,
feeing the Arabs are there ready to gather it as foon
as thrown up : all of them defcribe it as refembling
eur black pitch, fo as not to be diflinguiflied from
it but by its fulphureous fmoke and dench when fet
on fire ; and it hath been commonly thought to be
the fame with that which our druggifts (ell under
the name of bitumen Judaicum, or JewiJh pitch, though
we have reafon to think that this lad is factitious, and
that there is now none of the right afphaltum brought
from Judea.
It hath, moreover, been confounded with a fort of
blackilh combudible done thrown on the (hore, and
called by fome Mofes's Jlone, which being held in the
flame of a candle, will foon burn, and cad a fmoke and
intolerable dench ; but with this extraordinary proper¬
ty, that though it lofes much of its weight and colour,
it becoming in a manner white, yet it diminilhes no¬
thing of its bulk. But thefe, Dr Pococke tells us, are
found about two or three leagues from the (hore. He
concludes, however, from it, that a Jlratum of that
done under the lake is probably one part of the matter
th t feeds the fubterraneous fire, and caufes the bitu¬
men to boil up out of it.
ASPHALTUM, bitumen Judaicum, or Jews
pitch, is a light folid bitumen,,of a dufky colour on
the outiide, and a deep fliining black within; of very
— 5 H little*;
ASP [ 794 ]
Afphodelus httle tafte ; and having fcarcely any fmell, unlefs heat, order, to
f ed, when it emits a ftrong pitchy one.
p CUCta. 11 n m rl ^ ^ «.t
It is found in
a foft or liquid Hate on the furface of the Dead fea, and
by age grows dry and hard. The fame kind of bitu,
men is met with likewife in the earth, in other places of
the world, in China, America, and in fome places of
Europe, as the Carpathian hills, France, Neufchatel,
&c. There are feveral kinds of jews pitch in the
fnops: but none of them are the genuine fort, and have
little other title to their name than their being artifi¬
cially compounded by Jews •, and as they are a medley
of we know not what ingredients, their medicinal ufe
begins to be defervedly laid afide, notwithftanding the
jdifcutient, refolvent, pe&oral, and other virtues attri¬
buted to this bitumen by the ancients. The true af-
phaltum was formerly ufed in embalming the bodies of
the dead. The thick and folid afphalta are at prcfent
employed in Egypt, Arabia, and Perfia, as pitch for
{hips ; as the fluid ones, for burning in lamps, and for
varniflies. Some writers relate, that the wall of Ba¬
bylon, and the temple of Jerufalem, were cemented
with bitumen inftead of mortar. This much is cer¬
tain, that a true natural bitumen, that for inftance
which is found in the diftrid of Neufchatel, proves an
excellent cement for walls, pavements, and other pur-
pofes, uncommonly firm, very durable in the air, and
not penetrable by water. The watch and clock makers
ufe a compofition of afphaltum, fine lamp black, and
oil of fpike or turpentine, for drawing the black figures
on dial plates : this compofition is prepared chiefly by
certain perfons at Auglburg and Nuremberg. See
the preceding article.
ASPHODELUS asphodel, or king’s spear :
See Botany Index.
ASPPIURELATA, in Natural Hijlory, are femi-
metallic foflals, fufible by fire, and not malleable in
their pureft ftate, being in their native ftate intimately
'mixed with fulphur and other adventitious matter, and
reduced to what are called ores.
Of this feries of foflils there are only five bodies,
each of which makes a diftind genus j viz. antimony,
bifmuth, cobalt, zinc, and quickfilver.
ASPICUETA, Martin de, commonly called the
Dodor of Navarre, or Do£lor Navarrus, was de¬
fended of a noble family, and born the 13th of De¬
cember 1491, at Varafayn, a fmall city of Navarre,
not far from Pampeluna. He entered very young into
the monaftery of regular canons at Roncevaux, where
he took the habit, which he continued to wear after he
left the convent. He ftudied claflxcal learning, natural
and moral philofophy, and divinity, at Alcala, in New
Caftile, adopting chiefly the fyftem of Petrus Lombar-
dus, commonly called the Majler of the Sentences. He
applied to the ftudy of the law at Ferrara, and taught
it with applaufe at Touloufe and Cahors. After being
firfi; profeiTor of canon law at Salamanca for 14 years,
he quitted that place to be profeffor of la'w at Coim¬
bra, with a larger falary. The duties of this office he
difcharged for the fpace of 20 years, and then refigned
it to retire into his own country, where he took care of
his nieces, the daughters of his deceafed brothers. Hav¬
ing made a journey to Rome to plead the caufe of
Bartholomeo de Caranza archbiftiop of Toledo, who
had been accufed of herefy before the tribunal of the
ipquifitjon in Spain, and whole caufe was by the Pope’s
ASS
be tried in that city, Aipicueta’s writings, Afpirat*
which were well known, piocured him a moll honour- II
able reception. Pope Pius V. made him affiffant to , AHalin.
Cardinal Francis Aciat, his vice penitentiary ; and Gre- 'r~
gory XIII. never paffed by his door without calling for
him, and ftoppe(| iometimes a whole hour to talk with
him in the ffreet. His name became fo famous, that
even in his lifetime the highett encomium on a learned
man was to call him a Navarrus. He was confulted
as an oracle. By temperance he prolonged his life to
a great length. His economy enabled him to give
fubftantial proofs of his charity. Being very old, he
ufed to ride on a mule through the city, and relieved
all the poor he met ; to which his mule w?as fo well ac-
cuftomed, that it flopped of its own accord at the fight
ol every poor man till its mafter had relieved him. He
refilled feveral honourable polls in church and Hate,
that he might have leifure to corredl and improve the
works he had already written, and compofe others. He
died at the age of 94, on the 2ift of June 1586. He
wrote a vail number of treatifes, all which are either on
morality or common law.
ASPIRATE, in Grammar^ denotes words marked
with the fpiritus afper. See Asper.
ASPIRATION, among Grammarians, is ufed to
denote the pronouncing a fyllable with fome vehe¬
mence.
ASPLENIUM, ceterach. See Botany Index.
ASS, in 7.oology, is ranged as a fpecies of equus,
or horfe. See Mammalia Index.
Coronation of the Nss, in Antiquity, was a part of
the ceremony of the feall of Vella, wherein the bakers
put bread crowns on the heads of thefe quadrupeds j
Ecce coronatis panis dependet afellis *. Hence, in an * Ovid Fuji.
ancient calendar, the ides of June are thus denoted j vi. 311. ^
Fejlum ejl Vefce. Afnus coronatur !—This honour, it
feems, rvas done the beall, becaufe, by its braying,
it had faved Vella from being ravilhed by the Lamp-
facan god. Hence the formula, Vefce delicium ef afnus.
ASSAI, in Mufc, fignifies quick ; and, according
to others, that the motion of the piece be kept in a
middle degree of quicknefs or llownefs. As, qjfai al~
legro, ajfaiprefo. See Allegro and Presto.
ASSANCALA, a Itrong town in Armenia, near
the river Arras, in the road between Erzerum and E-
rivan, and noted for its hot baths. It Hands on a high
hill; the w'alls are built in a fpiral line all round the
rock, and llrengthened with fquare towers. The
ditches are about two fathoms over, cut out of hard
rock. E. Long. 41. 30. N. Lat. 39. 46.
ASS AN CHIP, a town of Alia, inDiarbekir, feated
on the river Tigris. E. Long. 42. 30. N. Lat. 37. 20.
ASSANS. SccAssens.
ASSARIUM, in Antiquity, denotes a fmall copper
coin, being a part or diminutive of the as. The word
ctrcx^iov is uled by Suidas indifferently with e/SeAe? and
voparpot, to denote a fmall piece of money j in which he
is followed by Cujacius, who defines ua-crct^iov by Mini¬
mus ceris nummus. We find mention of the aflarion
in the gofpel of St Matthew, chap. x. ver. 29.
ASSARON, or Omer, a meafure of capacity, in
ufe among the Hebrews, containing five pints. It was
the meafure of manna which God appointed for every
Ifraelite.
ASSASIN, or Assassin, a perfon who kills ano¬
ther
ASS 795 ] ASS
Aflafllns. ther with the advantage either of an inequality in the
J weapons, or by means of the fituation of the place,
or by attacking him at unawares.
The word ajfajjin is faid by fome to have- been brought
from the Levant, where it took its rife from a certain
prince of the family of the Arfacidce ; popularly called
AJJciffins, living in a calile between Antioch and Da-
mafco, and bringing up a number of young men,
ready to pay a blind obedience to his commands j
whom he employed in murdering the princes with
whoift he was at enmity. But according to Mr Vol-
ney, the word HaJfaJJin (from the root hafs, “ to kill,
to a da din ate, to liften, to furprife,”) in the vulgar Ara¬
bic fignifiei “ Robbers of the night,” perfons who lie
in a?nbu!h to kill; and is very universally underftood in
this fenfe at Cairo and in Syria. Hence it was ap¬
plied to the Batemans, who flew by furprife. See the
next article.
There was a certain lawT of nations, an opinion, re¬
ceived in all the republics of Greece and Italy, where¬
by he that aflaflinated an ufurper of the fupreme pow¬
er was declared a virtuous man. At Rome efpecially,
after the expulfion of the kings, the law' was formal
and folemn, and inftances of it admitted. The com¬
monwealth armed the hand of any citizen, and created
him a magiftrate for that moment.
Assassins, a tribe or clan in Syria, called alfo If-
maehans and Batani/is or Batenians. Thefe people pro¬
bably owxd their origin to the Karmatians, a famous
heretical fe£t among the Mahometans, who fettled in
Perfia about the year 10905 whence, in procefs of
time, they fent a colony into Syria, where they be¬
came poffeffed of a confiderable traft of land among
the mountains of Lebanon, extending itfelf from the
neighbourhood of Antioch to Damafcus.
The firfl: chief and legiflator of this remarkable tribe
appears to have been Haffan Sabah, a fubtile impoftor,
wdio by his artifices made fanatical and implicit flaves
of his fubjefls. Their religion wTas compounded of
that of the Magi, the Jews, the Chriftians, and the Ma¬
hometans 5 but the capital article of their creed was
to believe that the Holy Ghoft refided in their chief 5
that his orders proceeded from God himfelf, and were
real declarations of his divine pleafure. To this mo¬
narch the orientals gave the name of Scheik ; but he is
better known in Europe by the name of the Old Man
of the Mountain. His dignity, inflead of being here¬
ditary, w7as conferred by eleftion 5 where merit, that
is, a fuperior multiplicity and enormity of crimes, was
the mold effe&ual recommendation to a majority of fuf-
frages.
This chief, from his exalted refidence on the fiimmit
of Mount Lebanon, like a vindictive deity, with the
thunderbolt in his hand, fent inevitable death to all
quarters of the world ; fo that from one end of the earth
to the other, caliphs, emperors, fultans, kings, prin¬
ces, Chriflians, Mahometans, and Jews, every nation
and people, execrated and dreaded his fanguinary pow er,
from the ftrokes of which there 'Ras no fecurity. At
the leaf! fuggeftion or wEifper that he had threatened
the death of any potentate, all immediately doubled
their guards, and took every other precaution in their
power. It is known that Philip Auguftus king of
France, on a premature advice that the Scheik intended
to have him affaiTmated, inflitutcd a new body-guard.
of men diftinguiflied for their activity and courage, AfTaffinS.
called fergens d'armes, with brafs clubs, bowTs and ar- v
rows : and he hijnfelf never appeared without a club,
fortified either with iron or gold. Moil fovereigns
paid fecretly a penfion to the Scheik, however fcan-
dalous and derogatory it might be to the luftre of ma-
jefty, for the fafety of their perfons. The Knights
Templars alone dared to defy his fecret machinations
and open force. Indeed they were a permanent dil-
perfed body, not to be cut off by maflacres or aflafli-
nations.
This barbarous prince was furniflied with refources
unknowm to all other monarchs, even to the mort ab-
folute defpotic tyrant. His fubjedls would proftrate
themfelves at the foot of his throne, requefting to die
by his hand or order, as a favour by which they were
lure of palling into paradife. On them if danger
made any impreflion, it was an emulation to prefs for¬
ward ; and if taken in any enterprife, they went to
the place of execution with a magnanimity unknown
to others. Henry count of Champagne, who mar¬
ried Ifabella daughter of Amaury king of Jerufalem,
palling over part of the territory of the Affaffins in his
way to Syria, and talking highly of his powder, their
chief came to meet him. “ Are your fubjecls (faid the
old man of the mountain) as ready in their fubmiflion
as mine r” and without Haying for an anfwer, made a
fign with his hand, when ten young men in wdrite,
who w’ere Handing on an adjacent tower, inflantly
threw themfelves down. On another occafion, Sultan
Malek-Shah fummoning the Scheik to fubmit himfelf
to his government, and threatening him wdth the pow-er
of his arms, fhould he hefitate to comply 5 the latter,
very compofedly turning himfelf towards his guards,
faid to one of them, “ Draw your dagger, and plunge
it into your bread 5” and to another, “ Throw yourfelf
headlong from yonder rock.” His orders were no
fooner uttered than they were joyfully obeyed : and all
the anfwer he deigned to give the fultan’s envoy was,
“ Away to thy mailer, and let him know I have ma¬
ny thoufand fubjedls of the fame difpofition.” Men
fo ready to defiroy themfelves wrere equally alert and
refolute in being the minifters of death to others. At
the command of their fovereign, they made no difil-
culty of Habbing any prince, even on his throne 5 and
being w^ell verfed in the different dialedls, they con¬
formed to the drefs and even the external religion of
the country, that they might wdth lefs difficulty flrike
the fatal blow’ required by their chief. With the Sara¬
cens they were Mahometans 5 with the Franks, Chri-
Hians : in one place they joined wdth the Mamelukes 5
in another, with the eccleliafiics or religious 5 and un¬
der this difguife feized the firfl opportunity of execu¬
ting their fanguinary commiflion. Of this we meet
with an inflance in the hiflory of Saladin, while he
was befieging Manbedge, the celebrated Hieropolis of
antiquity. Being one day, with a few attendants, and
they at fome diflance, reconnoitring the place for the
better difpofition of the attack, a man rulhed on him
with a dagger in his hand, and wounded him on the
head 5 but the fultan,' as he was endeavouring to repeat'
his Hroke, w'refled the dagger from him, and, after re¬
ceiving feveral wounds, laid him dead at his feet. Be¬
fore the fultan had w7ell recovered hirnfelf, a fecond'
encountered him to finilli the treachery of the former).
5 H 2 but -
A iTailin
Afi
ay,
ASS
but ne met with the fame fate :   
equal fury by a third, who alfo fell by the hand of that
magnanimous prince whom he was lent to affaffinate.
And it was obferved, that thefe wretches dealt about
their fruitlefs blows as they lay in the agonies of death.
With fuch rapidity was this tranfacled, that it was over
before Saladxn’s guards could come to his affiftance.
He retired to his tent, and in great perturbation throw¬
ing himfelf on His fopha, ordered his fervants to take
a it rid view of his houfehoid, and to cafliier all fuf-
peded perfons * at the fame time aiking with great
earneftnefs, “ Of whom have I deferved inch treache¬
rous ui’age ?” But it afterwards appeared, that thefe
villains had been fent by the old man of the mountain j
of whom the vizir Kamfchlegin had purchafed the mur¬
der of Saladin, to free himfelf from fo great a war¬
rior, whom he could not meet in the field. To animate
them in their frantic obedience, the Scbeik, before
their departure on fuch attempts, ufed to give them a
fmall foretafte of fome of the delights which he affu-
red them would be their recompenfe in paradife. De¬
licious foporific drinks were given them 3 and while
they lay afieep, they were carried into beautiful gar¬
dens, where every allurement invited their fenfes to the
molt exquifite gratifications. From thefe feats of vo-
luptuoulhefs, inflamed with liquor and enthufiaftic
views of perpetual enjoyments, they fallied forth to
perform aflaffinations of the blackelt dye.
This people once had, or at lealt they feigned to have,
an intention of embracing the Chriftian religion. They
reigned a long time in Perlia and on Mount Lebanon.
Hulaku, a khan of the Mogul Tartars, in the year 655
of the Hegira, or 1254 of the Chriftian era, entered
their country and difpolMed them of fevcral places
but it was not till the year 1272 that they were total¬
ly conquered. This achievement was owing to the
conduct and intrepidity of the Egyptian forces fent
againft them by the fukan Bibaris. It has, however
been thought, that the Drufes, who ftill refide among
the eminences of Mount Lebanon, and whofe religion
and cuftoms are fo little known, are a remnant of thofe
barbarians.
ASS AU LT, in Law, is an attempt to offer to beat
another, without touching him : as if one lifts up his
cane or his lift in a threatening manner at another; or
ilrikes at him, but miffes him : this is- an affault, in-
fultus, which Finch defcribes to be “ an unlawful fet-
ting upon one’s perfon.” This alfo is an inchoate vio¬
lence, amounting confiderably higher than bare threats-
and therefore, though no actual fuffering is proved, yet
the party injured may have redrefs by a&ion oitrefpafs
vi et armis, wherein he (hall recover damages as a com-
penfation for the injury.
Assault, in the Military Art, a furious effort made
to carry a fortified poll, camp, or fortrefs, wherein
the affailants do not fcreen themfelves by any works:
while the affault continues, the batteries ceafe, for fear
of killing their own men. The enfans perdus march
firft to the affault. See Enfanh Perdus.
ASSAY, Essay, or Say, in Metallurgy, the proof
or trial of the goodnefs, purity, value, &c. of metals
and metalline fubitances. See Essay.
In ancient ftatutes this is called touch ; and thofe
who had the care of it, keepers of the touch. Under
Henry VI, divers cities were appointed to have touch
Afiuy-ma-
fter.
[ 79<> ] ASS
lie was fucceeded with for wrought fflver-plate, 2 Hen. VI. c. t4 Bs- this A!%:n»
one might imagine they had no better method of af-
laying than the fimple one by the touch-ftone ; but
the cafe is far otherwife. In the time of Kino- Hen*
jy li. the bilhop ol Salifbury, then treafurer^ confi-
dering that though the money paid into the king’s ex¬
chequer for his crown-rents did not anfwer numero et
pondere, it might neverthelefs be mixed with copper or
brals : wherefore a conftitution was made, called the
trial by combujlion ; which differs little or nothing from
the preient method of ailaying filver. See a defcrip-
tion of it in the Black Book in the Exchequer, writ¬
ten by Gervale of lilbury, c. xxi. This trial is alfo
there called eff'aium, and the officer who made it is
named »r. The method ftill in ufe of affaving gold
and filver was fiift eftablifhed by an aft of the Englifh
parliament 1354.
Assaying, ars docimajiica, in its extent, compre¬
hends particular manners of examining every ore, or
mixed metal, according to its nature, with the beft-
adapted fluxes ; fo as to difcover, not only what metals,
and what proportions of metal, are contained in ores •
but hkewife how much fulphur, vitriol, alum, 3^0^
knelt, dec. may be obtained from every one refpec-
tively. See Mineralogy Index.
A flawing is more particularly ufed by moneyers and
goldfmiths, for the making a proof or trial by the
cuppel, or tetf, or the finenefs or purity of the gold
and iilver to be ufed in the coining of money, and^a-
nufaclure of plate, Sic. or that have been already uled
therein. *
There are two kinds of affaying ; the one before
metals are-melted, in order to bring them to their pro¬
per finenefs j the other after they are ttruck, to fee that
the fpecies be ftandard. For the firft affay, the affay-
ers ufe to take 14 or 15 grains of gold, and half a
drachm Oi filvei, li it be for money 3 and 18 grains of
the one, and a drachm of the other, if for other occa-
fions,. As to the fecond affay, it is made of one of
the pieces of money already coined, which they cut in
four parts. I he quantity of gold for an affay among
us is fix grains 3 in France nearly the fame 3 and in
Germany, about three times as much.
I ne proper Ipelling of that word, however, is es¬
say 3 under which article, therefore, the reader will
find the fubjeft more particularly treated. >
Assax-Balance, or Ejjay-Balance. The fiat pieces of
glafs often placed under the feales of an affay-balance,
feem, by their power of eleftricity, capable of attraft!
ing, and thereby making the lighter fcale preponde-
rate, where the whole matter weighed is fo very fmall.
See Ejfay-BALANCS.
The eleftricity of a flat furface of about three inches
fquare has been known to hold down one fcale, when
there were about 200 grains weight in the other. See
Balance.
Assat-MoJIer, or h.ffiay-Majler, an officer under cer¬
tain corporations, intrufted with the care of making
true touch, or affay, of the gold and filver brought to
him : and giving a juft report of the goodnefs or bad-
nels thereof. Such is the affay-mafter of the mint in
the Tower, called alfo ajfayer of the king.
I he affay-mafter of the goldfmith’s company is a fort
of afliftant-warden, called alfo a touch-warden, appoint¬
ed to furvey, affay, and mark all the filver work, &.c.
committed
ASS [
AlTelyn committed to him. There are alfo aflay-maflers
.11, pointed by ftatute at York, Exeter, Briftol, Chefter,
Norvf{chf Yewcaitle, and Birmingham, for affaying
wrought plate. The affay-mafter is to retain eight
grains of every pound troy of filver brought to him j
four whereof are to be put in the pix, or box of deal,
to be re-affayed the next year, and the other four to
be allowed him for his wafte and fpillings.
Note, The number of pennyweights fet down in the
affay-mafter’s report, is to be accounted as per pound,
or. fo much in every pound of i 2 ounces troy. For
every 20 pennyweight, or ounce troy, the filver is
found by the aflay to be worfe than ftandard, or fter-
ling, fixpence is to be deducted ; becaufe every ounce
will coft fo much to reduce it to ftandard goodnefs, or
to change it for fterling.
In gold, for every carat it is fet down to be worfe
than ftandard, you muft account that in the ounce
troy it is worfe by fo many times 3s. 8d. ; and for
every grain it is fet down worfe, you muft account it
worfe by fo many times nd. in the ounce troy ; and
for every half grain 54;d.: for fo much it will coft to
make it of ftandard goodnefs, &c.
ASSELYN, John, a famous Dutch painter, was
born in Holland, and became the difciple of Ifaiah
Vandervelde the battle-painter. He diftinguiflied him-
felf in hiftory-paintings, battles, landfcapes, animals,
and particularly horfes. He travelled into France and
Italy ; and was fo pleafed with the manner of Bambo-
chio, that he always followed it. He painted many
pictures at Lyons, where he married the daughter of a
merchant of Antwerp, and returned with her to Hol¬
land. Here he firft difeovered to his countrymen a
irefii and clear manner of painting landfcapes, like
Claude Lorraine ; upon which all the painters imi¬
tated his ftyle, and reformed the dark brown they had
hitherto followed. Affelyn’s pi&ures were fo much
admired at Amfterdam, that they fold there at a high
price. He died in that city in 1660. Twenty-four
pieces of landfcapes and ruins, which he painted in
Italy, have been engraved by Perelle.
ASSh MBLAGE, the uniting or joining of things
together ; or the things themfelves fo united or join¬
ed. It is alfo ufed, in a more general fenfe, for a col-
leifion of various things fo difpofed and diverfified,
that the whole produces fome agreeable effedl.
ASSEMBLY, the meeting of feveral perfons, in
the fame place, upon the fame defign.
Assembly, in the Beau-Monde, an appointed meet¬
ing of falhionable perfons of both fexes, for the fake of
play, dancing, gallantry, converfation, &c.
Assembly, in the Military Art, the fecond beat¬
ing of a drum before a march ; at which the foldiers
ftrike their tents, roll them up, and ftand to arms.
Assemblies of the clergy are called convocations,
fynods, councils. The annual meeting of the church
of Scotland is called a General Aflembly; In this af-
fembly his Majefty is reprefented by his Commiflioner,
who diiTolves one meeting, and calls another, in the
name of the King, while the Moderator does the fame
in the name of the I^ord Jefus Cbri/f.
Assemblies of the Roman people wTere called co¬
rn it ia.
Under the Gothic governments, the fupreme legifta-
iive power was lodged in an aflembly of the ftates of
797 1 ASS
ap- the kingdom, held annually for the like purpcreS as
our parliament. Some remains of this ufage fubfifted
in the annual aflemblies of the ftates of fome provinces ,
of France previous to the late revolution ; but thefe
were no more than ftiadows of the ancient afl'emblies.
It is only in Great Britain, and perhaps in Sweden,
that fuch affemblies retain their ancient powers and
privileges.
ASSENS, a fea-port town of Denmark, fituated
upon the Little Belt, a ftrait of the Baltic, which fe~
parates the Hie of Funen from the continent. It is the
common paflage from the duchy of Slefwick to Copen¬
hagen. E. Long. 10. 30. N. Lat. 55. 15.
ASSENT, in a general fenfe, implies an agreement
to fomething propofed or affirmed by another.
Royal Assent, the approbation given by the king
to a bill in parliament, after which it becomes a law.
ASSER, John, or Asserius Menevensis, that
is, AJJer of St David's, bilhop of Shirburn in the reign
of Alfred the Great. He was born in Pembrokeflure
in South Wales j and educated in the monaftery of St
David’s by the archbifhop Afferius, who, according to
Leland, was his kinfman.' In this monaftery he be¬
came a monk, and by his affiduous application foon ac¬
quired univerfal fame as a perfon of profound learning
and great abilities. Alfred, the munificent patron ot
genius, about the year 880, fent for him to court.
The king w7as then at Dean in Wiltftiire. He was fo
charmed with Afler, that he made him his preceptor
and companion. As a reward for his fervices, he ap¬
pointed him abbot of two or three different monafte-
ries: and at laft promoted him to the epifcopal fee of
Shirburn, where he died and was buried in the year
910. He was, fays Pits, a man of happy genius,
wonderful modefty, extenfive learning, and great in¬
tegrity of life. He is faid to have been principally in-
ftrumental in perfuading the king to reftore the uni-
verfity of Oxford to its priftine dignity and luftre. He
wrote, De vita et rebus gejiis Alfredi, &c. Lon. 1574,
publithed by Archbifhop Parker, in the old Saxon
charafter, at the end of Waljinghami hi/}.——Franc ft
1602, fol. Oxf. 1722, 8vo. Many other works are
Alters
Aflets.
aferibed to this author by Gale, Bale, and Pits; but.
all doubtful.
ASSERIA. See Asisia.
ASSERTION, in the language of the Ichcols, a
propofition advanced by the affertor, who avows the
truth of it, and is ready to defend it.
ASSESSOR, an inferior officer of juftice, appointed
chiefly to affift the ordinary judge with his opinion and
advice.
Assessor is alfo one who affeffes, or fettles taxes
and other public dues.
ASSETS, in Law, fignifies goods enough to dif-
charge that burden which is caft upon the executor or
heir, in fatisfying the debts and legacies of the teftator
or anceftor. Affets are real or perfonal. Where a
man hath lands in fee Ample, and dies feifed thereof,
the lands which come to his heir are affets real ; and
where he dies poffeffed of any perfonal eftate, the goods
which come to the executors are affets perfonal. Af¬
fets are alfo divided into af'ets by defeent, and afets
in hand. Affets by defeent is where a perfon is bound
in an obligation, and dies feifed of lands which de-
feend to the heir, the land (hall be affets, and the
heh"
ASS
Affcvera
tion
Affiento.
heir fhail be charged as far as the lands to him de
fcended will extend. Affels in hand is when a man
indebted makes executors, and leaves them fufficient
to pay his debts and legacies ; or where feme com¬
modity or profit arifeth to them in right of the teilator:
this is called ajfets in their hands.
ASSEVERATION, a politive and vehement af¬
firmation of fomething.
ASSHETON, William, do&or of divinity, and
reftor of Beckenham, in Kent, was born in the year
1641, and was educated at Brazen-nofe college, Ox¬
ford. After entering into orders, he became chaplain
to the duke of Ormond, and was admitted dodlor of
divinity in 1673. Soon after, he was nominated to a
prebend in the church of York, prefented to the living
ol St Antholin, London, and to the redlory of Beck¬
enham in Kent. He was the firft projeftor of the
fcheme for providing for clergymen’s widows, and
others, by a jointure payable out of the mercers com¬
pany. He wrote feveral pieces againfl: the Papifts and
Diffenters, and fome devotional trafts. He died at
Beckenham in September 1711, in the 70th year of
his age.
ASSIDEANS, or C11 asid^ans, (from the Hebrew
chajidim, “ merciful, pious”) ; thofe Jews who refort-
ed to Mattathias to fight for the law of God and the
liberties of their country. They were men of great
valour and zeal, having voluntarily devoted themfelves
to a more ftrifl obfervation of the law than other
men. For after the return of the Jews from the Ba¬
bylon! (li captivity, there were two forts of men in their
church; thofe who contented themfelves with that
obedience only which was preferibed by the law of
Moles, and who were called Zadikim, i. e. the righte¬
ous ; and thofe who, over and above the law, fuper-
added the conftitutions and traditions of the elders, and
other rigorous obfervances : thefe latter were called
Chajidim, i. e. the pious. From the former fprung the
Samaritans, Sadducees, and Caraites ; from the latter,
the Ph arifees and the Effenes.
ASSIDENT signs, in Medicine, are fymptoms
which ufually attend a difeafe, but not always ; hence
differing from pathognomic figns, which are infeparable
from the difeafe : e. gr. In the pleurify, a pungent
pain in the fide ; in an acute fever, difficulty of breath¬
ing, &c. collectively taken, are pathognomic figns 5
but that the pain extends to the hypochondrium or cla¬
vicle, or that the patient lies with more eafe on one
fide than on the other, are ajjident figns.
ASSIDUUS, or Adsiduus, among the Romans,
denoted a rich or wealthy perfon. The word in this
fenfe is derived from as ajjis, q. d. a monied man.
Hence we meet with ajjiduous fureties, ajjiduiJidejuffb-
res, anfwering to what the French now call city fure¬
ties or fecurities, cautions bourgeois.
When Servius Tullius divided the Roman people in¬
to five clafles, according as they were affeffed or tax¬
ed to the public, the richer fort who contributed afles
were denominated ajjidui; and as thefe were the chief
people of bufinefs who attended all the public concerns,
t-hofe who were diligent in attendances came to be de¬
nominated ajjidui.
ASSIENTO, a Spaniffi word fignifying & farm, in
Commerce, is ufed for a bargain between the king of
Spain and other powers, for importing negroes into the
[ 798 1
ASS
Spaniffi dominions in America, and particularlv to
Buenos Ayres. The firft affiento was made with the
French Guinea company; and, by the treaty of U-,
trecht, transferred to the Englifii, who were to furniffi
4800 negroes annually.
^ASSIGN, in Common Law, a perfon to whom a
thing is affigned or made over.
ASSIGNATION, an appointment to meet. The
word is generally underftood of love-meetings.
ASSIGNEE, in Law, a perfon appointed by ano-
ther to do an aft, tranfaft fome bufinefs, or enjoy a
particular commodity.
. ASSIGNING, in a general fenfe, implies the ma¬
king over the right of one perfon to another. In a
particular fenle, it fignifies the pointing out of fome¬
thing ; as, an error, falfe judgment, &c.
ASSIGNMENT, the transferring the intereft one
has in a leafe, or other thing, to another perfon.
ASSIMILATION, in Fhyjics, is that motion by
which bodies convert other bodies related to them, or
at lead fuch as are prepared to be converted, into their
own lubftance and nature. I hus, flame multiplies it-
felf upon oily bodies, and generates new flame ; air
upon water, and produces new air; and all the parts,
as well fimilar as organical, in vegetables and animals,
firft attraft with fome eleftion or choice, nearly the
fame common or not very different juices for aliment,
and afterwards affimilate or convert them to their own
nature.
ASSISE, in Old Englifh Law-Books, is defined to
be an affembly of knights, and other fubftantial men,
together with a juftice, in a certain place, and at a
certain time : but the word, in its prefent acceptation,
implies a court, place, or time, when and where the
writs and proceffes, whether civil or criminal, are de¬
cided by judge and jury.
All the counties of England are divided into fix cir¬
cuits ; and twm judges are affigned by the king’s com-
miffion, wdio hold their affifes twice a-year in every
county (except London and Middlefex), where courts
of nifi priusnrz holden in and after every term, be¬
fore the chief or other judge of the feveral fuperior
courts ; and except the four northern counties, where
the aflifes are taken only once a-year) to try by a jury
of the refpeftive counties the truth of fuch matters of
faft as are then under difpute in the courts of Weft-
minfter hall. Thefe judges of affife came into ufe in
the room of the ancient juftices in eyre, juficiarii in
ifinere; who were regularly eftabliflied, if not firft ap¬
pointed, by the parliament of Northampton, A. D.
xi76, 22 Hen. II. with a delegated power from the
king’s great court or aula regia, being looked upon as
members thereof: and they afterwards made their cir¬
cuit round the kingdom once in feven years for the pur-
pofe of trying caufes. They were afterwards direfted
by magna charta, c. 12. to be fent into every county
once a-year to take or try certain aftions then called
recognitions or ajpfes ; the moft difficult of which they
are direfted to adjourn into the court of common pleas
to be there determined. The itinerant juftices were
fometimes mere juftices of affife, or of dower, or of
gaol-delivery, and the like ; and they had fometimes
a more general commiffion, to determine all manner of
caufes, jufliciarii ad omnia placita: but the prefent
juftices of affife and tiijipnus are more immediately
derived
Afllgn
II
Affife.
ASS
Aflife
derived from the flatute Weilm. 2. 13 Edvv. I, c. 30.
explained by feveral other afts, particularly the ftatute
14 Edw. Ill, c, 16. and mult be two of the king’s
juftices of the one bench or the other, or the chief
baron of the exchequer, or the king’s ferjeants fworn.
They ufually make their circuits in the refpeftive va^
cations after Hilary and Trinity terms $ aflifes being
allowed to be taken in the holy time of Lent by con-
fent of the bilhops at the king’s requeft, as exprelfed
in ftatute Weltm, 1. 3 Edw. I. c, 51. And it was
alio ufual, during the times of Popery, for the prelates
to grant annual licenfes to the juftices of aftife to ad~
mini Iter oaths in holy times for oaths being of a fa-
cred nature, the logic of thole deluded ages concluded
that they muft be ^ of ecclefiaftical cognizance. The
prudent jealoufy of our anceftors ordained that no man
of law fhould be judge of affife in his own county :
and a limilar prohibition is found in the civil law,
which has carried this principle fo far, that it is equi¬
valent to the crime of facrilege, for a man to be go¬
vernor of the province in which he was born, or has
any civil connexion.
I lie judges upon their circuits now fit by virtue of
five feveral authorities, 1, The commiflion of the peace
in every county of the circuits; and all juftices of the
peace of the county are bound to be prefent at the af-
lifes j and Iherifts are alfo to give their attendance on
the judges, or they (hall be fined, 2. A commiflion
or oyer and terminer, direfted to them and many other
gentlemen of the county, by which they are empower¬
ed to try treafons, felonies, &c, and this is the largeft
commiflion they have. 3. A commiflion of general
goal-delivery, directed to the judges and the clerk of
aflife affociate, which gives them power to try every
prifoner in the gaol committed for any offence what-
foever, but none but prifoners in the gaol j fo that one
way or other they rid the gaol of all the prifoners in it,
4. A commiflion of ajjife, dire&ed to the judges and
clerk of aflife, to take aflifes; that is, to take the ver-
duft of a peculiar fpecies of jury called an aflife, and
lummoned for the trial of landed difputes. The other
r 799 1
ASS
authority is, 5. That of niji prius, which is a confe-
quence of the commiflion of ajfije, being annexed to
the office of thofe juftices by the ftatute of Weftm. 2.
13 Edw, I. c, 30. And it empowers them to try all
queftions of fait iffuing out of the courts of Weftmin-
fter, that are then ripe for trial by jury. The original
of the name is this j all caufes commenced in the courts
of Weftminfter-hall are by the courfe of the courts ap¬
pointed to be there tried, on a day fixed in fome Eafter
or Michaelmas term, by a jury returned from the
county wherein the caufe of aflion arifes; but with
this provifo, niji prius jujliciarii ad ajjifas capiendas
venerint; A/bre the day prefixed the judges of
affile come into the county in queftion. This they are
fure to do in the vacations preceding each Eafter and
Michaelmas term, and there difpofe of the caufe ;
which faves much expence and trouble, both to the
parties, the jury, and the witneifes.
The word ajjife (from the French ajfis, feated, fettled,
or eftablifhed, and formed of the Latin verb ajjideo, “ I
fit by”) is ufed in feveral different fenfes. It is feme-
times taken for the fittings of a court ; fometimes for
its regulations or ordinances, efpecially thofe that fix
the ftandard of weights and meafures; and fometimes
it fignifies a jury, either becaufe juries confifted of a
fixed determinate number, or becaufe they continued
fitting till they pronounced their verdift. In Scots
law, an aflife or jury confifts of 15 fworn men (jura-
tones_), picked out by the court from a greater number,
not exceeding 45, wrho have been fummoned for that
purpofe by the Iheriff, and given in lift to the defender,
at ferving him with a copy of his libel.
ASSISIO, an epifcopal towm of Italy, in the duchy
of Spoleto, built on the fide of a very high mountain.
The cathedral of St Francis is very magnificent, and
compofed of three churches, one above another. E.
Long. 13. 35. N. Lat. 43. 4,
ASSITHMENT, a wiregeld, or compenfation, by
a pecuniary mulft; from the prepofition ad, and the
Sax.Jithe, vice} quod vice fupplicu adexpiandum delictum
folvitur.
END OF THE SECOND VOLUME,
DIRECTIONS for placing the PLATES of Vol. II.
•*
Plate XVIII.")
XIX. J
Part I.
to face
XX.
XXL I
XXII.
XXIII.
XXIV.
XXV.
XXVI.
XXVII. ’
XXVIII.
XXIX.
XXX.
XXXI.
XXXII. ,
XXXIII.
XXXIV.
Page 138
r54
278
3 20
368
Part II.
XXXVII,
XXXVIII.
XXXIX.
XL.
XLI.
XLII.
XLIII.
XL IV,
XLV.
XLVI. , ,
XLVII. t0 face
XLVIII.
XLIX.
L.
LI.
LIE
LIII.
LIV.
LV.
LVI.
XXXV. )
XXXVI. j
LVII.
LVI II.
Page 592
660
788
— r
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**
•w.
«